CIHM 
Microfiche 
Series 
(l\Aonographs) 


ICMH 

Collection  de 
microfiches 
(monographies) 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microraproductiont  /  Institut  Canadian  da  microraproductions  historiquas 


9*- 


Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notes  /  Notes  techniques  et  bibliographiques 


The  Institute  has  attempted  to  obtain  the  best  original 
copy  available  for  filming.  Features  of  this  copy  which 
may  be  bibliographically  unique,  which  may  alter  any  of 
the  images  in  the  reproduction,  or  which  may 
significantly  change  the  usual  method  of  filming  are 
checked  below. 


D 
D 

n 

7 

Q 
D 
D 
D 
D 

D 


D 


Coloured  covers  / 
Couverture  de  couleur 

Covers  damaged  / 
Couverture  endommag^e 

Covers  restored  and/or  laminated  / 
Couverture  restaur^e  et/ou  pellicui^e 

Cover  title  missing  /  Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 

Coloured  maps  /  Cartes  gdographiques  en  couleur 

Coloured  ink  (i.e.  other  than  blue  or  black)  / 
Encre  de  couleur  (i.e.  autre  que  bleue  ou  noire) 

Coloured  plates  and/or  illustrations  / 
Planches  et/ou  illustrations  en  couleur 

Bound  with  other  material  / 
Relid  avec  d'autres  documents 

Only  edition  available  / 
Seule  Edition  disponible 

Tight  binding  may  cause  shadows  or  distortion  along 
interioi  .-riargin  /  La  reliure  serr^e  peut  causer  de 
I'ombre  ou  de  la  distorsion  le  long  de  la  marge 
int^rieure. 

Blank  leaves  added  during  restorations  may  appear 
within  the  text.  Whenever  possible,  these  have  been 
omitted  from  filming  /  II  se  peut  que  certaines  pages 
blanches  ajout^es  lors  d'une  restauration 
apparaissent  dans  le  texte,  mais,  lors^ue  cela  ^tait 
possible,  ces  pages  n'ont  pas  i\6  film^es. 

Additional  comments  / 
Commentaires  suppl^mentaires: 


L'Institut  a  microfilm^  le  meilleur  exemplaire  qu'il  lui  a 
616  possible  de  se  procurer.  Les  details  de  cet  exem- 
plaire qui  sont  peut-6tre  uniques  du  point  de  vue  bibli- 
ographique,  qui  peuvent  nnodifier  una  image  reproduite. 
ou  qui  peuvent  exiger  une  modification  dans  la  m^tho- 
de  normale  de  filmage  sont  indiqu^s  ci-dessous. 

I     I  Coloured  pages  /  Pages  de  couleur 

I I  Pages  damaged  /  Pages  endommag§es 


D 


Pages  restored  and/or  laminated  / 
Pages  restaur^es  et/ou  pellicul^es 


r~~j^  Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed  / 
ULi  Pages  d^color^es,  tachet^es  ou  piqu^es 

rn  Pages  detached  /  Pages  d^tach^es 

[y/j  Showthrough  / Transparence 

r~X  Quality  of  print  varies  / 


D 
D 


D 


Qualite  in^gale  de  I'impression 

Includes  supplementary  material  / 
Conprend  du  materiel  suppl^mentaire 

Pages  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata  slips, 
tissues,  etc.,  have  been  refilmed  to  ensure  the  best 
possible  image  /  Les  pages  totalement  ou 
partiellement  obscurcies  par  un  feuillet  d'errata,  une 
pelure,  etc.,  ont  6\6  film^es  ^  nouveau  de  fa^on  A 
obtenir  la  meilleure  image  possible. 

Opposing  pages  with  varying  colouration  or 
discolourations  are  filmed  twice  to  ensure  the  best 
possible  image  /  Les  pages  s'opposant  ayant  des 
colorations  variables  ou  des  decolorations  sont 
film^es  deux  fois  afin  d'obtenir  la  meilleure  image 
possible. 


This  Ham  It  (llmad  at  Iha  raducllon  ratio  checkad  btlow  / 
Ce  deeument  eat  fiim^  au  taux  de  r<duetlen  Indiqu4  ei'dataev 

lOx                             14x                            18x 

*. 

22x 

26x 

30x 

• 

/ 

12x 


16x 


20x 


24x 


28x 


32x 


Th«  copy  film«d  h«r«  hu  b««n  r«produc»d  thanka 
to  th«  9«n«ro»ity  of: 

National  Library  of  Canada 


L'«x«mpl«ir«  film*  fut  roproduit  graco  k  t« 
ginirositA  do: 

Bibliothequo  nationals  du  Canada 


Th«  imago*  appoaring  horo  aro  iho  »»o.t  qual.tv 
poMiblo  coniidoring  iho  condition  ard  logibility 
of  tho  original  copy  and  in  kaoping  ¥¥ith  tho 
filming  contract  •pacification*. 

One.nal  copia*  in  prmtad  papar  covar.  ar.  fllmad 
t>.o.nning  with  th.  front  covar  and  •"<<";a  o" 
th.  last  paga  v..th  a  pr.ni.d  or  .llu.traiad  impraa- 
s.on.  or  tha  back  covar  wh.n  ■PP'«»P"*»"  *"' .. 
othar  original  copia.  ara  filmad  bag.nning  on  tha 
first  paga  vi^ith  a  printad  or  illu.tratad  impraa- 

or  illwatratad  impr»a»ion. 


Tha  last  racordad  frama  on  aach  microficha 
shall  contain  tha  symool  — -  «'"••'""■  ^S?.?," 
TINUEO'l.  or  tha  symbol  V  Imaaning    ENO  I. 
whichavor  applias. 

Mapa.  Plata*,  charts,  ate.  may  ba  ♦••"»•<'•« 
SiSrint  raduction  ratio.    fha»a  too  larga  to  ba 
antiroly  includad  in  ona  a.posura  ara  filmad 
;.g.nn!ng  in  tha  uppar  l.ft  hand  c-'H-'J-;'  « 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  a.  many     •^•;  " 
raquirad.  Tha  following  diagrams  illustrata  tha 

mathod: 


Las  imaga*  suivantas  ont  ota  raproduitat  avac  la 
plus  grand  soin.  compt*  tonu  da  la  condition  at 
da  la  nattat*  da  Taaamplaira  filma.  at  mn 
conforiftito  avac  loa  conditions  du  eontrat  da 
filmaga. 

Las  aaamplaira*  originaux  dont  la  couvanura  an 
papiar  a*t  imprimaa  »ont  filmas  an  commancant 
par  la  pramiar  plat  at  an  tarminant  soit  par  la 
darniAra  paga  qui  compona  una  amprainta 
d'imprassion  ou  d'illustration.  soit  par  la  sacond 
plat,  salon  la  cas.  Toua  las  autras  axamplairas 
originaux  sont  film**  an  commancant  par  la 
pramiAra  paga  qui  comporta  una  amprainta 
d'impraasion  ou  d'illustration  at  an  tarntinant  par 
la  darnidro  pago  qui  comporta  una  talla 
•mproioM. 

Un  doa  symbola*  suivants  apparaitra  sur  la 
darnidra  imaga  do  chaqua  '"'C'<»«'f.';«  *•'»"  '• 
cas:  la  symbola  -^  signifia  "A  SUIVRE  .  la 
symbolo  ▼  aignifio  "FIN". 

Las  carta*,  planchas.  tablaaua.  ate.  pauvant  atra 
film**  d  do*  uua  do  rdduction  diffarants. 
Lorsquo  Id  documont  oat  trop  grand  pour  atra 
raprodutt  an  un  soul  elich*.  il  act  filma  «  partir 
da  I'angla  aupdriaur  gaucha.  da  gaucha  a  aroita. 
•t  da  haut  an  baa.  an  pranant  la  nomora 
d'imagaa  noca**aira.  La*  diagrammaa  suivants 
Ulustront  la  mdthoda. 


ETHM0L06ICAL 
MAP  or  MODERN  EUROPE 
PSKAHYAX  PEOPLES 

BASVUCS I  I 

AKVAJr  PEORLKS 

CELT* Pgij 

ruMCH  LZjjwmiARos  dj 

WHITUaHsrf"         [  ITALIANS    f 
HAETIAN    -         -         , 
rouMAH80W>LAC)lS  -     -       p=J 

ALBANIANS    - 

GERMANIC  BRANCH 
CCRU/VMS-       - 

SCANDINAVIAN3- 
AN6LOSAX0NS  ' 

SLAVIC     BRANCH 
[GREAT  HUSSIANS 
I  \LITTLC  RUSSIANS 
WHITE  iruSSlANS 
rOLES 
^CZeCK5,SL0VAKSANC  Wt>4DS 
fbULGANIANS 
3  (SERVIANS  Ere. 
^SL0VINC» 


HISTORY 
FOR  READY  REFERENCE 

FROM  THE  BEST 
mSTORlANS.  BIOGRAPHERS,  AND  SPECIAUSTS 

TinaB  OWN  WOBDS  IN  A  COMPLETE 

SYSTEM  OF  HISTORY 

FOB  ALL  USES,  EXTENDING  TO  ALL  C0UNTEIE8  AND  SUBJECTS 

AND  BEPBESENTINO  FOB  BOTH  BEADI^S  AND  STUDENTS  THE  BE^^  ^ 

NEWEB  LITEEATUBE    OF    HISTOBY   IN   THE 

ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 

BT 

J.  N.  LARNED 

WITH  KUMEB0U8  HISTORICAL  MAPS  FROM  ORIGINAL  STUDIES  AND  DRAWINGS  BT 

ALAN  C.  REILEY 
SBVISBD  AND  ENLARGED  EDITION 
v-llN  VOLUMES 


VOLUME  I— A  TO  ELECTORS 


SPBINOPIELD,    MASS. 

THE  C.  A.  NICHOLS  CO,  PUBLISHERS 


D^ 

L3-f 

n  .^ 

^di 

1 

CsmuKT,  1893, 
BY  J.  X.  LARXEIi. 


Copnuonr.  lOfil, 
Br  J.  K.  LARKED. 


CAMBRIDGE  .  MASSACHUSETTS 
L'   .    S   ■    A 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 


^    S^nr^.;t":rXtt^Zr::^'::ZI'^^^^^^^^  HberaHt^o. author,  ana 

know  proper  to  make  t^e.ci^o^lX^:  Z^Zttc  T^""' T"^  In  thia  work.  I  think 
hou«,.  to  Whom  I  am  in  debt  for  such 'kind  peZsi'::     TheyTaf  ml^"""  "'  P"'"^'"* 

e.-  Be,aut,  Prof.  Alher-  S.  Boll«;  Juhu  ti.  Bou^l  .„t  fT?.  Hen^  Bi»,,r"'  vVT  **'  ''•  ^^-  "'"J*'"!"^  Sir  Wal- 
1..  D. ,  Daulel  G.  Brlnton,  M.  D. :  ITot.  William  S  Browne  ProTV^^^  i"  •'■  ^- '  ""■  •'"°«»  F™"""  Bright, 
l-rot  J.  B.  Bury;  Mr.  Luci,;n  Carr;  Uea  HtuliKcZ^^Z,  Mr  ?  >  "."  '^'J'*'  *''•  '""'•  •'«'""  B^™.  MP-. 
Coffln,  Hon.  Thomas  -M.Cooley;  Prof.  He7r??oppie .  Ref  s,    oeorl^f  W  *"  '^'^"''»  •^••'""'>» 

Mrs.  Cox  (for -Three  Decades  of  Federal  Legislation"  by  the  late  73  s^'  f'  •"*"■'  «™- J''™'-  1>''1»<'"  C".x; 
Kt  Bev  Mandell  Crelghton.  Bishop  of  Petefb,,?,  u°h-  UoTjlIIc^T'''J  *•  V."''  ''■■"'•  T"<"^»  F.Cra,,., 
K.,l>ert  K.  Douglas;  J.  A.  Doyle,  M.  A.,  Mr.  Siuiue  Adan.,  Ihakp  1  m  '•.*^"''^'  '^'''^"'"  ''"""i  '■""■ 
Charles  Gavan Duffy;  Mr.  Claries  Henry  Eden r.MHenrX,herh^.^i  pi      I"  ^-  '^'■'""-1'"''^   Hon.  Sir 

L..yallFarragut;  The  Ven.  Fruderlc  Wl^am  Farr  r  Se^cofof  wlf-^^^'' '  ^"'"  '^""'  *:'"""•  '""•  »'  Mr. 
J.bn  Fiske;  Mr.  W„l  E.  Foster;  William  Ward^Fowtl  "    ProT^^,""  P'"' 

thonyFroude;  Mr.  James  Gairdner ;  Arthur  GilmaMMT  Mr  p'.rk.  Jf.^  I,  freeman;  Pro?.  James  Au- 
t..ry  of  the  Campaigns  of  the  Army  „J  Va.  und^Gen  Pm.  -  M^ht  i»,!^""'  V""'  ^'^  ''•  '""•'"'"  ""  •"'  "  Hl»- 
Barn,g.GouW ;  Mr.  UIyss*s  S.  Grant,  Jr.  (for  the  '  Conai  Tien  ,  .rs  ', ,  th.'^'l'-  ?.*""^'  "'  ''"'•""">  ^  «"•  **"'""» 
Gr.^,.  (for  her  own  writings  and  for  those  of  the  Tt^j^u  r  I.pI,  '"'^  w'-,,?"''''*'  "rs.  J.,hn  Richard 
Arllnir  Griffiths;  Frederic  Harrison. M.  A. ,  Prof  iihert  B.istlf  H  ^^  «  f.V,  i  ^^""""'  «'-"»ell,  M.  B. ;  ^U]. 
worth  HlKglnson ;  Prof.  B.  A.  Hlnsdile;  M  sf  M„Karet  I  h'kii^^^^  ^r,l  •'"■■.""""""  "™""'  •  ^ol.  Thomas  Weni 
Kev.  Robert  F.  Norton ;  Prof.  James  K  Uosnfer  o  1  r  e,^  m  H  ,  r""','?? "'  "'«  ""'^  "'•  «''"'-ee  Hooper)  i 
H..nter;  Prof.  Edn.und  .lames;  Mr.  Kossl,erj;h u..^"  ^r  John  F,?,  J,  r^  t:""'."'"'*^  Sir  William  WUsou 
KItehin,  Dean  of  Winchester;  Col  Thos  W  Knox    Mr' t«  .  ,'"  '''''''•  ^'"^  ^"'^^^  ""•  '-^W  Wiiliair 

U..  D..  D.  c.  I..;  Mrs.  Marg;,r;t  Levi  (f^r  .lie  "Hls't.^-f  t^i'^c"  """•  '^""""'  '"■"'•'""■  ^■'"'•■""  *^  «.  Lecky, 
(l..,.lton  T.  Lewis;  The  Very  Rev  Henry  Oe«rJeI?p,?>i,i  ^^.''T"'  '''  ""'  ""«  l>r.  Leone  Levi);  Prof 
l..".,e;  Prof.  Kictard  L.^ge  Rev.  W  J  Tome  \,rs  M.  '  s  L.'n^rf'-rT  "iT^  '^^""''  """■  "-'O  Cabot 
til,-  late  Gen.  A.  L.  Long);  Mrs.  Helen  Loss  m  i  ,  r  i.'l  ,2  .  ".  "^"^  "'"    ^"^  "'  '^^""''^  «'>''>•"  K.  Lee,"  by 

M.  -v.;  Charles  P.  Luc;.s:b.  a  ;  Jus  M    McCarthy  m  r,,'"!-", ,    ,!", '''''%"''""'  J-  l-''i»«)i  Charles  Lo«e. 

Prof,  .fobn  P.  Sfahaffy;  Capt.  Alfred  T.  Mahan' I  sv  c'',,  "'  I  ^V*,*""'  """•  •=""""  M'-l'""son ; 
F.  R.  S. :  Prof.  David  Masson ;  The  Very  Rev  (  hkri;,  Me-iv  "e  n.  ^  «•"»"""»  •  Sir  Clements  R.  Marklan,. 
J.  G.  Cotton  Min.hln;  William  K.  .Morm,  Mi-RHofo  mMi.  x,  ^"■;,»^'-"/ •'""n  Henry  Middle,,,,,:  Mr 
H.iir;  M,.  Harold  MnrUock;  Rev.  Arthm- Ho»ari  Noll.'  MUs  K  *v  •'^•'  '""•■'"""  ^-  ^'I""- J^-i  SirWilli.n, 
C.  Palfrey  (for  "History  of  New  England"  "r  he  L  J  h„'''^orh»™*'p',V'--  T'SJ'""""'  ''•^'  »"■  J-"»' 
t.l«;,r,l  James  Payne,  M.  A. ;  Charles  Henry  Pear,,,,,  m   T  ?ir    ,  Pa«rey)i  Francis  Parkmt,u,  LL.  D.; 

(fur  the  "History  Of  Tennessee,"  by  the  bte  Jane"  "  "'  V"  ' ,  ""'"  ^-'''^''  ^"'""''  *'"•  ^'"^  "^^  J-"-""' 
Mr.  Staule.        .«.Po.„. ;  willia,^,  F.  Pol  LL  DM  \^  t    ^^'H^'J-  ^"'"^ '  '*'=^"'»'"'  '^  P"<"*-  Pl^-  «  ■ 

Kidpath;  H..     .Ills  H.  Roberts;  H^rT  .eLre'l^ s  «.  ^-J^" ;,«■■•  J"""  W.  Probyn,  Prof.  John  Clark 

Joslah  Royce;  ilev.  Philip  Sehaff;  James  sSer,,  ^i'     r  "^  •^'l:'"""  """*"  "'•  "'  «'"'«■  M-  A.;  Prof. 

J.  U.  Seeley;  Prof.  Nathm.iel  iSouthg^e  Siller  Mr ^lw»r  .m  ^'":', '*'^'"'"  ^  Mr.  Eben  Greenough  Scott;  Sir 
sonal  Memoirs-  of  the  late  Gen.  Sheridan  ".Mr'  P  T  She^a,  for",f  "M  '  ?'•  "•  ^^  St^'-'an  (for  the  "  Per. 
Sa,unel  S.niles,  LL.  D. ;  Prof.  GoldWn  Smith  Prof  jLesX,e,  SoiL^  J  Tf"  , "'  "'*  '*'"  "'"''•  »"""»""  ^ 
M.  A.;  Prof.  H.Morse  Stephens;  Mr.  Simon  Stern^  Ctar  ef^s  ,lf/ir  n  \m^  "^'"^  *">''"'"'• 

StiiW.s,  Bishop  of  Oxford;  Prof  William  Cr«i,.„!'«  ;.       C;'"^"'  Sir  John  Strachey;  Rt.  Rev  William 

Th;.yer;  Prof.  Robert  H  Thurs  J  'wr  To WhtfT  iTmaH?  /  ^^T'"'  ''''"""•'^  ^"-  ^^■""»»>  K""'-^ 

ai.d;   Mr.  B..yard  Tuckerman;  Samuel  Ews^urner  Ph   n'    »  ',".^"7  "'  ^""''  "•  '^^  ''•■  ««"•  «•  "'  Trobri. 

.ustin  wmsor.  LL.  a,  BevVd^rl^ek^cr'SlSL^rS' .^i^v^rZu^^^^  ^^!:'c^^T^^-^"^^^^ 

A.^'^.lT4k?JZi7/c;^;Xpm?„\^^^i'.t-,^^^^ 

f^rran*  Co.;  W.  Helnema^n;  ISd^r  /s  iug^tlt  Jnt^^^^^^^^  H.  Grevel  *  Co.Torf^'h,' 

M.iemillan*Co.;  Methuen  Jt  Co.;  John  Murrav    johw-   v  IT"  *  *^°'  Sampson  L„w,  .Marston  Jt  r„ 

milp*8on;TheKellgi„u.TractlS;lVTmMg^*SonsT^^^^  ''"■•.  f"-"-''' T'"''""  *  Ca,°Oe,  r^e 

l-roraotlon  of  Christian  Knowledge ;  EdwMd  Stanford    sn-ve;.  t  h  ^     '  ^"""''  *^'""  *  ^o. ;  Society  fur  the 

Cmra^rn^a;:,*  ^-  ^^^-^  -  -^^^^'^^'^o:^^2P:-^^^^  -f 


JWnfewpk:   Xaon.  WUUun  Blaekweod  *  Boa*;  W.  A  R.  Cbamban;  SkvliI  OoafUi;  Tbotnat  NtlioB  *  (eu;  W. 
P.  Rtnuno:  Rmj  A  MUcbdl:  Tha  Boottiib  Baformatloa  Bodetj. 

/MiiKU^Md;    Mean.  L.H.BT«rU  A  Co.;  J.  B.  Upplncott  Oompuj;  OldadiikOo.;  Farter  ACoMM. 
Sortoit:   Hfmn-fUaA  Lwutot;  Houchton,  Miffllii  *  Co.;  UtUe,  Brown  ft  Ca:  D.UthropOcopuri  Vobwtt 


DHtUa:  ttan-JuMsDuajpftOo.;  Hoil«M,FlntoftCo.:J.  J.  Liriar. 

Chicago ;    MaMr*.  OUaf'UiB  ft  Oo. ;  A.  C.  Mcaurg  ft  Co. 

CTncinnoH ;    Mtara.  Bobeit  Clwka  ft  Oo. ;  Jonn  Brothcn  FubUiUnc  Co. 

Hart/ord,  Conn. ;    MeHn.  O.  D.  Cu»  ft  Co. ;  8. 8.  Scrutoo  ft  Oo. 

Albany:   Mms*.  Joel  Mnnwll't  8oai. 

Camliridgt.  tng.:   The  Unlienitjr  Frees. 

Saraich,  Conn.:    Tbe  Heorj  Bill  PttbUehlBt  Oo. 

Ox/ord ;   The  Clarendoa  Preee. 

Providnet,  K.  I.:    Meeera.  J.  A.  ft  R.  A.  ReM. 


A  lilt  of  bx)ka  <^<ioted  from  will  be  given  in  the  final  Tolume. 

I  am  greatly  indebted  to  the  remarkable  kindnes*  of  a  number  of  eminent  hI«torical  gcholan, 
who  have  critically  examined  the  proof  aheeU  of  important  article!  and  improved  them  by  their 
suggestion*  My  debt  to  Kls*  Ellen  M.  Chandler,  for  aaristance  given  me  in  many  way*,  it 
more  than  I  can  describe. 

In  my  publishing  arrangements  I  have  been  most  fortunate,  and  I  owe  the  good  fortune  very 
largely  to  a  number  of  friends,  among  whom  it  is  just  that  I  should  aame  Mr.  Henry  A.  Richmond, 
Mr.  George  E.  Matthews,  and  Mr.  John  O.  Mllbum.  '  There  i»  no  feature  of  these  arrangement*  lo 
satisfactory  to  me  as  that  which  places  the  publication  of  my  book  in  the  hand*  of  the  Company  of 
wuich  Mr  Charles  A.  Nichols,  of  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  is  the  head. 

I  think  nyself  fortunate,  too,  in  the  association  of  my  work  with  that  of  Mr.  Alan  0.  Relley, 
from  whose  original  studies  and  drawing*  the  greater  part  of  the  historical  map*  In  these  volume* 
have  been  produced. 

J.  N.  Labhbd. 


LIST  OF  MAPS  AND  PLANS. 

Ethnocnphle  map  of  Modem  Enrope,  o_ 

Mip  of  American  Dtacoveiy  and  Settlement "seeding  the  title  page. 

Man  of  Athena,  and  Harboti  of  Athena To  follow  page  53 

Plan  of  Athenian  home ^°  P"8e  158 

Four  deTelopment  mape  of  Austria On  page  169 

Ethnographic  map  of  Auatria-Hungary To  follow  page  808 

Four  derelopment  map.  of  Aria  Minor  indiheBalkinPe^uk. t„Vi.^°'***^ 

'1^^  "'  ^.•"""  ''^'  ^^^tt^,  th;  p«em     ""  ''"'  "*' 

Map  of  Bur^dyuiider  Charles' the  Bold ;>  ■.  „^°  P'«*  *" 

D.TeIopmentmap.howi„gthedah„ionofChri.^t,.   i    l  ;    ;    L^Sr^'f:!:* 


"•^^^'^^^  OUTLINES,  IN  COLORS 

Athenian  and  Oieek  Uitorj w%,w«a. 

Auitrlan  falttoij, To  follow  page  lo; 

To  follow  page  305 


HISTOEY  FOR  EEADT  EEFEEENCE. 


A,  C.  Aat*  Chrittnin;  used  sometimes 
instead  of  the  more  familiar  abbreviation,  B.  C 
—Before  Christ. 

A.  D.  Anno  Domini ;  The  Tear  of  Our  Lord. 
SeeEsA,  Chbistian. 

A.  E.  I.  O.  U.— "The  famous  device  of  Aus- 
tria, A.  E.  L  0.  U.,  was  flrat  used  by  Frederic 
IIL  [1440-1493],  who  adopted  it  on  hU  plate, 
books,  and  buildings.  These  Initials  stand  for 
'Austriae  Est  Impenre  Orbl  Unlverso';  or,  in 
German,  'Alles  Erdreich  Ist  Osterreich  Unter- 
tlian':  »  bold  assumption  for  a  man  who  was  not 
Me  In  an  inch  of  Ills  dominions."— H.  Hallam. 
Th4  MidMt  Aget,  «.  9,  p.  80,  foot-note, 

A.  H.  Anno  Hejira.  8ce  Eba,  Haboks- 
TAH. 

A.  M.  "Anno  Mnndl;"  the  Tear  of  the 
World,  or  the  year  from  the  beginning  of  the 
wcwld,  according  to  the  formerly  accepted  chro- 
nologieal  reckoning  of  ArchbUhop  Usher  and 
others. 

A.  U.  C.,  OR  U.  C.    "Ab  nrbe   condlta," 

from  the  founding  of  the  city;  or  "Anno  urbis 

ComliUB,"  the  year  from  the  founding  of  the 

cut;  the  Year  of  Home.    8ceRoiCE:B.  C.  753. 

AACHEN.    See  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

ABiC.  Oracle  of.    See  Oraclei    of    tri 

OUEKB. 

ABBAS  I.  fc^ed  TTie  Crwit),  Shall  of  Per- 
•iai  A.  D.    1583-1827.... Abbas   II..  A    D 

ABBASSIDES,  The  rise,  decline  and  fall  of 
the.    8ce  Mahombtak  CoKoresT,  4c, :  A.  D 
715-750;  788;  and  815-945;  also  Bagdad:  A.  X). 
1258. 

ABBBT.-ABBOT.-ABBESS.  See  Mow- 
Amur. 

ABD-BL-KADBR.    The    War    of    tli« 

French  in  Algiers  with.    See  BARnABT  Statm: 
A.  D.  1830-1  ir46. 

ABDICATIONS.  Alexander,  Prince  of 
Bulgaria.    8eo  BiLOAniA:  A.   1).    1878-1888. 

Amadeo    of    Spain.     See   Wpais;  A,   D 

188^1873 Charles  IV.  and  Ferdinand  VII. 

of  Spain.     See  Spaiw:   A.   D.    18.)7-1803 
Charles   V.  EmpAror.    See  Oeiimany;  A   D. 
1852-1581,  and  Netiikrlanus:  A.  D.  ISS.! 
T^V'*fo.'5*.'""«  •'  France.     See  FnA.Nci": 
A.  I).  18t.V1880    . .  .Charlee  Albert.  King  of 
Sardinia.     See  iTttr;    A.    D.    lti4H-1840 

1883-1848... ^rhriatiniTQueen  of  Sweden: 
S?i  ^Si?"'"*!'*^  States  (SwKnBN):    A.   U. 

i"fr'S?T Dloeletlan.  Emperor.  ^  Row. 

A.  I).  284-805      .  Perdinand,  Kperof  of  W 
trie.     See    Avutria  .    A.    D.     f«48-lsf49 
Louis    Bonapirte,    King    of    Holland.     »«i 

^KTMK.(I.A.M..;  A.  1>.  IW.8-l(.l..  . .  .  LoUiS 
Ml. ft.    ^''•'    *»*"',";     A.    1).  ISU-IIWS 

Milan,  King  of  Serria.  Mcc  Hfrvja  \  l> 
lUSXISW.  Napoleon  I.  ,««,  FKAHtKi 
A-  U-   1814  (MAiitu-ArBiL)  and  181S  (Junk- 


Auon»T) Pedro    L,    Emperor  of   Brasil 

and     King    of    Portugal.      See    Portccal 
A.  a  182^1889,  and  Brazil:  A.  D.  1825-1883; 
....PtolemTl    of   Egypt.    See  MACKDONrA. 
&c.:    B.  0.  297-880..... Victor   Emmanuel    I 

Se.-   iTAtT:  A.   p.  1830-1821 William    L, 

King  of  Holland.    See  Nbthbrlasds :  A.  D. 

183  ^-1SH4. 

,a^^.?ii'-*^'^'   Torkiah    Snitan.    A.    D. 

ABOUL-HAMID,  TurWah  Snitan,  A.  D 
"74-1789 Abdnl-Hamid  11.,  1878"' 


1 


jgABDUL-MEDJID,  Turkish  Sultin,  A.  D. 
ABELARD,     PETBR.    See    Educatioji, 

la^iIJi'^^??^??.?!.'"'*  8eeSPAiN:A.D. 
1288-1373,  and  1478-1403. 

A.  D.  1809  (Jasuakt-Junk). 
AMlR?r**°^°i?'S      CAMPAIGN      IN 

Dr-)8  SeeCAKADA  (Nkw  FuAscE):  A. 

ABERaiBBM     MINISTRY,    The.      See 

^'!?^S?;„^i'-J^l-18«8,  and  i855. 

ABIP0NES,The.    See  Amricak  Aaowoi. 
KKs:    Pampas  TninKa  .=^iu«» 

ABJURATION    OP    HENRY    IV.     Bee 

Frahcb:  A.  D.  1591-1608. 

ABNAKIS,  The.    See  AinBicAir  AnoBiof 
»BS:  Aloonkw  Familt. 

nicM^ai'""'*'  <>'(«743).    See  Hcssia:  A.  D. 

oABO^'I'ONISM    IN    AMERICA,    The 

18§?;:SdM^?"'   """"""^^    ^-  '««»- 

ca5°a2o"rS!^^''"''=*''-  «*-^««- 

.i.^^K'''?'  ^Sa^  "■"'•  »'  (or  Battle  of 
ths  Nile).  See  Fbakcb:  A.  D.  1708  (JIat- 
AcGii8T).....Land.battle     of    (itm).      8-e 

.1,.  M?!.^*?^"'  Vii  '^'•'»»  »'•  Tl""  part  of 
the  high  plateau  ^Quebec  on  which  the  mom. 

?™  •  ^'n.'f7,°/  ^°''«  *•!,  'i""'  September  13. 
M.rtln  ^^F.'f  V  ""^  *°  "'i'"?  "^"n  Abraham 
had  owned  a  piece  of  land  hero  In  the  early  times 

WM>,  e.  2,  p  289.--For  an  a.rountof  f.io  battle 
which  gave  distinction  to  th,- Plains  of  Aliraliamu 
see  Canada  (Xbw  Fbakcb):  A.  D.  1739,  (JrSi 
— Sbptembeb).  ".  wi.-«» 

Un^'S?h'''^"*'®¥  \^  WBLAND-Inlre. 

tand  "the  owners  of  about  one-haU  the  land  do 
not  live  on  or  near  their  esUtcs,  while  fheowneis 
of  about  one  fourth  do  not  live  in  the  country 
.  .  .  Almnteeism  l«  an  old  evil,  and  in  vcrr 
early  times  nveived  attention  from  the  govern- 
ment. .  .  .  Some  of  the  di»advanu«-s  to  fm 
community  arising  frem  the  absence  o" "jm  nsore 
wcaltii}- i.i,a  luleliigent  classes  are  appan-nt  to 
every  one  Unless  the  landlord  Is  uttSrly  i,?! 
sny-stricken  or  Tsfjr  uoeatmprlsiag,   •tbeili  Is 


ABSENTEEISM  IN  IRELAND. 


AnVSSIXIA. 


•  grrat  deal  more  going  on '  when  he  I3  in  (lie 
country.  ...  I  am  convinced  tliut  absenteeism 
is  a  gtvat  disadvantage  to  tlie  country  iiud  tlic 
people.  ...  It  is  too  mucli  to  attribute  to  it  nil 
the  evils  that  have  been  set  down  to  its  cluirpe. 
It  is,  liowever,  an  important  consid?nition  tlmt 
the  people  ri'gard  it  as  a  grievance:  and  tliinU 
the  twenty-live  or  thirty  niiilion.'*  of  dollars  paid 
every  year  to  these  landlonis,  who  are  ranly  or 
never  in  Inland,  is  a  tax  grievous  to  1h'  borne." 
—  1).  H.  King,  The  Irhh  QiieHti;ii,  pp.  5-11. 

ABSOROKOS,  OR  CROWS,  The.  Sec 
Amf.uhax  AnoKKiiNKs:  Siocan  FA>rTi.T. 

ABU-BEKR,  Caliph,  \.  D.  C;!3-<!34. 

ABU  KLEA,  Battle  of  (1885).  SccEqtit: 
A.  I).  t»<H-l-lHH5. 

ABUL  ABBAS,  Caliph,  A.  D.  ToO-TM. 

ABUNA  OF  ABYSSINIA.—  "Since  the 
daysof  Krumenlins  l« bo intro<luced  Christianity 
into  Abyssinia  in  the  4tli  century]  every  ortho- 
dox Primate  of  Abyssinia  has  Ixen  eoursecrated 
by  the  Coptic  Patriarch  of  the  clmnli  of  Alex- 
andria, and  has  l)ome  the  title  of  Abuna  " —  or 
Abuna  Salama,  "Father  of  Peace."  —  H.  M. 
Ilozier,  The  llritiiJi  Krpulition  to  Af>ymnia, 
p.*. 

ABURY,  OR  AVEBURY.— STONE- 
HENCE.— CARNAC.—"  The  numenms  cir- 
cles of  stone  or  of  eiirlh  in  nritain  and  Ireland, 
varying  in  diameter  from  30  or  40  feel  up  to 
1,200.  are  to  1h'  viewed  as  temples  standing  in 
the  closi'st  possible  relation  to  tlie  burial  places 
of  the  (lead.  The  most  imposing  group  of  n - 
mains  of  this  liinil  in  this  country  [Kngland]  is 
tha".  of  Avebnry  [.\burv],  near  l>ivize»,  in 
Wiltshire,  refcrnil  by  ISir  .loiin  Lubls>elv  to  a 
late  stagi'  in  the  N"olithic  or  to  tlie  iHglnning  of 
the  bronzi'  pi  rioil.  It  consists  of  a  largo  circle 
of  unworkrcl  upright  stones  l.?00  feet  in  diame- 
ter, surrounded  by  n  fosse,  which  in  turn  is  also 
surrounddl  by  aiiimpartof  earih.  Insi<h'an'  tin' 
renntins  of  two  concentric  circles  of  stone,  and 
from  I  lie  two  eiitranies  in  the  mnipurt  proii  edcd 
long  iivi'iiues  llankeil  liy  stones,  one  leading  to 
Ik'ckhampton,  and  the  otiier  to  West  Keiiiielt, 
where  it  formerly  ended  in  another  iloi'bleelrele. 
Hetweeii  tliem  rises  Sllbuiy  lllll,  llii'  largest 
artllicial  mound  in  (ireat  Itritain,  nolesstluin  1110 
feit  in  heiijht.  This  group  of  remains  was  at 
one  lime  se((md  to  none,  'but  unfortiiiialely  for 
us  |sa\»  Sir  .lohii  l.ubliiHk]  the  pretty  little 
vlllii:e  of  .Vvebury  [.\bury],  like  mini'  I"  aniiful 
para»ili',  lias  grown  up  at  the  expense  and  in  the 
midst  of  the  aneiiiit  lemplr,  and  out  •'(  I'M  ^rri  at 
stones,  not  almve  Iwenly  are  still  .laiplitii.'.  In 
spite  I. f  this  ll  is  slill  u,  \v  iImsm-.I  aincn.-  ihi' 
llnest  ruins  in  Kurope.  'I'he  f.inuHis  irio|ili'  of 
StiiiiclK  iige  on  Salisiiury  I'lain  Is  piuliablv  of  a 
later  dati'  llian  Avehury!  sliue  imt  only  are  h.imi' 
of  till'  stones  usici  In  Its eonstrin  lien  wurkc d,  Iml 
the  surroiindini!  liurrows  an'  mure  elalmralf  (han 
tlio.si'  In  the  III  iL'hlMiurliomi  of  the  latti  r.  It  i.in 
sisle  I  of  a  ciiJe  lINI  fei  t  in  diaiintir.  of  l:iri,'e 
iljiri^lit  lilis'ks  of  sarsrn  stone,  \'i  fnt  7  Inchis 
hlgli,  iK'aring  Imposts  dovrlailid  into  laeli  othiT, 
so  lis  to  form  a  eontinnous  aniiitravc.  Niije 
flit  within  Ibis  was  a  1  irele  uf  small  fi  reign 
s''ines  .  .  .  and  within  this  li\e  >.rial  trilillii'iis 
I'f  sirsiM  stone,  fcirming  a  hi>rse  sins';  tliin  a 
horve  shoe  of  fureicn  stones,  eijjlil  fiil  IiIl'Ii.  and 
ill  lie- 1  iiitre  a  slali  of  mieaeeoiis  sandsliaie  ealli  d 

till    ui;,ir  si..i,,. \T  ,i  ,i^;,,ij,,  ,,f  i;»<  r..  1 

from  I  lie  outer  line  a  i>inHll  rump,  with  n  ditrh 


outside,  formed  the  outer  circle,  3l,»  feet  in 
diameter,  which  cuts  a  low  barrow  and  iiieliides 
another,  and  therefore  is  evidently  of  later  dale 
tlian  someof  the  barrows  of  the  distrlit." — \V.  li. 
Dawkins,  Kuril). Van  in  liriUiiii,  eh.  ID. — '■  Sione- 
lienge  .  .  .  may,  I  think,  be  regarded  as  a  inonii- 
ment  of  the  llronzc  Age.  tliougli  apparently  it 
was  not  all  erected  at  one  time,  the  inner  circle  of 
small,  unwroiiglit,  blue  stones  being  probably 
older  than  the  rest ;  as  reganls  Abury,  since  the 
stones  are  all  in  their  natural  condition,  while 
those  of  Stonehengc  arc  roughly  hewn,  it  seems 
reasonable  to  conclude  that  Abury  is  the  older 
of  the  two,  and  belongs  cither  to  the  close  of  the 
Stone  Age,  or  to  the  commencement  of  that  of 
Bronze.  Both  Abury  and  Stonehenge  were,  I 
believe,  used  as  temples.  Slany  of  the  stonn 
circles,  however,  have  been  proved  to  be  burial 
places.  In  fact,  a  complete  burial  place  may  be 
descrilied  as  s  dolmen,  covered  by  a  tumulus, 
iind  surrounded  by  a  stone  circle.  Often,  how- 
ever, we  have  only  the  tumulus,  sometimes  only 
the  dolmen,  and  sometimes  again  only  the  stone 
circle.  The  celebrated  monument  of  Carnae,  iu 
Brittany,  consists  of  eleven  rows  of  unhewn 
stones,  which  differ  greatly  lioth  in  size  and 
height,  the  largest  Iieing  Hi  feet  atmve  ground, 
while  some  are  quite  small.  It  appears  that  the 
avenues  originally  e.vtended  for  si'veral  milis,  but 
at  present  they  are  very  imperfeit,  the  Ktonesliav- 
ing  been  cleared  away  in  places  for  agrieultural 
improvements.  At  present,  Ihenfore,  there  an' 
several  detached  portions,  wliieh,  liowi  ver.  have 
the  same  general  direilion,  and  appear  to  have 
btrn  connected  together.  .  .  .  .Most  ol  the  great 
tumuli  ill  Brittany  pnibably  belong  to  the  Slone 
Age,  and  1  am  thenfon'  disposed  to  nirard  Car- 
nae as  having  Ixi'n  en'cted  during  I  lie  same 
perioil. "— Sir  .1.  i.ubliock,  I'nhittuiie  JimiK, 
eh.  r>. 

ABYDOS.—  .\n  ancient  city  on  the  Asiatie 
sidcof  llie  Hellespont,  mentioned  iu  the  ilhid  ui 
one  of  the  towns  that  were  in  allianie  with  the 
Trojans.  Oriirinally  Tlinii  Ian.  as  is  supposid,  it 
bieame  a  colony  of  Miletus,  and  passed  nt 
dilTin'nt  times  under  IVrsian,  Athenian,  l.aee- 
divmonian  and  Macedonian  rule,  lis  site  was  at 
tlicnarmwest  |ioliit  i.f  the  Hellespont  -  tin'  mI'Iic 
of  the  ancient  roinaiitie  story  of  Ibni  and 
I.eander  —  marly  opposite  to  Ih'itiiwnof  Si-sliis. 
It  was  ill  the  near  neiglibi>rhiKnl  of  Abyih  s  that 
.Xerxes  built  his  bridi.'i'  of  Inials;  at  .Mivilos, 
Aieibiailes  and  the  .\tlitiiians  won  an  iiiiportant 
vliiorv  over  the  IMopoiinesians.  Sn'  (iuKKiK: 
B.  C   4x0.  and  411-407. 

ABYOOS,  Tablet  of.— One  of  the  most  vnlu- 
abli'  riennis  of  Kgyptian  history,  fi'iiiid  i:i  the 
ruins  i.f  .Miydos  and  now  pnsi:rM'l  In  the 
British  Musemn.  It  ^rivn  a  list  of  kiiiL's  wlioii 
Baiiist's  II  SI  lected  fr  >ni  aiiioiiL;  his  anresicrs  to 
pay  liiiniage  to.  The  lal  '  t  was  iiiiieh  iimtil.ileil 
nhin  foiiitil,  but  nniithireopy  mure  pi  rt'i  1 1  lii- 
bei'ii  lllll  irlhi'ij  liy  .M  Marii  ite,  wlili  li  siipplh 
nearly  all  the  Maims  laekliii;  in  the  lir^i  —  V 
Leiioriiiaiil,  .WiiHiiiil  •/  Anriiiil  Jlml.  fj'  the  Kii-t, 
r.  I,  H.  :l. 

ABYSSINIA  :  Embraced  in  ancient  Ethio- 
pia.    Sic  Ivniiorn. 

Fourth  Century. —  Converiion  to  Christi- 
anity.—"  WhateMr  may  have  Ihi  n  the  itleet 
proifiiied  ill  his  native  loiinlry  by  the  i.invir- 

■•i'MI  I'f   t^iiiell    Cdiiiidi  e's    jliitslini.   Iimfiii-ii     ill 

the  Acta  of  the  A|ioi,tle«  (ch.  VIII  J,  it  would 


ABYSSINIA,  FOUUrn  CEXTURY. 

nppear  to  Iiavc  been  trnnsitory ;  and  the  Ethio- 
piau  or  Abyssinian  churcli  owes  its  origin  to  an 
rxpcfiition  made  early  in  tiie  fourth  century  by 


ABYSSINIA,  15TII-19Trf  CENTURIES. 


Mcroplus  a  philosopher  of  Tyre.'  foVlhe  pur- 
pose of  scientillc  inquiry.     On  Lis  voyage  homc- 
wurds,  he  and  his  companions  were  attu-kcd  at 
:i  |)lacc  where  they  had    landed  in  search  of 
water,    and    all    were    massacred   except    two 
youths,  ^desius  and  Frumentius,  the  relatives 
Nii.l  pupils  of  Jleropius.     These  were  carried  to 
llic  kiiiL'  of  the  country,  who  advanced  ^dcsius 
to  be  his  ciip-beorer,  and  Frumentius  to  be  his 
scrntary  and   tn-asurer.     On   the  death  of  the 
lang,    who  left    a    boy    as    his    heir,    tlic  two 
strjiii,V'rs,  at  the  request  of  the  widowed  queen 
acted  as  regents  of  the  kingdom  until  the  prince 
came  of  age.     ^desius  then  returned  to  Tvrc 
where   he    became   a    presbyter.     Frumentius! 
who,  wi  h  the  help  of  such  Christian  traders  as 
visi  ,.,1  tiie  country,  had  already  introduced  the 
(  lirlslian  doctrine  and  worship  into  Abyssinia 
repair,!    to    Alexandria,    related    his   storv   to 
Atlmnasius,    and   .    .    .    Athanasius  .    .       con- 
seenitiHl  him  to  the  bishoprick  of  Axum  ftbc 
<  apital  of  the  Abyssinain  kingdom].    The  church 
llius  founded  continues  to  this  day  subject  to  the 
s.;e  (.f  Alexandria.  "-J.  C.  Hobertson,  iJut.  n/tlie 

6th  to  i6th  Centuriei.-W«rt  in  Ar»bi«.- 
hnZ^fil  ^i'^.^"'  M^hon-""".- Isolation 
.77 .1*  ""ft'*"  world.-"  The  fate  of  the 
(  hrisllan  ehureli  among  the  Itomerites  in  Arabia 
J.lix  aff„nie.i  an  opportunity  for  the  Abvssi,,- 
uins.  under  the  reigns  of  the  Emp.rors  Ju.sliu 
and  Justinian,  to  show  their  zeal  in  U'half  of  tlie 
cans.,  of  the  Christians.  The  prince  of  that 
Arabian  populaijon,  Dunaan,  or  Dsunovas,  was 
1  Z(  .ilims  adherent  of  Judaism ;  and,  under  pre- 
f'lV  ',  r''''B'"f  •'"•■  oppressions  which  his 
MInw  tK-lie»;rs  wen;  obli'ge.1  to  suffer  in  the 
I  mnan  empir..,  be  eausetf  the  Christian  nier 
rhams  who  came  from  that  quarter  and  vislK-d 
.Ualiia  for  the  pur|>osi8  of  trade,  or  pas.sed 
lhr.M,g|,  ,  „,  eountry  to  Abyssinia,  to  be  mur 
>l'  ncl.  Llesbaan,  tlie  Christian  king  of  Abys- 
sinia, made  this  a  cause  for  declaring  war  on  the 
Aral.iaii  prinr...  lu,  co„,„ur,d  Usunova,  de- 
prn^,  d  him  of  ||,e  governm.  nt,  and  set  up  a 
,:'':""?•  '7,  ""•  "I"""  "f  Abraham,  as  kini  in 

bH  M,  a.l  iJut  a,  the  death  of  the  latt.  r,  which 
»  pp.  lad  soon  after  Dsimovai  again  made  him- 
MI  iniisler  (.r  the  throne:  mid  it  was  a  natural 

|nns..|m„,e  of  «h„t  he  had  siilT.  nd.  that  he 
"»  l.cainea  Dercer  aii.l  more  eriiel  pcrwculoi 
ban    i...   was   before.   .   .   .    I'lH.n  this!  Klesblum 

i.iiirl.i.tl    ome   more,    under   the  nlirnof  the 

;  rm,er„r  Jusllnian,  who  stimulated  him  t .    lie 

o    Arabia    helix,    and    was    again    vhi^.rious 
ls..Movas   lost   bis   life   i„   ,|„.  „.„;   the  j(^. 

-•  .e.  dent  empire  of  the  H,m„  riles,  and  ,.\,uu. 
i'ri«ia'ns'''\*'v''T''"'    f"*-">'f"l'l''   to   llie 

Jr"-'"..{"''ir"  "*'    """■■■'''•  -"-'""I  Vn,.,f 
."      r.  I"  ""'  J'"''  ■'■''■•-.  "«  "early  as  can  !«• 

wrih «"■'/"'.':'  '!"■  ''"'■"  >^'""  ''>•"»•  '^'1  ■ 

wnlen.,    the   I'ersians,    whose    poH Vr  wem,   to 

mplre.  sent  n  gnat  for<r  aitaliist  lhi.  .Al.v.si,,. 
i.t.71.  possissrd  ib.inmhesome  niowof  .\nibia 

M'lirMl  the  principal  |K.rt.  on  either  side  of  It. 


.„!  i".Tr"'"  ''9"^  'o"*  "Jcsc  conquerors  re- 
tained their  acquisition;  but,  in  all  probability 
Uieir  ascendancy  gave  way  to  the  rising  great- 
ness of  the  Sfahomctan 'power;  whieii  s  on 
afterwards  overwhelmed  nil  the  nations  eon 
tlguous  to  Amb  a.  spread  to  the  remotest  parts 
or  tlie  Last,  and  even  penetmted  the  African 
deserts  from  Egypt  to  llie  Congo.  .Meanwhile 
H^.f'r.'"'  5''««''  '■'''''■>  '"■»  '"mdn.,1  miles  .f 
t\i?.  .'i.  .1°  , */''"'?•  "'S'"''"'"*  uncon,,iien,l  and 
tnie  to  the  Christian  faith;  presenting  a  i.ior 
tifying  and  ga  ling  object  to  the  more  zealotis 
folowersof  the  Prophet.  On  this  .i,e,„„„. 
implacable  and  incessant  wars  ravaged  her  terri' 
tones.  .  .  .  Mielosthercommeree.sawlKTconsc- 
quenccanuihilated,  hercapital  thnatene.l.  and  the 
richest  of  her  provinces  laid  waste.  There 

18  reason  to  apprehend  that  she  must  shortly 
ivc  gunk  under  the  pressure  of  n  peatid  in- 
.asions,  hod  not  the  Portuguese  annved  I  in  the 
luth  century]  at  a  seasonable  m.mient  lo  aid 
her  endenyoiirs  against  the  Moslem  chiefs  '—M 
Kussell,  ,y,W,r  and  Ahjmiwt,  eh.  3.— •'When 
>.ubia  which  intervenes  between  Egypt  and 
Abyssinia,  ,,as,.d  to  be  a  Christian  .mmlrv 
owing  to  tlie  destnietlon  of  its  eliiir.  n  by  the 
Mahometans,  the  Abyssinian  cluinh  was  cMit  off 
from  comnmnKalhm  witli  th,.  n  st  of  Christen- 
ilom.  .  .They  [ihe  Abyssinian^]  nniain  nn 
alm.«t  unique  specimen  of  a  seihibarbarous 
Hirisian  iK'ople.  Their  worship  is  sirauirely 
m  i.\ed  with  J.wish  ci.sloms. '-11  K  To/^r  Tli 
i/'iirrhnnilt/ie  J:,iKt,n,  hm/iirf  ,/i    f,  •  ■•    " 

Fifteenth-Nineteenth  Centurie».-Europe«n 
r.n-'S''  I  !*  'ntereourae— Intruaion  of  the 
GUlM -Intettine  con«icti.-"AlH)ut  the  niid- 

Uct  with  W  estern  Europe.  An  Abyssinian  eoii- 
\ent  was  cn(h>we<l  at  Itome,  and  l.-itm  wen- 
sent  from  the  Abyssinian  cmvent  at'j,Tus,,|,.,n 
o  the  couiiei    .,1'  Florence.     These  adli.n.l  to 

Chureh  of  Home  maile  an  impress  upon  Ethiopia 
.  .  .  I'rinee  Henry  of  Portugal  .  .  .  ne.Mo,„.m.,i 
up  eommiinualion  willi  Eunme,     II,.  h„„,.,i  ,„ 
ojx.n  up  a  route  from  the  West  to  the  East  coast 
of    Afrin»    [see    PoKTf.i.u.:    A.  1).    141.Vl)(tOI 
by  which    be  East  Indies  ndgbt  iH.rea.lnd  wltl  1 
out  toiK  hing  JIahometan  territory,     nnririir  his 
elfnrn  to  diseuv.T  su<  h  a  pas.sage  to  lu.iiu,  and 
o  .hstn.y  the  nvenues  derived    I.y  III,.  .\|,„,rH 
from   the  spie,.   tmile.    he  .^nt  an"  ambassa,|„r 
nam..,!  Covillan  to  111,.  C„urt  of  .Sh>,a      (■,)\ill.iii 
W...S  not  sumn-,|   I,,  return   by   Al,.x,.ii,|,  r.  |'|„. 
nil  .Neg,K.s  l„r  Negus,  or  Xugash  -  tl„.  ijii,.  „f 
the  .\b\s.inian  s,,v,.nignl.     lb;   niarri.-.l  nuMy 
an,lar.,|um.,l  rich  p,.ssi.««ionsiiitlie,ouiitrv     H,'. 
k,jl  np,„ri.  spoil,  ,n.,. »  III,  Portugal,  Mn,|un:.,l 
1  rin.e  ll.nry  I,)  dlligenlly  eonliuu,.  hi .,  iTorts  to 
il  ,s,.,iy,.r  the  .Suithern  pu,ssage  to  lb,.  Ka«t      In 
I  Wtl„.  Porlugu.se  ,  ir..,.i,.,|  tl,,,  ,.ir,.„i,  .,f  _^,y 

1  he  1  urkshli,,rily  afi,  rwanUexiemh.i  ih,  Ir con- 
qins  si„war,ls  ln,lia,wl„  re  th,y  w,  n.baul',,d  by 
b,.  Porlu^-u,  s..,  but  th,  V  ,.stal.li.l„.|  a  n,,-,  ,„„|i 
oil  n  ^yia,  ,m  1!,,.  African  .„asi,  h'r,  m  here 
th,y  h,impiT(,l  aii,l  thnateiaii  |,>  ijcsiroy  ih,. 
lra,l,.  of  Abyssinia,"  ami  wsui,  h,  alii,,,,,-,.  « in, 
tin.  .^Iiihometan  trllns  of  th,'  i,ia,l  hna,|,.,l  il,.. 
■onnlrv.      ■•Tli.y  «ere  defeate,!  by  ll„.  .N,.pM.s 

,V     ,•••  ^ -'"ie  !;iiirthc  Tiiri.1,1,  I..»i,or 

/eyla  wa»  sl,.rn,e,l  ai„l  bumcil  bv  a  P,>rtucue»c 
llct.  •  Consblirable  intima<y  ,if  fri.  i„llv"r(la- 
tions  was  mainiaimd  for  mmie  time  l.,i«;en  the 


ABY8SINU,  15TH-19Tn  CENTURIES. 


▲BVSSINU,  18S4-1889. 


I     ■ 


,     ! 


t"    I 


Abygsintaiu  and  the  Portuguese,  wiio  Rssisted  in 
defendioff  them  ugainst  the  Turks.  "  In  the 
middle  of  the  16th  century  ...  a  mignition  of 
Oailos  came  from  tlie  8>'uthand  swept  up  to  and 
over  tlie  confines  of  Abyssinia.  Men  of  ligliter 
compiezioD  and  fnirer  sliin  than  most  Africans, 
tliey  were  Pagan  in  religion  and  savages  in  cus- 
toms. Kotwitlistanding  frequent  efforts  to  di*- 
lixlgc  them,  they  have  Brmly  established  them- 
selves. A  large  colony  lins  planted  itaelf  on  *he 
banks  of  the  \  ;■.  .  r  Takkazic,  the  Jidda  and  the 
Baahilo.  Slutu  their  establishment  here  they 
have  for  the  most  part  embraced  the  creed  of 
Maliomet.  The  province  of  Shoa  is  but  an  out- 
lier of  Christian  Al)ysf)inia,  separated  completely 
from  co-religionist  districts  by  these  Galia 
bands.  About  the  same  time  the  Turks  took  a 
firm  hold  of  Massowah  and  of  the  lowland  by 
the  coast,  which  had  hitherto  been  ruled  by  the 
Abyssinian  Bahar  Nagash.  Islamism  and  heath- 
enism surrounded  Al)yBslnia,  where  the  lamp  of 
Christianity  faintly  glimmen'd  amidst  dark 
■upentition  in  the  deep  neesses  of  rugged  val- 
leys." In  ISSSaJesuit  mi»ai(>n  arrived  iu  the 
country  and  establislied  itself  at  Fremona.  ' '  For 
nearly  a  century  Fremona  existed,  and  iu  super- 
iors were  the  trusted  advisors  of  the  £thi<  gdan 
throne.  .  .  .  But  the  same  fate  which  fell  upon 
the  company  of  Jesus  in  more  civilize<l  lands, 
pursued  it  in  the  wilds  of  Africa.  The  Jesuit 
missionaries  were  universally  popular  with  the 
Negoos,  but  the  prejudice  of  the  people  rufusi'd 
to  recognise  the  ln'nelits  which  flowed  from  Fre- 
mona. Persecutioi  befell  the  fathers,  and  two 
of  them  won  the  crown  of  martyrdom.  The 
Negoos,  Fiicllldas,  "sent  for  a  Coptic  Abuna 
[ecclesiastical  primate]  from  Alexandria,  and  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  the  Turkish  governors  of 
Massowah  and  Souakin  to  prevent  the  passage  of 
Europeans  into  his  dominions.  Some  Capuchin 
preachers,  who  atti-mpted  to  evade  this  tn'aty 
and  enter  Abyssinia,  met  with  cruel  deaths. 
Facillda*  thus  completed  the  work  of  the  Turks 
and  the  Galliis,  and  shut  Abyssinia  out  from 
European  inlluence  and  civilization.  .  .  .  After 
the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  Al)yBslnla  "as  torn 
by  Internal  feuds  and  constantly  haraswd  by  the 
encroachments  of  and  wars  with  the  (liillas. 
Anarchy  and  confu«ion  ruled  supn me.  Towns 
and  villages  were  burnt  down,  lu  !  the  Inhalil- 
tants  sold  Into  slavery.  .  .  .  Towanla  llic  mi  Idle 
of  the  18th  century  the  Oallas  upniHr  fo  have 
incn-aied  eonsiden'bly  in  rxiwer.  In  llie  Intes- 
tine quarrels  of  .\liys.slnla  Ihilr  iilllancc  was 
courted  liy  each  sldr,  and  In  their  country  politi- 
cal refugiTS  oluained  a  si'din-  asylimi."  r)uring 
the  early  years  of  the  present  ci'-nturv,  the  cam-  I 
palgns  In  Kgypt  attmcted  Knt'lish  iIitiiiilo:i  to 
the  Ifcii  Sea.  "In  l-^oj  l,„nl  Valciitia,  the 
Viceroy  of  India,  mii-  Ids  SeiU'tary,  Mr.  .''alt, 
Into  Aliyssinia:"  l>ut  .Mr  Halt  was  uiii;hle  to 
penetrate  iK'yond  Tlgnt.  In  IHIO  he  uiiinipfe<i 
a  Second  mission  and  again  failiil.  It  hh»  not 
until  1H48  that  Kmtllsli  nttcinpls  to  ojk n  ijiiiln. 
Imatic  and  etuninenlal  nlatiouH  Willi  .\liy><inia 
bcntme  suetiiuirul.  .Mr  I'lowden  wat  h|  |H>ini<'d 
cunsuhr agent,  and  negotiated  a  tnaty  of  (oia 
mcroe  with  lias  All.  the  riditig  Galla'cl.lef  "— 
It  ^1  Hozier,  TAt'  JliitM  l^jntlitii'U  !■•  .14v»- 
(I  'I       Intnxl. 

A.  O.  lB$4-l8Bp.— Advent  of  King  Theodora 
—  Hit  EBglith  c'aptiTCt  and  the  Expedition 
which  r«ltM«d  tiitm,— "(  iiiiiimI  riowilen  lia>l 


been  residing  six  yeaiB  at  Massowah  when  h* 
heard  that  the  Prince  to  whom  he  had  been  ac- 
credited, Ras  AH,  had  been  defeated  and  de- 
throned by  an  adventurer,  whose  name,  a  few 
vears  before,  had  been  unknown  outside  the 
boundaries  of  bis  native  province.  This  was 
Llj  K&sa,  better  known  by  bis  adopted  name  of 
Theodore.  He  was  bom  of  an  old  family,  la 
the  mountainoiu  region  of  Kwara,  where  the 
land  begins  to  slope  downwards  towards  the 
Blue  Nile,  and  educated  in  a  convent,  where  he 
learned  to  read,  and  acquired  a  considerable  knowl- 
edge  of  the  Scriptures.  ESsa's  convent  life  wa« 
suddenly  put  an  end  to,  when  one  of  those  ma- 
rauding Oalla  bands,  whose  ravages  are  the 
curse  of  Abyssinia,  attacked  and  plundered  the 
monaateiT.  From  that  time  he  himself  took  to 
the  life  of  a  freelMoter.  .  .  .  Adventurers  flocked 
to  his  standard :  his  power  continually  increased ; 
and  in  1834  he  defeated  Ras  All  in  a  pitched  bat- 
tle, and  made  himself  master  of  central  Abys- 
sinia." In  1855  he  overthrew  the  ruler  of  Tlgrfi. 
"  He  now  resolved  to  assume  a  title  commen- 
surate with  the  wide  extent  of  his  dondnion.  In 
the  church  of  Derezgye  he  bad  himself  crowned 
by  the  Abuna  as  King  of  the  Kings  of  Ethiopia, 
taking  the  name  of  Theodore,  liecanse  an  ancient 
tradition  declared  that  a  great  monarch  would 
some  day  arise  in  Abyssinia."  Mr.  Plowdennow 
visl'.d  the  new  monarch,  was  impressed  with 
adiiiimtion  of  his  tJilents  and  character,  and  be- 
came his  counsellor  and  friend.  But  in  1860  the 
English  consul  lost  his  life,  wldle  on  a  joumev, 
Bncl  Theodore,  emiilttered  by  several  mfs- 
fortunes,  iiegan  to  give  rein  to  a  S4i»agc  temper. 
"The  British  Government,  on  hearing  of  the 
death  of  Plowden,  Immediately  renlaceil  him  at 
Massowah  .■.•  the  appointment  of  Captain  Cam- 
enm."  The  new  Consul  was  well  retx'ived,  and 
was  entrusted  by  the  Abyasinian  King  with  a 
letter  addressiil  to  theQueen  of  England,  solicit- 
ing her  friendship.  The  letter,  duly  despatched 
to  Its  destination,  was  nigcoii  hokd  In  the  Foreign 
Offlce  at  London,  and  uo  reply  to  It  was  ever 
made.  Insulted  and  enraginl  by  tills  treatment, 
and  by  other  evidenies  of  the  IndlfTerence  of  the 
British  OoveruiiH  nt  to  Ids  overtims.  King  Theo- 
dore, In  January,  1H(J4,  seizeil  and  imprisoned 
Consul  Cameron  with  all  his  suite.  About 
the  same  time  he  was  still  further  olTendeil  by 
eirtain  passages  In  a  hook  on  Aby9.sinla  that  had 
ixtn  publUhiil  by  a  missionary  imnud  ."^tern. 
Stern  and  a  fellow  misslonarv,  Uosenthal  with 
the  hitter's  wife,  were  lodged  in  prison,  and  sub- 
jected to  flogging  and  torture.  The  Hrst  step 
taken  by  the  Hritish  Government,  when  news  of 
Consul  Cameron's  Iniprisunment  reached  Eng- 
land, was  to  si'iid  out  a  n-giilar  mission  to  Abys- 
sinia, liearliig  n  letter  signed  bv  the  (^iieen,  de- 
manillug  the  n'h'ase  of  tlie  Captives.  The  mission 
heiuliHl  by  a  Syrian  name<l  Raiwain,  made  Its  way 
to  the  King's  presence  In  January.  lH6fi.  Theo- 
dore seemed  to  Im-  placated  by  the  ijiieen's  epistle 
and  prointstil  freetlom  to  his  prisoners.  But  soon 
his  moody  mlmt  lieeame  tlllni  with  suspicions  as 
to  the  genuineness  of  liaMwm's  cmlentlals  from 
the  (jiietn.  ami  as  M  the  designs  and  int^'ntions  of 
all  the  foH'Igners  who  were  In  his  power.  He  was 
drinking  heavily  at  the  time,  and  the  result  of 
his  "drunken  cogitations  was  a  determination  to 
detain  tlie  Mii»..ioi!— g|  gnv  rate  until  bv  their 
nieiins  he  shoul.t  have  obtained  asupply  of  skilled 
artisans  ami   machlnrry   from  England."     Mr. 


ABYSSINIA.  186t-188». 

Baaam  and  his  compaolons  were  accortHncIy 
put  Into  confinement,  us  Captain  Cameron  ImU 
iK'pn.     But  tliiy  were  allowed  to  send  a  mes- 
sender  to  England,  niakini;  their  situation  known 
and  conveying  flic  demand  of  King  Tlii'oilore 
that  a  man  be  sent  to  him  "wlio  can  make  cim- 
nims  and  muskets."    The  demand  wag  actuallv 
complied  with.     Six  skilled  artisans  and  a  civil 
engiiieiT  were  sent  out,  together  with  a  quantity 
of  machinery  and  other  pn-scnts,  in  the  hoiie  that 
they  woulil  procure  the  release  of  the  unfortunate 
captives  at  Jiagdala.     Almost  a  year  was  wasud 
in  these  fjtile  proceedings,  and  it  was  not  until 
September,  1867,  that  nr  expediticmconsistinffof 
*.mt  British  ami  8.000  native  tniops.  under  An- 
eral  Sir  I{.>bert  Xapier,  was  sent  from  India  to 
bring  the  insensate  barbarian  to  terms.    It  landed 
ro,'^","!'''''^  .•?*>'•   ""''•   "wrcoming  enormous 
difficulties  with  n^gard  to  wau-r,  food-supplies 
and  tnmsportation,  was  ready,  about  the  middle 
of  January   1888,  to  start  urnm  its  march  to  the 
rortres.s  of  Magdala,  where  Theodore's  prisoner.^ 
were  confined.     The  distance  was  400  niiles,  and 
sever  .1  high  ranges  of  mountains  had  to  be  passed 
to  reach  the  interior  table-land.    The  invadina 
army  met  »-lth  no  resistance  until  it  reached  the 
X""*:,*'   "f  ""^  ,Be8hilo,   when  it   was  attacked 
f  April  10)  on  the  plain  of  Aroge  or  Aroiri    bv 
the   whole  force   which  Theodore   was  able  to 
muster,   numU-ring  a  few  thousonds,  only,  of 
poory  armiKl  men.     The  battle  was  simply  a 
rapid  s  aughtering  of  fh.'  barbaric  assailants,  and 
when    hey  fled,  leaving  700  orSOO.leu.l  and  l,.VIO 
wounded  on  the  field,  the  Abvsslnlan   King  had 
no  power  of  resistanc,.  h.ft.     Ife  „ffered  at  on.e 
t.i  make  pi,,re.  surrendering  nil  the  captives  in 
his  hands:   b„t  .Sir  IJolnrt   Xapirr  reniiired  an 
nnc.,...liii,,„al  submission,  with  a  view  todispluc- 
ng  him  from  the  thnair.  In    ercordancc    with 
tlie  wish  and  expectation  which  he  had  found  to 
be   general   iu   the  country.     Th.cMlore  refiis,.d 
lus,_  terms,  and  when  (April  U)  Magdala  was 
b.,rnh:.r.>i.,l  and  stormed  by  the  British  tr.«ps_ 
s  iirl.t  resistance  iH'lng  inadc-heshot  himself  at 
the  m.iniint  of  tlieii    ntraiiee  to  the  plate      The 
soverrigmy  he  had  successf.lly  cncentrate.l  In 
hiiuM.lf  for  a  time  was  again  d!vlde<).     Betne.Mi 
A[.riland.Iuue  the  English  army  wa«  entirely 
wlth.1  lawn.  and  "  Abyssinia  wasiealed  up  agu  n 
f';)!"  '""'T'"""''  with  the  ouur  world."-?!,, 
*// »  I!l>„tr„l.,l  IH,t.  of  Eng..  r.  0.  eh.  28.-"  The 
task  of  permanently  uniting  Abyssinia,  in  which 
I,  hn   J,*"         '•  J'"'y''<',<''l'"'ll.v  Impracticable  to 

\^^h  iaam"!  «''T<"*'«'".v.  By  his  fall  (lOih 
March  1881))  In  the  unhappy  war  against  the 
DtrvlshesorMoslemzialntsof  the  Soudan,  the 

foved".?,'/''''*""'-''"'/,''",""''  "'  S'"'".  *'•»  "" 
i?  „  l/u''P"'*  '''."'''7-  I"*"'  csiaMishment 
of  the   Italiani  on   the    fled    .Sa    litti  rai 

promises  a  now  era  for  Abyssinia. "-T.  Naldeke' 
M,fr/if»fr,m  Rittfrn  m.f    rh   9  ' 

Ai.so  IN  H.  A.  Stern,  7'V  r„,7,„.  Mim.nary. 
—U.  M.  StaiUey,  Coonuumtt  „ml  Ma-jdaU,  /jt.  2. 


ACH^Al^  CITIEa. 

and  adorned  with  temples  and  sriitucs,  a  gentla 

w!,""/ pi'-7^  '"•■'""ff'l  '^"-"-  "•  Le'^es.  a4 
(f"'„"f  ^'''^P"!/.  0th  £-.,W..-The  masters  of 
the  great  schools  of  philosopy  at  Athens  ■'choso 

h?,li,  i  "■  ,"'!'''''  ■''"•'  <l'-<^U8s'on8  the  public 
buildings  which  were.alkcl  gymnasia,  of  which 
Here  were  several  in  different  ipiartiTS  of  the  city 

tlie  State,  which  had  biiilt  tliem  chiefly  for 
bodily  exercises  and  athletic  fiats.  .  .  .  Before 
long  several  of  the  schools  drew  themselves 
I  apart  in  special  buildings,  and  even  t<x.k  their 
«,^\/T'"" /"""■?■  ^'"^''  "^  "«  L^feumand 
m,?i„  .I '""^■^'■'""  ".'«»>■"'"'"  '  i"  which  they 
made  themselves  at  home.     Gradually  we  fin  1 

f  '?  Jr'.''''*4  2'  ^""^  """"iai  rirovisions.  whirli 
helped  to  dehne  and  to  perpetuate  the  different 
sects  Plato  had  a  little  garden,  close  by  he 
sacred  Eleiisinlan  Way,  in'the  shady  groves  of 
he  Academy.  .  .  irfstotle,  as  we'inow  In 
later  life  had  taught  in  the  Lveeiim.  in  the  ri.  h 
grounds  near  the  Illsans."— \V.  W.  Capes  (hi 
ttrnty  Life  in,  Ancient  Ath'n;  pp.  3I-ai  —  For 
a  description  of  the  Academy,  Lyceum,  etc  see 
OvMSAsiA,  OBKicK.-'>n  the  suppression  of  the 
Academy,  see  Atbkss.  A.  T>.  529. 

ACADEMY,    The   French.  — Foundeil    l 
Can  inal  Kichelieu.  in  mr,,  for  the  reflninr 
the  language  and  the  literary  taste  of  Frai; 
Its  forty  members  are  styled  "the  Immortals 
Election  toasi'at  among  them  is  a  high  object 
of  ambition  among  French  writers. 
ACADIA.     See  \ov\  Scorn 

*?*?.l^?'^'  ^''•-  »"''  'he  aritith  Go»em- 
ment.— Their  expulsion.     See  N'ova  Scotia  • 


ACADEMY.  The    Athenian.-"  The    Ara- 

Atrn;''r.'''  h*r'''"  ';■  ""•  '«'<«''»^>'rl.o.<l  .  f 
AMI.  IIS,  was  the  fuvmirlie   r<>""r!  nf  I't-ttn  h,  i 

rhLsgar.lenw««  planted  with  Jofty  plane  trees. 


ACAWOIOS.  The.    S.e  Ami;i,ican  Abobi. 
"'i'iJi.P*""'''  *^°  TRKtn  KiNDHri). 
ACCAD.-ACCADIANS.    See  Ba  btloma. 

PkiMITIV;,;  andSEMlTNS 

1   ACCOLADE.-"  The   concluding    sign    of 

kniu'hthoo.!  was  a  aliirht  blow  given  by  the  lord 

P  irt  of  the  body,  the  neck,  whereon  It  was 
^  rurk.  .,Iany  writers  have  Imagined  timt 

the  ii.eolade  was  the  T.st  blo,v  whldi  tho  so], 
dirrmi^.l.trei-eivewith  imnunlly;  but  this  ia- 
-rnretation  is  not  correct,  {or  th'e  squire  was  as 
Jea  mis  of  his  honour  as  the  kniiilit  The  on -In 
of  the  accolade  it  Is  lmp,.ssli,le  to  trace  but  it 
-  13  clearly  consldend  sy  mlK.lical  of  the  rellgioui 
and  moraf  duties  of  knlglith,K,l,  and  w  .,  i  ' 
only  een.m.  y  used  when  knl-hts  were  made  In 
places  (the  ffeld  of  battle,  for  lnsf^ncer«here 
time  and  ■■  re.imstnnces  <li,!  not  allow  of  ii.uny 
c.T,monles"-C.    Mills,  ;/i-,r  ,/ «:,7„>„.V»,   r    f 

ACHiEAN  CITIES,  League  of  the.-Tld, 

vlii.h  Isnot  to  beconrom,de,l?viti.  „„,  "  \,.|  .  ,!; 
I.ea,:ue  of  I'elopmmes.is.  wa..  an  eariy  L,  ...';'.o 
..     the  flreek  ».-IthM.Knts  in  .southern"  Ita'vot 

tZ,t'  J, -'"'If i^.  MelalMis  or  MetapoiK,.:," 
;  r,  .  r  'I  "  "^*''*  '•"•''■''""I'k  Hnd  I.a,.,. 
*-r(,toii  (a.d.mia,  Tem,»a.  T.  rina  and  Pvx,is 
.  .  .  The  language  of  I'olyliius  regarding  t!io 
Acha-an  symmucliy  in  the  IVl  ,p„nm»,.s  may  io 
.;•;!-  11. 1  also  to  these  Itai:.m  .Vchaans:   •noi  o„'y 

l;;,  'i?'"'"'  ■','  '"'<■'"' ""'i  lri'ndlvr..minu;l  ,n. 
but  they  neulo  use  of  the  ,:■■„..  law,.  «„d  iho 
same  wilghis.  measure's  an  1  lo,:.,.  «,  well  as  of 


m' 


H 


ACIIJJAN  CITIES. 

the  same  magistrates,  coiiiidllors  and  judges.'" 
— T.  Jlomiiisiti,  Jlint.  of  Home,  Ik.  1,  eh.  10. 

ACH^AN  LEAGUE.    SicOheeck:  B.  C. 
280-146. 

ACHiEMENIDS,  The.— The  family  or  dy- 
nastic name  (ia  its  Greek  form)  of  the  "kinc3  of 
the  I'ersian  Empire  founiie<l  by  Cvrus,  deriveil 
fniir.  an  aiiecstor,  Acha-nienes,  who  "was  probably 
1 1  liicf  iif  the  Persian  trilie  of  the  Pasargada;. 
"hi  the  iuscription  of  Behistim,  King  Darius 
s:i_vs:  'From  old  tiinn  ve  were  kings;  eiglit  of 
my  family  have  been  Kings,  I  am  the  ninth; 
from  very  ancient  times  we  have  been  kings." 
He  enumerates  his  anc«!Stors:  'My  father  was 
Vistafpa,  the  father  of  A'ista^pa  was  Arsama; 
the  father  of  Arsama  was  Ariyaramna,  the  father 
of  Ariyaramna  was  Khai8pis,'thc  father  of  Khais- 
pis  was  Hakhamanis;  hence  we  are  called  Hak- 
hamanisiya(AcIiiemenids).'  Inthesewords Darius 
gives  the  tree  uf  bis  own  family  up  to  Khaispis; 
this  was  the  younger  branch  of  the  Acha;- 
meuids.  Tcispes,  the  son  of  Achaemenes,  had 
t>vo  sons;  the  elder  was  Cambyses  (Kambujiya) 
the  younger  Ariamnes;  tlie  iM>n  of  Cambvses  was 
Cvrus  (Kurus),  the  son  of  Cyrus  was  Cambyses 
It  Hence  Darius  could  indeed  maintain  that 
eight  princes  of  his  family  had  preceded  him; 
but  it  was  not  correct  to  maintain  that  they  had 
been  kings  before  him  and  that  he  was  the  ninth 
king."  — M.  Duuclicr,  lU»t.  of  Antiquilu.  t.  5. 
bk.  8,  eh.  3. 

At™)  IN  O.  Hawllnson,  Fumili/ of  the  Aeh/r- 
maiitUi.  iipp.  I,)  hk.  7  of  Ilcrodot'ua.—  Stx,  also, 
Pkksiv.  AN(ri;NT. 

ACHAIA.— •Cnisslng  the  river  Tjirlssufi,  and 
purMiing  tlie  northern  coast  of  Peloponnesus 
south  of  the  Coriniliiaii  Gulf,  the  traveller  would 
pass  into  Acliaia  — a  name  whicli  designated  tlic 
narrow  strip  of  level  land,  and  the  projecting 
spurs  ami diclivities  In'tween  that  gulf  and  the 
northernmost  mountains  of  the  peninsula.  .  .  . 
Achaean  cities  — twelve  in  numlier  a'  Ic'ust,  if  not 
more  — divided  this  limg  strip  of  land  amongst 
them,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Larissus  and  the 
northwestern  Ciipc  Amxus  on  one  side,  to  the 
western  boundary  of  the  .sikyon  territory  on  tlie 
other.  According  to  the  ai'counts  of  the  ancient 
legends  and  the  b<lief  of  IIer.Klotus,  this  terri- 
tory had  been  once  (Hcupied  by  Ionian  inhabit- 
ants, whom  the  Aclmcans  haa  cxik'HihI." O. 

Orote,  Jlinl.  of  Oi;,w,  ],t.  2,  e.'i.  4  (r.  2). After 

the  Komnn  conquest  and  the  suppression  of  the 
A-'iaian  League,  llie  name  Aehuia  was  given  to 
:'  "  lioman  province  then  organizetl,  which 
embraced  ill  Greece  south  of  Macedonia  and 
Epirus.— See  Giii;f.ce:  B.  C.  280140.— "In  the 
llonirrlc  pi>ems,  where  .  .  .  the  'Hellenes' 
only  appear  in  one  district  of  Southern  Thessaly, 
the  name  Ai  leeaiis  is  employed  by  preference 
as  a  general  appelati..n  for  the  whofe  race.  But 
the  Acha'iins  we  may  term,  without  hesitatlim, 
a  Pclusgian  people.  In  so  far,  thai  is,  as  we  use 
this  name  merely  as  the  opposite  of  tlio  term 
■HeMenes,'  wliiih  pn'Viiilcd  nt  a  \:\l'T  V  le, 
although  It  Is  true  that  the  Hellenes  tliems  es 
.were  nothing  more  than  a  l):irlicular  bninch  of 
the  Pelasgian  stock.  .  .  .  [The  name  of  the] 
Acha'aiis,  after  it  had  dropped  its  earlier  and 
more  universal  application,  wus  preserved  as  the 
speiial  name  of  a  population  dwelling  In  the 
norlh  of  the  Pcloponne.se  and  the  south  of 
Tiu.^saiy.' — ij.  1\  S  Iiuiiiann,  Anti'j.  of  (}rrcer'. 
^ht  Utitte,  lnt.~"tUe  ancient!  regarded  them 


6 


ACURIDA. 

[•■.•)  Achetansl  as  a  brsnch  oi  the  .£olians,  with 
w.iom  they  afterwards  reunited  into  one  national 
body,  i.  e. ,  not  as  an  originally  distinct  nationality 
or  independent  branch  of  the  Greek  people. 
Accordingly,  wc  hear  neither  of  an  Achaean  kn- 
guage  nor  of  Aeheean  art.  A  manifest  and  deci.led 
Influence  of  tlie  maritime  Greeks,  wherever  the 
Acha-ans  appear,  is  common  to  the  latter  with 
the  ^Eolians.  Achieans  are  everywhere  settled 
on  the  coast,  and  are  always  reganled  as  par- 
ticularly near  relat'ons  of  the  loniitns.  .  .  .  The 
Acl^ans  appear  scattered  about  1-  localities  on 
the  coast  of  the  .lEgean  so  remote  from  one 
another,  that  it  is  impossible  to  consider  all  bear- 
ing this  name  as  fragments  of  a  people  originally 
united  in  one  stnial  community;  nor  do  they 
in  fact  anywhere  appeal,  properly  speaking, 
as  a  popular  btnly,  as  the  main  stock  of  tl:i 
population,  but  rather  as  eminent  fa.-nilies,  from 
which  spring  heroes ;  henco  the  use  of  the  expres- 
sion '  Sons  of  the  Acha'ans '  to  Indicate  ncble  de- 
scent."—E.  Curtius,  JIM.  of  Oreeet,  bk.  1,  eh.  8 
Also  iw  M.  Dunckcr,  Hut.  of  Greece,  bk.  1,  eh 
2,  and  bk.  2,  eh.  2.— See,  also,  Achau,  and 
Greece:  Tue  Migrations. 

A.  D,  1305-1387.  — Medixval  Principality. 
—Among  the  conquests  of  the  French  and 
I.ombard  Crusaders  in  Gretce,  after  the  taking  of 
Conatantinopio,  was  that  of  a  major  part  of  the 
Peloponnesus- then  beginning  to  be  called  the 
Morea— by  William  de  Champlitte,  a  French 
knight,  assisted  by  Geffrey  dc  Villehardouin, 
the  younger- nephew  and  namesake  of  the 
Marshal  of  Chaini)agne,  wlio  was  clironicler  of 
the  conquest  of  theEmplreof  the  East.  William 
de  Cliamplitto  was  invested  with  this  Principality 
of  Achaia,  or  of  the  Morea,  as  it  is  variously 
styled.  Geffrey  Vlllehanlouin  represented  him 
in  the  povenimcnt,  as  his  "bnilly,"  for  a  time 
and  linally  succwded  In  supplanting  him.  Half 
a  century  hiter  the  Greck.s,  who  had  recovered 
Constantinople,  reduced  the  territory  of  the 
Principality  of  Achaia  to  about  half  the  penin- 
sula, and  a  destructive  war  was  wagi'd  between 
the  tv7o  nces.  8ub.sequently  the  Wncipality 
became  a  lief  of  the  crown  of  Naples  and  Sicily, 
and  underwent  many  changes  of  possession 
until  the  title  was  In  confusion  and  dispute 
between  the  houses  of  Anjou,  Aragon  and 
Savoy.  Before  it  was  engulfed  finally  in  the 
Empire  of  tlie  Turks,  it  was  iuined  by  their 
piracies  and  ravages.— G.  Finlav,  Iliat.  of  Greece 
from  itt  Conquctt  by  the  C'nimilt'r;  eh.  8. 

♦- — - 

ACHMET  I.,  Turkish  Sultan,  A.  D.  IflOJ- 
1017. . .  .Achmet  II.,  IBl'l-lOUj. . .  .Achmet  III.. 
170:1-1 7.'!0. 

ACHRADINA. —  A  part  of  the  ancient  citv 
of  Byracu.  :■,  H'eilj ,  known  as  the  "  outer  city,'' 
iKcupying  the  ,ieiiinsula  north  of  Ortygia,  the 
island,  which  was  tlic  "  inner  city." 

ACHRIDA,  Kingdom  of.— After  the  death  of 
John  ZImisces  who  had  reunited  Bulgaria  to  the 
Byzantine  Empire,  the  Bulgarians  were  roused 
to  a  struggle  for  the  recovery  of  their  independ. 
eiice,  under  the  lead  of  four  brothers  of  a  noble 
family,  all  of  whom  aoon  ;^rishcd  save  one, 
named  Samuel.  Samuel  proved  to  be  so  vigor- 
ous and  able  a  soldier  and  had  so  much  success 
that  he  assumeil  pri'sently  the  title  of  king.  Ills 
p.uthority  was  establlshefl  over  the  greater  part 
of  Bulgaria,  and  extended  Into  tlacedimla^ 
Eptnis  and  Illyrla.    Ue  eaUbllahed  his  capital 


ACHRIDA. 

nt  Acbiida  (modem  Ochrida,  In  Albania),  wlilcli 
gave  it3  name  to  his  kingdom.  Tlie  suppression 
of  this  new  Bulgarian  monarchy  occupied  the 
Byzantine  Emperor,  Basil  II.,  in  wars  from  flSl 
until  1018,  when  Its  last  strop;;liolds,  including 
the  <ity  of  Achrida,  were  surrendered  to  him.— 
O.  Finlay,  llitt.  of  the  Byzantine  Empire  from 
710  to  10.-,7,  bk.  2,  ch.  a,  teit.  2. 

ACKERMAN',  Convention  of  (1836).  See 
TiiiKs:  A.  D.  lPl"8-lb29. 

AroLAHUS,  The.  See  Me.xico,  A.vciext: 
Till.  I  (iLTEC  EjirrRE. 

ACOLYTH,  The.    See  Va   anoian  or  Wab- 

CJO  OlWllD. 

>  ^?'*A?^'  °»"'«  "»'•  A.  D.  633.-Aftcr  the 

death  of  Mahomet,  his  successor,  Aljii  Belir  had 
to  deal  with  several  serious  revolt':,  the  most 
llircatening  of  which  was  raised  by  one  Mosei- 
l^ma  whohad  pretended,  even  in  the  lifetime  of 
t.ic  l*rophet,  to  p.  rival  mission  of  religion  Tlie 
decisive  battle  (■  ween  the  followers  of  Jlosci- 
laina  and  those  ot  .Mahomet  was  fought  nt  Acril).i 
near  Yemama.  The  pretender  was  slain  and  few 
of  his  army  escaped.— Sir  W.  Muir,  AnnaU  of 
t;ie  J:.rrlu  Caliphate,  ch.  7 

ACRABATTENE,  Battle  of.-A  sanguinary 
(leleat  of  the  Idiimeans  or  Edomites  In-  the  Jews 
under  Judas  JIaccabsus,  B.  C.  104.— Josephus 
Antiri.  ofthfJeict,  Ik.  13,  ch.  8. 

ACRAGAS.    See  AomoENTrM. 

ACRE  (St.  Jean  d'Acre,  or  Ptoleir^is):  A. 
p.  ii04.-Conquest,  Pillage  and  Massacre  by 
V"-,*^r!f,?'',"»,'"'"  Genoese,     bee   Ciusades: 

A.  p.  Ii87.-Taken  from  the  Christians  by 
»?,'"•    i"^''J'Kt'*»i'iM:  A.  I).  lHU-n87 
r„^:f  kJ  '8''J.'9'--:'^''«  K'"'  siege  and  recon- 
1"K*-111|i"'*'    '*'^'-' '^''"•"i^AI'ES:  A.  1>. 

A.  D.  I256-I257.-Quarrels  ani  battles  be- 

•T:m?k:'a.  ^i'n^x,:^^  ^"'"•'"-    «- 

m^JLi  °"   "j>'--T»ie   Final    triumph   of  the 
Moslems.     See  Jeius.xi.em:  A.  I).  IJUl 


ACT  OF  SETTLEMENT. 


ci-'^l  n'Jl'"''-"'*.*""'"''  to  Importance  by 
Shei*  Daher-"Acre,  or  St.  Jean  d'.VcrJ 
celeljmted  under  this  name  in  the  history  of 
the  (  rusades  and  in  antl<,uity  Ivnown  by  the 
name  of  Ptolemais,  had,  by  ttle  middle  of      e 

whenhheiklMher.  the  Arab  rebel, 'restored  ili 
commerce  and  navifratlon.     Inis  al.le  prince 
whoso  sway  comprehended  the  wliDle  of  iinel  nt 
Oalilee,  was  succeeded  by  the  Inf.inu.us  tvninf 
)jez7ar.p«,ha,  whoforthi,.d  Acre,  and  adorned 

„.J^-  D- '7W.-Uniuec*itful  Siege  by  Bona- 
-Atot-nn  '"'  '■  '^   '*■  '""'-'''"'  '^""-^ 

M^i;.™:.4'l?,'''l,''°~2''5»  •""'   Capture  by 
WeVt2;'nVob^".^-\'1-'l;^^^^^^^^^^ 

S.fK^/'*"'"^''      PROMONTORY. 
ACROPOLIS   OF  ATHENS     The  _■•  A 

road  which,  by  running  zigzag  up  the  slop.,  w,„ 
reatlmd  practuubiv  r..r  .  harlots,  led  from  the 

platform  of  which  stood  tlie  IV.pylai;  erected 


by  the  architect  Mnesicles  in  flre  years  durine 
the  administration  of  Pericles.  .  .  .  Oncutcrin'- 
through  the  gates  of  the  Propylxa  a  sec:,o  of 
unparaHcd  grandeur  and  beauty  buret  up,  1  tit 
eye.      >io  trace  of  human  dwellings  anywhere 
appeared,  but  on  all  sides  temples  of  more  rrlcss 
elevation,  of  Pentclic  marble,  beautiful  in  dc^i"'! 
and  exquisitely  delicate  in  execution,  sparhh  I 
like   piles  of  alabaster  in  the  sun.     On  the  Kft 
stood  the  Erectheion,  or  fane  of  Athena  Polia=- 
to  the  right,  that  matchless  edifice  known  as  the 
llecatompedon  of  old,  but  to  later  ages  as  the 
Parthenon,     Other  buildings,  all  holy  to  tlie  eve 
or  an  Atlienian,  lay  grouped  around  these  master 
structures,   .1.1,  in  the  open  spaces  between,  in 
whatever  di,   ,  tion  thj  spectator  might  )%ok,  ap- 
peared ,tatuc3,  some  remarkable  fortl-.'irdimen- 
sious,  others  for  their  beautv.  and    all  for  the 
Kgemlary  sanctity  which  surrounded  them     No 
city  of  the  ancier*  or  modern  world  ;ver  rivalled 
Athens  in  the  ritnes  of  art.    Our  best  filled  mu- 
seums, though  teeming  with  her  spc  ils,  are  poor 
collectious  of   fragments  coniparet    with    tluit 
assemblage  of  g,.ds  and  heroes  whicl  peopled  the 
Acropolis,  the  genuine  Olympos  0    the  arts  "— 
J.    A.  t>t.  John,    The    IMUna,.   bk.    \,   ch    4- 
•>cthing  in  ancient  Greece  or  Italy  coul.l  bo 
compare.1  with  the  Acropolis  of  Alliens,  in  its 
combin-itionof  l.cauty  and  grandeur,  surrounded 
as  It  was  by  temples  and  theatres  among    its 
rocks,  and  encircled  bv  a  city  abounding  with 
nioniiments,  some  of  which  rivalled  those  of  the 
Acropolis.      Its     platform    formed    o;io    great 
Sjini'tuary,  partitioned  only  bv  the  '  .-uudaries  of 
tlie  .  .      satrcd    portions.     \Vc    cannot,   tlicrc- 
fore,  admit  |i;c  suggestion  of  Chandler,  that   in 
addition  t  .  tlie  temples  and  other  momimenn  on 
tlie  sum.nit,  fliere  were  houses  divided  into  rcu- 
l.-ir  str.  cts.     This  would  not  have  been  cousonSnt 
eitlier  \suu  •.lie  customs  or  the  goo<l  taste  <l  the 
Athenians.     Vs  hen  the  people  of  Attica crowde,' 
into  Alliens  at  the  1'  finning  of  the  Pclopi  nnc- 
slan  war,  and  religion,    prejudices  gave  v.ay  ia 
every  piws.ble  case,  to  the  necessities  of  the  occa- 
sion even  then  the  Acropolis  renvincd  uuin- 
hahited    .         The  western  end  of  the  Acrojiolis, 
which  furnished  the  only  access  to  the  summit  of 
tMe  lull,  was  one  hundred  and  sixtv  eight  fei  t  ia 
lireaillh    ■     ^pcning  so  narrow  thilt  it  aiii)earej 
practu'abletothe  artlsU  of  PeriMes  to  fill  up  the 
space  with  a  single  building  wl.ich  fchoiild  i.rve 
the  purpase  of  a  gateway  to  tie  citadel,  as  well 
as  of  a  suitable  entran.e  to  tiiat   glorii.us  dis- 
|.lav  (if  nrcliiiecture  and   sculpture  whiih  was 
wit  iin  the  Imlosurc.     This  work  [the  Propv- 
a'a],   the   greatest  production   of    civil    artlii- 
teeliire  in  Athens,  which  rivillcl  the  Parthcnoa 
in  felieity  of  execution,  surpassed   it  in  bald- 
ness and  originality  of  design.  ...  It  n->v  be 
dellne,!  as  a  wall  pierced  rtith  flvo  doors,'  be- 
fore  w loch  on  both  sides  were  Doric  li.xastylc 
IZ  T  \  ~^\-  '"^'J^"'"'.  Topography,  fAt!,cr.,, 
met.  N.— Sec,  also,  Attica 

ACT  OF  ABJURATION,  The.   See  Xi.rn 
EHLVxiis:  A.  U.  1577-1,W1 

ACT  OF  MEDIATION,  The.    See  Swit 
zehland:  a.  I).  1803-1848. 


v^ 


I       i: 


ACT  RESCISSORY. 

ACT  RESCISSORY.  See  Scotland.  A. 
D.  1060-1686. 

ACTIUM :  B.  C.  434.— Naval  Battle  of  the 
Creeks. — A  defeat  inuicted  upon  thu  Coriuthiuos 
by  the  Corcyrians,  in  the  contest  over  Epidnmnus 
whicli  was  the  prelude  to  the  Peloponncsian 
War.— E.  Curtius,  Jlitt.  of  Greece,  bk.  4.  eh.  I. 

B.  C.  31.— The  Victory  of  Octa.vius.  See 
Rome:  B.  C.  81. 

ACTS  OF  SUPREMACY.  See  Suphe- 
MACY,  Acts  op;  and  tsoLA^•D:  A.  D.  1527- 
1531  ;  and  1659. 

ACTS  OF  UNIFORMITY.  Sec  Ekolasd: 
A.  D.  1559  and  1663-'665. 

ACULCO,  Battle  of  (1810).  See  Mexico: 
A.  D.  1810-1819. 

ACZ,  Battle  of  (1840).  See  Acstria,  A.  D. 
1848-1849. 

ADALOALDUS,  Kinf  of  the  Lombards, 
A.  D.  616-626. 

ADAMS,  John,  In  the  American  Revolu- 
tion. See  Unite,,  States  of  Am.:  K.  D.  1774 
(Mat — June);  1774(8eptembek);  1775  (.Mat — 
AcocsT);  1776  (Januaet  -June),  1778  (.Iclt). 

In  diplomatic  aervicc.   See  United  States 

OF  Am.:  a.  D.  1782  (April);  17»2(SEi>TKMitKK— 

KuvEMDEit) Presidential   administration. 

Sec  United  States  of  Am.:  A.  U.  17«8-1«01. 
Death.     See  the  same :  A.  D.  1N28. 

ADAMS,  John  Quiocy.  —  The  Treaty 
of  Ghent.     See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D. 

1814  (Decemher) As  President.    Sec  same : 

A.  D.  1H24-1829 Defending  right  of  Peti- 
tion.    See  same :  1842. 

ADAMS,  Samuel,  in  and  after  the  American 
Revolution.  See  United  States  ok  Am.  : 
A.I).  1772-1773;  1774(Septkmiiee);  177.>(Mat); 
1787-1 7ti9. 

ADDA,  Battle  of  the  (A.  D.  490).  See 
Rome:  A.  I).  4«8-n20. 

AD  DECIMUS,  Battie  of  (A.  D.  533).  See 
Vaspats:  a.  1>.  .W;t-034. 

ADEL.  — ADALING.  — ATHEL.  — "The 
honi'-s!;:!  of  tlic  origiuttl  Bottler,  bis  house, 
farni-liiiil(tini,'S  and  enclosure, '  llie  toft  and  i  ruft,' 
T'itli  tlie  share  of  arable  and  appurtenant  conunon 
rights,  bore  among  the  northern  nalioii.s  [early 
Teutonic]  the  name  of  Odal,  or  Edliel ;  the  primi- 
tive motlier  village  was  an  Athclby,  or  Athcl- 
ham;  tlio  owner  was  an  Atlielbqndo:  the  s.ima 
word  Adel  or  Athel  signilled  also  nobility  of 
ilescint,  and  an  Adallng  was  a  nobleman."— W. 
Mubbs  Vfitttt.  Ili't.  iij  Kny.,  eh.  8,  Jkif.  24.— See, 
also,  .Vi,<>i>,  and  Kthi;!.. 

ADELAIDE,  The  founding ard  naming ol. 
See  AiMKAi.lA  :  A.  I).  1MKI-1H4<I. 

ADELANTADOS.— An  early  title  given  to 
tlie  gdveiiiors  In  Spanish  Amerieu. 

ADELBERT  COLLEGE.  See  EnucA- 
TMs,  Mi'DKKn:  Hi'EoiiMB  :  a.  D.  1WH-1X91. 

ADEN.— A  port  on  the  southern  loast  of 
Arabia,  talten  by  Great  Britain  from  tlie  ."^ultan 
of  Aden  in  IWlit.  Adjaeeiit  territory,  with 
I'eriin  and  otiier  neighliorimr  islands,  lias  been 
ae()uin-d  since.  afTonlIng  a  naval  and  ciudlng 
station  Important  to  the  domination  of  the  lied 
Se:.  and  the  Siii'Z  Canal. 

ADIABENE. — .\name  whlclienme  to  be  np 
plied  aneieritly  to  the  tmct  of  eountiy  east  uf  the 
middle  Tigris,  emhraeing  what  wa.H  originally 
Ihi-  I'li'ih-r  terrlioFj  of  As-yriti.  t'.fjf'lier  «liii 
Arbelitis,  Under  the  Parthian  nioriarihy  it 
turmcd  a  tributary   kingdom,   much   disputed 


ADCLLAMTES. 

between  Parthia  and  Armenia.  It  was  seized 
several  times  by  the  Romans,  but  never  perma- 
nently held. — Q.  liawlinson.  Sixth  Ortat  OrttntcU 
Monarchy,  p.  140. 

ADIRONDACKS,  The.  Bee  AMimcui 
Aborigines:  Adironoaces. 

ADIS,  Battle  of  (B.  C.  356).  SeePuiiia 
War,  Tue  Fihbt. 

ADITES,  The.— "The  Cushltes,  the  first  In- 
habitants of  Arabia,  are  known  in  the  national 
traditions  by  the  name  of  Adites,  from  their 
progenitor,  who  is  called  Ad,  the  grandson  of 
Ilam." — F.  Lenormant,  Manual  of  Ancient  Uiit., 
bk.  7,  eh.  2.- .See  Akauia. 

ADJUTATORS.    See  England  :  A.  D,  10,7 

(ApUII. — .Vt.'liUST). 

ADLIYAH,  The.    Sec  Islam, 

ADMIRALTY  ISLES.     See  Meiankbia. 

ADOLPH  (of  Nassau),  King  of  Germaay, 
A.  D.  1291-1298. 

«noLPHUS  FREDERICK,  King  of 
Sweden,  A.  D.  1751-1771. 

ADOPTIONISM.  — A  doctrine,  condenmed 
as  heretical  in  the  eighth  century,  which  taught 
that  "Christ,  as  to  his  human  nature,  was  not 
truly  the  Son  of  Ood,  but  only  His  sen  by  adop- 
tion. "  The  dogma  is  also  known  as  the  Kelician 
heresy,  from  a  Spanish  bishop,  Felix,  who  was 
prominent  among  its  supporters,  Charlemacne 
took  active  measures  to  su  ppress  the  heresy  .—J.  I. 
Mombert,  Uitt.  of  Charlea  the  Great,  bk.  2,  cA.  18. 

ADRIA,  Proposed  Kingdom  of,  See  Italt: 
A.  D.  1348-1889, 

ADRIAN  VI.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1522^-1.523. 

ADRIANOPLE.— HADRIANOPLE.— A 
city  in  Thrace  founded  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian 
and  designated  by  his  name.  It  was  the  scene 
of  Constantine's  victory  over  Liciuius  in  A..  D. 
828  (see  Home:  A.  U.  805-323).  ami  of  the  de- 
feat and  death  of  Vaieiis  in  battle  with  the 
Ooths  (see  GoTns  (VlsiooTHs) :  A.  L).  37b),  In 
13U1  it  became  for  some  years  tlie  capital  of  the 
Turks  in  Europe  (see  TtRKs:  A,  D.  l;i()0-18«9). 
It  was  occupied  bv  the  Kussiuns  in  1829,  and 
again  In  1878  (see  Turks:  A.  D,  182U-1829,  and 
A.  D,  1877-1878),  und  gave  Its  name  to  the 
Treaty  negotiated  in  1829  between  Kussia  and 
the  Porte  (see  OUEECE:  A,  V   1821-1829), 

ADRIATIC,  The  Wedding  of  the.  See 
Venice:  A  1).  1177,  and  14m  Cknturv. 

ADRUMETUM.  See  Cartu.\ue,  Tub  Do- 
minion OF, 

ADUATUCI,  The.    See  Bei.o.e, 

ADULLAM,  Cave  of.— When  David  had 
been  cast  out  by  the  I'hill.stines,  among  whom  he 
sought  refuge  from  the  enmity  of  Saul,  "his 
flrst  retreat  was  the  Cave  of  Adullani.  probably 
the  large  cavern  not  far  from  Bethlehem,  now 
called  Khureitiin,  From  its  vieinitv  to  Bethle- 
hem, he  was  joined  there  by  his  wlide  family, 
now  feeling  themselves  insecure  from  Saul's 
fury.  .  .  .  Besides  tliesc  were  outlaws  from 
every  part,  including  doubtless  some  of  the 
original  (.'annanites  —  of  whom  the  name  of  (me 
at  le:ist  has  been  preserved,  Ahiiiielich  the 
Ilittite  In  the  vast  columnar  haiNauil  birched 
chamlH'rs  of  this  sublcrnuiean  pahix'.  nil  who 
had   any    grudge   against   the    exist  1114.'      ystem 

fathen'd  rouml  the  hero  of  the  con, 111       ie."— 
U'Mn  Stuidev,   iMCl't  on  tli*  IJiiit.    •!    '       Jtvitk 

ADULL AMITES,  The.  See  E.nol.v  xd:  A. 
D.  1805-1808, 


ADWALTON  MOOR. 

ADWALTON   MOOR,  Battle  of  (A.  D. 

«643)— This  wu  a  battle  fought  near  Bradford 
June  89,  1643,  in  the  great  Euglish  Civil  War" 
The  Parliamentary  forces,  under  Lord  Fairfax 
were  routed  by  the  Royalists,  under  Newcastle' 
— C.  K.  Markham,  Life  of  the  Great  Lord  Fair- 
jux,  eh.  11. 

iGAKIOS    (,««dd»).— The    supposed    de- 
scendants of  the  demi-god  ^akus,  whose  grand- 
son was  Ach'lles.    (See  Myrmidons.)    Miltiades 
tlio  hero  of  marathon,  and  Pyrrhus,  the  warrior 
Kinsf  of  Epirus,  were  amouL'  those  claiming  to 
belling  to  ;he  royal  race  of  -Eakids. 
iEOHILING.    See  Etbel. 
VOILES,  Roman.   See Rosre :  B.  C.  494-492 
iEDUI.-ARVERNI.-ALLOBROGES.- 
The  two  most  powerful  nations  in  Gallia  were 
the  ^dui  [or  Hsedul]  and  the  Arverui.   The  .iEdul 
occupied  that  part  which  lies  between  the  upper 
Talluy  of  the  Loire  and  the  Saone,  which  river  was 
part  of  the  boundary  between    them    and  the 
Sequani.    The  Loire  separaU'd  the  ^dui  from 
the  Bitunges,  whose  chief  town  was  Avaricum 
on  the  site  of  Bourges.     At  this  time  [B.  C  1811 
the  ArvemI,  the  rivals  of  the  .Edui,  were  seek- 
ing tlie  supremacy  in  Gallia.     The  Arvemi  occu- 
pied the  mounUinous  country  of  Auvergne  in 
tlie  centre  of  France  and  the  fertile  valley  of  the 
1,  aver  (Allier)  nearly  as  far  as  the  j  unction  of  the 
Allior  and  the  Loire.  .  .  .  They  were  on  friendly 
/TT>>     theAllobroges,  a  powerful  nation  east 
of  the  lUione,  who  occupied  the  country  between 
the  Kh.me  and  the  Isara  (Isfre).  .  .  .  fn  order  to 
break  the  for    idable  combination  of  the  Arvemi 
and  the  Allobroges,  the  Koiiuins  made  use  of  the 
A.(lui,  who  were  the  enemies  both  of  the  AIIo- 
brog.s  an<l  the  Arverni.  .  .  .  A  treaty  was  made 
eithcT  at  this  time  or  somewhat  earlier  between 
the  .-tilui  and  the  Roman  .s.-nate,  who  conferred 
on  tlici.  new  Gallic  friends  the  honourable  title  of 
brothers  and  kinsmen.     Tiiis  fraternizing  was  a 
piece  of  political  cant  which  the  liomans  prac- 
ticed when  it  was  useful.  "-0.  Long,  Deeliw  of 
tht  Ko'nan  JiepMtc.   ».   1,   eh.   21.— See,   also 

^G^   See  Edessa  (M.^cbdo.vu). 

<*•  C- IViv    ^  P^""^  ^^*«'  T"t-  First. 
nJT  •  I.f~"-  P"   -Egean,    or    White 

^  \- i^  distinguished  fr<m  the  Euxine." 
71^'  *•  *jeeman,  Hittorieal  Geog.  of  Europt,  r. 
413,  and  footnote.  t^'  i- 

iEGIALEA.-iEGIALEANS.-The  orig- 
inal name  of  the  northern  coast  of  Peloponnesus, 
and  its  inhabitants.    See  Greece:  The  Mioba- 

^GIKOREIS.    8eePiivL.«. 

onlc  gulf,  between  Attica  and  Argolls  First 
colonized  by  Ach«ans  it  wa.s  afterwa^s  icu- 
pu.Hl  by  Dorians  (seeOnEECK:  The  Mioratioks) 
and  was  unfriendly  to  Athens.  During  the 
sixth  centurv  B.  C.  It  rose  to  great  power  and 
c«Tnin..rcial  Importance,  and  became  for  a  time 

^ri.^'^'f'T^""'?.'  "="'"  »f  0'^<^k  art.  At  the 
period  of  the  Persian  war,  .Eclua  was  "tin 
Srst  maritime  power  In  'Grec^ce "  But  he 
AgineUns  were  at  tliat  timn  engaged  in  war 
with  Athena,  as  the  allies  of  Thebes,  and  rather 
than  f,;n.go  their  enmitv.  they  nir..rcd  submission 
«.n.:.V  ',"■»""''""»<■  fie  Athenians  thereupon 
appealjHl  to  Sparta  „  the  hea,l  of  Greece.'^  to 
Interfere,  and  the  ^glnetans  were  compeUed  to 


«.  4, 


JSOUANl 

rive  hostages  to  Athens  for  their  fidelity  to  the 
Hellenic  cause.  (See  Grmck:  B.  C.  498-491  ) 
They  purged  themselves  to  a  great  extent  of 
their  intended  treason  by  the  extraordinary  valor 
with  which  they  fought  at  Salamls.  But  the 
sudden  preeminence  to  which  Athens  rose  cast 
a  b  ighting  shadow  upon  ^glna,  and  in  429  B.  0 
it  lost  its  independence,  the  Athenians  takini 
possession  of  their  discomfited  rival.— C  Thirl, 
wall,  HiH.  of  Greece  e.  1,  eA.  14 
.Also  ui  G.  Grote,  Hi»t.  of  Greece,  pt.  3 
""•88. — See,  also,  Athens:  B.  C.  4S9-480' 
_  9- .458-456.— Alliance  with  Corinth  In 
war  with  Athens  and  Me»ra.— Defeat  and 
»nb|ugation.    See  Greece:  B.  C.  4.W-158 

B.  C.  431.— Expulsion  of  the  iEginetana 
from  their  island  by  the  Athenians?- Their 
!rS^"A?'"'  •*   Thyrea.    See   Greece:    B.  C. 

Ti?'«^\'"'"~°**°'»!'"»°  ^7  ">«  Romani.— 

The  first  appearance  of  the  llomans  in  Greece 
when  they  entered  the  country  as  the  allies  of 
the  Atolians,  was  signalized  bv  the  barbarous 
destruction  of  .Egina.  The  ci'ty  having  been 
taken,  B.  C.  810,  ite  entire  population  was  reduced 
to  slavery  by  the  Romans  and  the  land  and 
buildings  of  the  city  were  sold  to  Attalus,  king 
of  Perg»mus.— E.  A.  Freeman,  Uiet.  cf  Pedk-roL 


9 


^?ItF,7,^''JALENT.    See  Talent. 

iEGITIUM,  Battie  of  (B.  C.  436)  —  i.  re- 
verse experienced  bv  the  Athenian  General 
Demosthenes,  in  his  Invasion  of  ^tolia,  durinir 
the  Peloponnesian  War.— Thucydidcs,  /lislor^ 
ok.  8,  leet.  97.  ' 

^OSPOTAMI  (Aigoipotamoi),  Battle  ot 
See  Obeece:  B.  C.  405. 
•ALFRED.    .See  Alfred. 
.«LIA    CAPITOLINA.-The    new    name 

i  'd  130-134"^      ^^  ""'''  '"■  ^™  "'''"■*• 

JULIAN  AND  FUFIAN  LAWS.   The.- 

Thc^hanand  Fuflan  laws  (loses  yElia  and 
t  ufla)  the  age  of  which  unfortunatelv  we  can- 
not accurately  determine  .  .  .  enacted  that  a 
popular  assembly  [at  Rome]  might  be  dissolved 
or,  in  other  words,  the  acoept.-mce  of  any  pro^ 
posed  law  prevented,  if  a  ma.Kistrate  aunounced 
to  the  president  of  the  -"ssemblv  that  It  was  hU 
lutcntfon  to  choose  the  same  time  for  wuteliing 
the  heavens.  Such  an  announcement  (obnuntl- 
atio)  was  held  .0  be  a  sufficient  cause  for  i.iter- 
rupting  an  assembly.  "—W.  lline,  J/M.  of  llomt 
UK.  6,  eh.  10, 

r.f  f*'H5AN    WAY.    The.-".M.    .Emillu. 
Lepldus,  Consul  for  the  year  180  B.  C  con- 

structwl  the  great  road  which  bore  his' name. 
The  JImilian  W  ay  led  from  Arimiuuin  throuirh 
the  new  colony  of  Bononia  to  Placontia,  beinit  a 
continuation  of  the  Flamlnian  Wav,  or  great 
north  road,  made  by  C.  Flamiiiius  la  220  B  C 
from  Rome  to  Arimlnum.  At  tlie  same  epeich! 
!•  laminius  the  son,  being  the  colloagin!  of  Leoi! 
dus,  made  a  branch  road  from  Bououla  acroiis 
the  Appenines  to  Arretlum,"- 11.  G  LIddell 
Uist.  ^- a,,.:':  bk.  6.  eh.  il.  "uaeu, 

•Sn.'H  «5"J;  Roman  Emperor,  A.  D.  233. 

iEOLIANS,  The.-"  The  collective  stoik  of 
|.rwk  natoimhtics  fails,  according  1,,  the  view  of 
those  ancient  writers  who  labimri  I  ino^t  to 
obtain  an  exact  knowledge  of  ethnographic 
relationships,  kto  three  main  divisions,  .Eoliani 


^OLIANS. 


iETOLIAN  LEAGUE. 


Dorians  and  lonlans.  ...  All  the  other  inhabit- 
ants of  Greece  [nut  Dorians  and  lonians]  and  of 
the  islands  included  in  it,  are  compri6ed  under 
the  common  name  of  vEoIians — a  name  unknown 
as  .vet  to  Uonier,  and  wliicli  was  incontestubly 
applied  to  a  great  divcrsitj'  of  peoples,  aninri^ 
nliicii  it  is  certain  that  no  such  homogeneity  of 
race  is  to  hv  assumed  as  existed  among  the  loni- 
ans and  Dorians.  Among  tlie  two  former  races, 
though  even  these  were  scarcely  in  any  quarter 
completely  unmixed,  there  was  incontestably 
to  be  found  a  single  original  stock,  to  wliich 
others  had  merely  been  attached,  and  as  it  were 
engrafted,  whereas,  among  the  peoples  assigned 
to  the  /Eolians.  no  such  original  stock  is  recog- 
nizable, but  on  tlic  contrary,  as  great  a  differ- 
ence is  found  between  the  several  members 
of  this  race  as  between  Dorians  and  lonians, 
and  of  the  so-called  .Eolians,  some  stood  nearer 
to  the  former,  others  to  the  latter.  ...  A 
thorough  and  careful  investigation  might  well 
lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Greek  people 
was  divided  not  into  three,  but  into  two  main 
races,  one  of  which  we  may  call  Ionian,  the  other 
Dorian,  while  of  the  so-called  ..Eolians  some, 
and  probably  the  greater  number,  belonged  to 
the  former,  the  rest  to  the  latter. " — O.  F.  Schii- 
man,  Antiq.  of  Ctrctcc  :  The  State,  pt.  1,  c/t.  2. — 
In  Greek  myth.,  ..Eolus,  the  fancied  progenitor 
of  the  ^Eolians,  appears  as  one  of  the  three  sons 
of  Ilcllen.  ".Eolus  is  represented  as  having 
ri^igned  in  Thessaly:  his  seven  sons  were  Kre- 
theus,  Sisyphus,  Athamas,  Salmoneus,  Ucion, 
Magnes  anil  Pericres :  his  five  daughters,  Canacc, 
Alcyone,  Peisidike,  Calyce  and  Permedc.  The 
fables  of  this  race  seem  to  be  distinguished  by  a 
constant  introduction  of  the  God  Poseidon,  as 
well  as  by  i  'i  itnusual  prevalence  of  haughty  and 
presuuipt'unus  attributes  among  the  yEolid 
heroes,  leading  them  to  affront  the  gods  by  pre- 
tences of  equality,  and  sometimes  even  by  defl 
ancc." — G.  Grote,  Ilitt.  of  Orcece,  pt.  1,  eh.  0. 
— See,  also,  Tiiessaly,  Doriass  AJfD  Io^'IA^s, 
and  Asi.\  JIinor:  Tiie  Greek  Colonies. 

.£QUIANS,The.  SeeOsCASS;  alsoLATiUM; 
and  Home  ;  B.  C.  458. 

.£RARIANS.— Roman  citizens  who  had  no 
political  rights.    See  Censobb,  Uoman, 

^RARIUM,  The.    SceFiscus. 

.£SOPUS  INDIANS.  Sec  Amekic  a^:  Abo- 
RioixEs:  .\i.ii«NQriAN  Family. 

iESTII,  or  .«STYI,  The.—"  At  this  point 
[beyond  the  Suiones]  the  Suevic  Sea  [the  Baltic], 
on  its  eastern  shore,  washes  the  tribes  of  tlio 
.£stii,  whose  rites  and  fashions  and  styles  of 
dress  are  tliosc  of  the  Suevi,  while  their  language 
ia  more  lilco  the  British.  They  worship  the 
mother  of  the  gods  and  wear  as  a  religious  sym- 
bol the  device  of  a  wild  boar.  .  .  .  They  often 
use  clubs,  iron  weapons  but  seldom.  They  are 
more  patic  nt  In  cultivating  corn  and  other  pro- 
duce than  might  be  expected  from  the  genenil 
indolence  of  the  Germans.  But  they  also  searcli 
the  deep  and  are  the  only  people  who  gather 
ambiT,  uliicli  they  call  glesum.  '—"The  ^Eslli 
occupied  that  part  of  ftiissia  which  is  to  the 
nortli  east  of  tlie  Vistula.  .  .  .  The  name  still 
survives  in  the  form  Estonia." — Tacitus,  Ocr- 
mauii,  triiia.  by  Church  and  lirodrihb,  irith 
no^.— See,    also,    Prussiam    Lanqijaof.,    The 

0L1>. 

£SYMNET£,  An.— Among  the  Greeks, 
an  expedient  "which  seems  to  have  been  tried 


not  unfrequently  in  early  times,  for  preserving 
or  restoring  tranquility,  was  to  invest  an  indi- 
vidual witii  absoVitc  power,  under  a  peculiar 
title,  which  soou  became  obsolete:  that  of 
a's^mnctae.  At  Cuma,  Indeed,  and  in  other  cities, 
this  was  the  title  of  an  ordinary  magistracy,  prob- 
ably of  that  which  succeeded  the  hereditary  mon- 
archy; but  when  applied  to  an  exf  ordinary 
olTice,  it  was  equivalent  to  tlie  title  of  protector 
or  dictator."- C.  Thirlwall,  Jlut.  of  Oreeee,  eh. 
10. 

iCTHEL.— .CTHELING.  See  Ethel,  and 
Adcl. 

iETHELBERT,  iETHELFRITH,  ETC. 
See  ETiUiLiiicRT,  etc. 

iCTOLIA.— iCTOLIANS.- "^tolia,  the 
country  of  Dionied,  though  famous  in  the  early 
times,  fell  back  during  the  migratory  period 
almost  into  a  savage  condition,  probablv  through 
the  influx  into  it  of  an  Illyrian  population  which 
became  only  partially  Hellenized.  The  nation 
WHS  divided  Into  numerous  tribes,  among  which 
ti.  most  iinportant  were  the  Apodoti,  the  Ophl- 
oneis,  the  Eurytanes  and  the  Agnrana.  There 
were  scarcely  any  cities,  village  life  l>eing  pre- 
ferred universally.  ...  It  was  not  till  the  wars 
which  arose  among  Alexander's  successors  that 
the  .(Etolians  formed  a  real  political  union,  and 
became  an  important  power  in  Greece."— O, 
Rawlinson,  Manual  of  Ancient  Hint.,  bk.  3. — See 
also,  Akarn-amanb,  and  Greece:  The  Mioba- 

TI0N3. 

iCTOLIAN  LEAGUE,  The.—  "The  Acha- 
ian  and  the  ..Etolian  Leagues,  had  their  constitu- 
tions been  written  down  in  the  shape  of  a  formal 
document,  would  have  presented  but  few  vari- 
eties of  importance.  The  same  general  form  of 
government  prevailed  in  both ;  each  w  as  federal, 
each  was  deniocr.itic;  each  had  its  popular  as- 
sembly, its  smaller  Senate,  its  general  with  large 
powers  at  the  head  of  all.  The  differences  be- 
tv.cen  the  two  arc  meri'ly  those  dilleronces  of 
detail  which  will  alwavs  arise  between  any  two 
political  sy.stems  of  wliich  neither  is  slavidily 
copied  from  the  othei.  ...  If  therefore  federal 
states  or  democratic  stotes,  or  aristocratic  states, 
were  necessarily  weak  or  strong,  peaceful  or 
aggressive,  honest  or  dishonest,  we  should  sec 
Aeliaia  and  ..Etolia  both  exhibiting  the  same 
moral  characteristics.  But  history  tells  another 
tale.  The  political  conduct  of  the  Achaian 
Ix'ague,  with  some  mistakes  and  some  faults,  is, 
on  the  whole,  highly  houourable.  The  political 
conduct  of  the  ..Etolian  League  is,  throughout 
the  century  in  which  we  know  it  best  |last  half 
of  third  and  first  li.alf  of  s<}Cond  century  B.  C.j 
almost  always  simply  infamous.  .  .  .  The  coun- 
sels of  the  /Etolian  League  were  thrmigliout  di- 
rected to  mere  plunder,  or,  at  most,  to  selfish 
political  aggrandisement. "— E.  A.  Freeman,  Jlitt. 
of  /lJ»rai  Gort.,  eh.  6. — The  plundering  aggres- 
sions of  the  ..Etolians  involved  them  in  continual 
war  with  their  Gre'ck  kindred  and  neighbours, 
and  they  did  not  sirniple  to  seek  fon'ign  aid.  It 
was  through  their  ajrcney  that  the  Homiins  were 
first  brought  into  Greece,  and  it  was  by  their 
instruimnt4ility  that  Antiochus  fought  his  battle 
with  Home  on  the  sneredest  of  all  lldleRic  Koil. 
In  the  end,  B.  C.  lHi»,  the  League  was  strijiped 
by  the  Romans  of  even  its  nominal  inile|)en(lencc 
and  sank  into  a  eonleniptllile  servitude.  —  E.  A. 
Freeman,  The  nimr,  ch.  7-0. 

Also  in  C.  Thiriwall,  Jlut.  of  Greece,  ch.  03-60. 


10 


AFOIUNISTAN.  B.  C.  880. 


l^^FP^^F^J^^'-  °-  C-   330.-Coaqne.t 

8..a-323;  and  I.ndia:  B.  C.  327-313 

B.  C.  301-346.— In  the  Syrian  Empire.     Sep 
MjLEUciD^;  and  Macedonia,  &c.:  310-Soi  atid 

A.  D.  99>-tl83.-Tlie  Ghaznevide  Empire. 
ifr-Par^'  000-1183;  and  I.ndia:  Z  D. 

Ki^n°'  yth  Centurjr.-Conquests  of  Jinghis- 
s™  T  °o.i^*^'3'"'-*='""""*    "'  Timour. 

Sc.fi.°D.ArT'i^''c-^f.??5""' '''''"'''' ^''"'• 

•  nu  Pii.''^'."'l*i-;'^''«  Empire  of  the  Door- 

?i?i!:  ^SfS**   *'>''•""— Hi5   Conquests   in 

India.    See  India.  A.  i>,  ITIT-ITCI. 

Mf's^       *803-i838  -Shah  Soojah  and  Dost 

Mahomed.-6ngli,hintcrf2rence.-'vSl,al"?" 

^x I,         Qh'?"''  •"    e™"''"""  of    the  illustrious 

,,  I  ?  .■  ■."'?  y^i'."'  •""'  ''"■''  full  of  trouble 
h^vorJ^"^'^^  ncLa,llH.,n  a  wanderer  on 
I  e  ^ergc  of  starvation,  a  pedlar,  and  a  l.a„. 
1  .  who  raised  n.o,„.j.  by  plun.l.T  nR  earav  s 
IH  courage  was  lightly  reputed,  and  \t  was 
,   Tu    T'"""*    "f  cireuiastaiice   tl,at   he 

mid  in  180«  he  was  a   f.ijriavc   and    an   e\ile 
Kuujeet  Singh,  the  Sikh  ruler  of  t  Ic    'uiii-  ilV 

'Tlw'.^  '"•"  "'  ""?  '""""»  IvoI,-i-n,«r?  !  ie  ; 
fa  now  he  most  nreeious  of  the  crown  jo  v,  1»  of 
England,  and  pluudered  ami  l:„pnsine,l  the' 
f.illen  man.  Sliah  Soejah  at  len'nh  escai  1 
from  Lahore.  After  further  nii^fortune^'h 
ut  length  reached  the  British  frontier  sta  ion  ,f 

^  ,  .tl?'  ',"?'*  f '"■'P'"'y-  After  the  .lowiif  "1  of 
^  ah  hoojah,  Afghanistan  for  manv  years  w,  a 
prey  to  anarchy.     At  length  iu  isL'O    D<rst  Jh 

<  al.ul,  and  this  masterful  man  thenceforwar  I 
held  sway  until  his  death  In  1H03,  unimerrut,t 
e<lly  save  during  the  three  years  of  tl  e  IJri  k h' 
kin",'o'\h"".-  ^'  M'»'"'>ne</wasneitlie  kUh  n  ^ 
Uu  to  the  legitimatedynastv  whi<;l,  hc.'.isplaec 
lli.s  father  Poyndah  Khau  was  au al  I^Jl  S^^^^ 
".Id  gallant  soldier,  lie  left  twen"v.onc  ^n"  of 
whom  Kutteh  Khan  was  the  eldest?  and  IVost 
Mahomed  oiieof  the vwiingest.  .  .  .  ThrouX  ' 
his  long  reign  Dost  .\lah.m.e<l  was  a  s  rong  ana 

•iis.'.iiute.  Ills  eilucat  on  was  de'ertivs  nn.i  i.„ 
h.Hl  lK.en  addicte.!  to  wine.  \CoXd  o^t I'e 
tlu-oiie  the  reforiimtion  of  our  llenrv  V  was  .mf 
more  thorough  than  was  that  of  DoTt  Malomed 

«u        al^"^™"^  scrupulously  abstemious,  ass  du" 

T^priV" '""§''■■  "■""''™t,  but  courteous. 

■  .  .   ihere  was  a  fine  ruggei:  honi>sii-  In  ut, 

'^^ZLna±\'^"^}  "'■  KSine  cld;l^rv:\    ' 

lad  hi.  ^^.^  ^  "■*''   "S*"^  f"''  «'«  English 
»mt  1  IS  loyally  to  us  was  broken  onlv  \,v  iL 


AFGHANISTAN,  1803-1888. 


11 


\Zr^},' '" L*^'"."'''    '^•M continually intrigu. 
g  for  his  restoratio:       His  schemes  were  long 
»'I.emtive.„„ditwa.,„ot  until  im  that  ce* 
.|m   arran-ements  were  entered  into  between 
hun  and  the  Jiahamja  Hunjeet  S  iigh      To  an 
application  on  .s;,aU-'.s.K,j.,|/g  part  for  count'" 
uaiiee  and  pecuniary  aid,  the  Anf:Io-Indian  Gov- 
vSt'?"".  )'-h  ".','"^""1  l..-.n  assistance 
i'v     InvT,  ;'™'';"*""'  ^i'l'  the  poli.y  of  neutral- 
bMt  w         t;.o  Government  Imd  iinpo..<.d  on  itself- 
s  imh'rnr'^  contributed  linai'eially  t.iward 
ptnsion  in  advance.     KLvteen  thousand  runecs 
formed  a  scant  war  fund  with  whi.h    o  attempt 
he  recovery  of  a  throne,  but  the  f^hal  star  teloa 
his  errand  in  February,  IKi).     After  a  success" 
fulcontest  with  the  A.neers,,f.Seinde'hem  relied 
m  Candahar.  an.l  besieged  that  fortress,  ('.mda- 
har    was  in  cvtrcmity   when    I),.st  .Mahomed 
lurrying  from  Cabul.    relieved  it,  am      oining 
forces  with  Its  defenders  he  defeated  and  rou  ef 
H.ahS,K,jah,  who  fled  preeipitatelv,  I.  avintr  be 
hind  him  his  artillery  an,l  camp  cj,  ipa^e  ^)  r- 
mg    he  post's  absence   in  the  so  ,tl.,  ^iu,  J  Jt 
bi.ighs  troops  crossed  the  Attoc^k,  oeeu  .'d^the 
Afghan  province  of  Peshawur.   and  drove    ho 
Afghans  into  the  Ivhyber  Pas.s.     Xo  sul,se,,uent 

Jt^'filkU^r'  ''»''{l«'r'''  ""'  availed  ,of."pe 
he  bikhs  from  Peshawur,  and    susiueious  of 

fu  aggression    ho   took  into  c.insi  leratioi,  the 

wi  h'-Pei  -  r'"\ '"f  ^''"r^^^y  «  ™">'ter  alii., iieo 
^^lt  1  1  e  sia.  As  lor  Shah  Soojah,  he  liid  i rent 
back  to  I,  s  refuge  at  L«„lianal .  Lord  .V  ,el  1  ,^d 
Mieceeded  Lord  William  IJentinck  as  Governor 
p."'''™'";  I"'li'  in  March,  18;!li.  In  re-^l"  to 
Dost  Jlahomeds  letter  of  eonu'ratulaii,m  his 
ordship  wrote:    'You  arc  awarc^  tha  ,'  no? 

ferewth  heallairsof  other  in.lepend.nt  ^Stat• 
v?,Me  '"Vl"  V'k''  ^-""^  AueuLnd  was  ««,.•„ 
uflf-  i"*-'  ^■"'  ^'-'i-'fe'l'tfrom  Lnu-land  tlie  feel 

.ig  of  disquietude  in  regard  to  the  desi -ns  of 
I'ersia  and  Hussia  which  the  conimuuieat  „  's  of 
our  envoy  in  Persia  had  fostered  in  tl  e  ilonio 
Governnu.nt,  but  it  would  app,.ar  that  he  was 
^diolly  umlecided  what  line  of  action  to  pursue 
•bway«l,'  saysDurand,  •  by  the  va:r,e  m.rt 
hensions  of  a  remote  danger  cnterta  ned '  by 
others  rather  than  himself  he  desp:itehed  to 
Afu'hanist,an  Captain  Curnes  on  a  noi  nallv 
eo:nmereial  mission,  which,  hi  f.at  wis  one  o^ 
p,.litical  discovery,  Imt  without  .le.'h.r.e  hi'^^ruJ 
tions.  Burnes,  an  able  but  rash  and  ambi  ious 
man  reached  Cabul  in  SeptemlKT,  lT'7  two 
months  before  the  Pe^ian  a'rmy  began  ti,;-  M^ge 
?.  I.  •,-,•.  ^''«  I'""*'  ">ade  no  e(,neealm<^t 

to  liiirues  of  his  approaches  to  P.rsia     ,1  1  us 

hu;i.r?fo?r.i^."""H'  e<«^oi;iec,s,  and  bc^g 
11  ingry  for  assistance  from  any  source  to  meet 
the  encroachmeuts  of  the  Sikl.s,  he  pr  fS 
hmself  ready  to  abandon  his  nel-otiat  .,1  s\tith 
the  western  powers  if  he  we.e  given  re  In  M 
expect  counten.fuee  and  a.ssislanee  u   tlu-  hfmU 

of  the  Anglo-Indian  Government The  si  „ 

ent'lv  cL""!-"?  '"r'""""  to  the  Dos  w  .s  ,  el 
tntly  complicated  by  the  arrival  at  Cabul  of  t 
Uussian  olflcer  claimim:  to  be  an  envoy  ,„,|,^ 
Czar,  wh.«e.cre.  entials.  however,  wer-.  re."  n  i.l 

Mm.  lei  ".T-.  T:^  "''"•  "  """  cireuru..,, ,;.;  1  a, 
I  1.  least  w,dght,  was  on  his  return  lo  Hussa  it! 
D^{  ,";'PudiHled  by  Count  Nes.seli,«  e  The 
Dost  took  small  account  of  this  e.iiissarir,  con! 


■  ^^ 


i   1! 


AFGHANISTAN,  1803-1888. 

tlnulng  to  auura  Burnea  that  he  carcU  for  no 
connection  except  with  tbe  English,  and  Burncg 
professed  to  his  Oovemmeat  his  fullest  con 
tidence  in  the  sincerity  of  those  dcclamttoos. 
But  the  tone  of  Lord  Auckland's  reply,  addreised 
to  the  Dost,  was  so  dictatorial  and  supercilious 
as  to  indicate  the  writer's  intention  that  it  should 
give  offence.  It  had  that  effect,  and  Bumcs' 
mission  at  once  became  hopeless.  .  .  .  The  Hus- 
sinn  envoy,  who  was  profuse  in  his  promises  of 
everything  which  the  Dost  was  most  anxious  to 
obtam,  was  received  into  favour  and  treated  with 
distinction,  and  on  his  rr.,um  journey  he  clfected 
a  treaty  with  the  O  daliar  chiefs  wliich  was 
presently  ratified  by  e  liussian  minister  at  the 
Persian  Court.  Bumes,  fallen  into  discredit  nt 
Cabul.  quitted  that  place  iu  August  1838.  lie 
liad  ni)t  been  discreet,  but  it  was  not  his  indis- 
cretion that  brought  aboi  t  the  failure  of  his 
mission.  A  nefarious  transaction,  which  Kaye 
denounces  with  tlie  jmssion  of  a  just  indignation, 
connects  itself  with  Bumes'  negotiations  '•  Hli 
the  Dost ;  Ids  ofticial  correspondence  was  ui.jcru- 
nulously  mutilated  and  garbled  in  the  published 
Blue  Book  with  deliberate  purpose  to  deceive 
the  British  public.  Bumes  had  failed  because, 
since  lie  had  quitte<l  India  for  Cabul,  Lord 
Auckland's  policy  hail  gradually  altered.  Lord 
Auckland  had  landed  in  India  in  the  character 
oi  a  .nan  of  peace.  That,  so  la>,  as  April  1S37, 
he  !ia !  no  design  of  obstructing  the  existing 
situation  in  Afghanistan  is  proved  by  his  writ- 
ten stateuunt  of  that  date,  that  'tlie  British 
Governrient  had  resolved  decidedly  to  discourage 
the  prosecution  by  the  ex-king  Sliah  Soojah-ool- 
Jloolk,  so  long  as" he  may  nniain  under  our  pro- 
tection, of  further  schemes  of  hostility  against 
the  chiefs  now  in  power  in  Cabid  and  Candaliar.' 
■y.'t,  in  tlie  following  June,  heconcluded  a  treaty 
which  sent  Shall  Soojah  to  Cabul,  escorU-d  by 
Briti!<li  liayoc'ts.  Of  this  inconsistency  no  ex- 
planation prefi'iits  itself.  It  was  a  far  cry  from 
our  frontier  !jn  the  Sutlei  to  Herat  in  the  con- 
fines of  Cei'trai  Asia — a  distance  of  more  than 
1,200  mile  ,  over  some  of  tlie  most  arduous 
marching  ground  in  the  known  world.  .  .  . 
Lord  William  Bentinck,  I.onl  Auckland's  prede- 
cessor, denounced  the  project  as  iiii  act  of  in- 
credible folly.  Marquis  Wellcsli  regardeil 
'this  wild  expedition  into  a  dista.  region  of 
rocks  and  disirts.  of  sands  and  ice  and  snow,"  ns 
an  Oct  of  infatuation.  Tlie  Duke  of  Wellington 
pronimiK.  .1  witli  prophetic  sagacity,  that  tlie 
consequeM  1  iif  iince  cn>s.Mng  the  Indus  to  sctile 
a  govemiii.  nt  in  Afghanistan  would  be  a  peren- 
nial march  into  that  country." — A.  Forbes,  T/ic 
Afghan  U'lim,  ch.  1. 

Also  in:  J.  I'.  Ferrier,  Ilift.  of  tht  Afljtiant, 
eh.  10-20.— Mohan  ImX,  Life  of  Amir  Dott  Mo- 
hammed Khou,  T.  1. 

A.  D.  1838-1843.  —  English  invasion,  knd 
reitoration  of  Soojah  Dowlah.— The  revolt  at 
Cabul.  —  Horrors  of  tbe  British  retreat. — 
Destruction  of  the  entire  army,  save  one  man, 
only.— Sale's  defence  of  Jellalabad.— "To  ap- 
proach Afghanistan  it  was  necessary  to  secure 
the  friendship  of  the  Sikhs,  who  were, -indeed, 
r  !idy  enough  to  join  against  their  old  enemies; 
nnd  a  threefnhl  treaty  wag  contracted  between 
liunjeet  Singh,  tlie  English,  and  Shah  Stxnah 
f.->r  the  rrstnnitiiin  of  the  hanisluHl  hnuso.  The 
expedition  —  which  according  to  the  original 
intention  was  to  have  been  carried  out  chiefly 


AFGHANISTAN.  1838-1843. 


of    Shah 


In    the   pay 
the    SlUu— rapldlv    grew   into 


by   mcani    of    troops 
Soojah   and 

an  English  invasion  of  Afglianrstan.  A 
conslderible  force  was  gathered  on  the  Sikb 
frontier  from  Bengal;  a  second  army,  under 
General  Keane,  was  to  come  up  from  Kurrachee 
through  Sindh.  Both  of  these  armies,  and  the 
troops  of  Shah  Soojah,  were  to  enter  the  high- 
lands of  Afghanistan  by  the  Bolan  Pass.  As 
the  Sildis  would  not  willingly  allow  the  free 
passage  of  our  troops  through  their  country,  an 
additional  burden  was  laid  upon  the  armies, — 
the  independent  Ameers  of  Sindh  had  to  be 
coerced.  At  length,  with  mucli  trouble  from 
the  difficulties  of  the  country  and  the  loss  of  the 
commissariat  animals,  the  forces  were  all  col- 
lected under  the  command  of  Keane  beyond  the 
passes.  Tlie  want  of  food  permiti..>d  of  no  delay ; 
the  army  pushed  on  to  Candahar.  Shah  Soojah 
was  declared  Monarch  of  the  southern  Princi- 
pality. Thence  the  troops  moved  rapidiv  on- 
wards towards  the  more  important  and  ditlicult 
conquest  of  Cabul.  Ghuznee,  a  fortress  of 
great  strength,  lay  in  the  wav.  In  their  hasty 
movements  the  English  had  left  their  battering 
train  behind,  but  the  gates  of  the  fortress  were 
blown  in  witli  gunpowder,  and  by  a  brilliant 
feat  of  arms  the  iortress  was  stormed.  Nor  did 
the  English  army  encounter  any  important 
resistance  subsequently.  Dost  Mohamed  found 
his  followers  deserting  him,  and  withdrew  north- 
wanls  into  the  mountains  of  the  Ilindcx)  Koosh. 
With  all  the  splendour  that  could  be  collected. 
Shall  Soojah  was  brought  back  to  his  throne  in 
the  Bnla  Ilissar,  the  fortress  Palace  of  Cabul. 
.  .  .  For  the  moment  the  policy  sesnied  thor- 
oughly successful.  The  English  Ministry  could 
feel  that  a  fresh  check  had  been  placed  upon  its 
liussian  rival,  and  no  one  dreamt  of  the  terrible 
retribution  that  was  in  store  for  the  unjust  vio 
lencc  done  to  the  feelings  of  a  people.  .  .  . 
Dost  Moliamcd  thought  it  prudent  to  surrender 
himself  to  the  English  envoy.  Sir  William  Mac- 
nagliten,  and  ,0  withdraw  with  his  family  to  the 
English  pnivinces  of  Hiudostan  [Novemlier, 
1840J.  lie  was  there  well  received  and  treated 
with  liberality;  t  r,  as  both  the  Governor 
General  and  his  chief  adviser  Macnaghten  felt,  he 
had  not  in  fact  in  any  way  offended  us,  but  had 
fallen  a  victim  to  our  policy.  It  -.vas  in  tlie  full 
belief  that  their  policy  in  India  had  liecn  crowned 
with  permanent  success  that  the  Whig  Ministers 
withdrew  from  office,  leaving  their  successors 
to  encounter  the  terrible  results  to  which  it  led. 
For  w  hilc  the  English  officials  were  blindly  con- 
gratulating themselves  upon  the  happy  comple- 
tion of  tiieir  enterprise,  to  an  observant  eye 
signs  of  aiipniaching  difficulty  were  on  all  sides 
visible.  .  .  .  The  removal  of"  the  strong  rule  of 
the  Barrukzyes  opened  a  door  for  undefined 
hopes  to  many  of  th-3  other  families  and  tribes. 
Tlie  whole  country  was  full  of  intrigues  and  of 
diplomatic  bargaining,  carried  on  by  the  Eni- 
lish  political  agents  with  the  various  chiefs 
ami  leaders.  But  they  soon  found  that  the 
hopes  excitc<l  by  these  negotiations  were  illu- 
sory. The  allowances  for  which  they  had  bar- 
gained were  reduced,  for  tlie  English  envoy 
U'gan  to  be  disquieted  at  the  vast  expenses  of 
tlie  Government.  They  did  not  find  that  they 
dirived  any  advantaces  from  the  establishment 
of  the  new'  puppet  King,  Soojah  Dowlah;  and 
every  Mahomedau,  even  tbe  very  king  himself, 


12 


If 


AFGHANISTAN,  1888-1849L 

(bit  dlimced  at  the  predotnHsnce  of  the  Eng- 
U«h  Inddeli.     But   u   no   actual   iniurrection 
broke  out,   Macoaghtcn,    •   man   ot   ■anguioe 
temperament  and  anxioua  to  believe  TPhat  he 
wUhed,  In  iplte  of  unmlatakable  war  Ingg  ai  to 
the  real  feeUng  of  the    people,    clung   with 
•Imott  angry  Tebemcnce  to  the  persuasion  that  all 
was  going  weh,  -ad  that  tLe  new  King  had  a  real 
hold  upon  the  people's  affection.    Ho  completely- 
bad  he  deceived  himself  on  this  point,  that  he 
had  decided  to  send  back  a  portion  of  the  Eng- 
lish army,  under  General  Sale,  Into  HlndosUn 
He  even  Intended  to  accompany  it  himself  to 
enjoy  the  peaceful  post  of  Governor  of  Bombay 
with    which   his   successful    policy   had    been 
rewarded.    His  pluce  was  to  bo  taken  by  Sir 
Alexander  Burnes,  whose  view  of  the  troubled 
condition  of  the  country  underlying  the  com- 
parative calm  of  the  surface  was  much  truer 
than  that  of  Macnaghten,   but   who,   perhaps 
from  that  very  fact,  was  far  less  popular  among 
the  chiefs.    The  army  which  was  to  remain  at 
Candahar  was  under  the  command  of  General 
Nott,  an  able  and  decided  if  somewhat  Irascible 
inan      But  Oeneml  Elphinstone,  the  commander 
of  the  troops  at  Cabul,  was  of  quite  a  different 
stamp.    He  was  much  respecte<l  and  liked  for 
bis  honoun-ble  character  and  social  qualities 
but  was  advanced  in  years,  a  contirined  invalid! 
"1.  r.?"y  wanting  in  tlio  vigour  and  decision 
which  his  critical  position  was  likclv  to  reciuire 
The  fools  paradise   with    which  the   Enclisli 
Envoy   had   surrounded   himself   was    rudelv 
destroyed.    He  had  persuaded  himself  that  the 
fr(i:cntly  recurring  disturbances,  and  especially 
t  le  las  jrrection  of  the  GbfL/cs  between  Cabul 
and  Jcllalabad,  :rere  mere  local  outbreaks.    But 
;i  '"k.  ^  ^V"-      .--^P'racy  was  on  foot  in  which 
the  -Hefs  of  nearly  every  important  tribe  In  the 
COL'      7  were  implicated.    On  the  evening  of 
the   .  ,  of  November  [1841]  a  meeting  of  the 
chie.     was  held,  and  h  was  decided  that  an 
Immeumte  attack  should  be  made  on  the  house 
of  Sir  Alexander  Burnes.    The  following  morn- 
ing an  angry  crowd  of  assailants  stormed  the 
houses  of  bir  Alexander  Burnes  and  Captain 
Johnson,  munlcnng  the  Inmates,  and  rifline  tho 
treasure-chests  belonging  to  Soojah   Do^lh's 

r'^L  ^1?  ""'•  >"''"'*.  "^"y  '""  '°  '■"d  iosur- 
I  u  ?i^  A--  «'''<l'"i'*  Is  nearly  Irresistible  that 
Li  ,  .K  ""•^?  """^  raj.;  lity  of  action  on  the 
part  of  the  iniiitary  would  have  at  once  crushed 
n;?m«"'^'*''''■  ^"\  although  the  attack  on 
Burnes  s  hou.se  was  known,  no  troops  were  sent 
to  his  assistance.  Indeed,  that  unbroken  coursa 
or  folly  and  nusmanagement  which  marked  tlie 
conduct  of  our  military  affairs  througnout  this 
"'f ',  ^«d  aIroa,lv  begun.    Instead  of  Occupying 

would    hf/^'^'  ^1'»  "'*^'-  '^''^'^  'he  annf 
would    have    been    in    comparative    securitv 
Elphinstone   hm     ti1n,-n,i   »,i.' . -     =<->.ui uj , 


AFGHANISTAN,  188»-18a 


Elphinstone  had    placed  his  tr™  3  In^c'aS'      IZ^^^'f .?  """«    unresisting    prey    to    tS 
mentsfartooex.cilsivetobrproZlvdeW^''      n^nf '.,°i  i"„^  r""'^'"^":    CpP^t^nt   com 


•«»,,,*»/     -     I--1-V1  atia  iMnjjM  in  cantor. 

mcnts  far  tw  exirnsivc  to  be  properly  defended 
.urrounded  by  an  entrenchilient  of  the  S 
tosigmflcant  chamcter.  commanded   on     Imo 

Snfltne«  .^f  If '"•'"'  ^'?'!'"*-  To  complete  the 
«fnnH„f  '^"-"    P"'"'^".    the   commissariat 

ITn^l  IT""  "'", "tort'd  witliiu  the  canton- 
^Z\,T,^T  '''"T''  '°  «"  ''°'»tcd  fort  at 
^Iu^J'^^'a""-  *■"  •''"'"tained  and  futile 
Msault  was  made  upon  tlie  town  on  the  ."M  of 

Bri«T^  *"!'  ''■"■"  "'at  time  onwarfs  the 
S^  awSlSKt'l!;  ^'";  '"^'""P'«'h"«lble  supine' 
neis  awaiting  their  fate   in    their   defenceless 

13 


podUon.  The  commlmriat  fort  soon  feU  iota 
the  hands  of  the  enemy  and  rendered  their  situ- 
atlon  still  more  deplorable.  Borne  Sashes  of 
bravery  now  and  then  lighted  up  the  sombw! 
jcene  of  helpless  misfortune,  and  served  to  show 
that  destruction   might   even   yet   have   been 

^I'^^'k^^ ",""',«  S™""*-  •  •  •  But  the  ^ 
mander  had  already  begun  to  despair,  and  before 
many  days  had  passed  he  was  thinking  of  mak- 
ing terms  with  the  enemy.    Macnaghtcn  had  no 
course  open  to  him  under  such  circumstances 
but  to  adopt  the  suggestion  of  the  general,  and 
atteinpt  as  well  as  he  could  by  bribes,  caiolerv 
and  Intrigue,  to  divide  the  chiefs  and  secure  » 
^n''„J'n"'\^''l""'  f-^J'^h.    Akbar  Khan,  the 
son  of  Dost  Mohamed,  though  not  present  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Insurrection,  had  arrived  from 
tne  northern  mountains,  and  at  onco  a.sserted  a 
fv'^i??!"*'"  Influence  in  the  ii.^urgent  councils. 
V,  Ith  h;m  and  with  the  other  Insurgent  chi  fa 
Maciiashten  entered  Into  an  arrrangemcnt  or 
wh  c!i  ho  promised  to  withdraw  tiie  EngluL 
entirely  from  the  country  If  a  safe  passage  wci» 
secured  for  the  army  through  the  passes. 
While  ostensibly  treating  with  the  PirrukzVe 
ti  1  ■  he  .'"'■•'gued  on  all  sides  with  the  rival 
^f  ?1  1 1,1°  il"'''*  ^f?""S  was  taken  advantage 
of  by  Akbar  Khaa     He  sent  messengers  to  Mac- 
naglitcn  proposing  that  the  English  should  make 
a  separate  treaty  with  himself  and  support  him 
vl'..li  'heir  troops  in  an  assault  upon  some  of  his 
mals.    The  proposition  was  a  mere  trap,  and 
L.,  r""?^  fell  Into  it.    Ordering  troops  to  be 
got  readv,  he  burned  to  a  meeting  with  Akbar 
Mm.!!.?/,    f^"""  arrangement.     There  he  found 
himself  in  the  presence  of  the  brot:.er  and  rela- 
tives of  the  very  men  against  whom  he  was 
plotting,  and    was   seized   and    murdered    bv 
Akbar  8  own  hand  [December  231.      Still  thi 
General  thought  of  nothing  but  surrend  r     The 
negotiations  were  entrusted  to  Jlalor  Pottineer 
iT^Lk'^^^"'  "■!  '='''<'''  gradually  rose,  an.Tat 
length  with  much  confusion  the  wretched  armr 
marched  out  of  the  cantonmenU  [Januair  i. 
l^IL"""^''^^^^"^  nearly  all  the  cannon  and 
superfluous  military  stores.    An  Afghan  escort 
to  secure  the  safety  of  the  troops  on  their  peS- 
ous  journey  had  been  promised,  but  the  prunise 

l^nT^^T^^^"  '"'"»"'  °"he  retreat  fo™ 
one  of  the  darkest  paasages  in  English  military 
historv.  In  bitter  cold  and  snow,  which  took 
111"  ?1l:°'  *'•<'  wretched  Sepoys,  without 
proper  clothing  or  shelter,  and  hampered  by  » 
disorderly  mass  of  thousands  of  camp-followers 
the  army  entered  the  terrible  defiles  which  lie 
Khr  ?  ^r,"",'  ""dJellalabad.  Whether  Akba? 
khan  could  had  he  wish,  ,1  it,  have  reatrained 
lis  fanatical  followers  is  un-rtaiu.  As  a  iact 
the  retiring  crowd-It  can  scarcely  be  called  an 
army— was  a  mere  unresisting  prey  to  the 
assail  ta  r,t  tl.o   .........t.i "r-r    y    .       ""' 


n,.,„i„».i  ■■■"""■-.-i.ucfra.     i^onsiant   com- 

munication was  kept  up  with  Akbar;   on  the 
third  day  all  thb  ladles  and  children  With  the 

S'.H.'Ji^''^  ""'^K  ^""^  P''«=«'^  '"  his   hands,   and 
flna  ly  even  the  two  generals  gave  themselves  up 

^.,^  .f  .f '•  '■'^"''f  L"  'he  hope  that  the  rem- 
?   p  p  <  L"?/  "''ght  be  aliowe.1  to  escape."- 

Then  the  march  of  'he  armv,  without  a  Gen- 
eral, went  on  Hgain.  Soon  it  'became  the  story 
ThnJ^''™'.!!"''""'  »n,«nny;  before  very  long 
lengthen  a  tale  of  mere  horrors.     The  strajr 


AFGHANISTAN,  1838-1848. 


AFGHANISTAN,  1842-1869. 


sling  remnant  of  an  army  entered  the  Jugdulluk 
Puss — a  dark,  steep,  narrow,  ascending  path 
between  cra;;j.  The  miserable  toilers  found 
that  the  fanatical,  implacable  tribes  had  barri- 
caded the  pass.  All  was  over.  The  army  of 
Cabul  was  tinally  extinguished  in  that  barri- 
caded pass.  It  was  a  trap;  the  British  were 
taken  in  it.  A  few  mere  fugitives  escaped  from 
the  seine  of  actual  slaughter,  and  were  on  the 
road  to  Ji'llalabad,  where  Sale  and  his  little 
army  wi-re  holding  their  own.  When  ihey  were 
within  sixteen  miles  of  Jcllalabad  the  number 
was  reduced  to  six.  Of  these  six  five  were 
killed  by  straggling  marauders  on  the  way. 
One  man  alone  reached  Jellalabad  to  tell  the 
tale.  Literally  one  man,  Dr.  lirydon,  came  to 
Jella!al>a>l  [.lanuary  13]  out  of  a  moving  host 
whicn  had  nundiered  in  all  some  16,000  when  it 
set  out  ou  its  march.  The  curious  eye  will 
search  through  history  or  fiction  in  vain  for 
any  pl.ture  more  thrilling  with  the  suggestions 
of  an  a«f  111  catastrophe  than  that  of  this  solitary 
survivi,,-,  faint  and  reeling  on  his  Jailed  horse, 
as  he  appeared  under  the  walls  of  Jellalabad,  to 
bear  the  tidings  of  our  Thermopylae  of  pain  and 
shame.  This  is  the  crisis  of  tlio  story.  AVith 
this  at  li.'tst  the  worst  of  the  pain  and  ahamo 
were  deslinid  to  end.  The  rest  is  all,  so  far 
as  we  are  concerned,  reaction  and  recovery. 
Our  siiccisii'S  are  conmion  enough;  we  may  tell 
their  t:ilc'  liritlly  in  tliis  instance.  The  garrison  at 
J  llilaliiid  ha. I  reieivi'd  licfore  Pr.  Itrydon's  ar- 
rivid  101  iiilini  itinii  tliat  they  were  to  go  out  and 
march  lo«,ird  India  in  accordance  with  the  terms 
'.if  llielri  aty  cx.i  rtiil  from  KlphiustoticatC'abwI. 
Tliey  VI  rv  prop-riy  di-clined  to  lie  bound  by  a 
inMtv  wiiiili,  as  (ienir.'d  Hale  rightly  conjee- 
lurid,  h.'id  I'lcn  'foriid  from  our  envoy  and 
'nililiry  I'liniiriii  li  r  with  tlie  knives  at  tin  ir 
iliri'.'it'i.'  (JinerLl  i-iiilc'sdc'crmination  was  clear 
and  !-imp!e.  '  i  pr  ipose  to  lioltl  this  place  on 
the  part  lit  (lovernmint  until  I  receive  its  order 
to  the  cnntmry.'  Tiiis  resolve  of  Sale's  was 
really  the  tuniinir  point  of  the  history.  Halo 
held  Jellalal'id;  Nott  was  at  Candahar.  Akbar 
Khan  lusiriied  .Jellula'ud.  Nature  seemed  to 
ha\o  diilan  d  herself  eniplialically  on  lils  side, 
for  a  piiciesslon  iif  eiirlhu'iike  shocks  sliatlered 
the  wills  of  the  r'ace,  and  priHlucil  more 
lerrllile  destruiiicMi  .han  die  most  forM.ldalle 
guns  of  iiicHiim  wiirfaro  ciMild  have  dune,  lint 
the  r irri-ou  In  11  mit  fiarlcssly ;  they  restored 
the  jiaraiiets,  recstalilishid  cMry  battery,  re- 
trcn'hid  the  whule  of  the  g:ites  alid  built  tip  all 
the  lireachi's.  'i'hry  risi^lid  cmtv  attempt  of 
Akiiar  Klnn  to  ailvame  upMii  their  works,  and 
at  IiiD.'lli,  wh.n  it  bee  ime  (I  riain  Hint  (ieneral 
I'oljni  k  w;is  fiinliiir  tin'  lihvlier  I'uss  to  come 
to  Ihiir  rrlirf.  till  V  ih  tiTiiiinid  to  attack  Akbar 
Khan's  joniv;  tiny  imiird  Imldiv  out  of  their 
forts,  f.ir.  .-d  n  b-iMle  on  the  Afiihan  eliiif,  an.l 
coni|i|ili>ly  dif<rii..|  him.  JM..re  I'Mllock,  hav- 
ing f'dl.iiillv  fii.ii'ht  his  wav  thrinigh  the 
Kli>l"r  I'a'.s  lind  n  acliid  .IilhiUbacl  (April  1«] 
the  iKli-aaui  ring  army  hiid  ben  entirely  ilef^atrd 
ami  ilispi  r-i  I.  ,  ,  Miinwliilc  lln-  uiifort  mate 
Shall  ^.lOJ■lll,  whom  wc  had  rcstcired  with  sn 
mm  h  pump  uf  niin.ninniiniit  In  the  throne  of 
his  nMislurs,  was  ihad.  lie  was  nsias-iinitid 
in  ('a!"d.  ^"  "i  iiftcr  the  -h'tiariMr!'  of  'hv  Itrii'r'.h 
.  .  .  M!hl  111- bcHly,  stripped  of  ilsrnyal  roliesaiid 
Its  miiiiy  Jewels',  was  tlung  Into  u  dlldi" — I, 
llcCnrtliy.  //o>r    /i.i.roirn  Tinifn,  r   1,  cA    11 


14 


Also  in  J.  W.  Kayo,  Iliit.  of  the  War  in 
AfiiluiHittan. — G.  R.  Gleig,  Salei  Brigade  in 
Afghanittan, — Lady  Sale,  Journal  tf  the  Vital- 
ten  in  Afghanistan. — Mohaa  Lai,  Life  of  Doit 
Mohammed,  eh.  15-18  (c.  2). 

A.  D.  1843-1869.— The  British  return  to 
Cabul. —  Restoration  of  Dost  Mahomed.— It 
was  not  till  8e'pteinl)er  that  General  Polliwk 
"could  obtain  permission  from  the  Governor-Gen- 
eral, Lord  EllenlKirough,  to  advance  against 
Calml,  though  both  he  and  Xott  were  buniing  to 
ilo  so.  When  Polliwk  ilid  advance,  he  found  the 
enemy  posted  at  .lugdidbick,  the  scene  of  the 
nia.s.sacre.  'Here, 'saysone  writer,  '  the  skeletons 
lav  so  thick  that  they  had  to  be  cleared  away  to 
allow  the  guns  to  iiasa.  The  savage  grandeur  of 
the  scene  rendered  it  a  fitting  place  nir  the  deed 
of  bliNxl  which  had  Ix'cn  enacted  under  its  horrid 
Bh.ade,  never  yet  pierced  in  b.  rme  places  by  sun- 
li^lit.  The  roail  was  strewn  for  two  miles  with 
moulderitig  skeletons  like  a  charnel  house.'  Now 
the  enemy  found  they  had  to  deal  with  other 
men,  under  other  leaders,  for,  putting  their 
whole  energy  into  the  work,  the  Britisli  troops 
sealed  the  heights  and  steep  ascents,  and  defeated 
the  enemy  in  their  stronglmlds  on  all  sides. 
After  one  more  severe  fight  with  Akbar  Khan, 
and  all  the  force  he  could  collect,  the  enemy 
were  beaten,  and  driven  from  their  mountains, 
and  the  force  marched  quietly  into  Cabul. 
Nott.  on  Ills  side,  started  from  I'und.ahar  on  the 
7lh  of  Aiiu'ii>t,  and,  after  ligliting  several  small 
battles  with  the  enemy,  he  captured  Ohuznl, 
where  Palmer  and  his  garrisnr.  had  Ixen  ile- 
slroycd.  From  Ohiiznl  (''ncral  Nott  brought 
away,  by  comiiiand  of  Loni  KIlenlKirongh,  the 
gales  of  Honinanlli  f-ald  to  have  Ihtu  tuken 
from  the  Hindu  temple  of  Sonuiunth  by  Mah- 
nniiid  of  (Whiznl,  the  first  .Mohammeihin  In- 
\ailerof  India,  in  10241,  which  formed  the  sub- 
jut  of  the  celebrateii  'Proclamation  of  the 
(i.ites.'  as  it  was  called.  This  proclamation. 
Issued  by  Lord  Ellenboroiigh,  brought  upon  him 
endless  ridicule,  and  it  was  indeed  at  first  cun- 
eidi'red  to  Ik!  a  satire  of  his  enemies,  in  Imitnilon 
of  N'apoleon's  address  from  the  Pjrandds;  the 
Duke  of  Welllnjxtiin  called  It  'The  Bonir  of 
Triumph.'  .  .  .  'i'his  pniclanmtlon,  put  {nrlh 
wilh  so  much  nourishing  of  trumpets  and  ado. 
was  really  an  Insult  to  those  whom  It  professed 
to  praise.  It  was  an  insult  to  the  Mohan,  uedaiis 
under  our  rule,  fur  Ihiir  power  '.vps  gone.  It  was 
also  an  insiill  lo  the  Hindi»>s.  for  thdr  temple  of 
Soninanlh  was  In  nilns.  Tin  se  celebrateii  gales, 
wliic  hare  U'lii  veil  to  Ik'  imitations  of  the  original 
gull  s,  lire  now  lyliiii  negleiled  and  worm  eiilen. 
In  the  liai  k  pari  oif  a  sm:;ll  iiinsciiin  at  .Vura, 
Hut  to  riinrii,  (leiical  .Non  having  captured 
(ihiirnl  and  difealei  Siillan  .Ian.  iiiished  on  lo 
Cabul,  will  n' he  iirrlMil  on  the  I  Till  of  Seplein 
tier,  and  met  PolloiU.  'I'lie  Liiglish  prisoners 
(iinoiic-t  whom  were  Itrlt'adier  Hhellon  and 
L.ily  Side),  who  had  been  1  iplurisl  at  the  lime 
of  the  riiissacre.  wen'  broiii.'lit,  or  found  their 
own  wi\,  lo  ()i  neral  Pollis  k's  camp,  (iimrid 
I'.lphin-ioni'  had  dud  d'lrini.'  his  eapliiily  It 
was  not  now  eoin^i'lensl  nenssarylo  lake  any 
fiiriliir  steps;  the  liaraar  In  Cabul  was  ile 
stroved,  and  on  the  I'.'th  of  OilolKr  I'oIIihU  and 

V,.'!    .,:r!ii:i    -h.-lr    f,-ei   =i>i:;!:lv:;riU,   v,:\    !:i  :-:;n 

llnir  nwirih  into  India  by  the  KhylHT  route. 
The  Al»;lians  in  eiipilvlly  were  wnt  back,  and 
the  ttoveriior  'Jeiieral    r«e|vwl   the   tnwpa   at 


AFGHANISTAN,  1842-1869. 


f"2^':^°°'-  '?;i''"  «"''«'•  U'o  Afghan  war  of 
ISA'*-!..  .  .  Ihe  war  being  over,  wc  witli- 
drcw  our  forces  Into  India,  leaving  the  son  of 
Htiah  boojah,  lathi  Jung,  wlio  Iiad  escaped  from 
tabul  wlicn  his  father  was  murdered,  an  king  of 
l.ho  country,  a  position  that  ho  was  unable  to 
maiiil,iln  long,  being  very  sliortly  afterward  i 
as.sa^snlat.■;l.  In  1842  I)(»t  Jlahomed,  the  ruler 
w  horn  we  had  deposed,  and  wlin  Iiad  b<'en  living 
at  our  expense  In  India,  returnid  to  Cabul  and 
resumed  his  former  position  as  king  of  the  coun- 
try,  still  bearing  Ill-will  towards  us,  which  he 
1  liov.ed  on  several  occasions,  notably  durine  the 

to  light  fur  the  bikhs,  and  he  Iiima  If  mar(hed 
an  army  lliroiigh  the  Klivber  to  Peshawtir  to 
lisist  our  enemies.     lloweVer,  the  occupation  of 
tae  Punjab  forced    upon    J>ost  Mahomed   the 
necessity  of  k'  ng  on  frlct.lly  terms  with  his 
powerful  ne  ghbour;   ho  thertforo  conclude,!  a. 
friendly  treaty  with  us  in  18.-,4,  hoping  thereby 
hat  our  ixiwer  would  tw  used  to  prbvcBt  the  In- 
trigu,,,  of   Persia  arjainst  his   kingdom.     This 
hope  was  shortly  after  renlizc.1,  for  In  1850  we 
declared  war  against  Persia,  an  cv.'nt  which  wis 
greatly  to  tho  a.lvantagc  of  Dost  Mahomed,  as 
'rJ^r^'i'"    T,  •   ''•""°,  ''""o«'l'">cms  upon    his 
territ.  ry       Thu  war  lasted  but  a  short  ti:ne   f„r 
c;:irly  in  18,7  an  agreement  was  si -ne,l  between 
l-ngland  and   Persia,    by  which   the  latter  re- 
nouuced  all  claims  oyer  Herat  an.l  Af^-lmnlstan. 
Hemt,  however,  still  n'malned  in<iei,endent  of 
Aghanistan    until  1803,   when  l),-st' Mahomed 
at  aeke,    and  took  the  town,  thus  uniting  the 
wh.'lo  Ijlngdom,  Including  Candahar  nn<l  Afghan 
Turkestan,  und.r  his  rule.     Tlii,^  was  almost  I   c 
last  act  of  tho  Ameer's  life,  for  a  few  davs  after 

that  .Sl.ero  All,  one  of  his  wras,  should  sucecd 
hira  as  Anieer  of  Afghanistan.     The  new  Ameer 

l^U,    i^^^T  tV"-'"  '."  "'«  'i'-vcnor-tlencral  of 
Imlii    U,r,\  I,|,nn,  In  a  friendly  tone,  a.sklng 

r'l'  *"9r''«'""  "'i^'I't  l>o  acknowledge/ 
ih.','  '  I  ■■  ~  "l  ^"*''.7"-  '"  11"'  commencement  of 
tho     l.iiieral     policy    of    'masterly    Inaetlvitv' 

c.inr  nt  but  be  deeply  n^-rett.  d,  as  Nhero  All  « •» 
nd  v":.7"l  V";'"  'V"  ""'•'"■'  '"™™'  "T" 
for  the  thnme.  ,t  would  have  UVn  time  en m.d 
to  aeknowledce  that  rival  as  s,«,n  as  he  was 
cally  ruler  of  the  cmintry.  Wl,,.,,  »l,  momlil 
loiter  a  cold  a<kn„wl,.dg,.„',ent  of  the  letter  w« 

I'l-  St  tlut  th..  Ameer  mad.'  for  0,000  muskets 

m  ar.Is  him  wn,  not  tlut  of  a  frj.  „,|;  p.,r,i,,, 
a  ly  MS.  when  later  on.  two  of  his  brol  lers  re- 
w.ll  d  against  him,  ca,  I,  .,f  ll.eni  was  t..ld  I  v 
tho  ...vernment  that  he  would  !«•  acknowi,.,  .-e.l 
und  r  V:""."'  "'"  «-"',""0-wl.l,h  he  bmud, 
unihr  hs  t,oW(r.  However,  aft.  r  viri,  us 
rliange.  In  /ortune.  In  IMffl.  si.er,.  All  fif  •• 
lefea  ,,l   I,  s   tv  o   brothers   Afz„„I   „,,  |     v^    ,' 

Waiu'  r":  A^"-:'"  """•  AlKlnrrahm,m."-p; 
r.  i>alker,  .\Ji;h<iniiit,ti>,  vii  4.">-.'',| 
Also   IN   3.    \S\   Kay...    J!i,t.  .f  th.    Vr.riii 

thttR  ,,'8«9-«Mi.-The  lecond  war  with 
II !  ^"K"»''  •"'1  «•  cau»et.~-Tlie  T.erlod  Vf 
il.turb,ace  in  Af(iha„lsta„,  during  the' Itruggl'  | 


AFGHANISTAN,  1869-188L 

of  Shcre  All  with  his  brothers,  coincided  with 
Th„^r'"^"'^^"^^"'^  Lawrence  in  Indi^ 
Ihc  polcy  of  Lord  Lawrence,  •'sometimci 
Elighl.nglv  spoken    of    as    masterly  in^tivkv 

ic  quarrels  of  the  Afghans  .  .  .  andin  attJni.T 
mg  to  cultivate  the  friendship  of  tlio  ?Vmeer  i^y 
^ifts  of  money  and  arms,  while  carefully  nvoij. 

ng  topics  of  oiTence Lord  La«rtmc„waa 

himself  unable  to  meet  the  Ameer,  hut  his  .>^c 
cessor  Lord  Mayo,  had  an  interview  with  h^  a 
atLmballuh  In  1809 u>rd  MavoaJhcrcS 

■nt  M,","'"^'  °V'''  irF'l^^'^^-'r-  IIo"refu.se  1  to 
nUT  nto  any  close  alliance,  he  refused  to  pledge 
h  m.self  to  8up,,ort  any  dynasty.  But  in  he 
"';",'"'"'•  '',«  .P-l^^^-J  "'at  he  would  not 
T'esi  leM  '*  "•'">,"^'?"  of  "i.V  K'm-Hsh  oniccrs  as 
uesidei  its  in  Afghanistan.  The  nturn  expected 
by  Lngland  for  this  uttitmlo  of  frien.lly  non-in- 
terference  was  that  every  other  forei.m  state 
and  especially  IJussia,  slfould  be  or  iUhlen  ti 
m..x  cither  directly  or  Indirectly  with  the  alTair^ 
of  the  country  in  which  our  Interests  were  so 

beTl  hV"'"  r'-  -K-  -.H".'  "•"iff'-'^-t  view  was 
held  by  another  school  of  Imlian  politicians  and 
wassunp„rte,l  by  men  of  such  einlnenee  ai  Sir 
Bartlc  I rere  and  Sir  Il.nry  Hawlinson,  Their 
Mi'w  was  known  ns  the  Sin.lh  Policy  as  con- 
rasted>»1tli  that  of  tho  Punjab.  It  aowa^d 
to  them  desirable  that  Englisl,  agents  Sl^ 

not  at  (  abu    Itself,  to  keep  the  Imlian  Govern- 

AfghanLstan.  and  to  maintain  Knglish  Inllu.neo 
n  the  country.  In  isn.  upon  tho  accession  o? 
to  (  ons,.rvative  Ministry.  Sir  Bartle  Fr,  to  pri 
duce<l  a  memorandum  In  which  tills  policv  w.as 

aMy  maintained A  Viceroy  whos^  -view' 

were  more  In  accordance  with  tlicwo  of  the 
Oovemment,  and  who  was  likely  to  be  am  re 
readv  ins  rument  in  [its]  handsf  was  f.a.ml  in 
LmLytton.  who  went  to  Imlia  Intrustcl  with 
the  duty  of  giving  effect  to  the  new  policy  1  „ 
^>as  Instructed  ...  to  continue  pivinents  of 
money,  to  rec.gnlso  the  perman^n^o  o  ,ho 
existing  dynasty,  and  to  give  a  pled -e  of 
materia  support  In  case  of  unprovoke.l  fiiVeien 
JS'T 'iT •  n"  !"  '"-'''  ""  "'"  '"■'■'•I'tance  of  an 
Lngllsh  Hesldent  at  e,rtain,<l,»,.s  In  Afghani  itan 
In  exch.ange    for  these   a.fvantag.s  T 'm 

Lawrence  aud  thr.e  who  thought  with  him  In 
Lng  and  prnphoied  fn.„,  the  lirst  the  disas  "„« 

lie  Atghaiis.  .  .  .  The  siigirestOn  of  (  mpH 
.ytt.m  that  an  Knglish  fnnu{-,|ssion  should  go 

,'   ,i,'I"',„     ,"^"''  '"""'"  "f<;-»"">™  Interest 
lo  iiie   t«o  (■uvernmc  Ills,   was    calculate  1 
to  excite  feelings  already  snmewhat  unfrien.lly 
to     Lngland       Me     lsi„.re    AllJ     reject.^     tho 
ni«on,   and   forniulatid    his    grievances. 
l.or,l  Lvtton  waned  for  a  time  the  despateli  'of 

1.  iidsslo,,,  and  consented  to  a  meeting  between 
the  Minister  of  tho  Ameer  and  Sir  Lewis  P,  ||y 
at  Pes|,„«„r  .  .  The  Knglish  (•..mmissloner 
was   nstrueled  to  .leelare  tiiat  the  one  l„!li      "„ 

o  an  r,,"^  ';■"  "^  "'"  '  ".■^"•^'  ""■"  ""•  »'!"'l-ior 
\frl  in'  ■';  "IIV*"!"""  «-l"'l''  Ilie  limit,  o, 
.\igii.iiiWan.       The  alino't   pite 


15 


the  part  of  ihn-iv,.;;;.v,7ti''/;:'!";r:"r""; 

llii<  demand  pn.ved  unavailing,  and  the "suii'd", 
hvith  of  the  Ameer's  envoy  f„rm,.,|  »  g„^i 
eve  ISO  for  lm.aklng  olT  the  nrg,.llatlnn.  f"rd 
L)lton  treati-.!  theA.nccras  Incorrijlble,  gaT* 


t;' 


^ 


1 

» 

1 

15 

1 

t 
i 

; ; 

AFGHANISTAN.  188».1881. 

him  to  understand  that  the  English  would  pro- 
ceed to  secure  their  {rentier  without  further  refer- 
ence to  him,  Bnd  withdrew  his  native  agent 
from  Ciibul.  While  the  relations  between  the 
two  countries  were  In  this  uncomfortable  con- 
dition, information  reached  India  that  a  Russian 
mission  bad  been  received  at  Cabul.  It  was  just 
at  this  time  that  the  action  of  the  Home  Gkircm- 
mcnt  seemed  to  be  tending  tnpidlj  towards  a 
war  with  Russia.  ...  As  the  despatch  of  a 
mission  from  Russia  was  contrary  to  the 
encagements  of  that  country,  and  its  reception 
undir existing  circumstances  wore  an  unfriendly 
aspect.  Lord  Lyttoa  saw  his  way  with  some 
plausible  justification  to  demand  the  reception 
at  Cabul  of  an  English  embassy.  He  notified 
his  intention  to  the  Ameer,  but  without  waiting 
for  an  answer  aclccted  Sir  NcTille  Chamberlain 
as  his  envoy,  and  sent  him  forward  with  an 
escort  of  more  than  1,000  men,  too  large,  as  It 
was  observed,  for  peace,  too  small  for  war.  As 
a  matter  of  course  the  missinnwus  not  admitted. 
.  .  .  An  outcry  was  raised  lH)th  in  England  and  In 
Inilia.  .  .  .  Troops  were  hastily  collected  upon 
tlio  Indian  frontier;  and  a  curious  light  was 
thrown  on  what  had  been  done  by  the  assertion 
of  the  Premier  at  the  Guiiilhnll  banquet  that 
the  object  In  view  was  the  formation  of  a  '  scien- 
tiflc  frontier;'  In  other  words,  turowlng  n  ile  all 
former  pretences,  he  declared  that  the  policy 
of  England  was  to  make  use  of  the  opportunity 
otTcred  for  direct  territorial  agcrcsslon.  ...  As 
had  been  foreseen  by  all  parties  from  the  flr»t, 
the  English  armies  were  entirely  succesnful  in 
their  first  advance  rXovenibor,  \f*'t*].  ...  By 
the  close  of  DecemiMT  Jcllaiuliiid  was  In  the 
hands  of  Urown<',  tlic  Slmtarganlan  Pass  had 
been  sumioiintid  by  Ri.lii  ris,  and  in  January 
Stewart  estalilishcd  I'llmsi  If  in  Caudaliar.  AVlien 
the  reslstanic  of  his  ar!ny  provi'il  inilTectual, 
Slierc  All  had  talicn  to  tlii-lit,  only  to  ilic.  Ills 
rrfnictory  son  Yalioob  Klian  was  drawn  from 
his  prison  and  assumed  the  reins  of  govi  nimcnt 
as  regent.  .  .  .  Yakoob  readily  granted  the 
EngUsli  demands,  consenting  to  place  his  foriign 
relations  under  British  control,  and  to  acropt 
British  agencies.  With  conslderaMv  more 
reluctance,  h"  allowed  wliat  was  requlnil  for  the 
rcctiUcatlon  of  the  frontier  to  pass  Into  En,!;llsli 
bands.  Ho  received  In  exi  hangc  a  promise  of 
support  bv  the  British  Oovommeni,  ami  an 
annual  sulisldyof  £60,000.  On  tlie  loiicliislon 
of  the  treaty  trie  troops  In  the  Jellalatwul  Valley 
withdrew  within  the  new  (ronticr,  and  Yakixili 
Klian  was  left  to  establish  his  authority  as  best 
he  could  at  (^ahul,  whither  In  July  (  avagnaii 
with  an  escort  of  twenty-six  troopers  and  eljhty 
Infantry  iMlook  liimsilf.  Then  was  enactell 
again  the  8o<l  story  wliich  pri'lu(le<i  the  first 
Afghan  war.  All  the  parts  and  scenes  In  the 
drama  repeatid  themselvi'S  with  curious 
uniformity  — the  Englisli  Resident  with  his 
little  garrison  trtistlrg  MInilly  to  his  capacity 
for  Inllurniing  tlio  Afghan  mind,  the  puppet 
king,  without  the  powir  to  u\aVr  himself 
rt's|M'rled,  Irrilateil  bv  the  constant  pn-unie  I't 
the  Resilient,  the  chleN  mutually  illstnislful  ami 
atone  In  nothing  save  tluir  hitredof  English 
Intirference,  the  people  seithlai;  ^^llh  anirir 
2^,(|»i.(  t!ie  Itifl'.l'.'l  f'.>re!^!!i'r.  'i  wild  otithr^'iik 
which  the  Ameer,  even  l.ad  he  wishi  d  it,  coiiM 
not  control,  an  attack  upon  the  Residency  and 
Um  complete  destruction  [^pt.,  ItiTSJ  after  » 


AFGHANISTAN.  186>-188t 

gallant  but  futile  resistance  of  the  Resident  and 
his  entire  escort.  Fortunately  the  extreme 
disaster  of  the  previous  war  was  avoided.  The 
English  troops  which  were  withdrawn  from  the 
country  were  still  within  reach.  .  .  .  About  the 
i34th  of  September,  three  weeks  after  the  out- 
break, the  Cabul  field  force  under  General 
Roberts  was  able  to  move.  On  the  Sth  of  Octo- 
ber it  forced  its  way  into  the  Logar  Valley  at 
Charaisiab,  and  on  the  12th  General  Roberta 
was  able  to  make  his  formal  entry  into  the  city 
of  CabuL  .  .  .  The  Ameer  was  deposed,  martial 
law  was  established,  the  disarmament  of  the  peo- 
ple required  under  pain  of  death,  and  the 
country  scoured  to  bring  In  for  punishment 
tliose  chiefly  implicated  in  the  late  outbreak. 
While  thus  engaged  in  carrying  out  his  work  of 
retribution,  the  wave  of "  Insurrection  closed 
behind  the  English  general,  communication 
through  the  Kuram  Valley  was  cut  off,  and  he 
was  left  to  pass  the  winter  with  an  army  of 
some  8,000  men  connected  with  India  onlv  by 
the  Kybur  Pass.  ...  A  new  and  formidable 
personage  .  .  .  now  mode  h's  appearance  on 
the  scene.  This  was  Abdura  ap  .,  the  nephew 
and  rival  of  the  late  Sliere  All,  who  upon  the 
defeat  of  his  pretensions  bad  sought  refuge  in 
Turkestan,  ami  was  supposed  to  be  supported 
by  the  friendsliip  of  iuissia.  The  expected 
attack  di<l  not  take  ).iace,  constant  reinforce- 
ments had  raised  the  Cahid  army  to  20,000,  and 
rendered  it  too  strong  to  l>c  assalleil.  ...  It 
was  thought  desirable  to  break  up  Afghanistan 
Into  a  nortliern  and  southern  province.  .  .  .  The 
policy  thus  declared  was  carrie<l  out.  A  cer 
tain  Shere  All,  a  cousin  of  the  late  Ameer  of 
the  same  name,  was  appointed  Wall  or  Gover- 
nor of  Candahar.  In  the  north  signs  were 
\  isible  that  the  only  possible  successor  to  the 
throneof  Cabul  would  lie  Al»lurahman.  .  .  ,  The 
Bengal  army  under  General  Stewart  waa  to 
mareft  northwards,  and.  suppn'ssing  on  the  way 
tlie  Ohuznee  Insurgents,  was  to  j<iln  the  Cabul 
army  in  a  sort  of  triumphant  n'tum  to  Peshawur. 
The  f  Pit  part  of  the  jirogramnie  was  carrie<l  out. 
.  .  .  The  second  part  of  the  plan  was  fated  to 
be  Interrupted  by  a  serious  disaster  whieli 
rendiTed  It  for  a  while  uncertain  whether  the 
withdrawal  of  the  tnKips  from  Afghanistan  was 
possible.  .  .  .  Ayixib  had  always  expressed  his 
disapproval  of  Ins  brother's  friendship  for  the 
English,  and  had  constantly  refused  to  accept 
their  overtures.  Though  little  was  known 
about  him,  rumours  were  afloat  tliat  he  intended 
to  advance  upon  Ohuznee,  and  join  the  Insur- 
gents there.  At  length  about  the  midille  of 
June  ri!*W)l  his  armv  starteil  .  .  .  But  before 
the  end  of  June  Faran  had  been  reached  and  it 
seemed  plain  thnt  Candahar  would  be  assaulted. 
.  .  .  Qenend  Burrows  foiuid  it  necessary  to  fall 
bark  to  a  ridge  some  fortvflve  miles  from 
Ciindshar  called  Kush-yNnkliud.  There  U  a 
pass  called  .Maiwand  to  the  north  of  the  high- 
rond  to  Candahar.  by  whiih  un  army  avoidlug 
llie  position  on  the  ridire  nilglit  advance  upim 
the  city.  On  the  'JTlli  of  July  the  Afglin.i 
triMips  were  seen  moving  In  tlie  din-ction  of  tills 
pass.  In  his  att4-nipt  to  stop  tliem  with  his 
small  fi>re,  niimlM-ring  about  2..VHI  men.  Gen 
er:'.!  Biirrowa  was  disa-ifro'.isly  dt?t:ate-.!.  With 
ilitnciilty  ai.d  with  the  loss  of  seven  guns,  almul 
half  the  English  tni<i|>s  returned  t.11  Candahar. 
General  I'rim.'oM,  who  was  In  cuninwiid.  bad  do 


10 


■4 

"1 
f 


AFGHANISTAN,  1869-1881. 

choice  but  to  gtrengthcn  the  place,  submit  to  an 
Invcstmeat,  and  wait  till  he  should  be  rescued 

•  .'.uj  ,  "^Pf  "'  <^*''"'  '^e'e  00  the  point  of 
withdrawing  when  the  news  of  the  disaster 
reached  them  "  General  Roberts  at  once  pushed 
forwari  to  the  beleaguered  city,  and  disperse.! 


AFRICA,  1816-1818. 

I''?!  K™.y  °L '■''.«  ^""eef-  Candnhar  waa  then 
held  by  the  British  until  the  fall  of  IWl  whi-n 
they  with,  rew,  Abdurahman  having  apparently 
estublished  himself  in  po«er.  and  the  Zmtry 
being  .„  a  quiettnl  state.  -J.  F.  Bright,  Z/io/ 
£'iS;  itnod  4,  pp.  634-S44.  ■' 


Ancient.  See  Eotpt  ;  Ethiopia  :  Libyans  • 
Cii""A';«J.Cv^RBNAiCA;   Nljiidians.  * 

A."!?' "l','^"  ^"'-    «^'«  «-«»*«»SrATKs: 

KWt?'*  fl  "°'>»'«t«n<l  Moalem  Statet  in  the 

North.  See  Mahometan  Conquest  Ac  ■  A  n 
840-646 ;  647-709  ;  and  90H-1171  •  al^  Bakbarv 
STAT.S ;  EOVPT :  A.  D.  1200-15lV,  XCT^ 

Th«inh«bitinjr  race*. -The  Indigenous  race, 
of  Africa  are  ™n8i,lered  to  be  four  in  numbe" 
namely :  the  Negr,ies  proper,  who  occupy  a  cen- 

;  •n>'?"'''«"r"''''"t'  f"""  ">«  Atlantic-  to  the 
l.}?.vpiiiia  Sudan,  ami  who  conmrise  an  enormous 
number  of  diverse  tribes ;  the  ffulahs  (« itl  whom 

«v..^  ilr'n^.^'^T'''*'''"'  »«"l«-''l  mainly  be- 
t«.en  Ukc  Chad  and  the  Niger;  the  Bimtus. 
who  occupy  the  whole  south,  except  '  s  exTrem- 
ity;  and  the  Hottentots,  who  are  in  t;..vt  "treme 
sou  liern  ri'ffl.m.  Some  anthropologists  include 
Th,  'k'»«  "  ""(T't  'heBosjcsmansSr  nurmen 
1  ill  h.atlrs  and  Uwhuanas  arc  llantu  tribes  Tim 
north  and  northeast  are  occupied  bv  Semitic  and 
Hamitic  races,  the  latter  Including  Ahvssinians 
.ml    Ml  as. -A.  H.  Keane,    Th,  '\fH,l7Zl, 

A.  D.  I4IS-IS84.— A  chronological  record 
.lL."„';°'i5f  E,p  oration.  Mi.Sonar,  Set- 
tlement,  Colomxation  and  Occupation 

If  I5"~i"""''','r'  "'  ^■'•'"''»  '^y  '''«  Hortueuese 
.i„!1..*','*     •","«"""'     exnloratloiia  ^lown 

'.,,.."•    '"    ^'.''*".'"'*J   ""■''■■■  "'«  direction  of 
I  nnce  Henry,  called  the  Navigator. 

t  (It.— First  African  slaves  brought  into  Eu- 
rup.'  by  one  of  the  ships  of  J'rincc  ifenry 

tH'Mmd  the  Guinea  Const,  and  to  the  Onid  Coast 
wlKTe  the  first  settlement  was  establishe.! 


AFRICA. 


-—-■--  -...^...vuv  y,am  I'^uiuiisneil. 

,  (^  ,?Tir  ^K^^n ''  "'  ""'  ""'""'  "'  <•"■  Zaire 
r  I  uiigo  by  the  Portugutw  explorer.  Dingo  Can 

M8S-«S9«.-EstablUhment  of  Itonian  Catholic 
mis»',,!is  on  the  western  eoiist 
<i  '<f*- -l'n''""»<''>''i<  rounding  of  th.        i.o  of 
OimkI  llupe  l)y  Bttrtholomew  Kiar. 

Vii'  ■  v"  ^"'"'""V  ""•^'-'""trucse  explofr. 
t  ape  of  Ooo,!  |r„p,.  to  India. 
(1,  ',51S;.«508.-i',.rtuguese  wttlemeuts  and  fortl- 

tngue?;,~  "^'  "'  ^''"'«»"'«''»'-  l>y  the  Por- 

.,'.?,^Vi'?*^-~"!  *■''""'""   "f   Kngllsh    vovsge. 

to  the  Oiilnriiiind  lf(ild(oii»is  "."•»>'• 

1560. --Kren,!,    trailing    |„    the   Senegal   and 

II.'?  L*'".'''''^' "'"'"''"'""» '■"VBge  of  Sir  John 
Maw  kin«  to  the  (Ininra  Coast    "  "■founj 

Liff?/!:""^',".'",'''"*-','"  •■"  ''""I  lo  Loando,  Por- 
lugihsi'  ei.piral  on  ilii.  Hcut  e..B«t 

i5»»(.iliouti-P,„„„|lng  of  the  French  Doit 
Nt   Louis,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Seoejal         '^     ' 


17 


by'SM-^pcning  of  trade  on  the  western  coast 

l6l8-l62l.-ExpIoration  of   the  River  Oani- 

land  ^^       ^''*''"  <-""'"l""'y  "f    Kng. 

.„  'f**.-7^j '■','i?"P'''''  f""nd«l  by  the  French 
m  the  island  of  Madagascar. 

Hoil?'"~^""^''  *^'"''-'""''"  a'  tbe  Cape  of  GockI 

'*M-«7i»4— Exploration  of  the  Rive.  Siueiral 
for  the  lloyai  Senegal  Company.  ^ 

„  i7a3--Exp!oraiion   of   the    Gambia  for  the 
English  Royal  African  Company 

JZ5S'~«"'''"''"'  ^'i"'""  ""  ""^  <3n><l  Coast, 
a  f737.— Moravian  Mission  planted  hi  George 
Schmidt  among  the  Hottentots  "t-orgt. 

ti„?Sf"wi'^"''""'"""','";s'°!'J"»  "f  ""^  domina- 
tion in  Madagascar  of  the  Hovas 

I76i-i7«a---l)utch  expedition  from  Cape 
Colony  l).y<in<l  the  Orange  l{iver.  "^ 

1768-1773.— Journey  of  James  Bruce  to  the 
fountains  ofthe  Blue  Slle  In  Ahvs.,lnia 

'774;-F|mniling  of  a  French  colony  la  Mada- 
ga.siar  by  Count  Benvowsky. 

tJ'ii'r,''!5;~'''TJ'i'''**-  ^  Vaillant  am.)iig 
theHotteiit-itsand  Kaflri.  *" 

f,r  ff'Tf """""?,.  °'  "'^  English  settlement 
for  freni  slaves  at  Sierra  I.eone 

in'J"i~5"T"'"""  "'  ""^  African  Ass,)clation 
in  England,  for  systematic  expl,.raiion 

by't'lfe'iljmh^'""'  ^■"'""^  """-*"  ^"""  "'^' "'""' 
«795-i797.-The  first  exploring  lournev  of 
Mungo  ifark,  in  the  service  of  the  AtrS  \" 
8(«iallon,  fr..m  the  Gambia  -"ruan  .\, 

.v,'l9*;r ",'""'","  ?'  '*•'•  •'ol'n  Van.lerk.mp  to 
th.  kaHrs  for  the  r.on.lon  Missi.marv  So-l.tV 

^IP,  "\""7"^  ''"-'  l'o>-ti'>;'i'"*  Dr. 'La. 
cena  from  the  Lower  Zambesi  to  the  kingdom 
of  (  azimlie.  on  Lake  Moero. 

il,n^i!^'i*°*T.""'"™"""  "'  f'T"  Colony  to 
the  Dutrh  and  its  recon.i.,cst  by  the  EnpliM. 

I80a-I8ll.--Joiirney   of    the    Pomb.ims  (w 
gr.K>-<ta<-r.«H  the  lontinent  from  Angola  t..  T.te 

xfi  f^'7''",""'''"«  "'  "■«  t-'hureh  of  1.  .jUu,1 
Mis.»lon  In  SiiTHi  Liime. 

th,!??*"Tf*"'""'"'.  ''»£!:'"•'•"' "'  M""fo  •'"'•k  from 
[etiirn,"i  '  *''''•  ''""^  *'''''''  ''''  ""'" 

j,_J[j^5--TraveN  of  Dr.  LIchtcnsteIn  in  Be.l.u- 

i8io.-MI«lnns  In  Great  Namarualand   and 
Danmrnlan,!  K.gun   by  the  London    MI«lon»ry 

«B>i— Exploration  of  the  Oranire  lliver  and 
the  Limpopo  l,y  Campbell,  the  ml«ionarv 

Mi.;au.ni,T,of  ||„.  African  A»«,«lafio,i.  „,,  ,|„. 
H,.';;.  ''7.'"-'''  •^"'''*'  ^■"  ''<rlHr«,  .-.hendv.  and 
Suakin;  th.'nce  through  Jidda  to  .Me.ra.in  the 
charaei.r  ..f  a  Mussulman. 

..I.fitl.''^"'''*'*'  »'"'  '"'H''-'"  nitemp-i  to 
explore  th.)  lower  course  of  the  Niger. 


t. 


AFRICA,  181& 

1818.—  Mission  In  Hadsnscar  undertaken  by 
the  London  Missionary  Society. 

1818.— Beginning,  on  tlie  Orange  River,  of 
the  missionary  labors  of  Robert  Moffat  in  South 
Africa.  ,     , 

1818.— Exploration  of  the  sources  of  tlie 
Gambia  hj  Gaspard  Mollien,  from  Fort  St.  I«ui3, 
at  tlic  nioutli  of  the  Senegal. 

1818-1820.— Exploration  of  Fczzan  to  iu 
southern  limit,  from  Tripoli,  ly  Captiiin  Lyon. 

1830.— First  Wesleyan  Mission  founded  in 
Eafirlaad. 

x830.—  Treaty  abolishing  the  slave-trade  Ir 
Madagascar 

1831.— Mission  orkin  Raffraria  undcrtakci 
by  the  Glasgow  M.isionary  Society. 

1833.— FDUiidinK  of  the  rt-publio  of  J.iberia. 
See  Slavkuv,  Neiiho:  A.  I).  1S16-1W7. 

1833.— OlOcial  journey  of  Lieutenant  Lalng 
from  Sierra  Leone  in  the  "Timannee,  Kooranko 
and  Soolinia  "  countries. 

1833-1835.— Expedition  of  Captain  (,'lupper- 
ton.  Dr.  Oudney.and  Colonel  Denham,frora  Trlp- 
oll  to  Lake  Tchad  and  beyond. 

1835-1836.—  Expedition  of  Major  Lalng,  In 
the  service  of  the  British  Oovorument,  from 
Tripoli,  through  the  desert,  to  Timl)uctoo, 
which  he  reached,  and  where  he  remaiutd  for  a 
month.  Two  days  after  leaving  the  city  he  was 
murdi'ted. 

1825-1837. —  Expedition  of  Captain  Clapper- 
ton  from  the  Bight  of  Benin  to  Sokoto. 

1837. —  Moravian  Mission  settled  in  the  Tam- 
bookie  territory,  South  Africa. 

1837.— . Journey  of  Linant  de  Bellefonds,  for 
the  African  Associatiou,  up  the  White  Nile  to 
13'  6'  nortli  latitude. 

l837-i8a8. —  Journey  of  Caillfi  from  a  point 
on  the  west  coast,  between  Sierra  Leone  and  the 
Gambia,  to  Jemic  and  Tlmbuctoo;  tlicnci'  to  Fez 
■mi  Tu'-.gier. 

1838.—  Undertakings  of  the  Basle  Ml»-  inary 
Bociilv  on  the  Gold  Coast. 

1830-1831.— Exploration  of  the  N'  to  the 
lea  hy  Hidutrd  and  John  Lender  lug  the 

question  as  to  its  mouth. 

1830-1846.— French  conquest  and  subjugation 
of  Alders, 

1831.—  Portuguese  mission  of  Major  Montciro 
and  faptiiin  Gamitto  to  the  court  of  Muau 
CazrinlH'. 

1831.— Ahuorption  of  the  African  Assoclalion 
by  the  Rnyiil  ( ieograplilcal  Stwlety  of  Loudon. 

1833-1834.— First  commercial  exploration  of 
the  lower  Niner,  from  its  mouth,  by  Mucgregor 
Laird,  with  two  steamers. 

1833.—  Mission  In  lliisiitoland  estaMiHlied  by 
the  ICvancillriil  Missionary  Soi'Icty  ol  riiiis. 

1834.—  Ueginning  of  missionary  lalmrs  under 

the  Anierlcan  Board  of  Missions  In  South  Africa. 

1834.—  Mission  founded  at  Cape  I'alinus  od 

the  «(sterii  const,   by  the  American  Board  for 

ForclL'n  Missions. 

1834,— The  Great  Tre't  of  the  Dutch  Boers 
tmm  I  iipc  Colony  and  their  founding  of  tlie  re- 
•■ulilir  of  Niilal. 

.135.  —  MisKliin  amonij  the  Zulus  established 
by  tlir  AincrUiin  Hoard  of  Foreign  MUkIoiis. 

1835-1849.- i'ersecution  if  Christians  In 
MailiiL'asrnr. 

1836-1837.  —  Kxploralioni  of  Captain  Sir 
Jnm>-s  K.  Altxander  In  the  countries  of  the  Great 
NunaquM,  the  Uushmeo  and  tiM  UlU  Uaniarai. 


AFRICA.  ISSl. 

1839 -1841.  —  Egyptian  expeditions  sent  by 
Mehemet  All  up  the  White  Nile  to  latitude 
6°  35'  N. ;  accompanied  and  narrated  in  part  by 
Ferdinand  Wcrne. 

1839-1843.— Missionary  residence  of  Dr.  Krapf 
in  the  kingdom  of  Shoa,  in  the  Ethiopian  high- 
lands. 

1840. —  Arrival  of  Dr.  Livingstone  In  South 
Africa  as  a  missionary. 

1841.  — Expedition  of  Captains  Trotter  and 
Allen,  sent  by  the  British  Government  to  treat 
with  tribes  on  tlie  Niger  for  the  opening  of  com- 
merce and  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade. 

1843.  —  Travels  of  Dr.  Charles  Johnston  In 
Southern  Abvssinia. 

1843.-  Galloon  Mission,  on  the  western  coast 
near  the  equator,  founded  by  the  American 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions. 

184a.— The  Rhenish  Mission  establlshe<l  by 
German  missionaries  at  Bethanien  in  Nama- 
qualand. 

1843.  —  Wesleyan  and  Norwegian  Slissiona 
opened  In  Natal. 

1843-1863.  —  French  occupation  of  territory 
on  the  Galloon  and  the  Ogowe. 

1843. — British  annexation  of  Natal,  and  ml- 

f ration    of   tlie    Boers    to    found    the  Orange 
ree  State. 

1843.  — Exploration  of  the  Senegal  and  the 
Falenie  by  Uuanl-Bes.siniirts  and  ItnSenel. 

1843-1845.- Travels  and  reshlc  .'e  of  Mr. 
Parkyns  in  Abyssinia. 

1843-1848.  —  Hunting  journeys  of  Gordon 
Cumming  in  South  Africa. 

1844.— Mission  founded  by  Dr.  Krapf  at  Mom- 
bassa.  on  the  Zanzibar  const. 

1845. — Duncan's  journi'V  for  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society  from  Wliydah,  via  Aboine,  to 
Adofuclla. 

1845.— Mission  to  the  Camcnions  pslnlilished 
by  the  Baptist  Missionary  .Siciety  of  Eiuihind. 

1846.  —  Unsuccessful  attempt  of  Rallenel  to 
cross  Africa  from  Senegal  to  the  Nile,  through 
the  Sudan. 

1846.  —  Mission  of  Samuel  Crowther  (after- 
wanls  Bishop  of  the  Niger),  a  native  and  a 
lllwriited  slave,  to  the  Yoruba  country. 

1846.— Mission  on  Old  Calabar  River  luunded 
by  the  Unitiil  Presbyterian  Church  in  Jamaica. 

1847-1849. — Interior  explorations  of  the  Qrr- 
nian  missionaries  Dr.  Krapf  and  Mr.  Rebmani.. 
from  Monilmivsa  on  the  Zanzibar  coast. 

1848.— Founding  of  the  Transvaal  Repubih. 
by  tlie  BtH'rs. 

1849.— Missionary  journey  of  David  Living- 
st<ine  norlliwnril  fniin  the  country  of  the  Bechu- 
anas.  and  his  ilisrovcry  of  Lake  N'gnml. 

1849-1851.— Journey  of  Ladlsliius. Magyar  from 
Beugucia  to  I  lie  kiuisiloms  of  BIhe  and  Moluwa 
on  the  interior  table  land,  and  across  the  upper 
end  of  the  Zir.lMsl  valley. 

1850.— Sale  of  Danish  forts  at  Qiietta,  Adda, 
and  FIngo,  on  t'lc  western  coast,  to  Great 
Britain. 

1850-1851.— Travels  of  Andersson  and  Gallon 
fri>m  Wulllsh  Bay  to  Ovam|Hiland  and  Lake 
Nguinl.  • 

1850-1855.— Travels  of  Dr.  Barth  from  Trip<ill 
to  Lake  Tchad.  Sokoto  and  the  Upper  Niger  to 
TImliuctoo,    where   he  was  detained  for  uloe 
I  months. 

1851.- Discovery   o(    the   Zambesi   by   Dr. 
I  Livingstone. 

18 


AFRICA.  1853-1863. 

1853-1863.— HuDtine  and  tradiog  journeyi  of 
Mr.  Chapman  io  South  Africa,  between  Natal 
and  Waldsh  Bay  and  to  Lake  NgamI  and  the 
Zambesi.  * 

'853.— Founding  of  the  Diocese  of  Natal  by 
the  English  Church  and  appointment  of  Dr. 
Colenso  to  be  its  bishop. 

1853-1856.— Journey  of  Dr.  LlTlngstone  from 
Linyunti,  the  Makololo  capital,  up  the  Zambesi 
and  across  to  the  western  coast,  at  St.  Paul  de 
Loando,  thence  returning  entirely  across  the 
continent,  down  the  Zambesi  to  Quillmane  at  its 
month,  discovering  the  Victoria  Falls  on  his 
way. 

1853-1858.- Ivory-seeking  expeditions  of  John 
PcthiTlck,  up  tlie  Bahr-el-Ghazel. 

1853-1859.— liomsn  Catholic  mission  estab- 
lisheil  at  Uoiiilnkoro,  on  the  Upper  Nile. 

1854.— Ex,  "oration  of  the  Somali  country  — 
the  "eastern  .lon  of  Africa"— by  Captains 
Burton  and  Speke. 

1855— Beginning  of  attempU  by  the  French 
governor  of  Senegal,  General  Faldherbe,  to 
curry  the  Hag  of  France  Into  the  Western 
Suditn. 

1856-1859.— Journeys  of  Du  Challlu  in  the 
western  equatorial  regions,  on  the  Gaboon  and 
the  Ogobai. 

1857-1858.— Expedition  of  Captains  Burton 
and  Speke,  from  Zanzibar,  throuj,'li  Czaramo, 
UsaKara,  Ugogo,  and  Unvamwezi.  to  Ujljl,  on 
Lake  Tanganyika- making  the  lii  i  European 
discovery  of  the  lak<  ^turning  t..  Kaz«,  and 
tlKiice  continued  by  oj  ke  alone,  during  Bur- 
I'lii's  illness,  to  the  di^overy  of  Lake  Victoria 
Nyanza. 

1858.  — Journey  of  Andersson  from  Walflsh 
B.I.V  to  the  Okavango  River. 

1858.— English  mission  station  founded  at 
\  iii.iria  on  the  Camcroons  coast. 

1858-1863.— Expedition  of  Dr.  Livingstone, 
m  tliu  service  of  the  British  Governmcr.l,,  explor- 
luK  tlic  Shire  and  the  liovuma,  and  discoverins 

on. I      ..»..1.v_J»~     I_l._     X' •■       ■  0 


and  exploring  Uke  Nvassa- said,  however,  to 
havi!  iM'en  known  previously  to  the  Port  iguese. 

1860-1^ ji.— Journey  of  Baron  von  Decken 
from  f'ombassa  on  the  Zanzibar  coast,  to  Kili- 
manjaro mountain 

1860-186J.— lietum  of  Speke,  with  Captain 
Grant,  from  Zanzibar  to  Lake  Vi  ria  Nyanza, 
visiting  Karagwe,  and  Uganda,  an  .  reaching  the 
outlet  of  the  Nile;  thence  through  Unyoro  to 
Gondokoro,  and  homeward  by  the  Nile. 

1861 — Establishment  of  the  Universities  Mis- 
sion by  Bishop  Mackenzie  on  the  Upper  Shirfi. 

1861-1S6S.— English  acquisitUm  of  the  town 
and  kingdom  of  Lagos  on  the  Bight  of  Benin  by 
cession  from  the  native  ruler 

i86|.i86».— Sir  Samuel  Baker's  exploration 
of  tlie  Abvasinian  tributaries  of  the  Nile. 

1861-iMa.— Journey  of  Captain  Burton  from 
Lajtoi,  on  the  western  coast,  to  Aljcoloita,  the 
capital  of  the  Akui,  in  Yoruba,  and  U>  the  Cum- 
ariNins  Mountains. 

i86i-i86a.— Journey  of  Mr.  Balnea  from  Wal- 
flsli  Hay  to  I.«ke  NgamI  and  Virtoria  Kiilln. 

I86j.— Resumption  of  the  Christian  Mission  in 
Mil  liigascar,  long  suppresscHl. 

i86>-i867.— Travels  of  Dr.  Rohlfsin  Momcco, 
Alyiriji  and  Tunis,  ami  eiplnrinij  jmtrr,<y  frmn 
the  Oulf  of  the  Syrtes  to  the  Gulf  of  Guinea 

i>63<— TraTeb  of  Win  wood  Iteade  un  the 
WMteroeoML 


AFRICA,  1873-1878. 

1863.— Incorporation  of  a  large  part  of  Kaf 
fraria  with  Cape  Colony. 

1863.— Second  visit  of  Du  Chaillu  to  the  west- 
em  equatorial  region  and  journey  to  Asfaango- 
land. 

1863-1864.- OfBcia]  mission  of  Captain  Bur- 
ton to  the  King  of  Dahomey. 

«863-i864.— Exploration  cf  the  Bahr-el-Ohazel 
from  Khartoum  by  the  wealthy  Dutch  heiress. 
Miss  Tinne,  and  her  party. 

1863-1865.- Expedition  by  Sir  Samuel  Baker 
and  his  wife  up  the  White  Nile  from  Khartoum, 
resulting  in  the  discovery  of  Lake  Albert  Ny- 
anza, as  one  of  its  sources. 

1864.— Mission  of  Lieutenant  Mage  and  Dr 
Qulnthi,  sent  by  General  Faldherbe  from  Sene- 
ga! to  the  king  of  Segou,  in  the  Sudan. 

1866.— Founding  of  a  Norwegian  mission  in 
Madagascar. 

1866-1873.— Last  journey  of  Dr.  Livingstone, 
from  the  Kovuma  River,  on  the  eastern  coast,  to 


Lake  Nyassa ;  '  lence  to  Lake  Tanganyika,  Lake 
Moero,  Lake  IS.,  ^weolo,  and  the  Lualaba  River, 
which  he  suspit  t^d  of  flowing  into  tlie  Albert 
Nyanza.  and  being  the  ultimate  fountain  head 
of  the  Nile.  In  November,  1871,  Livingstone 
was  found  at  Ujljl,  on  Lake  Tanganyika,  by 
Henry  M.  Stanley,  leader  of  an  expedition  sent 
in  search  of  him.  Declining  to  quit  the  country 
with  Stanlev,  and  pursuing  his  exploration  of  the 
Lualaba,  Livingstone  died  May  1,  1873,  ou  Lake 
Bangweolo. 

1867.- Mission  founded  In  Madagascar  by  the 
Society  of  Friends. 

1867-1868.— British  expedition  to  AbyssinI* 
for  the  rescue  of  captives;  overthrow  and  death 
of  King  Theodore. 

1868.— British  annexation  of  Basutoland  In 
South  Africa. 

1869.— Christianity  established  as  the  state 
religion  in  Madagascar. 

i860.— Fatal  expedition  of  Miss  TinnS  from 
Tripoli  Into  the  desert,  where  she  was  murdered 
by  her  own  escort 

1869-1871.— Explorations  of  Dr.  Schwelnfurth 
between  the  Bahr  el  Ghazcl  and  the  Upper 
Coniio,  discovering  the  Wello  River. 

1860-1873.— Expedition  of  Dr.  Nttchtlgnl  from 
Tripoli  through  Kuka,  Tiliesti.  Burku,  Wadal 
Dsrfur,  and  Kordofan,  to  the  Nile. 

1870-1873.— Offleial  expedition  of  Sir  San-.uel 
Baiter,  in  the  service  of  the  Kliedive  of  Egypt, 
Isniall  Paslia,  to  annex  Gondokoro,  then  named 
Isniiilia,  and  to  suppress  the  slave-trade  in  the 
Egyptian  Sudan,  or  Equatorla. 

1871,— Transfer  of  the  rights  of  Holland 
the  Gold  C;o«st  to  Great  Britain. 

1871.— Annexation  of    Griciualnnd  West 
Cape  Colony. 

i87i.— Scientific  tour  of  Sir  Joseph  D.  Hooker 
and  .Mr.  Ball  In  MoriKco  and  the  Great  Atlas, 

1871.— .Missionary  Journey  of  Mr.  CHarlei 
N'lw  in  the  .Masai  country  and  ascent  of  .Mount 
Kilinianjaro 

1871-1880.— rinntlng  journevs  of  Mr.  Selous 
In  Soutli  .Vfiica.  la-vond  the  Zainliesi. 

J'7»-I875.— Travels  of  tlie   naturalist.  Rein 
hold  Hiirliliolz.  on  liie  Guinea  coast 
I    _  «87J.i879.— Travels  of   Dr.    Iloliib  htwifn 
;   ill-' Suulh  .\fricsn  diainoa.i  C>  id.  1  lid  Uiu  Zuiii- 
,    bisi 

;       1873.1875.- Expedition    of   Captain    V     L 
I  Cameron,  from  Zanzibar  to  Lake  Tanganyika, 

lit 


n  i    I 


I 


I'i 


AFRICA.  1878-1875. 

and  cxplorntlon  of  the  Lake;  thence  to  Nyan- 
JWe  on  the  Lualaba,  and  thence  across  the  con- 
&rthro,igh  Ulunda.  lo  the  Porf.gnese  set- 
Uemeut  at  Benguela.  on  the  Atlantic  coast 

r873-i875.-^ravelsof  the  naturalist  Frank 
Oa.:I.^rom  cane  Colony  to  the  Victoria  FaUs 

187V1876.— Kxplorationg  of  OttsfeWt,  fai- 
kenste^in  «nd  PechuelLocsche,  under  the  aus- 
pkes  of  the  German  African  Association. from  the 
Wniro  coast,  north  of  the  Congo. 

i874.-British  expedition  against  the  Ashan- 
twV  .Sstroviug  their  principal  town  Coomassie. 
*  .874.-M'sSiou  of  £olonelChaill6-Longfrom 
General  Gordon,  at  Gondokoro,  »?  tll«  ^''f/ "^ 
ITtese  kinir  of  Uganda,  discovering  Uke  Ibra- 
hmrnhis*eturn,\nd  completing  the  work  of 
Bneke  and  B..ker,  in  the  continuous  tracing  of 
5i:rc^u.^eof  the  Nile  from  the  Vlctona  N^^an.a. 
i87A-i875.— Expt'di"""  o'  Colonel  t.- J-"""* 
I«ng  to  Lake  Vhtoria  Nyanxa  and  the  Makraka 
l,*am  Ninn.  country,  in  the  Egypti«n  "jprvu-e^ 

1874-1876 -First  ailniinistnition  of  General 
Gonlll.,  cHussioned  by  the  Khedive  as  Gov- 

"T874^l76.-Occupation    and  exploration  of 
Darfur  ani  KorJnfan  by  the  Egyptians,  under 
.I'routaudt 


CoioneU  Pni>iy.  Mason,  Trout  and  <-ol8t»": 

l874-i877.-Expt.dition  of  Henry  M  Stiinley 
mi"out  bv  the  proprietors  of  the  ^ew  -lofk 
Herald  an.rihe  L-Indon  Daily  Telegraph,  whch 
crossed  the  continent  from  Zanzibar  to  the 
n  omt^  of  the  Congo  Uivtr;  making  a  prolonged 
Juv  in  the  empire  of  Ug.in.ia  and  acquiring 
much  knowledge  of  It;  circumuavigat  ng  Ukes 
Victoria  and  Tanganyika,  and  exploring  the 
ton  m?.t^rious  great  ^Congo  Hiver  throP^hout 

"'l87«-J877.-Exploratlon.  of  Pr.  Junker  in 
Upp?r  Nubia  and  In  the  basin  of  the  Buhrel- 

°  isVs.-Expeditir.n  of  Dr.  Pogprc,  for  the  Ger- 
man  ^African  .\ssoci,ition,  from  the  west  coast. 
Mutli  of  the  Conu'o,  in   the  Congo  basin,  pene- 

I«ver!' capital  of  the  >fuaU  Yanvo,  who  rules  a 
kinprdom  as  large  as  Oirmany.  ni-i„„™ 

"§75, -Expediti.m  of  Colonel  ChaiUe  Long 
Into  tile  country  of  the  Makraka  MamNiams. 

I87S. -Founding  by  8<'ottisli  »ubscril)er»  of 
the  mfsslon  staliou  c.dled  Llvi»K;"''f  •  ^'^, 
Maclear,  on  tlie  soutlum shores  of  Uke  >>"»»«. 
headquarters  of  the  mission  removed  in  ISSl  to 
Bandawe,  on  the  same  lake. 

l87S.-Mis8!on  f...,iuled  at  Blantvrt-,  in  the 
higiilauds  above  th.  Shire,  by  the  LsUblished 
Church  of  Scotland  ,  _,  , 

i87*-l87«.-t<<'izure  of  Berbcra  and  the  region 
of  tilt?  Juki  lllver.  on  the  Somali  Cou»t,  by 
Colonel  Chaille-Lour,  for  the  Khedive  of  Kgypt, 
and  tlieir  spe.Jy  evacuation,  on  the  remonstrance 

"'1^876 -Conference  at  Brussels  and  forma- 
tion of  the  Inlematlonai  African  Assot-iatlon, 
under  the  presi.eucy  of  the  king  o  ti.e  Bel- 
gians,   for  the  .xploratiou  aud  cTviliiallon   of 

^'1876.-  Voyage  of  Komolo  Oessl  around  Lake 

^'l^B-ft^- MM^.n  In  I'canda  e,.,l.ll.he<l  by  th. 
Cbur'eh"  Missionary  Society  of  England. 

l876-l87B.— Siienllflc  cxnioratlons  of  Ur. 
Hchwelnfurth  in  the  Arabhui  Uwert  between  the 
MIe  and  the  l(*.'d  Sua. 


APBJCA,  1880-1881. 

i»»6-x«8o.— Explorattone  and  Ftendiannexa- 
tlo^V  SvorgnanSe  Braxxa  between  the  Ogowi 

■"■^Sw.-Tr-LWlng.tone  InUnd  Ml»lon  foj 
ChriJtkn  work  in  the  Congo  valley,  ^toblUhed 
bv  "lie  East  London  Institute  for  Home  and 

*^,ll?!.87t- Second  admlnUtratlon  of  ^n.r.1 
Go"'on.«  Governor-General  of  the  Sudan. 
Darfur  and  the  Equatorial  Provincei. 

1877-1879.— War  of  the  British  In  South 
Afriawitiithe Zulu^ and  practical aubjugatlon 

°^%^°879°-J''"™<^y  "'  ^"^l  P,'°^K!'i"" 

the  continent  from  Benguela  via  the  Z?™bes 

1877-1880.— Explorations  of  the  Portugueee 
officer^,  Capello  and  Ivens,  In  western  and  cen- 
tral Africa,  from  Benguela  to  the  territory  of 
Yacca.  for  the  survey  of  the  river  Cuanjo  in 
i  J  relktlons  to  the  hydrographtc  baalni  of  the 
Congo  and  the  Zambesi.  i,^^„ 

187I.- Founding  tn  Glasgow  of  the  African 
Lakes  Company,  or  "The  Livingstone  Central 
Africa  Company."  for  trade  on  Lakes  NyMsa 
and  Tanganyika;  by  which  company  the  Ste- 
venson Boa.1"  Was  aubseouently  built  between 
the  two  lakes  above  named.  . 

1878"--Walrtsh  Bay  and  fifteen  miles  around 
It  (on  tha  western  coast.  In  Namaqualand)  de- 

"X'!!!jour'^:?rPaul  Solelllet  from  Saint 

"-TsJ^lMr-Royal  Geographical  Society'. 
East  Central  African  eipecVltlon,  under  JoMph 
T^mson,  to  the  Central  African  lakes  Tangan- 
yika,  Nyassa  and  U'opold   from  Zanxibar. 

1870.- Establishment,  by  tl.c  Belgian  Inter- 
nati.mal  Society,  of  a  .tatioc  at  Karema,  on  the 
eastern  shore  of  Lake  Tanganyika. 


1  shore  01  Liaae  1  BUB"";  •""•  ,  r.»_»,. 

1870- Formation  of  tlie  Internationa!  Congo 
AssoJfatlon  and  the  engagement  of  Mr.  Stanley 

'"Isy^- Missionary  expedition,  to  the  Upper 
Congo  region  by  i.e  Livingstone  Inland  MUslon 
and  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society.  .... 

i879.-Joumey  of  Mr.  Stewart,  of  the  Ll»  ng^ 
stonia  Mission,  on  Uke  Nya«a.  from  that  la6« 
to  Ijike  Tanganyika.  mi„., 

1870.-  DiscoVerv  of  the  wurce.  of  the  Niger 
In  the  hills  alH.ut  200  miles  east  of  Freetown,  the 
capital  of  Sierra  I^one.  by  the  French  explorer.. 
Zwelfel  and  Moustier. 

1879-1880.- Journey  of  Dr,  0«»"  fo- 
under U>e  auspice,  of  the  German  African  Socletr 
fmm  Morocco  U>  Timbuctoo,  and  thence  to  the 
ATlantlc  c.«st  In  Senegambia.  The  fact  that  the 
Sahara  Is  generally  alwve  the  "fa-'e'el.  and  can- 
not therefore  be  flooded,  was  determined  by  Dr. 

^i879-l88i.-Expedltlon  of  Dr.  Buchner  from 
LoanSk  tfTKawendo  and  the  kingdom  of  the 
Muata  Yanvo,  where  .ix  ""»'t''.  were  .pentin 
vain  efforu  to  procure  permlMlon  to  proceea 
further  Into  Uie  interior  Am.rlcan 

1880. -Mission  esublished  by  the  American 
Board  of  Foreign  Mission.  In  "the  region  of 
BIhl  and  the"  Sanx.,'  or  Quanxa,  wuth  of  the 

I  ^7£te-i8li.-War  of  the  British  with  the  Boer. 

i  "S^i^JiMt-Omclal  ml«lon  of  the  German 
explorer.  Gerhard  IloUM..  accmpMUd  by  Dr. 
I  Hlecker,  to  Abyulnla. 

20 


AFRICA.,  1880-1884. 


AFRICA,  1884-1891. 


I08o-t884.— Campal^s  In  Upper  Senegal, 
exttniling  French  supreniiicy  to  the  Nlgur. 

1880-1884. — German  Eas.  African  Expedition 
)  explore,  in  tlie  Congo  busin,  the  region  lx.'tweeD 
mv  Lualuba  and  the  Luapula. 

1880-1886.— Exploiationa  of  Dr.  Junker  in 
the  country  of  the  Niam-Niam,  and  hia  journey 
from  the  Equatorial  Province,  through  Unyoro 
and  Uganda,  to  Zanzibar. 

i88»-i889. — Joumer  of  Captain  Casati,  as  cor- 
respondent of  the  Italian  gcograpliical  review, 
"  L'  Exploratore,"  from  Sualdn.  on  tlie  Red  Sea, 
into  the  district  of  the  Mombuttu.  west  of  Lalie 
Albert,  and  the  country  of  the  Niam-Niiim ;  in 
which  travels  he  was  arresteii  by  the  revolt  uf 
the  Miihdi  and  forced  to  remain  with  Emin  Pasha 
until  rescued  with  the  latter  by  Stanley,  in  isau. 

l88t. — French  protectorate  over  Tuiiis. 

1881. — Portuguese  cxpe<iitiou  of  Captain  An- 
drad  I  from  Senna  on  the  Zambesi  River  to  the 
old  gold  jiiucs  of  Slanica. 

iSdi. — Journey  of  F.  L.  and  W.  D.  James 
from  Suakin.  on  the  Rol  Sea.  through  the  Rase 
country,  in  the  Egyptian  Sudan. 

1881. — Founiling  of  a  mis.sion  on  (he  Congo, 
at  Stanley  Pool,  by  the  Baptist  Missionary  So- 
ciety of  England. 

1881-1884.— E.tpodition  of  Dr.  Pogge  and 
Lieutenant  Wissmann  to  Nyangwc  on  tin;  Lua- 
laba,  from  which  point  Lieutenant  Wissniann 
ti-irsucil  the  journey  to  Zanzibar  crossing  the 
.'iintiiient. 

1*81-1885.— Revnlt  of  the  Mahdi  in  tlie  Su- 
ti;in  ;  Hie  mission  of  tlcnenil  Uonlon  ;  tlic  unsuc- 
ccssi  il  expedition  from  England  to  rescue  him; 
th.'  full  of  the  city  and  his  death. 

I33i-i?87.— French  pnitectorate  established 
oil  111.'  UpiHT  Nigt'r  and  Up|Mr  Senegal. 

l88a. — Itidian  incupatiou  of  Abyssinian  terri- 
tory oil  tlie  Hay  of  .Vssab. 

1882-1883.— Girman  scicntlHc  expedition. 
iinler  Dr.  Hi^lim  and  Herr  Reichanl,  to  Lakes 
T.iin;:invika  and  Mcxto. 

1 8(!2- 1 883.— Journey  of  Mr.  II.  II.  Johnston 
on  till' Colli;!). 

1883.— 'ierman  acquisition  of  territory  on  An- 
pru  Peipiefia  Hay.  in  Great  Xanmiiualaiid. 

1883. — Exploration  of  Masailand  by  Dr. 
Fisclier.  under  the  auspices  of  the  Hamburg 
Ueiii;rapliieal  Soi'it-ty. 

1883.— Kxplunitiona  of  Lieutenant  Giraud  in 
East  Central  Africa,  descending  for  some  dis- 
t.iiiii'  the  Liiapiila. 

1883. — Seientirte  Investigation  of  the  basins  of 
Ijikes  Xyassa  and  Tanganyika,  bv  Mr.  Henry 
Dniinmond,  for  the  African  Uikes  Company. 

1883.— Journey  of  M.  Revoil  in  llie  South 
Somali  country  to  tin-  Upper  Jub. 

1883-1884.— Explorations  of  Mr  Joseph  Thom- 
v'ln  from  Momliiissa.  through  Masailand.  to  tlie 
I  iirtheiist  corner  of  the  Victoria  Nyaiiza.  uiidi  r 
tlie  auspices  of  the  Royal  (leogniphieal  Sinietv. 

I883-I88S.— War  of  the  French  with  the  ll'iv 
T;.*  of  Madagascar,  ri'-mlling  In  the  establish- 
liictil  of  a  French  pnitectonite  over  tlie  island. 

1883-1885, — Exploratiim  of  Lieutenant  Giraud 
in  till-  lake  ri'giou. 

1883-1886.— .Vustrian  expeiliilon.  under  Dr. 
Ilohib,  from  Cape  Colony,  thniiiuh  ilio  Ui«r 
s'atei,  Rechiianalanil  and   MatiilH-hland   to  the 

1834. — .Annexation  bv  Germany  of  the  whole 
vriitern  coast  (except  \ValAsh  liiiy)  between  the 


j 

21 


Portuguese  poasessiona  and  those  of  the  British 
In  South  Africa. 

1884.— German  occupation  of  territory  on  the 
Kameruns  River,  under  treaties  with  the  nati\e 
chiefs.  English  treaties  securing  contiguous 
territory  to  and  including  the  delta  of  the  Niger. 

1884. — German  protectorate  over  Togolaud 
on  the  Gold  Coast  declared. 

1884.— Expedition  of  Vr.  Peters.  rcprcs<  nling 
the  Society  of  German  Colonization,  to  the 
coast  region  of  Zanzibar,  and  his  negotiation  of 
treaties  with  ten  native  chiefs,  ceding  the  sover- 
eignty of  their  dominions. 

1884.— Crown  colony  ot  British  Bechuanalaud 
acciuired  from  the  South  African  Republic. 

1884.— Portuguese  Government  expedition, 
under  Major  Carvalho,  from  Loant'.a  to  the  Cen- 
tnU  African  potentate  colled  the  Muiita  Yaiivo. 

1884.— Exj  iomtion  of  the  Bcnue  uud  the 
Adamawa,  by  Herr  Flegel. 

1884  .—Scientific  exp«lition  of  Mr.  11.  IL 
Johnston  to  Kilimanjaro  Mountain. 

1884.— Discovery  of  the  M'bHngi  or  Ubangi 
River  (afterwards  identified  with  the  AVelii).  by 
Caiitjiin  Ilansens  and  Lieutenant  Van  Gtle. 

1884. — Exploration  of  Reiehard  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  Congo  Str.te. 

A.  D.  1884-1891.— Partition  of  the  interior 
between  European  Powers. —  "  The  partition 
of  Africa  may  be  said  to  date  from  tlie  Berlin 
Conference  of  18t<4-(»5  ^see  Com  o  Fhke  Statf.). 
Prior  to  that  Conference  the  ((uosiicn  of  inland 
liouiidaries  was  scarcely  coiisidend.  .  .  .  The 
founding  of  the  Congo  Independent  State  was 
probably  the  most  Important  result  of  Ihe  Ci  n- 
feri'nce.  .  .  .  Two  months  after  Ilie  Conference 
had  concluded  its  labours.  Great  Britain  and  Ger- 
many hod  a  sirioiLs  dispute  in  regard  to  their  re- 
spective spheres  of  influence  on  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea.  .  .  .  The  eoinproniise  .  .  .  iirriMii  at 
placed  the  Mission  Station  of  Viitnria  witiiin  the 
German  sphere  of  intliience,"  Tlie  fiontiir  be- 
tween the  two  spheres  of  influence  on  tlie  Itiulit 
of  Biafra  was  subsequer.tly  defined  by  a  line 
drawn,  in  1HH6,  from  the  coast  to  Yola.  on  liie 
Benue.  The  Royal  Niger  Company,  constituted 
by  a  royal  charter,  "was  given  iidministnitivc 
powers  over  territories  covere<l  by  its  treaties. 
The  regions  thereby  iiIuckI  undir  British  pro- 
tection .  .  .  apart  from  the  Oil  Rivers  I )istriit. 
which  Is  directly  administered  bv  the  Crown, 
emi  race  the  coastal  lands  betwei  n  t-at'o*  anil  the 
northern  frinitler  of  Ciiinarons,  the  Lower  Niger 
(including  territories  of  Sokolo.  Gandu  and 
Rorgo),  and  the  Benue  from  Yola  to  it.s  (in- 
tluence."  By  a  protixol  signed  Decenilier  24. 
IHH.'i.  Germany  and  France  "defined  their  re- 
spective splierca  of  influence  nnii  mtiun  on  the 
Biglit  of  Biafra.  and  also  on  tlie  Slave  I  oast  111. d 
In  Senecanibia."  This  "  fixed  tlie  inland  exten- 
sion of  the  (terman  spliereof  iiilbu  ne<'(CaniHn>i:si 

Ht  l.'i°  E.  longitude,  Greenwieh \1  present 

it  allows  the  Fn'tieh  Congo  territories  to  expand 
iiloiig  the  western  bank  of  till- Mliaiigi  .  ,  pro- 
vided no  other  tributary  of  the  M'bangi  Conuo  is 
found  to  the  west,  in  wliiili  case,  nceonlinir  to 
the  Berlin  Treaty  of  iwt^.'i,  the  conventional 
basin  of  the  Congo  would  gain  an  exiinsion  ' 
(In  the  12th  of  .May,  IWd.  Fiance  and  Portugal 
siirned  a  convention  bv  wliieh  Fnuiee  "seiuiel 

!)j..  .-x.-lMsiv..   r<-.]itr-.!  M  Imtli  »-Jir,k<:  e.f  tl-,e  I'-.i^:;- 

iniinza  (in  Senei;ambial.  and  the  P.>rtiii'iiese 
frontier  in  the  south  was  advanced  approximuti  iy 


AFMCA,  1884-1891. 


ht 


il 


to  the  southern  limit  of  the  basin  of  the  Citfini. 
On  tlie  Congo,  Portugal  retained  tlie  Massabi  .lis- 
triot  to  which  France  had  laid  claim,  but  botli 
banltaof  the  Loango  were  Uft  to  trance        In 
1884  tlircc   ripresi'Dtatives  of    the  J'«-'<;«y  „'"' 
German  Colonization  — Dr.  Peters,  Dr.  JQIilki, 
and  Count  Pftil  -  quietly  concluded  treaties  with 
the  chiefs  of  I'seguha,  tisanii,  Nguru,  and  Lsa- 
eara  bv  wldeli  tliose  territories  were  conveyed 
to  the"Societv  in  question.     "Dr.  Peters  .  .  . 
arme.1  with  his  treaties,   ittur..cd  to  Berlin  in 
February,  \m.     On  tlie  27th  February  the  day 
following  the  signature  of  tae  General  Act  of  the 
Berlin  Conference,  an  Imperial  ts.hutzbnef,  or 
Cliarter  of  Protection,  secured  to  the  hociety  tor 
Gtrman    Colonization    the    territories  .  .  .    ac- 
quired for  tliem  through  Dr.  Peters  treaties:  in 
otlier  words,  a  German  Protectorate   was  i)ro- 
clai  .led      Wlien  it  became  known  tliat  Germany 
hiu'  .--izcd  upon  the  Zanzibar  mainland,  tlic  in- 
dignation in  eolmiial  circles  knew  no  bounds. 
Prior  to  1884,  tiie  continental  lands  facing 
Zanzibar  were  almost  exclusively  under  Rritis  i 
inlUienec.     The  principal  traders  were  Bntisli 
subjects,  and  the  Sultans  Government  was  a,  - 
ministered  under  tlie  advice  of  the  British  Kesi- 
dent      The  entire  region  between  tlie  C  oast  and  | 
;iie  Lakes  was  regardeilas  lieing  under  tlie  nonu- 
nal  suzerainty  of  the  Sultan.  .  .  .  t'tili.   Great 
B'itain  had  no  territorial  chums  on  tlie  dominions 
of  the  Sultan."    Tlic  Sultan  formally  protested 
and  Gn^at  Britain  championed  his  cause ;  but  to  no 
effect     In  tlie  end  tlie  Sultan  of  Zanzibar  yielded 
tlie  German  Protietomteoverthefourinlandprov- 
Incs  and  over  Vitu,  and  the  ^ritisli  and  German 
Governments  arraiigeil  questions  between  them, 
provisionallv.  by  the  Anglo-Oennan  (  onvention 
of   1886    wliieh  was  afterwards  super«>ded  by 
the  mori  detiiiite  Cimventionof  July  1800.  whieli 
will   be   spoken  of  below.     In  April    188.,  tlie 
rielits  of   tlie  Smietv  for  German  Colonization 
were  transferred  to  tlie  German  Last  Africa  As- 
sociation, whh  Dr.  Peters  at  Its  liead     The  Brit- 
ish East  Africa  Company  t.^ok  over  concessions 
tli.it  liad  iKen  grunted  by  tile  Sultan  of  Zanzibar 
to  Sir  William  Miukiiinon.  and  received  a  royal 
cliarter  in  SeptemlKT,  1888.     In  Smtliwest  Af- 
rii-i    "an  enterprising  Bremen  imreliant.   llerr 
I  U'lVritz   anil  suIm  quently  the  German  Consul- 
(, .11.  nil,  l>r.  Naelitiiral,  eoncludeil  a  sines  of  po- 
litirul  and  commir.ial  treaties witli  native cbiifs, 
wliereby   a  claim   was  instituted    over    Angra 
P.ipiefta,  and  ov.r  vast  districts  in  tlie  Interior 
lietwccu  tlie  (Iraugc  Uiver  ami  Cape  Fno.   .   .   . 
It  w lis  useless  for  the  Cape  eol. mists  to  protest. 
On    tlie    13th   October   18*1   Germany  formally 
nolili.-d   to   the   Powers   her    I'nitectorate    over 
Si.Mlli.  West  Africa.   .   .   .  On  ^rd  August  ISC,  the 
GiTiiian  Colonial  Company  fur  NiuthWest  At- 
Ilea   was   founded,   and  .  .  .  ncelvid   the   liii- 
l«-rlMl   sanction   for   its  ineorporalion.      But   in 
Aujiist  1880  a  new  A.s.sociai ion  was  fnrmed-- 
the  German  West- Africa  Company  —  and  the  aii- 
ministration  of  its  territories  wiis  placid  under  an 
Imperial   Coiiinilssiomr.  .  .  .  T'.-  intrusion  of 
Germany  into  South-\V  est  Afrha  >:c  till  as  a  (heels 
upon    no   hss  than  a  spur  to,  the  extension  of 
British    influence   nortliwards  to  the   /ainbe/l. 
.\no!lier  obstacle  to  thi«  extension  arose  frmn  the 
Boer   lusurrectlo'i."     The  Traii'vnal,    villi   in- 
creawd   indepenaencc  liad  adopted  the   title  of 
South  African  Hepublic.    "Zulu-land,  haviiii;  lost 
Its  independence,  was  partitioned:  a  third  of  Its 


AFBICA.  1884-1891. 

territories,  over  which  a  republic  bjid  been  pro- 
claimed, was  absorbed  (^^'"•'er  188TJ  by  the 
Transvaal:  the  remainder  was  added  (14th  May 
1887)  to  the  British  possessions.  Amatonga-lami 
was  n  1888  also  taken  under  Britisl.  protection. 
By  a  convention  with  the  Soutli  African  Bepab- 
lie,  Britain  acquired  in  1884  the  Crown  colony 
of  Bechuana-land;  and  in  the  early  part  of  18«j 
a  Brilisli  Protectorate  was  proclaimeil  over  ">« 
remaining  portion  of  Bechuana-land.  f  u"""; 
more  "a  British  Protectorate  was  it^tituted 
(18851  over  the  country  boimded  by  the  iiambezt 
In  the' north,  the  British  possessions  in  the  south, 
■  the  Portuguese  province  of  Sofala  in  the  east, 
and  the  20tli  degn^of  east  longitude  in  lie  wes^ 
It  was  at  this  juncture  that  Mr.  Cecil  Kliodes 
came  forward,  and,  having  obtained  "'ri"'"  J-""; 
cesshms  from   Loliengula,  founded  the  BritisU 

South  Africa  Company On  the  29th  Oc- 

S  1889,  tlic  British  South  Africa  Company 
was  granted  a  royal  charter.     It  was  declared  m 
this  charter  that  ■the  principal  flel.  of  the  optra.- 
tionsof  liie  British  South  African  Companv  shil 
be  She  region  of  South  Africa  lying  inimediatel) 
to  the  nortli  of  British  Beehuaiialand,  and   to 
the  north  and  west  of  the  South  African  Uepub- 
llc    and  to  the  west  of  the  Portuguese  dciniin 
loiis  •"    No  northcru  limit  was  given,  and  the 
other  boundaries  were   vaguely  detlned.      Hie 
position  of  Swazi-laml  was  dehnite^y  ^Jt   ^J! 
1890  by  an  arrangement  Ix'twcen  Great  Bntam 
and  the  Soutli  African  Uenuulic  wliich  provides 
for  the  continued  independence  of  Swaziland  an.  1 
a  joint  control  over  the  white  settlers     A  Briiisli 
Protectorate  was  proclaimed  over  Nyassa-huvl 
and  the  Shire  Iliglilands  in  1889-00.     To  ret.ini 
now  to  the  prweedings  of  other  Po^C" 'n  Af f," ;  i 
"Itiilv  took  formal  possession,  in  July  188.,  <)t 
the  bay  and  territory  of  Assab.     The   Ita  laii 
coast-line  on  tlie  Bed  Sea  was  extended  fnim  Kas 
Kasar  (18'  2'  N.  Lat.)  to  the  southern  Ixiundary 
of  lUheita,  towards  <  .iK.k.     During  1880,  sliort  ly 
after  the  death  of   King  Joiiannes,  Keren  and 
Asmara  were  occupied  by  Italian  trmips      .Mi  iie_ 
lik  of  Slioa,  who  succeeded   to  the  throne  «i 
Abvs,sinia  after  subjugating  ail  the  Abyssinian 
provinces,  except  Tigre,  .llspatehed  an  embassy 
o  King  Humbert,  the  nsult  of  wlueli  was  that 
the  new  Negus  acknowledged  (29tli  September. 
1S80)  the  Protectorate  of  Italy  over  Abyssinia, 
and  its  sovereignty  over  tlie  territories  of  Mas- 
sawa    Keren  and    Asmara."     By    tlie  Protocols 
Tf  24111  Marcli  and  l.-.th  Ap.ll.   l-'Ol.  Ili'l.v  "'» 
(ireat  BritJiin  detine  their  respective  Spheres  ,.t 
Intluence  in  Kast  Africa.      "  But  since  then  Italy 
has  practiially   withdrawn   from  her  position 
She  has  absolutely  no  hold  over  Abyssinia    .   .  _ 
Italy  has  also  succeeded  in  establishing  hersell 
on  the  Soimil  Coast."     By  treaties  eoncludeil  m 
1880    ••iheeoaslaiiamlsbet-veenCapeWarsheikh 

(ahoi'it  2^^  iilt'  N.  lit.),  and  Cape  Bedwiii  (- 
I,,  n;  1,1,  )_ a, listance of  4r>() miles  — were  plan. 1 
under  Italian  prntection.  Italy  Bubs..quently  r\ 
tended    (I81H))  'ler   Pmlectorate  over  the  Soiuul 

(•oast    to  the  Jul.  river The  Brllish   IT.. 

'  leeli.rate  on  the  Somal  Coast  facing  Aden  ly.w 
cMcnils  fniin  the  Italian  fr.mtier  at  lias  llafmi 
toItasJllmle(i;lM.VK.  long.).  .  .  .  The  act iv 
ilyof  I'ninie  in  lier  Senegainbian  province  .  . 
iluiiiitf  Ihe  l,i.st  limi.irril  years  .  '■■f  '■;'•'';,' 
resulted  iu  a  considerable  expansion  of  her  ttrn 
t.iry  .  The  French  have  established  a  claiin 

over  tiie  eonntry  intervening  between  our  Gold 


«»<> 


AFRICA,  1884-1891. 


AFRICA,  188S. 


roast  Colony  and  Liberia.  A  more  precise  de- 
limitation of  the  frontier  between  Sierra  I,eoDe 
and  Liberia  resulted  from  tiie  treaties  signeci  at 
.Monrovia  on  the  Utli  of  November,  1887.  In  188« 
I'ortugal  withdrew  ail  riglits  over  Dehome.  .  .  . 
Itecently,  a  French  sphere  of  influence  has  been 
instituted  over  the  whole  of  tlie  Suharan  regions 
lietween  Algeria  and  Senegambia.  .  .  .  Declara- 
lions  were  exchanged  (.'5th  August  1890)  between 
I  France  and  Great  Britain]  with  the  following 
results;  France  became  a  consenting  party  to  the 
Anglo-German  Convention  of  1st  July  1800.  (3.) 
Great  Britain  recognised  a  French  sphere  of  in- 
lluencc  over  Madagascar.  .  .  .  And  (3)  Great  Brit- 
.'liu  recognised  the  sphere  of  influence  of  France  to 
tlic-iouthof  her  Mediterranean  possessions,  up  to 
a  line  from  Say  on  the  Niger  to  Harrua  on  Lake 
Tsiil,  drawn  in  such  a  manner  as  to  comprise  in 
the  sphere  of  action  of  the  British  Niger  Com- 
pany all  that  fairly  lielongs  to  the  Icingdom  of 
Sokuto."  The  Anglo-German  Convention  of 
.luly.  1890,  already  referred  to,  established  by  its 
main  provisions  the  following  deflnitiuns  of  ter- 
ritory: "The  Anglo-German  frontier  in  East 
Africa,  which,  by  the  Convention  of  18S6,  ended 
at  a  point  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Victoria 
Nyaiiza  was  continued  on  the  same  latitude  across 
the  lake  to  the  confines  of  the  Congo  Independent 
State;  but,  on  the  western  side  of  the  lake,  this 
frontier  was,  if  necessary,  to  lie  ilelli'cted  to  the 
so\itli,  in  orderto  include  Mount  M'fumbiro  within 
I  lie  Hrilish  sphere.  .  .  .  Treaties  in  that  district 
were  made  on  behalf  of  the  BritiNli  Kast  Afriea 
Company  bv  Mr.  Stanley,  on  his  return  (May 
18X«)  from  the  relief  of  "Kiiiin  Pasha.  .  .  .  (2.) 
'I'lie  southern  boundary  of  the  German  sphere  of 
iiilliiencc  in  East  Afriea  was  recognised  as  that 
origiiiallv  drawn  to  a  point  on  the  eastern  shore 
•  if  Like  Nyassa,  whence  it  was  continued  by  the 
I  a>tiTn,  northern,  and  western  shores  of  the  lake 
111  the  northern  bank  of  the  nicutli  of  the  Uivor 
Siiiigwe.  From  this  point  the  AngloOerman 
Iroiitier  was  continued  to  Lake  Tanganika,  in 
UK  li  a  manner  as  to  leave  the  Stevenson  Hoad 
wiihiii  the  British  sphere.  (3.)  The  Northern 
Irutilier  of  British  Last  Afriea  was  ilellned  by 
tile  .Iiib  Uiverandthe  eonterminois  boundary  of 
the  Italian  sphere  of  inlluence  in  Galla-land  and 
.\liyssinia  up  to  the  coulines  of  Egypt;  in  the 
«i~t,  liy  the  Conco  State  and  the  Congo-Nile 
watershed.  (4.)  Germany  withdrew,  in  favor  of 
liiiluin.  her  Protectorate  over  Vitu  and  her  claims 
til  all  territories  on  the  mainland  to  the  north  of 
the  Hiver  Tana,  as  also  over  tl":  islamls  of  Pati« 
anil  .Manila.  (5.)  In  South-West  Afriea.  the 
.\iij;lo-German  frontier,  originally  fixed  up  to  i'i 
south  hititude.  was  eontirmed:  but  from  this 
p'liiit  the  boundary-line  was  drawn  in  sueli  a  man- 
in  r  eastward  and  northward  as  to  give  Germany 
frie  access  to  the  ZamlKzi  by  the  c'liobe  Hiver 
|it  )  'I'he  Anglo-Gi'rman  froiitier  betwein  Ti'l'o 
ami  (iold  (nast  Colony  was  fixed,  anil  that  lie 
iiveiii  the  Camarons  and  the  Briti.sh  Niger  Ti  r- 
ritories  was  provLsionally  adjusteil,  (7.)  The 
Free  Iraile  zone,  defineil  by  the  Art  of  Ihrlin 
(1^8."))  was  recognised  as  applicable  to  the  present 
arniiigement  between  Britain  and  Germany.  (8  ) 
A  British  Protectorate  was  recognised  over  the 
iloniinions  of  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar  within  the 
British  coastal  zone  and  over  the  islands  of  Zan- 
jihar  and  Prmba  nritain,  h -•'"c-.cr,  itmicriiKiU 
to  use  her  influence  to  secure  (what  have  since 
been  acquired)   corregpouding    advantages  for 


Germany  within  the  German  coastal  rone  and 
over  the  island  of  Mafia.  Finally  (9),  the  island 
of  Heligoland,  in  the  North  Sea,  was  ceded  by 
Britain  to  Germany."  By  a  treaty  cont^luded  in 
June,  1891,  lietween  Great  Britain  and  Port;igal, 
"  Great  Britain  acquired  a  broad  central  sphere 
of  influence  for  the  expansion  of  her  possessions 
in  South  Africa  northward  to  and  lieyond  the 
Zambezi,  along  a  path  which  provides  for  the  un- 
interrupted passage  of  British  goods  and  British 
enterprise,  up  to  the  confines  of  the  Congo  In- 
dependent State  and  German  Ea.st  Africa.  .  .  . 
Portugal,  on  the  East  Coast  secured  the  Lower 
Zambezi  from  Zumbo,  and  the  Lower  Shire  from 
the  Huo  Confluence,  the  entire  Hinterland  of 
Mosambique  up  to  Lake  Nyassa  and  the  Hinter- 
land of  Sofala  to  the  confines  of  the  South  African 
Itepublic  and  the  Matabclc  kingdom.  On  the 
West  Coast,  Portugal  received  the  entire  Hinter- 
land iH'hind  her  provinces  in  Lower  Guinea,  up 
to  the  confines  of  the  Congo  Independent  State, 
and  the  upper  course  of  the  Zambezi.  .  .  .  On 
May  ■J.'ith  1891  a  Convention  was  signed  at  Lis- 
bon, whicli  has  put  an  end  to  the  dispute  between 
Portugal  and  the  Congo  Independent  State  as  to 
the  possession  of  Lunda.  Houghly  speaking,  the 
country  was  equally  divided  Ix-tween  the  itispu- 
tants.  .  .  .  Lord  Salisbury,  in  his  negotiations 
with  Germany  and  Portugal,  very  wisely  upheld 
the  principle  of  free-trade  which  was  laid  down 
by  the  Act  of  Berlin,  ISS.'i,  in  regard  to  the  free 
transit  of  goods  through  territories  in  whidi  tuo 
or  more  powers  are  indirectly  interestiil," 
'"Thus,  by  the  Anglo-German  compact,  the  con- 
tracting powers  reserved  for  their  respective 
siibjccLs  a  '  right  of  way,'  so  to  speak,  along 
the  main  channels  or  routes  of  coniniunicatiiui. 
Through  tlie  applii^ation  of  the  same  principle 
in  the  recent  Anglo-Portuguese  t'ouvcntiun. 
I'lirtiigal  obtjiins  not  only  a  'right  of  wav' 
across  the  British  Zaniliesi  zone,  but  also  tiie 
privili  nccif  constructing  railways  and  telegniphs. 
>he  thereby  secures  free  and  uninterrupted  cmi- 
iiectii/ii  between  her  pos.sessions  on  the  East 
(  cia>t  am',  those  on  the  West  Coast.  A  similar 
ci  luissiin  is  made  to  Britain  in  the  Znuibisi 
I  iiMii.  within  the  Portuguese  sphere.  Finally, 
till  /anibisi  itself  has  been  declareil  free  to  the 
HaL's  (if  all  nations.  Britain  has  stipulated  for 
the  right  of  preemption  in  the  event  of  Por- 
liigal  wishing  to  dispose  of  territories  .si  uih  of 
the  Zambesi."  —  A.  S.  White,  j'/tt  Ui ii I,]  ii,i lit 
'J  .\fiini.  nnmil  ill.,  rcr.,  1892. — See,  also,  Sot'TU 
Akiik  A,  and  Uganda. 

A.  D.  i884-if95. — Chronology  of  European 
Exploration.  Missionary  Settlement,  Coloni- 
zation and  Occupation. 

1684-1885.— The  B<  rliii  Conference  of  Powers, 
111  III  to  ihtermiiie  the  limitsof  territory  cuiiculed 
til  the  International  Congo  Asso<'iation,  to  estab- 
lish fn  iiloni  of  trade  within  that  territory,  and 
til  furinulate  rules  'or  regulating  in  future  the 
acquisition  of  African  territory. 

1884-1885.— Journey  of  Mr.  Walter  M.  Kerr 
from  Cape  Colony,  across  the  Zambesi,  to  Lake 
Nyassa.  and  down  the  Shire  Kivcr  to  the  con.-t. 

1884-1885. — Travels  of  Sir.  F.  L.  James  and 
party  in  the  Somali  country. 

1884-1887.— Exploration  by  Dr.  Sthinz  of  the 
IM  wlv  uc(|Uired  German  tirritories  in  Afriea. 

lE^s— Tninsfcr  of  the  rt-lits  of  the  H:-.r!rty 
of  tiirnian  CoUmization  to  the  German  East 
.Vliicu    Company,    and  cxteusioQ   of  imperial 

23 


li 


I 


APIUCA,  1885. 

protection  to  the  territories  clsimed  by  the  Com- 
pany. German  acquisition  of  AVltu,  north  of 
Zauzibar. 

1885.  — Affreement  between  Germany  nmJ 
Fnince,  dcfliiiiig  their  respective  spheres  of  in- 
fliiincc  on  the  Bight  of  Blafra,  on  the  sliivo 
coast  and  in  Scncgambla. 

1885.— Transformation  of  the  Congo  Associa- 
tion into  the  Independent  State  of  the  Congo, 
Willi  King  Leopold  of  Belgium  as  its  sover- 
eign. 

1885.— British  Protectorate  "Xtcnded  to  the 
Zamlnsi,  over  the  country  west  of  the  Portu^ 
gui'Sf  province  of  Sofala,  to  the  JOtfi  degree  of 
east  longiliiile. 

1885.— British  Protectorate  extended  over  the 
reniiiiudir  of  Bechuanaland. 

1885.—  Italian  occupation  of  Massowa,  on  the 
Red  Sea. 

1885.— Mission  of  Mr.  Joseph  Thomson,  for 
the  National  African  Company,  up  the  Niuer.  to 
Sokoto  and  Oando,  securing  treaties  with  the 
sultans  under  which  the  company  acijulred  para- 
mount rigiits.  _ 

1885-1888.  —  .Mission  of  M.  Borclll  to  the 
kingdom  of  Shoa  (Southern  Ethiopia)  nnd  south 

of  it.  ,   „, 

1885-1889.— When,  after  the  fall  of  Khar- 
tmini  and  the  death  of  General  Gorilon,  in  18S5, 
the  Sudan  was  abandoned  to  the  Malidi  and  the 
fanatical  Moliammcdi  is  of  the  interinr,  Dr.  Ed- 
Wiird  Schnitzcr,  better  known  as  Eniiu  Pasha, 
wlio  ha<l  been  in  command,  under  Gordon,  of  the 
province  of  the  Equator,  extending  up  to  Lake 
Albert,  was  cut  olT  for  six  years  from  conimuni- 
ration  with  the  civilizeil  world.  In  WST  an  ex- 
pedition to  rescue  him  and  his  coininaiid  was 
sent  out  under  Henry  M.  Stanley.  It  entered 
the  continent  from  the  west,  made  its  way  up 
tlie  Congo  and  the  Aruwimi  to  Yambuya ;  thence 
through  the  unexplored  region  to  Luke  Albert 
Nyunza  and  into  communication  witli  Emm 
Pasha;  then  returning  to  Yambuya  for  tin-  rear- 
guard wliich  had  been  left  there;  again  travers- 
ing the  savage  land  to  Lake  Albert,  and  passing 
from  there,  with  Emin  and  his  companions,  by 
way  of  Lake  Albert  Edward  N.  sn/.n  Chen 
ascertained  to  be  the  ultimate  reservoir  of  the 
Nile  system)  around  the  southern  extn'niity  of 
the  Viitoria  Nyanza,  to  Zanzibar,  which  was 
reached  at  the  end  of  1889. 

l886.— Settlement  lictween  Great  Britain  ami 
Germany  of  the  coast  territory  to  be  left  under 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar,  and 
of  the  "sphercsof  influence"  to  be  appropriated 
respectively  by  themselves,  between  tlie  lakes 
and  the  eastern  coast,  north  of  the  Portuguese 
posiicssions. 

1886.— .\grceinent  between  Fnnre  nivl  Portu- 
gal delluiiig  limits  of  territory  in  Senegiiiiiliia  and 
ut  the  mouth  of  the  Congo. 

1886.— Tniusformathm  of  the  National  African 
Conipany  into  the  British  Koyal  Niger  ("in  paiiy, 
witli  a  tharter  giving  iK)wers  of  administration 
over  a  large  domain  on  the  Hiver  Niger. 

1886.— Mission  station  foundeil  by  Mr.  Arnot 
at  Bunkeya,  in  the  southeastern  part  of  tlie 
Congo  State. 

1886-1887.— Journey  of  Lieutenant  Wis^mann 
aeross  the  continent,  from  Lulualiurg,  u  stiitioii 
i)f  liie  Congo  A.^soc!fttion,  in  the  ilHiiiinin:i  nf 
Mimia  Yanvo,  to  Nyangwe,  on  the  Liialaba, 
uu<l  thence  to  Zanzibar. 


AFRICA,  1889-1890. 

l88«.l889.— ExpeditionK  of  Dr.  Zintgraff  in 
the  Cameroon*  Intenor  and  to  the  Beuue,  for  the 
bringing  of  the  country  under  German  inlluenre. 
1887.— Annexation  of  Zululand,  partly  to  the 
Transvaal,  or  South  African  Republic,  and  the 
remainder  to  the  British  possessions. 

1887.— French  gunboats  launched  on  the  tp- 
per  Niger,  making  a  reconnolssanco  nearly  to 
Timbuctoo. 

1887.— Indentity  of  the  Well6  River  with  the 
Mbangl  or  Ubangl  established  by  Captain  Van 
Qi\e  and  Lieutenant  Lienart 

i887.— First  ascent  of  Kilimanjaro  by  Dr. 
Ilans  Sleyer.  _        ,     „. 

1887-1889.— Exploration  by  Captain  Binger 
of  the  region  between  the  great  bend  of  the 
Niger  and  the  countries  of  the  Gold  Co  tst. 

1887-1800.— Expedition  of  Count  Tcleki 
through  JIasailand,  having  for  lU  moit  impor- 
tant result  the  discovery  of  the  Basso-Narok  or 
Black  Lake,  to  which  the  discoverer  gave  t^o 
name  of  Lake  Rudolf,  and  Lake  Stefr.nie. 

1888.— Chartering  of  the  Imperial  British 
East  Africa  Company,  under  concessions  granted 
by  the  sultan  of  Zanzibar  and  by  native  chiefs, 
with  powers  of  administration  over  a  n",'ion  de- 
fined ultimately  as  extending  from  the  river 
Umba  northward  to  the  river  Jub,  and  inland  to 
and  across  Lake  Victoria  near  its  middle  to  the 
eastern  boundary  of  the  Congo  Free  State. 

1888.— British  8uprem->cv  over  Matabeleland 
.secured  by  treaty  with  its  King  Lobengula. 

1888.  — British  Protectorate  extended  over 
AmatoBgaland.  _  .^      „ 

1888.— Ascent  of  Mt.  Kilimanjaro  by  Mr. 
Fillers  and  Dr.  Abbott;  also  by  Dr.  Hans 
Meyer.  ,     ,     , 

1888.— Travels  of  Joseph  Thomson  in  the  At- 
las and  southern  Morocco. 

1889.— Royal  charter  granted  to  the  British 
South  Africa  Company,  witli  rights  and  powers 
in  the  region  called  ilamliesia  north  of  British 
BeehuBiialand  and  the  South  African  Itepiiblic, 
and  between  the  Portuguese  territory  on  the  east 
and  the  German  territory  on  the  west. 

1889.— Will  of  King  Leopold,  making  Bel- 
gium heir  to  the  sovereign  rights  of  the  Congo 
Free  State.  ,      ,  . 

1889.— Protectorate  of  Italy  over  Abyssinia 
acknowledged  by  the  Negus. 

1889.— Portuguese  Roman  Catholic  Mission 
established  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Nyassa. 
Portuguese  exploration  under  Serpa  Pinto  in  the 
Lake  Nvassa  region,  with  designs  of  occupancy 
frustrated  by  the  British. 

1889.— Jotimev  of  M.  Crampel  from  the 
Ogowe  to  the  Likuala  tributary  of  the  Congo, 
and  return  directly  westward  to  the  coast. 

1889.— Dr.  Wolf's  exploration  of  the  southcnst 
Niger  basin,  where  he  met  his  death. 

1889.— Major  Macdonald's  exploration  of  the 
Benue,  sometimes  called  the  Tehadda  (a  branch 
of  the  Niger),  and  of  its  tributary  the  Keblii. 

1889.— .lourney  of  Mr,  H.  H.  Johnston  north 
nf  Laki^  Nvassa  and  to  Lake  Leopold. 

1889.— Journey  of  Mr.  Sharpe  through  the 
country  lying  between  the  Shire  and  Loangwa 
Rivers.  ,      „ 

1889.— Mr.  Pigott's  journey  to  the  Upper 
Tiina,  ill  the  service  of  the  Iinp-irial  British  East 
Afrit:;!  Ciitiitmuv. 

1889-1890.— British  Protectorate  lieclarcd  over 
Nyussidand  and  the  Shire  Higiilauds. 


24 


t  'I 


AFRICA,  1889-1890. 


AFRICA,  1891-1893. 


explomtlons    ia    Mada- 
and  MX.   Mahtre    and 


i889-i890.— Italian  Protectorate  established 
over  territory  on  the  eastern  (oceanic)  Somali 
coast,  from  tL  ^  Oulf  of  Aden  to  tiie  Jiib  River. 

1889-1890. — Imperial  Britisti  East  Africa  Com- 
pany'n  expedition,  under  Jackson  and  OlkIkc,  for 
tlie  exploring  of  a  new  road  to  tlie  Victoria  Ny- 
anzaLnd  Uganda. 

i889-i89<>. — Captain  Lugard's  exploration  of 
the  river  babaklii  for  the  Imperial  British  East 
Africa  Company. 

1889-1800.— Journey  of  Lieutenant  Morgcn 
from  the  Cameroons,  on  the  western  coast  to  the 
Bcnue. 

1889-1890.— French 
gsscar  by  Dr.  Catat 
Foucart. 

1890. —  Anglo -German  Convention,  di 
lioundnries  of  t,ic  territories  and  "  spheres  .)i  iu- 
6  lencc  "  respectively  claimed  by  the  two  powers ; 
Q'rmany  withdrawing  from  Vitu,  and  from  all 
th?  rAstcm  mainland  coast  north  of  the  river 
Tana,  and  conceding  a  British  Protectorate  over 
Zanzibar,  in  exchange  fur  the  island  of  Hcligo- 
tund  in  the  North  Sea. 

1890. — French  "sphere  of  influence"  extcml- 
Ing  over  the  Sahara  and  the  Sudan,  from  Alperiu 
to  Lake  Tchad  and  to  Say  on  tlic  Niger,  recog- 
nizeii  by  Oreat  Britain. 

189a— Exploration  of  '  ,  river  Sanglia,  an 
important  northern  tribub  /  of  Hij  Congo,  by 
M.  Cliolet. 

1890. — Exploring  Journey  of  M.  Ilodistor, 
spent  of  the  Upper  Congo  Company,  up  tlit 
ijonmmi  river  and  across  country  to  the  Lua- 
liiba,  at  Nvangwe. 

1890.— .Tourney  of  Mr.  Garrett  in  the  Interior 
of  Sierra  Leone  to  the  upper  waters  of  tlio 
Nljrtr. 

1890.— Journey  of  I)r.  Fleck  from  the  west- 
ern CdHst  across  the  Kalibnri  to  Lake  Ngauii. 

1890-1891.— Italian  possessions  in  tlie  lied  Sea 
united  in  the  colony  of  Eritrea. 

1890-1891. — Mission  of  Captain  Lugard  to 
Uganda  and  signature  of  a  treaty  bv  its  king 
iioknowU'ilging  the  supremacy  of  the  British 
East  Africa  Company. 

l890--'59i.-  -Exploration  by  M.  Paul  Crampel 
of  the  ceutra.  region  between  the  French  ter 
ritiiries  on  tlie  Congo  and  Lake  Tchad,  ending 
in  the  murder  of  51.  Crampel  and  several  of 
his  companions. 

1890-1891.  —  .loumer  of  Mr.  Sharpe  from 
Mandala.  in  tlie  Shire  Highlands,  to  Garonganze, 
the  empire  founded  by  an  African  adventurer, 
M^hidi.  In  tlie  Katanga  copper  country,  be- 
tween Lake  Moero  and  the  Luapula  river  on 
the  east,  and  tlic  Lualaba  on  the  west. 

1890-1891.— Journey  of  Lieutenant  Mizon 
from  the  Niger  to  the  Congo. 

1890-1891.— Journey  of  Captain  Becker  from 
Yaniliuva,  on  the  Aruwimi,  nortliuorthwest  to 
the  W.lle. 

1890-1892.— Italian  explorations  in  the  So- 
mali countries  by  SIgnor  Kobeeclii,  Lieutenant 
Biuiili  di  V'esme,  Prince  Ruspoli,  an  i  Captalus 
Boltego  and  Grixoni. 

1890-1893.— Expedition  of  Dr.  F  uhlmann, 
with  Eniiii  Pasha,  from  Bagamoyo,  via  the 
Victoria  Nyanza  and  the  Albert  Edward,  to  the 
plateau  west  of  ♦he  Albert  Nranza.  From  tills 
point  Dr  Sluhimann  n'turnci!,  while  Emln  pur- 
sued his  way,  intending  it  is  said,  to  reach  Klb- 
onge,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Congo,  south 


of  Stanley  Falls.  He  wa*  murdered  at  Kinena, 
150  miles  northeast  of  KlboDge,  by  the  order 
of  an  Arab  chief. 

1891.— Extension  of  the  British  Protectorate 
of  Lagos  over  the  neighboring  districts  of  Addo, 
Igliessa,  and  Ilaro,  which  form  the  western 
boundary  of  Yoruba. 

1891.- Treaty  between  Great  Britain  and 
Portugal  defining  their  possessions;  conceding  to 
the  former  an  interior  extension  of  her  South 
African  dominion  up  to  the  bouthern  boundary 
of  the  Congo  Free  State,  and  securing  to  the 
latter  defined  territories  on  the  Lower  Zambesi, 
the  Lower  Shire,  and  the  Nyassa,  as  well  as  the 
large  block  of  her  possessions  on  the  western 
coast 

1891. —  Convention  between  Portugal  and  the 
Congo  Free  State  for  the  division  of  the  dis- 
puted district  of  Lunda. 

1891. —  Convention  of  the  Congo  Free  State 
with  the  Katanga  Company,  an  international 
syndicate,  giving  the  Company  preferential 
rights  over  reputed  mines  in  Katanga  and  Uriia, 
with  a  third  of  the  public  domain,  provided  it 
established  an  elTectlve  occupation  within  three 
years. 

1891. —  French  annexation  of  the  Gold  Coast 
between  Lil":ria  and  the  Grand  Bassam, 

1891.— Opening  of  tlie  Koyal  Trans-African 
Railway,  in  West  Africa,  from  Loanda  to  Am- 
baca,  140  miles. 

1801. —  Survey  of  a  railway  route  from  the 
eastern  coast  to  Victoria  Lake  by  the  Imperial 
British  East  Africa  Company. 

1891.— Exploration  of  the  Jub  River,  in  the 
Somali  country,  by  Commander  Duiidns. 

1891. —  Exploration  by  Captain  Duudas.  from 
the  eastern  coast,  up  the  river  Tana  to  Mount 
Kcnio. 

1891. —  Mr.  Bent'8  exploration  of  the  ruined 
cities  of  Mashonaland. 

1891. —  Journey  of  M.  Maistrc  from  the  Congo 
to  tlie  Shari. 

1891. —  Journeys  of  Captain  Qallwey  in  the 
Benin  country.  West  Africa. 

1891. —  Mission  established  by  the  Berlin  Mis- 
sionary Society  in  the  Konde  country,  at  the 
northern  end  of  Lake  Nyassa. 

1891-1893. —  Incorporation  of  the  African 
Lakes  Company  with  the  British  South  Africa 
Company.  Organization  of  the  administration 
of  Northern  Zamliesia  and  Nyassaland. 

1891-1893,—  Expedition  of  the  Katanga 
Company,  under  Captain  Stairs,  from  Bagamoyo 
to  I^ke  Tanganyika,  thence  through  the  coun- 
try at  the  head  of  the  most  southern  affluents 
of  the  Congo,  the  Lualaba  and  the  Luapula. 

1801-1892.- Belgian  expeditions  under  Cap- 
tain Bla  and  others  to  explore  the  southeastern 
portion  of  the  Congo  Basin,  on  behalf  of  the 
Katanga  Company,  resulting  in  the  determina- 
tion of  the  fact  that  the  Lukuga  River  is  an 
outlet  of  Lake  Tanganyika. 

1891-1893. — Journey  of  Dr.  James  Johnston 
across  the  continent,  from  Benguela  to  tlie 
mouth  of  the  Zambesi,  through  Bihe,  Gangiiela, 
Barotse,  the  Kallhari  Desert,  Mashonaland, 
Manica,  Gorongoza,  Nyassa,  and  the  Shire  High- 
lands. 

1891-1893.- Expedition  of  Mr.  Joseph  Thorn- 
=--.n,  for  ihf  British  South  Africa  Company,  fn.m 
Kllimane  or  Qulllimane  on  the  eastern  coast  tu 
Lake  Bangweolo, 


I  ! 


AFRICA.  1881-1889. 

1891-1892.— Journey  of  Captain  Montdl  frcm 
the  NigiT  to  Ijikf  Tiliad  aod  to  Tripoli. 

1801-1802.— Kxploration  liy  Lieutenant  Clial- 
tin  of  the  river  Lulu,  anil  the  country  betwi  en 
the  Aruwimi  and  the  Mellc  Makua  Rivera,  in  the 
Coniro  State.  _      „         „ 

1801-1893.— Joumcv  of  Pr.  Oacar  Baumnnn 
from  Tanpt,  on  the  eastern  coast:  passiiie  to  the 
south  of  Kilimanjaro,  discovering  two  lakes  l>e 
tween  that  mountain  and  the  Victoria  ^yan7.8. 

1801-1804.— Kxpeiiition  under  the  command  ol 
Captain  Van  Kerckhoven  and  M.  dc  la  Kethulle 
de  Kvhove,  fitted  out  by  the  Coneo  Fne  btaU', 
for  tiie  subjURation  of  the  Arabs,  the  suppression 
of  the  slave  trade,  and  the  exploration  of  the 
country,  throughout  the  region  of  the  Welle  or 
Ubanel  Telle  and  to  the  Nile.  up., 

i802.-Pecision  of  the  Imperial  British  East 
Africa  Company  to  withdraw  from  tganda. 

189a.— Practical  conquest  of  Dahomey  by      e 

^^Soai-Joumev  of  M.  Mer-   in  the  Snlmri.  i 
the  sTnith  of  Wargla.  ri'sultlnj,  in  a  report  favor- 
able to  the  construction  of  a  railway  to  tap  tne 
Ccntnd  Sudan.  .    _, 

l8ga— French  expedition  under  Captain  Ulu- 
eer  to  explon'  the  south.Tn  Sudan,  and  to  act  con- 
tointlv  with  British  officials  in  determining  the 
boundary  between  French  and  English  poss<s- 

^"'I'^j Journey  of  Mr.  Pharpe  from  ihe  Shlrfi 

River  10  Lake  Moero  and  the  T  pper  Luiipula. 

1892-1893.— Construction  of  a  line  of  tele- 
graph by  the  British  South  African  Company, 
from  Cape  Colonv.  through  Mashonaland,  to 
Fort  Salisbury,  with  projected  extension  across 
the  Zambesi  and  by  the  side  of  Lakes  Nyassa 
and  Tanganyika  to  Uijanda.— and  ultimately 
down  the  valley  of  the  Mle. 

1802-1893.- French  scientific  mission,  under 
M   Dficle,  from  Cape  Town  to  the  sources  of  the 

1892-1893.— Italian  explorations,  under  Cap- 
tain &5ttego  and  Prince  Ruspoli,  In  tiie  upper 
basin  of  tiie  River  Jub. 

lg93._Brus8els  Anilslavery  Conference,  rati- 
fied in  its  aetlim  by  tlie  Powers. 

,853._Ollldal  mission  of  Sir  Gerald  Porter  to 
Uganda,  sent  by  the  British  Government  to  re- 

Bort  as  to  the  expediency  of  tlic  withdrawal  of 
•ritish  authority  from  tliat  countiy. 

l853._Scientiflc  expedition  of  Mr.  Scott-El- 
liot to  Uganda.  .  „     „ 

,853._Scientlflr  expedition  of  Dr.  Gregory,  of 
the  British  Museum,  from  Mombassa,  on  tlie  east- 
ern coast,  througli  Masailand  to  Mount  Kcnia. 

j893._Joiiruey  of  Mr  Biut  to  Aksii'-    '    *  bvs- 
siniii,  the  ancient  capital  and  sacrei' 
Ethiopians. 

1893-1894. —  fiernein     srientiflc 
Mouni  Kilinian.i^ini,  urder  Drs.Lent  and 

1893-1894. — Expedition  of  Mr.  Astor  v... 
»nd  Lieutenant  von  IlOlinel  from  Witu,  on  i. 
eastern  coast,  to  the  Jonibini  Range  and  among 
the  Rendilc. 

1893-189*  —Explorations  of  Baron  von  Uech- 
tritz  and  I)i.  Pnss,irge  on  the  Benue. 

1893-1894.— Journey  of  Baron  von  Scheie 
from  tlie  eastern  coast  to  Lake  Nyassa,  and 
thenec  by  a  direct  route  to  Kihsa. 

1893-1894. — Journey  of  Count  von  GOtzen 
across  the  continent,  from  Dares-Salaam,  on  the 
Mstera  coast,  to  the  Loner  Congo. 


AGELA. 

1894.— Treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
Congo  Free  State,  securing  to  the  former  a  strip 
of  land  on  the  west  side  of  the  Nile  between 
the  Albert  Nyanza  and  10°  north  latitude,  and  to 
the  latter  the  large  Bahr-el-Ghazel  region,  west 
ward.  This  convention  gave  oflense  to  France, 
and  that  country  Immediately  exacted  from  the 
Congo  Free  State  a  treaty  stipulating  that  the 
latter  shall  not  occupy  or  exercise  political  influ- 
ence In  a  region  which  covers  most  of  the  terri- 
tory assigned  to  it  by  the  treaty  with  Great 
Britain.  .  ,  ,     .^ 

1894.— Franco-German  Treaty.determlnlng  the 
boundary  line  of  tlie  Camcroons,  or  Kamerun. 

,894.— Treaty  concluded  by  Captain  Liigard, 
November  10,  at  Nikki,  in  Borgii,  confirming 
the  rights  claimed  by  tlic  lloyal  Niger  Company 
over  Borgu,  and  placing  that  country  under 
British  protection. 

1894.— Agreement  between  the  British  South 
Africa  Company  and  the  Government  of  Great 
Britain,  signed  November  24,  1894.  transferring 
to  the  direct  administration  of  the  Company  the 
Protectorate  of  Nyassaland,  thereby  extending 
Its  domain  to  the  south  end  of  Lake  Tangan- 

1894.— Renewed  war  of  France  with  thj 
Hovasof  Madagascar. 

1894.— Expedition  of   Dr.    Donaldson    Smith 
from  the  Somali  coast,  stoiijied  and  turned  baek 
1  by  the  Abvssinians,  in  December. 

1894.— t'oiupleted  cono.uest  of  Dahomey  by 
the  French;  capture  of  the  deposeil  king.  Janu- 
ary 2.)  and  his  deportation  to  exili'  in  Martin- 
iiiue.  Dec'ree  of  tlie  French  Government.  June 
2'2  directing  the  administrative  organization  of 
the  "colonv  of  Dahonu'V  and  Dependencies." 

1894.— (iccupation  of  Timbuctoo  by  a  French 
force. 

1894.— Journey  of  Count  von  OiUzen  across 
the  continent,  from  the  eastern  coast,  through 
Ruanda  and  the  Great  Forest  to  and  along  the 
Lowa.  an  eastern  trilmtary  of  the  Congo. 

1894.— Exploration  of  ihe  Upper  Congo  and 
the  LukuL'a  l)v  .Mr.  R.  Dorsey  Mohun,  American 
A"ent  on  Ihe  Congo,  and  Dr.  Hinde, 

1894.— "<eientilic  expedition  of  Mr.  .oryndon 
from  the  Cape  to  the  Zambesi  and  Lake  Tan- 
ganyika. ,.  ,  .,  , 
1894-1895.— War  of  the  Italians  in  their 
colony  of  Eritrea  with  botli  the  Aliyssinians  and 
tlie  .Niahdists.     Italian  oeenpation  of  Kassala. 

1895.— Franco-British  a^'reement.  signed  Jan- 
uary 21.  I'^y.'i.  respecting  the  "Hinteriand"  of 
Siena  I.'  (Mie,  which  secures  to  France  the  Upper 
Niser  liusin.  _  ,   .  ■ 

i895.— Cimvention    between     Belgium     and 
France  signed  Felirunry  .'),  recngnizipga  right  of 
irePmption    on  the  part  of  the  latter,  with  re 
■rd  to  tiie  Congo  State,  in  case  Belgium  slioiilii 
'ny   time   renounce   the   sovereignty    which 
Leopold  desires  to  transfer  to  iu 


AGADE.      See    Baiivi.om.v:    The    EariT 

(ClIAI,I)K.\N)  MoNARrllT. 

AGAS.     See  Srr.i.iMF.  Pokte. 
AGATHOCLES,    The    tyranny    of.    Sec 
SviiAdsF.:  B.  C.  317-SH9. 
AGE  OF  STONE.  — AGE  OF  BRONZE, 

ic.     Sir  Stonk  AiiK. 

AGELA.-AGELATAS.— The  youths  and 
young   men    of    ancient   Crete    were    publicly 


26 


AOELA. 


AGRI  DECUMATES. 


trained  and  dtaciplloed  In  divisioni  or  rompanies, 
each  of  which  was  railed  an  Agcia,  and  its 
leader  or  director  the  Agelatas.— O.  BchOmann, 
Antiq.  of  Oreeee :   The  State,  pt.  3,  eh.  2. 

ACEMA,  The.— The  royal  escort  of  Alex- 
ander the  Qreat. 

AGEN,  Oriffin  ot    See  Nitiobhioes. 

AGENDICOM  OR  AGEDINCUM.  See 
Bekoweh. 

ACER  PUBLICUS.— "  Rome  was  always 
making  fresh  acquisitions  of  territory  in  her 
early  history.  .  .  .  Large  tracts  of  country  be- 
came Roman  land,  the  property  of  the  Roman 
state,  or  public  domain  (ager  publicus),  as  the 
Roniiins  called  it.  The  condition  of  this  land, 
the  use  to  which  it  was  applied,  and  the  dis- 
putes which  it  caused  between  the  two  orders  at 
{{ome,  are  among  the  most  curious  and  perplex- 
ing questions  in  Roman  history.  .  ,  .  That  part 
of  newly-acquired  territory  which  was  neither 
sold  nor  given  remained  public  property,  and  it 
was  occupied,  according  to  the  Roman  term,  by 
private  persons,  in  whose  hands  it  was  a  Pos- 
seaslo.  Hyginus  and  Siculus  Fh.ccus  represent 
this  occupation  m  being  made  without  any 
order.  Every  Roman  took  what  he  could,  and 
more  than  he  could  use  profitably.  .  .  .  We 
should  he  more  inclined  to  believe  that  this 
public  land  was  occupied  under  some  regula- 
tions, in  order  to  prevent  disputes;  but  if  such 
regulations  existed  we  know  nothing  about 
them.  There  was  no  survey  made  of  the  public 
land  which  was  from  time  to  time  acquired,  but 
llicrj  were  certainly  general  boundaries  fixed  for 
llie  purpose  of  dcterndning  wliat  had  become 
public  property.  The  lands  which  w^cre  sold 
and  given  were  of  necessity  surveyed  and  fixed 
by  boundaries.  .  .  .  There  is  no  direct  evidence 
that  any  payments  to  the  state  were  originally 
made  by  the  Possessors.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  at  some  early  time  such  piiyments  were 
made,  or,  at  least,  were  due  to  tlio  state." — G. 
Lon?,  Decline  of  the  Roman  Ilepublie,  eh.  11. 

AGGER.    See  C.^stra. 

AGGRAVIADOS,  The.  See  Spain:  A.  D. 
1814-1827. 

AGHA  MOHAMMED  KHAN,  Shah  of 
Pe.-sia,  A.  1>.  lT»."i-17'.»7. 

AGHLABITE  DYNASTY.  Sec  >Lvu..me- 
TA.N  (  o.NtjiEST  AND  Kmpire :  A.   I>.  715-7.M. 

AGHRIM,  OR  AUGHRIM,  Battle  of  (A. 
D.  i6gi).     t<eolHEi.ANi>:  A.  1).  ICHO-lCOl. 

AGILULPHUS,  King  of  the  Lombards. 
A.  1).  ."iOO-flie, 

AGINCOURT,  Battle  of  (1415).  See 
FiiAMK;  A.  D.  Ul."!. 

AGINNUM.— Modern  Agen.  See  Nitio- 
BniiiLs. 

AGNADEL,  Battle  of  (1509).  Sec  Venice: 
»    I).  l.jOH-l.lOH. 

^.ONATI.-AGNATIC,    See  Oens.  Romas. 

AGNIERS,  The.  See  Ameiucan  Abobiui- 
NE8:  Aoniers 

AGOGE,  The.— The  public  discipline  en- 
forced in  ancient  Sjmrta;  the  ordinances  attri- 
buted to  Lycurgus,  for  the  training  of  the  young 
and  for  the  regulating  of  the  lives  of  citizens. — 
O.  SchOmann,~.4n(iy.  of  Greece :  The  State,  pt.  3, 
ek.  I. 

AGORA,  The. — The  market-place  of  an  ancient 
Greek  flly  vas.  also,  llie  centre  of  its  puliiical 
life.  "  Like  the  gymnasium,  and  even  earlier 
than  this,  it  grew  into  architectural  splendour 


with  the  l>>creasing  culture  of  the  Greeks.  la 
maritime  cities  it  generally  lay  near  the  sea ;  in 
inland  places  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  which  carried 
!he  old  feudal  castle.  Being  the  oldest  part  of 
the  city,  it  naturally  became  the  focus  not  only 
of  commercial,  but  also  of  religious  and  political 
life.  Here  even  in  Homer's  time  the  citizen* 
assembled  in  consultation,  for  which  purpose  it 
was  supplied  with  seats;  here  were  the  oldest 
sanctuaries;  hero  wn.-i  celebrated  the  first  fes- 
tive games;  here  cen'.-"d  the  roads  on  which  the 
intercommunication,  both  religious  and  commer- 
cial, with  neighbouring  cities  and  states  was  car- 
ried on;  from  here  started  the  processions  which 
continually  passed  between  holy  places  of  kin- 
dred origin,  though  locally  separated.  Although 
originally  all  public  transactions  were  carried  on 
in  these  market-places,  special  local  arrange- 
ments for  contracting  public  business  soon 
became  necessary  In  large  cities.  At  Athens,  for 
instance,  the  gently  rising  ground  of  the  Philo- 
pappos  hill,  called  Pnyx,  touching  the  Agora, 
was  used  for  political  consultations,  while  most 
likely,  about  the  time  of  the  Pisistratides,  the 
market  of  Kerameikos,  the  oldest  seat  of  Attic 
industry  (lying  between  tt-e  foot  of  the  Akropo- 
lis,  the  Areopagos  anr"  'le  hill  of  Theseus), 
became  the  agora  pro  '..  e.,  the  centre  of 

Athenian  commerce.  .  The  description  by 
Vitruvius  of  an  agora  evidently  refers  to  the 
splendid  structures  of  post-Alexandrine  times. 
According  to  him  it  was  quadrangular  in  size 
[?  shape]  and  surrounded  by  wide  double  colon- 
ades.  The  numerous  columns  carried  architraves 
of  common  stone  or  of  marble,  and  on  the  roofs  of 
the  porticoes  were  galleries  for  walking  purposes. 
This,  of  course,  does  not  apply  to  all  market- 
places, even  of  later  date ;  but,  upon  the  whole, 
the  remaining  specimens  agree  with  the  descrip- 
tion of  Vitruvius."- E.  Guhl  and  W.  Koner, 
Life  of  the  Oreekt  and  liomant,  tr.  by  Iluefftr,  pt. 
1,  »eet.  26. —  In  the  Homeric  time,  the  general 
assembly  of  freemen  was  called  the  Agora. —  O. 
Grote,  IIi»t.  of  Greece,  pt.  1,  eh.  20. 

AGR.£I,  The.    8<?e  Akahnwnians. 

AGRARIAN  LAWS,  Roman.—"  Great  mis- 
takes formerly  prevailed  on  the  nature  of  the 
Roman  laws  familiarly  termed  Agrarian.  It 
w.is  supposed  that  by  these  laws  all  land  was 
declared  common  property,  mid  thai  at  certain 
intervals  of  time  the  state  resumed  possession 
and  made  a  fresh  distribution  to  all  citizens, 
rich  and  poor.  It  is  needless  to  make  any 
remarks  on  the  nature  and  cc  isequences  of  such 
a  law ;  suireicnt  it  will  be  to  say,  what  is  now 
known  to  u  1,  that  at  Rome  such  laws  never 
existed,  never  were  thought  of.  The  lands 
whieli  were  to  be  distributed  by  Agrarian  laws 
were  not  private  property,  but  the  property  of 
the  state.  They  were,  originally,  those  public 
lands  which  had  been  the  domain  of  the  kings, 
and  which  were  increased  whenever  any  city 
or  people  was  conquered  by  the  Romans ;  because 
it  was  an  Italian  practice  to  confiscate  the  lands 
of  the  conquered,  in  whole  or  in  part."  -II.  G. 
Liddell,  Hilt,  of  Rome.  bk.  2,  ch.  8.— See  Ro.mk- 
B.  0.  376,  and  3.  C.  133-121. 

AGRI  DECUMATES,  The.—"  Betwe.  i  the 
Rhine  and  the  Upper  Danube  there  intervtt.es  a 
triangular  tract  of  land,  the  apex  of  which 
ttHiclies  the  confines  of  Swii/.erlanii  at  Bas.. 
liiiis  separating,  as  with  an  enormous  wedge, 
the  provinces  of  Gaul  and  Vindclicia,  and  pre- 


AGKI  DECUMATE8. 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. 


tenting  at  its  base  no  natural  line  of  ilefcnce 
from  one  river  to  tlie  oilier.  Tliia  tmrt  was, 
however,  occtipicd,  for  the  most  part,  hy  forests, 
and  if  it  lirolie  t!'c  line  of  theUoniaa  defeiires,  it 
mi^lit  at  least  lie  con:,lJcreii  impenotmlile  to  an 
enemy.  Almniiimeil  by  tiie  warlilic  and  preda- 
tory tribes  of  tiermanv,  it  was  seized  liy  wander- 
Init  imnilKnuits  froniCJaul,  many  of  lliem  Uaman 
adventurers,  lieforc  wlioin  tlic  original  inliablt- 
ants,  the  Jtareomanni,  or  men  of  the  f rentier, 
seem  to  have  retreated  custwanl  beyond  the 
Ilercynian  forest.  Tlio  intruders  claimed  or 
solieiled  Ronmn  protection,  and  ofTereil  in  return 
a  triliule  fri>m  the  pnxluee  of  the  soil,  whence 
tlie  district  itself  came  to  be  known  by  the  title 
of  tlie  .\L'ri  Dccuniates,  or  Titlicd  I-and.  It  was 
not,  however,  otlicially  connected  witli  any 
province  of  the  Empire,  nor  was  any  attempt 
made  to  provide  for  its  permanent  security,  till 
a  period  much  later  than  tliat  on  whicli  we  are 
now  engaged  [the  period  of  Augustua]." — C. 
Merivale,  Jliiit.  of  the  Rman*,  rh.  38.— "AVur- 
tembiirg,  Baden  and  Ilolienzollern  coincide 
with  the  Agri  llecuniatesof  tlie  Uoman  writers." 
— R  O.  Latliam,  Elhtuihou  "f  Euro}>c,  eh.  8.— 
See,  also.  Al.KMAS.M,  and  SiEVi. 

AGRICOLA'S  CAMPAIGNS  IN  BRI- 
TAIN.    Sec  HiitTALN:  A.  I).  78-84. 

AGRIGENTUM.— Acragas.  or  Agrigentum. 
one  of  the  youngest  of  tlic  lireclt  colonies  in 
Sicily,  founded  about  B.  C.  582  by  tlic  older  col- 
cnv  of  Oela,  Ix'cniiie  one  of  tlie  largest  and  most 
splcjiilid  cities  of  tlie  are,  in  the  liflh  century 
B  ('.,  as  is  testilled  bv  Its  ruins  to  this  day. 
It    was   the   scene   of  tlie  notoric  -anny  of 

I'lialaiis,  as  well  as  that  of  '\'h  igcn- 

tuui  was  destroyed  In-  the  Carl'  B.  C. 

4ll.'i,  and  rebuilt  liy  Tiiiioleun,  b'.  .vered 

its  former  Inipoflanee  and  gran  .1  Cur- 

tins,  llift.  of  (Iriiee,  Ik.  4,  eh.  ..  .•ee.  also, 
rilAT.viiis,  Bk.\7.kn  Bri.I,  of.— Agrigenti.m  was 
destioyed  bv  the  Carthagenians  in  40(i  B.  ('. 
See  Sicii.Y  :'  B.  C.  4il9-4o.).— Hebnilt  by  Tinin- 
Icon,  it  was  the  scene  of  u  gn.it  deb  at  of  tlio 
Cartliag)  nians  by  the  Itanaus,  In  UW  B.  C.  S  e 
Pl'.VK  W.vn.  TiiK  Kiu«T. 

AGRIPPINA  AND  HER  SON  NERO. 
See  lioMi;.  A.  II  47  .VI.  wv\  -M  <U 

AHMEO     KHEL,   Battle    of   (i88o\     f^ee 
Ari.iisxisTVN:     A.  11    I><fl;i-1HM1. 
AIGINA.     See.i;,;iN\, 
AIGOSPOTAMOI,  Battle  of.    Sc  fiiiiixi:; 
B  C  40-> 

AIGUILLON,  Siege  of.— .\  notalile  si'  f e  in 
the  "Iluhdnd  V.iirs'  War,"  .V.  I>  UIH  An 
English  irarrisi-n  under  the  faiiioiis  kiiiL'lit.  M' 
Walter  ManiiT,  held  the  gr.'at  foilre-.s  ,if  Aiguil 
hin,  near  the  conlbn'nee  nf  the  (»;ironne  anti  the 
Lot,  against  a  fiirmiilalile  Kn  la  li  army.  — J. 
F-rolssart.  ClirKtiirl,;  r.  I.  Ik  1,  '•/i.  I'.'O. 
AIX,  Origin  of.  SecSvivKs. 
AIX-LA-CHAPELLE:  The  Capital  of 
Cha.lemagiie. — The  favnrite  nsidmee  ainl  I'tie 
of  the  two  capitals  iif  (  harliinagne  wus  the  i  itv 
which  the  (!i  rmaiis  call  .\arlii  n  and  the  I'ninli 
have  named  Alxla-rhapeUe  "  lie  ravished  the 
nuns  of  the  ancient  worM  to  restore  the  monu- 
mental arts.  A  new  Home  arose  in  the  depllis 
of  the  forrsta  of  AuBtrasia  —  palaces,  gates, 
bridges,  baths,  galleries,  thi'aln-s.  churches.—  for 
Uie  ereciion  t>r  Hiikh  Uw  tmthAUH  lUid  liii»rbh  s  >•! 
Italy  were  laid  imder  tribute,  and  workmen  lum 
•WBcd  trom  all  part*  u(  Eunipe.     It  wai  ihcm 


that  an  extensive  library  was  gathered,  there 
that  tlio  school  of  the  palace  was  made  perma- 
nent, there  that  foreign  envoys  were  pompouslv 
welcomed,  there  that  the  monarch  perfecteil  ha 
plans  for  the  intrcHluction  of  Roman  letters  and 
tiie  improvement  of  music." — P.  Gmifi-'n,  Uitt. 
of  Friincf :  Aurimt  diinl.  bk.  4,  cA.  17. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.  Treaty  of  (A.  D. 
803).     Sec  Vkmce:  a.  1).  697-810. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE,  Treaty  of  (A.  .O. 
1668).  Bee  Netherlands  (Uglland):  A.  I). 
1008. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE,  The  Congreaa  and 
Treaty  which  ended  the  War  of  the  Austrian 
Succeision  (1^48).— The  War  of  tlie  Austrian 
Succession,  which  ragid  in  Europe,  and  on  the 
ocean,  and  in  India  and  America,  from  1710  to 
1718  (see  AfSTKn;  A.  D.  1718-1738,  1740- 
1741,  and  after),  was  brought  to  an  end  in  the 
latter  year  by  a  Conirrcss  of  all  the  belligerents 
which  met  at  Ai.Kla-Cliatielle,  in  April,  and 
which  concluded  its  labors  on  the  18th  of  Octo- 
ber following.  "  The  inlluencc  of  England  and 
Holland  .  .  .  forceil  the  peace  upon  Austria  and 
Sardinia,  thougli  both  were  bitterly  aggrievcil  by 
Its  conditions.  Frame  agreed  to  restore  every 
conquest  she  hail  maile  during  tlio  war,  to  oban- 
don  the  c;iusc  of  the  Stuarts,  and  expel  the  Pre- 
tender  from  her  soil ;  to  dinioliah.  in  accordance 
with  earlier  treaties,  the  fortiflcationsof  Hunkirk 
on  the  side  of  the  sea,  while  retaining  tlio.s(?  oa 
the  side  of  the  land,  and  to  retire  from  tlic  eon- 
quest  witliciut  uc  luirihg  any  fresh  territory  or 
any  )ieciiiiiary  cunipensitinii.  England  in  like 
manner  restored  the  few  cuiiiiuests  she  had  made, 
and  sulanltted  to  the  somewhat  hiiinilialing  con- 
dition of  sending  hostages  to  Paris  us  a  security 
fur  the  restoration  of  t.ii<eBret(m.  .  .  .  The  dis- 
puted boundary  lietween  Canada  and  Nova 
Scutia,  which  had  lacn  a  siiurce  of  constant  difll- 
culty  with  prance,  was  left  altogether  undi  lined. 
The  .\ssiento  treaty  f<r  traile  with  th(^  Spanish 
col. mica  was  conlifnied  for  the  four  years  it  bad 
s'ill  to  run;  but  no  red  compensation  was 
I  I't.iined  for  a  war  expenditure  wliich  la  said  1 1 
Iiave  c.\cicded  sixty  fiair  inillioiis,  and  which 
hid  raised  the  funded  and  unfunded  debt  to 
inorc  than  seventy-i  ight  n.illiona.  Of  the  other 
Powers,  llolhiiid.  IJenoa.  and  the  little  state  of 
.Modena  retained  tin  ir  territory  aalMfore  the  war, 
iinil  lieiioa  remained  mistress  of  the  Duchy  of 
riii:ile,  whiih  had  Isen  cled  to  the  king  of 
Sardinia  by  the  Treaty  of  Worms,  and  wlili  h  It 
had  been  a  main  oliject  of  bis  later  policy  to 
secure.  Austria  olituincd  a  niognilion  of  the 
election  of  the  Emperor,  a  crieral  guarantee  of 
tlie  Pragmatic  .Samtion.  smI  the  restoration  of 
everything  she  had  lo^t  In  llic  Xetlicflauds,  but 
she  gained  no  ailditlonal  li  rrltory.  She  was 
compelled  to  conlirm  the  cession  of  Bllesia  and 
(ilatz  to  Prussia,  to  abandon  her  Italian  con- 
i|iiests,  and  evi  n  to  cide  a  eonsi.lerable  part  of 
her  former  Italian  dominions.  To  the  bitter 
indiuniilion  of  Maria  Theresa,  the  DiicliUs  of 
I'arnia.  Plaeentia  and  Dua^iiUa  pass».il  to  Don 
i'liillp  of  Spain,  to  revert,  howe\er,  to  their 
f..rnicr   possessors  if  Don    Philip  mounted  tl.o 

Spnnlsh  throne,  or  died  will tniale Issue.     The 

King  (if  Sa^lillla  also  obtained  from  Austria  the 
territorial  cessions  enumi  rated  In  the  Tri«ly 
.f  W.rii.i  is.i  iri!.-.:  .\  D.  \'i~X  wiiri  thft 
Imporlant  enceptionsof  I'lsii-ntla,  wlilch  pasanl 
I  to  Dun  Phil!;,  and  of  Piuale,  wbicii  nmalMd 


AIXLA-CHAPELLE 


ALABAMA 


with  the  Genoese.  For  the  lost  of  thcie  he 
otitatoed  do  cumpensatiuD.  Fredcrirk  [the  Great, 
of  Prussia]  ol)tainril  a  general  cuaraulee  for  the 

{lossi'ssion  of  his  nuwly  acqutren  territory,  aud  a 
oiig  list  of  old  treaties  was  furiiially  coufirmed. 
Thus  small  were  the  changts  effected  in  Europe 
by  BO  much  bloodshed  and  treachery,  by  nearly 
nine  years  of  wasteful  and  desolating  war.  Tlio 
dcsi)rn  of  the  dismemberment  of  Austria  hiid 
failed,  but  no  vexed  questions  had  bten  get  at 
rest.  .  .  .  Of  all  the  ambitious  projects  that  had 
been  conceived  during  the  war.  that  of  Frederick 
alone  was  sulistantially  realized." — W.  E.  II. 
liCcUy',  Ilitt.  iifEng.  18<A  Century,  ch.  8.— "Thus 
ended  the  War  of  the  Austrian  succession.  In 
Its  origin  and  its  motives  one  of  the  most  wicked 
of  all  the  many  conflicts  wliich  ambition  and 
perfidy  have  provoked  in  Europe,  it  excites  a 
peculiarly  mournful  interest  by  the  gross  in- 
equality in  the  rewards  and  penalties  which  for- 
tune assigned  to  tiie  leading  aclors.  Prussia, 
Spain  and  Sardinia  were  all  endowed  out  of  the 
estates  of  the  house  of  llapsburg.  But  the 
electoral  house  of  IJavaria,  tlie  most  sincere  and 
the  most  deserving  of  all  the  claimants  to  tliat 
vast  inheritance,  not  only  reiiived  no  increase  of 
territory,  but  even  nearly  lost  its  own  patrl- 
moni.tl  possessions.  .  .  .  The  most  trying  jirob- 
1cm  is  still  that  offered  by  the  misfortunes  of  the 
Queen  of  Hungary  [Maria  Tlicnsa].  .  .  .  Tlie 
verdict  of  history,  as  expressed  by  the  public 
opinion,  and  by  the  vast  majority  of  writers,  in 
everv  country  except  Prussia,  upholds  the 
justfce  of  the  queen's  cause  and  condemns  the 
coalillon  that  was  formed  against  her." — II. 
Tuttle,  nut.  ofPnima,  l"4.V17.")n.  rh.  3. 

Also  in  W.  Ilussell,  Ilitt.  of  Mitlrrn  Kurojif. 
It.  2,  l(tltr  SO.— \V.  I'oxe,  Iliit.  of  the  Ihunt.  of 
Au$lna,  eh.  108  (r.  3V— See,  also,  New  Eno- 
land:  a.  D.  1745-1TI'< 


AIZNADIN,   BMtle  of  (A.   D.  634).     Sec 

Maiiiimi'.tan  t'osiji  est  :  A.  1).  6:tL'-fla». 

AKARNANIAN  LEAGUE,  The.— "Uf  tlic 
Akurnanian  Leugm'.  formed  by  one  of  the  hast 
important,  but  ut  the  same  time  one  of  tlie  most 
estimable  peoples  In  Greece  .  .  .  our  knowl- 
edge Is  only  fruginintary.  The  1m  iindariis  I'f 
Akarnuidu  Huetualed,  but  we  always  find  the 
people  snoken  of  as  •  politii  al  whole.  .  .  . 
Thui'vdiiles  speaks,  by  Implleatii'n  nt  hast,  of 
the  Akarnaniun  League  as  an  institution  of  old 
staniling  in  his  time.  The  Akarnanians  hud,  in 
earlv  times,  (sTupied  the  hill  of  (Hpui  as  a  place 
for  judicial  pr.wiediiigs  eommrm  to  the  whole 
na*;  n.  Thus  ilie  HU|irenie  court  of  the  Akar- 
nanian  I'ninn  held  its  sittings,  not  in  a  town,  but 
In  a  mountain  fortress  Hut  In  Thurydlilcs' 
own  time  Stratos  had  attained  Its  position  as  the 
griatcst  city  of  Akarnania,  and  probably  the 
federal  assemlilies  were  already  hehl  there.  .  .  . 
Of  the  constitution  of  the  League  we  know  but 
little.  Ambassadors  were  sint  by  the  federal 
Ixsly,  and  prolmbly.  ]nst  as  in' the  Aihaian 
I^'atue.  it  wo\ild  brive  b«'en  held  to  l>e  a  bn'ach 
of  the  frdeml  lie  if  any  single  city  had  entered 
on  diplomatic  Inlenourse  with  other  powers  As 
in  Al  hala,  too.  then'  stooil  al  the  liend  of  the 
I^'ague  a  Genernl  with  high  aiilbo'lly.  .  .  , 
The  existence  of  eolli-s  lifurltitf  tbi*  nanie*  of  tha 
whole  Akarnanlan  nallon  shows  that  then-  was 
unity  enough  to  ailnill  of  a  federal  ei.limge, 
though  coins  of  particular  cities  also  (Hciir."— 


E.  A.  Freeman,  But.  of  Federal  Gout.,  eh.  •-, 
trt.  \. 
AKARNANIANS     ( AumaaiM*).-The 

Akarnanians  formed  "a  link  of  transition" 
between  tlie  ancient  Greeks  aud  their  barbarous 
or  non-Hellenic  neighbours  in  the  Epirus  aud 
beyond.  "  Tliev  occupied 'b  erritory  between 
the  river  AcheloQs,  the  Ionian  sea  and  the 
Ambrakiau  gulf:  they  were  Greeks  and 
ailniitted  as  such  to  contend  at  the  Panllellenic 
games,  yet  thejr  were  alao  closely  connected 
with  the  Amuhilocht  and  Agra:!,  who  were  not 
Greeks.  In  :"!iners,  sentiments  and  intelli- 
gence, f' •  w..  ;  )i;-.;."  Hellenic  and  half-Epiidtic. 
—  liki  '  '  .Kloliaiis  !iiul  >' e  Ozolian  Lokrians. 
Even  .Mvn  tt)  the  time  1  rhncydides,  these 
nation  wer  .vjbdi\ iiied  '  o  numerous  petty 
coiinu  lii"  ..  lived  in  unf  .titieii  villages,  were 
freque  '' .'  .1  Mie  habit  of  1  undering  each  other, 
and  ne  ,  -i  li;  <•■'  tiiin  selves  to  be  unarmeii. 
.  .  .  Notwithstamiuis  !<  s  statu  of  disunion  and 
Insecurilv,  however,  the  Akarnanians  main- 
tained a  loose  political  league  among  themselves. 
.  ,  .  The  Akarnanians  appear  to  have  pmduced 
many  prophets.  They  traced  up  their  mythical 
ancestrv,  us  well  as  that  of  their  neighbours  the 
Amphilochians,  to  the  nio.st  renowned  prophetic 
familv  among  the  Gret  ian  heroes, —  Amphiaraiis, 
with  his  sons  Alkmu'on  and  Ampiloehus:  Akar- 
nan,  the  eponymous  hero  of  the  nation,  and 
otiier  eponymous  heroes  of  the  separate  towns, 
w  ere  suppost-d  to  be  the  sons  of  Alliinu'on.  They 
are  spokeu  of,  together  with  the  -Etolians,  as 
mere  rude  shepherds,  by  the  lyric  piH't  Alkiiian. 
and  so  they  seem  to  liave  Continued  with  lit'le 
alleration  until  the  beginning  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war,  when  we  hear  of  them,  for  the  first 
tline,  as  allies  of  Atliens  and  as  bitter  enemici 
of  tlio  Corinthian  colonies  on  their  coast.  The 
co;.laet  of  thost-  cohmies,  however,  and  the  large 
spread  of  Akurnanian  accessible  ci>ast,  could  not 
fail  to  priKluce  some  effect  in  soeiall/.ini;  and  Im- 
pmving  the  people.  And  it  is  prolialile  that  tliis 
effect  would  have  Iwen  more  smsibly  fell,  had 
not  the  Akarnanians  been  kept  back  by  the 
fatal  neigbbuurhiMHlof  the  .Etollans,  with  whom 
they  were  in  perpetual  feud, —  a  people  the  most 
unprini  ipled  and  unimprovable  of  all  who  Imre 
the  Hellenic  name,  and  whose  habitual  fnilhless- 
ness  stiHsl  in  marked  contrast  wiili  the  rectitude 
and  steadfastness  of  the  Akarnanian  character." 
— (!,  Grote,  Jlitl.  ofUrffV.  ;i(.  1>.  eh.  U, 

AKBAR  (called  The  Create  Moghul 
Emperor  or  Padiichah  of  India,  A.  I).  IbM- 
lOo.'i 

AKHALZIKH,  Sieg:e  and  capture  of  (iSaS). 

SeeTl  llks;   A.   I  >.   l^Jl!  ISJK 

AKKAD.-AKKADIANS.   S.-e  IUiiyi.oria. 

PnlMlllvl';   also,  SkMITKS. 

AKKARON.    bee  Piiilistinm. 
AKROKERAUNIAN      PROMONTOkY. 

See  KollKVIl\. 

ALABAMA  :  The  Aboriginal  Inhabitant!. 
See      Amkhican      Auoiiioinks:       ArALACUKa; 

Ml  SKIKMIKK  FaMII.V:    t'llKHOKKFS. 

A.  D.  1539-1543.— Traveried  by  Hernaudo 
de  Soto.     See  ri.iuiiiu;   A     D,  IV,'"*  VAl 
A.   D.    ttaq.     Embraced    in    the    Carolina 

frant   to  Sir  Robert   Heath,    Sii-  AMKnuA: 
II.  liiao 
A.   O.   1M3.— Embraced   In   the   Carolina 

Srant  to  Monk,  Shaftesbury,  and  otheri.    ^e« 
OHTII  (  Alioi.l.w:  A    1).  lIHii^Itt;). 


2J) 


ALABAMA. 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS. 


P 


A.  D.  1702-1711.— French  occupation  and 
first  lettlcmeat.— The  founding  of  Mobile. 
lS<rI,.>risiAX\;  A.  1>.  l(i9S-171\;. 

A.  D.  1732.— Mostly  embraced  in  the  new 
province  of  Georgia.  SivC'iE<iH(Ma:  A.  1'.  17;!-- 
173'J. 

A.  D.  1763.— Cession  and  delivery  to  Great 
Britain.— Partly  embraced  in  West  Florida. 
Si'  Sim :n  Yi-.aus'  Wau;  iiiiil  Fiiiuiiia:  \.  I>. 
Klilt;  iin.l  NiHiTiiWKsT  Tkhkitohv:  A.  1>.  17t!!. 

A.  D.  1779-1781.— Reconquest  of  West 
Florida  by  the  Spaniards.  So  Fi  .iuida:  .V.  1>. 
177!I-17H1. 

A.  D.  1783.— Mostly  covered  by  the  English 
cession  to  the  United  States.  Sc  IMted 
States  OK  Am.  :  .\.  1>.  178;!  (Si  i-tkmhkh). 

A.  D.  1783-1787.— Partly  in  dispute  with 
Spain.     Scr  Ki.okida:  A.  1).  17f;)-17«7. 

A.  D.  1798-1804.— All  but  the  West  Florida 
District  embraced  in  Mississippi  Territory. 
SioMiswissiiTi:  A.  I).  179H-1K(I». 

A.  D.  1803.— Portion  acquired  by  the  Louis- 
iana purchase.    Sci'LdllsIANA:  A.  r>.  171M-1WW. 

A.  D.  1813.— Possession  of  Mobile  and 
West  Florida  taken  from  the  Spaniards.  Set- 
Fu>iiiii\:  A.  1).  1H10-Isi;f. 

A.  D.  1813-1814.— The  Creek  War.  So 
I'.MTKU  Statkh  or  Am.:  A.  I).  lS13-lvSU 
(.Vnii  ST—  Afuii.V 

A.  D.  1817-1819.— Organized  as  a  Territory. 
—Constituted  a  State,  and  admitted  to  the 
Union.—"  Ity  iiti  m  t  nf  ('luicnss iImIciI  Mim li  1, 
1X17,  Sli.ssissi'|i]ii'i"iTntiirv  wa.srliviilcd.  Aix'ilicr 
art.  iHMriiiK  llu'  ilatc  MiiiVli  it,  IliiriiiftiT,  nrpui- 
izcil  till'  wcsti  111  Ifi'aslini)  purlinii  into  11  Tini 
tiirv.  til  !»'  kiic'«ii  Its  Aliiliuiiui,  uiul  with  ilic 
bDi'indiirii'S  lis  tliiV  imw  exist.  .  .  .  lly  11:1  nrt 
«p|iinvnl  .Man li  'J,'  1><1!),  ciinpnss  aiitlKiriziil  tin' 
Inliahittiiils  <if  till'  TirriKiry  of  Alahaiiiii  to  form 
a  stall'  I'liiisliluliiiii.  'mill  that  said  TiTTilnry, 
wlii'ii  fiirincil  Into  11  Stair,  shall  W  uilmitlnl  Into 
llic  I'liioii  upon  till'  siiiiii,'  fiKitiii'.'  us  llir  oriiriiial 
Btnlrs.'  .  .  .  Till"  joint  rcsolulion  of  €oii:;n>.s 
ailinitthiK  Alaliaiim  into  the  rnioii  was  approvi  il 
by  I'n'siili'iit  Monns',  DiTiniUr  11,  isll*."— \V. 
B'ri'wir,  Alii!"!'!!!!,  cA.  .^. 

A.  D.  i86x  (January).— Seer  on  from  the 
Union.  S  <•  I'NiTKii  St.vtks  ok  .\  >i. :  A.  D.  INUl 
(Jamaiiv— Vkuihahvi. 

A.  D.  i86a.— General  Mitchell's  Expedition. 
8<'c  Tnitki)  Statks  OK  Am.  :  A.  1».  INOa  (AlMiii. 
— May:  Ai.aham^). 

A.  D.  1864  ( August  1.— The  Battle  of  Mobile 
Bay.— Capture  ofConfederste  forts  and  flert. 
8pi' iNITKIiSiATESoKAM. :  A.  I).  ls()l(.\i  i.rsT; 

Al.AIUMA). 

A.  D.  1865  (March— April. .-The  Fall  of 
If  obile.— Wilson's  Raid,— End  of  the  Rebel- 
lion, tti'i'  Initkh  Htaiks  ok  Am.:  A.  1).  IXOrt 
(Ai'llll.— Mavi 

A.  D.  1865-1868.  —  Reconstruction.  Sv 
Unitkii  Stvtes  ok  Am.:  A.  D.  IS05  (May— 
Jui-Y),  to  1»«.'*-1M70. 

ALABAMA  CLAIMS.  The:  A.  D.  i86i- 
It6a.  —  In  their  Origin,— The  Earlier  Con- 
(idcrate  cruisers.—  Precursors  of  the  Ala- 
bama.—The  riiniinlHsioiiiii^  of  privati'crs,  himI 
of  iiiori'  otilriully  coiniiiiimUHl  rriiist'rs.  In  llii' 
Amcricnn  ilvil  war.  by  the  gmirniiK'nt  of  ihr 
BiMiftii'iu  CouFitifim  >,  *ii*i»  i«mili  I'rtiiy  ill  tin 
pM^ri'M  of  tli»  inovi'im'iil  of  nlnll|on.  piir 
•tuuit   to    a  priM'liiiimlioii  intiird   liy  J>  tTirwiu 


Davis  on  the  17th  of  April.  tSfit,  "Ikfim'thc 
ilosi'  of  July,  IMlll,  more  than  20  of  those  ilejire 
ilalors  were"  .illoat.  anil  hail  eaptiireil  iiiillioiiu 
of  property  lielongini;  to  Anieriianeilizens.  'The 
most  fornii<liil>le  ami  notorious  of  tlie  se;i-(.'()ing 
slii|isof  this  clianuter,  were  the  Nashville,  (up- 
lain  U.  11.  I'eKrim,  a  Virginian,  who  liuil  nliuii- 
iloueil  Ills  tlaj;.  uiiil  the  Sumter  [a  regularly 
eommissiimeil  war  ves.s<l].  Captain  Haph.ul 
Semines,  The  former  was  a  fiiilewlieel  steamer, 
eurrieil  a  rri'w  of  elKlitv  ineii,  anil  was  armed 
with  two  long  12pouniler  rilleil  caiinon.  Her 
eareer  was  short,  but  quite  siii  le.ssful.  She  was 
liimlly  ilesiniycil  bv  the  Monlank,  Captain  Wor- 
den,  "in  the  Ugeeeliee  Uiver,  The  e:iner  of  the 
Sumter,  wliieli  had  Ihiii  a  New  Orleans  and 
Havana  paekel  sti':iiiier  naiiieil  Muri|iiis  de  IIu- 
liana,  was  also  short,  lint  ininh  inoixMietive  and 
destruelive.  She  li:iil  a  eiew  of  sivtyllvc  men 
and  Iwenly-flve  iii:iriiii's,  and  w:is  heavily  aniiiil. 
She  Mn  lli'e  liloi  kade  at  the  inoiiih  of  the  Mi.sais- 
sippl  Uiver  on  theaiMh  of  .Iiine,  ami  was  pur- 
sued some  di.stanec  liy  the  Hnsiklyn.  She  rau 
amoii);  the  West  India  islands  and  on  the  .Sp:iiiish 
Slain,  and  soon  made  prizes  of  many  vessi'la 
lieirinj;  the  .\meriean  Haft.  She  was  every- 
when-  rieeived  in  Hriti.sh  Colonial  ports  with 
preat  f;ivor,  and  wiis  allonled  every  faeilily  for 
her  piratieal  openitiims.  She  lieeame  llie  terror 
of  tlie  Ameriian  mereliunt  wrviir,  and  every- 
wlieri'  eluded  National  vessels  of  war  sint  nut 
III  pursuit  of  her.  At  Uiitsth  she  eroswd  the 
iH-eaii,  and  at  llieelose  of  IWUl  was  eoiiipilled  to 
si'i'k  shelter  miller  Itritish  gunsatCJiliraltar.  wlieri' 
she  w:is  w;ili  lied  liy  the  Tiise:iroia.  F.aily  in 
the  year  tSdJ  she  w:is  sol'l,  and  thus  ended  her 
piniiieal  eareer.  Fneouraj,'i'il  by  the  pniitieal 
frii  ml.shiji  of  the  Hiilidi  eviiiiid"  for  llii^e  cor- 
sairs, Hiiil  the  Biilistautial  aid  liny  Were  n  1  living 
from  llrilish  siilijiets  in  various  ways.  e«pi  1  ially 
tade  riiiini  rs. 


onspiratoi^  de- 
'    fTiiiids  s.ime 


tliMuvh  Idmkaih'  riiiini  rs,  the 
termiiieil  to  piisure  from  tlio 
powerful  pir.ilieal  eraft,  and  ni:idi  arraiiL'inn  uts 
for  the  pureliase  and  eonsirm  li'iii  of  vessil.for 
that  piir|Mise.  Mr.  Ijiird.  a  .'•1  laiildi'r  at  Liver- 
pisil  iiiid  memlK'r  of  the  ltiiu>n  I'arliaiiieii!.  was 
the  larpst  eonlraelor  in  the  Imsiness.  ami,  in  de- 
flaiiee  of  every  obstacle,  succieded  in  gelling 
pirate  ships  to'sea.  The  first  of  these  ships  that 
went  to  wa  was  the  Uretii.  osteimibly  built  for  a 
houw  in  Palermo.  Sicily,  Mr.  Adams,  the 
Amirieau  minister  In  I,<)iiilon,  was  so  well  satis- 
tied  from  information  n'celTeil  that  she  was  de- 
signed for  the  t'onfederntes,  that  he  called  tlie 
attention  of  the  Itrilishgovenunent  to  the  matter 
Ml  early  as  the  IHth  of  Kehruary.  1n(12.  Hut 
nothing"  elTeetive  was  done,  anil  she  wiw  com 
pleteil  and  allowisl  to  depart  from  British  waters. 
She  went  tlrsl  to  Niuwau,  and  ou  the  4ih  of  S'p- 
temlier  siidileiily  ap|M'areil  off  Molille  harlwr, 
llyiiii;  the  tlritisii  Hag  and  pennants.  The  liliK'k- 
adiiig  si|iimlrou  there  was  iu  charge  of  Com- 
nuinderlii-orge  II.  Pr<'lile,  whohad  lieenspiTially 
Inslrneted  not  to  give  ottense  to  fori'ign  Dalious 
xvliile  (  nfoning  the  bhskade.  lie  believed  the 
Onto  to  Ih>  a  British  vessel,  and  while  delilsTat- 
iiig  a  few  minutes  as  t«i  what  he  should  do,  she 
imssiHl  out  of  range  of  his  gius,  and  enlensi  the 
Lirlsir  with  a  rich  fn'ight.  For  his  M-eniing 
reiiiissni'M  Commander    I'nhle  was  suiiiiiiarlly 

lii-lllinneli      frulll     lliu     M>rtl'"     WUtloiil      B     1,1  lir- 

ing  — an  act  which  siihM'<|uent  rTrnIs  Mriiu'd 
to  show  was  cruel  Injiistkt',     lutein  Di-ienibtC 


SO 


i  .iij 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS. 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS. 


the  Oreto  cscapcfl  from  Jlobilc,  fully  armed  for 
fi  plrntlciil  rniise,  uidcr  the  coininuii<l  •>!  John 
Newliiml  Mafl";!.  .  .  .  The  name  of  lln' Onion  as 
rhaiiired  to  tli;it  of  Floriihi." — B.  J.  Lossiii);, 
J-tilrl  lUiok  of  the  Cii-il  Will;  r.  2,  ch.  21.  —The 
fate  of  the  Florida  is  rclaleil  below— A.  I).  1882- 
l'<6">.  —  U.  Semines,   Mmu/irt  of  Sen irt  Afloat, 

ch.  i)-:n. 

Also  TN  J.  Davis,  liiw  ami  Full  of  the  Con- 
fulfrttte  (roll rnmf lit.  ch.  ;j<>-;U  (r.  2). 

A.  D.  1862-1864. —  The  Alabama,  her  career 
and  her  fate. —  "The  A!abaniit  [\\u:  Mcmid 
cruisiT  built  in  Knpland  for  the  C  oiifedemtes) 
...  is  thus  deserilx  (1  liy  Semmes,  h(  r  eom- 
mander;  "  '10  was  of  alK)Ut  9<M)  tons  liiirden, 
2:10  fcit  in  .rijyth,  !i2  feet  in  breadth,  2(1  feet  in 
d(|>lli,  and  drew,  when  provisioned  nnil  roaUd 
fir  cruiM',  13  fiet  of  water.  She  was  barken- 
line  ii;.'Ked,  with  lonjf  lower  musts,  whieh 
enableil  hir  to  earry  larfro  fon^  and  oft  sails,  as 
jibs  and  try-siiils.  .  .  .  ller  engine  was  of  3(iO 
hnr.«e  power,  and  she  had  attached  an  agiparutus 
for  ro^den^ing  from  the  va]M)r  of  sia-water  all 
the  fresh  w.iter  that  her  crew  might  require. 
.  ..  Ilerarnianienttonsi.itedof  eight  guns.'.  .  . 
The  Alabama  was  built  and,  from  the  outset, 
»ns  'inleniled  for  a  Confederate  vessel  of  war.' 
The  eontract  for  her  eonstruetion  was  'signed 
by  ("apt.iin  Ilullock  on  the  one  part  and  Mes-srs. 
Laird  on  the  other'.  .  .  On  the  l.")lli  of  May 
fll  ■■ 'J  !  hew.is  launched  under  the  name  of  the 
ilK).  'ill  r  odleers  were  in  Lngland  nwuitiug  her 
foinplilion,  and  were  paid  their  salaries 
■  monthly,  aliout  the  first  of  the  month,  at  Fraser, 
Trenliolm  A  Co.'s  cilfiee  in  l.iverpiKil.'  The  pur- 
pose for  which  this  vessel  was  Ixing  eonstruetiKl 
was  notorious  in  Liverpool.  Before  sln!  was 
hun<  lied  she  became  an  object  of  suspicion  with 
i:ie  Consul  of  the  I'niteil  htales  at  that  port,  and 
the  was  the  subject  of  constant  com>sponclenec 
nn  his  part  with  his  (toverinnent  and  with  Mr. 
Adams.  .  .  Early  In  thi'  history  of  tliis  cniiscr 
the  point  was  taken  by  the  liritish  authorities  — 
a  point  maintained  throughout  the  struggle  — 
that  they  would  originate  nothing  themselves 
fur  the  maintenance  and  performance  of  their 
International  duties,  and  that  they  would  listen 
to  no  representations  from  the  ottlcials  of  the 
United  (states  which  did  not  furnish  technical 
CTld<ucc  f'  r  a  criminal  prosecution  under  the 
Funigu  Lnlistmcnt  Act.  ...  At  last  Mr.  I)u<l- 
ley  Ithe  Cimsul  of  the  Vnllt'd  States  at  L1v<t- 
pool  I  succei'ded  In  finding  the  desired  proof.  On 
the  21st  day  of  July,  he  laiil  it  la  the  form  of 
aflldaiits  lAfore  the  Collector  at  MveriKxil  In 
compliance  with  the  lutlmatlons  which  .Mr. 
Adams  hiul  received  frrim  Earl  Itussell.  These 
affidavits  were  on  tlie  same  day  iransmiltpil  by 
the  Coll'  .'tor  to  the  Ikiardof  Customs  at  London, 
with  a  re(|ueBt  for  liistruelions  by  telegraph,  as 
the  ship  apiieared  tu  be  ready  for' sea  and  might 
leave  any  hour.  .  ,  .  It  .  .  .  appears  that  not- 
withstanding  this  official  Information  from  the 
Colledor.  the  pa|>ers  were  nut  considered  by  the 
law  advisers  until  the  2Htli,  and  that  the  cose 
appeared  to  Ihein  to  be  so  clear  that  they  gave 
their  advice  upon  It  that  evening.  Under  these 
cireuiustaucei,  the  delay  of  fight  days  after  the 
Slst  in  the  order  for  the  ilrtentloo  of  the  vessel 
was.  in  the  opinion  of  tlie  Unlte<l  Htnli'S,  grots 
ceg!U-urrf-f>  oti  the  jart  vf  !frf  Majrtiy'a  Guvrre- 
ment  On  the  SSth  the  HwreUry  of  the  Com- 
mission of  the  Cuitonu  recalvetl  •  telegram  from 


Livcrpwd  saying  that  '  the  vessel  290  came  out 
of  (Ux'k  Inst  night,  and  left  the  |M)rt  this  morn 
inc."  .  .  .  After  leaving  the  dock  she  'pro- 
ceeded slowly  down  the  Mersey.'  Both  the 
Ijiinls  were  on  board  and  also  "BuIIiK^k.  .  .  . 
The  290  slowly  steamed  on  to  Mwlfni  Hay,  on 
the  coast  of  Anglesey,  where  she  renialned  'all 
that  night,  all  the  next  day,  and  the  next  iiiKlit.' 
No  elTort  w  lis  made  to  seize  her.  .  .  .  When  the 
Alabama  left  Moelfra  Hay  her  crew  nuinbi  nd 
about  IK)  men.  She  ran  part  way  down  the  Iri-.li 
Clianncl,  then  round  the  north  coast  of  Ireland, 
only  stopping  near  tlie  Giant's  Causeway.  She 
then  made  for  Terccira,  one  of  the  Azores, 
which  she  reached  on  the  lOtb  of  August.  On 
18th  of  August,  while  she  was  at  Terceira,  a 
sail  was  observeil  making  for  the  am  borage.  It 
proved  to  be  the  'Agrippinu  of  Lonilon,  Cap- 
tain Met^ueen,  having  on  iKiunl  six  guns,  with 
ammunition,  coals,  stores.  Ac,  for  the  Alubamu.' 
Preparations  were  immeiliately  made  to  transfer 
this  important  cargo.  On  theaftimoon  of  the 
20th,  while  employed  discharging  the  bark,  the 
screw-steamer  Bahama,  Captain  Tessier  (the 
same  that  had  taken  the  annament  to  the  Florida, 
whose  insurgent  ownership  and  character  were 
well  known  in  Liverpool),  arrived,  'having  on 
board  Commander  Raphael  beinmes  and  olncen 
of  the  Confederate  States  steamer  Sumter.' 
There  were  also  taken  from  this  steamer  two  38- 
pounders  and  some  stores,  whieh  (Miiipied  al.' 
the  remainder  of  that  day  and  a  part  of  the  next 
The  22d  and  23<1  of  August  were  taken  up  in 
transferring  coal  from  the  Agrippina  to  the 
Alabama.  It  was  not  until  Sunduy  (the  24th) 
that  the  Insurgents'  Hag  was  hoisteil.  HulliKk 
and  thu.se  who  were  not  going  in  the  290  went 
back  to  the  Bahama,  and  the  Alabama,  now  first 
kuown  under  that  name,  went  olf  with  '2flolll- 
ccrsand  H.'imen.'" — The  Cwf  oftht  I'hitrd  Sl.,te* 
ttfore  the  Tribunal  of  Arbitration  tit  Otttern  (42rf 
Omij..  H  Sta.,  Senate  i>.  //..<•..  AV-.  ai,  pp. 
14{J-ri).— The  Alabama  "arrived  at  I'orto 
I'raya  on  the  19tb  August.  Shortly  thereafter 
Capt.  Ituphael  Semmes  assumed  commund. 
Hoisting  the  Confederate  flag,  she  crui.sed  and 
cai>'  everal  vessels  ill  the  vl<'inity  of  Flons. 

C.  the  westwaiil,  and  making  several 

"a-  approached  viihln  2(X)inlles  of 

Ne  lence  going  soutliwanl,  arrlveil,  on 

the)  ember,  at  I'ort  Royal,  .Martiiiii|iie. 

On  ti.u  night  ofthelOtli  she  es"rapi'd  from  the 
bi'Tliour  and  the  Federal  steamer  Sun  Jacinto, 
and  on  the  20th  November  was  at  Blani|uilla. 
On  the  7th  Decemlier  she  ciipl'iii'd  the  steamer 
Ariel  In  the  passage  between  Cuba  and  St. 
Domingo.  On  January  llth.  IHtM.  she  sunk  the 
Kederii!  giinlwat  Hatte'nis  oIT  (ialveston,  and  on 
the  Slitli  arrived  at  Jamaica.  Cruising  to  the 
eastward,  and  making  many  captures,  she 
arrived  on  the  10th  April,  11 1  Fernando  de 
Noi-onha,  and  on  the  llth  .Muv  at  Biilila,  wherv, 
on  the  lUth,  she  was  Joineil  Vy  ihi'  Confitlerata 
steam  r  (ieorgia.  Cruising  near  the  line,  tlirnce 
southKud  lowanis  the  Cape  of  noi«|  Hope, 
numerous  capture*  were  made  On  the  '20tb 
July  she  anchored  in  Saldanha  Bay,  Kouib 
Africa,  and  near  there  on  the  •tth  August,  was 
Joined  by  the  Confederate  bark  Tuscaloosa,  Com 
mander  Low.  In  BepteinlHr,  IN418,  she  was  at 
^i.  J^iinon'a  Bay,  aiiu  in  ih;t::ln-r  wx'*  in  the 
Straits  of  Sunda,  ami  up  to  January  SO,  18M, 
cruised  In  tJio  Bay  of  Bengal  an<l  tIcIuUjt,  tUV 


J 


31 


jiMi 


ALABAMA.  CLAIMS. 

log  Singapore,  and  making  a  number  of  very 
valuable  captun^s,  including  the  Ilishlandcr, 
Sonora,  etc.  Fr»m  tUis  point  she  cniisod  on  her 
homcwiird  tmek  via  Caiie  of  G'«iJ  Hope,  cap- 
turing the  bark  Tycoon  and  ship  Uoi'kingliam. 
and  arrived  nt  Cherbourg,  Fn»ncc,  in  Juue,  1B04, 
where  -he  repaired.  A  Federal  steamer,  the 
Kiiin.';rge,  was  lying  off  tlie  harbour.  Capt. 
Scnines  might  eiisily  have  cvmled  this  enemy; 
the  business  of  his  ves.sel  was  tliat  of  a  privateer; 
an'l  her  value  to  the  Confederacy  wa.s  out  of  all 
comparison  with  a  single  vessel  of  the  enemy. 
.  .  .  Uut  Capt.  Semmcs  had  been  twitted  with 
the  name  of  'pinite;'  and  he  was  easily  per- 
suadeil  to  attempt  an  fclat  for  the  Southern 
Confcderaov  by  a  naval  fight  within  sight  of  the 
French  con'st,  Vliich  contest,  it  wns  cilculated, 
would  prove  the  Alal>ama  a  lugitimiito  war  vcs- 
•cl,  and  give  such  an  exliibitioii  of  Confederate 
Ijelllgerency  as  possibly  to  revive  the  question 
of  '  recognition  in  i'liris  and  London.  These 
were  the  Bicret  motives  of  the  gratuitous  fight 
with  which  Capt.  Semmes  obliged  the  enemy 
off  the  port  of  Cherbourg.  The  Alabama  car- 
ried one  7-inch  Blakily  rifled  gun,  one  8-Inch 
amooth-lM're  pivot  gun,  and  f.i.\  Sipoumlirs, 
amoothbore.  in  broadside;  the  Kears;ir;;e  carried 
four  broadside  Si-pounders,  two  Ulnch  and  one 
88  pound  ritte.  The  two  veascls  were  thus 
about  opml  in  match  and  armament;  and  their 
tonnage  wai  about  the  same." — K.  A.  I'ollar.l, 
Thf.  Lout  C.iim;  p.  549.— Captain  Winslow,  com- 
manding the  I'nited  States  Steamer  Kearsirf^e, 
in  a  report  to  tlie  Seiretary  of  the  Navv 
written  on  the  afternoon  of  the  day  of  his  battle 
with  the  Alabniii.i,  June  19,  1«64,  saiil:  "I  have 
the  honor  to  inbrm  the  department  that  the  dnv 
iubseipicnt  to  tlie  arrival  of  the  Kearsarge  oil 
this  pnri,  on  the  24th  [I4th]  Instant,  I  received 
•  note  from  Caplalu  Semmes,  begging  that  the 
Keursiiri;e  wmiM  not  depart,  as  he  inleucled  to 
fight  h(  r,  and  would  delay  her  but  a  day  or 
two.  Adoriling  to  this  notice,  the  \lal)ania 
left  the  i>ort  nf  I  lierbourg  this  met  :  t  atwut 
half  pa.st  iiin.'  ocl  k  k.  At  twenty  nntiutis  past 
ten  A.  M..  we  iliseovered  her  stiirlng  towards 
ui.  Kenritig  tin- (pieKlhrn  of  iurlsilluion  might 
•rise,  we  steatmd  to  sia  until  adUiatieeof  si.x 
or  seven  mills  M  IS  attained  fotu  the  Cherbourg 
break-«iitcT.  win  a  we  rounded  lo  and  com- 
menied  si.aniing  fur  the  Alabama.  As  we 
•ppnmcli' d  b.  r,  within  about  l.'Jtl  yanls,  she 
•penid  lir.',  \M'  niching  t'vo  or  tliicc  br'ad- 
»f<li-H  liefure  a  slmt  was  n'tiirnril.  'riui  action 
continucil,  the  n  spirtivo  Btcaniirs  making  a  cir- 
cle loiind  aiul  round  at  a  distance  of  abiMit  9  0 
yards  from  each  other.  At  the  evplratlon  of  an 
Lour  the  Ahibama  struck,  going  down  In  abotit 
twenty  miiiiiti  H  afterward,  carrying  many  per. 
inns  with  liir."  In  a  njiort  two  days  later, 
Catitain  Win-low  gave  tlie  following  particulars: 
"Toward  the  <  lose  of  the  acti.in  bitwecn  the 
Alabama  an  I  IliU  vessel,  all  av.iilitje  sail  was 
made  on  tlic  former  for  the  purpose  of  .ii;aln  reach- 
ing Chirli.'UiL'.  When  the  olijeet  w,,s  ajipariiit, 
the  Ki  ar>ari'e  was  steered  aero».s  t'le  liow  of  the 
AlHbania  for  a  raking  Hre;  Imt  1 1  fore  nai  hliig 
this  point  ilie  Alabama  ktnnU.  rticerlala 
whether  (  iiptain  Semmes  was  not   u  big  some 

rus'-.    tile    i\e.ilr.<o  Lli'   WrtW    hloj.lMii.       ii    W  iS  S^-cn, 

iJiortly  afterward,  that  the  Alaliama  "as  lowir- 
Ing  htr  lii>ats.  an. I  an  ollb  er  I'liii'  nl  di -si  Ic  in 
one  of  tliciii  to  say  that  liny  had  » irrenderod, 


ALABAMA  CLAQU 

and  were  fast  sinking,  and  begging  tliat  kMl^ 
would  be  despatehi'd  immediately  for  saving 
life.  The  two  boats  not  disableil  were  at  once 
lowered,  and  as  ii  was  apparent  the  Alaliama 
was  si-ttling,  tliis  olfleer  was  permitU'd  to  leave 
in  his  boat  to  aIT,)rd  assistance.  An  English 
y.acht,  tlie  Deerli  lund,  had  approached  near  the 
Kcarsarpo  at  t  lis  time,  when  I  hailed  and 
begged  tl",-  commander  to  run  down  to  the 
Alabama,  as  she  was  fast  sinking,  and  we  had 
but  two  boats,  and  assist  in  picking  up  tiio  men. 
He  answered  afBrmativcly,  and  steamed  toward 
the  Alabama,  but  the  latter  sank  almost 
immediately.  Tlie  Deerhound,  however,  sent 
her  boats  and  was  actively  engaged,  aided  '  y 
several  others  wlilch  had  come  from  sin,re. 
Thesi!  boats  were  busy  in  bringing  tlie  woumlcd 
and  others  to  the  Kearsarge;  whom  we  were 
trying  to  make  as  comfortai>lc  as  possible,  when 
it  was  reported  to  me  that  the  Deerhound  was 
moving  olT.  I  could  not  believe  (hat  the  com- 
mander of  that  vessel  could  be  guilty  of  so  dis- 
graceful an  at't  as  taking  our  priscmers  off,  and 
therefore  t<xik  no  means  to  prevent  it,  but  con- 
tinued to  keep  our  boats  at  work  rescuing  the 
men  in  the  water.  I  am  sorry  to  sav  that  I  was 
nii-staken.  The  Dierhoiind  made  olT  with 
Captain  Semmes  anil  others,  and  also  the  very 
olllcer  who  had  come  on  board  to  siirrender."— 
In  a  still  later  report  Captain  V'i"sl"w  gave  the 
following  facts:  "The  lire  of  the  Ahibama, 
although  it  is  stated  she  discharged  3Ttl  or  more 
shell  and  shot,  was  not  of  serious  ilain:ise  to  the 
Kearsarge.  Some  i:)  or  14  of  these  hail  t:iken 
effect  in  and  abont  the  hull,  and  10  or  17  alwrnt 
the  masts  and  ri;,'!,'lng.  The  e;isiialtlcs  were 
small,  only  three  persons  having  been  wounded. 
.  ,  .  The  tire  uf  the  Kearsarge,  although  only 
173  proiectlles  had  Ix  en  discharged,  according 
to  t'l  iirlsonera'  accounts,  was  lerrillc.  One 
shot  Bione  had  killed  and  wounihd  18  men,  and 
di.sablcd  a  gun.  Another  had  entered  the  coal- 
bunkers,  exploding,  and  completely  blixkiug  up 
the  engine  room;  and  Capt;ilu  Scmniis  states 
that  shot  and  bIicII  had  taken  efTeet  in  the  sidei 
of  his  vessel,  tearing  large  holes  by  explosion, 
and  his  men  were  everywiiere  knocked  down."— 
IkMlinn  tttwnl,  r.  9,  ;>;).  a21-22.V 

Ai.KO  IN  J.  It.  Soley,  The  IVK-kmU  and  tht 
■iiiirrt  (Tfitt  J\'<'i-y  III  l/ii-  Ciril  ll'nr,  r.  I),  ch.  7. 
—,1.  a.  S  ilev,  J  Mel.  Kell  and  J.  .M.  Hrowne, 
T/ie  I'y/iili'niti!  CniiiuTi  lUiittUt  and  Lrmlerr, 
T.  3).  -U.  Semmes,  .V,  nwim  of  S  rrict  Ajloat, 
e\.  iD-IJ— ,1.  1)  IlnllH-k.  .SirriJ  Sirrict  of  t}l» 
I'onfi'liTiili'  ,<t,it,ii  in  h'lirojif,  r.  1,  cA.  5. 

A.  D.  1862-1865.— Other  Confederate  crui*- 
en.— "A  B<-ori'  of  othiT  Confederate  .  nilsjT* 
riameii  the  was,  to  prey  upon  I'nltcd  Slate* 
commerce,  but  none  of  them  beeame  unite  so 
famous  as  till'  Siiinti  rand  the  Alabama.  1  liey  In- 
cluded tlie  Slicnaniloah.  wlili  h  made  :W ea| it iires, 
tlie  Florl  la.  whii  li  mail.-  'M,  the  Taliah:is.see, 
wlileli  inaili  27.  the  T;ii  onv,  whieh  male  l."i,  and 
the  Ceorgia,  wliiih  niade'lO.  Tile  Florid:,  waa 
ci;itnrid  In  the  hailior  of  Balila,  llr:i/il,  in 
OiiiilKr.  INill,  by  a  I'liiied  Stales  man  of  war 
|tlie  \Vbi  liusitt.  I'l  .mun.liT Collins],  in  violation 
of  tlie  niMitr.llly  of  thi'  port.  For  this  tlio 
rnited  States  (lovenmiiiit  apologized  to  llmill 
a;id  r.nirnii  the  r  t.iri::-n  >  f  the  Ki-iri-ia  in  the 
li:irl)or  when' she  w:is  e;ip;iirid.  lint  In  Hamp- 
ton Uoads  she  met  with  an  iici  Idciit  and  xaiik.  If 
was  generally  bilie veil  that  the  ;  ppamit  iicci- 


ALABAMA  CLAIHa 

dent  was  contrived  with  the  connivance,  If  not 
by  direct  order,  of  the  QovemmenL  Stost  of 
these  cruisers  were  built  in  Britir'i  shipyards."— 
R  Johnson,  SImrt  Ilitt.  of  tlie  ]i  tr  of  Seeemon 
eh.  24.— Tno  last  of  the  destroyers  of  Amcriran 
commerce,  the  Shenandoah,  was  a  British  mrrcliant 
ship- the  8ca  King- built  for  the  Bombay 
trade,  but  purchased  by  the  Confederate  agent, 
Captahi  Bullock,  armed  with  six  guns,  and  com- 
missioned (October,  1865)  under  her  new  name. 
In  June,  1865,  tiie  Shenandoah,  after  a  voyage 
to  Australia,  in  the  course  of  which  she  destroycil 
a  dozen  merchant  ships,  made  her  appearance  in 
the  Northern  Sea,  near  Behrine  Strait,  where 
she  fell  in  with  the  New  Bedford  whaling  fleet. 
"In  the  course  of  one  week,  from  the  21st  to 
the  28th,  twenty-flve  whalers  were  captured,  of 
which  four  were  ransomed,  a-d  the  remaining 
21  were  burned.  T  loss  on  these  21  whalers 
was  estimated  at  up  isof  $3,000,000,  and  con- 
sidering that  it  occurred  .  .  .  two  months  after 
the  Confederacy  had  virtually  passed  out  of  ex- 
istence, it  may  be  characterized  as  the  most  use- 
less act  of  hostility  that  occurred  during  the 
whole  war."  The  captain  of  the  Shenundoali 
destroyed  IS  veaseli  even  after  he  had  news  of 
;!ip  fall  of  Richmond.  In  August  he  surrendered 
his  vessel  to  the  British  government,  wliieh 
delivered  her  to  the  United  States.— J.  K.  Soley, 
The  C'liiftihrate  Cniiiier»  (Bntlkii  uml  lyi'lerii. 
r  4)  Fur  st«tlstic8  of  the  totjil  lossc.i  iiitlieted 
liv  Ilie  eliven  Confcileratc  cruisers  for  which 
(Jreiit  Britain  was  held  responsible,  see  L'vited 
Statfs  of  Am.  :  1865  (Mav). 

A.  D.  1862-1860.— Definition  of  the  indemnity 
claims  of  the  United  States  against    Great 
Britain.— First   stages  of  the   Negotiation. 
—  The   rejected  Johnson-Clarendon  Treaty. 
—"A  review  of  the  history  of  ilio  negotiutions 
between  the  two  Oovemments  prior  to  the  turre- 
spondenee  lietwwn  Sir  Edward  Thomson  and  Mr 
Fish,  will  show  .  .  .  what  was  Intended  by  these 
wonis,    -gencrically    known    as    the    Alaliiinia 
( laims,  use<i  on  each  side  In  that  cnrrespoii.lenee 
The  correfinondencc  between  the  two  Oovernients 
was  opened  by  .Mr.  Adams  on  the  20th  of  Xovein- 
ber,18fl'J  (less  thanfoiirmorthsiiftertlicoseapi'of 
the  Alabama),  in  a  note  to  Earl  Itiussell,  written 
under  instrurtlons  from  the  Oovernnien'  of  tlie 
Lnltcd  States.     In  this  note  Mr.   Adams  suli- 
mitted  evidence  of  the  acts  of  <:.e  Alabauii   and 
stated;  'I  have  the  honor  to  Inform  Your  I.cird- 
ship  of  the  directions  which  I   have  rioeived 
from  my  (Jovernment  to  solicit  rtilress  fi.r  the 
national  and  private  In'uries  thus  «ii8laine<I  ' 
I^in.   Uiissdl   met   ihis  notice  on   the    l»th  of 
i)eceTiber,  1862,  by  a  denial  of  any  liability  for 
any  injuries  g'   wing  out  of  the  acts  of  the  Ala- 
hama.  ...  As  new   losses  from   time   to  time 
were  sufle.ed  bv  Indlvl.luals  during   the   war 
Uiey  were  brought  to  the  notice  of  Her  Malestyi 
UovermiH  nt   and  were  l.xlged  with  the  n.itidmil 
and    in.livuliml  claims  already  pn-fernnl-    but 
arguineiilalive  discussion  on  the  is.iue«  involved 
was    by    ei.tmiion    coiis.iit   deferred.  .  .  .  The 
fact  that  the  first  claim  prefero'd  grew  out  of 
the  a<'is  of  il,e   Alabama  explains  how  it  was 
tliat  all  the  claims  growing  out  of    the    acts 
<>t    all    Uie    vessds    ,ume    to    Ui    •gemrlcallv 

.^pril.  isfl,,,  iim  „.|,r  l,^,|n^,  virtimllv  over,  .Mr 
AUanis  n'newed  the  discussion.  He  transmitted 
to  Uti  HusitU  an  offlciitl  report  ihowiug  the 

it 


33 


ALABAMA  CLAUB. 

number  and  tonnage  of  American  vessels  trans- 
ferred to  the_  British  flag  during  the  war.     He 
said:    'The  United  States  commerce  is  rapidly 
vanishing  from  Uie  face  of  the  ocean,  and  that  of 
Ureat  Britain  is  multiplying  in  nearly  the  same 
rat  o.     •This  process  is  going  on  by  reason  of  the 
action  of  British  subjects  la  cooperation  with 
emissaries  of  the  insurgents,  who  have  supplied 
from  the  ports  of  Her  Slajesty's  Kingdom  all  the 
materials,  such  as  vessels,  armament,  supplies, 
and  men,  inJispensable  to  the  effective  prosecu- 
tion of  thif  result  on  the  ocean.'  .  .  .  He  stated 
that  ho   'vas  under  the  painful    necessity  of 
announctag   that  his  Government  cannot  avoid 
entailing  upon  the  Government  of  Great  Britain 
the  responsibility  for  this  damage.'  Lord  Rus- 
sell .  .  .  said  in  reply,  "I can  never  admit  that 
the  duties  of  Great  Britain  toward  the  United 
htatcs  are  to  be  measured  by  the  losses  which 
the  trade  and  commerce  of  the  United  States 
have  BiisUlncd.  .  .  .  Referring  to  the  offer  of 
arliltratlon,  made  on  the  26th  day  of  October  1863 
U)rd    Russell,    In   the   same    note,  said-' 'Her 
Majesty's  Government  must  decline  cither   to 
make  reparation  and  compensation  for  the  cap- 
tures made  by  the  Alabama,   or  to  refer  tue 
question  to  any  foreign  State.'    This  terminated 
llio  Urst  stage  of  the  negotiations  b»'tween  the 
two  Ooveinmeni.s.  .  .  .  In  the' summer  of  1868  » 
change  of  JImi.stry  took  i)Ia(e  In  England,  and 
Lord  Maidey  became  Secntarv  i.f  State  for  For- 
eign Airairs  In   the  place  ot'  I,„rd  Clarendon, 
lie  took  iin  early  opportunity  to  give  an  Intinia- 
lon  to  the  House  of  Commons  that,  should  the 
rejected  claims  be  revived,  the  new  Cabinet  was 
not  i)repared  1..  say  what  answer  nilvlit  be  given 
them;    ill  other  wonIs,   that,   should  an  oppor- 
tunity lie  otfered,  Lord  RusseMs  refusal  might 
possibly  l)c  ncousldered.     Mr.  Sewanl  met  these 
overtures  by  Instructing  .llr  Adams,  on  the  a7th 
of  August,  1866,  'to  call  Lord  Sianlev's  attention 
in  a  respectful  but  earnest  iiiaiiHer,'' to  'a  sum- 
iiisry  yf  claims  of  ritizeiis  of  the  United  States, 
for    damages    which    were    .snllcred    by    them 
during    the    iH.Tiod    of    tlie    eUil     war '     nml 
to    say    tlLit    the    Governiii.iit    of   the   Unili'd 
States,    while    it    thus    insi-,is    up,,.,  these  ii.ir- 
ticular  clainn,   Is  neither  desiroiLs  nor  willing 
to    assume    an    attinnle     unkind    and    unc<m- 
culatory  towani  Great  Britain.  .  .  .   Lord  Stan- 
ley met  thij  overture  bv  a  <  onimunieatlon  to  Sir 
irederiek  iiriKe,  in  whieii  he  denieil  the  lliibllity 
of  Great   liriiain,   and  a'^sented  to  a  nferincc 
'  provide!  that  a  lltting  ArLiiratorcan  Ix;  found' 
ami  that  an  agiveiiieiit  can  he  come  to  as  to  the 
lioinls  to  whieli  the  arliiiralinn  (-hall  apply  ' 
As  the  first  result  of  the-e  negotiations,  a  ccin- 
ventlon  known  as  the  Slauley  Johnson convemion 
was  signid  at  Lon.lou  on  the  inth  of  Novemlicr 
1»«8.     It  proved  to  be  uuai (eptable  to  the  Gov' 
erument    of    the    I'nite.l    Slates,     Negotiations 
wen'  at  oiiee  resumed,  and  nsuUed  ou  Hi,.  14th 
of  .lanuary,   INim.  ju  the  Treaty  known  as  the 
Johnson  fl.iniidou     couveiilioa     [having    been'' 
ne!.',.tlate,|  hy  Mr,   Revenlv  Johnson,  who  had 
Hi;eeee,leil  Mr,  .Vdaliis  as  Unilid  Males  Minister 
to  Great  liriiain]      This  latter  c.nveiith.ii  pm- 

VI  li'd  for  the  or-anlzatlon  of  a  ml.xed  i iiUj.m 

Willi  junsdielioii  ever  'all  elilmsc.n  the  part  ..f 
<ili/.eus  of  liie  I'niie.i  Mates  upon  the  Govern- 
ment of  H.r  Britannic  Majesty.  Iiieludliig  the 
so  lulled  Alaliaina  claims,  and  all  claims  on  the 
part  of  subjects  of  IJer  Urit.uiiilc  Majesty  upon 


ALABAMA  CLADI8. 

the  Government  of  the  United  States  which  may 
have  txi'n  pix'stiitfrt  to  either  governini'nt  for 
its  interposition  witli  tlie  other  since  tli<!  2«lh 
July,  1*)3,  ami  wliieh  yet  remain  unsettled.'" 
Tlie  Jolinson  I'lariiidon  treaty,  wlien  submitted 
to  the  Semite,  wiis  rejected  by  tliat  body,  in 
April,  "because,  although  it  made  provision  for 
the  part  of  the  Alabama  claims  which  consisted 
of  clixims  for  individual  losses,  the  provision  for 
the  more  extensive  national  losses  was  not  satis- 
factory  to  the  SvmiU:"— Tlie  Argument  of  the 
United  Statet  lUHrtred  tti  the  Tribunul  of  Arbt- 
tration  at  Genera,  June  15,  1873,  Ditinon  13, 
tect.  3. 

A.  D.  1869-1871.  — Renewed  Negotiationt. 
—  Appointment    and  meeting   of   the   Joint 
High  Commission.— The  action  of  the  Senate 
In  rejictiii);  the  Johnson-Clarendon  treaty  was 
taken  in  April,  1S69,  a  few  weeks  after  Presi- 
dent Grant  entered  upon  his  office.    At  this  time 
•'  the  condition  of  Euroiie  was  such  as  to  induce  the 
British  Ministers  to  take  into  consideration  the 
forei^jn  relations  of  Great  Britain;  and,  as  Lord 
Granville,  the  Hrltish  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs, 
has  himself  stated  in  the  House  of  Lords,  they 
saw  cause  to  look  with  solicitude  on  the  uneasy 
relat'ons  of  the  British  Government   with   the 
United  Slates,  and  the  Inconvenience  tliereof  in 
case  of  possible  complications  in  Europe.     Thus 
impelleii,  the  Oovernment  dispatched  to  Wash- 
in-tou  a  gentleman  who  enjoyed  the  conlidcnce 
of  both  Cabinets,  Sir  John   Hose,   to  nsccnain 
whether    overtures  for    reopening  negotiations 
wouhl  lie  received  bv  the  Pn-sident  in  splnt  and 
terms  acceptable  to  (iriat  Britain.  ...  Sir  John 
Rose  found  the  United  States  disposed  to  meet 
with  perfect  com  -;p'>m!encc  of  good-will  the  ad- 
vances of  the  British  Goveniment.    Accordingly, 
ontbe'Mlh  of  January,  ISTl.  the  Britisli  Onv- 
emment,  through  Sir  Edwanl  Thornton,  finally 
proposed  to  the  American  Government  the  ,ip- 
pointment  of  a  jnint  llich Commission  to  hold  its 
sessions  at  Wiishinirton,  an  I  there  devise  means 
to  settle  the  various  pending  iiuestions  between 
the  two  Governments  affecting  ilie  British  pos- 
wssions  In  North  America.   To  this  overture  Mr 
Fish    replied    that   the  Presl<lent  would    with 
pleasure  appoint,  as  invited.  Commissioners  on 
the   part    of  the  UniO'd   States,   provided    the 
deliberations  of    the  Commissioners  should   lie 
extended  to  other  dilTennces.— that  is  to  say, 
to  ln.lu(le  the  dillerenees  growing  out  of  incidents 
of  the    la'e  Civil    War.  .  .  .  The  Briiish  Gov- 
ernment proinptlv   iiccepted    tlMs  prnposid    for 
enlarging  the  sphere  of  the  negotiation."    The 
joint  High  Comni'  "\m  was  speedily  constituted. 
OS  proposed,  by  npiinintmc  nt  of  the  two  goveni- 
mcnts,  and  the  pn>mptitMile  of  proceeding  was 
such  tliat  the  Hriti^li  commissioners  landed   at 
New  York  intwiiilvsevendaysnftcr  Sir  Edward 
Thorntons  suggesli'nti  of  January  Sflth  was  made. 
They  filled  without   waiting  for  their  coinmls 
slons,  which  Were  ferwarded  to  them  by  special 
messenger.     The  Hiu'h  Commission  was   made 
up  as  follows;     "On  the   part  of  the  I  nited 
States  were  live  persons  —  Hamilton  Fish,  Hubert 
C  Schenck.  Samui !  Nel«on,  Elxne/.er ICnkwonil 
Hoar,  antl  Geonre  11.    Williams,— eminently  fit 
reprewnliitlves  of  the  diplomacy,  the  U-neli,  the 
bar.  and  the  leiiislalure  ..f  the  Uniii  i  Ht.itcs:  on 
tho  part  of  Great  llribdn,    Eari   De  (irey    and 
RlpoD,    President  of  the    Quoen's  Couneil;  Bir 
Bt«flord  Northcote,  ExMlDlsterand  actual  Mem- 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS. 

ber  of  the  House  cf  Commons;  Sir  Edward 
Thornton,  the  universally  respected  British  Mln- 
isUT  at  Washington,  Sir  John  [A.]  Macdon^d, 
tlie  able  and  eloquent  Premier  of  the  Canadian 
Dominion ;  and.  In  revival  of  the  good  old  time, 
when  learning  was  equal  to  any  other  title  of 
pubPc  honor,  -he  UniveiBities  in  the  person  of 
Professor  Montague  Bernard.  ...  In  the  face 
of  manv  difficulties,  the  Commissioners,  on  the 
8th  of  May,  1871,  completed  a  treaty  [known  aa 
the  Treaty  of  Washington],  which  received  the 
prompt  approval  of  their  respective  Govern- 
ments."—C.  Cushlng.  The  Treaty  of  Wathing- 
ton,  pp.  18-30,  and  11-18. 

Also  is  A.  Lang,  Life,  Uttert.  and  Dtane$ 
of  Sir  Stafford  Northeote,  Firet  Earl  of  IddesUtgh, 
eh  13  (e.  2).— A.  Badeau,  Grant  in  Pe>iff,,  fh.  25. 
A.  D.  1871.— The  Treaty  of  Waahington.— 
The  treaty  signed  at  Washington  on  tlie  8th  day 
of  May,   1871,   and  the  ratifications  of  which 
were  exchanged  at  London  on  the  17th  day  of  the 
following  June,  set  forth  its  principal  agreement 
In  the  first  two  articles  as  follows:   "Whereas 
differences  have  arisen  between  the  Government 
of  the  United  States  and  the  Government  of  Her 
Brittanlc  Majesty,  and  still  exht,  growing  out  of 
the  acts  committed  by  the  several  vessels  which 
have  given  rise  to  the  claims  gencrically  known 
us  the   'Alabama   Claims;'    and    whereas  Her 
BriUinnIc  Majesty  has  authorized  Her  High  Com- 
missioners and  Plenipotentiaries  to  express  in  a 
frieiidlv  spirit,  the  regret  felt  by  Her  .Majesty's 
Government  for  the  escape,  uniler  whatever  cir- 
cumstances, of  the  Alabama  and  other  vessils 
from  British  ports,  and  for  the  depredations  com- 
mitted by  tlioso    vessels:     Now,    in    order    to 
remove  and  niljust  all  complaints  and  claims  on 
the  p;irt  of  the  United  States  and  to  pnivlde  for 
the  siicedy  settlement  of  such  claims  which  are 
not  admitted  by  Her  Britannic  .Majesty's  Gov- 
emment,  the  high  contracting  parties  agree  that 
all  the  s;iid  claims,  growing  out  of  acta  com- 
mitted by  the  aforesaid  vessels,  and  gencrically 
known  as  the  '  Alabama  Claims,'  shall  lie  referred 
to  a  tribunal  of  arbitration  to  lie  composetl  of 
five  .Vrbltrators,  to  be  appointed  in  the  following 
manner,  that  Is  to  say:   One  shall  be  named  by 
the  President  of  tho  United  States;  one  shall  be 
named  by 'ler  Brit.annic  Majesty;  His  Majesty 
the  King  of  Italy  shall  !><■  requested  to  name  one; 
the  I'n'sident  of  the  S«is«  Confederation  sh.'\ll 
be  requested  to  name  one;  and  His  Majesty  the 
Emperor  of  Brazil  shall  be  requcsteil  to  name 
one.  .  .  .  The  Arbitrators  shall  meet  at  Geneva, 
in  Switzerland,  at  the  earilest  convenient  d.ay 
after  lliev  shall  liave  been  named,  and  shall  pro- 
ceed inipartiallv  and  caretullv  to  examine  and 
decide  all  questions  that  shall  Ik'  laid  Ixfore  them 
on  the  part  of  the  Governments  of  the  United 
States  and  Her  Britannic  Majesty  resiwctlvely. 
All  cnieM ions  considered  by  the  tribunal,  incbid- 
In,'  tlie  ilnal  award,  shall  be  dechliil  by  a  majority 
of  all  tie'  Arbitrators.     Each  of  the  high  cm- 
trading  parties  shall  also  name  one  per«on  to 
attend  the  trilmnal  as  lu  Agent  to  n|,rewnt  It 
generall.  \u  all  matters  connected  with  the  arlil 
tratirHi.  ■'    Articles  3, 4  and  8  of  the  tnaty  spei  ity 
the  nimle  In  which  each  party  shall  Kubiiiil  its 
case.     .Vrtlcle6  declares  that,  "In  dielding  the 
m:itlef-i  -'ib'nittr'l  !-■'  thp  Arbltralorm.  •>»  y  shal! 
lie  governed  by  the  following  three  ndes,  which 
ore  agreeil  upon  by  the  high  contracting  parties 
as  niles  to  be  taken  as  applicable  to  the  case,  and 


84 


J^^u. 


ALABAMA  CIAIMB. 


Al-ABAMA  CLAim 


by  8uch  principles  of  inteinational  law  not  incnn- 
■istent  therewith  as  the  Arbitrators  shall  deter- 
mine to  have  been  applicable  to  the  case:   A 
ocutral  Government  is  bound  —  First,  to  use  due 
dilifi:ence  to  prevent  the  flttine  out,  arming,  or 
equipping,  Tvithin  its  jurisdiction,  "f  any  vessel 
which  it  has  reasonable  ground  to  believe  is 
intended  to  cruise  or  to  carry  on  war  against 
a  Power  with  which  It  is  at  peace ;  and  also  to 
use  like  dill^nce  to  prevent  the  departure  from 
its  jurisdiction  of  any  vessel  intended  to  cruise 
or  carry  or  war  as  above,  such  vessel  having 
been  specia  ly  adapted.  In  whole  or  in   part, 
within  such  jurisdiction,  to  warlil<e  use.    Sec- 
ondly, not  to  permit  or  suffer  either  belligerent  to 
make  use  of  its  ports  or  waters  as  the  base  of 
naval  operations  against  the  other,  or  for  the 
purpose  of  the  renewal  or  augmentation  of  mili- 
tary supplies  or  arms,  or  the  recruitment  of  men. 
Thirdly  to  exercise  due  diligence  in  its  own 
ports  and  waters,  and,  as  to  all  persons  within 
Its  jurisdiction,  to  prevent  any  violation  of  the 
foregoing  obligations  and  duties.     Ilcr  Britannic 
Majesty    has   commanded    her  High    Commis- 
sioners and  Plenipotentiarins  to  declare  that  Her 
Majesty's  Government  cannot  assent  to  the  fore- 
going rules  as  a  statei  ■.  nt  of  principles  of  inter- 
national law  which  were  in  force  at  the  time 
when  the  claims  mentioned  in  Article  1  arose, 
hut  that  Her  Majesty's  Government,  in  order  to 
evince  its  desire  of  strengthening  the  friendly 
relations   iK'tween   the   two   countries   and   of 
making  satisfactory  provision  for  the   future, 
sgnrs  that  In  deciding  the  questions  between 
the  two  countries  arising  out  of  tliose  claims,  the 
Arliitrators  should  assume  that  Her  Majesty's 
Government  had  undertaken  to  act  upon  the 
principles  set   forth    in   tiiese  rules.     And  the 
high  contracting  parties  agree  to  olwcrvc  these 
rules  as  between  themselves  in  future,  and  to 
bring  them  to  the  knowl«lgc  of  other  maritime 
powers,  and  to  invite  them  to  ncceile  to  then.. " 
Articles  7  to  17,  inclusive,  relate  to  the  i)r<x;ediire 
of  the  tribunal  of  arbitration,  ami  proviile  for 
the  determination  of  claims,  by  a<isessors  and 
commissioners,  in  case  tlie   Arbitrators    should 
find  any  liability  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain 
and  should  not  award  a  sum  in  gross  to  be  paid 
in  wttlement  thereof.     Articles  18  to  35  relate  to 
the  Fisheries.    By  Article  18  it  is  agreed  that  in 
addition  to  the  liberty  secure<l  to  American  fish- 
ermen by  the  convention  of  1818,  "of  taking, 
curing  and  drying  flsh  on  certain  coasts  of  the 
British  North  American  colonies  therein  defined, 
the  inhabitants  of  the  United  HUitea  shall  have, 
in  (iimmon  with  the  subjects  of  Her  Tiritannic 
Majesty,  the  liberty  for  [a  period  of  Wn  years, 
and  two  years  further  after  notice  given  by 
either  party  if  Its  wish  to  terminate  the  arraugi-- 
mei..]  ...  to  take  flab  of  every  kind,  except 
shell  fish,  on  the  sea-coasts  and  shores,  and  in 
the  bays,  harbours  and  creeks,  of  the  proviuces 
of  Quebec,  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick, 
and  the  colony  of  Prince  Edward's  Ishud,  and 
(if  the  several  islands  thereunto  adjacent,  with- 
out being  restricted  to  any  distance  frr.m  the 
slidH',  with  permission  to  land  upon  the  said 
coasts  and  shores  and  islands,  and  also  upon  the 
Magdalen  Islands,  for  the  purpose  of   drying 
their  nets  and  curing  their  fish;  providei!  that 
m  tu  cicing,  they  do  not  Interfen  wltli  the  rights 
of  private  property,  or  with  British  fishermen, 
ui  Utc  peaceable  ui«  of  soy  part  of  the  uld 

8- 


coasts  In  their  occupancy  for  the  same  purpota. 
It  is  understood  that  the  above-me^  tioned  liberty 
applies  solely  to  the  sea-fishery,  and  that  the 
salmon  and  shad  fisheries,  and  all  other  flsherie* 
in  rivers  and  the  mouths  of  rivers,  are  hereby 
reserved   exclusively    for    British    fishermen.''' 
Article  19  secures  to  British  subjects  the  corre- 
sponding rights  of  fishing,  &c.,  on  the  eastern 
sea-coasts  and  shores  of  the  United  States  north 
of  the  89th  parallel  of  north  latitude.     Article  20 
reserves  from  these  stipulations  the  places  thst 
were  reserved  from  the  common  right  of  fishiug 
under  the  first  article  of  the  treaty  of  June  5, 
1854.    Article  21   provides  for   the   reciprocal 
admission  of  fish  and  flsh  oU  into  each  country 
from  the  other,  free  of  duty  (excepting  flsh  of 
the    inland    lakes   and    flsh    preserved  in  oil). 
Article  22  provides  that,   "Inasmuch  as  it  is 
asserted  by  the  Go.  -nment  of  Her  Britannic 
Ma'  ity  that  the  pi  vilegea   accorded    to   the 
citizens   of   the    United   States   under  Article 
XVIII  of  this  treaty  are  of  greater  value  than 
those  accorded  by  '  rticles  XIX  and  XXI  of  this 
treaty  to  the  subjecU  of  Her  Britannic  Majesty, 
and  this  assertion  is  not  admitted  by  the  Gov- 
ernment  of   the    United    States,   it  is   further 
agreed  that  Commissioners  siisll  be  appointed 
to  determine  .  .  .  the  amount  of  any  rompensa- 
tlon  which  in  their  opinion,  ought  to  be  paid  by 
tlie  Government  of  the  United  States  to  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Her  Britannic  Majesty."    Article  2a 
provides  for  the  appointment  of  such  Commis- 
sioners,  one  by    the    President   of  the  United 
States,  one  by  Her  Bdtannic  Majesty,  and  the 
third  by  the  IVsident  and  Her  Majesty  con- 
jointly;  or,   failing  of  agreement  within  three 
months,  tlie  third  Commissioner  to  be  named  by 
the  Austrian  MinisU'r  at  London.    The  Commis- 
sionera  to  meet  nt  Halifax,  and  their  pmcedure 
to  be  as  prescribtnl  and  regulated  by  Articles  24 
and  25.    Articles  2fl  to  81  define  certain  recipro- 
cal privileges  accorded  by  each  government  to 
the  subjects  of  the  other,  including  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  St.  Lawrence,  Yukon,  Porcupine  and 
Stiklne  Rivers,  Lake  Michigan,  and  the  Welland 
St.  Lawrence  and  St.  Clair  Flats  canals ;  and  the 
transportation  of  goods  in  bond  through    the 
territory  of  one  country  Into  the  other  witliout 
payment  of  duties.    Article  82  extends  the  pro- 
visions of  Articles  18  to  25  of  the  treaty  to  New. 
foundland  if  all   parties   concerned   enact   tha 
necessary  laws,  but  not  otherwise,     .\rticle  33 
limiu  the  duration  of  Articles  18  to  25  and  Arti- 
cle 80,  to  ten  years  from  the  date  of  their  going 
into  effect,  and  "further  until  the  expiration  of 
two  years  after  eitlier  of  the  two  high  contract- 
ing parties  shall  him-  given  notice  to  the  other 
of  its  wish  to  termina:«  the  same."    The  remain- 
ing articles  of  the  treaty  provide  for  submitting 
to  the  arbitration  of  the  Emperor  of  Germany 
the  Northwestern  water-boundary  question  (in 
tlie  channel  between  Vancouver's  Island  and  the 
continent)— to  complete  the  settlement  of  North- 
wcsU'rn  Iwundaty  disputes.— ?>(«(<«<  and  Con- 
ttntivnt  bftitnn  the  C.  8.  and  other  I\>ieen  («.'.  of 
1889),  pp.  47»-»98.  '' 

Axjo  ra  C,  Cushing,  TA*  TYeatg  of  Wathing- 
ton,  am. 

A.  D.  1871-1879.— Tht  TribawU  of  Arbi- 
tration at  Geneva,  and  Itt  Award.—"  The  sp- 
pointmeut  of  Arbitraton  took  place  in  due 
course,  and  with  the  readv  goodwill  of  the  thres 
neutral  govemmenta.    Tlw  Ubited   Butes  ap- 


ALABAMA  CLAIM8. 

Bilnted  Mr.  Charlea  FntDcis  Adams;  Great 
rlt»in  appointed  Sir  Alexander  Cockbum ;  tUe 
King  of  Italy  named  Count  Frederic  Sclopls; 
tlie  President  of  the  Swiss  Confederation,  Mr. 
Jacob  Stsmpfii;  and  the  Emperor  of  Brazil,  the 
Baron  d'ltaiubl  Jlr.  J.  C.  Buncroft  Davis  was 
appointed  Agent  of  the  United  States,  and  Lonl 
Tentcrden  of  Great  Britain.  Tlie  Tribunal  was 
organized  for  the  reception  of  the  case  of  each 
party,  and  held  its  first  conference  [at  Geneva, 
Switzerland]  on  the  15th  of  December,  1871," 
Count  Sclopls  being  chosen  to  preside.  "The 
printed  Case  of  the  United  States,  with  accom- 
panying documents,  was  filed  by  Mr.  Bancroft 
Davis,  and  the  printed  Case  of  Great  Britain, 
with  documents,  by  Lord  Tccterden.  The 
Tribunal  made  regulation  for  the  filing  of  the 
respective  Counter-Cnses  on  or  before  the  15th 
day  of  April  next  ensuing,  as  requireu  '^y  the 
Treaty ;  and  for  the  convening  of  a  special  meet- 
ing of  the  Tribunal,  if  occasion  should  require; 
and  then,  at  a  second  meeting,  on  the  next  day, 
they  adjourned  until  the  15th  of  June  next  ensu- 
ing, subject  to  a  prior  call  by  the  Secretary,  If 
there  should  be  occasion."  The  sessions  of  the 
Tribunal  were  resumed  on  the  15th  of  June, 
1873,  according  to  the  adjournment,  and  were 
continued  until  the  14th  of  Septemlwr  following, 
when  the  decision  and  award  were  announced, 
and  were  signed  by  all  the  Arbitrators  except 
the  British  renrcseQt.itivc,  Sir  Alexander  Cock- 
burn,  who  dissented.  It  was  found  by  the 
Tribunal  that  the  British  Government  had 
'■  fvileil  to  use  due  diligence  in  the  performance 
of  its  neutral  obligations"  with  respect  to  the 
cruisers  Alal)ama  and  Floriila,  and  the  several 
tenders  of  those  vessels:  ami  al.*>  with  respect 
to  the  Shenandoah  after  her  departure  from  Mel- 
bourne, Feb.  IS,  186."),  but  not  l«f.ire  that  date. 
AVIth  respect  to  the  Georgia,  the  .Sumter,  the 
Nashville,  tiicTallali.isseeand  tlie  Clilekamauga, 
it  w:\s  the  liiidiiiir  of  the  Tribunal  that  Great 
Britain  had  not  failed  to  perform  the  duties  of  a 
neutral  power.  So  far  a»  relates  to  the  vessels 
calleil  the  Sallle,  the  Jefferson  Davis,  the  .Musir, 
the  Boston,  and  the  V.  II.  Joy,  it  was  the  deri- 
sion cf  the  Triliunal  tliat  they  ought  to  be 
exclul.d  from  consideration  for  want  of  evi- 
deuee.  "So  far  as  ri'lates  to  the  particulars  of 
the  indemnity  rlai.ncd  by  the  United  States,  the 
costs  of  pursuit  of  Confederate  <Tuisers "  are 
declarid  to  l)e  "not.  in  the  judirment  of  the 
Triijimal.  propcrlv  dlstlnjulHliaMe  from  the  gen- 
eral cxpetisi's  of  the  war  carried  on  by  the 
United  States."  and  "there  is  no  ground  for 
awanlirir  to  tlie  United  Slates  any  stun  by  way 
of  inili  oinity  under  tills  heail  "  A.  similar  deci- 
sion put  asiile  the  wliole  oonsiiieration  of  claims 
for  "  prospeetlve  eiiruiiigs."  Finally,  the  award 
was  .1  iidenil  in  tlie  folUnviiig"  laneuape: 
"  Whereas,  in  orlir  to  arrive  at  an  e<|UitabIo 
compensation  for  tin  il.images  whidi  have  been 
sustaiiK  il,  it  is  necessary  to  set  ii-i'lo  all  double 
claims  for  the  same  lo'^ves,  and  all  claims  for 
'gro:>8  f  rei  u'lits '  S"  far  as  they  exeeeil '  net  f  rri^rlils ;' 
and  wlicrias  it  is  just  ami  rcasoiialile  l'<  i.llnw 
Interest  at  a  reasonalili'  rati",  utnl  whereas,  m  tie- 
Conlallee  with  llie  «liirit  lUl'l  leltir  of  the  Tre;;' y 
of  \Vas|iiii,;|.Mi,  It  U  iinferaliU'  to  :i,',„pt  tliB 
form  nf  adjuilieation  of  a  SMm  in  ltoss.  rather 
than  to  refer  tlie  stibjict  of  iMinpensation  for 
furtliiT  discussion  and  deliberation  to  a  Board  of 
Assessors,  h  provided  by  Article  X  of  the  uld 


36 


ALAKa 

Treaty:  The  Tribunal,  making  use  of  the  au- 
thority conferred  upon  It  by  Article  VII  of  the 
said  Treaty,  by  a  majority  of  four  voices  to  one, 
aw  to  the  United  States  the  sum  of  fifteen 
mi  five  bundretl  thousand  Dollars  In  gold 

as  .lienmity  to  be  paid  by  Great  Britain  to 

tl  :ed  States  for  the  satisfaction  of  all  the 

referred  to  the  consideration  of  the  Tri- 
conformably  to  the  provisions  contained 
icie  VII  of   the  aforesaid  Treaty."    It 
1  be  stated  that  the  so-called   "indirect 
,9  "  of  the  United  Statea,  for  consequential' 
s  and  damages,  growing  out  of  the  eucour- 
a^i  ment  of  the  Southern  Rebellion,  the  prolong- 
ation of  the  war,  &c.,  were  dropped  from  con- 
sideration at  the  outset  of  the  session  of  the  Tri- 
bunal, in  June,  the  Arbitrators  agreeing  then  in 
a  statement  of  opinion  to  the  effect  that  "  these 
claims  do  not  constitute,  upon  the  principles  of 
international  law  applicable  to  such  cases,  good 
foundation  for  an  awani  of   compensation  or 
computation  of  damages  between  nations. "    This 
declaration  was  accepted  by  the  United  States  as 
decisive  of  the  question,  and  the  hearing  pro- 
ceeded accordingly.— C.  Cashing,  The  Treaty  •/ 
W(i*hington. 

Also  in  F.  Wharton,  Digett  of  the  Interna- 
tional Lavt  of  the  U.  8.,  eh.  31  (t>.  8). 

ALACAB,  or  TOLOSO,  Battle  of  (laia). 
See  Ai.mohadf.8,  and  Spain:  A.  D.  1146-1532. 

ALADSHA,  Battles  of  (1877).  See  Turks: 
A.  D.  1877-1878. 

ALAMANCE,  Battle  of  (1771).  SeeNoRTa 
Carolina:  A.  D.  1766-1771. 

ALAMANNI.     See  Alemanni. 

ALAMO,  The  massacre  of  the  (1836).  See 
Texas:  A.  D.  1824-1836. 

ALAMOOT,  or  ALAMOUT,  The  castle 
of.— The  stronghold  of  the  "Old  Man  of  the 
Mountain,"  or  Sheikh  of  the  terrible  order  of  the 
Assassins.  In  northern  Persia.  Its  name  signifies 
"the  Eagle's  nest,"  or  "  the  Vulture's  nest.      See 

ASSASPIXS. 

ALANS,  OR  ALANI,  The.— "The   Alanl 

are  first  mentioned  by  Dlonyslus  the  geographer 
(B.  V.  3t>-10)  who  Joins  them  with  tlie  Dad  and 
the  Tauri,  and  again  places  them  between  the 
latter  and  the  Agathyrsl.  A  similar  position  (In 
tlie  south  of  Kussia  in  Europe,  the  modem 
Ukraine)  Is  assigned  to  them  by  Pliny  and 
Joseplius.  Seneca  placesthemfurtherwcstupon 
the  Ister.  IHolemy  has  two  bodies  of  Alani,  one 
in  the  position  above  descrilied,  the  oti  •  in 
Soythla  witliln  the  Imaus,  north  and  partly  east 
of  the  Caspian.  It  must  have  been  from  these 
last,  the  Rurccssors,  and,  according  to  some,  the 
descendants  of  the  anelent  Massaget;r,  that  the 
Alani  came  who  attacked  Paconis  and  Tiridates 
jin  MiHlia  and  Anuniia.  A.  D.  75].  .  .  .  The 
result  seems  to  have  been  that  the  Invaders,  after 
ravaging  and  harrying  Media  and  Armenia  at 
tlioir  pleasure,  carried  oil  a  vast  n'.mber  of 
prisoners  and  an  enormous  iKioty  Into  their  own 
country." — O.  Itawlinson,  *'ufA  fireitt  Oriental 
M-minhy.  eh.  17.— F,.  II.  Bunbury,  Hint.  </ 
Aufiriit  lleiio.,  eh.  6,  note  If. — "  The  first  of  this 
[the  Tartar]  raee  known  to  the  Romans  wen' 
the  .\laiii  In  the  fourth  century  they  pitched 
ft^i.tp  tents  In  the  country  between  tlie  V'-*W!i 'Uid 
the  Tttiiais,  at  an  equal  distance  from  the  Black 
Sea  and  the  Caspian." — J.  C.  L.  Slsmoudt,  fail 
of  the  Roman  Empire,  ch.  8. 


ALA3X3. 

A.  D.  376.— Conqnest  by  the  Haas.  See 
GoTBg    (V18IOOTHB):  A.  D.  376. 

A.  D.  406^409.— Final  lovaston  of  Gaul. 
Bee  Oaul:  A.  D.  400-409. 

A.  D.  409-4I4.— Settlement  in  Spain.  See 
Spain:  A.  D.  4o5-414. 

A.  D.  429.— With  the  Vandali  in  Africa. 
Sec  Vandai^:  A.  D.  429-439. 

A.  D.  4Si.-At  the  Battle  of  Chalons.  See 
Hukb:  a.  D.  451. 

» 

ALARCOS,  P  ttle  of  (A.  D.  1195).    See 

Almouaueii. 

ALARIC'S  RAVAGES  IN  GREECE 
AND  CONQUEST  OF  ROME.  Sec  Goths: 
A.  D.  395;  400-403.  and  Home:  A.  D.  408-410 

ALARODIANS.  —  IBERIANS.  —  COL- 
CHIANS.— "The    '  larodians   of    Herodotus, 
joined  with  the  Sa;,v.;re8  .  .  .  are  almost  cer- 
tainly the  inhabitauu  of  Armenia,  whose  Semitic 
name  was  Crania,  or  Ararat.     '  Ai-iud,'  indeed, 
is  a  mere  variant  form  of  'Arari'd,'  the  1  and  r 
being  undistinguishable  in  the  old  Persian,  and 
'Ararud'  serves  determlnately  to  connect  the 
Ararat  of  Scripture  with  the  L^rarda,  or  Urartha 
of  the  Inscriptions.  .  .  .  The  name  of  Ararat  is 
consUintly  used  in  Scripture,  but  always  to  de- 
note a  country  mtliur  tlinn  a  particular  moun- 
tain. .  .  ,  The  connexion  ...  of  Vrarda  with 
the  Babylonian  tribe  of  Akkad  is  proved  by  the 
application  in  the  Inscriptions  of  tlie  ethnic  title 
of  Burbur  (?)  to  the  Armenian  king  ...    ;  but 
there  Is  nothing  to  prove  whether  the  Burbur  or 
Akkiid  of  Bubvlonia  descended  in  a  very  remote 
age  from  the  .nountalus  to  colonize  the  plains 
or  whether  the  Urardians  were  refugees  of  a  later 
period  driven  northward  by  the  growing  power 
of  the  SemlU's.    The  former  supposition,  how- 
ever,   is    most  In  conformity    with  .Scrlnture 
and  Incidentally  with  the  tenor  of  the  iuscrir>'- 
tionii."— H.    C.    Kawlinson,  IltDt.  of  ll.rixMuii 
bk.  7,  app.  8.— "The  broad  and  rich  valley  of 
the   Kur,    which  corresponds  closely  with  the 
modern    Russian     province    of    Georgia,    was 
rancicnily]  In  the  possession  of  a  people  called  by 
Herodotus  Saspeires  or  Sapi-ircs,  whom  we  may 
Identify  with  the  Iberians  of  later  writers    Ad- 
loining  upon  them  towards  the  south,  probably 
in  tlie  counlrv  ab<iut    Erivan,   and    so  in   tlie 
neighbourhood  of  Ararat,  were  the  Alarodians 
whose  name  must  be  connected  with  that  of  the 
groat  mountain.      On  the   other   side   of   the 
^api'inan  country,  In  the  tracts  now  known  as 
MiuLTelia  and  luieritia.  regions  of  u  wonderful 
l«auty  ami  fertility,  were  the  Coli  hian-.  — de- 
pin.l.nt.s,  but  not  exactly  subjects,  of  I'lrsls  "— 
tJ.  lUwIiuson,  >•(■«   Oreat  Muiuire/iuM.-  Pertia 
eh.  1,  ' 

tt^}'^!'^^-  ^  ^-  «8«7.— Purchase  by  the 

United  States.— As  early  as  1859  there  wore  uu- 
oranalcoinnmuicalions  between  tli.>  Husslan  and 
American  govornmonts,  on  the  subject  of  the 
siile  of  Wiuikw  by  the  former  to  the  latter  Uus- 
slawas  more  than  willing  to  part  with  a  piece  of 
tomtory  which  she  found  (lllflcullv  In  defondlug 
In  war;  and  the  InteresU  connected  with  the 
flshories  and  the  fur-tnide  in  the  nonhwest 
wore  disposed  to  promote  the  transfer.  In 
-Ma.Tb.  1807,  <leflnite  negotiations  on  the  subject 
■-rvr---  ■■;-,::ii!  by  tile  Ru».>lttu  minister  at  Wash- 
ington, u„,|  on  the  2,1(1  of  that  month  he  recelve.l 
from  .So,  rotary  .Sowsrd  an  olTer.  subject  to  the 
I  resident  s  approval,  of  17,200.000.  on  condition 

37 


ALBA. 

that  the  cession  be  "  free  and  unencumbeiett  bj 
any  reservations,  privileges,  franchises,  grants 
or  possessions  by  any  associated  companies' 
wiiether  corporate  or  incorporate,  Russian  or 
any  other."  "Two  days  later  an  answer  was 
returned,  sUtmg  that  the  minister  believed  him- 
self authoi1ze<l  to  accept  these  terms.  On  the 
^atu  final  instructions  were  received  by  cable 
from  St.  Petereburg.  On  the  same  day  a  note 
was  addressed  by  the  minister  to  the  aecretaryof 
state,  informing  him  that  the  tsar  consentc(f  to 
the  cession  of  Russian  America  for  the  stipu- 
lated sum  of  $7,200,000  in  gold.  At  four 
o  clock  the  next  morning  the  treaty  was  slgnc<l  by 
the  two  parties  without  further  phrase  or  negotl- 

T  Vv,^"  *'"y  '••*  ""^^'y  "*»  ratified,  and  on 
June  20,  1867,  the  usual  proclamation  was  issued 
by  the  president  of  the  United  States."  On  the 
18th  of  Octolier,  1867,  the  formal  transfer  of  the 
territory  was  made,  at  Sitka,  General  Rousseau 
taking  possession  in  the  name  of  the  Govern- 
ment ->f  the  r  lited  States.— H.  H.  Bancroft. 
Ht*t.  0,   Vie  Pan  fie  State*,  v.  28,  cA.  28 

Also  i.v  W.  H,  Dall,  AUuka  and  its  Ruoureet, 
pt.  2,  eh.  2.— For  some  account  of  the  aboriginal 
Inhabitants,  see  Amf.hican  ABOBtoiKEs:  E»- 
KiM.\iMji  Family  and  .\tiiapa8can  Family 

ALATOONA,  Battle  of.  See  Usitki)  .States 
OP  Am.:  a.  D.  1864  (SEPTKMBLn  — October • 
Gkokoia). 

ALBA.  — Alban    Mount.  — '■  Cantons 
having  their  ren<lezvous  in  some  stronghold,  and 
Including  a  cert.iin  number  of  clanships,  form 
the  primitive  political  unities  with  which  Italian 
history  b-.gins.    At  what  period,  and  to  what 
extent,  such  cantons  were  formed  in  Latium 
cannot  be  determined  with  precision;  nor  is  It  a 
matter    of    special    historical    interest.       The 
Isolated  Alban  range,  that  natural   stronghold 
of  Latium,  which  offered  to  settlere  the   most 
wholesome  air,  the   fre.hest  springs,   and   tlie 
most  secure  position,  would  doubtless  be  first 
occupied    by  the    new  comers.      Here    accord- 
ingly, along  the  narrow  plateau  almve  Palaz- 
zuola,  between  the  Alban  lake  (Lago  di  CastoUo) 
and   the  Alban   mount   (Monte  Cavo)  extended 
the    town    of   Alba,    which    was    universally 
reginied  as    the   primitive    seat  of  the    Latin 
»ti«k,  and  the  iiiother-clty  of  Home,  as  well  as 
of  all  the  othor  Old  Latin  communities.     Here 
too,   on  the   slopes  lay  the  very  ancient  Latin 
canum-ccutres  of   Lauuvium,  Aricia.  and  Tus- 
culum.  .      .  ,\1|  these  cantons  were  In  primitive 
times  po!       ally   overeign,  and  each  of  them 
was  govon.L.I  by  its  prince  with  the  co-opera- 
tlim  of  the  council  of  elders  and  the  assembly  of 
warriors.      Nevertheless  the  feeling  of  fellow- 
ship based  on  community  of  descent    uud  o' 
language  not  only  pervaded  the  whole  of  them" 
but  maulfesioii  iiscll  In  an  Important  religious 
and  political  Institution  — the  jwrpetual  Kague 
of  the  collective  Latin  cantons.     The  pnsiileiicy 
belonged  origiuallv,  iiminiiiig  to  the  universal 
Italian  as  well  as  Hellontc  usage,  to  that  canton 
within  whose  bounds  lay  the  meeting-place  of 
AH  '''**"^:  '"  "''»  <''>«•  ft  was  the  canton  of 
Ai  la.  .  .  .  The  communities  entitled  to  partici- 
pate In  the  league  were  in  the  beginning  thirty. 
.  .  .  The  rcnib'zvous  of  this  union  was,  likr  the 
PambiPotIa  ami  the  PaiiionIa  among  the  slinilar 
confederacies  of  the  Greeks,  the  •  Ijitin  festival' 
(feriiE  Latina)  at  which,  on  the  Mount  of  Alba, 
upon  a  day  annually  ap|iointed   by   the  chief 


ALBA. 

msgtstrete  foi  the  purpose,  an  ox  was  offered  in 
ncrifice  by  the  assembled  Latin  stocic  to  the 
'Latin  gud' (Jupiter  Latiaris)." — T.  Mommsen, 
Hitt.  of  Jim.!,  bk.  1,  cA.  8. 

Also  in  Sir  W.  Oell,  Thpog.  of  Home,  r.  1. 

ALBA  DE  TORMES,  Buttle  of.  See 
Sfain:  a.  D.  1809  (AuousT — Novembek). 

ALBAIS,  The.  See  American  Aborioi- 
kkb:  Pampab  Tribes. 

ALBAN,  Kingrdom  of.  See  Albion;  also, 
Scotland:  8Tn-9TH  CKHTrKiEs 

ALBANI,  The.    See  Brit  Tribes  of 

ALBANIANS:  Ancient.  Sec  EriRua  and 
Illtrianb. 

MedicTat. — ''From  the  settlement  of  tlie 
Servian  Sclavonians  within  the  tx>und9  of  the 
empire  [during  the  reign  of  Hcrarlius,  Urst  half 
of  the  seventh  century],  we  may  .  ,  .  venture  to 
date  the  earliest  encroachments  of  the  Illyrian  or 
Albanian  race  on  the  Hellenic  population.  The 
Albanians  or  Amauts,  who  are  now  called  by 
themselves  Skiptars,  are  supposed  to  be  remains 
of  the  great  Thracian  race  which,  under  various 
names,  and  more  particularly  as  Paionians, 
Epirotsand  Macedonians,  take  an  important  part 
in  early  Grecian  history.  Nodistinct  traceof  the 
period  at  which  they  began  to  lie  co-proprietors 
of  Greece  with  the  Hellenic  race  ran  be  found 
in  history.  ...  It  seems  very  difficult  to  trace 
back  the  history  of  the  Greek  nation  without 
suspecting  that  the  germs  of  their  modem  con- 
dition, like  those  of  their  ncighl)<)urs,  are  to  be 
Bouglit  in  the  singular  events  which  occurred  in 
the  reign  of  Heraclius. " — 0.  Finlay,  Greece  Under 
the  Homaiii.  eh.  4,  fret.  6. 

A.  D.  1443-1467.— Scanderbe^i  War  with 
the  Turks. — "John  Castriot,  Lord  of  Emal- 
tliia  (the  modem  district  of  Moghlcne)  [in 
Epinis  or  Albania]  hail  submitted,  like  the 
other  pcttj'  despots  of  tliose  regions,  to  Amurath 
early  in  Ins  ri'ign,  and  had  placed  his  four  sons 
in  tlie  .Sultan's  hands  a.^  hostages  for  his  iidelity. 
Three  of  them  died  young.  The  f.iurth,  whose 
name  was  George,  pleased  the  Sultan  by  his 
beauty,  strength  and  intelllgcneo.  Amurath 
caused  him  to  ne  brought  up  in  the  Mahometan 
creed;  and,  when  he  was  only  eightccu,  con- 
ferred on  hira  the  government  of  one  of  the 
Sanjaks  of  the  empire.  The  young  Albanian 
proved  his  courage  and  skill  in  many  exploits 
under  Amurath's  eye,  and  received  from  him  the 
name  of  Isknnderlieg,  the  lord  Alexander. 
When  John  Castriot  died.  Amunth  took  pos- 
session of  his  principalltie!'  .'  1  kept  the  son  con- 
stantly employed  in  distant  wars.  Seanderbeg 
broode<l  over  this  injury ;  ami  when  the  Turkish 
armies  were  routed  by  Huiiyades  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1443,  ScanderV'g (ktermined  to  escape 
from  their  side  and  a8.sume  forcible  pos,session  of 
his  patrimony.  He  Bu<ldenly  entered  the  tent 
of  the  Sultjiu's  chief  secretary,  and  forced  that 
functionary,  with  the  poniard  at  his  throat,  to 
write  and  si'al  a  formal  order  to  the  Turkish 
commander  of  the  strong  city  of  Croia,  in 
Albania,  to  deliver  that  phiie  and  the  adjacent 
territory  to  S<Mnderbeg.  as  the  Sulljin's  viceroy. 
He  then  stablMil  the  secretary  and  hastened  to 
Croia,  where  his  strategem  gained  him  Instant 
sdmittnnop  ami  siibmlssi.>n.  He  now  pul>!lc!y 
ahjure<l  the  Mahometan  faith,  and  declared  his 
intention  of  defending  the  creed  of  his  fore- 
Uthen,  uh'.  nutoriiig  the  independence  of  his 


88 


ALBERONl 

native  land.  The  Christian  population  flocked 
readily  to  his  banner  and  the  'Turks  were  maa- 
sacreu  without  mercy.  For  nearly  twenty-five 
years  Seanderbeg  contended  against  all  the 
power  of  the  Ottomans,  though  directed  by  the 
skill  of  Amurath  and  his  successor  Mahomet, 
the  conqueror  of  Constantinople." — Sir  E.  S. 
Creasy,  IlUt.  of  the  Ottoman  Turla,  eh.  4. — 
"Seanderbeg  died  a  fugitive  at  Lissus  on  the 
Venetian  territory  [A.  D.  1467].  His  sepulchre 
was  si>"n  violated  by  the  Turkish  conquerors; 
but  th(.  janizaries,  who  wor3  his  bones  enchased 
in  a  bracelet,  aeclared  by  this  superstitious 
amulet  tteir  involuntary  reverence  for  hia 
valour  .  .  .  His  infant  son  was  saved  from  the 
national  shipwreck;  the  Castriots  were  invested 
with  a  Neapolitan  dukedom,  and  their  blood 
continues  to  tlow  in  the  noblest  families  of  the 
realm."— E.  Gibbon,  Seetint  and  PiM  of  ths 
Soman  Empire,  cA.  67. 

Also  in  A.  Lamartine,  Hiit.  of  Turkey,  bk.  11, 
Kct.  11-28. 

A.  D.  i6o4-i696.— Conqnests  by  the  Vena- 
tiant.    See  Turks:  A.  O.  1684-1686. 


ALBANY,  N.  Y.:  A.  O.  1633.- The  firet 
Settlement.  —  In  1614,  the  year  after  the  first 
Dutch  traders  had  established  their  operitions  on 
Manhattan  Island,  they  built  a  trading  house, 
which  tlicy  called  Fort  Nassau,  on  Castle  Island, 
in  tile  Hudson  Uiver,  a  little  lielow  the  site  of 
the  present  city  of  Albany.  "Three  years  later 
this  sm.  '1  fort  was  carried  away  by  a  Uood  and 
the  island  abandoned.  In  1623  a  more  impoitant 
fortification,  named  Fort  Orange,  was  erected  on 
the  site  afterwards  covered  by  the  business  part 
of  Albany.  That  year,  "  about  eighteen  families 
settled  themselves  ut  Fort  Orange,  under  Adriaen 
Jons,  who  'staid  with  them  all  winter,'  after 
Ecmi:  Ms  ship  home  to  Holland  in  charge  of  bis 
son  "oou  as  the  colonists  had  built  thcm- 

^.ve'  .no  huts  of  bark'  around  the  fort,  the 
Jlahikunders  or  Itivcr  Indians  [Mohegans],  the 
)Iohawks,  the  Uneidas,  the  Onondagas,  the 
Cayugas,  and  the  Scnecas,  with  the  Mahawawa 
or  Ottjvwawa  Indians,  'camcand  made  covenants 
of  friendship  .  .  .  and  desired  that  they  ir'ght 
come  and  have  a  constant  free  trade  with  them, 
which  was coiicludeil  upon.'" — J.  K.  Brodhead, 
Hilt,  of  the  Slate  of  ^V.  I'.,  v.  1,  pp.  05  and  151. 

A.  D.  1630.— Embraced  in  the  land-purchase 
of  Patroon  Van  Rensselaer.  Seo  Xew  York  : 
A.  I).  1«;.'1-104«. 

A.  D.  1664.— Occupied  and  named  by  the 
English,     ^^e«  New  Yoiik:  A.  I).  Itifi4. 

A.  D.  1673. — Anin  occupied  by  the  Dutch. 
See  Nkw  Yokk:  K.  I).  1673. 

A.  D.  1754.— The  Colonial  Congress  and  its 
plans  of  Union.  See  United  States  of  Am.  - 
A.  a  1754.  , 

ALBANY  AND  SCHENECTADY  RAIL- 
ROAD OPENING.  S<e  8TE.iM  Locomotion 
ON  Land. 

ALBANY  REGENCY,  The.  See  New 
Y'ouk;  A.  I),  IHiS. 

ALBEMARLE,  The  Ram,  and  her  de- 
struction. Seo  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  U. 
1864  (April-— May:  North  Carolina),  and 
(<><Toi!i:i;:    N.  Caiujlisa). 

ALBERONI,  Cardinal,  The  Spanish  Min- 
istry of.  See  Spain:  A.  D.  1713-1 72S;  and 
Italy:  A.  U.  1T15-178S. 


m 


ALBERT. 

ALBERT,  King  ofSweden,  A.  D.  186.1-1888. 

. . .  Albert,  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  A.  D. 
147a-14MU.... Albert  I.,  Duke  of  Austria  and 

Kingof  Germany,  A.  D.   12US-1SUN Albert 

II.,  uuke  of  Austria,  Kingr  of  Hungary  and 
Bohemia,  A.  D.  14S7-t  44U ;  King  of  Germanr, 
A  D.  14tJ8-1440. 

ALBERTA,  The  District  of.    See  Koktu- 

WE8T  TKKKITOKIE8  OF  CANADA. 

ALBERTINE  LINE  OF  SAXONY.    Sec 

Saxony:  A.  1).  1180-1553. 

ALBICI,  The.— A  Gallic  tribe  which  occu- 
pied the  hills  11  live  Musgilia  (Marseilles)  and 
who  are  dtscriU'd  as  a  savage  people  even  in 
the  time  of  Cresar,  when  they  helped  the  Masil- 
iots  to  defend  their  city  against  hiiu.  —  G.  Long, 
Jkeliiu  of  the  Bmnan  Renublie,  t.  5,  ch  4 

ALBIGENSES,  OR    ALBIGEOIS,  The. 
—"Nothing  is  more  curious  in  Christian  history 
than  the   vitality  of  the  Manlchean  opinions. 
That  wild,  half  poetic,  half  rationalistic  theory 
of   Christianity,  .  .  .  appears  almost  suddenly 
in  the  12th  century.  In  living,  almost  irresist- 
ible power,  first  in  its  intermediate  settlement 
Ui  Bulgaria,  and  on  the  borders  of  the  Greek 
Emphre,    then    in  Italy,    In    France,    iu    Ger- 
many, in  the  remoter  West,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Pyrenees.  .  .  .  The  chief  seat  of  these  opinions 
was  the  south  of  France.      Innocent  III.,  on  his 
accession,   found  not  only  these  daring  insur- 
gents seatte.ed  in  the  cities  of  Itiilv,  even,  as  it 
were,  at  his  own  gates  (among  iii.s  first  acta 
was  to   sulKlue   the    Paterines  of  Viterlio),  he 
found  a  whole  province,  a  realm,  in  some  re- 
spects the  richest  and  noblest  of  his  spiritual  do- 
main, absoIuU!ly  dissevered    from  his  limpire, 
in  almost  universal  revolt  from  Latin  Christian- 
ity. ...  In  no  [other]  European  country  had 
the  clergy  so  entirely,  or  it  should  scem"so  de- 
servedly, forfeiaKl  iu  authority.      In  none  had 
the  Church  more  absolutely  ceased  to  perform 
its  prui)er  functions."— U.  II.  Milman,  Jlitt.  if 
Latin   ChriHtinnity,    bk.   9,  eh.   8.— "By  mere 
chance,    tlie    s*'<ts  scattered    In  South    France 
received  the  conunon  name  of  Albigenscs,  from 
one  of  the  districts  where  the  agcuts  of  the 
church  wlio  came  to  combat  them  found  them 
mostly   to   abound,— the   district   arouud    tlie 
town  of  Alba,  or  Alby;  and   by  tliis  conmion 
name  they  were  well  known  from  the  ci  nnieuce- 
ment    of    the    thirteenth    ceuturv.     Cmler  this 
geuenil  denomination  parties  of  different  tenets 
were  conijireheiidcd  together,  but  the  Catharists 
seem  to  liave  constituted  a  predominant  element 
among  tiie  iieopio  thus  designated.  "—A.  N'ean- 
der,  Oen.  Hist,  of  the  Chrittian  lift,  and    Ch 
SthptT.,  din.  2,  fcrt.  4,  pt.  8.— "Of  the  sectaries 
who  shared  the  errors  of  Onosticism  and  Mani- 
chiEism  and  opposed  the  Catholic  Church  and 
her  hierarchy,    the  Albigenscs  were  the    most 
thorough  and  radical.      Their  errors  were.    In- 
deed,   partly    Gnostic    and   partly   Mauiducan, 
hut  the    latter  was  the  more    prominent    and 
fully  developed.       They  recciv.-d    their    name 
from  a  district  of  Langucdoc,  inliabitcd  by  the 
AlbigeoH  and  surrounding   the  town  of  Albi 
They  arc  called  Cathari  and  PatarinI  in  the  acts 
of  the  Couniil  of  Tours  (A.  D.   1163),  and  in 
those  of  the  third  Lateran,  Publiciaui  (i.  c.,  Pauli- 
ciani).     Like  the  Cathari.  thev  also  htld  th.-it  thti 
evil  spirit  cn-ated  all  visible  things."— J.  Alzog 
Manual  of  Vnit.  Ch.  Hitt.,  period  3,  f;>-c7.  % 
pt-  I,  ch.  8,  tct.  888.—  "  The    imputations  of 


89 


ALBIOENSEa 

irrellglon,  heresy,  and  shameless  debauchery, 
which  have  been  cast  with  so  niiicli  bittterneai 
on  the  Albigenscs  by  their  pi  rsecutors,  and 
which  have  been  so  zealously  liciiied  by  tlieir 
apologists,  are  probably  not  ifl  founded,  if  the 
word  Albigenses  be  employed  as  synonymous 
with  the  words  Provcuvaux  or  Lunguedocians ; 
for  thev  were  apparently  a  race  among  whom 
the  'lallowed  charities  of  domestic  life,  and  the 
reverence  due  to  divine  ordinances  and  the  hom- 
age due  to  divine  truth,  were  often  impaired, 
and  not  seldom  extinguished,  by  ribald  jests,  by 
infidel  scofflogs,  and  by  heart-hardening  impuri- 
t!'  Like  other  volur''iaries,  the  Provenvaux 
(  their  remaining  liteiuturc  attests)  were  ac- 
c;istomcd  to  find  matter  for  merriment  in  vices 
which  yvould  have  moved  wise  men  to  tears. 
But  if  by  the  word  Albigenses  be  meant  the 
Vaiidois,  or  those  followers  (or  associates)  of 
1  eter  Waldo  who  revived  the  doctrines  against 
which  the  Church  of  Pome  directed  her  censures, 
then  the  accusation  of  dissoluteness  of  manners 
mav  be  safely  rejected  as  altogether  calumnious, 
and  the  charge  of  heresy  may  be  considered,  If 
not  as  entirely  unfounoed,  yet  as  a  cruel  and 
injurious  exaggeration. "— Sir  .r.  Stephen,  ZecU. 
on  the  Ilist.  of  France,  teet.  7 

Also   im  L.   MariottI,   Prd  DoMm  and  Mm 
Tiint*. — See,  also,  Pauliriant,  and  Cn  hariatt. 

A.  D.  1200.— The  First  Cru  ade.— Pope 
"Innocent  III,  in  organizing  the  rsecution  of 
the  Cathariiis  [or  Catharists],  the  Palarins,  and 
the  Pauvrcs  de  Lyons,  exercised  a  spirit,  and 
displayed  a  genius  similar  to  those  which  had 
already  elevated  him  to  almost  universal  domin- 
ion; which  had  enabled  him  to  dictate  at  once  to 
Italy  and  to  Germany;  to  control  the  kings  of 
Fmncc,  of  Spain,  and  of  England;  to  overthrow 
the  Greek  Empire,  and  to  substitute  in  its  stead 
a  Latin  dynast^v  at  Constantinople.  In  tlie  zeal 
of  the  Cistercian  Order,  and  of  their  Abbot 
Amaud  Amalric;  in  the  titrv  and  unwearied 
preaching  of  the  first  Inquisitor,  the  Spanish 
Missionary,  Dcmiinic;  in  the  remorseless  activity 
of  Foulquct,  Bishop  of  Toulou.se;  and  above  all, 
in  the  strong  and  unpitving  arm  of  Simon  do 
-Montfort,  Earl  of  Leicester,  Innocent  found  ready 
instruments  for  his  purpose.  Thus  aided,  he  ex- 
communicated Raymond  of  Toiilouso  [.V.  D. 
1207],  as  Chief  of  the  Heretics,  ai.d  be  proiniscd 
remission  of  sins,  and  all  the  iirivileges  which 
had  hitherto  been  exclusively  conferred  on  ad- 
venturers iu  Palestine,  to  llie  champions  who 
should  enroll  themselves  as  (  rusiulcrs  iu  the  far 
more  easy  enterprise  of  a  Holy  War  ai;:iinst  the 
.\lbi;,aiises.  In  the  first  invasum  of  his  territories 
[A.  I).  1209],  liaymond  \I.  gave  way  before  the 
terrors  excited  by  the  800.000  fanatics  who  pre- 
cipitated themselves  on  Liaigucdoc ;  and  loudly 
declaring  his  personal  freedom  from  heresv,  he 
surrendered  his  chief  castles,  underwent  a  humili- 
ating penance,  and  took  the  cross  against  his  own 
subjects.  The  brave  resisUmce  of  his  nephew 
Itaymond  Iloger,  Viscount  of  Bcziircs.  deserved 
but  did  not  obtaia  success.  When  the  crusaders 
surrounded  his  capital,  which  was  occupied  by  a 
mixed  population  of  the  two  Heligions.  a  ques- 
tion was  r  ■  how,  in  the  approaching  sack,  the 
Calhollcss...  .  i  be distinB-'iislied  from  the  Hcrc- 
tirs,  '  Kill  then:  all,"  v.as  the  fcrori,.u4  n  pty  of 
Amalric;  'the  Lord  will  easilj  know  His  own." 
In  compliance  with  this  advice,  not  one  human 
being  within  the  walls  was  permitted  to  survive: 


ALBIOENSSa 


ALBI0EX8E& 


and  the  tale  of  »lau.i:liter  hiu  been  yariously 
ettimatc'd,  by  those  wlio  have  iKrhapi  exagger- 
ated tlio  nuiiilK'rs,  at  (KI,0O(),  but  even  in  tlio  rx- 
tCDUatius  duspalcli,  wliidi  llio  Abbot  liimsilf 
adilreased  to  tlii'  I'opc,  at  not  fiwtr  tlmn  15,000. 
liayinoiid  Houir  was  not  iucludiil  in  tiiis  fi-uifiil 
massacre,  and  he  repulsed  two  altaclts  upon  Car- 
cassonne, iKifiire  u  Inaclierons  breacli  of  failh 
placed  liiin  at  tlic  disiwsul  of  do  Moutfort,  by 
whom  lie  was  poisoned  after  n  short  imprison- 
ment. Tlie  re[ii(ival  of  tliat  young  and  gallant 
Prince  was  indeed  niu^t  injportunt  to  the  ulterior 
project  of  his  captor,  who  aimed  at  pcrmi.nent 
establishment  iu  tlie  South.  The  family  of  de 
Montfort  bad  ranked  among  the  nobles  of  France 
for  more  than  two  centuries;  and  It  is  traced  by 
some  writers  through  an  illegitimate  channel 
even  to  the  throne:  but  the  possessions  of  iSimiia 
liimsjlf  were  scanty;  necessity  had  compelled 
him  to  sell  the  County  of  EvVcux  to  Philippe 
Auguste;  and  tlie  English  Earldom  of  Leicester 
which  lie  inlii'riled  maternally,  and  the  I^ordshlp 
of  a  Castle  alinut  ten  leagues  distant  from  Paris, 
formed  tlie  whole  of  his  revenues." — E.  Smcdley, 
Uitt.  of  France,  rh,  4. 

Also  in  J.  C.  L.  de  Sismondi,  Hi'al.  of  the 
Crumilci  lUjHt  the  Alii'/ensiii,  eh.  1.— II.  II.  Mil- 
man,  Ifiat.  of  iMtin  Christianitij,  bk.  9,  eh.  8.— 
J.  Alzog,  yfiii.  of  I'niterml  Church  Hist.,  perimt 
2,  epoch  i.pt.  1,  eh.  3. — Sec,  also,  I.nqdisition  : 
A.  D.  laOS-lMJ. 

A.  D.  I3I0-I3I3.— The  Second  Crusade.— 
"  The  tomiuest  of  the  Viscounty  of  Beziers  bad 
rather  inllatncd  than  satiated  the  cupidity  of  De 
Jlontfort  and  the  fanaticism  of  Amalric  Peirale 
of  the  Pope]  and  of  tlie  monks  of  Citeaux. 
Raymond,  (.  ouut  of  Toulouse,  still  possesscil  the 
fairest  part  of  Langueiloc.  and  was  still  sus- 
pected or  accused  oif  aflordiug  shelter,  if  nut 
counteuanie,  to  his  heretical  subjects.  .  .  .  The 
unhappy  Hayinond  was  .  .  .  again  excommur.i- 
catcd  from  tiie  Cliristiaii  Church,  and  his  domin- 
ions olferid  as  a  reward  to  the  champiun^  who 
should  execute  her  sentence  against  biiii.  To 
earn  that  reward  Do  Jlontfort,  at  the  head  of  a 
new  host  of  Crusaders,  attracted  by  the  promise 
of  earthly  sjioils  and  of  heavenly  blessedness, 
once  more  marched  through  tUo  devoted  laud 
[A.  D.  I'JIO],  and  with  him  advanced  Amaliic. 
At  each  successive  conijuest,  slaughter,  rapine, 
and  woes  sueli  as  may  not  be  desoribecl  tracked 
and  polluted  their  steps.  Heretic  s  or  those  f  iis- 
pected  of  here^v,  wherever  they  were  found, 
were  compelled  by  the  lc,::ate  to  ascend  vast  pil.s 
of  burning  fagots!  .  .  .  At  length  the  Cru.saders 
reached  and  l.aiilsii'ge  to  the  city  of  Toulouse.  .  .  . 
Throwini:  liiui.sc'lf  into  tlie  place,  Riymoud  .  .  . 
lucceedeil  in  repuUing  De  .Montfort  and  Amal- 
ric. It  was,  however,  but  a  temporary  rcs|iitc, 
and  the  iirelmle  to  a  fearful  destruction.  From 
beyond  tiie  I'yicmes,  at  the  head  of  l,0(io 
knights,  Pedro  of  Arragon  had  marched  to  tlio 
rescue  of  Itiyimmd,  his  kinsman,  and  of  the 
counts  of  Foi.i[  and  of  Comminges,  ,  nd  of  the 
Viscount  of  liuarn.  Ids  vassals;  and  their  united 
forces  came  iiilo  eominiiniealion  with  each  oiIict 
at  Muret,  a  little  town  whieli  Is  about  three 
leagues  distant  from  Toulouse.  There,  also,  im 
the  I2th  of  .September  [A.  D.  lHH],  at  the  head 
of  the  cham|)ions  of  the  Cro.s.s,  and  attended  by 
tcvcn  bishopa,  Hjii.,.rtr,.(l  fJSmoii  tie  Monirurl  in 
full  military  array.  The  battle  which  followed 
wiu  lierce,  bliorl  and  decisive.  .  .  ,  Don  Pedro 


40 


was  numbered  with  the  slain.  HU  army,  de 
prived  of  his  command,  broke  and  dispcned, 
and  the  whole  of  the  infantry  of  Kaymond  and 
bis  allies  were  either  put  to  the  sword,  or  swept 
away  by  the  current  ot  the  Oaronnc.  Toulouse 
immediately  surrendered,  and  the  whole  of  the 
doininious  of  Raymond  submitted  to  the  cou- 
guerors.  At  a  council  luhsequemly  held  at 
Jbmlix'llier,  comiMwed  of  five  archbishops  and 
twenty-eiglit  bishops,  De  Montfort  was  unani- 
mously acknowledged  as  prince  of  the  fief  and 
city  of  Toulou.se,  and  of  the  other  counties  con- 
quered by  the  Crusaders  under  his  command." — 
Sir  J.  Stephen,  iMt'i  on  t/u  Jlitl.  of  France. 
U,(.  7. 

Also  in  J.  C.  L.  do  Sismondi,  nUt.  of  Cnuadt* 
ofj'nt  the  Albiijenaes,  eh.  2. 

A.  D.  1317-1229.— The  Renewed  Crusade*. 
—  Dissolution  of  the  County  of  Toulouae.  — 
Pacification  of  Languedoc.—"  The  cruel  spirit 
of  DeJIonlfort  would  not  allow  him  to  rest 
quiet  In  bis  new  Empire.     Violence  and  perse- 
cution marked  his  rule ;  ho  Bought  to  destroy  the 
Provencal  population  by  the  S'Vord  or  the  stake, 
nor  could  he  bring  himself  to  tolerate  the  lilicr- 
ties  of  tiic  citizens  of  Toulouse,    In  1217  the 
Toulousans  again  revolted,  and  war  once  more 
broke  out  betwi.vt  Count  Raymond  and  Simon 
de  Montfort,     Tiic  latter  formed  the  siege  of  the 
capital,  and  was  engaged  in  repelling  a  sally, 
when  a  stone  from  one  of  the  walls  struck  him 
anil  put  an  end  to  his  existence.  .  .  .  Amaury 
de  Montfort,  son  of  Simo.>   offered  to  cede  to  the 
king  all  his  rights  In  I-angucdoc,  which  ho  was 
unable  to  defend  against  the  old  house  of  Tou- 
louse.     Philip  [Augustus]  hesitated  to  accept 
the  important  cession,  and  left  the  rival  houses 
to  the  continuance  of  a  stni.gglc  carrieid  feebly  on 
by  eiilier  side."     King  Philip  died  In  1223  and 
was  succeeded  by  a  son,  Louis  VIII.,  who  had 
none  of  his  father's  reluctance  to  join  In   the 
grasping  ixi'seeution  of  the  unfortunate  people 
of  the  south.      Amaury  de  Montfort  hail  been 
fairly  driven  out  of  old  Simon  de  Jlontfort's  con- 
quests, and  be  now  sold  them  to  King  Louis  for 
the  oi'iee  of  constable  of  France.      "A  new  cru- 
sade was  preached  against  the  Alblgenses;  and 
Louis  marehed  towards  Languedoc  at  tlie  head 
of  a  formidable  army  in  the  spring  of  tlie  year 
\2X.      The  town  of  Avignon  had  proferred  to 
the  crus;i(lers  the  facilities  of  crossing  tlie  Rhone 
UMcler  i.er  walls,  but  refused  entry  within  them 
to  such  a  host.     Louis  having  arrived  at  Avig- 
non, insisted  on  passing  through  the  town:  the 
Avignonais  shut  their  gates,  and  defied  the  mon- 
arch, who  iusianlly  formed  tiie  siege.     One  of 
the  rich  municipalities  of  the  south  was  almost  a 
niati  h  for  the  king  of  France.  He  was  kept  three 
months  under  its  walls;  his  armv  a  prey  to  fam- 
ine, to  distii.se  and  to  tlio  assaultsof  a  brave  garri- 
son.   The  crusjiders  lost  20. 000  men.    The  people 
of  Avignon  at  length  submitted,  but  on  no  di». 
boriourablo  terms.     This  was  the  onlv  resistance 
that  Louis  exiM'iienccd  in  Langueiloi-,  ...  AD 
submitted.      Louis  retired   from  his  facile  con- 
quest;  he  hims<lf,   and  the  c.'defs  of  his  armj 
stricken  by  u:i  eiiidemy  which  liad  prcxailed  In 
the  conquere.!  regions.     The  meriarcii's  feeble 
frame  could  not  resist  it;  he  expii,  !  at  .Montpen- 
sier.  in  Aiivergne,  in  November,   1228."    Louis 
\III.  was  succieded   by   his  young  Mm,  Ixiuis 
IX.  (Saint  Louis),  then  a  boy,  under  the  regency 
of  his  energetic  and  capable  mother,  Dlauchc  ot 


4 

'I 


I 


ALBIOENSES. 

CastUe.     "Thetcrmlnationof  the  war  with  the 
Albigenses,  auJ  the  pacification,  or  It  might  be 
tailed  the  acouisitlon,  of  Langucdoc,    was  tiic 
chief  act  of  Queen  Blanche '»  regency.     Louis 
ylll.  had  overrun  the  country  without  realstonce 
In  his  last  campaign;  still,  at  his  departure  Ray- 
inoud  VI.  again  appeared,  collected  soldiers  and 
continueil  to  strucgle  against  the  royal  lleuten- 
ant.    For  upward  of  two  years  he  maintained 
himself;  the  attention  of  Blanche  being  occupied 
by  the  league  of  the  barons  against  her      The 
successes  of  Raymond   VII.,    accompanied  bv 
cruclUes,  awakened  the  vindictive  zeal  of  the 
pope.      Langueiloc  was  thrcniened  with  another 
crusade;  Raymond  was  willing  to  treat,    and 
make  considerable  cessions,   in  order  to  avoid 
such  extremities.    In  April.  1329,  a  treaty  was 
signed:   in  It  the  rigliU  of  De  Montfort  were 
passed  over.    About  two-thirds  of  the  domains 
of  the  count  of  Toulouse  were  ceded  to  the  king 
of   France;   tlic   remainder  was  to   fall    after 
Raymond's  death,  to  his  daughter  Jeanne  who 
by  the  same  treaty  was  to  marry  one  of  the 'royal 
princes:  heirs  failing  them.  It  was  to  invert  to 
the  crown  [which  It  did  In  1271].    On  these 
terms,  with  tlie  Immiliating  addition  of  a  public 
penance,  Itiiymoud  VII.  one  more  was  allowed 
pettciabic  pos,session  of  Toulouse,  and  of  the 
part  of  his  domains  reserved  to  him.     Alplionsc, 
brotlier  of  Louis  IX.,  married  Jeanne  of  Tou- 
louse soon  afkr,  and  took  the  title  of  count  of 
ioiiiers;   that  province  being  died  to  him  In 
apanagj.      H.ibcrt,  aiiotlier  brotlier,  was  made 
count  of  Arlois  at  the  Kiiiie  time.     Louis  himself 
Biam(dMarj:arct,tlioel(lestduughterofliavmoud 
Bereugcr    count  of  I'roveiice."-E.  E.  Crowe, 
UM.of  Fr,v,.-e,  v.  1,  eh.  2-3.- -"The  stnigde 
ended  in  a  vast  increa.se  of  the  power  of  the  French 
crown,  at  the  e.xiKiise  alilie  of  the  house  of  Tou- 
.Hise  and  of  the  house  of  Aragon.     The  domin- 
ions of  tlie  count  of  Toulouse  were  divided      A 
number  of  ticfs,  Beziers,  Xarboniie,  Nimcs  Albi 
and  some  other  districts  were  at  once  anne.x,,!  to 
the  crown.      The  capital  itself  and  its  coiintv 
p:issi'dtotlic  croHu  fifty  years  later.  .  .      The 
name  of  Toulouse,  cscept  as  the  name  of  the 
cily  itself,  now  pas.se(l  away,  and  the  new  ac- 
quisitions oi      mice  eiime  in  the  end  to  be  known 
hy   lie  n,inie  o    the  tongue  whicli  was  common 
to  them  with  V(iuitaine  and  Imperial  BurKuiidv 
[Provence).      Under  the  name    of    Languediw 
they  became  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  valu- 
able provinces  of  tlie  Fnndi  kingdom  "— E    A 
Jreeman,  Hist.  (hug.  of  Kurojv,ch.  9  '      ' 

The  brutality  and  destructiveneM  of  the 
Crusades.-- The  Cliurch  of  the  Albigen«.8 
had  been  drowned    in  blood.     These  s,.,fpS 

Pno  .','  T  "'".  '",'■';'  ".""y  '■■""'  "'e  soil  of 
France.  The  rest  of  the  Lanciied.K'ian  people 
had  Ucn  overwhelmed  with  calamity,  slaughter 
and  devastation.  Tlie  estimates  tmnsmittlHl  to 
OS  of  the  numlHTs  of  the  invaders  and  of  the 
Biaiii  are  sucli  as  almost  surpass  belief.  We  can 
neither  vcnfy  nor  correct  them;  but  we  ccr- 
tanly  know  that,  during  a  long  succession  of 
jears,  Unguedoc  had  been  invaded  bv  armies 
more  numerous   than    had    ever   before    Wn 

tics,  liosis  ,ven.  con,fv,3f.,^  of  men  inflamed  bv 
bigotry  and  unrestrained  by  discipline;  that  thcv 

uiey  provided  for  all  their  wanU  by  the  swonJ, 

41 


ALCANTARA. 

llvjnff  at  the  expense  of  the  country,  and  lelzlns 
at  their  pleasure  Ijoili  the  harvesU  of  the  pea» 
ants  and  tlie  merchandise  of  the  cltirena.  Sore 
than  three-fourths  of  the  lauded  proprietors  had 
been  despoiled  of  their  flefs  an^  Castles  In 
hundredj  of  villages,  every  Inhabitant  had  been 

v!^i"1,,  ■  i  •  '''°™  "'"  *^^  °f  Rome  by  Uie 
Vandals,  the  European  worid  had  never  mobmed 
over  a  national  disaster  so  wide  In  iU  extent  or 
so  fearful  In  1^  character.  "-Sir  J.  Stephen. 
iMt:  on  tht  Hut.  of  France,  farf.  7. 

ALBION.—  "The  most  ancient  name  known 
I?  r  VaV^'-"  8lven  to  this  Island   [Britain]  la 

tliat  of  Albion There  Is,  however,  another 

allusion  to  Britain  which  seem,  to  cany  us  much 
further  back,  though  It  haa  usually  been  lU 
understood.  It  occurs  In  the  story  of  the  labours 
of  Hercules,  w-ho,  after  securing  the  cows  of 
I.  »i  •i.'^T*  ''''"°  ^P"'"  «°  Liguria,  where  be 
t  M  "^  ^^  "^°  e'"""-  *'><'™  he  kilU  before 
^^?^  .'"'*  vT'^y  '?  ^^y-  Now,  according  to 
PomiK>nlu8  Mela,  the  names  of  the  giante  were 
^^o'H  «"'\.B"gyon,  wldch  one  may,  without 
much  hesitation,  restore  to  the  forms  of  Albion 
and  llx'rion  representing,  undoubtedly,  Britain 
and  Ireland,  the  position  of  which  in  the  wa 
is  most  appropriately  symbolized  by  the  gtorv 
making  tlien  sons  of  Septuno  or  the  sea  god 

;„V  ""■  '  ,  V'^  !'"'«  .°f  P"°y.  Alblon,  as  the 
nam  .,  ,  island,  had  fallen  out  of  use  with 
J^'  rs;  but  not  so  with  the  Greeks  or 

wi,  ,,..  ts  themselves,  at  any  rate  those  of 
the  .c  brand; ;  for  they  are  probably  right 

WL  oppose  that  we  have  but  the  samewSrd 
i'n,„l°.l"w""f'  ^'•"•'''  Ga.IicAlba,  genitive 
.1  ??'iu*  •''?,«'!""'  of  Alban  or  Scotland  beyond 
KS,,  Albion  would  be  a  form  of  the  name 
according  to  tlie  Brytlioulc  pronunciation  of  it. 
.  .  .  "would  thus  appear  that  the  name  Albion 
Is  one  that  has  relreaKd  to  a  comer  of  the  Island 

nK  *y?',''"''^„"^  "''■'■''  ''  once  applied."— j' 
Rhys.  Cellic  Britain,  ch.  6. 

Also  i.n  E.  Guest,  Orifjinet  Celtieae,  ch.  \  — 

Bee  ScoTi.AM>:  8tii-9tu  cknturies. 

Elbe  The.— The  ancient  name  of  the  river 

g^^LBOIN,  King  of  the  Lombards.  A.  D. 

nOR*^'^N?^— A^9",^2:iL.-CORREGI. 

P.T  77.  ...'','"'  "''■"''*«  "  f"""  tl'e  Arabic 
ai  i.iUl  the  juili,'e  or  governor.  .  .  .  Alcalde 
mayor  signifies  a  judge,  learned  In  the  law,  who 
exercises  [m  Spain]  ordinary  jurisdiction,  civil 
and  cnminal,  in  a  t.  «n  or  district."  In  the 
bpanlsh  colonies  the  Alcalde  mayor  was  the  chief 
Judge.  "Irving  (Columbus,  II.  831i  writes  er- 
roneously alguazil  mayor,  evidently  confoumiing 
the  two  offlci's.  ...  An  alguadl  mayor,  was  i 
chief  constable  or  high  sheriff."  "Corregldor 
a  magistrate  having  civil  and  criminal  jurisdic' 
tion  in  the  first  instance  ( 'nisi  prius ')  and  gub- 
ematorial  Inspection  in  the  political  and  eco- 
nomical govermmut  in  all  the  towns  of  the  district 
T'?i"^'"  '""'•  "— H.  11.  Bancroft,  Hut.  oftht 

,J^^^^^'  ^»"''  »f-    See  Spain:    A.   D. 
1809  (Febkiiaky  —  .IiNR) 

ALCANTARA,  Battle  of  the  (1580).  Sob 
PoKTUOAi,:  A.  1>.  ISTK-l.WO 

ALCANTARA,  Knighta  of.  — "Towards 
the  close  of  Alfonso's  reiTrn  [Alfonso  VIII.  of 
LastUe  and  Ix!on,  who  called  himself  'the  Em- 


ALCANTARA. 


ALEMANXI,  A  D.  259. 


peror,'  A.  D.  U36-11S7],  may  be  aaalgned  the 
origlii  of  the  military  order  of  Alcantara.  Two 
cavaliers  of  Salamanca,  don  Buero  sud  don 
Oomez,  left  tliat  city  with  the  design  of  choos- 
ing and  fortifying  some  strong  natural  frontier, 
whenre  thoy  could  not  only  arrest  the  rnntinual 
incurHions  of  the  Moors,  but  maico  hostil.  irrup- 
tions themselves  into  the  territories  of  tlie  misbe- 
lievers. Proceeding  along  the  banks  of  the 
Coales,  they  fell  in  with  a  hermit,  Amando  by 
name,  who  encouraged  tliein  in  tlicir  patriotic 
design  and  recommended  the  neighbouring  her- 
mitage ot  St.  Julian  as  an  excellent  site  for  a 
fortress.  Having  examined  and  approved  the 
situation,  they  applied  to  the  bisliop  of  Sato- 
manca  for  permisHioa  to  occupy  the  place:  that 
permisiiion  was  readily  granted:  with  liis  assist- 
ance, and  that  of  the  hermit  Amando,  the  two 
cavaliers  erected  a  castle  around  tlie  hermitage. 
They  were  now  Joined  by  other  nobles  and  by 
more  adventurers,  all  eager  to  acquire  fame  and 
wealth  in  this  life,  irlory  in  the  next  Hence  the 
foundation  of  an  unler  which,  under  the  name, 
llrst,  of  St  Julian,  and  siiliseqiiently  of  Alcan- 
tara, rendered  good  service  alike  to  king  and 
church."— 8.  A.  Dunham,  Jlitt.  of  Spain  and 
I\>rtug(U,  bk.  8,  tKt.  8.  eh.  1.  dit.  9. 

ALCAZAR,OR  "  THE  THREE  KINGS," 
Battle  of  (1578  or  1579).  See  iUuocco:  Th« 
.Vbab  ConquKST  akd  Since. 

ALCIBIADES,  The  career  ot  See 
Okkbcb:  B.  C.  431-418,  iin<i  411-407;  and 
AtaBNH:  B.  C.  41S,  and  413-111. 

ALCLYDE.— lihydderch,  a  Cumbrian  prince 
iif  the  sixth  century  who  was  the  victor  In  a 
civil  coudict,  "  fixed  his  headquarters  on  n  rock 
iu  the  Clyde,  called  in  the  Welsli  .VIclud  [pro- 
vioukly  a  lluman  town  known  as  Theodosia], 
whence  it  was  known  U)  the  English  for  a  time 
as  Alclyde;  but  the  (Joidels  called  it  Dunbret- 
tan,  or  the  fortrejta  of  the  Brvtiioiis,  which  hai 
prevailed  in  the  slightly  modliied  fomi  of  Dura- 
barton.  .  .  .  Alclyde  wan  more  than  once  de- 
stroyed bv  the  Northineu."— J.  Rhya,  CMie 
Britain,  en.  4. — See,  also,  Ci'mbhia. 

ALCM/SONIDS,  The  curse  and  baaitli- 
mtot  of  the.    See  Atiienh:  B  t'  613-393. 

ALCOLEA,  Battle  of  (1868).  See  Spaih: 
A.  D.  1866-11478. 

ALOIE,  Battle  of.  N'e  UNmo  States  or 
Am.:  A.  D.  IHOa  (Jcnk-Jllt:  Pkhhitl- 
ranu). 

ALDINE   PRESS,    The,     See   PBtuTiico 

AXV  TUR  PUESI:  A.  D.   t461»-131.'). 

ALBMANNIA:  The  MediaTal  Dnchr. 
SeeUBHMANT:  A.  D.  843-9fiJ 

ALEMANNI,  OR  ALAMANNI:  A.  O. 
•IS-— Orlgia  and  Brat  appearance.— "  Under 
Antoninus,  the  Son  of  Sevi  run,  n  new  and  more 
severe  war  oiieo  more  (.V.  D.  ai;!i  broke  out  In 
Raetia.    This  alto  wiw  wateil  agiiinut  the  ChattI ; 

but   by  their  side   a  m'i I   |H>i>ple  Is  named, 

which  we  here  meet  for  llio  tint  time  — the 
AlamannL  Wheeiec  llx  y  fiiiue.  we  known  not. 
According  to  a  Ibmuii  wViliiii;  a  little  later,  they 
were  a  contlux  of  mixed  ili  imnls;  the  sppclia- 
Uon  also  tm-im  to  point  to  u  ii%gw  of  communi- 
ties, as  well  as  ||,e  furi  th;it,  iificrwanls,  the 
diffcn-nt  trllns  compnliendid  under  this  name 
stand  forth  —  mure  tlian  Ik  the  easit  among  the 
other  great  (li'rmanic  ixtiph'S  — in  their (eiiarate 
character,  aud  ihe  Jiithiingi,  the  l^'ntlenaes,  and 
otiier  Atomannki  peoples  not  srldom  act  Intle- 


pcndently.     But  that  It  is  not  the  Qermons  (A 
tills  region  who  here  emerge,  allied  under  the 
nc  w  name  and  strtngtiicned  by  the  alliance,  is 
sliuwn  as  well  by  the  naming  of  the  Alainannl 
alrng  side  of  the  ChiittI,  an  by  the  mention  of 
the  unwonted   skilfulnesa  of   the  Aluniannl    In 
equestrian   combat.     On   the   contrary,  it  waa 
certainly.  In  the  main,  hordes  coming  on  from 
the  East  that  lent  new  strength  to  the  almost 
extinguished  Oemian  resistance  on  the  Rhine;  it 
is  not  improbable  that  the  |H>werfiil  Semnones, 
in  earlier  times  dwelling  on  the  miiidle  Elbe,  of 
whom  there  is  no  further  mention  after  the  end 
of  the  second  century,  funiislied  a  strong  con- 
tingent to  the  Ahimauni."— T.  .Mommscn,  Uiit. 
of  Homt,  bk.  8,  eA.  4.—  "  The  standard  quotation 
respecting  the   derivation  of  the    name   from 
'  al  '^'  all '  and  m-n— '  man ',  so   that  the  word 
(somewhat  exceptionably)  denotes  '  men  of  all 
sorts,'  is  from  Agathlas,  who  quotes   Asinluf 
Quadratus.  .  .  .  Notwithstunaing  this,  I  think 
it  la  an  open  question,  whether  the  name  may 
not  have  been  applied  by  the  truer  and  mora 
unequivocal  Germans  of  Buabia  and  Fnmconia, 
to    certain  less  definitely  Uenimnlc   allies  from 
Wurtcmberg  and  Baden,  —  part.s  of  the   Decu- 
mates  Agri  —  parts  which  may  have  supplied  a 
Gallic,  a  Gallo-Roman,  or  even  a  Slavonic  ele- 
ment to  the  confederacy ;  in  which  case,  a  name 
so  German  as  to  have  given  tlie  present  French 
an<l  Italian  name  for  (ierinany,  mav,  originally, 
have  applied  to  a  pci|)ulatii)U  other    than  Ger- 
manic.    I  know  the  apparently  paradoxical  ele- 
ments In  this  view;  I)ut  I  also  know  that,  in  the 
way  of  etymology,  it  is  (pilte  as  safe  to  trans- 
late '  all  ■  by  •  alii '  as  by  '  oinnes":  and  I  cannot 
htlp_  thUiking  that  the  •  al- '  in  Ale-manni  Is  the 
'  al- '  in  'alir-arto  '(a  foreigner  or  man  of  another 
sort),  'cli-benzo' (an  alieul.  and  'allhind  '  (cap- 
tivity in  foreign  land).— (.rimm.  11.  62m  —  Rcch- 
Sidterth,  p.  839.     And  still  more  satistitni  am  I 
that  the  'al-'  in  Al  einmnd  is  the  'al-'inAl- 
satia—' cl-sass  ■—•  olisal  z  ■—' foreign  settlement.' 
In  other  words,  the  pnllx  In  (luestion  is  more 
probably  the  'al-'in   'els.'',  than  the   'al-'ln 
'all.'      Little,   however,    of   importance    turns 
on  this.     The  locality  of  tlie  .Vli'iuuiud  was  the 
parts  about  the  Uiiie.t   lioni.ums,    a  boundary 
which.    In   the    time   of   Alcxunder    So\eru8, 
Nlebuhr  thinks  they  first  bmke  through.    Hence 
they  were  the  Marrhmen  of  the  fMiitier,  who- 
ever thorn  Marchmeu  wenv     Other  sueli  Marrh- 
men were  tlie  Suevi;  unless,   indeed,   we  con- 
sider the  two  names  ns  svni'iiyiniiiis.     Zi'iissail- 
mils  that,  bctwirn  the  ^iie\  1  nf  Hiiabia,  and  the 
Alemannl,  no  tangible  dillennee  can  lie  found." 

—  R.  O.  Latlian,  Tht  (Itrminia  of  j'aeitut; 
Epilfgomtna,  tft.  11. 

Al«>  in  T.  Smith,    Anniiiiu;  pt.  8,  eh.  l._ 
See.  also,  SiEVi,  and  lUx  AiiixN-". 
A.   D.  «S9-— loTasion  of  Caul  and  Italj, 

—  The  Alemannl,  '•hovirlir.f  mi  the  fnmliers 
of  the  Empire  .  .  .  Imreasiil  tiie  genenU  dis- 
or.:er  that  ensued  after  the  death  of  Doclus. 
They  Inlllcted  severe  wounds  on  the  rich 
pMvlnei-s  of  Oaul;  they  veri'  the  llrst  who 
removed  the  veil  tliiit  covered  the  feeble  majesty 
of  Italy.  A  niimenius  h.Hlv  of  the  Aliinonui 
nenetrat4il  aeroos  the  Oiuiulio  and  through  the 
Ulr  ■'  -    • '-     ' 


42 


111!  Ilan  Alps  Into  tlio  plains  of  Ixmiburly 
viinr«j  a*  far  aa  Itavrne.a  s.-.i!  diapUn^;!  V;f 
toriotis  lianners  of   I 
of  Rome  [A.  U.  839], 


t  and  ttw  Uaofer 


siglit  ~ 


ALEMANm,  A.  D.  2S9. 

rekindled  In  the  senate  some  sparks  of  their 
ancient  virtue.  Both  tlie  Kmperors  were  en- 
gaged in  far  distunt  wiini  —  Valerian  in  the 
East  and  Galienua  on  the  Itiiine. "  The  senators 
however,  succeeded  in  coufrnntin/;  the  audacious 
invaders  with  a  force  which  cliccked  their  ad- 
vance, and  thcv  "retired  into  Germany  laden 
with  spoil.  "—E.  Gibbon,  Ikcliaeand  t'(Uleft/i« 
Brnnan  t-Jmpire,  cA.  10. 

A.  p.  370.— Invasion  of  Italy.— Ita'y  was 
Invaded  by  tjie  Alcmanui,  for  the  second  time 
in  the  reign  of  Aurclinn,  A.  D.  270.  They  rav'- 
agcd  the  provinces  from  the  Danube  to  the  Po 
and  were  retreating,  laden  with  spoils,  when  the 
vigorous  Emperor  intercepted  them,  on  the 
banks  of  the  former  river.  Half  the  host  was 
permitted  to  cross  the  Danube;  the  other  half 
was  surprised  and  surrounded.  But  these  last, 
unable  to  regain  their  own  country,  broke 
through  the  Roman  lines  at  their  rear  and  sped 
into  Italy  again,  spreading  havoc  as  they  went 
It  was  only  after  three  great  battles,— one  near 
PIscentia,  in  which  the  Itomans  were  almost 
beaten,  another  on  the  Metaurus  (where  Ilas- 
drubal  was  defeated),  and  a  third  near  Pavia  — 
that  the  Germanic  Invaders  were  destroyed — 
E.  Gibbon,  Dedint  and  fhU  of  tht  Amtait  Em- 
ptrf,  eh.  U. 

oii^.°A.^*-&il.'**''"'-  "^  J""^  «- 
A.  D.  365-^67.- Invasion  of  GauL-Tho 
Alenmnul  invaded  Oiiu!  iiiJMIS,  committing  wide- 
spread ravages  and  carrying  awav  into  Sie  for- 
MU  of  Germany  great  siwil  and  liiauy  captives. 
The  next  winter  they  cro««e<l  the  Hhine,  again, 
in  still  greater  numbers,  def.tiled  the  Roman 
forces  and  capturcil  the  standattls  of  the  Ileru- 
lian  and  Batavian  auxiliaries.  But  Valentinlan 
was  now  Emix.ror,  and  he  adopU-U  energetic 
measures.  II.s  lieutenant  Jovinus  overcame  the 
Inviiders  in  a  great  battle  fought  near  Chalons 
and  drove  them  bark  to  their  own  side  of  the 
river  K.undary.  Two  years  later,  the  Emperor 
himself  passed  the  RliUio  and  Inflicted  a  inemo' 
niblc  chastisement  on  the  Alemannl.  At  the 
same  lime  hu  strengtheni'd  the  frontier  deft-nces 
and,  by  dipKmiatic  arU,  fonient«l  quarrels  Iw- 
tween  the  Alemaunl  and  th.lr  nolghboni,  the 
Burgundlans,  which  weakened  U>lh. —E  Gib- 
^"is  '"^  '''"  "■''  '**  ^'"*"'  *»/»«. 

^n^.l°;  ^•~^''*^  ^f  Gratian.-On  learn- 
ing llmt  the  young  EmiHMr  Griitian  was  prc- 
parlng  to  Inid  the  mllilary  force  of  (}«iil  and  the 
West  to  the  help  of  his  uncle  and  colleague 
Valens,  aga  nst  the  Goths,  the  Alemanul  swarmed 
acn>|«  the  Rhine  Into  Gaul.  Oratim  Inslanlly 
re<all«i  il,«  \,.g\oa»  that  were  marching  to  I'au- 
ooniaand  ene,.untcr.-d  the  Genniiri  iiiTSdera  In  a 
gnjat  iKitile  fought  near  Argenlnrla  (mo<lern 
t  olmar)  In  tlie  ni..nth  of  .May,  A.  I)  878  The 
Alemanni  were  routed  will,  su<  h  slaughter  that  no 
more  than  S.OtH)  out  of  40,0.K|  to  7l),O0(l,  areWw 
to  have  esrapnl.  Gralian  afl.  rwnr-U  crossed  the 
lihlne  and  humhlwl  hi^  troul)!,  some  nelghbon 

ftiU  .7  Mfl  /J..imi»  h.minrr.  ch.  20 
A-  D-496-S04— Overthrow  by  tht  Franks. 

u.ey  ,oi,owr,i"p;,:^;,;^;;  .;:,^^;i;\V^i';i 

until  the  .lean.  ,.f    ,l,eir        rriJ  king       Tl» 
AleiaMiiii,  oxteiMliog  theinwlrrs  from  tbeir  origl- 


48 


ALEMANNI,  A.  D.  547. 

nal  scats  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  betweea 
the  Mam  and  the  Danube,  had  pushed  forward 
Into  G.rnianica  Prima,  where  they  came  into 
collision  with  the  Fraukish  subjects  of  King 
8igebi-rt  of  Cologne.  Clovis  flew  u.  the  assist- 
inceof  his  kinsman  and  deleated  the  Al.mannl 
m  a  grea  battle  In  the  uelghbourho<Kl  of  Zal- 
pichludle.1  commonly,  the  battle  of  TolbUcl. 
Ho  then  established  a  Cflnsiderable  uumlier  of  his 
franks  m  the  territory  of  tiie  AUmanni,  the 
traces  of  whoso  resiik'nce  are  foun.l  in  the  immet 
of  Fmnconia  and  Frankfort."- W.  C.  Perry, 
The  tyaukt  eh.  2.-" Clovis  liad  Inen  intending 
to  cross  the  Rhine,  but  the  hosts  of  the  AlaiMnnl 
came  upjm  him,  as  It  seems,  unexpectedly  and 
forced  a  battle  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  He 
seeme-l  to  he  overmatched,  and  the  horror  of  an 
Impending  defeat  overshadowed  the  FrankUh 
i'll*^'.  ..    <?•  °  i*''  despair,  he  bethought  him- 

f '.?h  ^"1"^   P^'^f"'    °'   ">«   ortho,lox   or 

said:  Oh  Jesus  Christ,  whom  Clotilda  decbret 
to  be  Uie  Son  of  the  living  God,  who  art  said  to 

trust  In  Thee,  I  humbly  beseech  Thy  succour!  I 
have  called  on  my  gods  and  they  are  far  from 
my  help  If  Thou  wilt  deliver  me  fnm,  mine 
euemies,  I  will  believe  in  Thee,  and  Iw  bupUsed 
In  Thy  name.'  At  this  moment,  a  sudden  ctanle 
was  seen  in  the  fortunes  of  the  Franks.     TB« 

1  .■  '' j"^  "?'"«•  «=conll»«  to  one  account  wu 
slain:  and  the  nation  seems  to  have  accpU-d 
Clovis  as  iu  over-lord."  The  following  Christ- 
mas  day  tlovis  was  baptised  at  Reims  and  8,000 
of  hU  warriors  followe<f  the  royal  example.  "  In 
the  early  years  of  the  new  ctntury,  probablv 
about  503  or  504,  Clovis  was  again  at  w^  wl4 
his  old  enemies,  Uic  Alainai.nl.  .  .  Clovta 
movc<l  his  army  Into  their  Urrit.>ries  and  won  • 
victory  inucli  more  decisive,  though  less  famou. 
Uian   that  of  486.     This  time   the  aZry  k^^ 

M.i        ^*^  "It"'^''"  ?'<"»««"  dwellings  by  the 
Ma  n  and  the  Neckar.  from  all  the  valley  of  the 

?.«.  ^.H"''"••a^"'?  f"^''"'  Al»>»«"nl  were 
f(  «•(..    o  flee.    Tlieir  place  was  Uken  by  Frank- 

.  .1  w?Ji'°'".*'""'i  •"  ^''"  '"strict Wived 
In  tlie  Mhldle  Ages  the  name  of  the  Duchy  of 
Francia  or,  at  a  rather  laur  date,  that  of  ih. 
t  rcle  of  FranconU.  The  Alaniannl,  with  their 
wives  and  children,  a  broken  and  dispirited  host. 
mov«l  southward  to  the  shons  of  the  Lakeof 

Rhtt-lia.     Hero  tliev  were  on  what  was  hehl  lo 

Thcxlortc,  as  ruler  of  li„|y,  „  „„,.e««or  to  tb. 
Emi»ror»  of  the  WV.t,  was  .tr,.f  hnl  forth  to 
protect  t^«.m.  .  .  .  Eastern  Swltierland  West- 
S™  Ty'l.  «""tl«-m  Hadenand  WQnemlUrSd 
Southwcsiem  Bavarta  prolwhly  form.,1  thl?new 
Alanmnnls,  which  will  figure  in  later  hl.torv  sa 

T  ii"7'l.'r  Alamanni*,  or  (he  Circle  of  «wibla. 
— T.  n.Hlgkln,  lUilgand  ll,-r  Innulen.  bk.  4  M  9 
«*';"';.'•'','■  "'"'"In-  "i't-  "f  Fniuft:  AneirM 
4flO-,VIII;  and  Fhakks:    A.  I).  4HI-311 

A,  D  5a>-7»9 -Struggles  Anisist  th» 
F««k  Dominion,    8.^  0««a«v7^.  u  4«l! 

oA,°-  547.— f  JwU  MUtction  t*  th«  FmnkA 
Bse  BaVAHU:  A.  D.  UT.  '■""ma- 


li 


ALEPPO. 

ALEPPO :  A.  D.  638-969.— Taken  by  the 
Arab  followers  of  Mahomet  iii  638,  this  city  wai 
recovered  by  the  Byzantines  iu  869.  See  Btza>- 
TINE  Empire:  A.  U.  963-1025. 

A.  D.  ia6o.— Destruction  by  the  MonKoli. 
— The  Mongols,  tmder  Khulagu,  or  Houlavou, 
brother  of  Mangu  Khan,  hiivlng  overrun  Meso- 
potamia and  extinguished  the  Caliphate  at  Bag- 
dad, crossed  the  Euphrates  in  the  spring  of  law 
and  advanced  to  Aleppo.  The  city  was  talcen 
after  a  siege  of  seven  days  and  given  up  for  five 
days  to  pillage  and  slaughter.  "Syhen  the 
carnage  ceased,  the  streets  were  cuml)ered  with 
corpses.  ...  It  is  said  that  100,000  women  and 
children  were  sold  as  slaves.  The  walls  of 
Aleppo  were  razed,  its  mosques  destroyed,  and 
its  gardens  ravagetl."  Damascus  submitted  and 
was  spared.  Khulagu  was  meditating,  it  is  said, 
the  conquest  of  Jerusalem,  when  news  of  the 
death  of  the  Great  Klian  called  him  to  the  East 
— U.  U.  Uoworth,  ITut.  of  (A«  MonooU,  pp.  80)^ 
811.  '^'^ 

A,  D.  1401.— Sack  and  Maaaacre  by  Timonr. 
See  TiMOVR. 

ALESIA,  Sicce  of,  bj  Catar.  See  Qaul: 
B.  C.  6S-51. 

ALESSANDRIA:  The  creation  of  the  city 
(ti68).    See  Itai.v:  A,  D.  1174-1188. 

ALEUTS,  The.  See  American  Aborioi- 
XEi:  Eskimo. 

ALEXANDER  the  Great,  B.  C.  334-3a3. 
— Coaauetti  and  Empire.  See  Macedonia,  Ic., 
B.  C.  8.34-331),  nnd  after. . .  .Alexander,  Kins  of 
Poland,  A.  U.  I.ioi-ISOT. . .  .Alexander,  Prince 
of  Bulgaria.— Abductionand  Abdication.  See 
BriAJAuiA:  A  I).  18*8-1886...  Alexander  I., 
Cxar  of  Russia,  A.  D.  1801-1833. . .  .Alezan> 
der  I.,  King  of  Scotland,  A,  D.  1107-1184. . . . 

Alexander    II.,   Pope,    A.   D.    1061-1073 

Alexander  11.,  C»ar  of  Russia,  A.  D.  185&- 
1881  ...Alexander  I!.,  Kinr  of  Scotland. 
A.  I).  1214-1U4!)  . .  .Alexanderlll.,  Pope,  A.  D. 
1159-1 181 .. .  .Alexander  III.,  Csar  of^Russia. 
A.  I).  1881-. . .  .Alexander  III.,  Klnr  of  Scot- 
land, A.  I>.  1349-1386. . . .  Alexander  HT.,  Pope. 
A.  I).  12.%4-1261  . .  .Alexander  V.,  Pope  A.  D. 
1409-UIO  (eleitiil  by  the  Cuiincil  of  Pisa) 
Alexander  VI.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1493  1503. . .  .Alex- 
ander VII.,  Pope,  A.  D.  16.55-1007... Alex- 
ander VIII.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1689-1  fiOl...  Alex- 
ander Severus,  Roman  Emperor,  A.  II.  33;.'-335. 
ALEXANDRIA:  B.  C.  33a. -The  Found- 
in(  of  the  City— "When  AU  \  ui.lcr  Uiirlifd 
the  Egypiliiii  military  statinu  ut  the  little 
town  or  village  of  lUiakotIs,  hii  saw  with 
the  quick  eye  of  a  great  coniniaiidi  r  how 
to  turn  thiit  petty  settlement  iiilo  n  great 
citv,  and  to  make  Its  rmidstntd.  out  of  which 
ships  could  1m'  blown  by  a  change  of  wind, 
into  a  double  harbour  nHituy  enou^th  to 
shelter  the  ihitIch  of  the  world.  All  that  was 
0ee<li'il  was  to  Join  the  inland  liy  a  mole  to  the 
continent.  The  site  was  admlmlily  secure  and 
rnnvenli'nt.  a  narrow  strip  of  laml  between  the 
Metllterraiiiiin  anil  the  grent  M  imi  Ijikc  Mare- 
Otis.     Thii  wliole  iiorthef  f»ce<l  the  two 

harbours,  which  were  bouii  t  and  west  by 

the  mole,  anl  Uyond  by  the  _,  n«rrf)w  rooky 
Island  of  I'hsroH,  stretching  parallel  with  the 
coast.  On  Ihr  south  was  the  inlsnd  [lort  of  Uke 
Mareotis  The  litiirth  of  the  rity  wsj  iQur,.  t!ia» 
Uiree  miles,  the  hreaillh  muri'  than  thrpeiiunrten 


of  a  mile;  the  mole  was  above  three-quarters  of 


44 


ALEXANDRIA,  B.  C.  28S-S46. 

a  mile  long  and  six  htudred  feet  broad;  its 
breadth  is  now  doubled,  owing  to  the  silting  up 
of  tl;e  sand.  Modem  Alexandria  until  lately 
only  occupied  the  mole,  and  was  a  great  town  in 
a  comer  of  the  space  which  Alexander,  with 
large  provision  for  the  future,  measured  out. 
The  form  of  the  new  city  was  raled  by  that  of 
the  site,  but  the  fancy  of  Alexander  designed  it 
in  the  slupe  of  a  Macedonian  cloak  or  chlamys, 
such  as  a  national  hero  wears  on  tlie  coins  of  the 
kings  of  Hacedon,  his  ancestors.  The  situation 
Is  excellent  for  commerce.  Alexandria,  with  the 
best  Egyptian  harbour  on  the  Mediterranean, 
and  the  inland  port  connected  with  the  Nile 
streams  and  canals,  whs  the  natural  emporium 
of  the  Indian  trade.  Port  Said  is  superior  now, 
iKcause  of  its  grand  artiUcial  port  aud  the 
advantage  for  steamships  of  an  unbroken  sea- 
route."— R.  8.  Poole,  Citia  nf  Bgyi>t,  eh.  18.— 
See,  also,  Macedonia,  &c.  :  B.  C.  834-830;  and 
Egypt:  B.  C.  882. 

Reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelpbns,  B.  C.  aSa- 
a46.—  Creatncas  and  splendor  of  the  City. — 
Its  Commerce.— Its  Libraries.—  Its  Museum. 
—  Its    Schools.— Ptolemy   Philadelpbus,    sou 
of  Ptolemy  Soter,  succeeiled  to  the    throne  of 
Egypt  in  283  B.  C.  when  his  father  retin-d  from 
it  In  Ilia  favor,   and  reigned  until  846  B.   C. 
"Alexandria,  founded  by  the  great  conqueror, 
increased  and  beautified  by  Ptolemy  Soter,  was 
now  far  the  greatest  city  of  Alexander's  Empire. 
It  was  the  first  of  those  new  foundatl<ins  which 
are  a  marked  feature  in  Helleniaui;  there  were 
many  others  of   gri'st  size  and  impurtauce  — 
above  all,  Antloch,  then  Selcucia  on  the  Tigris, 
tlien  Nicomedia,  Nicti'a,  Apamea,  which  Usted; 
besides  such  as  Lysimacheia,  Antiguueia,  ami 
others,  which  early  disappeared.  .  .  .  Alexan- 
drU  was  the  model  for  all  the  rest.     The  inter- 
section of  two  great  principal  thorouehfares, 
adorned  with  colonnades  for  the  frxit  wavs,  formed 
the  <'eutre  point,  the  omphalos  of  the  city.     The 
other  streets  were  at  right  angh'S  with  these 
thonmghfares,  so  that  the  whiHe  place  was  quite 
regular.    Counting  its  old  part,  liiiakotis,  \rtilch 
was   Rtill  the   habitation  of    native  Egyptians, 
Alexandria  had  five  quarters,  one  at  least 'devoted 
to  Jews  who  had  originally  settled  tli<Te  in  great 
numben.    The  mlxiil  pop'ilation  there  of  Mace- 
donians, Oreeks,  Jews,  aud   Egyptians  gave  a 
p<'culiariy  coiiii>lex  ami  variable  character  to  the 
lK)pulation.     Ut  us  nut  forget  the  v»st  number 
of  strangers  from  all  parts  of  the  world  whom 
trade  and   politics  brought   there.     It   was  the 
great  mart  where  the  weallliofEunipe  anil  of  Asia 
changed  hands.     Alexamler  hud  niieneil  the  sea- 
way by  exploring lliecoaslHof  .Meuia anil  PersU. 
Caravans  from  the  head  of  the  Pemiun  (iiilf,  aud 
slilps  on  the  HikI  Sea,  brought  all  the  woiiilere  of 
Ceylon  and  China,  as  well  as  of  Portlier  India,  to 
Alexan.lrla.    There.  t.Ki,  the  wealth  of  Spain  and 
Oatil,  lite  produce  of  Italy  and  Mait'dnnla,  the 
amber  of  the  Baltic  and  the  salt  fish  of  Pontus. 
the  silver  of  Spain  and  the  copper  of  Cyprus,  the 
timber  of  Maceilnnia  and  ("nte,  the  pottery  and 
oil  of  (Insert. —  a  IliiMiHund  imports  frnm  all  the 
Meiliterranean  —  came  to  lie  exclmngiil  for  the 
splci's  of  Arabia,  the  Bph'iidid  liinU  and  endmil 
il'  >i.nof  India  and  Ceylon,  the  giiiil  a'd  ivory  of 
■  tica,  IlieanU'liip."*,  the  Bins,  the  leopards,  the 
■-■ptiap.tsr.f  fr.ip!.H!,  ||iiir<i     IJrntx  Ihr  rn.irmous 
wealth  of  the  Ugiilir,  for  In  aildlllon  to  the  mar- 
is fertility  aud  great  (Hipulation  —  it  is  said 


ALBXASDRIA,  B.  0.  aS^SM. 

to  have  been  »eTeii  mlllloiu— of  Egypt,  they 
made  all  the  proflts  of  this  enormous  cuTying 
trade.  We  gain  a  good  idea  of  what  tie  splen- 
dours of  the  capital  were  by  the  very  full  account 
preserved  to  us  b v  Athensua  of  the  great  feast 
which  Inaugurated  the  reign  of  PhlTadelphus. 
...  All  Uils  seems  Idle  pomp,  and  the  doing  of 
an  Idle  sybarite.  Pbiladelphus  was  anything  but 
that  ...  It  was  he  who  opened  up  the  i&yp- 
tian  trade  with  Italy,  and  made  PuteoU  the  gr^t 
port  for  ships  from  Alexandria,  which  It  remahied 
for  centuries.  It  was  he  who  explored  Etiaopia 
and  the  southern  pans  of  Africa,  and  brought 
back  not  only  the  curious  fauna  to  his  zoologteal 

fardens,  but  the  first  knowledge  of  the  Troglo- 
ytes  for  men  of  science.    The  cultivation  of 
science  and  of  letters  too  was  so  remarkably  one 
of  his  nursuitt  that  the  progrsaa  of  the  Alexan- 
dria of  his  day  forms  an  epoch  In  the  world's 
hUtory  and  we  must  soparate  hU  University  and 
Its  professors  from  this  summary,  and  devote  to 
them  a  separate  secUon.  ...  The  history  of  the 
organization  of  the  University  and  lu  staff  Is 
covered  with  almost  Impenetrable  mist    For  the 
Museum  and  Library  were  in  the  strictest  sense 
what  we  should  now  call  an  University,  and  one 
too  of  the  Oxford  type,  where  learned  men  were 
Invited  to  Uke  Fellowships,  and  spend  their 
learned  leisure  close  to  observatories  In  science, 
and  a  great  library  of  books.     Like  the  medieval 
universities,  this  endowment  of  research  naturally 
turned  Into  an  engine  for  teaching,  as  all  who 
desired  knowledge  flocked  to  such  a  centre,  and 
persuided  the  Fellow  to  bcconc  a  Tutor.    The 
model  came  from  Athens.     There  the  schools 
beginflliig  with  the  Academy  of  Plnto.  hatl  a 
fixed  propcrtv  — a  home  with  iu  surmuudiug 
gsrden,  and  in  order  to  make  this  fnumlatlon 
sure,  it  was  made  a  shrine  where  thj  Muses  were 
worshlppc<l,  and  where  the  bead  of  the  school,  or 
a  priest   sppolnted,   performed  sUted  sacrifices. 
Thin  thin,  being  held  In  trust  by  the  successon 
of  the  donor,  who  bequeathed  It  to  them,  woa 
property  which  it  would  have  Uen  sacrilegious 
to  Invaijc,  and  so  the  title  Museum  annc  for  a 
school  of  learning.     Demetrius  the  Phslcrean,  tlie 
rriond  and  protector  of  Thcopbrasius,  brought 
this  idea  wllh  him  to  Alexandria,  when  his  name- 
sake drove  him  Into  exile  [see  GnKECl-    B  C 
2'^^'li^  "''  "  "■•  '>"  ''oubt  hU  advice  to  the 
first  Ptolemy  which  originated  the  great  foun- 
lUllon,  though  Philadrfnhus.  who  again  exiled 
Demetrius,  gcu  ilie  credit  of  it.    Tlie  pupil  of 
Aristotle  moreover  impressed  on  the  king  the 
nocewlty  of  storing  up  In  one  central  repository 
all  that  the  world  knew  or  could  pniduco   In 
order  to  sscertain  the  Uws  of  things  from  a  pri>. 
p<-r  anslytis  of  detail.    Hence  was  founded  not 
only  the  great  library,  which  in  those  davs  had  a 
thousand  times  the  value  a  great  lll)rarv  lias  now 
but  also  observatories,  loologlcal  gardens,  col' 
lections  of  exotic  plants,  and  of  other  new  and 
strange  things  brought  by  exploring  expeditions 
from  tlie  furthest  regions  of  Arsl.la  nnd  Africa, 
ihls  lllirary  and  muwum  proved  Imieed  a  home 
for  the  Muses,  and  aN  it  It  a  most  brilliant  group 
of  students  In  literature  and  scienre  was  formcif 
I  he  sucrrssive  lilirariiins  were  Zenodxtun   the 
Krsmmarian  or  critic;    Calllmarhus,   to  whose 
pnemi  we  shall  prevntly  return'  Era!:Kthfr.ri 
the  Mtrnncimer,  who  originated" the'pn.ceM  by 
whieh  the  »Ue  of  the  esrtS  Is  determined  today : 
AppoUoBlui  Um  Rhodlaa,  dUdpIs  aad  «BM>y  o^ 

45 


ALBXAin)IUA.  a  0.  S83-34S. 

Oalllmachaa ;  Aristophanes  of  By  xantium,  founder 
of  a  school  of  philological  criticism ;  and  Aristar- 
chus  of  Samoa,  reputed  to  have  been  the  greatest 
CTltlc  of  ancient  times.  The  study  of  the  text  of 
Homer  was  the  chief  labour  of  Zienodotiis,  Aris- 
tophanes, and  Aristarchus,  and  it  was  Arisur- 
chus  who  mainly  fixed  the  form  In  which  tlie 
Iliad  and  Odvssey  remain  to  this  day.  .  .  .  The 
vast  collections  of  the  library  and  museum 
actually  determtoed  the  whole  character  of  the 
literature  f  Alexandria.  One  word  sums  It  all 
up  — eruUiUon,  whether  In  pUlosophy,  in  criti- 
cism, in  science,  even  In  poetry.  Strange  to  say 
they  neglected  not  only  oratory,  for  which  there 
was  no  scope,  but  history,  and  this  we  miiv  attri- 
bute to  the  fact  that  history  before  Alexander  had 
DO  charms  for  Hellenbm.  Mythlc<U  lore,  on  the 
other  hand,  strange  uses  and  curious  words,  were 
*>fP»"ioenU  of  research  dear  to  them.  In  science 
they  did  great  things,  so  did  they  in  geography. 
•  ■  But  were  they  original  in  nothing?  Did 
they  add  nothing  of  their  own  to  the  splendid 
record  of  Greek  llteratureT  In  the  next  gener- 
ation came  the  art  of  criticism,  which  Aristar- 
chus developed  Into  a  real  science,  and  of  that 
we  may  speak  In  its  place;   but  even  In  thit 

SineretloD  we  may  claim  for  them  the  credit  of 
ree  original,  or  nearly  original,  devclopmenu 
,     literature  — the  pastoral  Idyll,  as  we  have  it 
to  Theocritus;  the  elegy,  as  we  have  It  in  the 
Roman  Imltaton  of  Philetas  and  Callimachus; 
and  the  romance,  or  love  story,  the  parent  of  our 
modem  noveU.    All  these  had  earfv  prototypes 
In  the  folk  songs  of  Sicily,  In  the  fove  songs  of 
Mimnermus  and  of  Antlmachus,  in  the  ules  of 
Ml  etus,  but  still  the  revival  was  fairly  to  be 
called  original.    Of  these  the  pastoral  idyll  was 
far  the  most  remarkable,  and  laid  hold  upon  the 
world  for  ever."— J,  P.  Mahaffy,  The  Story  of 
AUiandevK  Empire,  eh.  1»-14.—"  There  were  two 
Libraries  of  Alexandria  under  the  Ptolemies,  the 
larger  one  In  tlie  quarter  called  the  Bruehlum 
and  the  smaller  one,  named  'the  daii.^hter,' In 
the  Herspcum,  which  was  situated  in  the  quarter 
«IIed    Rhacotis.       The    former    was    totally 
destroyed  In  the  conflagration  of  the  Bruehlum 
during  Oaar's  Alexandrian    Wor  [sec  btlnw- 
B.  C.  4«-47]:  but  the  latter,  which  was  of  treat 
!["Hf a""™''"''''  ""Injured  (see  Matter,  Jhtloirt 
at   lEeoU  d'AUrandrie,   tol  1,  p.  18aif7.,287 
•se,)    It  Is  not  stated   br  any  ancient   writer 
where  the  collection  of  Pergamus  [see  Pkrga- 
IflM]  was  placed,  which  Antony  gave  to  Cleo- 
patra (Plutorcb,  Anton.,  c,  68);  but  It  Is  most 
probable  that  It  was  deposited  in  the  Bruehlum 
as  tlut  quarter  of  the  city  was  now  without  a 
llbmry.  and  the  queen  was  anxious  to  repair  tbe 
ravages  occasioned  by  tbe  civil  war.     If  this 
supposition  Is  correct,  two  Alexandrian  libraries 
continued  to  exist  after  the  time  of  Osar,  and 
this  i»  rendered  still  more  probslilo  bv  tlio  fact 
that  during  the  first  three ceuluries  v(  the  Chris- 
tian era  the  Bruehlum  was  still    the    literary 
quarier  of  Alexandria.    But  a  great  i  Imnge  took 
place  In  the  time  of  Aurellan.     TliU  Enipcit)r  In 
supnresiiing  the  revolt  of  Firmus  in  Kirvpt.  A 
D.  478  [aeii  Ih'Iow:  A.  D.  873J  h  •al.l  i..  have 
dewroynl  the  Bruehlum;  aud  tlioueli  tlila  male 
ment  Is  hardly  to  lie  taken  llterallv,  the  Uiuiliium 
PH»rr-i  f^•r:-!  tills  iiioc  to  boiBd'i!,ii,i  niii.iuii.B 
walls  of  Alexandria,  and  was  reganlnl  onh-  n»  a 
suburb  of  the  city.    Whether  the  gr.at  Iflirary 
in  Um  Bruchluin  with  tba  musaum  and  It*  otlMr 


ALEXANDRIA,  B.  C.  283-346. 

nterary  cstebllghmente,  perished  at  this  time,  we 
do  not  know ;  but  the  Serapeum  for  the  next 
century  takes  its  place  as  the  literary  quarter  of 
Alexandria,  and  becomes  the  chief  library 
in  the  city.  Hence  later  writers  erroneously 
speak  of  the  Serapeum  as  if  it  had  been  from  the 
be^nning  the  great  Alexandrian  library.  .  .  . 
Gibboa  seems  to  think  that  the  whole  of  the 
Bcrapcum  was  destroyed  [A.  D.  389,  l)y  order  of 
the  Emperor  Theodosius— see  below];  but  this 
was  not  the  case.  It  would  appear  that  it  was 
only  the  sanctuary  of  the  god  that  was 
levelled  with  the  ground,  and  that  the  library, 
the  halls  and  other  buildings  in  the  ci)nsccrate<l 
ground  remainetl  standing  [ong  afterwards.  "—E. 
Gibbon,  Dtfliw  and  Fntlcf  the  Woman  Empire, 
«*.  88.  y'nta  by  Dr.  William  S»i««A.— Concern- 
ing the  reputed  Unal  destruction  of  the  Library 
aj  the  Moslems,  see  below:  A.  D.  641-646 

Also  i.n  :  ().  Uelepicrre.  /littorieal DijIteuUiei, 
tA.  8.-8.  Sharpe,  Uiat.  nf  hJiypt,  eh.  7, 8  and  12. 
—See,  also,  Nkoplato.nic«. 'and  LniKARtKS. 

B.  C.  48^7— C«t«r  and  Cleomitr«.-Th* 
Riunc  aKsinst  the  Romuu.— The  Siere.— 
DeetrucUon  of  the  great   Libranr.— Roman 
▼letoty.— From  the  battle  field  of  Pharsaliu  (see 
Rome  :    B.  C.  48)  Pompeius  fled  to  Alexandria 
in  Egypt,  and  was  treacherously  murdered  as  ho 
stepped  on  shore.    Ceesar  arrived  a  few  days 
afterwards,  in  close  pursuit,  and  shed  tears,  it  is 
said,  on  being  shown  his  rival's  mangled  head. 
He  had  brought  scarcely  more  than  3,000  of  his 
soldiers  with  him,  and  he  found  Egypt  in  a  tur- 
bulent state  of  civil  war.    The  throne  was  in 
dispute    between   children   of    the   late   king 
PtoleraiEus  Aulctcs.    Ck-cpatra,  the  elder  daugh- 
ter, and  FtoleniKua,  a  son,  were  at  war  with 
one  another,  and  Arsinol^,  a  younger  daughter, 
waa  ready  to  put  forwanl  claims  (see  Eoypr: 
B.   C.    8<M8).     Notwiihstandlng   'le  insignifi- 
cance of  his  force,  Ca-aar  did  not  ^l•^  tatc  to  as- 
sume to  occupy  Alexandria  and  to  u  !    idlcatc  the 
dispute.     But    the    fascinations    C     Cleopatra 
(then  twenty  yeara  of  age)  soon  made  him  her 
partisan,  and  her  scarcely  disgulaed  lover.    This 
aggravated  the  IrriUtion  which  was  caused  in 
Alcxandrhi   by  the  presence  of  Casar's  troops 

??".'  ,'i''?'"  '*'''°?  "'  ">«  <^'ty  "»»  pMvoked. 
Ho  fortified  himself  in  the  great  palace,  which 
he  had  taken  possession  of,  and  which  com- 
manded the  causeway  to  the  island,  Pliaros 
thenliy  commanding  the  port  Destroying  a 
larsc  iiart  of  the  city  In  that  nelghborhcKxl,  he 
made  Ills  piwition  exnt'dinxly  stronp.  At  the 
same  time  he  seized  ami  burmd  the  royal  fleet 
and  thus  caused  a  conflagration  in  which  the 
greater  of  the  two  priceless  libraries  of  Alex- 
andria —  the  library  of  th"  Museum  —  was,  much 
of  it,  consumed.  [Sec  above:  B.  C.  283-240  1 
By  such  measures  Cwsar  withstood,  for 
several  montl'j,  a  siege  conducted  on  the  purl  of 
the  Aloxaudrians  with  great  determination  and 
animosity.  It  wus  not  until  March,  B.  C.  47 
tjiat  ho  was  relieved  from  his  dangerous  situa- 
tioo,  by  the  arrival  of  a  faithful  ally,  in  the  per. 
soil  of  -Mithridales,  of  Pcrgamus,  who  Iwl  an 
army  Into  Egypt,  reduced  Pehuium,  and  crossed 
the  Nile  nt  the  bewl  of  the  Delta.  I'lole- 
iniMn  ailvauced  with  his  troops  to  meet  this 
■ew  invader  and  was  followed  and  ovoruken  bv 
" •-  '•     battle     • 


Esypliaii  arMiy  was  ulitriy  routed  and  Ptole- 
■Mua  perished  in  Um  MUa    Cleopatra  was  then 


M 


ALEXANDRIA.  A.  D.  378, 

married,  after  the  Egyptian  fashion,  to  • 
younger  brother,  and  established  on  the  throne, 
while  ArainoC  was  sent  a  prisoner  to  Rome. — 
A.  Uirtius,  The  Alexaiulriaa  War. 

A.  D.  100-312.— The  EarlT  Chriitiaa 
Church.  —  Its  Influence.  See  Cbristianitt  : 
A.  D.  100-812. 

A.  D.  li<.— Oeitmction  of  the  Jew*.  8e« 
Jews:  A.  D.  116. 

.,/A-  "•„  a«S.  — Maeaacre  by  Caracalliu— 
tanu'alla  was  the  common  enemy  of  mankind. 
He  left  the  capital  (and  he  never  returned  to  it) 
about  a  vear  after  the  murder  of  Geta  [A.  D 
813).  The  rest  of  his  reign  [four  years]  was 
spent  In  the  several  provinces  of  the  Empire, 
particularly  those  of  the  East,  and  every  prov- 
iiK^e  was,  by  turns,  the  scene  of  his  rapine  aud 
cruelty.  ...  In  the  midst  of  peace,  and  upon 
the  slightest  provocation,  ho  issued  his  commands 
at  Alexandria.  Egypt  [A.  D.  215],  for  a  general 
massacre.  From  a  secure  post  in  the  temple  of 
Serapls,  he  viewed  and  directed  the  slaughter  of 
many  thousand  citizens,  as  well  as  strangers, 
without  distinguishing  either  the  number  or  the 
crime  of  the  sutTen-ni.^'— E.  Gibbon,  Declint  and 
Fall  of  the  Roinun  Empire,  ch.  6 

A.  D.  360-373.— Tumulta  of  the  Third  Cen- 
tufT-  — "The  people  of  Alexandria,  a  various 
mixture  of  nations,  united  the  vanity  and  incon- 
stancy of  the  Greeks  with  the  sufieretitlon  and 
obstinacy  of  the  Egyptians.  The  most  trifling 
occasion,  a  transient  scarcity  of  flesh  or  lentils, 
the  neglect  of  an  accustomed  saluuitlon,  a  mis- 
tske  of  precedency  In  the  public  bulbs,  or  even 
a  riligious  dispute,  were  at  any  time  sufflcient 
to  kimlle  a  se<lltion  among  that  vast  multitude 
wlioeo  resentments  were  furious  and  implacable 
Aflir  the  captivity  of  Valerian  [the  Roman  Em- 
penir,  made  prisoner  by  Sapor,  king  of  Persia 
A.  D,  290]  anil  the  in.solcnce  of  hU  son  bad  re- 
hixiil  the  authority  of  the  laws,  the  Alexandrians 
abandoned  themselves  to  the  ungovemed  rage  of 
their  passions,  and  their  unhappy  country  was 
the  theatre  of  a  civil  war,  which  continued  (with 
a  few  short  and  suspicious  truces)  above  twelve 
yc.irs.  All  Intercourse  was  cut  off  between  the 
several  ouaru-ra  of  the  afflicted  city,  every  street 
was  polluted  with  blood,  every  building  of 
strength  converted  into  a  citadel;  nor  did  the 
tumult  subside  till  a  considerable  part  of  AIcx- 
amlria  was  Irretrievably  ruined.  The  spacious 
and  maguiflcent  district  of  Bruchion,  with  Its 
pahucs  and  museum,  the  residence  of  the  kings 
and  pliilofwphera  of  Egypt.  IsdescrilHd,  above  a 
century  afterwards,  as  already  rodureil  to  tU 
prcmiit  state  of  dreary  solitude."- E.  Gibbon, 
J)t,\iiui  and  Fall  o/ihe  liman  Empire,  eh    III 

A.  p,  373.— Deitruction  of  the  Bruchium  by 
Aurehan.  —  After  subduing  Palmvra  and  lu 
yuc(  11  Zenobia,  A.  D.  278,  the  Eniperor  Aure- 
Inn  was  called  Info  Eftypt  to  put  .1  \a  a  re 
bel  Ion  there,  hc.uled  by  one  I^nniis,  a  friend 
still  ally  of  the  Palinyrene  queeu.  KIrnius  had 
great  wealth,  dirivedfrom  trade,  and  from  the 
pilKrmanufai  lure  of  Egypt,  which  was  mostlv 
In  Ins  hands,  lie  was  defeated  and  put  t..  ili-nh 
"To  Aurellans  war  against  FIrmus,  or  to  that 
of  Prubusa  little  iH-forc  In  Egypt,  may  be  re 
ftrred  the  distructlon  of  Uruihium,  a  gnut 
■liiarter.if  Al.xandrla,  whlih  «cc  .nling  to  Am 
niianus  M«rwl!jni|..  ^^g  r!:!!:i;l  i;:::!cr  A'lreilaD 
acd  remained  deserted  ever  after.  "—J.  B.  L.  Cre- 
Uitl.  <ffth4  Human  Emptrort,  Ue.  37, 


II 


ALEXAKDRIA,  A.  D.  298. 

^,P-,»9«-  -p'jy  ^7  DJocletlM—A  reneral 
revolt  of  tlie  African  provinces  of  the  Homan 
tmpire  occurred  A.  U.  2»«.  The  barbarous 
tribf»  of  Ethiopia  and  the  desert  were  brought 
into  alliance  with  the  provincials  of  Envnt 
Cyrenaica,  Carthage  and  Mauritania,  ana  the 
flame  of  war  was  universal.     Both  the  emperors 

"^."',^H'?*^i^'*'*"'"'  ""*  Maximlan,  were 
ca  led  to  the  African  field.  "  Diocletian,  on  his 
s  de,  onenea  the  campaign  in  Egypt  by  the 
siege  of  Alexandria,  cut  off  the  aqueducU  which 
conveveii  the  waters  of  the  Nile  Into  every  quar- 
ter of  that  immense  city,  and,  rendering  his 
camp  Impregnable  to  the  sallies  of  the  besieired 
multitude,  he  pushed  his  reiterated  attacks  with 
caution  and  vieor.  After  a  siege  of  eight 
months,  Alexandria,  wasted  by  the  swoid  and 
by  fire,  implored  the  clemency  of  the  conqueror 
but  it  experienced  the  full  extent  of  his  severity' 
Many  thousands  of  the  citizens  perished  in  a  pro- 
miscuous slaughter,  and  there  were  few  obnox- 
ious persoins  In  Egypt  who  escaped  a  sentence 
either  of  death  or  at  least  of  exile.  The  fate  of 
Busiris  and  of  Coptos  was  still  more  melancholy 
than  that  of  Alexandria;  those  proud  cities 
were  utterly  destroyed.  "-E.  Gibbon,  JOerfini 
and  taUvftht  Homan  Empire,  eh.  la 
A.  D.  365.  -Great  Earthquake.    See  Earth- 

(jr.\ltK  IN   THB   liOHA.N    WoKLD:   A    D    865 

^.P'  389.— Deatruction  of  the  Se'rapeiim. 
—   AfUT  the  edicts  of  Theodtwlus  had  severely 
priihiNiied  the  sacrifices  of  Uie  pagans,  tin y  were 
Still  tolerated  in  the  city  and  temple  of  Hr'ipis 
...   I  he  archepiscopul    throue  of  AIe»»plrla 
W!is  filled  by  Thcophilus,  the  perpetual  enemy 
of  VvMv  and  virtue;  a  bold,   bad  man,  whose 
hamls  were  altimately  polluted  with  gold  and 
with  I1I0.HI.    Uis  pious  indignation  was  excited 
by  the  honours  of  Sirupis.  ...  The  votaries  of 
fcerui.is,  whose  strength  and  numbers  were  much 
mfcnor  to  those  of  their  antaitonisU,    rose  in 
arms  [A.  D.  38UJ  at  the  iiistigiition  of  the  philo- 
sopher Olympius,  who  exhorted  them  to  die  in 
the  defence  of  the  altars  of  the  gods     These 
pagan  fanatics  fortified  thcniselvfs  in  the  temple 
or  rather  fortress,  of  Weropis;  ri'pelled   tlie  be'- 
tugew  by  daring  sallies  an<l  a  resolute  defence; 
aim   by  the  inhuman  cruelties  which  they  exer- 
useil  on  their  Christian  prisoners,  obtained  the 
!ust  consolation  of  despair.    The  efforu  of  the 
pruc  cut  magistrate  were  usefully  excned  for  the 
( nalilishtuent  of  a  truce  till  the  answer  of  Thto- 
|.osius  f!i<).il<l  determine  tlie  fate  of  Kerapis  " 
li.e  jud.-nunt  c.f  the  emperor  condemned  the 
j-riat  temple  to  destruction  and  it  was  reduced 
loa  heap  of  ruins      "The  valuable  library  of 
Alexsniiria  was  pillaged  or  destroyed ;  and  near 
Im!!';'^  Tf "  ""•■'•.'"'r''".  "'«  8pp..un.i,ce  of  the 
rmpli  shelves  excited  the  regret  and  indignation 
of  every  spectator  wlu«e  mind  was  not  totally 
darken.^  by  rthgious  nrejudice."-E.  Oibb<in 
VWi,«,  ,,W  /J,« ,/  </M  kom„n  Empin  M.  88 - 
(.iblx.n  »  statement  as  to  the  dcsitruction  of  the 
great  library  in  the  aempeum  is  calle.1  in  que,- 
ii'D  by  hi*  learned  uuuotalor,  Dr.  Omith      bee 
II hove:  B.  (.',   Wi-na 

hi.*M^h.'"^Vi?"T»'«  patriarch  Cyril  and 
nis  Mobi  —    Ills  voice  [ilnit  of  tynl,  Putri- 

«I'penM.il  the  pauinns  of  the  iniililtnit.-  ^tu  c 

tuiintlc   paraboittni.    familiari/,.1   In   their  dally 
ottic  With  scene,  of  death,  aiM  the  pnefecU  of 


ALEXANDRIA,  A.  D.  641-4M 

Egypt  were  awed  or  provoked  by  tb<!  temooal 
power  of  these  Christian  pontics.  Ard3  in 
the  prosecution  of  heresy,  Cyril  auspiciously 
2^™1.  *  "'^nhy  oppressing  the  Novatlans, 
the  most  innocent  and  harmless  of  the  sectaries 
;k-"t  to'c™'i''ii,  and  even  the  privileges  of 
S'.'i^*"'  '"''"  '"^  rau:..plied  to  the  num^,rof 

J;^  D.T*"i  "^""l*'  ^Y  ^^  '«'■'>  0'  f^e  Cesam 
and  Ptolem  es  and  a  long  prescripUon  of  700 
years  -'-oe  the  foundation  of  Alexandria.  With- 
out  anv  legal  sentence,  without  any  royal  man- 
date t£e  patriareh,  at  the  dawn  of  diy,  led  a 
seditious  multitude  to  the  attack  of  tlie  syna- 
^JiTt,  U°'»""«:'l  ■"«»  unprepared,  the  Jews  were 
incapable  of  resistance:  their  houses  of  prayer 
were  levelled  with  the  ground,  and  the  eplVcoW 

plunder  of  their  toods,  expelled  from  the  city 
the  remnant  of  the  misbelieving  nation.  Pef- 
haps  he  might  plead  the  Insolence  of  their 
prosperity,  and  their  deadly  Utred  of  the  Chris- 
tians, whose  blood  they  had  recently  shed  in  a 
malicious  or  accidental  tumult.  Slich  crimes 
wou  d  have  deserved  the  animadvcislons  of  the 
magistrate:  but  in  this  promiscuous  outraee  the 
J°^"'  "^""^  confounded  with  the  guilty  "— 
E.  Gibbon   V^rlinemut  Fatt  of  the  R^n  Em- 

rtv.  .■  *^~"  "^'°.™  '""8  ^^  "dherents  of  the 
archbishop  were  guilty  of  a  more  atrocious  and 
unprovoke<l  crime,  of  the  guilt  of  which  a  deei) 
!1^'J^2!1  ;"•«=''«*,  "»  .Cyril.  All  Alexandria 
respected,  honoured,  took  pride  in  the  celebrated 
Hypatla.  81ie  was  a  woman  of  extraordinary 
learning;  In  her  was  centred  the  lingering  knowl- 
edge  of  that  Alexandrian  Platonism  cultivated 
by  Plotinua  aud  his  school.  Her  beauty  was 
equal  to  her  leaminit:  her  modesty  commended 
bot.1.  .  .  Ilypatia  lived  In  great  fntimacy  with 
the  pnefect  Unates;  the  only  charge  whispered 

b^fl'll  r  .T"  "'?i  *^l  encouraged  him  tn  his 
hosti  ity  to  the  patriareh.  .  .  .  Some  of  Cyrils 
ferocious  partisans  seire<l  this  woman,  draeeed 
her  from  her  rlinriot,  and  with  the  most  revolt 
tog  indecency  tore  her  clothes  off  and  then  rent 
her  limb  from  limb.'-H.  H.  Milman, /A.f.  „t 
Latin  GhriMtianily.  hk.  8,  ek.  8  " 

Also  IN  C.  Klngsley.  nypaiia. 

A.    D.    «t6.-Tak«j    6r    ChosroM.      See 


Eoyrr:  A.  D,  610-828, 

Th^nSli**':*.''*-7 ■''''•  "»•'•'»  Conqu«it.- 

The  precise  date  of  eventa  In  the  Moslem  con 

n,"!;*'"."' *''?>'P'-   ''.*'  Am™,   lieutenant  of   ilie 
lallph  Omar,  is  uncertain.     Sir  Win.  Mulr  fl.xes 

'a  nT..'"'^;/"'''V'''  Alexandria  to  Amr.i  hi 
A.  I>.  (HI.  After  that  It  was  reoccupied  by  tli» 
Jfyzantines  either  once  o-  twice,  on  occasions  of 
neglect  by  the  Aralis.  as  they  pursued  their  eoi,- 
ciuesta  elsewhere.  The  probaliility  seems  to  be 
that  this  occurred  only  on««,  In  MB.  It  seems 
also  probable,  as  remarked  by  Sir  W.  Mulr,  that 
the  two  sieges  on  the  taking  and  retaking  of  the 
city  — 641  and  646- have  been  much  confii8e<l  In 
the  ranty  acci.unu  which  have  come  down  to  us 
Onihe  firat occasion  Alexandria  would  appear  to 
have  been  generously  treated;  while,  on  the 
st^-ond  It  s.iffere<l  pfllage  and  Ita  fortifications 
were  destroy..!.  IIow  fsr  there  is  truth  In  the 
commonly  acc.ptnl  story  of  the  deliberate  bum- 

lii«  of  tlin  great  A  lexamlrian  Library— or  so  mu<h 
•  f  It  as  iiatl  f:«Tjpcd  drstniclioii  «t  ti,,.  i,«,„i, 
of  Homan  generals  and  Olirisllan  patriarchs— is 
a  question  still  in  dispute.  Gibbon  .llscredlted 
the  story,  ami  BIr  Wlllism  Muir,  the  Utett  of 


i  • 


V4 


r?l 


ALEXANDRIA,  A.  D.  641-646. 

■tndenti  In  Mahometan  blstoiy,  declines  even  the 
mention  of  it  In  his  narrative  of  the  conquest  of 
Egypt.  But  othor  historians  of  repute  maintain 
the  probable  accuracy  of  the  tale  told  by  Abul- 
pharagus— that  Caliph  Omar  onlered  the  de- 
struction of  the  Library,  on  the  ground  that, 
if  the  books  in  it  agreed  with  the  Koran  they 
were  useless,  if  they  disagreed  with  U  they  wew 
Permdous.— 8eeMABo;4BTA»Coit«niMT:  A.  D. 

iith-isth  Centuries.— Trade.    See  TRAoa. 

A.  D.  1798.— Captured  ojr  the  French  imder 
Bonaparte.    See  Fbadce:  A.  D.  1788  (Mat— 

ACOtJST). 

A.  D.  i8oi-i8oa.  — Battle  of  French  and 
EiiKlish.— Restoration  to  the  Tnrka.  See 
TtLAXcm:  A.  D.  1801-1802. 
_  A.  p.  1807.— Surrendered  to  the  Enrliah.— 
The  brief  occupation  and  humiliatinc  capitif 
lation.  See  TuBBs:  A.  D.  1806-1807. 
a  \P'  >>40.— Bombardment  br  the  BnKliah. 
See  TiTBKs:  A.  D.  1881-1840 

A.  D.  i88a.— Bombardment  by  the  Bncllsh 
■•**L—  Massacre  of  Europeans.—  Deatmaioa. 
SeeEoTW:  A.  D.  1876-1882,  and  1888-1888. 

ALEXANDRIA,  LA.,  The  Bnminr  oC 
Bee  UKfTED  States  op  Ah.  :  A.  D.  1864  (Mabch 
—Mat:  LodisianaX 

ALEXANDRIA,  VA.,  A.  D.  i86t  (May).- 
Occnpation  hj  Union  troops.—  Murder  of  Col- 
onel Ellsworth.  See  Csitkd  States  or  Ax. : 
A.  D.  1861  fMAT:  ViBoraiA). 
ALEXANDRIAN  TALENT.  SeeTAiEsr. 
»i-|5l?.'J^f"J*'  Russia,  A.  D.  1645-1676. 
ALEXIUS  I.  (Comacnus),  Emperor  la  the 
»*•»  (Bysantine,  or  Creek),  A.  D.  1081-1118. 
....Alexins  n.  (Comncnus),  Emperor  la 
J^Jo^"!/^'^*"*'"*'  "'  C"*'').  A.  D.  1181- 
."^  B^*5"  '"•  (Ancelus),  Emperor 
ia  the  Bast  (Byxantiae,  or  cfreek),  A  D.  119»- 
1208  Alexius  IV.  (An«lus),  Emperor  In 
!S)?.^**l.<^T*"*'n«>  O' Greek),  A.  1).  1803- 
1204  Alexius  V,  (Ducas),  Emperor  ia 
"'5?S!i»^li?^'i?*'  •'  Greek),  A.  iJ.  1204. 

ALFONSO  I.,  Kiaarof  Aragonand  Navarre. 
A.  D.  110*-1184. . .  .Aftonso  1." Kingof  Castili 
^J?-  "I'h"'*!  •"•'  '"•  »'  Leon,  A.  D.  1065^ 
110».... Alfonso  I.,  Kmr  of  Leon  and  the 
Asturiat,  or  Oriedo,  A.  U.  739-757. . .  .Alfonso 
l-.i^iag  ot  PoTtMnl,  A.  D.  IIIS-IIM.... 
Alfonso  I.,  King  of  Sicily,  A.  D.  1416-U58  . . . 

Alfnnan  If       VIhm  «./    A -. a      rv     •■««    ..«. 


ALLOBROOES. 


MO  VI.,  Kiae  of  Portugal,  A.  D. 
7. . .  .Alfoaso  VII.,  KinjF  of  Leoa,  A. 
1186. . .  .Alfonso  VIII.,  Ring  of  Leoa, 


Alfonso  II.,  King  of  Aragoni  .\   D.  1163-119ft 
"     —      orcastile,  A.  D.  1186- 


.  .Alfonso  11.,  King  t    _        ^ 

1157.... Alfonso  II.,  ICing  of  Leon  and"tha 


A*'»ri,V'  "  9'1»,"*"»'  ^  ^  7l»l-84«. . .  .Alfonso 
II.,  KioK  of  Naples,  A.  D.  U94-14l>5.... 
tV,?"***  }}:•  •^'"/f."'  Portugal,  A.  D.  1811- 
Ifii. . .  Alfonso  ni..  King  of  Aragea.  A  D 

n**  nV'!?.V,.V^"'r,V  "'•.  King  of^JSilJ  A 
^■}}i9-\iH...  Aitoaio  III.,  King  of  Leon 
and  the  Asturias,  or  Oriedo,  A.  U.  t<66-U10 
Alfonso  III.,  King  of  Portugal,  A.  I).  184+1 


Alfonso  III.,  Kinjr  of  Portugal,  A.  U.  184i 
187U.... Alfonso  l^..  King  ofAragoa,  A  D 
1887-1338  ...Alfonsi  IV.."King  oTUon  anj 
r  Aeturias,  or  Oriedo,  AD.  9aj-(«0 
ronso  IV..  King  of  Portugal,  A.  D.  1323- 
I.  .  .Alfonso  vr,  King  of  Aragoa  aad  I.  of 
'■&,\.^-  ^    l.*'»-><1»:  I.of  iXoies.  A.  I» 


the  Asturias,  or  Oriedo, 
Alfonso  IV.,  Kin  " 

133:..         - 
Sicily.  ..    _ 

1443- 1458...  Alfonso 
Asturias 


Kitifi  01  Leon  and 


Alfeato  v.,  King  of  Portugal,  A.  D.  1438-1481 


48 


...AlfiMM)  VI.,   Kias 

1856-1667....--  -• 

D.  1109-1186. ... 

A.  D.  1186-1167. . . .  AUoni  o  IX.,  King  of  Leon! 

A.  D.  1188-1280. . .  .Alfonso  X.,  King  of  Leoa 

and  Castile,  A.  D.  1253-1284  ...AlFonso  XL, 

Kiag  of  Leoa  and  Castile,  A.  D.  1812-1850. . . . 

AUonao  XIL,  King  of  Spain,  A.  D.  1874- 

looa. 

ALFORD,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  1645).  See 
ScoTumo:  A.  D.  1644-1645. 

ALFRED,  caUed  the  Great,  Kiag  of 
Weaees,  A.  D.  871-901.  ^^ 

ALFURUS.  SeeC'KLsnES. 
ALGIERS  AND  ALCERIA.-The  term 
Algiers  literally  signifles  "tlie  island,"  and  was 
derived  from  the  original  construction  of  its 
harbor,  one  side  of  which  was  separated  from 
the  land.    For  history,  see  BABBAiiT  States. 

ALCIHED,  The.— The  term  by  which  a 
war  is  proclaimed  among  the  Mahometans  to  be 
•  Holy  War. 

ALCONXINS,  OR  ALGONQUINS,  The. 
Bee  AiDEBiCAiiABOKioiirEs:  Aloohedj  Familt. 

ALGUAZIL.    See  Alcalde. 
,^ALlMMA,Thetaklagot    SceSPAW:  A.D. 

ALHAMBRA,  The  boUdiag  of  the.  See 
Spaih:  a.  D.  isa8-1278.  '  ••    ow 

ALI,  CaUph,  A.  D.  655  001. 

B.'C  890-M7       *' *''"  ^°"  ^' ^^^    ^'  """"^ 
ALIBAMUS,    OR    ALlBAMONS,    The. 

See       AXEBICAK       AbORIOIXES  :        McgKHOOEB 

FAMar. 

ALIEN  AND  SEDITION  LAWS,  The. 
See  United  States  of  Am:  A.  1).  1798 

A.^D:Km"5^""  "  ^"^^'-    ^  """^^• 

A^a'i^^lSio^""  "'  <"^*'-  ^  ^--= 

ALJUBAROTA,  Battle  of  (1385).  See 
Portcoal:  a.  D.  188313«o,  and  Spaxn:  A.  D 
1368-14791  rAji,.A.u. 

ALKMAAR,  Siege  (1573).  See  Nether- 
la.ndb:  A.  D.  1.573-l,)7t. 

ALKMAR,  Battle  of.  Sec  Fra.\ce:  A  D 
1799  (Septemuer— OcTonEui. 

"ALL  THE  TALENTS,"  Ministry  of. 
See  Exoi.and:  A.  1).  180I-1H(M|,  nnd  IdWJ-lSli 

ALLATOONA,  Battle  of.  Sue  L'.vnto 
StaTESOfAm.    a.  D  1'<tH(Sppf.-nrt  •Ooorirf  I 

ALLBCHANS,  The.    See  Amewcak  Ajw 

RKitNKs:  ALLE<i|fA.>-<< 

ALLEGHENY  COLLEGE.  See  Edica 
tius   Moi>krn:  .Vmki.i,a;  A.  1).  1789-1884, 

ALLEMAGNE.-Tlio  Frin.li  name  f,ir 
(f<rmany,  deriviHl  from  the  conf.dfmt|.)u  of  the 
Alemannl,    SceALEXUNNi:  A.  D.  818 

ALLEN,  Ethan,  is-f  Vehmost,  A.  D.  1719- 
Im4;  ttud  L.mteu  States  of  Am.:  A.  1)  177-, 
(May). 

-A'iy?""^"*'?""*  "'""■  Second  battle 
o^N6riUngen,-i645.)    tke  Ueumanv:  A.  U 

r,fJi'-^'*J"°»'  '•*•*>  •"''  "«  Plymouth 
1>.  1623-1629.  and  after. 

ALLIANCE,  The  Farmers'.  See  CviTtl' 
States  ok  Am.  :  A.  D.  1877-1891 

ALLOSROGES,  Conqueit   ef  the.-Tli. 


Ailohr 


^■«  (»<•«  ..Um-i  ;   hU)    Omlk)  havl 


shc'tere,!  the  chiefs  of  the  Salye^  when  the  tat 


Uiit 


ALLOBROOia 

Itoman  jrmyof  80,000  iS^  which  tidnSSd 

iEmllUnua.  On  the  8th  ofAururt  B  ?-  fa^ 
the  (Hultah  horfe  enoouSte^*X' S^j'^ii 

I^Th  'iV^^JT'  "»  Junction  of  tSeUe« 
and  the  Rhone,  and  were  routed  with  tach  enor! 
mouf  lUaghter  that  180,000  are  ^d^to  W 

f^-ofthLAII^r'^'^  K™"  battiritUed  tS 
Sm.^...^^''"'*^  ''''°  «urrendered  to  Rome 
without  further  MTuggle;  but  the  Areerai  wSS 
SSl^^SS^  The  final  oonoueet  of  SI™S 

lAf^}^.'^*^    8e.Rn«„.:A.D. 

«^h^^^^°^^  AJi°    PIZARROS.   Th« 
'  ALMANZA   S*..^"/ A-  »   "33  1348 

pL«'^e1fu;s.d^n*'s^^Sdrlr£vK 

Jury  by  a  movement  of  g^.mcwbit  slmUar  n«,r~ 
n,e  agitaUng  cau«.  of  the  revolutloS  waS  1  « 
Briou.  teacher  named  Mahomet  H  AW«nJh" 

'■giving  himself  out  for  tho  person  whnmW^r^ 
Mahometan,  expect  under  ilMmc     As  be^T  I 

Ai  l"  f™?'™-  The  new  dynasty  were  c?m^ 
Almoha,l,.»  from  Al  MchdI.  aid  by  his  ann,  int 

.•^"'coZ:\ro?'rKfif^^^^^^^^ 
«!?r.«n7m£""V?^^^^^ 
"S  ?"""  '■>  AS;'';:Ld°t'",r4e^r  iL' 

ff^in»i«i  .K  ■"<«■'»"'.   Jlahomit,   lost  In   IBil 


ALOD. 

become  lord  of  most  pari  or^^^™  ArJS!* 
wa.  requested,  orcauseaKlf  to  te^uiS^ 

over  into  Spain,  like  another  T.tjiT'^r'^*®'' 

.i;„;#  «  l'"^  then  converted  the  greater  noS 

iiuu  vu  escape  waa  the  kingdom  of  Zarnnvi^ 

-teS'SU"'-'^*  "T  •"e^SaraceMira 

slaw«««Vhm-  •  A  ~''^^"  cities  of  Andalu- 

lA.  D  114,]  before  one  whose  oriirin  wi.  mhv 

is  the  lim-dltary  estate  deriv«l  fmm  Uj    uJ*^ 
occupation;  for  which  »l,nni„  ""  Primitive 


uttomnt  to^^^™h;'f.  «'■''■''.'«  »ere  h,.pcl...,,lo 


»n<f  a««i-;;^Su  I:     *^  A-  f"^ 


40 


ment;  or  an  estate  created  hv  ln».T  Sl^  °'" 
of  public  land.    arthTlfm T«TJ,,SKJT°i'' 

tcr  can  produce  the  charter  or  be  .khvwhi^i: 
It  is  rrcated.  and  Is  caM -d  ^.x^^ ,  ,. ''^'^'S5 
primitive  allotment.  gn.duaira'\hHr'  h£' 
.«„?fL'i™  "'■■•.  *".   ""■  primitive  ni«ie.  of 


ALOD. 

jotintfd  for  Is  fclcland,  or  public  land  "— W. 
Btubbs,  Crut.  Hist,  of  Bng.,  M.  8,  teet.  24.  and 
fX  5,  *-rt.  36.— "Alodial  lands  are  commonlr 
opposed  to  beneficiary  or  feudal;  tlic  former  bo- 
log  strictly  proprietary,  while  the  latter  depended 
upon  a  superior.  In  this  sense  the  word  is  of 
continual  recurrence  in  ancient  histories,  laws 
and  Instruments.  It  someUmes,  however,  bears 
tbe  sense  of  InhcrlUwce.  .  .  .  Hence,  In  the 
charters  of  the  eleventh  century,  heredltanr  fiefs 
are  frequently  tcrmcti  alodla. "—  H.  Hallam,  Mid- 
V€  Aga,  eh.  2,  pt.  1,  note. 

Also  w  J.  it  Kemble,  The  Scuont  in  Sngktnd, 
»*.  1.  ^  11.— See,  also,  FoLCLAHD. 

ALP  ARSLAN,  Seljoak  Turkish  Saltan. 
A  D.  10«3-107a  »mtmu, 

ALPHpNSO.    8eeAL»o»»o. 

ALSACE.-ALSATIA:  Th«  Name,  flee 
AUMAH.M:  A.  I).  218. 

A.  D.  843.87o.-IncIuded  In  the  KioEdom  of 
Lorraine.    See  Lorraine:  A.  D.  84»-S(0. 


loth  Century.— Joined  to  the  Empire.  Bee 
LORR.UNE:  A.  D.  911-980. 

loth  Century.— Origin  of  the  Houm  «r 
H»P»hnrg;.    See  Acstru:  A.  D.  ia4«-128a. 

A.  D.  isac— Revolt  of  the  PuMaata.     See 
Obxiiaht:  a.  D.  1324-1525. 
-i^i.P*  «*"-«6aa— 'n»a«lona  by  llansfeld 
IMl^lS^?*'^"*''  ""'*    ^  OSKMANT :  A  D. 

A.  D.  1636-1639.— InTaiion  and  conquest  by 
Diika  Bomhard  of  Weimar.-Richeliiu'a  ap- 
proprtation  of  the  conouett  for  France.  See 
OaiuCANT:  A.  D.  1634-1639. 

A.  D.  164A— Cesaioa  to  Frrnce  in  the 
•"••e*  «'  weetphaUa.  Sec  OERMA^T:  ^V.  D. 
164o. 

.^.  A.  9. 1659.- Renunciation  of  the  claims  of 
';«  Kincof  Spain.  See  France:  A.  I>.  1659- 
I60I. 

A.  D.  1674-1678.— Ravaged  in  the  Cam- 
paigns  of  Turenne  and  Conde.  Sec  Nether- 
fcXKDe(H0HASD):  A.  D.  1874-1678. 

A.  D.  1679-1681.— Complete  Absorbtion  in 
France^— Assumption  of  entire  Sorereignty  by 
Lo«ds  XIV.— Encroachments  of  tbe  Chamber 
of  Reanaexation.— Seisure  of  Strasburg.— 
OTerthrow  of  its  indepeudence  as  an  Imperial 
City.  See  France:  A.  D.  1679-1681. 
-A.  "■  «744-InTasion  by  the  Austrians. 
See  Austria:  A.  D.  1743-1744. 

A.  D.  i87i.-Ceded  to  the  German  Empire 
-^M  T**'  ^^XAKca:  A  D.  1871  (Jajjcarv 

1871-1879.— Organisation  of  gOTemment  as 
A.  o'w^l-W^        Province.    See  Oermasit: 


N  r 


ALTA  CALIFORNIA.-Upp«r  California. 
SeeCAMFORitiA:  A.  D.  1543-178^ 

ALTENHEIM.  Battle  of  (A.  D.  1675). 
hee  NBTHaatAKM  (Uollaxd):  A.  D.  1674- 
1078. 

ALTENHOVEM.  Battle  of  (1793).  See 
*^Vf ^^iAlP- iJ?*  <^""''-*«v-April  . 

ALTHING,  The.  bee  Thi.no;  ai.o.  Nor- 
KAKs.-NoBTHinH<:  A.  D,  86O-11.0;  and  Scan. 
°^»^Yg*'' States  (Denmabk-Iceiuxd):  A.  V. 

ALTi^AI^*li■  **£i««cp»«^«„ 

witllM  BBAIfDEHBlTaoi  A  D. 


60 


AMALFL 

ALTONA:  A.  D.  1713.- Burned  by  tha 
Swedes.  See  ScAllDiitAViAM  States  (Swedeh) 
A.  D.  1707-1718. 

A'aT8T*^'°'^*""''<'3aS).  8eelTAi.T 

ALVA  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS.    See 

Mbtherlanbs:  A.  D.  1566-1568  to  1573-1574 

A  JJ^SF,?'^?^."'  ^«**°>  A-  ^  l'*71-187a 
AHAHUACA,  The.    beo  American  Abor- 
lOiNEs:  Ardbsians. 

AMALA80NTHA,  Qnsen  of  the  Ostro- 
goths.   See  Rome:  A.  D.  535-553. 

AMALEKITES,  The.— "The  Amalekites 
were    usual!  v    regarded    as   a   branch   of   tbe 
Edomltes  or  •  Bed-skins'.     Amalelt,  like  Kenaj:, 
tbe  fiither  of  the  Kenlzzltea  or  '  Huntere  '  was 
tiie  grandson  of  Esau  (Oen.  86: 12,  16).    Ho  thvt 
belonged  to  the  group  of  nations,—  F^omitea. 
Ammonites,   and  Moabites,- who   stood    in   a 
relation  of  close  kinship  to  Israel    But  they  had 
precwled  the  Israelites  in  dispossessing  the  older 
Inhabitants  of  the  land,  and  establishing  them- 
selves in  their  place.    The  Edomltes  had  partly 
destroyed,  partly  amalgamated  the  Horites  oY 
Mount  Seir  (Deut  J:  12);  the  Moabltes  had  done 
the  same  to  the  Emlm,  'a  people  great  and  many. 
mdUll  as  the  Anaklm'(beut  2:  10),  while  the 
Ammonites  had  extirpated  and  succeeded  to  the 
Kephaira  or  'Pints,'  who  in  that  oart  of  the 
wuntry  were  teimed  Zamzummim  (Ucut  2-  20- 
Oen.  14:  6).    Edom  however  stood   in  a  closer 
relation  to  Israel  than  iu  two  more  northerly 
neighbours.  .  .  .  Separate  from  the  Edomltes  or 
Amalekites   were   tbe    Kenites    or   wanderinc 
smiths.     They  formed  an  Important  Guild  15 
an  age  when  tbe  art  of  metallurgy  was  confined 
to  a  few.     In  the  Ume  of  Saul  :ve  hear  of  them 
as  camping  among  the  Amalekites  (I.  8am.  IS  •  6 ) 
.  .  .  The  Kenites.  .  .  did  not  constitute  a  race 

n  flf"  Va^I^J^PJ  *^™'  »»  »n°*'-  »  <^^' 
But  they  had  originally  come,  like  the  Israelites 
or  the  Edomltes,  from  those  barren  reirions  of 
Nortiiem  Arabia  which  were  peopled  by  the 
McntI  of  the  Egyptian  inscriplfona.  Racially 
therefore,  we  may  regard  them  aa  allied  to  the 
descenilanU  of  Abraham.  While  tlie  Kenites 
and  Amalekites  were  thus  Semitic  in  their  or' -Hn. 
the   Ilivites  or  'VilUgers'  are  spcciuliy 

Also  in  II.  Ewald,  Ilitt.  of  Imet,  M.  1  met. 
4. — !?ee,  also,  Arabia. 

AMALFI.— "  It  was  the  sInguUr  fate  of  this 
city  to  have  filled  up  the  interval  between  two 
periods  of  civilization,  in  neither  of  which  she 
was  destined  to  be  dUtingulshed.  Scarcely 
known  before  the  end  of  the  sixth  century 
Amalfl  ran  a  brilltant  career,  as  a  free  and  trail- 
ing republic  [see  ItoME:  A.  D.  654  8001,  which 
was  checked  by  the  arms  of  a  conqueror  in  the 
middle  of  the  twelfth.  .  .  .  There  must  be  I 
suspect,  some  exaggeration  about  the  commcree 
aud  opulence  of  Amalfl,  In  the  only  age  when 
she  possessed  any  at  all."_H.  liallum,  Tht 
.Vi,m  Agt$,  eh.  9.  pt.  1,  «,rt  uoto.— "Amalfl 
and  AtranI  lie  close  together  In  two 
ravines,  the  mountains  almost  arehing  over  them 
and  the  sea  washing  their  very  Bouse- walla! 
A  li'  "J"".'  *"7  ^  Imagine  the  time  when 
Amaia  and  Atrenl  were  one  town,  with  docks 
and  aracials  and  harbourage  for  their  asscwlated 
neets,  and  when  these  UtUe  communities  were 
asoood  la  tmportoios   to  no  naval   power  of 


AKALFL 

Chrtottan  Europe    Tlie  Byzantloe  Empire  lort 
Its  hold  on  Italy  during  the  eighth  a;ntury;  and 
after  this  time  the  history  of  Calabria  is  mainlv 
concerned  with   the   republica  of   Naples  and 
Amalfl,  their  conflict  with  the  Lombard  dukes 
of  Benevento,  their  opposition  to  the  Saracens. 
•  .1   their  final  Btibjugation    by    the   Norman 
couquerors  of  Sicily.     Between  Uie  year  830 
.    .    ;  5''*?  ^'°^^^  ^"«''  'tself  from  the  con- 
trol  of  Naples  and  the  yoke  of  Benevento.  and 
the  year  1181,  wh<-n  Roger  of  Huuteville  incor- 
porated the  republic  In  Lis  kingdom  ct  the  Two 
bicilies,  this  city  was  the  foremost  naval  and 
eonimercial  port  of   Italy.     The  burghers  of 
Amalfl  elected  their  own  doge;  founded  the 
Hospital    of    Jerusalem,    whence    sprang   the 
knightly  order  of  8.  John;   gave  their  namo 
to  the  richest  quarter  in  Palermo;  and  owned 
trading  establlshmenU  or  factories  In  all  the  chief 
cities  of  the  Levant      Their  gold  coinage  of 
tan  formed  the  standard  of  currency  before  the 
Florentines  had  »tamp^  the  lily  and  s"  John  upon 
"■*  T."?^  ^°'*°-    Their  shipping  regiiatfona 

Their  scholars.  In  the  darkest  depths  of  the  dark 
ages,  prized  and  conned  •  famous  copy  of  the 
Pandecu  of  Justinian,  and  their  seamen  deserved 
the  fame  of  having  first  used,  if  they  did  not 
actually  invent  thecompasa  .  .  .  The  republic 
had  pwn  and  flourished  on  the  decay  of  the 
ureel  Empire.  When  the  hard-handed  race  of 
Hauteville  absorbed  the  heritage  of  Greeks  and 
Lombards  and  Saracens  in  8outh"rn  Italy  fsee 
Italy  (Southern):  A.  D.  10001090]  these 
adventurers  succeeded  in  annexing  Amalfl  But 
It  was  not  their  Interest  to  extinguish  the  state. 
rh.Jlir'"™7:K*'''y  '?"«J  f«"-'«sist«nceupon 
i?„„f.K  ''V°''  'he  armies  of  the  little  commra- 
ttp  l^Ui  „»''i,^''*1  *^  meanwhile  arisen  in 
the  iNorth  of  Italy,  who  were  jealous  of  rivrlrr 

SJ^y!'^°n°*"'  ?"•'  '■'»•'''  ««=  Neapolitaii 
res^ted  King  Roger  In  1135.  they  called^lsato 
their  aid.  anS  sent  her  fleet  to  aestroy  Amall 
The  ships  of  Amalfl  were  on  guard  with  Romr"; 
Tr^  'uX^  of  Naples.  \be  armed  d^lfen! 
w  hile  the  home  of  the  republic  lay  defcnccleMon 

nto  the  harbour  sacked  the  city  and  carri^S 
the  famous  Pandecu  of  Justing  as  .^h^ 
Two  years  later  they  returned,  to  complete  the 
frl,i°'.'^r':L"""'<"i  Amalfl  never  r^coverel 
I^r  "il'-J?!".'..""^  'he  humiliation."- J.  T 


AMAZONS  RIVFR. 


,  --<-■•"  """  t"^  uiiiuuiaiion,    -mJ    a. 

AMALINGS,  OR  AMALS.-fhe  rovi 
race  of  the  ancient  Ostrogoths,  as  the  Balttf  ot 
.Kttrro:.The°'gX'"^«'*'^  hothcUimln'g'i: 

A1«AT0NGALAND,  or  Ton»»l»nd.-On 

unu'^nH';?'?'  "'  ^-  *''•'*•  north  ?fZulilan^ 
iM?'i'ij?.P™'«="o°  •'nee  1888.  ^ 

AMA  InS/i  ^^r^*?  '^™»*"» 
A  ^  J  .V***-"  The  Amazons,  daugbten  of 
Ari-s  and  Harmonia,  are  both  earlPcreXi^ 
aT,?°'  "/"^""lon".  of  the  anSen™  pr*. 
women "SCS?"*"""-  ''"dy  "«  Wc?atigable 
Tn^^!  'k**'*'""*  »P"*  ''o™  men.  permftting 
Tl  nfl""  temporary  intercourse  foVthe  Z! 
P^,°' renovating  their  numbers,  and  burilnj 
out  their  right  brrsrt  with  a  view  of  enaUuf 

the  poet, 


» general  tyoe  stimuUUng  ti'the  fanc7  of 
wt,  ud  •  UMme  emiaeotly  popular  with 


61 


f 'f.?*?^-  y^'"  ""» •'  "'  »"  repugnant  to  the 

Wlitvl  fi  .K™'  """!  ""  °^"  standard  of  credl- 
fi;5.1?'°'^  P««»"cept  such  poetical  narra- 
A^,^^'^^^^^-^  """*'"«  communities  of 
Amaions  as  hav  ng  actually  existed  in  anterior 
timt  Accordingly  we  find  these  warlike  fenalM 
constantly  reappearing  in  the  ancient  polms^lnd 
universally  accepted  as  past  realltiS^  In  X 

^W-thJr  f"""  "■'^'=V"  illustrate  emphato 
ally  the  most  numerous  host  In  which  he  era 
found  himself  included,  he  tells  us  -Lt  It  »« 
a«embledin  Phrygia,!  VebLk!ou\l'S^ 
garius,  for  the  purpose  of  insisting  the  f^^ 
be  Amazon^  When  Bellerophon  U  to  l»^. 
ployed  on  a  deadly  and  peril-  -s  undert^gT; 
h»T7''°  "^"r^iy  «''"'  to  procure  htac^S 
he  is  despatched  against  the  Amazons.  T      The 

Thf^'"'  ^"T-  "•"*  "•*  Amazons  on  the  rive? 
Thermddon  in  their  expedition  along  the  somh- 
m~iT'  "'  ""^  ^""'"e-  To  thi  same  snot 
Herakles  po<^  to  attack  them,  in  the  pcrformSra 

theus,  lor  the  purpose  of  procWing  the  xM^ot 
toat  thLv r'n"  ""''-'  HIPPolyte;  £id  we*^  toUl 
i!^!,  V^!5  1"'*.°'"  >"■'  «<»vered  from  thelosscs 
sustained  in  Uiis  severe  aggression  whenThSiS 
also  assaulted  a^d  defeated  them,  aurrin^off 
«ielr  queen  AnUopfl.  This  injury  t^ri^eni^ 
by  invading  Attica  ...  and  ^netrate^  ef!n 
Into  Athens  itself:  where  the  final  bauL-  W° 
fought  and  at  one  time  doubtful,  by  which^ 
•eus  crushed  them,  was  fought-ln  the  veir 
n^f^i/  ""^  ^I'y-  Attic  antiquaries  confldeluT 
pointed  out  the  exact  nosition  of  the  two  con^ 
S*.^'*'-  •  •  •  -"^.Potionof  theante-C 
I^  ?L*P''^  appeare  to  have  been  more  deenh? 
worked  into  the  mitional  mind  of  GreecolhaJ 
this  invasion  and  defeat  of  the  Amaz^  . 
™r  proper  territory  was  asserted  to  be  the  toW^ 
and  plain  of  Themlskyra,  near  the  Grecian  cololj- 
A..rS^"*S°°  *K  "^"  ThermOdon  [nmhem^ 
R^.^W'.?  '*«'°".  «»"^  «*ter  their^name  by 
Boman  historians  and  geograDhera.  liS.™^ 

•utho,,  placed  them  ifLfTyf or-EUiiopiS??! 
G.  Orote.  mn.  of  Gnece.pt.  i.  <*  n  """P*  — 

£*.?  .*"*-:rT''e  mouth  of  the  great  riverS 
South  America  was  discovered  in  IsSo  by  PiS* 
ion.  or  Pin9on  (see  Ajuhica:  A.  D.  UW^ism 
Tft?.,""^^  it  -Santa  Maria  de  to  mSduiS^' 
(Satat  Mary  of  the  Fresh-Water  Sea).  "This 
was  the  firet  name  given  to  the  river,  except  that 
older  and  better  one  of  the  India^  •  iSrani?' 
Uie  Sea;  afterwaMs  It  was  Marafiona^dSts 
t'^i^^'  ',?■"  *''*  '«■"«'<•  "arriora  ttat  were 
supposed  to  live  near  Its  banks.  .  .  .  After  Pin! 
9on'.  time,  there  were  othera  who  saw  the  fi«h 
water  sea.  but  no  one  wu  hardy  enotS^ 
venture  into  it.  The  honor  of  iwikl  dSlve^ 
was  reserved  for  Francisco  de  OwltonTSd  2 
explored  it,  not  from  the  east.  bTftom  tS 
west,  in  one  of  the  most  daring  voyage.^  ™ 

dedgn  that  led  him  to  it    After  .  .      Piurra 
had  conquered  Peru,  he  sent  bis  brother  Goi 

f  whJ^'.il'  "P'"**  "I"  «"•'  '"rest  east  of  Qu^ 

where  there  were  cinnamon  tiw*-    Thelsw- 

Jition  started  tote  in  1588.  and  It  was  two  vi^ 

to  uulto.    In  the  coune  <9  the>  waoderinn  f  hw 
had  .truck  the  river  Coco;  b.iwiKS?w/ 


li 


i  i 


AXAZOVSRIVKR 

h  tber  foOowvd  down  the  eun«nt,  •  part  of 
them  in  tne  twmI,  •  pan  on  thore.    After  a 
iriiUa  they  met  lome  Indiana,  who  toM  them  of 
a  rfcdi  ooontrr  t«n  dan'  Joomej  berond— a 
oouBtTT  of  gold,  and  with  plenty  of  prorlaiooi. 
Gouaio  plaoediOieUana  in  command  of  the  brig- 
antlne,  and  oraeied  him,  with  SO  loldlen,  to  go 
on  to  thia  gold-land,  and  letum  with  a  load  of 
proTlitona.    OieUana  arrived  at  the  month  of 
the  Coco  in  three  daya,  but  found  no  provlilons; 
'and  he  considered  that  if  he  should  return  with 
this  news  to  Pixano,  he  would  not  reach  him  In 
•  year,  on  account  of  the  strong  current,  and 
that  if  he  remained  where  he  was,  he  wovjd  be 
of  no  use  to  the  on^  or  to  the  other.    Not  know- 
ing how  long  Ooazalo  Plzarro  would  take  to 
reach  the  place,  without  consulting  any  one  be 
set  sail  and   prosecuted  his  Toyage  onward, 
intending  to  ignore  Gonzalo,  to  reach  Spain,  and 
obtain  that  government  for  himselt'    Down  the 
Napo  and  the  Amazons,  for  seven  months,  these 
Spaniards  floated  to  the  Atlantic.    Atuinesthey 
suffered   terribly  from  hunger:    "There    was 
nothing  to  est  but  the  sUns  which  formed  their 
girdles,  and  the  leather  of  their  shoes,  boiled 
with  a  few  herbs.'    When  they  did  get  food 
they  were  often  obliged  to  flgbt  hard  for  It;  and 
agdn  they  were  attacked  by  thousands  of  naked 
Indians,  who  came  in  canoes  against  the  Spanish 
▼easeL     At  some  Indian  villages,  however,  they 
were  kindly  received  and  well  fed,  so  they  could 
rest  while  building  a  new  and  stronger  vessel. 
.  .  .  OntbeZetbof  August,  1541, Orellanaandhls 
men  sailed  out  to  the  blue  water  '  without  either 
pilot,  compass,  or  anything  useful  for  naviga- 
tion; nor  did  thev  know  what  direction  they 
should  take.'    Following  the  coast,  they  passed 
inside  of  the  island  of  Trinidad,  and  so  at  length 
reached  Cubasua  in  September.    From  the  k&g 
of  Spain  Orellana  received  a  grant  of  the  land 
he  had  discovered;  but  he  diea  while  returning 
to  it,  and  his  company  was  dispersed.    It  was 
not  a  very  reliable  account  of  the  river  that  was 
given  by  Orellana  and  his  chronicler,  Padre  Car- 
bajal.    80  Herrera  tells  their  story  of  the  warrior 
females,  and  very  properly  adds:  'Every  reader 
may  believe  as  much  as  he  likes.'"— H.    H. 
Smith,  BnuU,  the  AmaioTU,  and  the  Coatt,  ck.  1. 
—In  ch.   18  of  this  same  work  "The  Amazon 
Myth  "  is  discussed  at  length,  with  the  reports 
and  opinions  of  numerous  trarellers,  both  early 
and  recent,  concerning  it — Mr.  Soutbey  had  so 
much  respect  for  the  memory  of  Orellana  that 
he  made  an  effort  to  restore  that  bold  but  unprin- 
cipled discoverer's  name  to  the  great  river.     "  He 
discarded  Moranon,  as  having  too  much  resem- 
blance to   Maranbam,   and  Amazon,  as  being 
founded  upon  Action  and  at  the  same  time  incon- 
venient.   Accordingly,  in  his  map,  and  in  all  his 
references  to  the  great  river  he  denominates  it 
Orellana.    Thia  decision  of  the  poet-laureate  of 
Great  Britain  lias  not  proved  authoritative  in 
Brazil.    O  Amazonaa  is  the  uni  versal  appellation 
of  the  great  river  among  those  who  float  upon  its 
waters  ami  who  live  upon  Its  banks.  .  .  .  Pari, 
the  ahoriKin.il  name  of  this  river,   was   more 
appropriate  th.an  any  other.    It  signifies  'the 
father  of  waters."  .  .  .  The  ori«hi  of  the  name 
and  mystery  concerning  the  female  warriors,  I 
think,  has  been  solved  within  the  last  few  years 
hy  tlifi  intrepid  Mr.  Wallsro,  .  .  .  Mr.  W  Jlao;,    ■ 
I  think,  shows  conclusively  that  Friar  Oaspar  I 
[CarlMkJal]  and  his  companions  saw  Indian  male 


AUCNDXEin'S. 

warriors  who  were  attired  in  habUimenti  mdi  m 
Kuropeans  would  attribnte  to  women.  ...  I 
am  stnmgly  of  the  opinion  that  the  stoiy  of  the 
Amazons  hsa  arisen  from  these  feminbie-looking 
warriors  encountered  by  the  early  voyagers.  "— 
3.  C.  Fletcher  and  D.  P.  Kidder,  Bnma  md  M« 
Bnmliani,  eh.  37. 

Also  ik  A.  R  Wsllaoe^  Thmb  m  M«  Ama- 
KnandBie  Ntgn,  <h.  17.— R  Soathey,  BUt.  qt 

AMAZULUS.  OR   ZULUS.— Tha   Znla 
War.    See  Soqth  Avaica:  Thb  >-  OBiontai. 
InBABrrARTs;  and  the  same:   A.  D.  ttf77-1879. 
AMBACTI.— "The   Celtlo  aristocracy  [of 
Oaul]  .  .  .  developed  the  system  of  retdners, 
that  18,  the  privilege  of  the  nobility  to  surround 
themselves  with  a  number  of  hired  mounted  ser- 
vantt— the  ambacti  aathey  were  called— and 
thereby  to  form  a  state  within  ft  state;   and, 
resting  on  the  support  of  these  troops  of  their 
own,  thev  defied  the  legal  antboritiea  and  the 
common  levy  and  practically  broke  up  the  com- 
monwealth. .  .  .  "rhis  remarkable  word  [am- 
bacti] must  have  been  In  use  as  early  aa  the 
sixth  century  of  Bome  among  the  Ctilte  in  the 
valley  of  the  Po.  ...  It  is  not  merely  Celtic, 
however,  but  abo  Oerman,    the  root  of  our 
'Amt,'  aa  indeed  the  retainer-system  itself  is 
common  to  the  Celts  and  the  Germans.  It  would 
be  of  great  historical  importance  to  ascertain 
whether  the  word — and  therefore  the  thing — 
came  to  the  Celta  from  the  Germans  or  to  the 
Germans  from  the  Celts.    If,  aa  is  usually  sup- 
posed, the  ward  Is  originally  German  and  pri- 
marily signified  the  servant  standbg  in  battle 
'against  the  back'   ('and'— agahist,   <bak'— 
back)  of  his  master,  this  is  not  wholly  irrecon- 
cilable with  the  slngukrly  early  occurrence  of 
the  word  among  the  Celta.  .  .  .  Itis .  .  .  prob- 
able that  the  Celts,  In  Italy  aa  fai  Gaul,  em- 
ployed Germana  chiefly  aa  those  hired  servanta- 
at-arma.    The  '  Swiss  guard '  would  therefore  in 
tlut  case  be  some  thousands  of  years  older  than 
people  suppose."— T.  Mommsen.  .fiM.  tf  Borne, 
Ut.  6,  eh.  7,  and  foot-note. 

AMBARRI,  The.— A  smaU  Mbe  in  Gaul 
which  occupied  anciently  a  district  between  the 
Saone,  the  Rhone  and  the  Ain. — Napoleon  III., 
Hitt.  of  Caear,  bk.  8,  eh.  i,  noU. 
ANfBIANI.  The.  See  Bkuul 
AMBITUS.— Bribery  at  elections  was  termed 
ambitus  among  the  Romans,  snd  many  unavail- 
ing laws  were  enacted  to  check  it— W.  Ramsay, 
Manual  of  Soman  Antiq.,  eh.  9. 

AMBIVARETI,  The.— A  tribe  in  ancient 
Gaul  which  occupied  the  left  bank  of  the  Meuse. 
to  the  south  of  the  marsh  of  PeeL— Napolecn 
III.,  BiM.  of  C<nnr,  bk.  8.  eh.  3,  noU. 

AMBOISE,  Conspiracy  or  Tnmnlt  oL  Bee 
Fkancr:  A.  D.  1559-l.Ml. 

AMBOISE,  Edict  oL    SeeFitaiioa:  A.  D. 
1560-1568. 
AMBO  /NA.     See  Molcccas,  and  Malay 

ARCniPELAOO. 

AMBOYNA,  Massacre  oC    8eeI»DiA:A 

D.   1600-1703. 

AMBRACIA  (Ambrakia).    SeeKoRKiRA. 

AMBRONES,  The.    See  Cimbri 
.AMBROSIAN    CHURCH.-AMBRO- 
SIAN  '•HANT.    See  Mii.ak:  A.  D.  874-«97. 
and  M        ,  EAhr.Y  Cuuihtian. 

AMt..KAL,  OR  ESTREMOS,  Battle  of 
(>o63).    tk'c  PouTuaAl. :  A.  D.  1687-1868. 


62 


.  .  I 

f  the 
Mag 

Ama- 
M.<tf 

Znla 

WAI, 

1870. 

[of 

Den, 

rand 

tier- 
-and 
•nd, 
their 
I  the 
com- 
[am- 
I  the 
1  the 
iltic, 
our 
If  it 
ould 
rtaln 

«r 

the 
■up- 
pri- 
ittle 
S'— 

BOD- 

e  of 
rob- 
em- 
nta- 
via 
iiaa 
tme, 

kul 
the 


ned 
'aU- 
»7. 

lent 
ise. 
ecn 

8e« 

O. 

LAY 

A. 


to- 

87. 
I  of 


il 


AMERICA. 


fnkmuf. 


AMERICA. 


IHi"""*-    Soc  below:A.  D.  1S00-15U 
...     IT  .    S"S —  "  ^'<'«'y  "CiXtered  throughout 
the  United  Statcn,    from  oca   to  sea,    artiflciaj 
moumi*  an  diacovtred,  which  may  be  enumer- 
ated by  the  thouunds  or  hundred*  of  thousands. 
"if',75''y  ^""y  '"  «'" :  "ome  are  so  small  that 
a  half-dozen  laborers  with  shovels  mieht  con- 
struct one  of  them  in  a  day,  while  others  cover 
acres  and  are  scores  of   feet  in  height       These 
mounds  were  observed  by  the  earliest  explorers 
and   pioneers  of  tlie   country.    They    lid  not 
attract    amt    attention,     however,    imiil    the 
science  of  arriwology  demanded  their  inveatiira. 
tion.     Then  they  were  assumed  to  furnish  evi- 
dence of  a  race  of  people  older  than  the  Indian 
Wbes      Pseud-archffiologisu  descanted  on   the 
Mound-builders   tliat  once   inhabited  the  land 
and  they  told  of  swarming  populations  who  had 
n-achi-d  a  high  condition  of  culture   erecting 
templiB,  practicing  arts  in  the  metals,  and  using 
hieroglyphs.    So  the  Mound-builders  formed  the 
theme  of  tswy  an   essay  on   the   wonders  of 
ancient  civuization.     The  research  of  the  i.iuit 
ten  or  fifteen  years  has   put  this  subject  in  a 
proper  light.     First,  the  annals  of   the  Coliiii.- 
bi&n  epoch  have  been  carefully  studied,  and  it 
U  ,ound  that  some  of  the  mounds  have  been  con- 
strricted  in  historical  time,  while  early  explorers 
and   settlers   found    many   actually    used    bv 
tribes  of  North  American  Indiana;  so  wc  know 
that  many  of  them  were  builders  of  mounds 
Again,  hundreds  and  thousauds  of  these  mounds 
have  bi-en  carefully  examined,  and  the  works  of 
art  found  thercm  have  been  collected  aiid  assem- 
bled In  museums.    At  the  same  time,  the  works 
Of  art  of  the  Indian  tribes,  as  thcv  were  pro- 
duced before  modification  byEuminan  culture 
have  been  assembled  in  the  same  -..usuems,  and  ■ 
the  two  classes  of  coUections  have  been  carefully 
compared.    All  this  has  been  d  me  with   the 
greatest  painstaking,  and  the   Muundbuilder's 
SJtii  and  the  Indians  arU  are  found  to  be  sub- 
stunt  ally  identical.     No  fragment  of  evidence 
remilEs  to  support  the  figment  of  theorv  that 
there  was  an  ancient  race  of    Mound-buildetB 
superior   In   culture   to   the    North    American 

i.^^-  i  ■  •  J*^  *""«  °f  "•«■«  '""""■'■'  were 
Dullt  and  used  m  modern  times  is  i,  v.-d  in 
anoherway  They  often  coutain  artici,  ,  ,„.-ini. 
fcslly  made  by  white  men,  such  »s  glass  l«-,-ids 
and  copper  ornaments.  ...  So  it  chances  that 
tu  day  unskilled  archsEologisU  are  collecting 
luiny  beautiful  tl.ings  in  copper,  stone,  anS 
shell  w  nch  were  ..de  by  whit^  men  and  traded 
to  the  Indians.  ow,  some  .  .f  these  things  are 
n.und    n  the  m<,  ...,l»;  and  bird  pip.-,,  el.^t 

Kunes,  iud  machine-made  wampum  are  col- 
lecte<l  m  quantUK's  and  sold  at  high  prices  to 
wealthy  amateurs  ,  .  The  study  of  these 
mounds  historically  and  arehajologically.  proves 
that  ti„  V  w,.re  usid  for  a  variety  of  punmses 
Some  w,  re  for  sepulture,  and  suih  ..re  the  .nosi 
commo,,  and  widely  scattered.  Others  were 
u«-  .^ts  ;minoial  hUls  on  which  to  build  eom- 
nmnal  l.ous.-s  .  .  .  «ome  of  the  very  larce 
mounds  «;ere  sites  „i  ge  communal  hous.-,  in 
rl^i  retire  tnbes  .i  „ ,  I.  There  U  still  a  third 
Class         .  constnieud    as    pla<'e8    for    nublir 

thZ^'  ■  M^"'  '"."P'"'"  "'«  niound'  and 
their  xm.  would  cip«,d  ttis  article  into  a  book. 


AMERICA. 


It  to  enough  to  i«y  that  the  Mound -builders  wer« 
the  Indian  tribes  iiscovered  by  white  men  It 
may  well  be  that  some  of  the  mound*  were 
erected  by  tribes  extinct  when  Columbus  first 
saw  these  shores,  but  they  were  kindred  in  cul- 
ture to  the  peoples  that  still  exUted.  In  the 
southwestern  portion  of  the  United  States,  con- 
ditions of  aridity  prevail.     Forests  are  few  and 

fivi"."°!l°'''f?'8reat  heights The  tribes 

lived  in  the  plains  and  valleys  below,  while  the 
high  ands  were   their   hunting  grounds.     The 
and  lands  below  were  often  nakedof  vegetation  • 
and  the  ledgra  and  cliffs  that  stand  athwart  the 
lands,  and   the  canyon  waUs  that  inclose    --e 
streams,  were  every  where  quarries  of  loose  roclt. 
lying  In  blocks  ready  to  the   builder's   hand 
Hence    these    people    learned    to    build  their 
dwellings  of  Stone;  and   they  had  large  com- 
munal houses,  even  larger  than  the  structures  of 
wood  made  by  the  tribes  of  the  east  and  north. 
jWany  of  these  stone  pueblos  are  still  occupied 
but  the  ruins  are  scattered  wide  over  a  region  of 
ajuntry  embracing  a    little  of  Californ&   and 
^"fi"'   ""ch  of  Utah,  most  of  Colorado,  the 
whole   of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  and  far 
southward   toward  the   Isthmus.  ...  No  ruin 
has  been  discovered  where  e  idcnccs  of  a  hicher 
culture  are  found  than  exists  in  modem  timra  at 
^ufii,  Oraibi,  or  Laguna.    Tte  earliest  may  have 
been  built  thousands  of  years  a-o,  but  they  were 
built   by  the  ancestors   of  cxisiuig   tribes  au.l 
heir  congeners     A  ( ;,  nful  stu.  ■■     .f  these  ruins, 
made  during  the  last  twenty  m  ;  s,  abundar 


53 


lemonstrates  that  the  pueblo  culture  begun  »    \ 
rude  structures  of  stone  and  brush,  and  grad 
aiy  developed,  until  at  tlie  time  of  the  explors 
'i^  .  i^.A*^"."".'^  ^y  "'*'  Spaniards,  beginning 
y^^T,}^-  "J***!  ^"^'"^  "«  highest   phase 
/uM  [in  New  Mexico]  has  been  built  since,  and 
13  among  the  largest  and  best  villages  ever 
i_MabIished  within   the  territory  of  the  United 
htates  without   the  aid  of   ideas  derived  from 
civilized  men."     With  regard  to  the  ruins  of 
d  wellings  found  sheltered  in  the  craters  of  extinct 
volcanoes,  or  on  the  shelves  of  cliffs,  or  other- 
wise inntrived,  the  conclusion  to  which  all  recent 
areha.ilogical  study  tends  is  the  same.      "All 
tJje  stone  pueblo  ruUis,  all  the  clay  ruins,  all  th 
cliff  dwellings,  all  the  crater  villages,  all  tL 
cavate  chambers,  and  all  t!  ■   tufa-block  houses 
are  fully  accounted  for  without  resort  to  hypothet- 
ual  peoples  inhabiting  the  country  anterior  to 
the   Indian  tribes.  .  .  .  Pre-Columbian  culture 
was  indigenous;  it  began  at  the  lowest  sta-e  of 
savagery  and  developed  to  the  :   nhest,  and  was 
in  niany  places  p,i     ng  into  harh.irism  when  the 
good   qu^n   sol.i     ,ir  jew-       -Major  J.  W. 
IJiwell,  PrehuConr  Man  :.,  .imeriea;  in      The 
For-um,"  January,  iSW.—  "The  writer  bii..  ves 
•  .  .  that  the  majority  of    American  anha'ol  - 
gists  now  sees  no  suttlcient  reason  for  «upp<«iii» 
that  any  mysterious  superior  race  has  ever  iivc<' 
m  any  portion  of  our  continent.    Th.  v  Bud  t- 
aroli.iological  evid, ace  provn.,;  that  a:  the  Un 
of  II..  discov  ry   .,ny  tribe  hud  rearheti  a  stat 
of  culture  ttat  can  properly  be  called  ■     illjT 
Uon.     Even  if  wos.-.^r.t  tbrtr.\aggtr:-       --v. 
meninof  the  Spanish  ionquerors,  the  ■  cUI 

pent  ^d  advanced  people*,  fouml  ,en  we?- 
only  « im-bariiiirians.  in  the  stage  o:  trsifa  ti-^,- 
from  the  stone  lo  the  bronze  age,  po^   -sstii*  no 


||. 


AMERICA. 

written   Unciis^,  or  what  caa 


JhrmPimntrt. 


AMERICA 


•tyled   sn  nTphabct,  and  not  vet  hav^  even 


be 


mmed  the  use  of  beiuts  of  ^irien'"— H  W 
Haynca,  PrtJiitoric  Airhavlngy^  y.  Am.  (v.  1. 
«».  6.  of  yarratia  and  Cnlical  mtt.  of  Am  ") 
—  ••  It  may  be  premlaed  ...  that  the  Spanish 
adTenturera  who  thronged  to  the  New  World 
after  Ito  dlacover?  found  the  aame  raoe  of  Red 
Indiana  In  the  vfat  India  Islaada,  in  CentS 
and  South  Amcricn.  In  Ploridaand  In  Mexico. 
In  tlHir  mode  of  life  and  meana  of  aubaiateoce 
in  their  weiijwns,  arU.  uiaxea  and  customa,  In 
their  instltutiom,  ami  in  their  mental  and  phyai. 
cal  chiiracteristics,  they  were  the  aame  oeopto  In 
different  atapes  of  advancement  .  .  .  "nierewaa 
neither  a  political  a.H.iely.  nor  a  aUtc.  nor  any 
dvlliiation  In  America  wlien  it  waa  diacoTcred- 
and  cxcliidinR  the  Eskimoa,  but  one  nee  of 
Indiana,  tlie  Itei  Kace."— L  H.  Morgan,  UoutM 
tnd  Ilmuelife  „f  the  Ameriean  Aboriginu :  (Con- 
tniutvinttuj,.  A  BXhnologf,  ».  8.),  M.  10.— "We 
lia»e  In  tlii«  country  the  conclusive  evidence  of 
the  existence  of  man  before  the  time  of  the 
jt^aclira,  and  from  the  primiUve  condiUona  of 
that  time,  lie  bus  lived  here  and  developed 
through  singes  which  correspond  In  many  par- 
Ucuiara  to  the  Muim-rlc  age  of  Greece."— PW 
I^itnam,  Bept.  I'MlxKlf  Jtumum  of  Arehaoiom', 

I  BOO. 

ALao  IK  L.  Carr.  Tht  MoumU  tf  Iht  Mi-imppi 
r«««.— C.  Thomas,  Burial  JfountU  of  iL 
Ai>rM«r»  8«ti„m„f  tht  U.  8.:  Annual  B$pt.  of 

vi^n'*"'rir,*^^ ""''»*•  J883-«4.-MarquU  de 

Madaiilac,   Prtlnttoric  Amtriea J.  FIslie    Th* 

Dueorerji  of  Anitrin,,  th.  l— Hee,  also.  MKTiro; 
«B(':  and  Aukhiiam  Ab»iiiui.<<es:  Ai.lbuhv.vs 
Chkiuikkki,  iin'l  MwAa  ' 

I  *'*■'  '"t  Centuriea.- Suppoaed  DiacoTar- 
l«a  by  the  Northmen.— Tlio  fad  Unit  the  Nnrth- 
men  Icm-iv  of  the  existence  of  the  Wesu-ru  Coii- 
tineiit  prior  to  tlie  iigc  of  Cohinibun.  waa  promi- 
nently brought  lieforo  tlie  people  of  IhU  countrv 
in  llie  year  I*)7,  when  the  Uov,il  S«;i,.tv  of 
Korthem  Anilouurles  at  ropenliii>n  pul.llihcl 
their  worli  on  the  Antl.iultlea  of  Noil),  America 
under  tlie  c<llU)rittl  suiwrvlslon  of  the  great  Ice- 
Undic  scholar.  l>r)feMor  Hufa.  But  we  are  not 
to  suppose  that  the  llrat  general  account  of  these 
voyages  was  then  ({Iven.  for  it  has  alwiiys  Uen 
known  i  i„t  tlie  hUuiry  of  ccrtNlii  early  voyages 
to  America  l.y  ili,.  Noril,„ien  were  preaervwi  In  i 
the  llhmries  of  IVnniarIc  and  Ireland  Vh 

owing  to  the  f«t  that  the  Iirliitnlic  language] 
though  simple  In  eonsiru.tion  nn<l  easy  of  «e.|Vi|. 
aitlon,  KH1  n  longn,.  i„,t  umlentool  liy  wholir* 
the  »iiblwt  lias  uulil  OTint  veiirs  In-en  suffer.^  tii 
ne  lu  the  limkgriiuiKl,  and  p.-rmllle.|.  thnmifli 
•  want  of  interest.  Ui  share  In  a  nieasim.  the 
tmument  meted  out  to  vague  awl  uiUTrtain  tv- 
P^>n»  ...  I  now  nmalns  to  give  the  r<-a<ler 
•oine  geneml  aee.,uijt  of  tlie  oontents  o»  the  niir- 
f»IJve«  n  hic'h  r.  lute  n.orc  or  less  to  Uie  discovery 
oftliewe»iern.-o,iihient  .  .  .  Tlic  first  rxlmeU 
f^ven  «r,.  very  brief  They  are  ukrn  fmin  the 
LaniLjimnw  U<«.k  •  ami  rel«i«  to  tlw  reiiort  in 
piieml  elr<ul,iit„n.  whUi  lii.lleate<l  one  Ounni- 
Uirn  ,1,  ,|,r  ,ll.«„verer  of  Orttnlaml.  an  event 
Wlilrh  ha4  iK-eii  |tii„|  »t  the  year  N7n  The 

Jw.  .""'T"'''''.  "•'••«•«  t"  "■•  r«lis.>oVen  of 
OrrenlaiKl  l.y  the  outlaw,  Eric  the  lied  In  (Hit 
Who  Km  re  |humhI  tlin..  years  In  exiki  a'lKl  »f.e'' 
tJ»l.'''  L'." '":' ''' '•^'•"•'  Abcmt  tlie  year  iw*, 
ti  brought  out  to  Oreenlanil ,  ooo,id«,4  floiun> 

64 


of  settlers,  who  fixed  their  abode  at  Btsttahlid 
In    Ericsflord.    Then   follow   two   Teniona   of 
the  voyage  of  Blame  Heriulfaon,  who.  In  th* 
same  year,  KM,  when  sailing  for  Greenland,  waa 
driven  away  during  a  storm,  and   saw  a  new 
tand  at  the  southward,  which  he  did  not  visit 
J«ext  Is  given  tliree  accounts  of  the  voyage  of 
Le  f,  son  of  Eric  the  Red,  who  in  the  year  lOOO 
ttlled  from  Brattahlid  to  find  the  Und  which 
Blame  saw.    Two  of  these  sccounU  _re  hardly 
more  than  notices  of  the  voyage,  but  the  thiid  b 
of  considerable  length,  and  deUila  the  aucceMM 
of  Lei  f,  who  found  and  explored  this  new  land 
where  he  spent  the  winter,  returning  to  Oreen^ 
land  the  following  spring  [having  named  differ- 
ent  regions  which  he  visited  HelluUnd,  Marit- 
laud  and  \  Inland,  th«  latter  name  IndlcaUve  of 
the  finding  of  grapeal     After  this  follows  the 
voyage  of  Thorvald  Ericson,  brother  of  Leif 
who  sailed  to  Vinland  from  GreenUnd,  which 
waa  the  point  of  departure  In  all  theae  voyagei. 
This  expedition  waa  begun  in  1008,  and  It  cost 
li  in  bU  life,  as  an  arrow  from  one  of  the  natlvea 
piermi  hU  side,  causing  death.    Thorstein,  hU 
brotlier   went  to  seek  Vinland,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  bringing  home  his  bodv,  but  failed  In  the 
attempt.    The  moat  distinguished  explorer  waa 
T liortinn  Karlsefne,  the  Hopeful,  an  IceUnder 
wh(«e  geiicalogv  runa  back  In  the  old  Northern 
annals,    thmugh    Danish,    Swcdtah,    and   even 
8i-otoh  and  Irish  ancestors,  some  of  whom  wen 
of  royul  blexxl.     In  the  year  1008  be  went  to 
On-enliind,   where  be   met  Oudricl.   widow  of 
I  liorstein,  whom  he  married.     Accompanied  by 

M^"5'  ?; '".  "■■?"'  •"'•"  *»  "«>  undertaking,  he 
sailed  to  \  Inland  in  Uie  spring  of  1007  with 
throe  vessels  and  160  men,  where  he  remained 
three  years.  Here  his  son  Snorre  waa  bora.  Be 
nfterw  mis  became  the  founder  of  a  great  famllr 
In  Ireh.iid,  which  gave  the  island  s«verBl  of  lU 
first  hiMhops.  Tliorflnn  finally  loft  Vinland  be- 
cause he  found  It  difflcult  to  auaUin  himaelf 
against  the  attacka  of  the  natlvea.  The  next  to 
uiMleruike  a  voyage  was  a  wicked  woman  named 

J  inland  in  101 1,  where  she  lived  for  •  time  with 

I  her  two  ships.  In  the  same  placea  wcupled  by 

I  I-elf  and  Tliorilnn.      Bifore  ahe  n-tunicd,  aiie 

!  rau«e.l  the  crew  of  one  ship  to  be  cruelly  mur- 

I  denni.   ai.Hl«ilng  In  the  butchery  with  her  own 

;  hunds.     After  lliia  we  have  what  are  called  the 

I   Minor  NarrHtlves,  whl(  hare  not  essential.  "—B 

I  t.  !)<•<. «la,  I'irCulvmbanltun-tieryifAm,  Qtit. 

[  tml  li,li-il—\\y  those  who  aerept   fully   the 

cluiins  made  for  the  Northmen,  as  .llwoveivre  of 

III"  Am.  ri.aii  rontlnent  lu  the  voyages  Ixlleved 

to  w  a.ilh.ntl<>»lly  narrat^il  In  tli. w  sagas,  the 

ll.lluhui.l  of   lx.|f  Is  OHiiinonlv  hlentillVHl  with 

>ewf.,iiii,|li,i„|.  Markland  with  \ova  Hi-otia  and 

Vlnhind  whh  various  parts  of   X,w   England 

M.'hT       t-I"  ""V  •■•r"' •'■"•■  •>>•■«»•"•  kel  Inland; 

..."  "  J '"••)'»!:''■    »"'«»"l'«  «»y.    .Narmgan- 

*'    '!:'*•  *'^1""'  ""f*  "•■».  l-'ng  M«n.l  Mound, 

an.l    .>ew    lork   ftiy   are  among  the   l<M-alltiaB 

Biip|i.>.u'd  to  h..  rtM-ogntcKl  In  the  N»r».  nam- 

,*Tx-  '",.',''"''"■•'  ''y  •"""'  '""■'•«  "f  the  presence 
of  the  \  Iklug  eiplurera.  IV.f  GuhUv  Miorm. 
the  III.WI  rf.-.nt  of  Uie  Scandinavian  InveMlga! 
tor.  of  this  s.ll.l.H-t,  fliuls  the  ||..|lul«li,|  of  S, 
pMig«s_  In  Ul.rn.lor  or  Northern  N.wfoui..|land 

Nova  M...lia  and  Cajie  Breton  lsl,n.l  -G.  Hi<wm. 
«i«/i«./l*«  Vintland  fsr^ss -"Theonl/dS 


AHERIOA. 


CWwuMmi 


wrfit  which  hM  been  thrown  upon  the  ttory  of  the 
VlnlMd  voyage,  iu  the  eye.  either  of  icholar.  or 
of  Uie  gener.!  public  huorlKD  from  theeagercre- 
dulity  with  which  tngenioiu  antiquarianTh^e 
BOW  and  then  tried  to  prove  more  than  faeU  will 
warrant .  .  .  Arehsloglcal  remain,  of  the  North- 
men  abound  in  Greenland,  aU  the  vay  from  Im- 
S^lnek  to  "^  Cape  Farewell;  the  eiUtenoi 
erf  one  .uch  relic  on  the  North  American  con- 
Onent  ha.  never  yet  been  proved.  Not  a  ainirle 
ve.tlg.  of  the  /orthmenl  pre«nce  hVr^ /« 1^^ 
worthy  of  credence,  ha.  ever  been  found 
The  most  oinvinclni  proof  that  the  North'misn 
never  founded  a  coTouy  in  America,  louth  of 
Davl.  Strait,  U  furnished  by  the  total  abMnra  of 

?il'"**ii**'i''w'"*,  °'''*'  domcUc  anlmab  from 
the  »ll  of  North  America  untU  they  were 
brought  hither  by  the  SpanlslT  R*Mh  iSd 
EugBih  Kttleri"_J.   FiiUci,    tL  xS^w*^ 

knew  the^  experienced,"  write.  ProtJu/tln 
VfinMOT.  ''and  what  the  Mgu  teU  i.  the? 
anderwent^muit  have  Ju.raie  dUTerence  rfl 
twjen  a  crUp  narrative  of  penonal  adventure 
•nd  Uie  oft-repeated  and  embeUUhed  itoryof" 
fliwlde  narrator,  tince  the  ttadlUon.  df  the 
Norie  voynie.  were  not  put  in  the  ahaoe  of 
reocmU  tifl  .'lout  two  ceutu^rie.  h«J  eto  Wand 

S!n^„-  !?  S*'""  V'"""'^'^P'°'  •uchTSconl 
thM  one  n-de  nearly  two  hundred  year,  later 
Sr.:,-  Vi*   WenJiug  of   hiitoi7   •«)   myth 
pmmpt.  Ilom  to  aay  that  'wme  of  tb*  aarai 
wwe  doubtlew  orislnally  haMd  on  facta,  but  the 
toUlng  «i,,-  reu-lling  Uve  changed  them  iSS 
pure  inytht-    The  un.ympathetfcrtranOTr  ■»» 
thU  i.  Btori...  tlu.1  th.>'triotlc  8aInd£,vuS 
are  ovpr-anilou.  to  male  appear  a.  m- dn« 
chronld,*        .  Thewd^fhto'rprobihllRliln 
Ijvorof  a  Northman  de^^nt  upbn  the  cSut  of 
the  AiiHric-an  iiwinland  at  lofne  point    or  at 
S!.?JJl'  ""fne^'w^to  the  »uth  o/oi^iland- 
but  the  evl<leiioe  *■  hardly  that  which  attSiaito 
weU  «,uibll.h..l  hiMorioi  rfcordTT.  .  ^ro  U 
notaringle  item  of  all  the  evidence  thuaid- 
•ancfd  from  Ume  to  time  which  can  b^iSd  to 
"m^ct  by  arch«olopical  tr«^  thV^^tSof 
the  Nortlim..ti  on  the  .oil  of  North  Amerin 
«ulh  of    IMvl.'  StralU."    Of  SSct  liJ^SS 


i^MKRICA,  1484-14M. 


WeUh  bv  the  Aml«.  by  the  Bawue.   J^'  th^ 
cu«  ,1 1  y  I  rof  W  ln«.r  in  Uie  Mme  connection. 


th*  Xirthntn.—K.  ) 
A  I. 

A.    D.    I484-I49« 

u.,  and  " 


Wel«e, 


Dimuttrimitf  Am., 

or 


beta 


If..*"-'^?  "'  )■*•  execution  of  the  project  He 
was  not  In  advance  of  hia  age,  enterta^  m 

i^lL}^  predecessor,  or  To(Kanelll,  Ua^ 
SSI^^'n?"'  "r?  •'«»?•  fl«t  to  ftSceive  tt^ 
POMlblllty  of  reaching  the  eart  by  niUng  wo? 

r^ii.!!'^'"?  •*"*^»-.  Th«  Northmen  In^^ 
^y*S*  ^  entertained  no  idea,  of  a  iSw 
2°:"  "r  of  an  A.U  to  the  We.t    To  kn^iT 

SfLwii"'r"*'''*'  f^Jf^Phy.  Columbu.  added 
the  .kill  of  a  practTcaf  mtyijator,  and  thaboi 
win  to  overcome  obstacles.  He  nUed  wa? 
««ched  Aria  a.  he  believed.  i^dTr^ed^ 
toeoriea  correct  There  aeem  tobetwo^^ 
dded  pointa  In  that  matter,  neither  of  whIchSS 
Portu™"""*^-  ''"".didU.exnerienSinS; 
fuST^  ."i^lifl'  "••  P«™«>  of  «.me  Sm 
auuor,  or  a  hint  from  one  of  the  few  man 
•CQUainted  with  old  timdiUon^  flm Vig^HS 
Sf™|S»»»^  project  t .  .  .  8eiond,to^5fSe? 
!f,^l?ii  '■'•  r"y»««  »o  the  north  [mLle  in  1477 

BrirtoLlnwhch  voyage  he  i.  believed  to  bive 
J^^J^}^^  influence  hi.  plan  t  There  b  m 
fn^Sf  •  •""  •  ••i"".*  Pro'-bllity,  that  hrheard 
ta  that  voyage  of  the  existence  of  Und  in  oS 
r4T7  ii:.-?""'  '•''  /*•"  .to  the  north  wa.  In 
hi.  ni^  .^  ''"7  .'"•'■  ""  «•»*  formation  of 
^.&  Sli^l^  "■'  Information  gained  at  the  time 

ASfflr*  .  ~"-.  "•  Bancroft  m*t.  of  tht 
f!r^  «<Km  »,  1.  tummaiyapp.  taek.1  —"Of 

W.  fcJsi^^  Co  umbus,  had  mott  weight  wItE 
AJIi^  rT  ',•"  Ccmopraphla '  of  ^Cardinal 
tS^.4  .^o'"™''"*  "«»,  •I»o  confirmed  In  .Js 
Tiew..,f  the  existence  of  a  western  paHan  |a 
the  Ix^  ',a  by  Paulo  Tn«^»nelll,  the  9ta«ttaJ 
phUowpiicr.  to  whom  much  credit  I.  due  frr  tte 

■raat  the  notice.,  howevt;  /  weatem  landa  wmi 
not  .uch  ..to  have  much  welghr^'JSS 

which  Columbua  had  (n  contending  with  Xenb 
f;^Dh.«  and  men  of  «:l,no.  1i.^S.^"5 
Whom  be  My.  he  never  wa.  able  to  coSvlnoTaaT 
one.  After  a  new  world  had  been  diKovanZ 
S.«'f^2!Jr^  lndi«tlons  w«rtSe2ft3to 

o^  M- I.?''"!!?'""  *•  ."•«  fi>  worked  out  U« 
owxi  Idee  hinwrif  ...  He  flnt  applied  Wmsdf 

Siii.'fn^l'"'''""''";."^  O*-"""-  '^  would  Uv. 

EjTif.^U'!;'';'.""''""'  to  what  he  had  to  ■ly. 
^rfi^'T* '"'"'  *.'"«'"  to  entidpat.  him^ 
SSi  h!.°^i""™"l  *'""  'netructlon.  foundS 
npoo  hi.  plan.  .  .  .  (o  unibu.,  diuustad  at  iS 
tre.lmenthel«,l  rrceWed  froii  thf  ftSumtir 


.u ..f  tiM.  I-.V  wrt ;;  u7ThrZi,ril'.i». 


55 


«««'»  "Si"  ^'P"'"'  "frivtng  at  Pake  In  the  veer 
itvL  rJ*^  '['"J!  "'  ••»•  'onf  "ult  of  Columbia 

dtaoourapmi-nt  and  departure,  with  intent  lo 
«°  to  I^raniv;   „f   hi,  V^cmll  by  commTiSl  e( 

WDo  re<|ulrp<l  "Ui  he  ma<le  an  admiral  at  oom 
•oh.  apMnW   vlre„,y  of   the   ooJiSiT^ 

praAteof  tber«p«iiUoo;"  of  kiaMMwd  nritii? 


AlBRICA.  14S4-148S. 


Ua  neoad  dcpwtais  for  Fnnce,  and  wcond  re- 
call by  iMbella,  who  flully  put  her  heut  iato 
the  enterpriie  and  penusded  her  more  akeptical 
coniort  to  hmd  to  it  —  the  story  of  thoae  MTen 
yean  of  the  itruggle  of  Columbui  to  obtaia 
mean!  for  hi*  Toyage  ia  familiar  to  all  raaden. 
"The  agreement  between  Cultimbus  and  their 
Catholic  highneaaei  waa  signed  at  Santa  Fi  on 
the  17th  of  April,  1493;  and  Columbiu  went  to 
Palo*  to  make  preparation  for  iiis  voyage,  bear- 
rag  with  him  an  order  tliat  the  two  veMcIs  which 
that  city  fumi^iheil  aiiDuaily  to  the  crown  for 
three  months  sliould  be  placc<l  at  his  disposal. 
.  .  .  The  Ilnzons,  rich  men  and  siliilful  marinera 
of  Paloa,  joined  in  the  uodertal(ing,  subscribing 
an  eifhth  of  the  expenses;  and  thus,  by  these 
united  exertions,  tliree  vessels  were  manned  with 
90  mariners,  and  provisioned  for  a  year.  At 
length  all  the  preparations  were  complete,  and 
on  a  Friday  (not  inauspicious  in  Ibis  case),  the 
Bd  of  August,  1493,  after  they  bad  all  confessed 
and  received  the  sacrament,  they  set  sail  from 
the  bar  of  Suites,  making  for  the  Canary 
Islands."— Sir  A.  Helps,  Tht  tIpanM  Oongutst 
in  Amfriea,  bk.  i,  eh.  1. 

Also  m  J.  Winsor,  Ckrittapher  Chlumbu*,  tk. 
6-9.  and  20. 

A.  O.  1493.— The  First  Voyare  of  Colna- 
bna.— OiacoTery  o    the   Bahamaa,  Cuba  and 
Hajti. — The   three  vessels  ol  Colrmbus  were 
called   the   Santa  Maria,   the    FinU    and   the 
Nifia.     "All   had   forecastles  and  liigh  poopa, 
but  the  'Santa  Maria'  was   the  only  on*  that 
waadecked  amidships,  and  nhe  was  called  a  'uao' 
or    ship.    The    other   two    were    caravelaa,   a 
class  of    small   veasels   built   for   •|>eed.    'The 
'Santa  Maria,'  as  I  gather  from  scattered  notices 
In  the  letters  of  Columbus,   was  of  120  to  180 
tons,  like  a  mcxlern  coasting  schooner,  and  she 
carried  70  men,  much  crowded.     Her  sails  were 
a  foresail  and  a  foretop-sail,  a  sprit-wil,  a  nialn- 
■ail  with  two  bonnets,  and  maintop  sail,  a  mixiea, 
and  a  boat's  sail  were  occasionally  hoisted  on 
Um  poop.     The  'Pinta'  and  'NIBa'  only  had 
square  sails  on  the  foremost  and  lataen  Mils  on 
the  main  and  mixzea    The  former  waa  80  tons, 
the  latter  40  tona,  with  crews  of  90  men  each. 
On  Pridar,  the  8d  of  August,  the  three  Uttle 
TesseU  left  the  haven  of  Palos,  and  thia  memor- 
able voyage  was  cummen<'cd.  .  .  .  The  expedi- 
tion pnx-reded  to  the  Canary  Islands,  whera  the 
rig  of  the  '  PinU '  waa  altered.     Her  lateen  satla 
were  not  adaptoi  for  running  hefuru  the  wind, 
and  she  was  tliervfoie  fitte<l  with  s(|iura  aallai 
like  the  '  Sanu  Maria. "     iti'pairs  were  completed 
the  vessels  were  filled  up  with  wood  and  water 
at  Uomera.  ami  the  «i(M-<lltl(m  took  iu  Snal  de- 
parture fnim  the  island  of  Oiimera,  one  of  tha 
('ansrii's,  on  SepiemtHT  «ili.  I4»a.  .  .  .  Colum- 
bus had  chosen  his  mute  tiiimt  happily,  and  with 
that  fortunate  prevision  whlih  often  waits  upon 
geniua     Fn>m  Uomera,    liy   a  rourae  a  little 
south  of  west,  he  would  run  down  the  trades 
to  the   Bahama  Islands.     Kn.m  tlm  parallel  of 
about  ;W    N.    nearly  to    ili,.  r<|uator  there   la 
a     /iioe     of     |M'rnetual    wimla  —  nnmely.    tha 
north  eiMt  trade  winds  —  alway-  moving  in  the 
same  dlreetlon,  as  sUadily  as  tlie  .  urrent  01  a 
river,  exivpt  where  they  are   turnwl  asMa  by 
local  rsiues,  sn  that  the  •Ii';m  of  Columbus  weN 
st*adily    carried    tn    thi'ir   ilnaiiiititioa    hr    a 
law  of  nature   which.  In  duo    time,    revealed 
Itself  to  tut  ohiw  ohierver  of  her  svcreta.    TJie 


AMERICA,  1492. 


C6 


conataoeT  of  the  wind  waa  one  cause  of  alam 
among  the  crewi,   for  they  began  to  murmur 
that  the  provlsons  would  all  be  exhausted  if  they 
had  to  beat  against  tliesc  unceasing  winds  on 
the  return  voyage.   The  next  event  which  excited 
alarm  among  the  pilots  was  the  discovery  that 
the  compasses  bad  more  than  a  point  of  easterly 
variation.  .  .  .  This  was  observed  on  the  17ca 
of  September,  and  about  300  miles  westward  of 
the  meridian  of  the  Azores,  wlieu  the  ships  had 
been  eleven  days  at  sea.  Soon  af  terwanls  tlie  voy- 
agers fotmd  themselves  surrounded  by  masses  of 
seaweed,  in  what  is  called  the  Sargasso  Sea,  and 
this  again  aroused  their  fears.      They  thought 
that  the  ships  would  get  entangled  in  tlie  beda 
of  weed  and  become  immovabre,  and  that  the 
beds  marked  the  limit  of  navigation.     The  cause 
of    this    accumulation    is    well    known    now. 
If  biu  of  cork  are  put  iuto  a  basin  of  water, 
and  a  circuUr  motion  given  to  it,  all  the  corks 
will  be  found  crowding  U)gether  towards  the 
centre  of  the  pool  where  there  is  the  leiwt  motion. 
The  Atlantic  Ocean  is  lust  such  a  ba!<ln,  tlie 
Oulf  Stream  la  the  whirl,  and  the  Sargo-sso  Sea 
is  in  th.  centre.     There  Columbus  found  it  and 
there  it  has  remained  to  tiiis  day,  moving  up 
and  down  and  changing  its  positiim  according  to 
seasons,  storms  and  winds,  but  never  altering  its 
mean  position.  ...  As  day  after  day  ->a8sed, 
and  there  waa  no  sign  of  lami,  the  crews  ticcame 
ttirbulcnt  and  mutinous.    Columbus  encouraged 
them  with  hopes  of  reward,  while  he  uM  them 
pisinly  that  he  had  conic  to  discover  India,  and 
tl "it,  with  the  help  of  Ood,  he  would  persevera 
until  he  found  it.     At  length,  on  the  Uth  of  Oc- 
tober, towards  ten  at  night,  Columbus  waa  on 
the  poop   and  law  a  liglit.  ...  At  two  next 
morning,    land   waa   disiinctir   seen.  .  .  .  The 
island,  called  bv  the  natives  (juanaliunl,  and  by 
ColumbuaSan  Salvailor,  has  now  been  ii-uertalned 
tn   he   Watltng  Island,   one  of  the   Uahamaa, 
14  miles  long  by  6  broad,  with  a  brackish  lake 
In  the  centre,  in  94°  10'  80"  north  Utitude.  .  .  . 
The  difference  of  Utitude  between  Oomera  and 
Watling  Island  la  383  miles.    Course,   W.  (PH.; 
distance  3,114  miles;    average  disunce   made 
rwd  daily.  8S';  voyage  8S  days.  .  .  .  After  dia- 
covering  tiveral  smaller  blauds  the  fleet  came 
in  sight  of  Cuba  on  the  97th  Ocu.bir,  and  ex- 

£lon-d  part  of  the  northern  coojiI.  Columbus 
illeved  it  to  be  Cipan™,  the  inland  placisl  on 
the  chart  of  Toicanelll.  between  Eurojie  and 
Asia  .  .  .  Crnaaini  the  channel  between  Culm  and 
St.  Domingo  [or  Havii],  they  amliored  In  the 
harbour  of  St  Nicholas  .Mole  on  I).-<-,intier  4th 
The  natives  came  with  prewnU  and  the  coun- 
try was  enchanUng.  Columbus..  nsniKl  the 
Inland  'KxpaBoU'  [or  llis(Niniola].  Hut  with  all 
thin  peaceful  beauty  an>iind  him  lie  was  on  the  eve 
of  dlsosUT"  The  Hanui  Maria  was  drifted  by 
a  strong  current  U|>onuiiar)i|  hank  and  hop  aisily 
wrecked.  "It  was  now  iicri'Mury  to  '  e  a 
iniall  colony  on  the  i»lanil  .  .  .\  fort  was 
built  and  namnl  'La  -N'uvi.iail,'  iW  men  remain- 
ing bthind  supplied  with  «i..r.-.  n„,\  provision.  " 
aiMl  •«  KrWav,  Jan  4.  Ul^i,  ( c.|,i,„|,us  began 
hU  homawanl  voyaue  Wi-Hilieririg  a  lionger- 
ous  gale,  which  lasud  seviml  days  Ills  littia 
vessels  reached  the  A/.on.s  Keh.  17.«n.|  ,rrive.l 
at  Palos  March  I-l.  Icarinn  tlieir  marvellous 
Jf"— "  "  Maftiham.  7"V 'i.i  rar^.rj,  .-.-.  3 — 
The  same,  IMtfiUuml-n,.  rh  3  — Tliesutemrnt 
abova  thM  tto  Ukad  u(  Iho  Uabamas  on  which 


AMERICA.  14n. 


AvolOrmt 


AUEBICA,  1483-1406. 


Columbiu  first  landed,  and  which  be  called  San 
Hal  vador,  ■  ■  lias  now  been  awertaincd  to  be  Watii  Dr 
Island  ■  seems  hanlly  jurtitted.  The  question  be- 
tween Wat  ling  faland,  San  Salvaiior  or  Cat  Island 

Uamana     n«>    A  *» waa^I'b  #1— _     «r t .\        r.  ! 


Banuwa,  or  Attwood  a  Ca/,  Alariguana,  the  Grand 
Turk,  and  other*  is  atifl  in  disputo.  Profes- 
sor JusUn  Winaor  says  "the  weight  of  modem 
testimony  seems  to  favor  Watllng'a  Island" 
but  at  the  same  time  be  thinlu  it  •'  probable  that 
men  will  never  quite  agree  which  of  the  Baha- 
mas it  was  upon  which  these  startled  and  exul- 
tant Europeans  first  stepped.  "—J.  Winsor  Chrif 
toplxr  OAuinbuM,  ch.  9.— The  some,  yarratioe  and 
Cnliait  Uiit.  of  Am.,  r.  8,  eh.  1,  nott  B  — 
Professor  Jolm  Fiskc,  says:  "All  that  can  be 
positively  asserted  of  Guriiiuhuui  ia  that  it  was 
uoe  0  -he  Bahamas ;  there  has  boen  endless  discus- 
sii  1  as  to  which  one,  and  the  question  ia  not  eisy 
to  settle.  Perhaps  the  theory  of  Captain  Oustavua 
Fox,  of  the  United  States  Navy,  is  on  the  whole 
best  supported.  Captain  Fox  maintains  that 
the  true  Guanahanl  was  the  little  IsUnd  now 

Known  asSnmauaor  Attwood't  Cay." J  Fiske 

Tht  Dueotery  of  Anuriea,  A.  6  (e.  \)        '  ' 

Also  in  f  ,  «  Cuatland  OtodUie  Suntti.  Bevt 
18H0,  ami.  18.  *. '"!»•. 

u/^iA  »493--P«P«l  gimnt  of  th«  New 
World  to  Spain.— "  tipuiii  was  at  this  time 
c-uinected  with  the  Po|w  about  a  most  nioincn- 
tcus iimiter.  The  Gi'n.»«.,  Cristoforo C.ilomho 
arrivwi  at  the  Spanish  court  in  March.  14:);l 
Kiih  the  astounding  news  of  the  discovery  of 
a  Ufw  continent.  ,  .  .  Finlinantl  and  Isabella 
tjought  it  wise  to  secure  a  lille  to  all  thatmliiht 
ensue  from  their  new  dis<overy.  The  Pope,  aa 
\  liar  of  Christ,  was  held  to  hii\ e  authority  to 
ill'ilK.H- of  luiiils  Inhubltcd  by  the  heathen-  and 
Iv  paiml  Bulls  tlio  distoveries  of  Portugal 
alonK  llie  African  coast  had  been  securwl.  The 
I  ortuL'iiesc  showed  tl;fns  of  urplns  claims  to  the 
^ew  W  orlil,  a»  bilng  already  conveyed  to  them 
by  the  papal  grants  previously  issued  to  tlieir 
favour  To  remove  all  otuso  of  dUpute,  the 
Bpaulsh  monarchs  at  once  had  recourse  to  Alex- 

moQi )  h  *''°  i""*^  '*"  """'  O"  May  *  ""Ml  » 
114JJI  to  determine  thertupectlverighUdf  Himln 
and  I'ortuml.  In  the  first,  the  Pope  g.unu- 1  to 
the  Spanish  monarchs  and  their  heirs  all  laiuls 
(Ilsrovcnd  or  hereafur  to  be  discovered  In  the 
western  ixean.  In  the  sei-ond,  he  defined  his 
jrnint  to  m.an  all  lands  that  nilrhtljo  dlacovrred 
west  an.l  south  of  an  Imuj-lnary  line,  drawn  from 
the  North  u>  llie  South  Pule,  at  tli-  dIsUnce  of  a 
humlred  leagm-s  w.-ntwanl  of  tlu-  Aiores  and 
Ti ''"  \'  ?'  '»'*'"'•■  In  the  light  of  our  pres- 
ent knowledge  we  are  aniaz.d  at  thU  simple 
means  of  di-<|i,  ,„lni{  of  a  va»t  eAlinl  of  tho  earth's 
siirfac,      I  u,I.T  II...  po|H.s  stop,  ndoua  patent, 

Jtpaln  wasable  to  claim  ev.ry  part  of  the  AnierUun 
I  ontliirnt  rx,  ,.|,t  tl„.  ||i,„j|f„n  coast.— il.  Oldi- 

n.»a,  4*.  5,   e*.  S  (c    3). 

/Jtv  .1irr.|»,fcr  M  ,1„/..  /ft^_  J|/„„  1892,.^/' 
rXitr.    Vit  Ihiymrf,  „f  .i„unnt.r\.  tit.  11  _J 

"•^1  v/  ■  '•  <'—'*<'«'.  "l*'.  IhIow:  \.  D.  un 
r»T    K  '<«t«49«.-Tlie  Second  Voyac*  of 

C4f!h!«=s,_3ii&;uB.ti0B       Of       ili*i|««i„la.- 

Jr.  .  Tn""'  "'  <■">'">'••"•  on  hiirs.M.nd 
t^^  <'f  'll'y.v.ry  prewntwl  a  brilliant  cm- 
*n>at  10  ^  glomay  amIiarkalloB  at  Paka.    ttai 


67 


the  28th  of  September  [1493],  at  the  daw  of  day 
tlie  bay  of  Cadiz  was  whitened  by  his  fleet! 
JnH '?„."';"  ""™  '"je"  *^'P»  °f  '''"^T  burden 
whole  fleet  was  under  way."  ArriviKl  at  the 
Canaries  on  the  Ist  of  October.  Columbus 
purchased  there  calves,  gouu,  sheep,  hogs,  and 

Hlspaniola;  also  "seeds  of  oranges,  lemons. 
UTgamoU.  melon*,  and  various  orchard  fruitj 
which  were  thus  first  intro«iuced  Into  the  IsUnd* 
of  the  west  from  the  Hespcrides  or  Fortunate 

nth""*!  rl."'L"'i^^''";''^-      I'  «"*  not  untU  thi 
13th  of  October  that  the  fleet  left  the  Canaries 
and  it  arrived  among  the  Islands  since  called  the 
fe^a'^ii'.?  O'  Caribbees,  on  the  evening  of 
Nov.  3     Sailing  through  thU  archipelago,  dis- 
oiveringUie  larger  Island  of  Porto  &ico  on  the 
W    Columbu.  reached  the  eastern  extremity 
of  llispanioU  or  Ilayti  on  the  22(1  of  November 
and  arrived  on  the  27th  at  La  Xavldad,  wheri 
he  had  left  s  garrison  Un  months  bi-fore.     He 
found  nothing  but  ruin,  silence  and  the  mark* 
of  death,  and  Iearne<I,  after  much  inquiry,  that 
h  s  unfortunate  men,  losing  all  dlwlpllne  after 
his  (leparture,  had  provok,-,!  the  natives  by  rapa- 
city and  llccutiousnes*  until  the  latter  r.«e  against 
them    and    destrnved    them      Ahaii.loning    the 
•ceno   of    this    disaster,    Columbus    found   an 
excellent    harlK)r   ten   leagues   cast   of   .Monte 
Crist   and  Ihvre  ho  began  the  foun.ih.g  of  a 
city  which  he  named  IsalKlla.     " IsalH.llu  at  the 
present  day  Isoulte  oveign.wn  with  forests,  in 
the  mlilst  of  wfilch  are  still  to  bo  8<...n,  partly 
standiug,  the  pillars  of  the chunh.  m„„e  n'nmlns 
of  the  kings  storehouses,  and  part  ..f  tl.e  resi- 
w?'.?  "/,  <-»''""'''".,  «"  »"iilt  o'f   hewn  stone." 
While  the   fouuihii ions  of  the  new  city  were 
b<  ing  laid,  Columbus  sent  back  part  of  his  ships 
to  .Spain,  and  undertook  an  exploration  of  the 
Inuriorof  the  Island  — the  mountains  of  Cibao 
—  where  abundance  of  gold  was  promised.    Home 
gold  washings  were  found— far  to-j  scanty  to 
satisfy  the  expecUtlon*  of  the  Spanlanls;  and  ■■ 
r."f  ^S'l'  •*J'>°«"»«>n  nwlo  their  app.»raice 
•t  Isabella,  discontent  was  rife  and  mutfny  afoot 
before   the  year   had   ended.     In  April    14»4. 
Columbus  Bci  sail  with  three  caravels  to  revisit  the 

I?!^V  /V  ?;  '""»«""■',  "'""'I"!  exploration 
tluinhchadatte  ed  on  tlio  first  discovery  "Ho 
c  ap|)o«e.l  It  to  be .  continent,  and  the  extn'mc  end 
of  Asia,  anil  if  so,  by  following  lu  shores  in  the 
propiwHl  direction  ho  must  eventually  arrive 
at  Catluiy  and  those  other  rii  h  and  eoiiimercUl 
though  semi-barbarous  countries,  .lescribe.!  by 
Mum  ivlllo  and  .Man-o  Polo."  Il,..,„ru  of  gold 
111  hirn  «.utll^yan  from  Cuba untlllie discovered 
the  Ixland  whi>  h  hn  oallwl  Santiago,  but  which 
i"\*  .  ''I  }*  ?""*■'  """"■•  J»">«'<ii.  signifying  the 
I  Jjihd  of  .Springs.  I>l».ipi«.lnled  In  t  lie  «,.anTi  for 
gold,  he  «.«.n  ntumeil  fMni  Jamaica  to  Culia 
and  salltd  along  lu  southern  cinisI  to  very  near 
the  Western  ex in-mlty.  canllrmlng  hlinmlf  and 
bis  followeni  in  the  Ullef  ihat  tliev  skirl".!  (lie 
show-s  of  .\sla  and  might  follow  theiii  to  tl.,  IW 
B»a,  If  tlulr  ships  and  sions  were  equal  to  so 
long  a  vovage.  "Two  or  thn-e  davs'  furtlier 
sail  would  have  carried  Columbus  roiiiid  tl  e 
cxlreiiiity  of  Piilu,:  w,h.M  h..,,=.  .lUp..,,!  ,jj, 
llluHon.  and  n'ight  have  ^iven  ai.  eiitin  ly  ililTer 
enl  eounw  to  his  subsequent  ill-.-overiia  In  his 
prewnt  conviction  he  lived  n.  I  .ll,,!;  hell,  i  ing 
to  fala  last  hour  tbM  Cuba  wiu  the  extremity  of 


AUXRICA.  14M-liM. 


Cbtor* 


AHEBICA.  140T. 


the  Aabtie  ooDtincnt"  Returnlrff  cMtmrd,  he 
TUted  Jamaica  again  and  purpo*^  tome  further 
exnioration  of  the  Caribbee  lalanda,  wlien  his 
toili  and  anxieties  overcame  him.  "  He  fell  into 
a  deep  lethargy,  resembling  death  Itself.  His 
crew,  aUrmcd  at  this  profound  torpor,  feired 
that  death  waa  really  at  hand.  They  abandoned, 
therefore,  all  further  prosecution  of  the  vcagfl; 
and  spreading  their  sails  to  the  east  w;i.d  (o 
praTaicnt  in  those  seas,  bore  Columbus  S  iclc,  in 
•  state  of  complete  inseogibflfty,  to  the  harbor 
of  Isabella,"— Sept.  4.  HccoverinR  cumdjus- 
neas,  the  admirul  wm  rejoiced  to  tind  bin 
brother  Banholomaw,  from  wliora  hu  ha.l  lieon 
separated  for  years,  and  who  had  becu  tent  out 
to  him  from  Hpain,  in  command  of  three  sliipn. 
Otherwise  there  was  little  to  give  pleasure  to 
Columbus  when  ho  returned  to  laabelU.  His 
followers  w^re  again  disorganized,  again  at  war 
with  the  natives,  whom  they  plundered  and 
Ucentiouslr  abused,  and  a  mischief-making 
prieat  had  gone  back  to  Spain,  along  with 
oertain  Intriguing  officers,  to  make  complaints 
and  set  enmities  astir  at  the  court.  InvolTed  in 
war,  Columbus  prosecuted  It  relentlessly, 
reduced  the  island  to  submission  and  the 
natives  to  servitude  and  misery  by  heavy 
exactions.  In  March  UIM  he  returned  to  Spain, 
to  defend  himself  agshist  the  machinations  of 
his   enemies,   transferring   the    government  of 

Hispaniolik   to  his  brother   Bartholomew. W 

Irving,  lift  and  rot/ag-  ^  Cblumlmt,  M.  »4 
(••  1-S). 

Also  a  n.  H.  Bancroft,  Bitt.  of  tht  Jhidjh 
Slatf.  e.  1,  eh.  3. -J.  Whisor/  CAru(Mii(«r 
CWumAiM,  eh.  ia-14. 

A.  D.  I494-— TheTrtatfof  Terdcaillaa.— 
Amended  Partition  ofthc  New  World  b«tw*en 
Spidn  and  PortOKal.—"  When  speaking  or  writ- 
ing of  the  ronijuest  of  America,  it  Is  generally 
believed  that  the  onlv  title  upon  wlilrh  were 
haaed  the  conquests  nf  Spain  and  Portugal  was 
the  famous  Pa|>al  Bull  of  partition  of  the  Ocean, 
of  1498.  Few  nuHirm  auUiora  take  Into  consid- 
eration Uiat  this  Bull  wss  amended,  upon  tlie  pe- 
tition of  the  King  of  Portugal,  by  the  [Treaty  of 
Tordesillas],  signed  by  botli  powers  in  14B4, 
augmenting  the  imrtioD  assigned  to  tlie  Portu- 
guese in  the  iiartitlan  ade  between  them  of  the 
Continent  of  America.  The  arc  of  meridian  Died 
by  this  treaty  as  a  dividing  line,  which  gave  rise, 
owing  to  the  ignorance  of  the  age,  to  so  msny 
diplomatic  congp-sses  and  hiterminsble  rontlxv 
Tenies,  may  now  he  traced  by  any  student  of 
elementary  msthemHtlca  This  line  .  .  .  mas 
along  the  mrriilUn  nf  47=  89'  56"  west  of  On-.n- 
wlcli.  .  .  .  The  name  Brasil,  or  '  tlerm  del  Bra. 
««,•  at  that  time  {the  middle  of  the  18th  century] 
referred  only  to  the  part  of  the  continent  pro. 
duclng  thr  lye  wood  so-callwl.  Nearly  two 
cent uricB  Int.  r  the  Portuguese  advanceil  towaAl 
the  South,  anil  the  name  Hrazll  then  rnvered  tlie 
new  ixmiesslons  tliey  were  aciiulring."— L.  L. 
Domlngiiv*,  hlrid  tu '•  Th*  dnmtuHoflht  Kmr 
Plait  ■  aiiMuyl  ,Sr.  I\h».  Sa.  Nl). 

A.  D.  1497.  -  Discovery  of  tht  North  Araeri- 
e»B  Contiaeat  by  John  Cakot.— "Tlie  achieve- 
meut  nf  Columbus,  revealing  the  wonderful  truth 
of  which  tlie  germ  may  have  etisted  In  tlie 
iliisiriiiation  of  every  thnuehtful  mstriser,  wtm 
(In  KnglttiHl]  the  mlnilntlon  which  belon)^  to 
genius  lliat  *i-i  inni  more  dlvtne  than  human  i 
and  '  there  was  ^resi  talk  of  It  in  all  the  court  of 


68 


Henij  Vn.'    A  feelhig  of  diaappoliitiiient  i» 
malned,  that  a  series  of  dlsaatera  had  defeated 
the  wish  of  the  illustrious  Qenoese  to  make  hia 
voyage  of  essay  under  the  flag  of  Knghind.    It 
waa,  therefore,  not  difficult  for  John  Cabot,  a 
denizen  of  Venice,  residhig  at  Bristol,  to  Interest 
that  politic  king  in  phuis  for  discovery.    Oo  the 
Sth  of  Mareh,  filM,  he  obtained  under  the  great 
seal  a  commission  empowering  himself  and  hia 
three  sons,  or  either  of  them,  their  helra,  or  their 
deputies,  to  sail  Into  the  eastern,  western,  or 
northern  sea  with  a  fleet  of  five  ships,  at  their 
own  expense,  in  search  of  islands,  provinces,  or 
regions  hitherto  unseen  by  Christian  people;  to 
affix  the  bannere  of  EngUnd  on  city,  IsUnd,  or 
continent;  and,  as  vassals  of  the  English  crown, 
to  poesess  and  occupy  the  territoriea  that  might 
be  found.   It  waa  further  stipuUted  In  this  '  moat 
ancient  American  State  paper  of  EngUnd. '  that 
the  patentees  should  be  otrictlr  boud,  on  overy 
return,  to  land  at  the  port  of  Bristol,  and  to  pay 
to  the  kbig  ooe-flfth  part  of  their  gains;  while 
the  excliuTve  right  of  frequenting  ^11  the  coun- 
tries that  might  be  found  was  reserved  to  them 
»"<1  to  their  assigns,   without  limit  of    time. 
I  nUer  tWs  patent,  which,  at  the  fl  st  direction  of 
Baiglish  enterprise  toward  America,  embodied  the 
worat  features   of    monopoly  and  commerelal 
reatriction,  John  Cabot,  Uking  with  him  his  son 
Sebastian,  embarked  in  quest  of  new  islands  and 
a  passage  to  Asia  by  the  nnrth-west.     Aft.r  sail- 
ing prosnerously,  as  he  reported,  for  700  leujues. 
<Mi  the  «4th  day  of  June  fU97]  In  the  morning, 
almost  fourteen  months  before  Columbus  00  bis 
third  voyage  can-  in  sight  of  the  main,  and 
more  than  two  y  n  before  Amerigo  Vespucci 
sailed  west  of  the  Canaries,  he  dlscoverecl  the 
western  continent,  probably  in  the  latitude  of 
about  S«o  degrees,  among  the  dismal  cliffs  of 
Labrador.     Ho  mn  along  the  coast  for  many 
leagues,  it  is  said  even  for  300,  and  landed  on 
what  he  considered  to  bi-  the  territory  of  the 
Orand  Cham.     But  he  encountered  no  human 
being,  although  there  were  marks  thst  the  region 
waa  lnhabite<I.     He  planted  on  the  hnd  a  large 
cnas  with  the  flag  of  England,  and,  from  affec- 
tion for  the  republic  of  Venice,  he  added  the  ban- 
ner of  8t  Mark,  which  bad  never  been  borne  ao 
far  before.     On  his  homeward  voyage  ho  saw  on 
hia  right  hand  two  islands,  which  for  want  of 
provialona  he  could  nut  stop  to  explore.    After 
an  absence  of  three  months  the  great  discoverer 
re-entered  Bristol    harlmr,   where   due    honora 
awaltwt  him.    The  king  gave  him  money,  and 
•neouraged  iilm  to  coutlnue  Ills  can-er.    The  peo- 
ple called  him  the  great  ailmirel;  be  dressed  In 
silk;  and  the  English,  and  even  Venetians  who 
chanced  to  lie  at  Bristol,  ran  after  him  with  such 
leal  that  he  could  enlist  for  a  new  voyage  as 
many  as  he  nieased.  ...  On  the  third  day  of 
the  month  of  February  next  after  his  return, 
•John  KahiiUi.  Venetian,'  arronllngly  obtainf« 
a  power  to  take  up  ships  for  another  voyage,  at 
t.he  rates  flxiil  fur  those  emplnved  In  the  service 
of  the  king,  and  once  more  to  set  sail  with  as 
many  companions  on  would  go  with  lilm  of  their 
own  will.     With  this  llixnsa  every  Xnuv  of  John 
Cabot  dlsappewra.     He   may  have  illid  before 
the  summer,  but  no  one  knows  rertalnly  Um' 
tlroe  iir  !!»  ph'"  --f  hl:i  fnt!.  and  it  has  r.r.t  cvfin 
been  aarerulne<l  lu  h  liai  country  this  fln<ler  of  a 
continent   flrst  saw  the  light.  "-O    Bancmft. 
aw.  iiflht  V.  A^Am.  (Author's  Ust  Iteviaion), 


AlfSRICA.  1407. 


pt.  I,  A.  1. -.  Id  hla  eritlial  woric  on  the  dliinr. 
«y  of  Amerk»,  pobUihed  in  1888.  Mr.  Hennr 

H»rri«e»t»te8Uioonclu«lon»MtoHieC«botvo7 
ami,  aod  on  the  queation  whether  the  Americui 
d&coTeri*  were  made  by  John  Cabot  or  hia  md 
Sebaatlan^  aa  foUowa:  "l.-The  dlaooTery  of 
the  continent  of  North  America  and  thelfim 
landing  oo  lu  eaat  ooaat  were  acoompllahed  ^ 
brSeSutian  Cabot,  but  by  hi.  fathSr  John,  in 
U97,  under  the  auipicea  of  King  Henry  " 
8. -The  arst   landfall  waa  not  *Cape  hreton 


AMKBICA,  ltt7-MS8. 


,  -^u"**?  ""^  auapicea  of  King  Henry  VII 
I  -The  arst  landfall  waa  not  'cSre  breton 
Wand^  a.  I.  Mated  in  the  pUniapheii  made  b? 

f'^"'  S?'^'  '"J'**-  •""  «•«•>»"  ten  degreea 
further  north^n  the  coaat  of'Ubrador:  W^ 
waa  then  ranged  by  John  Cabot,  probably  aa  far 
-  Cape  Chudley.  8  -This  flit  wm  t^th? 
acknowledged  bj  aU  pilot,  and  ooamografSere 
throughout  the  Jrst  half  of  the  l«th  Sntury 
?u^  r'^^Z^^.  "'  ['  originated  with  Bcbi,: 
w.^^'^'k?'™'"  wbaterer  may  hare  been 
afterwards  his  contrary  statements  In  that  re. 

'?f^'^  *•  T^*"'  ""l^f  »'  1«W.  also  »com. 
plished  under  the  British  flag  waa  llkewiH 
carried  out  by  John  Cabot  penm^y.  Theland. 
fall  on  that  occasion  must  be  placed  south  of  the 
first :  and  the  exploration  embracwl  the  north- 
east coast  of  the  present  United  Sutes.  aa  far  m 
Florida.  5. -In  the  yicinity  of  the  FloriduJ 
cast  coast,  John  Cabot,  or  one  of  his  lleutenanUL 

uSi  i'*^K^5°'°.^  ^P"**  "«"»•.  fn  1«8  or 
iS!  .n^~».       *5«"«'>  continued  in  ISOl,  1808, 

li^'  „"1  »"",'"^'-  •"  "•"*  "^'P*  to  Newfound! 
land    c  ilefly  for  the  purpose  offlsheriea.  •— H 

»""».*;  .r  ^""^  "-^"^^  ^'»^.  p'- »; 

"^3.  «*.  1.  Cnneal  Assy  (C.  Deane)  — R  filddW 
Jf.^.r  «/ *i^„  (^^  ctTX-^'l^ 

A.  p.    I407i49«.-Th«   tnt   Venn   of 
^Ti'"".  VeapuciBfc  -  Ml.underm25l«n 

i?  .^"°*'"  nj»l»*tor.-HI.  t«plor»tlou 
of  4,ooo  milea  of  cootinental  co—i.--o'r 
fc!™'I',""",™"""I"«[  Araerirus  Vcspucius 
from  l«carl.v  part  of  Sie  year  1486  uutfl  aft« 
his  return  from  the  Portuiucse  to  the  BpaulS 
scrTice  In  the  latter  part  ofVMt,  resU  priSlX 
upon  hi,  two  famous  letters;  tl.i  one  ^"^^ 
to  his  old  patron  Lorcnro  .11  Pier  r™2c«S?^ 

wr7  'I' u'v"  V  ^r"'"  ">«  MagnmSnOMd 
writirn  In  March  or  April,  1803,  riving  an  ac- 

to  his  old  sch«>l.fplfow  Piero  Soderinl  TSm 
Oonfalonlersof  Florence)  and  dated  from  Lliboo 
Septembers  1804,  giving  a  brief  account  of 
rZ'J.7?'^*."''?''  ^'  hnS  mml.  un,Krio,°. 
Xt  T^^'letti™  "'*'J2.°'  """"omcr  oJ 
ul    .    ,' "•"'•""*".  .  .  becamcspeo<lllvponu. 

e«[>ef  iHliy  In  France,  (Icniiany,  and  Italv 

The  Iruer  to  Bo,lerinl  gives  an  amount  of  four 

f^m  rl'i.^"*?"*?'^  ^^'  «"'  expedition  sailed 
i^  1488.  after  having  explored  a  coast  so  loiia 

win  psrts  <,f  Am.rica  am  vWfejJ  ^jrsia  1*,!; 
«i';  ?";'■""',  It  dls.orere,l  noSog  t  «t^« 
»pal«.  though  It  by  »o  «««,  pMaSVlS u 


J!?'!?.,'''^'*  "^  "t*^  baen  wrongly  aMertad. 

tin^,."!  ^P^  J'  •»■»•  to  attrS^i'^rSS?. 
tlon.  but  in  an  unfortunate  way,  for  a  slight  but 

the  most  taporUntoTthe  UUnTSrslona,  c.^ 
.{.«  ifL'j""'*  ^  •*  P'»ctlcally  MentMed  wjS 
the  second  Toyage.  made  two  yW.  Uter  5w« 
confudon  eventually  led  to  moat  i5S^,i>uI 
^hdth'S"hi:r.'l"/<«'  name  of  A^JSt^ 
Zm^l  '^'**°  '•?  ^'  "">  PX^nt  century  to 
(u?^ln  wh^r"""*  '°y'?-  »'  Vespuclu.  WM 
that  In  whldi  be  accompaiaed  Alonso  de  OJada 

^  '^  *'"JL»  ^'***-  '™"'  May  80,  mW  to 
nfT'..J^'  ?"y,"P»ore<i  the  northern^ 
of  South  America  from  soma  potat  on  whatwe 
wotdd  now  can  the  north  coasTof  fiitU,  m  7» 
Mthe  Pearl  Co«it  visited  by  Columbus  in  tl" 

i!!fm?,    1.°'   M»racalho.      Here  the  squadron 
seems  to  have  become  divided.  Oieda  goTng  ow 
to  Illspanlola  In  Septeml«r,  wille  VesSuduI 
wmatoed  cruUing  tlfl  February.  .  .      U  taS-r 
tainly  much  to  be  regrette.1  that'ln  the  narntSTve 

to  me„,?n„'^Er""°°'  Vespuchmdld  nothaJpeS 
to  mention  the  name  of  the  chief  cominaijer 
U.'.".     .T'l'.''  •  ,•  •  he  was  writing  not  for  us 
but  for  his  friemJ,  an.l  he  told  SodeHnI  onlv-wlai 
he  thought  would   Interest   him.  .         gf    JJo 

^1  m™,^''*'"  *^^  ^'■"'''"'  "'lehhispayid 
the  most  Important  part  In  history  U  Uie  litln 

i^^tfe.^l^-^i-e3 
^^K^utf^K^i^^d 

Petrdrtj;.ran  e«x'c^ve^7";^"t:^.';.; 

^nVve„f  *""•'  ^"'™  »'''^"  the^amous  w" 
raine  version  was  ultimately    derived  If 

llrin'^Jn""?'""'."'''  primitive  text  with  tit. 
Latin  of  he  I^rrjlne  version  of  1807,  we  observe 
that.  In  the  latter,  one  uroper  name  -  the  iSdllS 
""•  °'  •, P'«c«J-'»lte/b/An>ericu.  on  his  flm 
^ririfh"  '".^•"t''V'"^  In  Uie  original  It  I, 
TM.  L  '»!.""'  f"""  "  »""  become  -Parias  ■ 
Jn  he  r,„«"nf".'.°  '?"*."'"*  °'  '"Judicious  edlt% 
™„™  K  ',"'"  I^""  tran.l«lor,  although,  of 
?°."J!t' ,   ""y  •* •  '^^  "'  •^"'li'is  proof  remllug 


69 


of  L«r^l„.       ?-i''''  t'"^'  f!'"""*  ""«  ■"oonUlns 
or  lx>rralne  ■  ould  make  noth  iig  of  It.     If  he  had 

Slfff.-.l!!'  '*  '«:i"»'"'«l  *it1.  the  langu.^  of 
the  Huastccas.  who  dwelt  at  Uiat  time  aloT the 

southern    nciahbours    the    Aztecs- he    would 
w-^  .^?''.''  "'*i  ?""?"  °'  P'""»  '"  'hat  region 

3r!J^  .'  '"■y"'"'  o"'  worthy  tran.lst..rs  ken, 
we  cannot  much  bUme  him  If  he  felt  tUt  sue 

region  on  he  western  shore,  of  the  AtlantU  ui.l 
f"?f:'''^'^'"- »■»"-.  As  the  Uisl-M.,.  f^n 
«nH  ml  ''*"..'?  "if  "J*^'  '•  ""f*  "■»"  t""  thou 
IJ.n.?»  .K-  *'''•  ""'*  '""""'"'ion  shlfte.1  the 
1^?!.^..^'.''  ""' ';"y»»*  beyond  nil  recgnitlon, 

!!i  ^*  the  whole  subject  In n  outer  .lark! 

MS.  where  there  has  been  much  gronning  and 

?«^'^'^ "' '^-'^  ^'T'^" <=>"tou«rir,um«1.n« 
came  In  lo  confirm  this  error     On  hi*  fir?!  v-t- 

rf,^:  "'^'"^  M""'  -"iving  at  l.ari«b.  Vespu- 
•I.  V-."."  '.""tl"  '*•*"  '•""t  '»'f  the  water, 
iiouMS,    like  baiTMka,'  supported  on  huge  tiw- 


I  ill 


AHBRICA,  1487-1498. 


AmtrleuM 
Vmpmeitu. 


AMKHICA,  1407-1498. 


i 


ir  H 


trunks  and  communicating  with  each  other  by 
bridges  that  could  be  drawn  up  In  case  of  danger 
This  may  well  h.ive  been  a  village  of  communal 
houses  of  the  Chontals  on  the  const  of  Tabasco- 
but  such  villages  were  afterwards  HCen  on  the 
Uulf  of  Maracaibo,  and  one  of  them  was  called 
Venezuela,   or   'Little  Venice.'  a    name  since 
M)read  over  a  territory  nearly  twirc  as  large  as 
France.     80  the  ampliibious  town  descriU-d  by 
V  espiieius  wnsincontjn  ntly  move<l  to  Maracaibo 
as  if  there  could  Iw  only  one  such  place,  as  if 
that  style  of  defensive  building  had  not  l>ern 
common  enough  In  many  ages  and  In  many  partt 
of  the  earth,  from  ancient  Switzerland  to  modem 
blam.  .  .  .  Thus  in  spite  of  the  latitudes  and 
longitu.lcs  distinctly  staUKl  by  Vespuclus  in  his 
letter,  did  Lariab  and  the  little  wooden  Venice 
get  shifteil  from  the  Gulf  of    Mexico  to   the 
northern  coast  of  South  America.  .  .  .  We  are 
told  that  he  falnely  pretended   to  have  visited 
Paria  and  .Manicaibo  in  1497,  in  order  U)  claim 
priority  over  Ciilumbus  In  the  discovery  of  '  the 
continent.'     What  continent?    When  Vespuciu* 
wrote  that  letter  to  Soderini,  neither  he  nor  any- 
boily  else  suspected  that  what  we  now  call  Amer- 
ica had  iH-en  discovered.     The  only  continent  of 
which  tliere  coidd  l)e  any  <|ucstion,  so  far  as  sup- 
planting Columbus  was  concerned,  wiis   Asia. 
But  in  I.V14  Columbus  was  generallT  supposi-d  to 
have  disi-oveml  the  continent  of  Asia,  bv  his  new 
route,  in  Ud'i.  ...  It  was  M.  Vamha'gen  who 
first  turu«i  iiiiiuiry  on  this  subject  in  the  right 
direction.  .  .  .  Having  taken  a  correct  start  by 
simply  following  the  words  of  Vespuclus  him- 
self, from  II  primitive  text,  without  reference  to 
any  pn.-cnceiviHl  theories  or  traditions,  M.  Varn- 
hagcn  find.-t"  that  Ameritus  In  his  first  voyage 
made  lamt  on  the  northern  const  of  Honduras; 
"Ihut  he  sailed  around  Yucatan,  and  found  his 
aquatic   village  of  communal  houses,  his  little 
wooden  \  iniee,  on  the  shore  of  Tabasco     Thence 
after  a  fight  with  the  natives  in  which  a  few 
tawnv  prisoners  were  captured  and  carried  on 
x«nl    the  caravels.  Vespuclus  seems  to    have 
i.ken  a  straight  course  to  the  lluasleca  country 
by  lampico,  without  touchl-.g  at  points  in  the 
region  siil.ject  or  tribuUry  to  the  Aztec  cufrd 
erncy.     This  Tampico  country  was  what  Vespu- 
clus underit,io<l  to  be  called  Uriah.    He  ng'dn 
givn  the  latitude  definitely  and  correctly  as  ZS" 
>.,  and  he  mentions  a  few  interesting  cireum 
stances,     lie  saw  the  natives  roasting  a  dresd- 
fully  ugly  animal,"  of  which  he  gives  what 
seems  to  be  "an  excellent  de^-ription  of  the 
Iguana,  the  flesh  of  which  is  to  this  day  an  im- 
p'lrtnnt  article  of  foo<l  in  tropical  America. 
After  leaving  thU  country  of  Lariab  the  ships 
K>pt  still  to  the  northwest  for  a  short  distance, 
and   then   followed   the  windings  of  tlic  c.«st 
lor  (<,o  1(  iigucs.  .  .  .  After  traversing  the  «7(i 
kagiu-,  of  creaked  (xul.  the  thlps  found  Hum 
S(f  ves   111  the  finest  harbour  Id  the  worl.l '  [which 
M.  \ar.dmgen  suppoaed,  at  first,  to  have  Ikhh 
in  (  iHsajH-ake  Bay.  but  afterwards  reaclii'd  (vm 
elusions  iKjinting  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Cape 

,  luu"*'.?'-  ""  "'«  •■''ori'lsc'W'tJ  It  was  In  June, 
im.  thirteen  months  since  they  had  started  from 
,f\  :,  •  ;.  J  .!'y  'P*""'  seven  anil-thirty  days  in 
tills  unrivalled  harbotir.  preparing  for  the  liomc 
V.  ynge.  and  found  Uie  naUrcs  very  hospitable 


ew  ri d  men  court«l   t|,,  M  of  the  whlt.-^   !  oJ."  K^   I^!^ 
snirers.    in  iin   aiiju-k  »l.lrh  ii..,.  ».i.i...i  ,.    I       ••'.  ^     .  /^i™5! 


ilrsng 


n  attack  which  they  wished  u 


Ited  certain  islands  lomo  distance  out  to  sea. 
The  Spaniards  agreed  to  the  expedition,  and 
sailed  late  in  August,  taking  seven  of  the  friendly 
Indians  for  gufdes.     "After  a  weeks  voyage 
they  fell  In  with  the  islands,  some  peopled,  otliera 
uninhabited,  evidently  the  Bermudas.  600  miles 
from  Cape  Hatteras  as  the   crow    flics.    The 
Spaniards  landed  on  an  Island  callc<l  Iti,  and  had 
a  brisk  fight,"  resulting  In  the  capture  of  more 
than  200  prisoners.    Seven  of  these  were  given 
to  the  Indian  guides,  who  paddled  home  with 
them.     "'We  also  [wrote  Vespuclus]  set  sail 
for  Spain,  with  2'«  prisoners,  slaves ;  and  arrived 
In  the  port  of  Cadiz  on  the  ISth  day  of  October. 
149S,  where  we  were  well  received  and  sold  our 
slaves.  •.  .  .  The  obscurity  hi  which  this  voy- 
age has  so  long  been  enveloped  Is  due  cliiefly  to 
tlic  fact  that  ft  was  not  followed  up  till  many 
vears  had  elapsed,  and  the  reason  for  this  neglect 
Impre8.ses  upon  ua  forcibly  the  Impossibility  of 
understanding  the  history  of  the  Discovery  of 
America  unless  we  bear  In  mind  all  the  attend- 
ant circumstances.    One  might  at  flrst  suppose 
that  a  voyage  which  revealed  some  4,000  mUes  of 
the  coast  of  North  America  would  have  attracted 
much  attention  In  Spain  and  have  become  alto- 
gether too  famous  to  be  soon  forgotten.    Such 
■n  ^argument,  however,  loses  sight  of  the  fact 
that  these  early  voyagera  were  not  trving  to  'dis- 
cover America.'    There  was  nothing  to  astonish 
them  in  the  existence  of  4,000  miles  of  coast  line 
on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic.     To  their  minds  It 
was  simply  the  coast  of  Asia,  about  which  they 
knew  nothing  except  from  Marco  Polo,  and  the 
nat'iral  effect  of  such  a  voyage  as  this  would  be 
slaipiv  to  throw  discredit  upon  that  traveller." 
—  .1.  Fiske.  The  Diteutery  of  Aiwriea,  eh.  T  (V  2) 
The  arguments  against  this  view  are  set  fortli 
by  .Mr.  Clements  It.  Markham.  in  a  paper  read 
before  the  Royal  Geographical  Societv,  In  181)2 
as  follows:    "Vespucci  was  at  Seville  or  San 
Luear,  .is  a  provision  merchant,  from  the  mid- 
dle of  April,  1497,  to  the  end  of  Mav.  U9M  as  Is 
shown  by  the  offlcisl  records,  examined  by  Mufioi 
of  expenses  incurred  in  fitting  out  the  ships  for 
western  expeilitlons.     Moreover,  no  expedition 
for  (llseover>-  was  despatched  by  order  of  King 
Ferdinand  Iti  1487;  and  there  Is  no  allusioD  to 
any  such  exiwlitlon  in  any  contemp<irarv  reconl 
The  internal  evidence  against  the  truth  of  the 
story  is  even  stronger.     Vespucci  says  that  he 
sailed  W.  8    W.  for  nearly  1000  league*  from 
Grniid  (  annnr     This  would  have  uken  him  to 
the  Gulf  of  Paria,  which  Is  rather  more  than  900 
li«gues  W    9.  W.  from  Grand  Canary.  .  .      No 
actual  navigator  would  have  made  siich  a  blun- 
der     He  evidently  quoted  the  dead  reckoning 
from  Ole<la  s  voyage,  and  Invented  the  Utitude 
at   random         .  Rli  statement   that  he  went 
,    ^)    \"'}^l  leagues  (!!,6I»  miles)  from  a  poal- 
tlon  In  latitude  83»  N.  is  still  more  pivpoateiWs 
Such  a  course  and  distance  would  hare  token 
him  righl  across  the  continent  to  somewhere  in 
British  Columbia.    The  chief  incidents  In  the 
Tovage  are  those  of  the  OJe<la  vovage  In  1489 
There  is  the  village  built  on  piles  calW  Little 
Venice  There  was  the  encounter  with  na 

tlvcs.  in  which  one  Spaniard  was  killed  and  '« 
were  wounded.  These  numbers  are  convincing 
evidence    —  c.  R   .Markham.  rMumbui  (Hepai 


maka  upon  a  fierce  roc*  of  caimibala,  who  Inhab    |  M. 

6U 


-    iingi,  Sij,!.,  \sa3 1 

ALS.J  i!«:  J,  WlBsor.   CkritltpHtr  OUumhu. 
'  19. 


AMERICA.  ,«a  JU,  C^  ^RjcA.  14«^,M8. 


A.   D.   X498. -Second    Voyan    of   John 
Cabot,  ■ometimei  ascribed  tohU  .on  s" 

?!!Ll"LTr."^5' J""" »""  ""ta ««»»«.  John 

Csbot    petitioned    Henry  VII.   for  new  letteii 

^  Ti'l*?  '"'  ""^  !"■'  dlKoTer^.  The  Kioc 
granted  bis  request  on  the  3rd  of  February.  14W^ 
There  is  no  itroiind  whiit«v»r  t^,  >i i'-Jz:' 


P 


S-i.„~T.  „  ■"H""' "nine  am  or  February.  149C 
There  is  no  gro.nd  whaterer  for  the  aiirtton 
frequently  repeau.l  that  John  CabotTd  not 
command  this  second  expedition,  or  that  It  was 
undertaken  after  hi.  death.  On  tbe^ntr^ 
Pasqualigo  and  Soneino  mention  him  by  n^e 
exclusivefy  as  the  partr  to  whom  Henry  Vli 
Intended  to  entrust  the  fleet.  Besides,  this  time 
John  Cabot  is  the  only  grantee,  and  the  new  °t: 
ten  patent  omit  altogether  the  names  of  SebasUan 
and  of  his  brothera.  Moreover.  John  ex^ned 
in  person  to  Soneino  his  plans  for  the  Wond 
voyage;  and  July  as,  141)4.  PuebU  Mrf  AvS. 

rtT.'^v""?'"'.!^"'  the'SpanlA  ^re^J^ 
that  the  vessels  had  actuaUy  sailed  out  'Zm 
otm  ginoves  comj   Colon.'    which  dacriptlro 

^.Tn  ,"•"  ^PP''  'Y*"'"'y  '»  Sebastiarbut  to 
John  Cabot  as  we  know  from  corroborative  cvi 

nf  ^i^'Ti"^*  n"?^-  "f "^  f"*''  '•  "»t  the  name 
of  .Sebastian  Cabot  appnirs  in  connection  wUh 
those  voyugcs,  for  the  first  time,  in  Peter  Mar 
tyr-s  account,  printcl  twenty  years  after  tte 
even  ,  and  tak-n  from  SobaJtiiTs  own  li^ 
which  .  I,  not  a  recommendation  In  zZ'- 
land,  his  name  reveals  itself  aa  regards  the  dil 
.ovcry  of  the  New  World  at  a  stilflater  wriod 
In  John  Stow',  Chronicle,  published  In'^l'wS' 
And  although  both  that  historian  a^  H.kluvt 
■luotc  a,  their  authority  for  tlw  rtatement  a 
IT^^m"^  f"''7  °'  '*"^"  PablanVchronicle 

ThT„,.Lii..     '  ''  *  *''^'"  fn«<^rpol8tiou.  .  . 
The  expedition   wa^  composed  orflve  vesi.- u' 

^X^7.&^]^^i.urn.:fBrii"e^' 

,?th.  '"'L^?' '^''^'  """  new^lS^liJea rSS 
'■.''•.  "Mition,  which  was  obliged  to  lel^ 

«v  ;s\';Li:^""^'  °'"'°'  '"•  '"Wwing'to" 
^^vX7Xw7„rttnV:e:?rv""V 

"  """  thT.'v'lJr-.-A'-! '-^o™.t?^ 


^k'^.i.'^'".'''L?»?^  conmendng  at  the  south 
taSL?',^'"V'«'*^  de*«:ublS-ta^ 
%D?2f  ES^-nH™*^**"'."  'J"'  north  wiS 
fZHr  ™  *'''8'?n<l :  —  Cauo  de  ynglatena.'    Iln. 

relatively  the  SVlT^^S^^X'^ 

a.s'«'nl?^;i'^,  ■co.nl^'i^^ffisrJ 

p*5of8  account,  as  reported  by  Peter  M^lr 

A.  fci^?*^ ""  ""•'^^-orthK™  dte: 

gpc  frLr-^-:;;i:^« 

H    Hamss..,  Ih^rertf  ^-  Ameria,.  pt.  1,  it  « 

••  r„^ii^"'".'"''".»  r*'^*"^  Spain  In  Ju"  hm 
g.ve"h rlrl  '->*"«  •^'cc've.l  hlrklnd^: 
futflta  vX..^""",,""*  P~"n'«««  him  olh« 
ddnv,  took  n  "^"'"^J""*^'"'  ^<iM  out  and 
3?lnfM^    p."'     ^^'  npart*  of  the  returning 

«arco  lolo,    and    the  newfound    world    was 


,7fl?J'"*  5"  "^  N*-"   World  ui 
atlantP;  ,1?     "'"'P'''*.  therefore.  ilY  the 
Btiantic  discoveries  mwie  bv  C^hitt  !>.««[. 
rear  t.Vm     n...  „.i.rj..  "'>•'*».  Wloie 


uiw  L.     .J     ■  '?""■»  "PeaiUons  of  14BT  and 

Jiriiian  nag,  and  romnria^    >i._r .«    !r' 

Irnnsatlantrc  d 

ritremitr  of  tlu^  m!^    In    .?'  ■*•**••«  to  the 


tho„yhrt^.:;v^~^^^^^^^^^ 


peopli 


01 


riv~.'\Ii7i.    '■  "J'''^''  •■"  "»•«"<>  either  from  lu 
^ree  peaks,  ot  from  the  Hoir  TrtnltT.^.ir 

f^^'l^e'^SrUri^.^iL^'lJrioL'i'hV.'S: 

tlfl^^^.«H  f**^  ""i^  esubllshed  a'for 
DominS^'iii  u'"?'^*d  "»•  town  of  8anto 
M^-I^iii".'  ^""t  Bwtholomew  had  ruM 
StS  !^"^  ^"^°«  **»  Admimls  atwcnce  I,  t 
hi  tt?ij"°*  ?'•"•»«  •  nroH.  which  wi«  h^,  «| 

w«ut  10  noomU*  thm.  tad  be  even  succMded 


amuuca,  i4te-Mi». 


£at<  Vogatu 
c/OOtimbtm. 


AMERICA,  1499-lSOO. 


.'i 


to  •ttaehlng  Roldan  wumlr  to  hb  IntentU. 
O^umbua'  stmence  from  BpiOii,  however,  left  hb 
cood  nsme  without  iponaon;   and  to  latiafy 
detncton,  a  new  commiaaioner  waa  lent  OTer 
with  enlarged  power*,  even  with  authority  to 
•upenede  Columbua  in  general  command,  if 
Beoeaary.    Thia  emliaary  was  Frandaco  de  Bo- 
badilla,  who  arrived  at  Santo  Domingo  with  two 
wavela  on  the  88d  of  August,  iSJO,  finding 
•piego  in  command,  hia  brother,  the  AdmliBl 
weing  absent      An  Issue  was  at  once  mad*. 
Jnego  refused  to  accede  to  the  commissioner's 
(orders  till  Columbus  returned  to  judge  the  case 
Ihimself;   so  BobadiUa  assumed  charge  of  the 
wown  property  violently,  took  possession  of  the 
Admiral  s  house,  sod  when  Columbus  returned, 
he  with  his  brother  was  arrested  and  put  In  irons. 
In  this  condition  the  prisoners  were  placed  on 
shipboard,  and  sailed  for  Spain,    The  capUln  of 
the  sliip  offered  to  remove  the  manacles:  but 
Columbus  would  not  permit  It.  being  determined 
to  land  in  Spahi  bound  as  he  was ;  and  so  he  did. 
The  effect  of  his  degradation  was  to  his  advant- 
age; soverelKns  and  people  were  sboiked  at  the 
sight;  and  Fenlinund  and  Isabella  hastened  to 
make  amends  by  receiving  Urn  with  njnewed 
favor.    It  was  soon  apparent  that  everything 
reasonable  would  be  granted  him  by  the  mon- 
archs,  and  that  he  could  have  all  he  might  wish 
short  of  receiving  a  new  lease  of  power  in  the 
islands,  which  the  Bovorolgns  wore  determined 
to  SI*  iiaoitieil  at  least  In-forc  Columbus  should 
agniu  ii88uine  government  of  them.   The  Admiral 
had  not  forgotten  his  vow  to  wrest  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  from  the  Infidel;  but  the  monarchs 
dill  not  accede  to  his  wish  to  underuke  It.    DIs- 
appointeil  in  this,  he  propoaeil  a  new  voyage; 
and    getting   the    royal    countenance  for   this 
schtiiic.  he  was  supplliil  with  four  vessels  of 
from  tlttv  to  seventy  tons  each.  ...  He  sailed 
from  Cadiz.  May  9,  l.vra,  accompanied  by  his 
brother    Bartholumiw    and   hi*  son  Fernando 
The  vessels   reaclieii  San  Dnmingo   June   20 
BobadillB.  whuiH!  rule  of  a  year  ami  a  half  had 
been  an  unlmppy  one.  had  given  place  to  Nicho- 
las lie  Uvanilo;  and  the  fleet  which  brought  the 
new  governor  — with  Maldonado,  Las  Caaas  and 
o  Hf  1,T7  ""*  '*y  '"  "'*  '»■'■*>"'  waiting  to  receive 
Bobadilla  for  the  return  voyii)fp.     Columbus  had 
been  Instructi'd  to  avoid  llispaniola;  but  now 
that  one  of  his  vessels  leiikiil.  and  he  nceiicd  to 
make  repairs,  he  sent  a  Umt  ashore,  asking  per. 
pilssion  to  enter  the  harbor.     Hu  was  refuseil 
though  a  Sturm  was  impc-mlini?.     He  shcltercii 
his  ve«jt-l,  as  best  he  could,  ami  rode  out  the 

*".*•  „"''*  ''*^*'  *'■'•■''  ''*<'  ■">  '""""l  Bobadilla 
and    Roldon.    with  their  111  gotten  gains,    was 
wrecked,  and  these  enemies  of  folumbus  were 
drowned.     The  Admiral  found  a  small  harbor 
where  he  could  make  his  repairs;  and  then,  July 
U,   sailnl  westwanl   to  flnil,  as  he   supposed 
the  richer  portions  of  Imlls.  .  .  .  A  landing  was 
made  on  the  ciim.t  of   Honduras,  August  14 
Three  (Ihts  Liter  the  explorers    landed    again 
nrteen  leai^ues  fiirtliiT  east,  and  t^xik  possession 
of  tiM)  country  for  S|ittin,     Still  i-ast  tiiey  went 
and,  in  gratitu.i.'  for  aarav  after  a  long  storm 
thi'y  named  a  ca|ie  which  tliey  roumlid.  Oracios 
»   Uiu«--a  name  still   prescrveil  at  the  point 
whi-re  the  coast  of  Honduras  liegins  to  trend 
s"Hihwsril.     Columbus  was  now   ivlug   ill  on 
his  lied,  placeil  on  deck,  and  was  half  the  tims 
lu    tvvery.    UUII    the   vessels   coasted    south" 


•long  and  beyond  the  shores  of  CoeU  Rica;  then 
turned  with  the  bend  of  the  coast  to  the  north- 
east, until  they  reached  Porto  Bello,  as  we  call 
It,  where  they  found  houses  and  orchards,  aiid 
passed  on  "to  the  farthest  spot  of  Bastidas' 
exploring,  who  had.  In  1301,  saUed  weetwaid 
along  the  northern  coast  of  South  America." 
There  turning  back,  Columbus  attempted  to 
found  a  oolonv  at  Veragua,  on  the  Costa  Rica 
coast,  where  slgni  of  gold  were  tempting.    But 
toe  gold  proved  scanty,  the  natives  hostile,  and. 
the  Admiral,  withdrawing   hia  colony,  sailed 
away.    "  He  abandoned  one  worm-eaten  caravel 
at  Porto  BeUo,  and,  reaching  Jamaica,  beached 
two  other*.    A  year  of  disappointment,  grief, 
and  want  followed.     Columbus  clung  to  his 
wrecked  vessels.    His  crew  alternately  mutinied 
at    his    side,    and    roved    about    the    island 
Ovando,  at  HispanloU,  heard  of  his  stnits,  but 
only  tardily  and  scantily  relieved  him.    The  dis- 
contented were  finally  humbled;  and  some  ships 
despatohed  by  the  Admirals  agent  in  Santo 
Domingo,  at  test  reached  him  and  brought  him 
and  his  companions  to  that  place,  whero  Ovando 
received  him  with  ostenutious  kindnea,  lodging 
hhn  in  his  house  till  Columbus  departed  for 
Spain,  Sept   18,   1604."    Arriving  in  Spain  in 
November,   disheartened,   broken  with  disease 
neglected,  it  was  not  until  the  following  May 
tliat  he  had  strength  enough  to  go  to  the  court  at 
Segovia,  and  then  only  to  be  coldly  received  by 
King  Ferdinand  —  Isabella  being  di-ad.    "  While 
still  hope  was  deferred,  the  intlrmiliea  of  ago  and 
a  life  of  hardships  brought  Columbus  to  his  end  ■ 
and  on  Ascension  Day.  the  20th  of  May,  l.we,  he 
ilieil,   with  his  son  Diego  and  a  few  devoted 
friends  by  his  bedside."-^.  Winsor,  A'amUite 
and  Orilieal  Hut.  of  Am.,  t.i,  eh.  1 

Also  ijt:  II.  H.  Bancroft  ttitt.  of  the  I^Meilk 
Stalet,  t.  1,  eh.  8  and  4.— W.  Irving,  XtA  and 
Voyage*  of  (Mumbut,  bk.  10-18  (».  8) 

p.  laMh-iOM.— The  Voyagea  and  Di*. 
tea  of  OJcda  and  Pinion.— The  Second 


62 


cereric*        _, 

Voyan  of  Amerifo  Vespucci.— One  of  tlie 
most  daring  and  resolute  of  the  adventurer*  who 
accompanied  Columbus  on  his  second  voyairc 
(in  1408)  was  Alonso  de  Ojeiia.    Ojeda  quarrel  Iwi 
with  the  Admiral  and  returned  to  Spain  in  14»8 
Soon    afterwards,    "he   was    provldcil    by  the 
Bishop    Fonseca,    Columbus'  enemy,    with    a 
fragment  of  the  map  which  the  Admiral  had 
sent  to  Penlinand  and  Isabella,  showing  the  dis- 
coveries which  he  had  maile  in  his  lost  voyaire 
With  this  assistance  Ojeila  set  sail  for  Soutii 
America,  accompanied  by  the  pilot.  Juan  de  la 
Costt.   who  hiul  accompanied  Columbus  in   his 
first  great  voyage  in  1492.  and  of  whom  Coluni 
bus  coinplalne«I  Uiat.   'bilug  a  clever  man,  hi- 
went  aljout  saying  that  he  knew  more  than  he 
illil,  onil  also  by  Amerigo  V.-spiiccl.     They  set 
snll  on  the  20lh  of  May.  1489.  with  four  veiweN 
and  after  a  passage  of  27  ikvs  c»niu  in  sight  of 
the  continent,  200  leagues  east  of  the  Oronnco 
At  the  unci  of  Jiini .  they  lamleil  on  the  •';! .res  of 
Surinam,   in  six  ilejtni-s  of  north  latlvude.  nnii 
Iiroreeiiinij  west  saw  the  mouths  of  the  Rsseiiuilxi 
nnil  Ommieo.     Passing  the  Uoca  del  I)ra«..  of 
Trinliiail.  they  coasted  wi-stwani  till  they  reachi'.l 
the  Capo  de  la  Vela  in  Granaiia.     It  was  in  thii 
voyage  that  waa  dlsmvprn)  iji*  Gulf  to  whicU 
Ojeda  gave  the  name  of  Veneiuila,  or  Little 
Venice,  on  account  of  the  cabins  Imllt  on  piles 
over  the  <  »(er,  a  uudit  of  life  which  brought  to 


#' 


AMERICA,  1499 -ISOa 


hta  mind  luc  wattr-city  of  the  Adriatic.  From 
tbp  Amcriraa  coast  OJcda  went  to  the  Caribbce 
blands,  and  on  the  6th  of  September  WciS 
^aguimo  in  Hiapanlola.  whbre  he  raSSi  » 
revolt  against  the  authority  of  ColumbuT^^llU 

Ci.  however  were  fru.trated  by  Roldan  and 
bar.  the  delesatea  of  Columbua,  and  fcS  t« 
conipclle.1  to  withdraw  from  the  Ulind.     OnTlw 
Bth  of  February,   1500.  ho  returned,  caVrylnK 
with  him  to  Cwliz  an  extraordinary  iumbt-r  o? 
•Iave8,  from  which  he  realUed  an  enonnous  aum 
fhJ"^"*^-     *'• ""'  .•^S'""'"?  of  December.  1490^ 
Toyage.  another  companion  of  Columbus,  in  hta 
flrit  voyage.  Vicente  Yafiez  Pinion,  saHed  from 
P»lo.   w«i  the  first  to  ctos.  the  line  on    h" 
American  ride  of  the  Atlantic,  and  on  the  aoth 
of  Januarv,  1500,  diacoveied  cipe  8t.  Augusttoe    ' 
to  whjch  fie  gave  the  mune  of  fiTbo  SinTMaria 
deU  Consolacion,  whence  returning  northVard 
bt  followe<l  the  wentcrlv  trending  5)a8t.Tnd  w 
d^eriHl  U.e  mouth  of  the  AmfzoTwhich  he 
named  Paricunu     Within  a  month  after  hUdc 
parture  from  Palo.,  he  waa  followed  fro„,  al 
-me  port  and  on  the  same  route  by  Die™  ,  c 
^•S;.  ?,"  ""*  "*?  ^"'  todlacover.  at  the  nmuth 
wm!5.    ","""*"■  ':y  P'f«n»  of  a  closcl  vlw 
wWch  only  opj  ne.1  when  it  ra.che.1  the  bc.utmi 
of  thewa  er,  thut,  at  a  depth  of  eight  fSZ 

wl?  h"'/.''".  '""  ''"'^•''  f-thonn  were  M? 
water  but  all  alwve  w.u.  fresh.  Upc  alsomalle 
the obs,.rvall..n  that  l^yond  Cape  St^uTusTlne 
wind,  he  d.mhl,d.  as  \v,.l|  „s  finz  „   the  c«.ift 

Ci^X'r.alM'rr''    ''^'  """    '•*'^"    "f 

teafj^-Ui^^JiaKl^rnSL;!^.!^ 

dUc..v,.n. ,,  ,o  the  s<,.,tl..  Two  veii^.ls.  Zl«b  v 
D  the  spring  uf  Km.  were  «.nt  .,  t  uu  t 
0«M>»r  f,>rt<r.„l.  X„  j„u„,.l  or  cl,.-  t  "f  „ 
vm,  Ko  .s  now  ,„  cxisretu-e.  hence  little  is  known 
"f  Its  obj«t  or  resulLs.  Still  in.ire  dim  iLa 
prevous  vnyag,.  astTilHHl  by  Conldro  to  J,  a^ 
VazC-rienal.  fullurofOas^ar.  .         tZ-.  *"^ 

lie  talK.i  a  cliart.,.  struck  the  c.«i8t  of  N.w found- 


Of  rnptKitu. 


AMEMCA.  1500-1514. 


t,ame<I  there  ha<i  the  greatest  influence  on  the 

plorationof  aeBruai.li  cout  for  the  k£ 

c.me  curiou^y  co^X'Sid.-  K^l^mTrei'^f 
I  ortugal  intrusted  to  I'edro  Alvarez  dTcuhiS 

ip  tr 'rk  of  'oir '"  «"«""'^^  ^  f-'now 

ujj  lue  worK  or  Uama  and  establish  a  Pnn.i 

met  X  frem  iT'''  ^T'^Jl'"*  "t^ut  i^ 
mi  a,  saiiea  rrom  Lisbon  March  »  1500     AVt»» 

passing  the  Cape  Venie  Islands.  MaVdi  2^  for 

some  reason  not  clcariy  known   whe*hcr  driven 

by  stormy  weather  or  ^king  to  avJd  the  c^lms 

"'.;^t'*Cal,r;i','\'"  ""<"  :'-»me  on  the  Guinea 
coast,  labrul  t<K)k  a  sonio-vliat  more  wp«ti.ri^ 
course  than  he  realizcl.  and  on  A^Jil ^o^af^r^ 
weary  progrc^uverging  less  than  W  mile;  %;? 
:^.'r,  "-^d- '.'«-"' of  Brazil  S'ot 


(  «<  iz  111  Stpt.nilH.r,  I,VCJ.     Tliix  U.'i  .  ,K '"J'"' 

I     •?  .      ^„.i,""n"/'"   '«^'^«"'  "'".after.  •-. 
.lm1..>       ".■"r"  '-"»  ^•!»»»»»  »'lthorilv  fMriiyl 

'^'''—i^r'foir^irjsi^^z'tj'tt 


61 


far    U^yoml  the  limit  readied   bv    Uno 
Approaching  it  in  su.^h  »  way  I'abnil  /dt  s.ire 
liiat   Ills  coast  must  fall  to  the  east   "f  the  n«  m\ 
T^:^'^{     Accordingly  „„  .May  day,  at    ' or," 
S«guro  in  latitude  16°  a/  S     he  took  f,!J.^ . 
p.«sesslon  of  the  country  for  Pom.ga7  and^ 

LiSn  witb^ir  '"  ""*  "'  "is  r,;i"£ik   'o 
i^isiKin   with  the  news.      On    M.iu    •»    <■  i     i 

weighed  anchor  and  sto«|  hr  the  ^ape  of  &C 

V.Tfv  •  •  ^'»''™'™""Hhelandl*ha.  IfouTd 

Cmz    iut'when'r;!"'^''  ""■*"."?^  bec«ni..S 
v^^ruz,  out  When  Lenios  arrivwi  in  Lisbon  with 

the  new,  he  liad  with  him  some  gorg'^us  inr,7 

o'f"'i^l^'  "h  J  "'.','""'f  ""^  ••"'"^•^'  ..antes  ^old  1  ; 
of  the  Bmzilian  c.«ist  we  find  •  Land  of  I'um 
Jiuets'  and  'Land  of  the  IIolv  C^«^•  The  |an  1 
lay  obviously  so  far  U.  the  cist  thr.Spa  „  c,  « 
...t  deny  that  at  last  thrre  was  somei  In  f  i 
I'urtugal  out  in  the  -o,  „  sia  '  M  i  I  bCnsf 
was  fdt  at  Lisbon.     K,„^^  Emai  ud  bt^i?,'; 

wre  acwptcl.  for  what  reason  we X  , mt  k    n 

Oj^-ila,  probably  in  the  autumn  of  iVm    \..,.V^, 
cu.  pass..,  fronuhe  «.rv,e.  of  Sj^'i.,' ii:;^  iViT  o'f 

?  ;:rif£!n  wKe::-^r'ir£?:;i 

dear  who  wa.s.l.ief  captal,,.  Iml  Y.  VarnI  •  ', ,  1  -w 
ound  n.«*«.s  ^.rl,el  evin.  ^U,,{\i  ^^^^^J^ 

11,;    KfT  -^'"""'■'-     "'«  "■^»  '"'It  wa.s  iiia,!,.    m 
he  African  coast  at  Cniie  V,r.le  ihc  llrs    «•,.  b 

'"June.   .  After«7,l!.yH,l.  i;evi|,:,^,',.,rtl i-r 

nraiil  lu  latitude  about  5'  S..  on  the  evening 


AMERICA,  180&-1S14. 


tTamii 


ttamina  of 


AMERICA,  ISOO-ISIA 


■  I 
1 


•1 


of  the  16th  of  August,  the  feiUral-day  of  San 
Roque,  whom  name  wu  accordingly  given  to 
the  cape  before  which  they  dropped  anchor. 
From  thli  point  they  slowly  followed  the  coait  to 
the  southward,  stopping  now  and  then  to  exam- 
toe  the  country.  .  .  .  It  was  not  until  All  SainU 
day,  the  first  of  November,  that  they  reached 
the  bay  in  latitude  18°  8,,  which  is  still  known 
by  the  name  which  they  gave  It,  Bahiade  Todos 
Santos.    On  New  Year's  day,  1508,  they  arrived 
at  the  noble  bay  where  54  years  later  the  cLlef 
city  of  Brazil  was  founded.    They  would  seem 
to  have  mistaken  it  for  the  mouth  of  auotlier 
huge  river,  like  some  that  had  already  been  seen 
In  this  strange  world ;  for  they  called  it  Rio  de 
Janeiro  (River  of  January).   Thence  by  February 
15  they  had  passed  Cape  Santa  Maria,  when  they 
left  the  coast  and  took  a  southeasterly  course  out 
Into  tlic  ocean.    Americus  gives  no  satisfactory 
reason  for  this  change  of  direction.  .  .  .  Kt- 
hapslic  may  have  looked  into  the  mouth  of  the 
river  La  Plata,  which  is  a  bay  more  than  a  liuu- 
dred  miles   wide;    and    the   sudden  westward 
trend  of  the  shore  may  have  led  him  to  suppose 
that  lie  had  reached  the  end  of  tlie  continent. 
At  any  rate,  he  was  now  in  longitude  more  tliaii 
twenty  degrees  west  of  the  meridian  of  Cape 
San  Roque,  and  tlierefore  unquestionably  out  of 
Portuguese  waUTS.     Cleariy  there  was  no  use  in 
going  on  and  discovering   lands  wliich  could 
belong  onlv    to  Spain.     This  may  account.   I 
think,  for  the  cliange  of  direction."    Tlie  voyage 
southuiistwardly    was  pursued   until   the  little 
fleet  hud  ri'aclied  the  icy  and  rocky  coast  of  the 
Island  of  South  Georgia,  in  latitude  M"  S.     It 
was    then  decided   to  turn  homeward.     "Ves- 
pucius  .  .  .  headed  straight  N.  N.  E.   throuah 
the  huge  ocean,  for  Sierra  Leone,  and  the  dis- 
tance of  more  tlian  4,000  miles  was  made—  witli 
wonderful    accuracy,    though    Yespucius  says 
notliing  about  that  — In  83  days.  .  .  .  Thence, 
after  some  further  delay,  to  Lisbon,  where  they 
arrived  on  the  7th  of  September,  1503.    Among 
uU    tlie  voyages   made   during    that   eventful 
period  tliere  was  none  that  as  a  feat  of  navi- 
gation surpasseil  this  third  of  Vespucius,  and 
there  was  none,  except  the  first  of  Columbus, 
that  outranked  it  in  historical  importance.    For 
it  was  not  only  a  voyage   Into  the    remotest 
stretches  of  the  Sea  of  Darkness,  but  it  was 
preeminently  an  incursion   into   the  antipodal 
world    of    llic    Southirn    hemispiierp.    ...   A 
coast  of  continental  extent,  bcglculnir  so  near 
the  meridian  of  the  Cttfie  Vcnie  islimiis  ami  run 
nlng  Bouthwesteriv  to  latitude  3.1'  S.  nnd  per- 
haps lieyond,  diil  not  fit  into  anvlKKlys  scheme 
of  things.  ...  It   was  land   unknown   to  the 
ancients,  and  Yespucius  was  right  in  savinjr  that 
be  had   lieh<hl   there  things  by   the   thousand 
wlilrli  Pliny  hitd  never  mentioned.     It  was  not 
Btrange  that  he  should  cull  it  a  •  New  Worid  ' 
and  in  meeting  wlih  this  phrase,  on   this  first 
occasion  In  whieh  it  appears  in  unv  document 
with  reference  to  any  part  of  what  we  now  rail 
Amcrien.  tlie  readir  must  lie  careful  not  to  clothe 
it  with  the  meanini;  which  it  wears  in  our  mxl 
em  eyes     In  using  the  expression  '  New  Worid  ' 
Vespucius  was  not  thinking  of  the  Florida  coast 
which  he  had  visited  on  a  former  voyage,  nor  of 
the  'island*  of  [nOii '  .i!.;,-,-.vtir-,l  b)-  Ct.lunibi;-. 
nor  even  of  the  Peart  (oust  wliicli  he  had  fol 
IowihI   after    the   Admiral    in   exploring.      Tlie 
txprecsioQ    occurs    in    his    letter    to    Lorenzo 


64 


de'  Medici,  written  from  Lisbon  In  Much  or  April, 
1503,  relating  solely  to  this  thlnl  voyage.  The  let- 
ter begins  as  follows :  '  I  have  formerly  written 
to  you  at  sufficient  length  about  my  return  from 
those  new  countries  which  In  the  ships  and  at  the 
expense  and  command  of  the  most  gracious  King 
of  Portugal  we  have  sought  and  found.    It  M 

{jroper  to  call  them  a  new  world.'  Observe  that  It 
soulr  the  new  countries  visited  on  thU  third  voy- 
age, the  countries  from  Cape  San  Roque  south- 
wanl.  that  Yespucius  thinks  it  proper  to  call  anew 
world,  and  here  Is  fcls  reason  for  so  calling  them : 
'  Since  among  our  ancestors  there  waa  no  know- 
leitge  of  them,  and  to  all  who  hear  of  the  affair  It 
Is  most  novel.  For  it  transcends  the  Ideas  of  the 
ancients,  since  most  of  them  gay  that  bevond  the 
equator  to  the  south  there  Is  no  continent,'liut  only 
the  st-a  which  they  call  the  Atlnnttc,  and  if  any  of 
them  asserted  the  existence  of  a  continent  theie, 
tliey  found  many  reasons  for  refusing  to  consider 
It  a  habitable  country.  But  this  last  vovage  of 
mine  has  proved  that  this  opinion  of  theirs 
was  erroneous  and  In  every  way  contrarv 
to  the  facta.'  .  .  .  This  expression  '  Noviis 
Mumliis     [New  World],   thus  occurring   In  a 

£rivate  letter,  had  a  remarkable  career.    Early 
1  June,  1908,  about  the  time  when  Americus 
was   starting  on   his   fourth   voyage,   Lorenzo 
died.     By    the    beginning   of    1504,    a    Latin 
venloD  of  the  letter  [translated  by  Giovanni 
Oiocondo]  waa  printed  and  published,  with  the 
title    'Mundus   Notus.' .   .   .   The  little  four- 
leaved  tract,  'Mundus  Novus,'  turned  out  to 
be  the  great  literary  success  of  tlie  day.     M. 
Harisse  Tias  described  at  least  eleven  Latin  edi- 
tions probably  published  in  the  course  of  1504 
and  by  1506  uot  less  than  eight  editions  of  Ger- 
man versions  liad  been  Issued.    Intense  curiosity 
was  amused  by  this  announcement  of  the  exis- 
tence of  a  populous  land  beyond  the  equator  and 
unknown  (could  such  a  thing  be  possible)  to  the 
ancients,"— who  did  know  something,  at  least, 
alKiut  tlie  eastern  parts  of  the  Ashitic  continent 
which  Columbus  was  supposed  to  liavc  reached. 
The  "Novus  Mundus,"  so  named,  began  soon  to 
be  ri'presentwl  on  maps  and  glolies,  generally  as 
n  greut  island  or  quasi-continent  Ijing  on  and 
Ik'Iow  tho  equator.     "Europe,  Asia  and  Africa 
were  tiio  three  parts  of  the  eartli   Ipreviously 
known],  and   so  this  opposite  region,  hitherto 
unknown,  but  mentioned  by  Mela  and  Indicated 
by  l*tolemy,  was  the  Fourth  Part.     We  can  now 
iH'gin  to    understand    the    Intense   and   wildly 
absorbing  InUrest  with  which  pi'ople  read  the 
brief  story  of  tho  third  voyage  of  Yespucius 
and  we  can  si'C  that  in  the  nature  of  that  interest 
there  was  nothing  calcuUtcd  to  bring  it  into  com- 
parison witli  tho  work  of  Columbus.     The  two 
navigators  were  not  regarded  as  rivals  in  doing 
the  same  thing,  but  as  men  who  had  done  two 
very  different  things ;  and  to  give  credit  to  one  was 
by  no  means  equivalent  to  withholding  credit 
from    the    other."      In  1807,    Martin   Waldsee- 
mOller.   professor  of   geography  at  Saint-Die, 
published    a    small    treatise   entllleil   "Coamo- 
gruphie  Introductlo,"  with  that  second  of  the  two 
known  hiiers  of  Yespucius  —  the  one  addressed 
to  Soderiiii.  of  which  an  account  Is  given  above 
(A  D.  14»7-149e)— appended  to  it.     "In  this 
rare  book  occurs  the  firnt  suggestion  of  the  name 
America.     Afier  having  treated  of  the  division 
of  the  earth's  inliabitcd  surface  into  three  parts 
—Europe,  Asia,  and   Africa  — WoldieemaUtr 


'  'I 


AUBIOA,  lS0O-m4 

•»y».  Wbenfore  I  do  not  lee  what  U  ri«htlv 
t.  e,  the  land  of  Americua,  after  Its  dl&LVverer 

EZ^"!'n5°n  »'"«**»"  mind,  aince  both 
Europe  and  AiU  hare  got  their  name*  froia 

for  which,  aa  M  Hariaae  remlnda  5a,  the  weatem 
bemiaphere  might  have  come  to  be  known  m 
Atlantia.  or  Heaperidea.  or  SanU  Cruz  or  New 
IndUj.  or  perhap.  ColumbU In  atout  1 

opment  of  the  naming  of  America  had  been 
completed  That  aUg.  oonaiated  of  five  diatlTct 
u'^\J-  ■*;™ri<:"»  cSled  the  regions  virited  bv 
Wm  beyond  the  equator  'a  new\orId '  b^u^ 
they  were  unknown  to  the  ancients;  3.  Oiocondo 
maae  this  striking  phrase  '  Mundui  NovuT^Tn  o 
a  title  for  hia  tranaiaUon  of  the  letter  a 

era  mapa  aa  an  equivalent  for  Terra  Sancta 
Crucis,  or  what  we  call  Brazil;  4.  the  sugeJ, 
UonwM  made  that  Mundu.  Novus  wm  the 
Fourth  Part  of  the  earth,  an.l  might  prop"v  b^ 
named  America  after  iu  discoverer;  S.  tKm^ 
America  thua  got  pUced  upon  several  maps  fthc 
first,  so  far  aa  known,  being  a  map  ascribed  to 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  pu'llisllS'^aZut'^ii'' 
and  the  wcond  a  globe  made  in  1515  by  Johann 

wha^t  we^f TrS^'f^H"  ""  'i'J"'v«l«nt  f,^ 
wuat  we  call  Brazil,  and  sometimes  came  to 
stand  alone  aa  an  equivalent  for  what  we  caU 
South  Ameriai,  but  still  signified  only  a  part  of 
he  dry  land  beyond  thi  Atlantic^to  which 
Columbus  bad  led  the  way.  .  .  This  wider 
meanins    of   South  Ameriw]    became  alT   he 

was  usurped  by  the  name  Brazil.    Three  cen 

T,Z  V"^,4«  "™«  «'   Columbus l^e  7cm1 
dye-wood  called  brazil-wood  was  an  article  of 

Spain      It   was   one   of   the    valuable   thinm 
brought  from  the  East,  and  when  the  F^rtS 

K.lt'*.^  ?■"?  dye-^ood  "bundant  ^n 
those  Impical  forests  that  L8<1  seemed  so  beauti 

f»«t^.V'''"'''""v*''«  °"™«  Brazil  soon  became 

fL  ;~  .  .  "•  '"  ""*•  "nd  bv  slow  <i.i.recs 
the  gK^t  fact  was  learned,  tlit  nil  the  li^^U 
found  beyond  the  Atlantic  by  Coluinbus  «,^  ? 
hU  sucec^rs,  formed  part  of  one  conti^enta 

!».„,„,  "*"  ^'"'•^-  ""c  name  which  had 

become  synonymous  with  New  Worid  was  tl^en 
naturally  extended  to  the  whole.  The  "volu 
™ary  proces.  of  the  miming  of  the  wdirn 
hemUphereaa.  whole  was  thus  made  d, Tec 
Amerio^  i^'i  *';"ir^'-   "'"'  «P""''   'he   rlarne 

«A   7(r  •>)         *"•"•  ■""  ^'*<xterf  of  Amtnat, 
^  I^«*»OD»DL4jp,;  A.  D.  1501-1578 

60 


AMXItlCA,  iso»-mi. 

tA  ^.,»5?»»— T1>«  S«eoBd  Verart  of  Oltda. 

wM^h  ^""*  7°y»5«  °'  AlonzoT^jSaTftSS 
which  he  returned  to  Spain  in  June  1500  ™ 

fn'3  en^'^H  !""^'°«  """"*  ~PuiS'on  2?i  Zu 
and  enterprising  er.f    -rer.    By  way  of  reward 

wh!  likewise  the   government  of   Coquibaco^ 

S^n?i;!.#"M*''^-  H«*"»uUiorizedtofltouU 
number  of  ships  ac  hia  own  expense  and  to  Dmsl 
ecuf  dtaooverie.  on  the  coast^f^T^ICT 

0^?P.rf.^  and  thence  proceeded  to  the 
«v  to  t^'.,^""  *'''ct'°<»"tT  he  found  hia 
T^J2  J-oqufbacoa.  Not  liking  this  noor 
country  he  sailed  on  to  the  Sv  XLSdS 
where  he  determined  to  found  Wa^  „,tlfment 

du,^tlr"'pi''T?"-  '**»»'°«»  to  bfo  ™ort 
duration.  Provisions  very  soon  became  acarr*; 
and  one  of  his  partners,  who  hadteTn  t^Tti 

»t  iif  V„,  H?  "*'i".  ""  ""'  "»•  ^hole  colony 
■et  sail  for  Hispaniola,  taking  the  governor  with 
"•em  In  chains     All  that  OJeda  SinS  bv^ 

" T'liws''uiT'"'.,"""  "?  "*  '*4^c^e  off  ^^0^ 
hi™   "*'»•"»•  the  costs  of  Wh  ch.  however  left 

f™mi:irhL°„"'»?,'K  '««8;,"  Amerigo  sai  Jagato 
irom  LUbon,  with  six  sliips.     The  obiect  of  thI. 

vX^f  "!^  .'°  dl«»verrcertain  isdlkd 

cw  i^l  I''^''  "f  '"PP"*^  '^  "«  w<»?of  Call! 
cut  and  to  be  as  famous  a  mart  in  the  commerce 

Th.vl.^2'''!?  '^r^'^  "'  ^'"11'=  "■«  In  Euro^ 
S^,^'  ."T  ^"P^  '^'^  ^'^"'».  "nd  then  X; 

slJJk  W  ""?S°'^r  P*"'««'^,ln  'tonding  for 
oerra  iveoa.  The  Commander's  ship  was  lost 
and  Vespucci,  with  one  vessel  onlv  V^li«i  m,- 
ooa.t  of  the  New  World,  finding  "I'  J^''wh 'h 
Is  thought  to  have  been  Bahi*  iJere  "thev 
wait.^  abo, ,.  two  months  fn  Vain  exm^tation  o'? 

oat  all  hope  of  this  tliev  coasted  on  for  280 

1^       II  ,  ^^    ^   of  the  meridian  of  LU- 

bon^ Here  they  remained  five  months  .,mn 
good  term.  wi,h  the  natives,  with  whZ  hZ, 
of  the  party   penetrau.,|    forty  leagues  into  thS 

iney  leit  <!4  men  who  had  been  saved  from  th« 

SST.'^.Y"  ""'P  "^"7  f»^«  '"em  '"gun",! 
oealdea   other   arms,    and    nravliiinn.   fn»    .i. 

™°°'^i  th^n  loadeJ  with  b£^    ( wSSdl    „i  id 

homeward    and    returaed    in   saflty       '     T^ 

honour,   therefore,   of  having  form«l '  the  flra? 

vZ^'  'IT  """"■•y  l»  dueTAmeri"o 
veapucci.  It  does  not  app<ar  that  anv  furthpr 
attention  was  as  this  tim;  paid  to  i "'  uZ 
the  cargo  of  brazil  which  V?apucci  had'  brought 
home  tempted  private  adventurers,  who  were 
ontent  with  peaceful  gains,  to  tra.!,^  thither  fo" 

well  known,  tlmt  in  conaequeniu  the  coast  anrf 
•he  whole  o.imtry  .^btaisrf^thc  nMm«  .!mh™,?i 
""'"'"••tanding^he  holter  ap^ultlon  fS^u 


AJCERICii,  lS0»-19n. 


Dmrin. 


▲UERICA.  1B0»-1811. 


'!! 


tiMBtat  at  D«ri*n.  — "  For  sevenl  yeut  •fter 
hU  ruinowi,  though  auccnsful  lawsuit,  we  low 
•11  'ntcM  of  Alouzu  (le  OJeds,  exi-epting  that  we 
•re  told  he  nude  auothrr  Toyige  to  INKiuibacoa 
[Yenezuela],  In  1508.  No  record  nmaiuii  of  thii 
expedition,  which  aeenu  to  have  Iwcn  equally 
unproflUble  with  the  prece<llne,  for  we  find 
him,  in  1508,  in  the  Uland  of  HiM|>uniola  ai  poor 
In  pune,  though  as  proud  In  spirit,  as  ever.  .  .  . 
About  this  time  the  cupidity  of  King  Ferdinand 
was  greatly  exciteu  by  tlie  accounts  by  Colum- 
bus of  the  gold  mines  of  Venigua,  In  which  tlie 
admiral  fancied  he  had  discovered  the  Aurea 
Chenonesus  of  the  ancients,  whence  King  Solo- 
mon procured  the  gold  used  In  building  tiie  tem- 
ple of  Jerusalem.  Subsequent  voyagers  hail 
corroborated  the  opinion  of  Ccluml)us  as  to  the 
general  riches  of  the  coast  of  Terra  Firma;  King 
Ferdinand  resolved,  therefore,  to  found  regular 
colonies  along  that  coast,  and  to  place  the  whole 
under  some  capable  commander. "  Ojeda  wa» 
recommended  for  this  post,  but  found  a  competi- 
tor in  one  of  the  gentlimea  of  the  Spanish  court, 
Diego  de  Nicuesa.  "King  Fenliuaud  avoided 
the  dilemma  by  favoring  both ;  not  indeed  by 
fumiahtng  them  with  sliTps  and  inuoey,  but  by 

f [ranting  patenu  and  dignities,  which  cost  noth- 
ng,  and  might  bring  rich  returns.    He  divided 
that  part  of  „ho  continent  which  lies  along  the 
Isthmua    of    Darien    into  two   pMvinccs,    the 
boundary  line    running   through    the  Gulf  of 
Uraba.    Tlie  rastcrn  part,  extending  to  Cape  de 
la  Vela,  wascallcd  Xew  Andalusia,  and  the  gov- 
ernment of  it  Kivtn  to  <_)jcda.     The  oilier  to  the 
west  [called  Castilln  del  ( )ro],  including  Veragua, 
and  reaching  to  Cape  Omeios  i  Dios,  was  as- 
signed to  Nicuesa.     The  island  of  Jamaica  was 
given  to  the  two  governors  in  ronimor  as  a  place 
whence  to  draw  supplies  of  provision.^."  Slender 
means  for  the  ('(|uipinent  of  OJeda's  expedition 
were  supplied  by  the  veteran  pilot,  Juan  de  la 
Cosa,  who  accnnipaiiled  him  as  his  lieutenant. 
Nicuesa  was  more  amply  providnl.     The  rival 
armamenu  nrrivod  at  San  Domingo  about  the 
same  time  (in  15(>9),  and  much  quarreling   be- 
tween   the    two    eommuuders    ensued.      Oieda 
found  a  notary  in  San   Domingo,  Martin  Fer- 
nandez de  Enciso,  who  hud  money  which  he  con- 
ientel  to  invest  in  the  enterprise,  and  who  prom- 
ised to  follow  him  with  an  addiiionai  s!iip-load  of 
recruits  and  suppliea     Under  this  arrangement 
OJ<tla  made  ri'ndy  to  sail  in  advance  of  hts  com- 
petitor, enilmrliiug  Nov.  10.  1509.     Among  those 
who  Sidled  «itU  him  was  Ft;!nri«co  I'izarro,  the 
future  coni|Uen>r  of  I'eru.    Ojeda,  l>v  liis energy, 
gained  lime  enough  lo  iieaiiy  ruin  hii expedition 
before  Nicuesa  naelied  llie  scene;  for,  having 
hkndedat  Cariha).'<na,  he  made  wariipon  llie  na- 
tives, pursunl  Hum  rccklesslv  into  tlie  interior  rvf 
the  country,  with  TO  men,  nn'il  was  overwlnlmcd 
by  tiie  de.-perate  sivages,  es<:i|iiiig  wMi  only  one 
compaiHon  from    their   poisoned    arrows.      Ills 
faithful  frienii.  I  lie  pilot,  Juan  de  la  Cosa,  was 
among  the  slain.  uiKlUjeiUhiniseif,  hiding  in  the 
forest,  was  iii.irly  (i(  ad  of  hiaigeriuid  exixisurc 
when  foiiiid  and  nxiieil  liy  a  searclilng  party 
from  his  shijis.     At  this  Jul  cture  llie  lieet  of  Nl- 
tucsa  made  its  iipp<>nr;inrc.    Jealousies  were  for- 

gotten  In  a  on  union  rage  agninst  tlie  natives  and 
le  IwoexiHillliona  mr-  joineil  in  an  atlaelc  on 
Uie  Indian  viilai;es  whicij  span-d  notlilii^.  Niru- 
Ma  then  prixeiiltil  to  Verafua,  while  Ojeda 
louiidcd  a  town,  which  he  caUed  tian  bebaatiun. 

66 


I  at  the  east  end  of  the  Qulf  of  Uraba.  Incessantly 
harassed  by  tlie  uauvea,  terrified  bv  the  cITecta  of 
the  iH)i8<m  which  llieae  used  in  tbe'ir  warfare,  and 
threatened  with  starvation  by  the  rapidexhaustloo 
of  its  supplies,  liie  settlement  lost  courage  and 
hope.    Enciso  and  his  promised  ship  were  waited 
for  In  vain.   At  length  there  came  a  vessel  which 
certain  piratical  adventurers  at  Hlsponlola  bad 
stolen,  and  which  brought  some  welcome  pny 
visions,  eagerly  bought  at  an  exorbiuut  price. 
Okda,  half  recovered  from  a  poisoned  wound, 
which  he  had  treated  heroically  with  i^Hl-hot 
plaU's  of  iron,  engaged  the  pbvtes  to  convey  him 
to  Uispaniola,  for  the  procuring  of   aunpliea. 
The  voyage  was  a  disastrous  one,  resulting  in 
shipwreck  on  the  coast  of  Cuba  and  a  month  of 
desperate  wandering  in  the  morasses  of  the  island. 
Ojeda  survived  all  these  perila  and  aulTcringa, 
made  his  way  to  Jamaica,  and  from  Jamaica  to 
San  Domingo,  found  that  his  partner  Enciso  had 
sailed  for  the  colony  long  before,  with  abundant 
■upnlies,  but  could  learn  nothing  more.    Nor 
could  he  obtain  for  himself  any  means  of  ivtum- 
ing  to  San  Sebastian,  or  of  dispatching  relief  to 
the  place.    Sick,  penniless  and  disheartened,  be 
went  Into  a  convent  and  died.    Meantime  the 
despairing  colonists  at  San  Sebastian  waited  until 
death  haa  made  them  fewenough  to  be  all  takec 
on  board  of  the  two  little  brigautines  which  wei» 
left  to  them;  tlien  tiiey  sailed  away,  Pizarro  in 
command.     One  o?    tlie  bfigantiiies  soon  went 
down  in  a  squul!;  the  other  made  its  way  to  the 
harlxir  of  Carth.i>:en»,  where  It  found  th-  tardy 
Enciso.  searching  for  his  colony.     Enciso,  under 
his  commission,  now  took  command,  and  insisted 
U|Kin  going  to  Sun  Sebastian.     Th^ru  the  old  ex- 
periences were  soon  renewed,  and  even  Encisc 
was  ready  to  abandon  tlie  deadly  place.    The 
latter  had  brouj;ht  with  him  a  needy  cavalier, 
Vasco   Xuilez   do  Balboa — so    nce<ly   that  he 
smuggled  himself  on  board  Enciso's  ship  in  a 
cask  to  esi'ape  his  creditors.     Vosco  Nuflez,  who 
bad  coasted  this  region  with  Bastidas,  in  1500, 
now  advi.s)  il  a  roi.ioval  of  tha  colonv  to  Darien, 
on  the  opposiie  roost  of  llie  Qulf  of  "fralia.    Ills 
advice,  which  w.i>i  followed,  proved  good,  and 
the  hopes  of  the  settle™  were  raised;  butKnciso'a 
modes  of  povernnient  proved  Irkaomn  to  them. 
Then  RillKia  called  attention  to  tlie  fart  that, 
when  liiev  enissed  the  Uuif  of  Uraba,  they  passed 
out  of  the  territory  covered  by  the   patent  to 
Ojeda,  uiiclcT  wliirh  Enciso  was  commis,sioned, 
and  into  tli.it  gmnted  to  Nicuesa.     On  this  sug- 
gestion Eiii  Iso  was  promptly  deposed  and  two 
alcaldes  were  eiecteif,  Dallxia  being  one.     While 
events  in  one  corner  of  Nicuesa's  domain  were 
thus  esUililisliing  a  colony  for  that  ambitious  gov- 
tmor.  he  himself,  at  the  other  extremity  of  it 
was  faring  liaiily.     Ho  had  sullered  hardslilps, 
separation  fruiii  most  of  his  command  and  lung 
aliaiiiloriui.  Ill  on  a  desolate  roast;  luul  rejoined 
his  follow,  li  alter  great  sufferini;,  only  to  su!Icr 
yet  more  ill  th.  ir  coiii[ianv.  until  <i  ss  tlian  om- 
Iiiiiidre.1  liiniiiiieil  of  tlie"700  who  Siiilid   with 
him  a  few   iiionilis  licforc.     The  seltlijiient  at 
Veniirua  li.iil  Inen  deserteil,  and  another,  uanu'd 
Nonilire  di-  Dios  undertaken,  Willi  no  linpfovc- 
mint  of  ciri  iiinslanc-es.     In  this  situation  he  was 
rejoireil,  at  last,  by  the  arrival  of  on-;  of  his  lieii- 
leimii's.  I{..!ri^-,ii!e  Co!men.trr»,  who  ramn  with 
snpiilics.    Colmenareahiouglit  tidings,  inonwer, 
nf  the  prosperous  cohmy  at  Darien,  which  he  had 
discovered  un  his  way,  with  an  tuvitalion  to 


# 


AMBMCA,  1500-1511.  ^^T^  "' 

(f  icum  to  come  and  awiine  the  goTernment  of  It. 
He  accepted  the  Inviutlon  with  deliijlif  but 
slMl  the  community  at  Darlcn  had  n pent«d  of 
n  before  he  reached  them,  and  tlicv  refused 
to  receive  him  when  he  arrived.  Permitied  finally 
to  land,  he  waa  leUed  bjr  a  treaihiroua  party 
among  the  ooloniau— to  whom  Balboa  la  aaid 
to  have  oppoaed  all  the  reaistaore  in  bin  power— 
waa  put  on  board  of  ao  old  and  crazy  l.rliraulinc 
w  th  aeventeen  of  bia  frienda,  and  comnelled  to 

!?it  "l*^,"l!'?'  "*  *°"''*  ""  "ra'Kl't  to  Hpaln. 

The  fniU  bark  let  aail  on  the  first  of  Slarch 
151 1  and  steered  acroaa  the  Caribbean  .Va  for  the 
island  of  Illapanlola,  but  waa  never  neen  or  heard 
of  more.-— W.  Irvlng,Z(^«on<<  IVya^a  ofColum- 
Inu  and  hu  Companion;  t.i. 

Alk)  im  H.  jl.  Bancroft,  nut.  of  th«  FiKifle 
Slalet.  c  1,  <A.  A.  •' 

*•.?•  '5"-— Th«  Spmlah  conqneat  and  oe- 
cupatioa  of  CoIm.    See  Cuiia  :  A.  U  1511 

A.  D.  ISI3.—  The  Vqjage  of  Ponce  de  Leon 
fn  queit  of  tb«  Foaataia  of  Youth,  and  hia 
DiacoTerr  of  Florida.- "  Whatever  may  have 
been  the  Southcmmoat  point  reached  by  Cahot 
in  coaating  America  on  hia  return,  it  la  certain 
that  he  did  not  land  In  Florida,  and  that  the 
lonour of  first eiploringthat  country  Is  due  to 
Juan  Ponce  de  Leon.  This  cavalier,  u  ho  waa 
governor  of  Piicrto  Rico,  Induced  by  tl...  vaeuc 
traditions  circulated  by  the  natlvea  of  tlw  West 
Indies,  that  there  was  a  country  In  the  north 
pows-^liig  a  fouDUiin  whose  w.iieni  restored  tlic 

f *^  fL  ^'S""'-.  ""i?'"  "  *"  "''J'"  "f  ''■«  ambition 
to  be  the  first  to  discover  this  marvellous  reeion 

iJ  V"  *'«^v''«  ««»'gned  the  governorehii., 
t  ^'..?o"  ""h  three  caravels  on  the  8d  vt 
March  1512.  Steering  N.  i  N.,  he  came  upon  a 
country  covered  with  flowers  and  vrrdiire  •  and 
M  the  day  of  his  discovery  han,,  „ed  to  be 
Palm  Sunday,  cabled  by  the  8p»ni„r  is  -Pasqua 
Florida,  be  gave  it  the  name  of  Flori ;  ^  from  this 
circumstance.  He  landed  on  the  2d  of  April  and 
took  nossesslon  of  the  country  in  the  name  of 
Iht  kW  of  Castile.  The  warlike  peonlo  of  the 
coast  of  Cautio  (a  name  given  bv  tue  IrKlUns  to 
all  the  country  lying  between  lupc  ,„veral 
and  the  soul  hem  point  of  Florida)  •>.,„.  how- 
ever,  comrie  led  him  to  retreat,  an^i  he  pursued 
his  explorati.'n  of  the  coast  as  far  a>  ti)'  8'  north 
alitude,  and  on  the  Hth  of  Mav  dou.  '  1  CaM 
itT','"^l  J"'"  rifling  hi' course  1  r'uer^ 
lili^'i,?  """^"Peo' finding  the  i.dand of  i„miDi. 

Xiirii  1  ?*".7'1  '5>  ""'  *^'"'  °'  Youth,  and 
descnUMl  by  the  Indians  as  opposlto  to  Florida, 
he  diHcovercd  the  Bahamas,  and  some  other 
islands,  nrcvloualy  unknown.    Bad  wearhorcom- 

repair  dmnagea,  he  desnaiched  one  of  his  cara- 

andof  the  pilot  Anton  de  Alaminoa,  to  gain  In- 
forinallon  respecting  the  desireil  land.  wT.ich  he 
bad  as  yet  been  totillv  unable  to  .lis^over  lie 
retura,Kl  to  Puerto  nfco  on  the  21,t  of  Septcm 

wi  h  nnlT  frT.  "'^"r'V^''  OrtuWa  arrived  al.s.. 
with  news  of  Bimicl.    He  reported  that  ho  had 
hrlll"'^  ,'.'"'  '''i^d. -which  he  descriK 
large,  well  wooded,  and  watered  by  numerous 

CnTi'r  "1?'.^  ^  '""<;!?  '"  dIscWring"- 

l-^'^l'^heara'nt^te.n-ifst?!  llfc'^ 
vantages  which  Ponce  do  L^n  promts^'  wL  •/ 
froai  tUs  Torage  turned  i ,  -he  profit  of 


AMEIUCA,  1518-1517. 

FlofWa     which  waa  conferred  upon  him,  wat 
purely    .oiiomry;b,ii,  the  route  uV'    by  him  in 
?^^  "•'.'">'" P-rtoUico,  show,     tliadv 
tagecr  making  the  h.  meward  vovag^   .,  Spain  oy 
the  Baha!i,»  Channel."— W.  B.  Ily,     ij^  l 

AtaoiN «;.  R  FHlrba-k,,  W  of  ^  loJida  cA  t 

Pacific  by  Vasco  Nu  ...  de  Baibo*  -PednZ 
riM  Da,da  on  the  I.thmu..-Wi?r.,ncferd? 

vasco  ^ufle^  .U:  Balboa  seems  to  have  earilr 
held  the  lend  ,„  affair,  at  Darien.  thoughTI 
without  much  .  i'Ppsitlon;  for  facUon  and  turb^ 

ence  were  rife.  fencUo  wa»  permit, 'to  ^ 
hU  grievance:*  and  compUiints  to  Spain,  but  Bat 
boos  colleague  Zamudio.  went  vi^  hl«i,  and 
n??^*""  ''°n'?^*  .^"^'«ed«^  to  Hfapanlok  li^ 
nJ  ^"m  ,'"*''-^''"'''*i'd  with  goUI.  W Z  quert 
of  gold  had  sucr.  -ded  at  hist.  The  I>ari^  i3 
venturer,  had  f.  .nd  conside^ble  qu  '^tl?,  ta 
the  possession  of  the  sun,>undin!r  ,.,.',   and 

had  the  pruden.o  to  e...a1,llah'fn*r„!!y  reiTltoSJ 
with  one  of  the  most  .mportan^  f  Uie  ieteh! 
b...ring  caciques,  whose  coi^ly  daugh-.^,  he  ^. 
ded -according  to  the  eaay  cu»t.  n.  of  S. 
country-and  whowially  he  licame ;.,  waw  with 

^Z        1   7  P'"."der.  1...  h»rv,  sted  more;  gold 

than  any  Ufore  him  ha<l  ! •  • ' ■  *  ■ 

ing  of  the  New  World  I- 

obtair  •:  s.    ->yd  little  tor  , 

urea  i  •    r.  i  to  them  ;.    c 

near  m()i...,iiins  and  tow  :- ; 

ellan  youth,  son  of  a  fri....i:r    .ici,,, 

arlyexciled  Iheirimaginal \  by  the  i 

he  told  of  another  great  sea,  nut  f.ir  t„  -i,,  „,«,, 
on  the  southward-strctcliing   shore,  of   \vhich 

we.^.h'^T'.'n';;"  T'"'"'^'"'  "-ry  Kind  of 
r,l;    . ".1  .^ "'"'"•  •'O'ev.r,  that  Ihcy  would 

nee,l  a  thousand  men  to  fight  their  war  to  tLu 
,1,  .  .  """^"»  eavc  such  credence  to  the  storv 
the  kirfor'.r','" Spain to*,li<.lt forces Zl 
the  king  for  an  adeiiuate  cxne<iirion  across  the 
raountarns.     They  sailed  In  October,  1518    but 
did  not  arrive  i-  Spain  until  th    following  May 
The^  found  Bai:H.a  In  much  disl..    ,rat  thfcouru 
tnciso  and  the  friends  of  the  unfortunate  N-. 
i'i?  ^  ;;?"*'^.'y  r''"'^'  him  by  their  complain^ 
J^tH.^.*""?    ""'  •*"*^^  "'">'"»'  Proceeding, 
against  him  to  Ivc-ommeneed.     M.  .n.ime  Mi5e 
nkling  of  thes..  ...utilities  had  r™.  h.nl  BslbS! 
«  T.!^  ^'■™'.7'''  ''y  •^'^'-"el  which  bore  tohto; 
at  the  same  time,  a  commission  as  capUin-itcn- 
tral  from  the  authoritieain  Hispanlol^'^  lie  ISw 
^irn"'t'l^"'"J  ll.e  discoverer  of  the  oc«w 
^.K  1^  '"  ^■"'."'5  ''^.''■«'»  de-cribed,  and  ofSe 
^^?,i  ';.'''  ^k".^?"*"*,  'v'*''"^  J''»  ^''emies  could 
interfer..  w  th  him.    "Accordingly,  early  In  Sei^ 
tembcr   1513,  he  set  out  on  hisyiownil  expS^ 
diUon  f..r  finding  'the  other  sea,"  ac,orapii& 


uiiudkinccthoraniwrk. 
--.n.  But  what  tljey 
I  .ir<d  with  the  tri>aa- 
li'Ming  '  .vend  -j*- 
tLesoutI:  One  i  . 
vartJ  1 
"■  which 


..._  .„..  .>r,Ms  lurnca  i ,  -ne  profit  of  geoe  ■■ 
phy.  the  tfUeof  -Adehuitado  of  Btaiini  L^ 


67 


IV^^Z''»^\^"°^'  "■"*  ^-rdogs,  whIcEwere 
of  more  avail  than  men,  and  by  Indian  alavJ 
tocarry  Uie bnrdens.  llcwent  bysea  o  thete^ 
ri  w^.l"  ?  ^ '  ■  ''Vf-'?l«w,  King  Cireta,  by  whom 
he  wa.  well  ix. .  ived,  and  accompanied  by  whoS 
I  (liana  he  moved  on  Into  Pnnriw's  teirfiorv' 
.i  iieling  the  fear,  of  thi.  cadaue,  he  paaaed  Via 
r  'l"='„:::i^°"; ."«"'"«■  Thenextchl?f1SS,?a^ 
U  ,d  named  Ouarequa.  attempted  reslstar-cv 
but  waa  routed,  with  a  gtcat  Jauglver  of  <}^ 


AHERICA.  151S-1517. 


finding  tf 


AXxiucA,  isn-isia 


ii*' 


it 


If 


peonia,  and  BtlbM  piuhed  on.  "On  tha  35th 
of  cepteraber,  ISIS,  be  came  near  to  the  top  of  a 
mouotaln  from  whence  the  South  8«a  wai  visi- 
ble. The  distance  from  Poncha's  chief  town  to 
thia  pobit  waa  forty  leaipiea,  reckoned  then  lis 
days'  journey ;  but  Vaaco  Nufie*  and  his  men 
took  twanty-llTe  daya  to  accomplish  it,  aa  they 
suifeted  much  from  the  roughneas  of  the  waya 
and  from  the  want  of  proTislons.  A  little  befora 
Vsaco  NuHes  reached  the  height,  Quaiequa'a  In- 
diana Informed  him  of  hla  near  approach  to  the 
iea.  It  waa  a  sight  ia  beholding  which,  for  the 
fliat  time,  any  man  would  wish  to  be  alone. 
Vaaco  Nufiea  bade  hia  men  sit  down  while  he 
ascended,  and  then.  In  solitude,  looked  down 
upon  the  vast  Paclflc  — the  flrat  man  of  the  Old 
World,  so  far  aa  we  know,  who  bad  done  aa 
Falling  OP  his  knees,  he  gare  thanks  to  God  for 
the  favour  shown  to  him  la  hb  being  permitted 
to  dtsooTcr  the  Sea  of  the  South.  Then  with  hia 
hand  be  beckoned  to  hla  men  to  come  up  When 
they  had  come,  both  ha  and  they  knelt  down  and 

Soured  forth  their  thanka  to  God.    He  then  ad- 
resaed  them.  ,  .  .  Haring  .  .  .  addnaaed  his 
men.  Vaaco  XuBe*  proceeded  to  Uke  formal 
possession,  on  behalf  of  the  kioga  of  Caatlle,  of 
the  sea  and  of  all  that  waa  in  it ;  and  in  order  to 
"...I-e  memorials  of  the  event,  he  cut  down  trees, 
fomed  cmatea,  and  heaped  up  stones.    He  slso 
iuacr.hed  the  nsmes  of  the  mooarchs  of  Cas'ila 
upon  jtnt  trees  In  the  vicinity."    Afterwarda, 
when  he  hail  descended  the  western  slope  and 
found  the  shore,  "  he  entered  tlio  sea  up  to  hla 
thigha,  having  his  aword  on.  and  with  hla  ahlekl 
In  Ua  hand;  then  he  called  the  by-staoders  to 
witness  how  he  tourhed  with  his  person  anil  took 
poasesslon  of  this  sea  for  the  kiui^s  of  Castile,  and 
derlaml  that  he  would  defend  the  possession  of 
It  snlnst  sll  rDincra.     AfU-r  this,  Vasco  NuRra 
made  friemls  la  the  usual  mannrr,  first  ronq\irr- 
ing  and  then  nei^iitlatlng  with  "  tiie  several  chiefs 
or  csciiiues  whiMe  territories  came  in  his  way. 
He  explored  the  Oulf  of  San  .Mlnuol,  finding 
r.'^ch  wealth  of  ixarls  in  the  reirion,  ami  re- 
turned to  Darien  hy  a  route  whiih  cmased  the 
Isthmus  considerably  fnrther  t<>  tha  north,  reach- 
ing bis  r.p|<>ny  on  the  auth  of  Jsnuary,  I.IU,  hav- 
Ing  lieen  ntwnt  nearly  five  monlhs.     "  Ills  men 
St  Ihirien  reo'lviii  h'm  with  ekullallon,  and  he 
Imt  no  lime  In  sending  his  mws,  'surh  nlgnul 
snd  new  news,*  ...  to  the  Kliix  of  Hpain,  ac- 
rompanylng  It  with  rirh  presriii*.     Ills  letter, 
whlih  irave  a  ili  miled  account  of  his  Joiircey, 
I  nd   wtilrh,  for  its  length,  waa  rDnipaniJ   by 
i"rt«'r  >i«rtyr  to  the  cp|el)rateil  Ictirr  that  came 
to  the  wimie  from  Tlberiua,  rnntaimil  in  every 
pare  thanks  to  Uixl  tint  he  hwi  est  aped  fmm 
•uih  (fn-at  ih>n<{i'ni  and  Ulmun.    Hoth  the  letliT 
avl  the  pre-^'DH  were  iutriislr<l  to  a  man  namnl 
ArlK>lanrhe.  whnih'|iartr<l  from  Uarten  about  the 
beittnntnif  of  .\Unli,  1/114.  .  ,  .  Vhw-o  Nuflis's 
mrwiiifir,    .Vrlxilstirhe,    reaihf.l    the  rourt  of 
t*|isln  loi  liiie  for  hU  mantrr's  IntiTi-sts."    The 
hitiT  h(ul  Hirimly  tnen  su|>rr<M-i|iMl  in  the  Oov- 
rrniir>hl|i.  :iii<l  :ii<  •ncri'saor  wm  <>n  the  way  to 
take  'il*  «iith..riiv  fn)in  him.    The  new  gover- 
n.ir  WM  ..!..•  I'.  IniriM  De  Avlla,  or  IMvlls,  ss 
tbiimnii-  U  *  .tint  linen  writtiii;— nn  enHirUsand 
msllKnaiit  nlil  man.   under  wh<m<>  rule   on  the 
lalhuiiis  thii  ileiitninlve  i  iierifv  i.f  M|isii)sh  con- 
quest  nw  u>  lu  ■■■•'om'st  ami  in  .,1  hi»rtl<<Hi  ami 
hrslnlew  develi.pment,     ('oii.i.l,  uoiuly  esixwi 
*a  ha  waa  to  the  Jealousy  ami  Ualre«!  of  iVdni 


riaa,  Vaaco  NuBei  waa  probably  doomed  to  ruin. 
In  son.i  form,  from  the  first  At  one  time,  in 
1516,  th»re  seemed  to  be  a  promlae  for  him  of 
allUuce  vrith  hia  all-powerful  enemy,  by  a  mar- 
riage witl  one  of  the  govemor'a  daughters,  and 
he  received  the  command  of  an  expedition  which 
again  croaaed  the  iathmua,  carrying  ahipa,aod 
began  the  exploration  of  the  Pacific.  But  cir- 
cumatancea  aoon  aroae  which  gave  Ptdrariaa  ar 
opportunity  to  accuae  the  explorer  of  treaaonablc 
designs  and  to  accompliah  hla  arrest  —  Franclaco 
Pizarro  being  tha  officer  fitly  charged  with  the 
execution  of  the  govemor'a  wanant  Brought 
In  chalna  to  AcU,  Vasoo  NuBei  waa  aummarilr 
tried,  found  guUty  and  led  forth  to  awift  death, 
hying  hU  head  npoo  the  block  (A.  D.  ISin 
"Thua  periahed  Vaaco  Nufiei  de  Balboa.  In  tha 
forty-arcood  year  of  hla  age,  the  man  who,  since 
the  time  of  Columboa,  hadahownthe  moatstatea- 
manlike  and  warriorlika  powers  fai  that  part  of 
the  world,  but  whoae  career  only  too  much  re- 
sembles that  of  OJeda,  Nicueaa,  and  the  other  un- 
fortunate commanders  who  devaatated  thoae 
beautiful  regiona  of  tha  earth."— Bit  A.  Helpa, 
SpanM  Ommiat  in  Am.,  bk.  6  («.  1\—  "  It  1 
have  applied  strong  terma  of  denunciation  to 
Pedrariaa  Utfvih.it  la  beruuse  be  unquestionably 
deaervea  It  He  ia  by  far  the  worst  man  who 
came  offlrlally.to  the  New  World  during  lu 
«»rl  V  government  In  this  all  authoritlea  agree 
Ami  all  ar.ee  tim ,  Vasro  Nuflex  was  not  dewrv 
ins  of  d<..th.  ••—!.'.  11.  llsmroft  llitl.  t^  tht  t\>n- 
fie  iHii.t;  t.  1,  cA.  8-18  (/«)<-*.</!,  o,  4.W). 

A  so  IW  AV.  Irving.  Zi/«  and  Vo^ge*  «<  Cul- 
umlmi  and  Ui  Cwmjnninn:  ».  8. 

.  ^  ?•  iS.'>~P'**2'*'y  "^  "-•  >•••*•  by 

lu*B  da  SoUa.    See  Paiiadiat:   A.  D-   131 T- 
l.>57. 

A.    D.    isi7->SiS.-Th«    Spviiuds    find 
Meslco.— "  An  hlUalEO  of  Cuhtt.  nsineil  H<  r 
nanilez  de  Cord' va,  sulled  with  three  vessels  on 
sn    PYpi'ilitlnn    to    one    of    the     neiKhlMmrlnii 
nahninit  IiilnniU,  In  quest  of  Iniliiin  slaves  (Kili, 
8,  1.117).     He  eiicoiintered  a  suiivsulon  of  heaw 
gales  which  drove  him  far  out  of  his  course,  anil 
at  the  enii  of  ihn-e  weeks  he  foumi  hlm«.'lr  ou  s 
strange  and  unknown  cosst.      On  Ismllng  sn<J 
Bsking  tlie  nsnieof  the  cimntrv,  he  was  aiinweri'i; 
by  the  nsllvis  •  Tirtclan,*  nicaii'-ig  'I  do  d"i 
unihmtami  juti,'  but  which  the  Hpaohriis,   nils- 
Interpri'linu  Into  the  name  of  the  pi.iii',  eaully 
corrupu  i  Into  Yucatan.    Some  writers  give  s 
dilTerent  elynii>lofy.  .  .  .  B«nial  IHai  saya  the 
wiinl  came  from  tin- vegetable  'yiica'  snd  "tale," 
the  nanio  for  a  hill.a  k  In  wntih  It  ia  planinl 
.  .  .  M.  WsliliM  k  finds  a  much  more  plouniht. 
diriviitlon  In  the  IiulUn  word  'Ouvoiickstun 
MUtin    to   what    they  say.*,  .  .  Conlova    ha.l 
Ismlid  on  the  north  etistern  end  of  the  peninsula 
at  (  ;i|w  Cnt.K  he.     lie  wns  ai.loiii.hc(l  at  the  size 
ami  ii..ll(l  nmti  rials  of  the  lHillillni.'scon<trii<  ti.| 
of  Hone  nnil  lime,  so  dlfTircnt   from  the  fniil 
ti  niinints  of  n'l  .|s  and  rushes  which  fomie<l  the 
hiiliil«ll..ns  I.f    llie   isln.nhn.     He   «»«  utiuik 
III-",  nl!h  the  hlL'her  cultlMitlon  of  the  soil.  hiiI 
with  the  ilrllcnte  tciliire  of  the  n.lttm  (rnrininl. 
ami  (.'"M  oriiiimcnls  of  the  natives.     Kv.rvlhliii.' 
IniliiHlitl  nclvlll/ailon  far  tiiiHTlor  loanvihlti' 
he  h.sil  l»fori.  kIhi.-iw^  In  the  New  WoH.l      ||i 

"»■  It vlilinceof  s  illlTen-nt  raw,  iii..riov,r 

ill  the  warlike  spirit  iif  the  ;>ei>ple.  .   .  .    Wh.r. 
cvir  they  landed  they  were  met  with  the  ni.-i 
deadly  husllllty.     Ciinlova  btuiavlf,  in  OM  of  hU 


AMERICA.  1S1T-M1& 


•drmidMi  with  the  IndtaM,  no«lv«i  more  than 
»  doxM  wouDdi,  end  nae  only  of  his  part? 
rtcprd  unhurt  At  length,  when  hi>  h«5 
c«ut«l  the  peniniuU  u  f.rii  tCLT  .r  he 
returned  to  Cub^  which  he  reachodTtUT  in 

S!?  .''^.«"  """^  "'i*"  T"""y-  «•"'•  """  more. 
the««imen.  of  curiouely  wrou,rht  ^Id,  cnl 

ESIi^  S'  thit  -ahMMvery.  aod  he  prepared 
wtth  all  despatch  to  aTalf  hlm«clf  of  It      lie 

S'"foJ  ?^„°"'.  *  !!."'•  *>"'«'"«  »'  '  "' 

WMeto  for  the  newly  diicovercd  Undii.  and 
DUced  it  under  the  command  of  hU  nophcw 
Juan  de  Grilalva.  •  m«,  on  wh<«  prK" 
prudence,  and  attachment  to  hlmwlf  ho  knew 
"><»""  "t  The  acet  left  the  p..rtof8t  Jaw 
^'Sa**-  "'^  h  "'8.  .  .  .  (Grijulva  Z2 
pu-rf  orer  to  the  continent  and  c.««u^  the 
pen^nnula.  touching  at  the  aame  pl«,x-,  as  his 
E^'i^L.^';!,'^'"''.'"  *"  •'"'<k.  Hke 
«Si.Wlr  t^,tl^"^  "'  •  •"'«•'"  «^lvlll«itlon. 
especially  In  the  archltectursi  as  he  »cll  niij;ht 
be,  since  this  was  the  legion  of  tho«>  ejtiZnII. 
nsry  remains  which  have  become  rvc-uily  the 
•ubjtt  of  so  much  speculation.     He  was  atto™ 

erUcnlly  objecu  of  worship,  whirl.  Ii«  m.i  « i,| 
If.nT""/.','''^'*  Hemin-fe,!  by  th««  ,  irn.m- 
.t.nce,of  bi»  own  country,  he  ^ve  the  ih  i  In- 

proprlatcl  toa  much  wi.lw  ext.-nt  of  t.rritnrV 
^VhPr,■v..r  Gr^Jalva  land.tl,  be  exiMri.n..a  tL 
Mme.„.frl,n.i1y  reception  as  ConLva.  i  ,o,,..h 
he  .ulT,.r.,l  h.«  U,|„g  better  pr..p«„,l  , J' „»  Jl 

•  frirmlly  conf,  nice  and  tmflic  with  one  of  tbi 
cblrfs,  on  tho  U,o  de  Tal««x,,  and"'.  1  the 
i«ti«fa,tlon  of  nwlvlng.  for  a  few  *T,mJ^ 
fy-  .mi  trinkets,  a  ri.  lAn^surS  of  Im*  ,  "^ 
ornsmont.  ai.,1  vem-i^  of  fl„  J„t  f»,;,a,  c 
f"r.„.  „M   workm«.i,hir      Orijalv.  nowVl      b|  ? 

pli»h..l  the  chief  oJl,rt  of  bis  ml&Xi  ■    iTu 

U.ii.,  u.  V.ta«iiiM,  with  the  trensun    »..|ulre.i 

;«  II..-  pr..vlme  of  |'am„-o.  n-tuminK  to  «  ,.l«  " 

l...  .n.!  of  »l«,ui  .Ix  nionlbs  fn.in  l.i part.m. 

■>..  n-«hinK  the  Uian.1.  I>„  W8«  m.rpriN.l  to 
l<«nj  that  another  ami  more  f..nnl.ial,l..  „m.a. 
m.'nt  had  l«.|,  (1,^1  out  l«  follow  ,.,,  |.i,  "«„  i 
.|i«rov..rie.,  ami  u.  And  «nl..r.,  ,t  the  «..,„.  tl„,.. 
fr...n  the  g.,vemor.  omrbci  In  no  very  c..irl.,>.„ 
IsntruaiTP.  to  repair  at  once  to  At.  Jaim      II,.  «•-»   ! 

rmlv„|  l,y  thai  |K.,«H^r t  menTv  with  .nlo- 

■..•«  t...t  with  re|.r,«l«H,,  for  h.vlni  „..«|.,  ,  ,| 


SSa*?  AMERICA.  lilt-lSM. 


«•  Ulr  an  op||ort.inlt>-  of  ,.i»l,|i^,„„  »  r„|„„v  ,„ 
1  ..•  ...,i.,.rT  1...  b«<i  vlsite.l."_W,  II    I'TvJot 

Ai...  iN_  (  St  4  K«i;«.urt;  HiH  nf  nfutan 
'I  }.  •,,'-  "'"'"I  '"«  ''"■"  »«<ill".  J//m..,r,        I,' 

M«l?o  ''i'''<l'*— ■'■''?  S.?«"'*'»  Conquest  of 

J  Pv'S'?-'5»4.-Tht  Voran  of  Magellan 
•nd  Sebastfan  del  Cano.  YSV  New  ^  "rM 
PssMd  and  th.  Earth  circumnawiatTd.    fh, 

Uagr,,,  at  Ba<laJo..-P..n., .^|.„"  |a„  ,* 

M.^«ll.«.  ,va.  a  .||MHr.,.,„|  Hortuffu.*  ge. 
^.  ..«..  «...  h.,1  «.rr„i  hi.  i-o„„iry  f,.,  rtv„  yf^A 
».  ti-..  Indies  under  Albuquerque,  and  unUen^ 


(JO 


w«n  the  secreU  of  the  Eastern  trade,     fn  mi* 

Sffcen'f  JJ""  v''7  2-8»Ph™-'  "d"-«,t™n*„',L': 
CTl  friend,  Huy  Faleri...  another  unre,,uited  For- 

^  n^t^f  f"*  "«e  H«*.-  two  frienrp^ 
posed  not  only  to  pitjve  that  the  Moluccas  wen: 
within  the  Spanish  lines  of  demarkatl<mbut  to 
u^'hv  fh'^i'  thither  diffen.ntT:mi,i? 
uTt^r^,  '/"H^'^V-  Their  schemes  we" 
i?  w  to,  adopted  Md  carried  out  The  Stnilta 
of  Msgellan  were  d.«»vered,  tho  b>t»d  ftoutn 
Sea  was  cn«ed.  the  Ud^ie,  and  ihe  PhS 
Iplne.  wew  inspe.  ted,  the  Jloluccwwere  d^ 

inThS"-.."'"  ^»PS  °'  <5""^  Hopew^"oW 
on  the  homeward  voyage,  auo  the  irlol»  wm 
circumnavigated,  all  In^l^s,  than  thn*  veS^ 

only  oiw  of  hl»  five  ships  rBtum.-.l  f .in.Ur  sihu- 
tian  del  Canoj  to  tell  trie  marveloui  itoiT  The 
magnitude  of"  the  enterpri*  wa.  e,uA  ^y 

iSd  rise  to  th^fHrJ"  ■r"""'  "•  5™*  *'"'"«^'«' 
"W  sue  In  the  minds  of  mm,  sm  the  mind,  of 

men  begM  soon  to  gnup  and  utilise  the  nwulu 

trade  and  commerce,  ami  f.,r  the  bcneflt  of  wig 
niphy,  astronomy,  maii.ematic,  an.i  the  o«h?r 
Bcfonces.     This  wooUerf  .i  1  story   is  It  not  u"  I  In 

snd  he  Splrcrlc..  a.  well  m  at  bonfe.  now  se'C 
the  ineviuble  conflict  spproa.hinp  w.tb  thor 

Z  "?i'.S;rVr  ""  ""^'"■"'"•''?n.«inuin'lng 
tii< ir  right*.     Thoy  oiKuly  aMcrti-.!  them,  and 
pn,nouncwl  this  tru-ie  with  the  M..luco»  by'he 
bpauidi  an  encr.«^hment  on  their  prio?dtt 
erl..,  ,n,l  poMe».lon.  ..  well  a.  a  vi..Y«tion  ..The 
Papal (oinnact  of  im.  an.i  pr.p,ir,W  tben.«.Ir„ 
e,..rgetlo,ly  for  d.-f..,.*   si,|  irtfcnj."' ','„  ,, ,' 
Tl  .rM"*"'  i  "!'■  ^""'i''f-'»  "  op-  nly  d.."ar." 
tVh    «"■'.'"'"•  "'r'  ""■"«!  "'oWmtChriMlan. 
.  the  Molu.  .-a,  aiKl  by  fri,.n.lly  int.rrourie  iSih 
<e  king,  of  tho*^^  i«|„„,|,.  r,,,,.;..,,  ,,„.,„  toCbri, 
Ian  suLKtlon  au.l   l,^.„ght  b«,  k  Liter,  am' 
lr.l...  e  to  t>«.r.     Il.,..t.  th™-  klnJ,,  "t"^ 
{«•..  p  le  came  ui;.|..r  the  prot«tion  nfvhj".  y 
ll.-(,li.,    ,(,u,   ,h,.  Spanlar.!.  clali„„|  thaT  the 
M..lu<ra..  w,.rj.  within  the  SpaniKl.  half.  ,„,'  wIm^ 

ii;g  hot.  King  John  of  Porf,i.fal  Imb^,,!  char" 
V  t,.  .I,.|;.y  .ii«pat.l.ln^  hi.  ,.,•»  fl, ,a  until  the 

l^un  rt.  I,.  .„.,...|,t,.,|,  „„|  ,h..  „hl|.,  w..r,  „M 
T.a*..  t.volhn,tlan..rime».  wh„'„wn.,l  u  the 
.■wly  ,|U....v..rp.i  an.r  to  l.r  di.«<overr.|  partsof 
tl...  who,  w„rl,l  lH.».,,,  ,h,,,.  hv  ,|..,|'^f"  ; 
.^11..-  lo,..v  a-n-l  I:,  „„.,.t  I,-,  CoagreM  at 
Badajoj,  1,-    ,h,.,r  r..|.t>„„,ailv,.,,  „,  ,11.,^"  ml 

Ir  |.airl„.,.„y    an.i  i.,  ,|..,i„„  „,„|  „„fc..  „„ 

ill..;     .1  ■"".    7'""^"   '•■;"'  I"'"''-  »«r.rlng  to 
al.hl.'  h)  II  ,•  ,|,.,|,| f  ihc  c-..i.Br..,*,      .\,.,.oni. 

...i«   l.tll,.    l.,r.|,.r    |.,w„    foura,..|.w  ,.tv    ,v|Ij 

T1...V  ,..„,|,ri*M  ,1...  ,|r,l  J,.,|,.,...  lawv-r,,  [..ailM- 

..all.  .a  iH    .„iro„o„„.r.    ,„ g,^,h„,,  „,,v|,». 

t..r,  .,,,1  p.loHof  th,.  la.„l.  aii.„n«  wh.«.  ,.«,,,, 

()..m.«.  I>i...t..  HMx'r  ..  .1,  Tl... ,  ,.h,..!  .  ...T 

Slartyr,  OvlH,..  au,i  Uonura,  a.«' v  "ry  ariuilni. 


AUXRICA.  181M8M. 


▲nsRiCA,  isn-iasi. 


n 


but  no  rci^ular  Joint  (l«:l»ion  cmiM  be  nMchrd 
the  Piirtiiv-urN.  dirllning  to nulwcrlbp  to  the  ver- 
dict (if  llic  tJimnlanU,  Inssmiicli  lu  it  denrivcl 
them  of  Die  Mc.luiian.     »o  e»  li  party  piibllali.<l 
und  priKlalmeil  ^u^  own  derision  after  the  Con 
?r™l'r^'f  ".P  '"  "'"f""'""  «n  the  l»«td«yof 
May    1(J24      It  w«».  however,  tacitly  undersUxMl 
that  the  Moluccas  fill  tu  Spain,  while  Brar.ll  to 
th«  Mteiit  of  two  hundred  leaKiiea  from  Cane 
M.    Augustine,    fell    to    the    Portiiguew,      . 
However.  nm<h  poiKl   resulted    fnmi   this  first 
gj-ograiihlrHl  Congress.     The  extent  and  hreailth 
of  the  PiiclHc  were !ippr«lat«l,  and  the  InlJ'ience 
ol  the  I  ongn  aa  was  soon  after  seen  In  the  greatly 
Improved  maps,  globei,  and  charta."— 11  Hte- 
Vens, //mi,   and  Qtog.  Kmc.  1453-1890.— "  For 
thri-e  monius  and   twenty  <lays  lie  [Magellan] 
•nlled  on  the  Pnciflc  and   never  saw  lnhablie.1 
laud.     He  was  cninpelled  by  fandne  to  atrip  olT 
tlie  pieces  of  skin  and  leatlier  wherewith  hU 
rigging  was  here  and  there  bound,  to  aouk  them 
Id  the  sea  ami    then  soften  lliem  with  warm 
water,  so  as  lo  make  a  wretchisl  food ;  to  eat  tlie 
•weepings  of  the  ship  ami  other  loathsome  mat- 
ter; to  drink  water  Kone  putrid  by  keeping;  and 
yet  he  resolutely  held  on  bis  coutk.  though  his 
men  were  dying  daily.  ...  In  the  whole  his- 
tory of  human  uiidi  rukingt  there  is  nothing  that 
excewis.  if  Indeed  there  is  anything  that  equals, 
this  vov.igc  of  Mag.llan-s.     That  of  Columbus 
dwindles  away  In  comparison.     It  Is  a  display  of 
superhuman    ourage,    superhuman    persever- 
ance -J.  W.  Oraper.  IhM.   of  tht  r»UtUft,i.,l 
Vmtnpment  of  Eur,>i>e.  eh.  19.-  "The  voyage  [of 
Mage'  an]  ...  was  doubtless  the  grvatesl  feat 
of  narlgatioii  that  has  ever  lieen  performed  and 
nothing  can  be   imagined   that  would  lurpass 
It  excet>t  a  Journey  to  s<mie  other  planet.     It  has 
uot  the  unique  historic  position  of  tlic  first  V(vv. 


i  ■ 


age  of  Coliiinlius,  whiili  brought  together  two 
streams  of  human  life  that  had  \mn  dUJolneil 
since  the  Ohu  ial  I'cri.Kl.     But  a)  an  achieve- 
ment in  ocean  navigation  that  voyage  of  Colum 
bua  sinks  Inuj  inslgniUcana-  by  the  aide  of  It 
ami  when  the  earth  was  •  sect'.nd  time  encom- 
r>«pl  by  the  greatest  English  a:illor  of  lii^  aire 
the  advance  lu  km.wledge,  aa  well  as  the  diir.r' 
ent   route  chosen,  bad   much  reduced  the  diffl- 
cuItT  of  the  performance.     Whan  we  consider 
the  frailness  of  the  ships,  tlie  Immeasurable  rx 
tent  of  the  unknown,  the  mutinies  that  wfrf 
prevented  or  quelled,  ami   the  hardships  thil 
were  emiurcd.    we  can   have  no  besitntlon   1 1 
speaking  of  Magellan  as  the  prince  of  navlga 
fra    ~  '*'  ^•*"*'*  "f-^'otnca.  ek.  7 

Also  vt  I^^|  Stanley  of  Alderlcy,  Tht  Firtt 
iiffOfmund  »V  ir.-r/J  (llikluft  Huf.,  1874)  — 
R  Kvrr,  ('Mfrli„i,   r  I'-yir^s.  e.  10 

..^r'".i'5'»"A'*5 -''"''•  VojagM  of  CAra, 
aad  r  '  Ion. -D.aco»ery  of  the  moiitli  of  the 
MIM.  laippi.-Exploralion    of   the    Carolina 

C*Mt.-ln  ni'J,  f>,.r,.iMu  da  Oarav,  governor 
of  Jail  ska,  who  had  Uen  ime  of  theiiimpanlnns 
of  (jilMiibus  on  Ids  s,.,-„„d  voyage,  havliiff 
beard  of  the  rl<  hnesj  ard  beauty  of  Viiiitan 
at  bis  own  charge  m  lit  out  tour  shins  ».  li 
equipped,  ami  with  g,w.|  pl|„i,,  under  the  com. 
maud  of  Alvarei  Alonso  d«  Ilne-la.     His  pr.> 

.  J?'^^'** '  .**"  '"  """■'>  '"'  •"""  "'mit.  w,  ,t 
of  Horida.  which  was  not  yet  certainly  known 
10  form  a  part  of  the  continent  The  iiralt 
kaviaf  baeo  toufht  for  lo  vain,  his  iblps  turned 


70 


toward    the   west,    attentively   examining   the 
poru,  rivera,  InliablUnU,  an<l   everytliliig  else 
that  seenieil  worthy  of  rvniark ;  and  especially 
noticing  the  »ast  volume  of  water  brought  down 
by  one  very  large  stream.     At  last  they  came 
irpon  the  track  of  Cortes  near  Vera  Cru7 
The  carefully  drawn  map  of  the  piloU  showed 
distinctly  the  Mississippi,  which,  In  this  earliest 
autlientic  trace  of  lu  outlet.  Inars  the  name  of 
the  Esplritu  Santo.  .  .  .  But  Oaniv  thought  not 
of  the  MIsalsalppi  and  lu    valley:  he   i-oveted 
access  to  the  wealth  of  Mexico;  and,  In  1828 
lost  fortune  and   life  Inglorlously  In  a  dispute 
with  Cort<-s  for  the  government  of  the  country 
on  the   river   Panuo.     A    vovage    for   slavn 
brought  the  Spaniards  In  1590  still  farther  to  the 
north.     A  cimipany  of  seven,  of  whom  the  moat 
distinguished   waa  Liica*  Vasquex  de  Ayllon 
fitted  out  two  slave  ahlpa  from  St.  Doinluiro  in 
quest  of  Inlmrers  for  their  plantations  and  mines. 
From  the  Bahama  lalamls  they  passed  to  ;hc  coast 
of  South  Carolina,   which  was  calle<i  Chicora 
Tlie    Combabee    river    received    the    name    of 
Jordan;  the  name  of  St.  Helena,  whow  day  is 
the  18th  of  August,  waa  given  to  a  cape,  hut 
now   belongs  to  the    sound."    Luring  a  large 
number  of  the  conlidlng  native*  on  lioard  their 
•hips  the  adventurers  treacherously  set  sail  with 
them;  but  one  of  the  Teasels  founder.'.l  at  sea 
and  moat  of  the  captives  on  the  other  sickened 
and  died.     Vasquex  de  Ayllon  was  rewardcrd  for 
his  treacherouB exploit  by  being  autliorizid  and 
appointed   to  make  the   coni)uest  of   Chicora. 
'•  For   this   bolder   enterprise    the    undertakei 
wasted  his  fortune  In  preparations;  in  l.VM  his 
largest  ship  was  stramld  In  the  river  Jordan 
many  of  his  men  were  kill.Kl  by  the  natives;  and 
he  himself  escaped  only  to  suffer  fn.m  the  con- 
aciousnesa  of  having  done  nothing  worthy  of 
homir.     ^  et  U  may  be  that  ships,  sailing  under 
his  authority,  mailc  the  diH<    very  ol  the  Chesa- 
pcakc  and  name.1  It  the  bnv  of  St.  Mary  and 
pirhapseven entere.1  the linyof  IVIaware,  which 
ill  SpanUh  geography,  was  calleil  St.   Christo^ 
pher  s  '—(J.  Bancrtift.  llitl.  «f  thi  V.  ,<?     n(   1 
eA.  2,  '       ' 

Also  iM  11.  II.  Bancroft.  //,,/  „/  tu  /Vi|i- 
Stutrt.  t.  4.  e*.  11,  ,iml  t.  S,  M.  0-7 —W  O 
Slniiiis.  Iliit.nf  S  Cinilimi,  hk   \   eK    V 

A.  D.  ya3.15a4.-The  Voyani  of  Vorra- 
N«wil!?*  »,°*«f*»»'i»t«of  Prance  ia  tho 
Piew  world.  —    It  Is  consutnily  a<lmiite<l  in  our 
history  thai  our  kings  paid  no  all.iit|„n  to  Amcr 
-a  Ufore  the  year  1523.     Then  Fran,  is  1  ,  wi.h 
Ing  to  exiite  the  emulaUon  of  his  subjecu  in 
regani  to  navigation  and  commeri-e.  as  he  ha<t 
alijaily  so  successfully  in  regahi  to  the  silencis 
and  Rne  arts.  onlere<l  John  Verm.iiil,  who  was  in 
his  service,  to  go  and  explore  the  NVw  Ijinh 
which  began  to  lie  much  talked  of  in   Fnimi' 
■      .   ><raianlwasacconlinitlvs.nt,  lnl.V.U,  wish 
four  ships  lo  discover  Ni.rth  Anwri.a;  but  our 
hWoriaos  have  not  spoken  of  his  first  ex|Hdltinn 
and  we  sliouhi  he  In  Ignorance  of  it  now   h*! 
not  lUmiisio  pp'serviil  in  his  great  coll, ,  iloii  » 
letter  of  \  .rai-ni  hims..:f.  a.ldrrsse<l  lo  Kraml-.  1 
and  dited  iH-ppe,  July  8.  l.'.J4.     In  it  U  sup 
p.«es  the  kio|  already  inforim-d  of  the  succU 
and  drtuils  of  the  voyage,  •<>  that  he  coni.nu 
himself  with  Stating  that  he  sailcl  fr.mi   IHeppe 
n  fouryes«-la,  which  lie  lia<l  saf,  ly  b^..ll(l,t  ba<k 
o  that  port     In  January,  1,'iUl,  he  s.iihd  with 
two  thi|is,  th«  UaupliliM  and  Uiv  Normande,  to 


AMBRICA.  im-int  «««y^  ^HB^cA.  lM4-,Ma 


milie»gtln«ttlie8pMU.(U  Towards  the  ckiw 
of  llioiaineyfaror  carlyin  tlio  next,  be  .gnio 
mteu  out  the  D«uph  ne.  on  which.  emb.rfli.g 
w.tUSOmenuidpmvl»ion«f„r,iKht  month!.,  hi 
flr»t  i.ilcd  to  the  hiiml  of  Ma<relra."-Fa  her 

W««).  M.  l._  "Oo  the  :7thof  Jauuarv,  mj  he 


[Vcrraiano]  parted  from  the''i»laa"dCT!r',S  •„ 
r-elknownflttle  group  of  iilsnds  near  Jtadei'ia 
an<t  Mlled  at  tM  wmtwani,  ruonlnit  In  85  davi 
BOO  iMiriiM  with  .  Il.k.  .1.1  ^.  '  *>  '.  *«  "•^» 


-«,.  ^.,vu  «•  ura»  wvsvwani,  ruonlnff  in  So  dav 

trade 


---  — e-.™,  „..^  •  iiKui,  wHi  pieaaaui  ei 
breere  along  the  northern  border  of  the  „„,, 
winds  In  «lK)ut  80«  N.  III.,  smck  waa  t^Z- 
quently  nearly  like  that  of  Cohnnbui  on  bU  tzi 
vojaje  On  the  14th  of  February  he  met  'with 
"  T^1\  •  ""Tfow*  "  "ny'ihlp  erer  en. 
counlere.1.'  But  be  weathered  X  ai&  punu^ 
lilt  royage  10  the  west,  'with  •  little  d?"utl^ 

end  400  leagues,  he  descried  a  new  country  whirh 
a.  he  auppoaed.  had  never  before  b<4n  teta 
either  by  modem  or  ancient  narliratora.  Th« 
rouniry  wa.  rery  low.  From  thS\to»e  d«! 
cnwi.m  It  I,  erfdent  that  Verraiuw  came" 
sight  of  the  east  coast  of  the  United  Btatn!llv».t 
the  lothof  M,,reb.  1584.     He  puS  wJ'Srf^a" 

Me  amt  Ml  led  southwari,  for  about  fttflcaeucs 
he  ..j,,e,  |.K,klng  f,^  a  harbor  and  flndlnT* "0*; 
llf  then  turned  northward.  "  I  Infer  that  Vern. 
i:.no  ..•,w  ll„te  of  the  coast  of  Zth  Car^Htai 
and  nothing  of  that  of  Georgia,  and  that  lnX« 
rvcl..ii,  1.0  ran,  at  most,  be  called  the  discoverer 
-nly  of  the  c™«t  of  North  Carolina  l7I 

r..»mle.l  (  ape  ll„teraa,  and  at  a  dUunce  of  about 

hor,.,l  nnd  spent  several  davs.  .  .  .  This  Was 
Ik-  s<c,..„1  prl.„lpal  landing-place  of  Vernuano 
f«err.-k.,n  ,V)  league,  fro,',,  Cape  n,a?"  It 
«..,.1.|  fall  s.,inewl,ere  upon  theea.tco««t  of  I  i|. 
'«_a"-.  In  latl.u.le  Ssl  N.,  where,  by  s-.me 
"'Ihnr.,  it  U  thought  to  have  Nrn      But  If  Tn 

'    "J  hen.,  a.,  he  dl,l  In  olh.rca«.,,  fr„,„  hi.  l„,t 

•  K  i,.r  biSKCond  lauding  wimewhero  south  of 
he  eutrauce  to  rheMp«-,k?  Bay,  and  nTar      "en 

•r^.n<e  to   Albemarle  *,und.  '  And  th's  Utu; 

^UHT.  with  11,0  'sail  of  too  league,-  wl  Ich  W 
..■  U.O  uy»  he  rnyle  from  his  s^ond  to  his  thW 

I  iii.  ing.pl,,,^..  In  Npw  York  Bay  Il.V.m!^ 

.t.  hi,  tLird  Undlngsutlon  an' excellent  £:^'i' 

"e  Hn';?,"""' '."  f»i'""-  "<:"  p"'u*t.Hi  f;;S^ 

io     tn,n,  ami    from  wh  <h  ha  aacendcd 

.'«  r'v'T  In  his  boat  Into  the  InUTlor.  llTfS 
he  ^  ..ores  very  thickly  settled,  a„d  as  b.  t»Z{ 
Z,o"  '?,'?«<••  '""her.  ha  dl«^.vemla  tJS 

« i7h  ".'',"■•  ™°"  "»■>  «>  ""•*•  ca,i.e  to     m 

fri  'div'""''''"T',';,."'Hrr''.-  *""  -"■iJ^  »"v 

npn.ii).  .  This  dew  rlption  contains  sevrnil 
I'L  ■  ";  v'"''C.''  r*"  "  '"''  '"'"'  rlear  tl«t  the 
l„;^'>\vJ^'f  ""  "•o'cen.of  theJ'SJcur 
f.  "  .'i^"»«"n"»«"ehoragehavln«h»»n  ., 
Ora.;P.cnd  Bay.  the  riv.rwhleR  he  eZ*r,.d  being 

■•  L'i.c*:?ndt' RKw ;  .r^'w  &i' 

nllk  t  .    J     ^^Wilfanwii  Ray  and  Newiwri 
mouth.    "l«ooMtUi<,»oyai«WMptt«n«|„f,r 


n 


fat      11  '",  >*"^"'  I'leppe  «-arlv  In  Ju^ 

>UdeiJ.n.'^'"t  "P"ring  expedition.  froS 
Sl.  *"?  "."''  ''«'!<.  had  aceonilnSy  lasti>d  but 
flveandauttif  „,onthii."_J.o.  k5iI  /jSticiAi 

(A«rr„h«  a„dCnti^  Uirt.  «[  AmZTi^  U 

e-/'::",^!'!  -TTT^Vv^-  ^-  ^•• 

^Ifl,  I  .£^ '""''»  ir"  «»quered  and 
P«-IIkJ.  the  Oovemor  Pedrarias  de  AviU 
founded  and  «^tle.l  the  dtle.  of  ftTnatna  and  of 
Nsta,  an,!  the  town  of  Nombre  de  EHoa  At  ,Wa 
""■.  «''"„f^»l'<«l''  Frandsco  Ptiarrolon  of  the 

Tru'il  10^°^';;  T"'!"-  '  •"■'(pf  "e  d  y  of 
iruxlllo,  was  living   in   the  city   of    Panam.' 

IK»«.Mlnghls  hou«,  hfai  farm  and  his  iSStaZ' 

"de!Mt!,tP'''^'P^.P*°P'*°''hel.nd»^^^^^ 
Mf  h^  ^.r'*"*' *"•  ''■!'"«  '"'•'ogul.hid  him. 
Krvl^olhi^M''?!?  ""i  «»""■>«.  "nd  In  the 

^'«  bu(  full  oVT'i  .^'"«  »♦  ■*«  ""1  •»  « 

pow  but  full  of  Eeal  to  cont  nue  his  labours 
?.^  t  fe^:*:!™  "»""  """"llwlngulsbed  i^rvw" 

P«lrirl«'S^  •■«*"•  *"'  ?""»'"  Pfoni-lor.  from 

r-etirarlas  to  dlneover  that  coast  of  »h»  Hn..ti. 

Sea  .o  tho  ea^twar,!.     He  s^»  Ur«  pa^^o^ 

'''•'!"""«  «"•«;;«!  ship  which  he^uK,and 

on  iK^essary  supplle,  for  the  voyage,  and  he  Kt 

out  from  the  city  of  Panama  on  tfc  I'oTday^f 

heinonthof  November,  In  the  year  1924    'n. 

i«d  113  8panlar,l.  |„  his  company.Xs  d^  somJ 

Im  liar.  jervanM      lie  commenced  aVoraw^n 

which  they  suffered  many  hardship..  tl?e  ^S 

UIng  wl,,u;r  and   unpropitio,,.  ■ '    Prnn,   thl^ 

m.n  ,|i,.d  of  hung,,  ,„^  ^,  ,„,/."  ,,,' 

cour*.  of   Which    he    found    no   cou„  rv   that 

ur",'«i'^a'ft"'i:'f  ^  "'  1.1.  a.nbitiou.  Pl!,7m!  ^! 
luriie.!  after  Home  months  to  "the  land  of 
Panama   landing  at  an  Imllan  village  „e",  ,."' 

'Ti"'  .'!"''••  ™""^'  Ch-x-hama     "  hen"   he 

^a"wmhva*;i'  """","• .'"'  """  '""'  «H-">m?un 
r  .?!.?.'''  •*"""  "'  •'"•  '"*•";  ami  all  that 
had  befallen  waa  re,H,r„.d  to  IVIraria,  wlflle 
the  Captain  remained  l«.hlml  to  fef""h  him*. If 

KnamaTi"'"?""  .  '*'"-"  "■<■  '"'P  «rt  i'^Ut 
fanama  It  was  found  that  a  few  •)•.'.  ,  .tLl 

the  Captain   Olego  de   AI,,.a/,7hiVL.  wTn 

•enrrh  of  the  (nptain  Piiam,.  hi.  coiJ^p«,  on 

with  snofber  shin  ,ml  70  „H-n."    AlnZro  ,lj 

hi.  party  followed  the  crnst  untfl  Vhex  f„^- To 

a  great  river,  whi.l,  they  calle.!  »knjZ^]Thw 

orHiMi;;?" "'  'Kr^.f  B"<-»ventur;" .',  v:; 

h,H,i  1'k:,'  •  ^^'''.v  tl'ere  fou,Ml  ,ign.  of  gohl 
lie  (  :m.^„'"1,""  '""""  "'  "•«  l-apealn  Ilirro.' 
uie  la|>ialn  Alin«K-ro  rcturnet  to  Chucha,na 
where  he  found  hi.  .H.mrnde.     They  agrml  thai 

entirpnuo,  and  defray  the  ein,'iiM's  whi.  k 
..-,o.,n,..l  to  .nore  .l.«,i  lo.two  cXelUn,*  A^ 
Panama  ,„u.b  obstruction  wa.  ,Z^,i  bv 
Pe.lrana,  ami  .Hhers,  who  ..hi  ||„,  ,h"^  v«« 
•^lould  not  Ik.  p,r.l.te,l  l„,  „n.\  that  I,  ,  .M7le.f J 
w,  uld  not  be  w-rved  by  it  The  r\,"»,n\\ml 
ro^wl.h  the  authority  give,!  hh,,T"';\!,'JJ: 
rad.,  WM  very  «H,iMant  In  p«»eeutlng  the  ,Zi 


I 

I 


I  1 


AJORIOA,  1SM-1S88. 


CbrMtrlK  tU 
W.  Lawraim. 


AMERICA,  1SS4-1S8S. 


he  had  oommenoad,  mad  .  .  .  Pednrlai  wu 
forced  to  allow  him  to  engage  men.    He  wt  out 
from  Puiuna  with  UO  men:  and  went  to  the 
place  where  Plcarro  waited  with  another  BO  of 
the  Ont  no  who  sailed  with  him,  and  of  the  70 
who  accompanied  Almagru  when  be  went  in 
March.     The  other  180  were  dead.     The  two 
captains.  In  their  two  ships,  sailed  with  160  men, 
and  coasted  along  the  laml.    When  they  thought 
they  saw  signs  of  habltatlnns,   they  went  on 
abore  In  three  canoes  they  had  with  them,  rowed 
by  «0  men,  and  so  they  sought  for  provisions. 
They  conUnued   to  sail  In  thU  way  for  three 
years,  suffering   great  hardships  from  hunger 
and  cold.     The  greater  part  of  the  crews  dledof 
hunger.  Insomuch  that  there  were  not  80  turrlv- 
Ing.  and  during  all  thu«-  thrre  years  they  dls- 
corered  no  good  land.     All  was  swamp  and  In- 
undated  country,    without    inbubltanta.      The 
good  country  they  discovered  was  as  far  as  the 
river  Sao  Juan,  where  the  Captain  Plzarro  re- 
mained with  the  few  swrvivont,  nomliug  a  cap- 
tain with  the  smaller  ship  to  illRniviT  nemo  good 
land  further  along  the  coast,     lie  seut  the  other 
ship,   with  the  Captiiln   Diego  de  Almagro  to 
Panama  to  get  more  men."    At  the  end  of  70 
days,  the  exploring  ship  came  back  with  goml 
reportii.  and  wltli  specimens  of  gold,  silver  and 
cloths,  found  In  a  country  fiirlhir  south.     "As 
soon    iM    the    Captain    Almairri)    arrived    from 
Panama  with  a  ship  laden  wiih  men  and  horses, 
the  two  ships,  with   their  comnmnders  and  all 
their  people,  set  out  from  the  river  Siiu  .luan,  to 
go  to    that    newly. discuveml    land.      But    the 
navigation  was  dfHlcuit ;  they  were  detained  so 
long  that  the  provisions  wen'  exhiiuste<l,  and  tlic 
people  were  obllgtd  U)  go  on  shore  in  search  of 
supplies.      The  ships   renrhed   tlie  bay  of  8aa 
MaU'o,  and  some  villa^.,.s  to  which  the  .Spanlahis 
gave  tlie  name  of  .•<unlia«<>.     Next  tUey  came  U) 
the  villages  of  Tacamez  [.\tlU'unle^  on  iIh-  coast 
of  mo<leni  Ecuador],   ou  the  wu  coast  further 
on.     These  villages  were  seen  l.y  the  Christians 
to   be  large  and   we  11    neoplci:   iiu.1    when  80 
Hpanlanis  had  advanced  ii   leuitui'   licyond   the 
vilUgps  of  Tacamci.  niori'  tlmu  !il,(HK»    Indian 
warriors  encounlemi  them ;  hut  sMini;  that  the 
Christians  inU'nditl  no  v\i\.  and  iliil  not  wish  to 
take  their  gcKids,  but  nillier  to  treat  lliein  ix-acx-- 
fully,  with  much  love,  tlie  liidiuns  ihitistetl  from 
war.     Ill  this  lan<l  there  weri'  aliiindum  Hiipplies 
and   the  people  le.1  well  (irrlere.1  liver,     the  vll'. 
Ittges   having   th<'ir  streets  niiil   miuares.      One 
village  hs>l  more  than  3,mtll  limis<.>s.  und  others 
were  smaller      It  scemni  to  the  captains  and  to 
the  other  Hpunianis  that  nothinif  ( ould  be  done 
in  that  land  hy  ri-aaon  of  tlie  smailneas  of  their 
numbers,  which  n-ndere<l    iheni  iinuble  to  cope 
with  the  ludlans.     !*o  thev  agreeii  to  load  the 
ships   with   the   supplies  to    lie   found    in    Ilio 
villages,  and  to  return  to  an  islaml  called  Oallo 
where  tliey  would  be  safe  until  the  ships  arrive<i 
at  I'lmanm  with  the  news  of  wli.it  hail  lieeu  dlv 
covered,  and  to  apply  to  llie  lioverrior  for  more 
men.  In  onkr  that  tiie  Caiuain*  niiirlit  Ik;  able  t-) 
continue    their   undertiililiiK,    aml'ioniiuer  the 
land,      laptain    Almaijro   went    in    the    ships 
Many   iiersons    had    written    |.,    the    (^vcruor 
entreating  him  to  onler  tlie  i  rews  to  return  to 
1  anama.  saving  that  it  was  iiii|H>asil>le  to  endure 
more  iianlshlps  tlmu  thev  liad  siilTered  during 
the  la>l  three  years      The  Ooveinor  onlered  thai 
all  tluise  who  wUhed  to  gu  to  Panama  might  do 


so,  while  those  who  desired  to  continue  the  dis- 
coveries were  at  liberty  to  remain.  Sixteen  men 
stayed  with  Plzarro,  and  all  the  rest  went  back 
in  the  ships  to  Panama.  Tlie  Captain  Pizsrro 
was  on  that  isUnd  fur  Ave  months,  when  one  of 
the  ships  returnetl,  in  which  ho  continued  the 
discoveriet  for  a  hundred  leagues  further  down 
the  coast  They  found  many  villages  and  great 
riches:  and  they  brought  away  more  specimens 
of  gold,  silver,  and  cloths  than  had  Iieen  found 
before,  which  were  presented  by  the  natives. 
The  Captain  returned  because  the  time  granted 
bv  the  governor  had  expired,  and  the  Ust  day 
of  the  period  had  been  reached  when  he  entered 
the  port  of  Panama.  The  two  Captains  were  so 
ruined  that  they  could  no  longer  prosecute  their 
undertaking  .  .  .  The  Captain  Francisco  llzarro 
was  only  able  to  born)w  a  little  more  than  1,00() 
castellanos  among  his  friends,  with  which  sum 
he  went  to  Castile,  and  gave  an  account  to  his 
-Majesty  of  the  great  and  signal  services  he  bad 
ixrformed."— f;  de  Xeres  (Sec.  of  Piiarro),  Ar 
count  of  tht  PniTinet  of  Cuzeo;  tr.  and  rd.  by  V 
It.  MarkhamUlitkbiyt  Sof.,  1872). 

.\iJO  IN:  W.  II.  Prescott,  llut.  o/lht  Conquut 
of  nrn,  bk.  2,  ek.  2-4  (r.  I). 

A.  D.  iw.— The  Voyage  of  Gomex.  See 
C  ANAiiA  (New  Franck):  Thk  Names 

A.  D.  15*6-1531.  — Voyage  of  Sebutian 
Cabot  and  at'emnted  colonisation  of  La  Plata. 
See  Paraquat:  .\    P.  l.ll.VI.ViT 

A.  D.  lsa«-i54J.-The  Florida  Expeditions 
of  Narvsasand  Hernando  de  Soto,— Oiscovary 
of  the  Mississippi.    Sec  Fiahuua:  A.  D.  13SH- 

=  ^-  °o  '53«-i5»— P"»»«io's  Cea^Mtt  of 
Peru.  See  Peri  jl  1>.  l.jSi-l.Wi  m»i  I.Vll- 
l.VKI. 

A.  O.IS33— SpMiah  Conquest  of  the  King- 
dom ofQaito.     See  El  1  AIMiit. 

A.  D.  1534-1535-- Exploration  of  the  St. 
^->wrencc  to  llontreal  by  Jacques  Cartier.— 


72 


'•^',  IS',,'*'"  ^■™"  ""•''■  I""'  *"V'»»>'™  "f  Verra 
zano],  PhllinC'habot.  Admiral  of  France.  Inducerl 
the  kiii,t  [Francis  1]  to  resume  the  project  of 
founding  a  Fninli  colony  in  the  .New  Wortd 
whence  the  SiutDlanls  dailv  drew  such  great 
wealth:  and  lie  presented  to  him  a  Captain  of  St 
.>lalo.  hy  iLiiiie  Jaci|iies  Cartier,  whose  merit  lie 
knew,  and  whom  that  prime  accriited.     Cartir  r 
having  recvlveil  his  instriictious.  left  St.  Malo  the 
Al  of  April,  1584,  with  two  ships  of  au  tons  and 
l'«  men.     lie  steered    west.  Inclining  slightly 
north,  and  had  such  fair  winds  that,  on  the  lOtli 
of  .May.  he  made  Cape  IKinavinta.  in  Ni'wfoun.i 
land,  at  46^  north.     Cariler  found  the  laad  ther.- 
still  covered  wiUi  snow,  aud  the  shore  fringe,l 
with  ice,  so  that  he  could  not  or  ilareil  not  stop 
He  ran  down  six  degnvs  ».mlh  iioutheaat.  aud 
entcreii  a  port  to  which  he  gave  Ihn  name  of  St 
Catharine      Theme  he  mm.  .1  l.a.  k  iionli 
.Vfter  making  almost  ilie  tin  nit  of  .Newfound 
land,  though  without  lieing  a  hie  10  satisfy  him 
K'lf  that  it  was  an  inland,  li.   i.».k  :\  souther!  v 
course,  croasfil  the  gulf,  apiimaclied  the  oait. 
ucnt.  and  eulen-d  u  virv  diip  liay,   whefr  hi- 
«MltenHl   greatly    fruni  hi-at.    wliew*  he  iitll.  I 
i!    Chaleurs  Bay      He    was  rliarmeil    with   Ih 
U-uiity  of  the  countrv,  and  well  plritstHl  with  t.. 
Indians  that  he  met   snd    with   whom   he  e» 
iliangcil  some  goods  f^r  furs  On  leavli,. 

this  liay,  Cartier  visit.  I  1  good  pit-   .f  the  ......  . 

around  the  guif,  au  1  iwk  poascssiou  of  the  cou- 


AXBRICA.  1884-1S8S. 


Omodo. 


AMERICA.  ItMl-1608. 


try  in  the  same  of  the  matt  Cbrlftian  ktnc  u 
VermMnl  J»d  done  In  aJI  the  pUcei  wbeii'he 
Jaoded.  He  let  Mil  again  on  the  ISth  of  Augtut 
to  return  to  IVance,  and  reached  8t  Malo  laTeir 
on  the  5th  of  Beptember.  ...  On  the  report 
whlcli  he  made  of  hi«  roTage,  the  court  con- 
cluded that  it  would  be  uaefulto  Prance  to  have 
a  «eltlement  in  that  part  of  America;  but  no  one 

fS"'."'.'*^^'"  r"""  ^  •"«»"  ">an  the  Vice- 
Admiral  Charles  de  Mony.  Sieur  dt  la  Haillerave 
ThU  noble  obtained  a  new  commiaaion  for  Car', 
tier,  more  ample  than  the  flrw,  and  gave  him 
three  ships  well  equipped.  This  fleet  waa  ready 
about  the  middle  of  Hay,  and  Cartler  eni- 

barke<I  on  Wednesday  the  l»th."     rils'   three 
vesse  8  were  separated  by  violent  storms,  but 
found  one  another,  near  the  close  of  July  In  the 
gulf  which  was  thel'  appointed  place  of  rendes- 
vous.    "On  the  1st  of  August  bad  weather  drove 
him  to  uke  refuge  In  the  port  of  SL  Nicholas,  at 
till'  mouth  of  the  river  on  the  north.     Here  Car- 
tier  planted  a  cross,  with  the  arms  of  France  and 
remained  until  the  7th.    This  |)ort  is  almost  the 
only  »ixit  in  Canada  that  has  kept  the  name 
given  by  Cartler.  ...  On  the  lOth  the  throe 
vessels  re-entered  the  gulf,  and  In  honor  of  the 
sjiint  whose  feast  is  celcbmted  on  that  dav  Car- 
tier  gave  the  gulf  the  name  of  St.  Uwi«^:  or 
rather  he  gave  it  to  a  bay  lying  between  Antl- 
eostl  Island  ami  the  north  shore,  wlience  it  ex- 
tended to  the  whole  gulf  of  which  this  bay  Is 
i«rt;  and  because  the  river,  before  that  called 
lUvcr  of  Cnnada,  empties  into  the  same  gulf  it 
iusenslMy  acquired  the  name  of  St.  Lawrence, 
which  li  still  (»Kn.  .  .  .  The  three  vessels 
uscimUil  the  river,  and  on  the  1st  of  Septeiiiber 
tl«T  enteri.1  the  river  Haguenav.     Cartiefmerely 
rerouMoiiered  the  mouth  of  this  river  and 
hastenwl  t.i  jeek  a  port  where  his  vessels  might 
rr^ZT'l''^  ,  Eight  leagues  above  Islo  a..x 
(.  oudres  he  found  another  much  larger  and  hand- 
»omer   slaud.  Hll  cvered  with  tnit  and  vines. 
He  cal.-d  „  Bacchus  Island,  but  the  name  h» 
fc"-;",'.'"^  *".'?'•  ''"''<•»>»     The  author  of 

name  nf  t  artier,  prelen.ls  that  only  here  the 
cmntry  begins  to  lie  calUtl  Canada.  But  he  is 
«iirelv  mistaken;  f-H-  It  is  c<rf»ln  that  from  the 
.mliest  time,  t  «•  Indians  gave  this  name  to  ti  ^ 
»h,.|e  country  along  the  riv.r  „u  lK,lhsid.^,  from 
l»  mouth  o  the  Saguenay.  From  Bai^hus 
UlMud.  Cartler  unn-ceded  to  a  little  river  which 


i.i.T,  i,„-  !;•>■>"■■"■  iu»  nine  nver  which 

i.n  .;Rr.> "*•.*'"' '■™'*"'  f"""'!'*  north:  he 
c«ll..,l  It  R  vtfre  dt  ste  Cttilx.  t».,  «u«.  he  enterwl 

o*;,",  Ti.  *H  f  i'^  '"'""^'^fF'-^t  of  the  Exalw 
nlM  Itivttre  de  Jacques  Cnriier.  The  day  after 
h  amvHl  he  re(elve.l  a  vi.it  fn.m  an  Indian 
dilef  .,«m„|  I),.nn««,m,,  whom  the  author  of  he 
ria  ,„n  of  Um  v„y«^.r  styles  Lord  of  J.niida 
a  kr  treated  wi,|,  ,|,i,  ol.jef  l.v  means  nfTvo 
n.ll»ii»«li,m.  he  had  taken  to  France  U.e  year 

nf'n.,.  r;  *'"'  •"""*  »  '""•^^  Fn^ncl,  Ae" 
lnf<.nm,|  iLnnacna  that  the  strangers  wlsliwl 
II  *■".'  i'         '"  '"Bn  "lilrh  seemc.l  K.  trouble  him 

.  u  .iKiM   non  known  „ii,  er  llic  name  of  Island  <.f 

»molli  I..  ,,.„„,  ,„  yf^„^  wiihout  scelnii  It 

>  i^ii'"'  I  «•  I'Topi,.  „f  l|,„  i„.u,,s  wore  of  a  dif- 

imT   """1  '?""   '''•  •'"'   "'«  he  wished  in 
I"""'  «el"*nly  by  iJw  a,lvanta««  which  he 


78 


rlfc-  £^"SL».^^°?*1*°»  "'^h  "no  ''««•  to 
IMS  Bt  nen«,  and  tbenco  in  two  boats.  Car- 
tt«ri.«hedHocheUg»OcLa.  "Theship^of 
the  town  WM  round,  and  three  rows  of  paliUdcs 
Inclosed  in  it  about  SO  tunnel  shaped  cab^^h 
over  80  paces  h»g  u>d  14  or  l.-Hvide.  It  m» 
entered  bv  a  single  gate,  above  which,  as  well 

^^^  T  'rHJ^*'^;  ""  •  kl-'l  of  gallei^ 
reached  by  Udders,  and  well  provided  with 
E^  "Jr^'i  and  pebbles  for  the  defence  of  tlie 
&,^"  1  '"'"'''"SS'*  o'  the  town  spoke  tlie 
wrJ^^i^"'"***,;  I*^L  r*^''"^  ihc'^Prench 
.1*^  .  ■,•  •.;  Cartier  visited  the  mountain  at 
thefoot  of  which  the  town  lay,  and  gave  it  the 

the  whole  Island  TMontreal].  From  it  he  dis- 
-hi!.ni.''*^'ui"*'"  "'  country,  the  sight  of 
»T5  «^"*V^  Wm.  .        He  left'llochelaga  on 

Bainte  Croix.  Wintering  at  thU  place,  where 
hU  crews  suffered  tcrribry  from  tJ.c  cold  and 
from  •curvy,  he  retume<l  to  France  the  following 
•Pring.  Some  authors  .  .  .  pretend  that  Car 
tier,  tllsgusted  with  Canada,  dhi^ua<le<l  the  king 
hto  master,  from  further  thoughu  of  It;  anil 

R„??i.'i  i"  ■*"™  '"  '""'*'  **•■>  "'  ""at  opinion. 
But  this  does  not  agrw!  with  what  Cartler  hlm- 
!7i.lEf'.K°  ^  inemolrs.  .  .  .  Cartler  in  vain 
extollwl  the  country  which  he  ha.1  discovered. 
^S^,  '«"""»•  ■'"I  tlie  wretche<l  condition  to 
which  hU  men  ha<l  Ijeen  reduced  by  cold  au<l 
•curvy,  persuaded  most  that  It  would  never  be 

n?f„^  ^\t"  nowhere  saw  any  app,»rancc  of 
mines;  and  then,  even  more  than  now,  a  strange 
tond  wh  ch  produced  neltlier  gold  nor  silver  was 
reckonol  as  nothing. "—Father  Cliarlevolx.  Hut. 
qTAeu  /Vrinrt  ((raw.  ig  J.  u.  Slu,i),  bk  1 
o  lif"-"-.  •*■  ^""^  OtiurtU  Coll.  of  Voyant  n» 
Vaniian,  e.  1,  M.  3. 

nO»  HHDtTINO,   Ac.  :   A     I>.    X^iOS^ 

A.  D.   iSM-»5SO.-8wuilsh   Conqussts   in 
ee  Cim-E:  A.  D.  14.10-1:^4 


Chila.     See". _ 

A.  p.    I53«-I53« _.,. 

wsw  Craiuda.    Sec  Colomuian  St ai>,»  : 


|8.— Spanish   Conquests   of 

is8«-n3i "^'*  ^'°'^'""*-''  iSTATKi,  A  n. 

V«.£'  '}1i"i^3.~J«cqnss  Cartlsr's  last 
»u!?Sl";*^'*'*^  atUmptsat  Frsnch  Colo- 
aisatfra  In  C*n«la.--J^,n  Fnuivols  ,le  la 
Hmiuc.  loBl  of  RolK-rvsl,  a  gentleman  of  Pir-snly 
was  the  most  earnest  a:.  I  energetic  of  tl»*e  wl.o 
ileslre«l  to  colonlic  t  lu  Unds  dlscovert^l  by 
Jacmies  Cartler.  ,  Tlie  title  and  authority 
or  llcutcnantgeiienil  was  ronfeneil  iipfm  liliii; 
hl»  nile  to  extend  over  Canada.  H.Kliehiira. 
rtagiieniiy.  Newfoundland.  Belle  I.le.  Cirimn 
Labrwlor.  L«  Omn.l  Baye,  an.l  Biir«nl«„!,.  w|,|, 

This  patent  was  dated  the  15th  of  Jnmwrv 
IMO.    Jijciiucs  Cartler  was  named   meond   In 

8Ai  of  May,  l.Vll  having  provision., I  hi,  fleet 
for  two  renm.  He  rtiiialned  on  the  ti;  Uw. 
rince  umii  the  following  Jnm,  s,rkiii^.  v.ihily 
for  he  fal.l«l  wealth  of  tie  land  of  Sa.ru,  i,,,/ 
nn.Itiig  the  Indiana  strongly  In.  Iln,  d  |„  » 
IrenrlHrous  h,«illltv,  and  ■sullnln.f  sivere 
hunlshlps  during  the  winter  KiiUnlv  ,li,. 
couragcd  ami  disgusted,  lie  aband,jue,l  hl«  uu,ler 


AMERICA.  lMl-1601 


nmHiuaiiil 


AMERICA.  15<3-1S<7. 


I* 


-i 


taking  early  In  the  rammrr  of  1542,  and  mfl«l 
for  home.     In  the  road  of  8t.  John*,  Newfound- 
laod.  Cartier  met  his  tardy  chief,  KoberTal  Just 
coming  to  join  him ;  but  no  peraiuulon  could 
'oducc  the  disappointed  explorer  to  turn  bacli. 
"To  avoid  the  chance  of  nn  open  rupture  with 
Rohcrval.  the  lieutenant  silently  weighed  anchor 
during  the  night,  and  made  all  nil  for  France. 
This  inglorious  withdrawal  from  the  enterpriie 
paralyied  HolnrTals  power,  and  deferred  the 
permanent  settlement  of  Canada  for  genentions 
then  unborn.    Jacques  Cartier  died  soon  after 
Ua  return  to  Europe."    Roberral  proceeded  to 
Canada,  built  a  fort  at  Ste  Croix,  four  leagues 
west  of  Orleans,  sent  l.uclt  two  of  his  thi«e  ships 
to  France,   and  rcmnincd  through   the  winter 
with  his  colony,  having  a  troubled  time.    There 
IS  no  certain  account  of  the  ending  of  the  enter- 
prise, but  it  ended  In  failure.     R)r  half  a  cen- 
tury aftorwards  there  was  little  attempt  made 
DV  the  French  to  colonize  any  part  of  New 
France,  though  the  French  fisheries  on  the  New- 
foundland Bank  and  in  the  Gulf  of  8t  Lawrence 
were  BUwIlly  gMwjni  In  activity  and  Import- 
ance.   •  •  W  hen.  af Ur  fifty  viars of  civil  strife,  the 
strong  and   wise  sway  of  Hcnrv  IV.  restored 
rest  to  troubled  France,  the  spirit  of  discoveiT 
again  arose.     The  Marquis  de  1«  Roche,  a  Breton 
gcntlemn.i,  olrtained  from  the  king,  in  1S00  a 
patent  gnintlne  the  same  |x>wers  that  Roberval 
had  powwssnl.  •    But   U  Roche's  underuking 
proved  more  disastrous  than  RolKrval's  had  been. 
Yet,  tJiere  Imd  been  enough  of  successful  fur- 
trading  ii|i(  uod  to  stimulate  enterprise,  despite 
these  misfortunes.     "IVivateadventurers.unpro- 
tectc<l  by  siiy  special  privilege,  licgau  to  barter 
for  the  riih  peltries  of  tlie  Canadian,  hunters. 
A  wealthy  nicrtluint  of  St.  Malo,  named  Punt- 
gravc.  was  tliv  iMildcst  and  most  successful  of 
these  tniilirs;  lie  made  a<'vcml  voyages  to  Ta- 
doussnc,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Saguenav,  bringing 
back  earh  time  a  ricli  cargo  of  rare  and  valuable 
furs."    In   IflOO,  Pontgruve  effectetl  a  partner- 
ship with  rair  CImuvin,  a   naval  captnin    who 
obuineii  u  iiniint  from  the  king  giving  him  a 
mouo|Mily  of  the  trmle;  but  Chauvlndlcl  in  l«« 
without  Having  «.ii reeded  In  establisliing  even  a 
trailing  |imt  at    Indomwic      De  Challe,  or  De 
Chastes.  goMrnor  of  Dleii|M>.  succeeiled  to  the 
privili  lies  of  I'liauvin.  and  fc.unded  a  compunr 
of  meriliMiiu  at  Rouen  (IBO:!)  to  undertake  tlic 
devil.ipiiHiit  of  the  rrsoum-s  of  Canada      It  was 
uiidir  Ihi  aUHpici's  of  this  company  that  Samuel 
Chami.lHiii,  lire  f(.und.r  of  New  "France,  came 
upon  tilt  «rnc.—E    Warburton,  T/i4  Conmal  „f 
tiiiuuVi.  r.  1,  (f,   iZ  '         •' 

AlJMi  IN    F.   Pnrkman.  nnnerni  nf  Fninet  in 
theX.r  Wmt,):  fhnmiiliiin.  rH    I-« 

A.  D.  i<6»-M67.-Th»  Slav*  trading  Vot- 
■gaaof  John  Hawkini.-Btginniags  o?  Enc- 
lish  Enterprise  in  the  New  World.— ■  The 
liistory  of  i;nKll»li  Aniiri.a  begins  will,  the 
three  slave  trailing  vovauis  of  John  Hawkins 
ma.|r  In  llic  viari  IMj,  rm.  and  I,VI7  Noih'- 
Iriit  tlint  Knglitlimrn  had  ilotie  in  ronmrllon 
with  .ViiH  riiH.  pri'Viousiv  to  those  vovagc's  had 
any  r.'siilt  worth  nconllng.  England  lin<| 
known  llir  N,  w  World  iiiMrty  si-vcntv  years  for 
.John  (  al».t  nachcd  it  shorilv  afur  it's  Illmovry 
l.y  C.lninliu,;  and,  as  tin' tidings  of  the  .lis 
covery  s|irearl  inimy  English  advenlurera  hsd 
erosseil  tin  .\ilaulli  to  the  American  o«ist  Hut 
H  ymn  passwi.  and  the  cxcltenMot  of  noTclly 


74 


subsided,  the  English  voyages  to  America  had 
become  fewer  and  fewer,  and  at  length  ceased 
altogether.     It   is   easy    to   account    for   this. 
There  was  no  opening  for  conquest  or  plunder, 
for  the  Tudon  were  at  peace  with  the  Spanish 
sovereigns:    and  there  could   be  no  territorial 
occupation,   for  the  Papal  tlUe  of  Spain  and 
Portugal  to    the  whole  of  the  new  continent 
could  not   be  ditputed  by  Catholic   England. 
No  trade  worth  having  existed  with  the  natives: 
and  Spain  and  Portugal  kept  the  trade  with 
their  own  settlera  in  their  own  hands.  ...  As 
the  planutlons  in  America  grew  and  multiplied, 
the  demand  for  negroes  rapidly  Increased.    The 
Spanlarda  had  no  African  settlements,  but  the 
Portuguese  had    many.   and.   with  the  aid  of 
Prench  and  English  adventuren.  they  procured 
from  these  settlements  slaves  enough  to  supply 
both  themselves  and  the  Spanhirds.     But  the 
Brazilian  plantations  grew  so  fast,  about  the 
mkldle  of  the  century,  that  they  absorbed  the 
entire  supply,  and  the  Spanish  colonists  knew 
not  where  to  look  for  negroes.    This  penury  of 
aUves  in  the  Spanish  Indies  became  known  to 
the  English  anil  French  captains  who  frequente<l 
the  OuTnea  coast ;  and  John  Hawkins,  who  had 
been  engaged  from  boyhood  In  tlie  trade  with 
Spain  and  the  Canaries,  resolved  In  1469  to  take 
a  cargo  of  negro  slaves  to  Hispanlola.     The 
little  sqoivdron  with    which    he  executed  this 
project  was  the  first  English  squadron  which 
navigated  the  West  Indian  seas.     This  voyage 
opened  those  sens  to  the  English.     England  hud 
not  yet  broken  with  Spain,  and  the  law  excluding 
English  vessels  from  trading  with  the  Spanisli 
colonists  was  not  strictly  enforced.    The  trade 
was  profitable,  and  Hawkins  found  no  difficulty 
In  disposing  of  his  cargo  to  great  advantage.    A 
meagre  note  .  .  .  from  the  pen  of  llakluyt  con- 
tains all  that  is  known  of  ilie  first  American 
voyage  of  Hawkina     In  its  deUlls  it  must  have 
closely  resembled   the  second   voyage.     In  the 
flrat  voyage,  however,  Hawkins  had  no  occasion 
to  carry  Ids  wares  further  tlun  thn^e  ports  on 
the  northern  side  of  Hisnaniola.     These  ports 
far  away  fn.m  San  Domingo,  the  capital,  win 
already  well  known  to  the  French  smugglers.   Hv 
dill  not  venture  Into  the  CariMiean  Hea;   au.l 
having  loailed  bis  ships  with  their  return  cargo 
he  made  the  best   of   his   wav  back.     In  l.i» 
second   voyage  .he  entereil  the  CaribNan 
Sea.  still  keeping,  however,  at  a  safe  diatsuo 
from  San  Domingo,  and  soM  his  slaves  on  thf 
mainland.     This  voyage  was  on  a  much  larffi  r 
scale.  Having  sol.i  his  slavw  lu  the  conii 

nental  |>ort8  ISouth  American),  and  loaded  hi- 
vessi'ls  with  hides  and  other  gixxis  bought  with 
the  pr»liice.  Hawkins  determrned  to  strike  out  s 
new  path  and  sail  home  with  tlie  Oulfstream 
which   Mould   carry  him   nnrthwa^ls   {MSt   tho 
shores    of    Florida.      Sparke's    narrative   . 
lirovrs  that  at  every  point  In  these  ex|H'dltloDsthi' 
Englishman  was  following  In  the  track  of  Hi.- 
Frenrh.     He  hail  Fri'nch  pilots  and  seamen  .  i 
Ismril,  and  there  Is  little  doulit  that  one  at  li-.i-t 
oflhiM  hail  already  been  with  ijiudonnitn  r. 
Florida       The    French   seamen  guided   hlin  i  < 
Uiidonniere  s  settlement,  where  liU  arrival  «  ;- 
most  oppi.rtune      Thiy   then   pointed   him   <<., 
way  liy  tlie  coast  of  North   Auierka.  then  im 
versally  know  In  the  mass  as  New  France    :.. 
Newfoundland     and   IheniT,    with  the   prevsJi 
ing  westerly  winds,  to  Europs.    This  was  tli« 


Mi. 


Ism^i   I 


AMZRICA,  1S6S-1S67. 


pioneer   Toytge   made   by    EoKlUhmcD   klonc 
couU    afterwards  fumou*  in  liistnry  throiigb 
EngUah  colonization.  .  .  .  The  extremely  inter- 
esting namUTe  .  .  .  given  .  .  .  from  tLc  pen 
r.f  John  !$parke,   one  of   lUwkina'  gentlemen 
companions  .  .  .  cootainii  the  first  information 
concerning  America  and  its  natives  which  was 
publisbctl  in  England  bv  an  En^'lisli   eye-wit- 
ness."   Hawkins   pUnned   a   third    voyage    In 
1588,  but  the  remonstrances  of  the  Spaulsli  king 
caused  him  to  be  stopped  by  the  English  court. 
He  sent  out  his  slilps,  however,  iin<l  they  came 
home  in  due  time  ricldy  freight«'d,  —  from  what 
source  is  not  known.     "In  niiother  year's  time 
the  aspect  of  things  had  changed.''    England 
wits  venturing  into  war  with  Spnin.  "and  Ilaw- 
liins  was  now  able  to  execuU;  his  pUns  without 
restraint.     He    founditl    a   iH-rmanent  fortified 
factory  on  the    Guinea    coast,    where    negroes 
might  Iw  collecU'd  all  the  year  round      Thcnco 
he    sailed    for  the  West  Indies  a  thinl    time 
\ouug  Fiancia  Orakc  sailed  with  him  in  com- 
mand of  the  'Judith,'  a  small  vessel  of  fifty 
loiw.  "    The  voyage  ha<l  a  pnispepous  l)eglnnlng 
and  a  disustniua  ending.      After  dismning  ol 
imwt  of  their  slaves,  thev  were  driven  by  storms 
In  take  nfuge  in  the   Mexican   iM)rt    of  Vera 
I'ruz,  and  there  tluy  win'  attui IikI  by  a  I-ipauUli 
tieit.     JJrake  in  tlie  "Judith  "  ami  ftawkins  in 
anirther  Mnall   veswl   escaped.     Hm   the  latter 
was  o\ercrowde<l  with  men  and  olilijriHl  to  put 
half  of  tli.m  ashore  on  the  Mexican  coast.     The 
majority   of  those  left  on   txinril,  us  well  as  a 
iiiajurity  of  Urake's  crew,  diinl  on  the  voyage 
lionie.  and   it  was    a    niiseiMble    nniuant    that 
lauded    m   Lnglund,    in  Januarv,    IMU  _K    J 
I'ayue,    I'.jf'ijw.  „/  t/u   EUmbeihan    .Stamm    to 
Am.,  ell.  1. 

Aljui  IN:  The  llnirlnm  Vugaiitt;  td.  by  C.  K. 
Mi,i/,„i„  (llnilu^l  .%«■..  X,.  57|.— U.  Siutliev 
hrrtvfOi.  /InIM  AitmimU.  r  !! 

A.  D.  i57»-i58o.-The  Piratical  Advcaturei 
of  Drake  and  his  Encompaasing  of  the  World. 
—■  tram  11  Drake,  tlic  lirst  nf  tin  English  Buc- 
caneers, was  one  iif  tin-  twelve  i  liil.lnn  of  Ed- 
ward Dmke  .,f  TavistcK-k,  in  Divoushire  a 
Btaunch  Pnilestant,  who  had  tliil  Ids  nat'ive 
plaiv  tn  avoiil  ixrset  utioli,  and  had  llieu  iHnina- 
a  slilps  chaplain.  Dndi.-,  lili,.  (  „l,inibus  lia<l 
Isvii  a  Manian  liy  pMfesoiou  fniiii  Uiyliixsl .  awl 
,  lii«l  mriiii  as  a  yming  man.  hi  TOmnianil 
"t  the  Juiliih,  umler  Ilawknis.  .  .  .  Haw- 
kins hail  ninliiied  himsi'ir  lt>  simigirling  Krake 
advaudd  Inmi  this  |,>  pin.,  y  ri,i.<  pracliee 
wii.^  aiilluirij'.ed  by  law  in  lla-  middle  ages  fur 
til.  purp.«-  of  reeoveriuif  dilits  or  lUmuges 
fr..m  ili.-siilij..ilsof  aiHiihir  naliiiii.  The  Eng- 
li>li.  ispmalli  tlww  i.f  til,.  H,»i  .,iiit;try  were 
IlHnio>t   lormidahle   pinil.s  in  il„.   K„rl,i    HUd    ■ 

Ihf  wlh.lr  iiaiiiai  was  liy  this  ti r.nw  ,1  against   ' 

.•<!»iin.  in  <iiiis.-.ni,.|i,  .■  ■if  til,'  ruilili  s,  «ur  wagiil   ' 
..iPiin.t     l'r,.t,,ia,ii..,n,    in    t|„.    .N.  i|,..rlamls    bv 
llulipll       Unik,-  liail  aiTiiunts  ..f  liii  ,>wn  t<) 
-•III,-  «iili  the  >p;.iii«rtl,.      Tli..iit'l,   Elitalwih 

'""'   hilar,,!    t,.r  ili,-  n-,,,lt.  I  Stairs    a„,| 

piirsu,-,!  ,,  sliifim^r  |,„ii,.y.  ii,  r  i„„.r,.iM,  »,„| 
th.ir.  u.r,'  lilinii.al,  au.l  i|  «.„  wi,i,  „  view 
■■f  (Ultlllk.  „ir  t|H„.  Mippli..,  „f  ,,,1,1  „,„,  ,i,,.,,, 
fnim  .Vni,n.a  whi.h  ,iml.l,-.|  |'|,i|,|,  ,„  i,rii,, 
I"'  rii.iai,.  niiil  pa>  ».,i,li,.r..  in  piirsiiu  „f  |,u 
|s>n,i  „|  aitifressi,,!!  ilmi  ||„.  f.u,,,,,,,  vovaif,- 
«».  auiL,.rt*,s|  |,v  Ei,«ll.h  sUfM,.,!,  Drak,. 
Hail    recently   made  more   than   one  succeaaful 


Votmgu. 


AMERICA,  lOTS-lSM. 


vovage  of  plunder  to  the  American  coast."    In 
July.   1573.  he  surprised  the  SpanUh  town  of 


75 


I.  -"t       ,'  ;;?  ••"Fr'»e"  "le  opanwn  town  of 
Aombre  de  Dios.  which  was  the  shipping  port 
on  the  northern  side  of  the  Isthmtis  for  the 
treasures  of  Peru.     His  men  made  their  way 
nto  the  royal  treasure-house,  where  they  laid 
hands  on  a  heap  of  bar-silver.  70  feet  long.  10 
wide  and  10  high;  but  Drake  himself  had  re- 
ceived a  wound  which  comiH.lled  the  pirate's  to 
retreat  with  no  very  large  part  of  thr  splendid 
booty.    In  the  winter  of  1573,  with  the  help  of 
the  runaway  slaves  on  the  Isthmus,  known  M 
Umarroncs,  he  crowed  the  Isthmus,  looked  on 
t  ic  raciflc  ocean,  approached  within  sight  of 
the  city  of  Panama,  and  waylaid  a  transportation 
party  conveying  gold  to  N,>mlire  de  Di,«    but 
was  disappolnte.!  of  hU  prey  by  the  exciUil' con- 
duet  of  some  of  his  men.     When  be  saw,  on  thia 
(KHaision.  the  great  ocean  beyon.l  the  Isthmus. 
Urake    then   and    there   resolved    to   be    the 
pioneer  of  hngUnd  hi  the  I»acific:  and  on  this 
resolution  lie  solemnly  besought  the  blessing  of 
C.<«l.     Nearly  four  years  ela|>se.l  Uf„re  it  was 
executed:  for  it  was  not  until  XovenilK'r,  1577 
that  Drake  embarked  on  hU  famous  voyage  In 
the  course  of  which  he  propo«e,|  t„  pl,iii,l,.r  Peru 
Uself       -The  Peruvian   p<irts  w.re   unfortitied. 
Ihe  SpanhinU  knew  them  to  be  In  nature  abso- 
lutely  si-cureil    from  attack  <m  the  north;  and 
lliey  never  dreamed   that  the   English   pirates 
wouhl   Iw  daring  enough   to  [Mtss  III,-  t,rril>lc 
straiu  of  Magellan  au<l  attaik  llii-m  from  the 
south.     Suth  wag  the  |dau  ,if  Dnk,  ;  ami  it  was 
executed   with  complete    sikusk  "     1 1,-    »^x\v<.\ 
fnim  Plymouth,  Dec.   la,   l.'iT7,  with  a  H,-,t  of 
four  vessels,  and  a  pinnace,  hut  l,.M  on..  „f  i|,i. 
shins  after  ho  had  entere,l  th..  Pa,  ili, .  in  a  storm 
which  drove  him  souihwanl,  ami   wlii,  h  made 
dm  the  discoverer  of  Cape  II„rn.     Another  of 
his  ships.  sepaniU-,1  from  the  s.iua,lri.ii,  n  tum«l 
home,  and  a  Uiinl.  while  attempting  to  ,io  the 
Kline,  was  lost  In  the  river  Plate      Drake   in  hij 
own  vessel,  the  (J.dden  Hind.  prm-...-,l,^|'  i„  tl,u 
I   leriiviauamsu,  where  lie  rrui.s.duniil  he  liad 
I   Uikeii  and  plunderi.d  a  sc..re  of  .Spanish  ships 
•  l.a,li-n  with  a  rich  liooly  of  Peruvian  lr.;isun) 
he  il.H.m,il  it  unsafe  to  riturn  by  th,.  way  tiiat  he 
canK%     He  thi-reforo  res<dve.l  t..  strike  aenwa  the 
1  acilic,  an.1  for  thU  purpose  m»,le  ilie  latilmlo 
in  which  this  voyage  was  usually  |»rfoniit.d  bv 
the   Siwulsli   govemnient    v.smIs    whl.h    8:tll.4l 
annually    fn.m    Aeapulco  t,.    the    Pl,ilippiu«t 
Drake  thus  reached   the    cuist    „f    faliforuhi 
»h.re  the  Indkiis,  delightwl  b.y„ii,i  measure  by 
(iresenta  of  clothing  and  trinket.,.  iiivit„|  him  to 
remain  and  rule  our  th.ni      Drake  |,sik  ixw. 
si-ssi.m  of  the  country  in  the  tiaiiie  of  the  Uuwn 
and  retittwl   his  v..«l   m    preparation    for  the 
unknown  i)erihi  of  the  Pa.  ill.'      Th.'  plmv  where 
he  liUMliil  must  have  bo-n  eilh.r  the  gnat  Iwy 
iif  »an  Francisco  (ptT  contra.,  s...  Caiifihima- 
•..,  1   ''*<*-"**"l  "f  "'e  small  Ikiv  of  Ikslega' 
which   lies  a   f.w   i.-aguea  further  north      Tlio 
irnat  nt.amau  ha<i   alreiuiv  i-,m4|,,|  liy..  .legnu 
more  to  th,.  m.rihward  U-foie  tlii.linif  a  .-iiital.l., 
harbimr      He   Islieved   himsilf  m   tn.   the  tinii 
KumiH-an  who  ha,l  eoasicl  ll„ «,.  ►hor.s    but  it 
IS  now  well  kmiwn  llwt   tipanish   ,  viphireni  liad 
precile,!    him.       Iln,k.-s    ,  in  iii„„».|gali„n    uf 
th.    Kh«b..  was  thus  no  ilelilsniie  I.m  of  «.«inan- 
slilp.  Imt  tlie  umnnMry  result  of  . miinwianres 
the  v,.yage  omit-  in  mon.  tUan  .«>.  ^ay  a  ervnX, 
efwih    hi    smfHiiL    uautiuil    huu.rv"    Drake 


43 


:l, 


AKERIOA,  187>-1S80. 


letched  Plymouth  on  hii  return  Bept  26  1S80 

~^.i,  ^X"'-  ^"IKV  'ftSt  mmtbtiLn  Siamet^ 
pp.  l4l-l4o. 

.  ^J^'i  *"  Fletcher.  The  World  Bneompamd 
iuHr  F.  Orakt  (IlaUuft  Sot..  1884). -J.  B^rnw. 
Me  of  Dralu.—K   Soutbey,  Utee  of  Brititk 
Aamtniu,  ».  8. 
A.  D.  1580  —The  flnal  fonnding;  of  th«  City 

V  n^Ji.  .m*-    **  Abowitis b  Rep dbuc : 
A.  D.  1580-1777. 

u^-  °;.f5'3-~T?«  EKoedltlon  of  Sir  Hnn- 
phrey  Gilbert.— FormafpoMCMion  taken  of 
Newfoandland.-In  1578,  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert. 
»n  Fnirlisli  gentlemmn,  of  DeTonihire,  whoee 
T^ungir  half  brother  wu  the  more  famoui  Sir 
Walter  lUIeIgh,  obtained  from  Queen  Elizabeth 
■  charter  empowering  bim,  for  the  next  ilx 
years,  to  diirorer  "tuch  remote  heathen  and 
barbarous  lands,  not  actually  poiieaied  by  any 
Christian  prince  or  people,"  as  be  might  to 
•brewd  or  fortunate  enough  to  And.  and  to  oc- 
cupy the  same  as  their  proprietor.  Oilbert'i  lint 
expedition  wo*  attempted  the  next  year,  with 
Sir  n niter  Raleigh  asKxdated  in  It;  but  misfor- 
tunes droTe  back  the  adventurers  to  port,  and 
Branlsh  intrigue  preTented  their  sailing  again. 
"In  June.  15*.  Gilbert  sailed  from  CawsSiiyBay 
with  a»e  vessels,  with  the  general  Intentkm  of 
dlsc».»erlng  and  colonizing  the  northern  parU  of 
Amerii».  It  was  the  lint  colonizing  expwIIUon 
Which  left  the  shores  of  Great  Britain;  and  the 
narrative  of  the  expedition  by  Hayes,  who  com- 
mandcil  one  of  Gilbert's  vessels,  forms  the  flnt 


fSS^S&it. 


AMERICA.  18M-18N. 


R?l!*  '"..i"'®  '•'•'o'T  "t  English  colonizaUon. 
Olibcrt  did  no  more  than  go  thruugh  the  empty 
form  of  taking  possession  of  the  Island  of  New- 
foumiland,  to  which  the  English  name  formerly 
applleil    to  the  coutinent  in  general  wu 

now  rcstrici..!.  .  .  .  Gilbert   dallied    here  too 
long.     W  hen  he  set  sail  to  cross  the  Gulf  of  8t 
Lawrence  and  Uka  possession  of  Cape  Breton 
and  Nova  Scotia  tue  senson  was  too  far  advanced  • 
one  of  ills  largest  shijis  went  down  with  all  on 
N>Hrd,   itidudrng  the   Hungarian  scholar  Par- 
nieni;i8,  who  had  romo  out  as  the  historian  of 
the  exiicdillon;  the  stores  were  exiiaustetl  and 
the  crews  dispirited;  and  Gilbert   rc.s»lve,l   on 
sslling  home,  intending  to  return  and  |ir.Mecnte 
bU  dl9<ov»rics  the  next  sprins.     On  the  home 
Toysjte  the  little  vessel  In  which  he  was  salliiiir 
foundered ;  and  the  pioneer  of  English  cnl.uiiza- 
tion  f<mnd  a  watery  grave.  .  .  .  OilNrt  was  a 
man  of  counge,  pfety.  and  learnln);      He  was, 
however,  an  IndliTerent  seaman,  ami  (luite  In- 
competriit  for  the  task  of  colonl/iiii..n  f.  which 
he  hail  set  his  hand.     The  miRfortuij<"i  i.f  bis  ex- 
peiiltiim  induced  Amsdas  and  Bariuw,  who  fol- 
lowwl  In  his  steps,  to  almndon  the  n.irtliward 
voyage  and  sail  to  tlie  shores  intemleil  bi  U  iw- 
cupied  by  the  easier  but  more  circuitous  Mute  of 
the   Canaries   and    the    West    Indies "—  K    j 
Pavne.   I»jf.«{vs  y  rA«   BUiahethan  S.tmfu'np 
173-174  —  "On  Monday,  the  Uth  of  t<ept«ml>i-r 
In  the  afternoon,  the  frigate  {the  •Siiuirrel ']  vtti, 
Dear  caat  aws.",  oppressed  by  wsvct,  vet  at  that 
time  rec..ver«\!;and  giilng  forth  aigns  of  Joy 
the  gimral,  sitting  atjaft   with  a  Tkn.Ii  In  hu 
hand,  crie.l  out  to  us  in  the  •  Hind  •  (so  oft  as  we 
did  approach  within  hearing).  ■  We  arc  as  near 
to  heaven  l>v  sea  a«  l.y  land.'  Ksiteratlng  the  same 
speech,    well   beseeming   a   soldier    resolute   in 
Jesus  Christ,  as  I  no  testify  he  was     On  the 
tame  .Monday  olght.  about  twelve  iu-\,»-k  or  not 


Ions  after,  the  frigate  being  ahead  of  i:s  In  th« 
'Golden  Hind,'  suddenly  her  llghu  were  out, 
whereof  ai  It  were  in  a  moment  we  lost  the 
sight,  and  withal  our  watch  cried  the  Genera!  was 
cast  awar,  which  was  too  true;  for  In  that 
moment  the  frigate  was  devoured  and  swalloweil 
up  by  the  sea.  Yet  still  we  looked  out  all  tliat 
night  and  ever  after,  until  we  arrived  upon  tiie 
coast  of  England.  ...  In  great  torment  of 
weather  and  peril  of  drowning  it  pleased  God  to 
■end  safe  home  the  •  Golden  Hlml.'^ which  arrived 
In  Falmouth  on  the  2ad  of  September,  bebig 
Sunday."— E.  Hayes.  .1  Jkport  of  the  Vomffebg 
Sir  Bumphnt  Oiliert  (reprinted  is  Pimm/$ 
Vofaf*). 

Also  m  E.  Edwards,  l^e  of  Raleigh,  t.  1.  eh. 
o-— R-  Hakluyt.  J^neipat  Sanoationt:  ed.  hg 
K.  OoUimid.  ».  13.  i^        .  V 

A.  D.  1584-1586.— Raleif^'a  Firat  Coloni*- 
iw  attampta  suid  failnrca.  —  "  The  task  in 
which  Gilbert  had  failed  was  to  be  undertaken 
by  one  better  qualified  to  carry  it  out.  If  any 
Englishman  in  tiiat  age  seemed  to  be  marked  out 
as  the  founder  of  a  colonial  empire.  It  was 
Raleigh.  Like  Gilbert,  be  had  studied  books; 
like  Drake  he  coulj  rule  men.  .  .  .  The  asaoda- 
tion;i  of  bli  youth,  and  the  training  of  hia  early 
Bunhood,  fitted  him  to  sympathize  with  the  aims 
of  hta  half-brother  Gilbert,  and  there  la  Uttle 
reason  to  doubt  that  Raleigh  iiad  a  share  In  hia 
undertaking  and  his  fndure.  In  1 584  he  obtained  a 
patent  precisely  similar  to  Gilbert  h.  His  first  step 
•bowed  the  thoughtful  and  weli-nlanned  systeni 
on  which  he  began  his  task.    Two  ships  were 


••11 


—  . ..„  ...  ^»..  u,«  M«M,      A  WU  Hiina  were 

sent  out,  not  with  any  idea  of  settlement,  but  to 
examine  and  report  upon  the  country.  "Tieir 
commandere  wer«  Arthur  Barlow  and  Philip 
Amidos.  To  tlie  former  we  owe  the  extant 
record  of  the  voyage:  the  name  of  the  latter 
would  suggest  that  he  waa  a  foreigner.  W  hether 
by  chance  or  design,  they  took  a  ino'e  southeriy 
course  than  any  of  their  pmlecessors.  On  the 
%1  of  July  the  preseiK*  of  shallow  wai^r.  and  a 
smell  of  sweet  flowen.  warned  them  that  Und 

7^,?T'-  '^^^,  I'"""'"*  ••»»  gfven  was  amply 
fulfilled  upon  thilr  apprcjach.  The  slflit  befoi^ 
them  was  far  illll.rent  fn>m  that  which  lia<l  met 
the  eyes  of  llore  and  GlllK-rt.  Instead  of  the 
nli-ak  co«»t  of  Newfoundland.  Barlow  an^l 
Anililas  loolted  upon  a  scene  wlilch  might  rwall 
tliesoftness  of  the  Mediterranean.  .  .  .  Coaslinn 
along  for  about  !»•  niil.-«,  the  voyajfen  reached 
an  tolet  and  with  siune  diffleully  e'ntered.  They 
tlien  sidcmnly  ixjok  iHawexsion  of  tiie  land  in  th'. 
Queens  name,  and  then  dellven-d  It  over  t.. 
Rakigh  ant.nllnit  to  his  pat<>nt.  They  soou  dia 
covered  that  the  l.ind  ujion  whi.h  tliey  b«,l 
l-urhed  was  an  l»l>uid  about  20  mil.s  long  ami 
n.t  Bliovewj  liriKiil,  named,  as  tli.y  aflerwartU 
li-anit.  Itoauoki-.  H.  you,i,  separating  tliem  from 
the  mamland,  lay  an  enclomtl  s<a,  studded  with 
more  than  a  hmi.lrwl  fertile  and  wsll-woode^l 
,  The  liidiaB.  ,.r,.v„|  friewlly,  and  were 

.1  ,  ;(>ed  by  lUrloH  .  i^-inj  ■■  m.Mt  ,rentle,  lov- 
litK  Kud  failliful,  \..in  .,f  all  giiile  sihI  '.reason 
and  such  as  live  afi.  r  .e  manner  of  the  golden 
age  "The  r.,H.ri  «hi.h  the  vovagen  to.* 
Lome  spoke  as  f.vourahly  of  tlw  Un<)  Itself  as  .  f 
lu  InliahlUnts  .  Win,  them  iho,  bioughl 
•-wo  of  tlie  savages,  name<l  WaiirlHse  and  Man. 
teo.  A  proUl.le  tra<lltl..n  tella  us  Uiat  Uii  qu.'.  0 
hei|self  name.i  tlie  country  Virginia,  an<l  th»l 
lUleighs  knighthood  was  the  reward  and  sc- 


lii  ■■'  'K 


AMERICA.  1S84-1S86. 


knowled/nctnt  cf  his  lucceii.    On  the  ftrenrth 
vf  thii  report  Raleiirh  at  once  m«de  prr-parmtioni 
for  »  «f  ttlement.   A  flwt  of  sev^n  »hlp«  wm  pm- 
Tlded  for  the  conveyuncc  of  108  settlers.    The 
fleet  wu  under  the  r««mmand  of  Sir  Ricbk.ij 
Grenville.  who  w«s  to  establlkh  the  setUemenl 
UHl  Ie«Te  ft  under  'he  chjirge  of  Ralph  Lane 
■  •  •  ^''..''S  •""  °'  *P'"  I '585]  the  emigrants 
•et  sail.      For  mnie  reason  not  well  explained 
the  fleet  made  a  circuit  to  the  West  Indies   and 
loitertd  for  five  weeks  at  the  island  of  6l  John's 
and  St  Hispaniola,  reaohing  Virginia  In  the  last 
days  of  June,    Qiiaml.s  I*  iwecn  the  two  com- 
mander!, Qrennlle  and  Ijuie,  ha  1  alr-vdr  begun 
and  bolb  seemc<l  equUIjr  ready  to  provoke  the 
cnmltj  of  the  natives.     In  August,  after  explor- 
ing son.e  sixty  miles  of  the  const,  OrenTiite  re- 
turned to  Knglend,  proniiaing  to  coine  back  the 
next  spring  with  new  col.misu  snd  stcrea.    The 
•eitlfinenl    thu-i  left  to  the  care  of  Lane,  was 
esUblUhed  "at  the  north-cast  comer  of  the  UUiid 
of  R(«uoke,  whence  the  lelilers  could  command 
the  strait.     There,  even  now,  choked  by  vines 
and  underwoorl,  and  here  and  there  broken  by 
the  crumtdiiig  remains  of  an  earthen  bastion 
mav  t)e  tntced  the  outlines  of  the  ditch  which 
enclos*-.:  the  camp,  some  fortv  yard*  .uuare  the 
home  of  the  Hr-t  English  sjttlers  la  the  X-w 
H  orM.    Of  the  doings  of  the  settlers  du.lig  the 
wmter  nothing  Is  recorded,   but  by  the  ccxt 
spring  their  piospecu  looked  glooms.     The  In- 
dians were  no  longer  friends.  .  .  .  the  settlers 
unable  to  make  Ashing  weirs,  and  without  sceii 
corn  were  entirely  dew-ndent  on  the  Indians  for 
their  dailv  f,H.|.     tndor    these  circumstances 
one  woulil  have  suppostni  that  Unc  would  have 
iK-«t  emnlnyed  himself  In  guarding  the  s.ttle- 
ment  and  improving  its  ct)n<rition.    He,  however 
thought  otherwise,  and  aoplied  himself  to  thi 
task  of  exploring  the  nefghbouring  tcrrftorv." 
Buta«„ie  combination  of  hostile  fndiar  tritx-s 
?]m.r"/'*""'"'',*'^':'»'  "'*  ^"g^'-h.  andthrir 

PirilMlll  t?)  tM'f-utnai    f  «vi>»  .1..  «    ■_.    -1 a  


i[^t£Sff  AMERICA,  ia87-18W. 

^to  uie   to  EngUnd.   an<l  gradually  in  other 

turopcan  countries.    The  authorities  are  not  en- 

tlre  V  ,gr*ed  ur«m  thi,   ,„,i„t.     Joaselyn  s«vs; 

Tobacro  Hnit  br..u^'i,t  i.it..  KngUnd  by  Sir  Jjhn 

Waiter  Uwlcigh  mnnv  years  after.'  Amin  he 
seys:  •  >ow  (say  »j,me  i  TmIwcco  was  first  brought 

n.K  ^"^'.If^ ^"^  *ir-  " ''P''  I^w-- »"« "'  Virginia. 
Others  will  have  Tol,..,,otot.e  first  brought  Into 
England  from  Peni.  by  Sir  Francis  Ijrake-. 
vH  ,1\.  V»'n'''"n  ««»  Its  Introduction  into 

W?!?l?h  K^.  "?'"■?  '"',T  "^  "•«  men  brought 
b«:k  w  th  bim  in  th.-  si.ip*  of  Drake.  He  savf 
And  thete  men  whi.l.  were  brought  back  »w 
the  first  that  I  kn.w  ,,f.  which  bn>ug!,t  Into 
England  tliat  Indwn  plant  which  they  call  To- 
bacco and  Mcotta,  an.l  u«  It  against  crudltlei 
being  uiight  It  by  the  Indians,  ■"ceruinly  from 
lJ^i>l^'°!  '  k'TI'"'  '"  '*  '°  f"^"'  request,  and  to 

Wt  Inthecolonv  with  It.lph  Lane  in  1585  was 
Mr.  Thomas  Hanoi,  a  man  of  a  strongly  mathe- 
matical and  Miemitlc  turn,  whose ser^-fces  In  thU 
connection  were  greatly  valiie.1.     He  remained 

f„  1^  't"/'"  ^'■'"■'  "'"'  *'■'"  '««''  «o  England 
In  15M.  He  wrote  out  a  full  account  of  hfs  ob- 
servations In  the  Xew  World."— I    N  Tarbox 

Also  n»  T.  Hariot,  line/  and  tnt  R-part  (Be. 
pnntsrf  in  adovenam^  Prt  ,tf»  fbe.  PuNi^.on).— 
F.  L.  Hawks.  HiM.  of  X.  Carolina,  t.  1  {f,.ntain- 
!£f  ^1"  orLay'iA^nnl.  llanof,  Report. 
*«.— Original  DiKsed.  by  E.  E.  Hale  (Artha- 


fi  uati.m  N.  ,me  from  day  t«day  mott;  Imin'rill.^l 
At  the    H-gmning  of  June.  l,Vt6,  Une  fl.ught  a 

K, Id  battle  wjth  the  savages  and  routed  tt-m 
butno»i,-„of  Gri.nvilIeapiM.,rf.l  and  the  pras-' 
pert  lo.,ked  h..p..|esa.     Just  at  this  junctur,.    a 
j:n.at  tngli.h  fleet,  sailing  homewanls  frort    a 

•iratiral  exi)e..iii.m  to  the  Spanisli  Main,  under 
Uie  famous  CBoiain  Pnike, 'came  to  anchor  at 
iZlliu""?*-?.-  '^'  »•".••'"»•'  the  .iishearfac.l 
r«t  „  .  r  "'''.'»'«  voire  they  p..tltioncd  to  he 
taken  to  KniilniKl,  and  Drake  receiv,^  the  whole 
||any  on  l.«,rd  his  ship..  "  The  help  of  w  iVl. 
the  oKminl,  h*i  despair,,!  was  In  i*.li  y  e  ^ 
at  hand.    Sn,r,-elr  had  Drake's  fleet  lef'the  c.«« 

Lif  ,n  '  'i'  ■^""'•'•^  ^ ';«!»'».  and  after  search- 
A  .  Ml  .1  t„r  .U-ht  later  (ir,r,v|lle himself  .rriv.,1 
.-.Minuj  ,. . , ,  _  .f',,,,.  «.,^m      f,„  ,he  settlenK  and 

«  I  I'^l  .  " ''  •"  ^'"••'"l.  ""y  c,rri«l  with 
r  »l,iih  they  piv«er,i,-,f  t„  tjaklgh  as  the 
l>!«.t.r..f  ,he  ■  ,|o.,y,  and  I  y  Uim  It  w„  bi^ught 


Moma  Amerifana.  r.  4). 

A.  D.  1587-1590.  — The  Lost  Colonr  of 
RoMoka  -fintf  of  the  Virginia  Undertak- 
taa  of  sir  Walter  Raleigh.-'-  It.lei^h.  undil 
mayed  by  losses,  deiermiii.-.l.to  plant  si  agricul- 
tural state:  to  send  emiitrants  with  .heir  wives 
and  families,  who  slioull  make  their  homes  in 

??lV  ^ "''''•  »'"'•  "'«»  lif"  "nd  property 
might  be  secur-d,  in  January.  1,W7.  he  granted 'a 
charter  for  the  s«ttleii.. nt,  and  a  municipal 
gijvernment  for  the  city  of  •Raleigh.'  J.lhn 
White  was ap|><.lnt..<l  its  governor;  and  to  him 
Willi  eleven  aisi.tants.  the  a<iniinistratlon  of  the 
ctilony  was  intrusted.  Traii.p..rt  ships  were 
prepared  at  the  exr>ense  of  the  proprietary : 
•Queen  EliMlx-lb.  the  g.Mn.other  of  Virginia- 
declined  contributing  •I,,  it,  etiuealion.'  Em- 
harking  ir  April,  in  July  ihev  arrived  on  tha 
c«ast  o?  North  (anilina:  they  were  sav«l  from 
the  dangers  of  (hik-  Fear:  and,  passing  Cape 
Halteras  they  haste,„.,l  f.  the  Isle  of  Rwnoke 
to  »e|irch  for  the  h.u..lful  of  men  whom  Oren^ 
vllle  had  left  there  an  a  K^rris.'.n.     Thev  found 

.Lj  'i!"'"'*  ''■'*'■'"•"'  '""•  overgrown  with 
weeds;  human  Ik'Ui...  lay  M-altered  on  the  field 
Where  wlW  di-er  were  niKoiiig  T'le  f  rt  was 
^rulna.  No  vesti^'e  of  nurviving  life apptared. 
"The  Imtruciions  ..f  HaleiKli  hail  designated  the 
plate  for  the  new  sinhmenl  on  the  bay  of 
Chesapeake  But  Fernando,  the  naval  offlcer 
eager  to  renew  a  prortt.ihle  iralll,  In  the  West 
Indies,  wfuseil  his  iMi.«t«me  in  exploring  the 
c>«t.  and  While  wa,,  ,.,iM|H.||e,l  to  remain  on 
R.«noke.  .  .  h  »»,  ih,,e  that  In  J.  ,  ihe 
found»tl<Mii  of  (lie  city  ..f  l{«high  were  laid  ' 
But  the  colooy  was  d.»,>ir.|  1..  ,ii.«ister  from  the 
beginning,  being  qui,  kh  involved  In  warfare 
with  the  surn.i.pdlnit  n.ilve,  ■With  the  r»- 
tuming  ship  While  euilmtkixl  for  Ei gland   un- 


AMERICA,  lS87-iaM. 


Stm 


i ;  '  ^U 


dtr  th*  •xeuM  of  interceding  for  n-«nforc«inenU 
and  (uppUet.    Yet,  on  the  l8th  of  Auguit,  nine 
d«7i  prerioiu  to  hia  departure,  bU  daughter 
Eleanor  Dare,  t'  a  wife  of  one  of  the  aasisUnts 
gave  l)irth  to  a  female  child,  the  first  offaprinir 
2    *'"8"*t  parenU  on  the  auil  of  the  Cult*.! 
,}f\,  T""  i?'""  *"  onmei  from  the  place 
or  lU  birth.    The  colony,  now  conipo«>d  of  89 
men,  17  women,  and  two  chlldn-n,  whose  namca 
■nail  pre?,  rved,  might  rruaoiiiii  ly  hojw  for  the 
JP"*"y  ™'''"  of  the  Kovemor,  ^i  he  Irft  with 
tbem  hia  daughter  and  bis  grandchild,  Virirlnia 
Dare.     The  farther  history  of  this  pUntation 
h  inrolred  In  gloomy  uuix-ruinty.    The  inhabit- 
anu  of 'the  city  of  Raleigh,'  the  emigranu  from 
£ngland  and  the  firat-lwrn  of  America,  awaited 
death  In  the  land  of  tbeir  adoption.     For,  when 
White  reached  Enghind,  he  fouml  its  attentiou 
absorbed  by  the  threaU  of  an  invasion  from 
'•^i?-  ;  ;  u  !)^*'  R«'<'Ik»»,  «boM)  patriotism  did 
not  diminish  his  generosity,  round  means,  in  April 
1588,  U-  despatch  White  with  supplies  in  two  ves- 
leU.     But  the  company,  dciiiring  a  gainful  roy. 
age  rather  than  a  safe  one,  ran  In  chase  of  prizes, 
tUl  one  of  them  fell  in  with  men  of  war  from 
Rochelle.  and,  after  a  bUxxly  fight,  was  boarded 
and  rifled.    Both  ships  were  compelled  to  return 
to  England.    The  dcky  was  fatal;  the  English 
kingdom  and  the  Protestant  reformation  were  in 
danger;  nor  could  the  poor  colonials  of  Roanoke 
be  again  remembered  till  after  the  discomfiture  of 
the  Invincible  Armada.     Even  then  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  who  had  already  incurred  a  fruitless 
expense  of  £40,000,  found  bis  impaired  fortuno 
InsutHcient   for  further  atleuipls  at  colonizing 
Virginia.     He  therefore  used  the  privilew  of  his 
patent  to  endow  a  eompiiny  of  merchants  and  ad- 
renturera  with  large  concessions.     Among  the 
men  who  thus  obtained  an  assiirnnicnt  of  the  pro- 
prietarv's  righu  in  Virginia  is  found  the  name  of 
Ricburd  Hakhiyt;  It  connecU  the  tint  efforU  of 
England  in  North  Carolina  with  the  final  coloniza- 
tion of  Virginia.    The  colonists  at  Roanoke  had 
emigrated    with  a  clmrter;    tlie  Instrument  of 
Uarch,  1588,  was  not  an  assignment  of  Raleigh's 
patent,  but  the  extension  of  a  grant,  already  held 
under  iu  lanction  bv  Increasing  the  number  to 
whom  the  righu  of  that  (barter  belonged     More 
than  another  vear  elapwd   lieforc  White  could 
return  to  search  for  his  ailony  and  bis  daughter; 
and  then  the  isUnd  of  Itonnoke  was  a  desert' 
Ad  inscription  on  the  luirit  ,il  a  tree  pointed  to 
CroaUn;  but  the  season  of  tlie  )eiir  and  the  dan 


AMERICA.  180»-1«0B. 

Axraob  (  tw.  BiM.  Au'n  /1i/»t»,  ».  ^,  p/.  4).^ 
"This  last  expedition  [of  Wliile,  aean  bing  for 
bis  lost  colony]  was  not  despatdieil  by  Kalelgb 
but  by  bis  suu^saoni  in  the  American  patent' 
Andoii-  hbitory  is  now  to  take  leave  of  thai 
llluslri.us  nan,  with  who«»>  «lii.ines  and  enter- 
prises it  ceases  to  have  any  fiirtbe.-  (      iiexlon. 
The  ardour  of  his  mini!  was  n.it  exIiMuMiij,  Imt 
diverted  by  a  multiplii  iiy  of  m  >v  ami  not' less 
arduous  undertakings.    .   .    .    Ihsjnms.   at  the 
same  time,  that  a  project  wbi<  h  he  bad  carried 
so  far  should  not  lie  entirely  alxindoned,  and 
hoping  th«t  the  spirit  of  coninierre  w<iuld  pre- 
serve an  IntefcotinH!  with  Virt-inia  that  might 
terminate  iu  a  colonial  cstalilisbnient.    bo  cim 
»» nted  to  assign  his  p.i'ent  to  Sir  Tboni.-i8  Suilth 
ami  a  company  of  iuercbants  In  Ix)n.^^u,  wbo 
undertfwk  to  esublisb  and   mainUiu   •.\  trall.r 
between    England    anl    Virginia.  ...  It    ap- 
l)ean><l  very  so<m  that  Raleigh  \\v\  tr.    -ferred 
his  patent  to  bands  very  dilTennt  from  i.is  own 
.  .  .  batisfied  with  a  rultry    iralllc  carried  oii 
by  a  few  small  vessi'ls,  tlicv  iiui.ie  no  attempt  'o 
Uke  |Visscs.>;ion  of  the  country:  an  I  nt  llip  iwri.nl 
of  Elizahrtli's  death,   jot    i  .sini;lf    Kn^jlisbnitu 
waSBettle<l  In  Ameriia."-J.  <Jr:ibauir,    Ihrt  ,t 
Ihe  RiM  andPrograt  ,/lh  C  S.  0/ X  Am.  t,a 
1688,  M.  1. 

AUiOiN  W.  Stith,   Ifht.  of  \a.,  W-.  t  —  P  L 
Hawks,  J/iil.  of  .V.  C. ,  r.  1 .  A'.*  7-8 

A.  D.  i<03-i6o5.-The  Voyages  of  Gosnold, 
Prini;,  and  We7mouth.-The  First  English- 
men 111  New  England.— ItartboloiiMw  Uosnol.l 
was  a  Westof-Eii^'lami  niariirer  »lio  1,  „l  servtM 
ill  the  exiwlltlous  of  Sir  Walter  ffcibigh  to  the 
Mrginhi  coast,  liider  bis  coinmanil,  In  tbe 
spring  of  1002,  "  with  tbe  consint  of  Kir  Walter 
Ualeigh,  and  at  the  cost,  among  others,  of  Henry 
Wriothcalcy,  Biirl  of  Souibaiiipton,  tin-  aci-om- 
plislied  patron  of  Sliakespiare,  a  sniull  vess.  i 
called  the  Concord,  was  e.iuipiHtl  forexplonilioii 
in  "the  north  part  of  Virginia.'  with  a  view  1  . 
the  esUiblisbment  of  a  colony.  At  this  time  in 
tbe  last  vear  of  the  Tudor  dvnasty,  and  niuetkn 
ye.irs  after  the  fatal    tcriiilnation  of    Oill>ert'.< 

,>nt„pnpiaA     (li.iPA  ,. »..    L- >     .      ,  .. 


gers  from  storms  were  plea.b-tras  an  excuxe'for 
an  iminedlate  return.  The  eonjeeturc  has  been 
hazarded  that  the  deserted  colony,  neglected  by 
their  own  countrymen,  w.re  bospit^ibly  adopted 
^to  the  tribe  [the  I'roatans)  of  llatteras  Indians. 
Haleigh  limg  cherislied  t;,.  bo|ic  of  iliseovering 
some  vesUges  of  their  existence,  and  sent  at  his 
own  charge,  and,  it  la  saiil,  at  five  »..verai  timca, 
to  search  for  bis  liege  men.  Ilul  Imagination 
received  no  help  in  its  attempts  to  trace  the  fate 
of  the  colony  of  Itmnoke  ■— C   llancroft,  IIU  0/ 

f**/    ■''■;{''•  '■.''''   ■"'  "■    '•-■■■''■e  Croauns  of 
today   claim    ilc»ient     from    tin     lost    colony 
Their  habits,  disposition  and  mental  cbaracteri.<' 
tics  show  traces  liotli  of  sjivug.'  and   civilized 
aDcesiora.     Tbeir  language  is  tlie  English  of  300 
years  ago,  and  their  nuiiies  are  In  many  cases 
(he  same  as  those  iH.rne  liy  the  original  cojonlsU 
Ao  other  theory  of  tbeir  origin  lias  lieen  ad 
tBnced."-8,   B.    Weeks,    TU  Lot   Colony  of 


78 


*  .  —    — "    " ,»,,,,§    ,,j     uiiiien  .■! 

enterprise,  there  was  no  European  Inhabitnnt  of 
North  America,  except  tbiw  „f  S|miiiNli  birth  iu 
Florida,  and  some  twentv  or  ihirty  FVncb  the 
miserable  relics  of  two  frustinieif  attempts  to 
Bi'ttle  what  they  callinl  Xew   Kraiiei-.     (iosnoM 
sailed  from  Falinoutb  with  a  coni|paiiy  of  ibirtv- 
two  pereons,  of  whom  eight  Men-  wainen  aiid 
twentv   were    to    la^'nmie    plnnnrs.     Taking'  ^i 
straight  Course  aercLxs  llie  Atlanli.  ,  instead  of  tin 
iiiilirect  course  by    the   C;,tiiifi.  ,   and  the  W.  -' 
Indies    which    had    Ix-en    liilii  n..    piirsunl    r. 
voyages  to  Virginia,  at  the  eii.i  of  stvin  we. !» 
hi'  saw  land  In  Masaaebusilts  Itnv.  pn.liablv  u.ar 
what  is  now  Salem  llarisir     II.  re  a  Isiai  euim- 
oIT,  of  Basijiie  biiibi,  iiuiiiie.1  dv  .  i,;ht  natlv,-. 
of  whom  two  or  three  wen- .lr.  si.. I  in  Enron,  ut! 
clothes.  Indicating  the  preseiu.-  .,f  .arlier  f.n, ifi 
voyagers  iu  these  waters.     N.m  h.'  sI.kkI  to  lu 
s.i«ihwaril.  and  blseri'w  took  irr.' it  iin.inliii, » ,  f 
cisifish   by  a  head  land,  call., I  t.v  bimforil,.i 
reasim   rape  C.mI.   tbe   name   «i,i,h  it   ntai.is 
U.sinold,    Rrerelon,  ami    thn^..   oili.m.  went  ,.a 
shore,  the  lirst  Englishmen   .vh..    .re  kii..»n  t,i 
have  set  f<«.t  uimii  the  soil  of    Masvu  huseiis 
.  .  .  Soumling    ilia  way  (■aiiti...|-lv  along,   tirvt 
In  a  southerly,  and  then  in  a  ■*■   i.'riy  .lin.  li..; 
ail.!  probaMy  passing  to  ib«.  s.m.;Ii  of  Nautu.  k.  1 
(Kanold   next    lauded  on  a  small   Ishtud,  u.  » 


AMERICA.  laot-iaoL 


c«Ued  No  Mao't  Land.  To  thia  h»  nra  tha 
lum.  „f  Martli.-,  Vinryard.  •ioc«  tnuu^rmj  to 
the  lar^'T  Uliuid  furtliar  nortli.  .  .  .  Soulh  of 
BuiarJ  .  Bav,  and  aeparatad  on  the  aouth  by 
the  \  inev»nl  Sound  from  Martlia'a  Vlncyanl   i« 

the  Elixabetb  lalanda.      The  »utliwe»ternmost 

of  Cutivhunk,  waa  denominated  by  Goan<,Id 
EUubetL  I,  and.  Here    Oo«,oia   foumi   a 

pond  two  mile*  in  circumference,  teparated  fr..m 
the  lea  on  one  aide  bv  a  beach  thirty  yardi  wide 
•ndencloaing  -a  rockv  blet,  containing  near  nn 
acre  of  ground,  fuU  of  wood  and  rubbiSi  •  Thii 
blet  waa  flied  upon  for  >  aettlement  In  three 
week.,  while  a  part  of  the  company  were  absent 
oo  a  1  Hiding  eiDeditioo  to  tlie  mainland,  the  rrst 


bum  a  bousi  lich  they  fortlrfed  with  palisad,  s. 
and  tJi».,bed  ^»ith  .rfge.  Proceeding  to  make 
an  lav.  „u,ry  „f  their  provWona.  they  (?.und  that 
after  supplying  the  reaael,  which  waa  to  take 

be  a  .ufflclency  for  onlr  af»  "weeka  for  the 
twenty  men  who   would   remain.    A   dUpule 

left^hlnd  woufd  receire  a  ihare  In  the  pfoc.-r.li 
>.f  the  cargo  of  cedar,  aaanfraa.  fur«.  a£d  otb,  r 
commodmes  which  bad  been  collected  A  amall 
^iJ'i"^  °"'  in^_queat  of  ahell-flsh,  wa, 
attacked  by  »me  Indiana  With  men  havine 
^J^J'  "  '»  "k'ly.  lltUe  .tomach  for  .u?I 
cheerle«  work,  theie  cireumatancea  eaillv  led  to 
the  decision  to  abandon    for   the    preslnt  the 

m  nth  the  a.lvemurer.  sailcl  for  Enxlaud.  an/ 
aftcr«  voyageof  flTe  week.,  arrived  at  Exn  outh 
...  The  expedition  of  Ooanold  waa  pregnant 

;«ri2''"*r°**^  ^""iK  *^^  developmen 
waa  dow  The  accounU  of  the  hitherto  unknown 
countrv   wh.ch  were  circulated  by  hi.  compTn? 

The  mv   ,..ar  (April.   1808),  Martin  Pring  or 

Bristol,  With  two  smalt  TeMels.  Peking  cargoe. 
of  «ssafr,,,  which  had  acquired  a  high  v^uf^n 
account  .,f  ,upoo«^  medicinal  WrtStV  PrinS 
^^,  l-""".  ^'"'"«  ">  Martha's  Vin.vanl* 
jecun..    h,.  de,ir,.d  cargoea.  and  gave  .vli 

twH!"'  :  !'':,'■":'''">••  Two  jtarafater  ^^!X 
1805),  I...rd  Niuiliainnton  and  Lord  \Var,|,„,r 
sent  a  v.sv,  I  con.manjed  by  George  W.y .,,,  u  h 
U>  r«-o.,n,.itr«  t he  uime  c.W  with  an  \  ye  to 

Kennel.-,  .r  the  I'enobiicot  river  some  WorW 
m  l«  and  k.d.T;.pp„l  five  nativea  '■  Eicepi  for 
;.••,?':  '"'«"'"■■  "dJItiun  to  the  knowl"fgeof 
U..lo.;al  p..„.r,.,,l,v,  the  x-oyaye  was  fruitless  ■ 
-J    1.    l'ulfr.y,  //i««.  „/  X  ff„f    r   1    M    " 

I1S4.)  —  J   Ml  kiin.  On  iltt  \;«Kuie  of  dm   W.^ 

AD.  i6o3-i<5o«.  -The  FJrat  French  Settle 
ment.tn  Acadia     .See  Caxa.k  i\gw  I  ,uV,  i^ 

A.  D.  1607  -The  founding  of  the  Eneliah 

^i  MiiMMA:  A    I)    li^H!-UJ"7,  auil  nlt.r     «»l 
Maink    a    i)    ItKt7-lti<IN  .""inn.r.    ,i.„i 

HMr.°H'5**'"*°'-;rJ''«  ^"*^  Voyage,  of 
Henry  Hudaon.--  The  flrat   rernnie,!   ?,„  ..JL 

for  the  Muscovy  o,  Ku*rf«  Company  [of  Eugi  j 


AMERICA,  iaO0. 

M«'  la^'^h.'^.'L'r""  0'»'"«'»1  the  tm  of 
Jiay,  i(W7,  with  the  intention  of  sailinir  simiirht 

flntllng  a  pa«Mjfe  In  the  latter  vioinltvh,„„X: 
Lore  attempted  the  entranc-  of  Davis  Strfli^hS 
the  north  of  Greenland.  This  design  i«.£j 
frustrated  ami  he  apparently  renew"  1,^  J?* 
^„°jP'   "  •  '""er  latitude  anrf  nearer  Grt^nlaSd 

"ifJ,"^' .•  '"<''*'•  ^•■K"'  "f  latitude  than  Mr 


79 


return  on;.h.  jith  Septemterof'-  hTy'^ 

[l*!.] On  the  aad  of  April,  1808  Vn^ 

H.nlson  commenced  his  »cond  reci.rded  vovaZ 
for  the  Muscovy  or  Russia  Company   with*  tie 
K?  f"  "'    fl""""?*?^?*  to  the  tist    ndkS 
bv  the  north  cast.'.  .  .  On  the  3<l  of  June  1«« 
Ifud*>u  had  reached  the  most  northern  j^inVof 

b;.^w«;:-R"',^  ?° ""  "•'» '»» '■»  i«titude^°24' 

between  Ppitzbergen  and  XovaZembIa"  P.il' 
fug  to  p««  to  Ihe  n..rh  ea,t™nd  Xoia 
M    It^.H''*i'*'",7^*?^''K'«'"1  '»  Augusts 

i*-*!? Wl^rand^.lA'fJl;,*  '''^•-  ''-«) 

A"^-  Dtxc?';^Tr'?a&or/w°o'v;;^7 

tions  daunted  the  enterpriv,  of  HudL"'^^ 
ployer.  fthe  Muscovy  Company.  In  E^gu/d? 
they  could  not  daunt  the  cimra'ie  of  the  t?e.t 
"?«*?'?''•  *''<>*'>»  de'tined  to  hl^me  the^ 
of  Smith  and  of  Champlaln.  He  long™!  o  temct 
once  more  the  dangers  of  the  northera  «m    .T 

,^?*r',''!'l*^  "°  '"!"*•  ''*  "ff'"^.  i"  the""vice  of 
the  putcT.  East  India  Company,  toeiplore  the  fc  ' 
wastes  in  search  of  the  covete,!  paisage  The 
rh77^i'''j^""'5  '"Virginia  stimulatoa  d.v  re 

Jectcd;  but,  by  the  Induence  of  B.ln,«",r 
Xloucheron,  the  directors  for  Am.t.rdai  re 
*)lvid  on  equipping  a  .m.ill  t«.«.|  „f  ,ii!H.o  Lv 

?,?;  ••  H.5?w""'?^"^-^''^'  '«•'»  «'»■  <re«.'n{' 
Ir  „, !~  !^  '■•  ."  ""•■  °'"n«'"f  •'»■  little  sl>ip 
Is  more  commonly  tninslatinll.  r.,t.iiiian.l.,l  bv 
Hudson,  and  manne.1  by  a  n.fxr.i  cr.w  of  En/ 
lishinen  and  H..!l«nd<.rs.  hi,  s<m  In-ing  of  the 
numl«r.  set  uil  far  the  northw.-s,,.™  p.«age 
Mawes  of  ire  lin,.e,le,l  the  navigation  l,,™f^Is 
NovaZembla;  H,„ls„„.  ,,,0  had  evamiLTthe 
maps  of  John  .Smith  of  Virginia,  turne,!  To  he 
west  and  passing  beyond  Greenland  and  New 
fuu„.  land,  and  running  down  ,|,e  r.«st  of 
;h.  I  "■  .•■  ■■"^'•o^''  Pr<>l>ttl>ly,  In  the  ttioutli  of 
the  IVn.,* ot.     Then,    following  thr  track  of 

( ■«!.  and  Iwiieving  l,lm.,.|f  I-,  tir,i  (f|«-„v,.rer 
CSV..  „  ,|,e  naijie  ..f  .N.-w  ||,.||„n,l  iT.n,-  aft,": 
«sni,  it  wa«  < laime.1  Hs  the n,.rth  east.  r„  >h"  nC 
r?n.  r^l'h  •"•'"'"lands  Frr-m  the  san.l,  of 
I  ape  Cod    he  steered  a  «.Mii|„.rlv  rourw  till  he 

gbla.  where  Hudson  rememhere,!  thathls  coun- 
trymen were  plwited.    Then  turning  again  W 


AMERICA,  1600. 


Cafitoi'n 


AMERICA,  1614-1615. 


•       i 


the  north,  he  dlscoveroJ  the  Delaware  Bay,  ex- 
amined lu  currents  and  Its  soumliiigs,  and,  with- 
out iroinB  on  sliorc,  took  note  of  the  aspect  of 
the  country.     On   the  3il  day  of   September, 
almost  at  the  time  when  Champlain  was  invad- 
ing New  York  from  the  north,  less  than  five 
months  after  the  truce  with  Spain,  which  gave 
the  Netherlands  a  diplomatic    existence  as  a 
sUte,   the  'Crescent'  anchored   within   Sandy 
Hook,  and  fr^m  the  neighboring   shores,  that 
were  crowned  with  'goodly   onkcs,    attracted 
frequent  visiu  fmm  the  natives.   After  a  week  s 
deky,  Hudson  sailed  through  the  Narrows,  and 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  anchored  In  a  harbor 
which  was  pronounced  to  bo  very  good  for  all 
winds.  .  .  .  Ttn  davs  were  employed  in  explor- 
ing the  river;  the  first  of  Europeans,  Iludsiin 
went  sounding  his  way  above  the  Highlands, 
till  at  last  the  'Crescent'  had  sailed  some  miles 
beyond  the  citv  of  Hudson,  and  a  boat  luul  ad- 
vanced a  little  beyond  Albany.    Frequent  inter- 
course was  held  with  the  astonished  natives  [and 
two  battles   fought  with   them].  .  .  .  "a»l"6 
completed  his  discovcrv,  Hudson  descended  the 
stream  to  which  time  has  given  his  nime,  and  on 
the  4tli  day  of  October,  about  the  season  of  tlie 
return  of  Jolin  Smith  to  England,  he  set  saU  for 
Europe.  ...  A  liapny  return  voyage  brought 
tba  'Crescent'  Into  Dartmouth.     Hudsim  for- 
warded U>  his  Dutch  employers  a  bnlliant  ac- 
count of  hisdIscovcrli'S;  but  he  never  revisited 
the  lands  which  he  eulogized;  and  the  Dutch 
EastlndU  Company  refused  to  search  further  for 
the  north- western  passage."— O.  Bancroft,  //<«• 
of  the  r.  S.,  eh.  15  (orpl.  2,  cA.  Vi  of  ••  Author t 
Liut  Rtciti'in").  ,  .^      ,   „ 

Also  in  H.  R.  CLEVEUtJiD.  L\fe  of  Uenry 
Budtun  (Lib.  of  Am.  m«g.,  r.  10),  eA.  S-4.  -R. 
Juet,  Joumil  of  Iludmnt  Voyatt  {X J.  Il'tt. 
Soe  C'U.,  ,Sir»j,<f  ,*nV*,  t.  1).— J.  >.  N.  >atcs 
ami  J.  W.  Moulton,  IIM.  of  the  State  of  A.  1., 
pt.  1. 

A.  D.  1610-1614.— Th«  Dutch  occupation 
of  New  Netherland,  and  Block',  coa.tinjf 
txploration.    See    New  \okk:    A.    D.   1010- 

A.'  D.  i6i4-i6is.-The  VoyaMS  of  Capt. 
John  Smith  to  North  Virginia.— The  Naming 
of  tha  country  New  England.--'  Iroin  tlie 
lime  of  Capt.  Smilh'a  departure  from  \  IrKlnla 
[s.fl  ViRoiMv:  A.  I).  IWiT-ieiOl,  till  the  year 
1511  there  Is  a  chasm  In  his  biography.  .  .  . 
In  16U  pn>lmlilv  by  his  nilvire  and  at  Ills  su-j- 
gcstion,  an  exp.HlUion  w.«  fltud  out  I'J  »;"j'« 
Lmdun  nurchants.  In  the  expense  of  wlilrh  he 
al«>  sharr-l,  for  the  purposes  of  traile  ami  dis- 
covery in  Niw  England,  or,  as  It  was  thenculUd, 
North  Vir-lniii.  ...  In  March,  ICU,  ho  set  sal 
fMin  I.ondon  with  two  ships,  one  rommandid 
by  hlnwlf.  and  the  other  by  Captain  TlM.m.w 
Hunt  TImv  arrlvrd,  April  »Mh,  at  the  island 
of  Manlit  ;.'iii'.  "n  the  coast  of  Maine,  where  they 
built  SI  *'  n  iHiats.  The  purpoaes  for  which  tlii'jr 
were  s.  iit  «c  if  to  rapture  whales  and  to  scarth 
for  mims  of  ^old  or  Clipper,  whiih  were  sold  to 
be  lliere  .iiid,  if  ihi'se  failed,  to  nmke  up  a  carco 
of  fl«h  and  (urs.  (If  mini's,  they  found  no  Imli- 
cations  and  they  f..und  whale-llshlng  a  'costly 

jmlHslou,'  for,  althounh  they  saw  many,  and 
chased  lliiin  loo.  thiv  sui-ceeiled  In  Uking  none. 
They  Ihiis  lost  Ihe  lust  part  of  the  flsliing  seas«m; 
bul,afur  Kisii-K  1.1.  th.ir  8'?;\="'"'^  Pj''^'  "^^j 
diligently  empUiyeil  the  montlis  of  July  ami 


August  in  taking  and  curing  codfish,  an  humble, 
but  more  certain  prey.    While  the  «:rew  were 
thus  employed.  Captain  Smith,  with  eight  men 
in  a  small' boat,   surveyed  and  examined  the 
whole  coast,  from  Penobscot  to  Cape  Cod,  tral- 
ficking  with  the  Indians  for  furs,   and  twice 
flshlmg  with  them,  and  taking  such  observa- 
tions of  the  prominent  points  as  enabled  him  to 
construct  a  map  of  the  country.     He  then  sallM 
for   England,    where   he   arrived   In   August, 
within  six  months  after  his  departure.    He  left 
Captain  Hunt  behind  him,  with  orders  todlspoee 
of  his  cargo  of  fish  In  Spain.    L-nfortunstcly, 
Hunt  was  a  sortlld  and  unprincipled  mtscreant, 
who  resolved  to  make  his  countrymen  tslious  to 
the  Indians,  and  thus  prevent  the  establishment 
of  a  permanent  colony,  which  would  diminish 
tlie  large  gains  he  and  a  few  others  derived  by 
monopolizing  a  lucrative  traffic.    For  this  pur- 
pose, having  decoyed  24  of  the  natives  on  board 
his  ship,  he  carried  them  off  and  aold  them  as 
slaves    In    the    port    of    Malign.  .  .  .  Captain 
Smith,  upon  his  return,  presented  his  niap  ol 
il.c  country  between  Penobsiot  and  Cape  Cod  to 
IMiiicc  Charles  (afterwards  diaries  1),  with  a 
n-Qiiest  that  he  would  substitute  others.  Instead 
of  the  'barbarous  names'  which  had  been  given 
to  particular  places.     Smith  himself  gave  to  the 
country  the   name   of   New    England     aa   he 
expressly  states,  and  not  Prince  Cliarles.  aa  is 
commonly  supposed.  ...  The  first  port  into 


commonly   suiiiirj^cu •■-   — --   «^  .     r-» 

which  Captain  Smith  put  on  his  return  to  Eng 
land  was  Plymouth.  There  he  related  _  his 
adventures  to  some  of  his  friends,  'who,  he 
says  '  as  I  supposed,  were  interested  In  the  dead 
pa'tc'nt  of  this  unreganlcd  country.     TJhe  Fl^- 


ginia,  by  Haltering  hopes  and  large  promlaea, 
Fnduieil  him  to  engage  his  services  »»  them. 
AiTordlngly  In  March,   1615,    he   sailed    from 


Aivoniingiy    in   j»i»«w»,    .«.%»,     ■—     -      . 

Plviuouth,  with  two  vessels  under  his  command, 
iHvii  ing  16  settlers,  besides  their  crew     A  storm 
illsmiisud  Smith's  ship  and  drove  her  back  to 
Plviuouth.     "His     consort,     commanded     by 
Tliomas  Derratr,  meanwhile  proceettcd  on  her 
vov^ice,  and  returned  with  a  profitable  cargo  In 
Am  -'ist;  but  the  object,  which  was  to  cifect  a 
pirmunenl  Hilllemenl,  was  frustrated.     CapUiln 
.«»miih'»  v.ssel  was  pMl«My  found  to  be    so 
miuh  shaiund  aa  to  ren.li  r  It  inexpedient  to 
npuir  hi-r;  for  we  find  that  he  si-t  sail  a  second 
time  fn>m  Plymouth,  on  the  21th  of  June,  in  a 
small  bark  of  60  tons,  manned  by  80  men,  am 
cirrving  with  him  the  same  16  sittlers  he  hail 
tiUi"ii  1"  foriv     Rut  an  evil  distlny  seemed  to 
hung  ovi  r  this  enterprise,  and  to  make  the  voy 
S'e  a  sufiesslon  of  disastin  and  dlsjippolnl 
n«nts."     It  ended  In  Smltirs  capture  bv  a  pirat 
lial    Kreiiih   lliit  and  his  deteiilion  for    some 
months,  until  ho  made  a  daring  fsiapo in  a  smal 
lK>at      "  While  he  hail  U'en  dcUdned  on  board 
the  Kn-nili  pirate,  In  order,  aa  he  says,  ' to  kii'p 
mv  mrplexiil  tlioughU  from  tiw  much  misllti 
tl.".u  of  mv  mlsi'nible  I'slate,'  he  einployeil  him 
silf  In  writing  a  narrative  of  his  two  voyages  t.. 
New  England,  and  an  aceoimt  of  tlie  muntry 
This  was  publlsliiHl  In  a  quarto  form  In  Jiini 
min      .  .  Caplrtin  Smith's  work  on  New  England 
was  the  first  to  msimmend  «•'«•<''"'"' 7  "  ", 
plii-e  of  s.ttlenM-nt."-tl.    ».    Hlllanl,    life   of 
r^pt.  J'lhn  Smith  {fh.  \*-lS).  .     .       _^  „ 

\i «.  ;w  CajiL  John  Smith,  paenplion  if  A 
K113 


8U 


AHXRIOA,  1619. 


7\9  Bueeanaan, 


AHEBICA,  108»-17Oa 


A.  D.  1619.— latradactioa  of  acKre  tUTery 
iato  Vifgiaia.    See  VnujiNiA:  A.  D.  1619. 

A.  D.  163a— The  PlantioK  of  the  Pilgrim 
Calooy  at  PlnDonth,  and  the  Chartering  of 
the  Conacil  for  New  EncUad.  See  Hassa- 
cncBBTTS  (PlTMOCTH  CoiiONT):  A.  D.  1630;  and 
NewEnolabd:  A.  D.  1630-1628. 

A.  D.  16M.— Formatioa  of  the  Goremment 
of  Rio  de  La  Plata.  See  ABaEimirB  Re- 
public: A.  D.  1580-1777. 

A.  D.  1631.— Coaflictiag  ctaimi  of  England 
and  France  on  the  North-eastern  coast. — 
Naming  and  granting  of  NoTa  Scotia.  See 
NkwEnolakd:  a.  D.  1621-1681. 

A.  D.  1639.— The  Carolina  grant  to  Sir 
Robert  Heath.— "Sir  Robert  Heath,  attomcv- 

f;enrral  to  Charles  I.,  obtained  a  grant  of  the 
iinilj  between  the  88th  [S6th  t]  degree  of  north 
latitude  to  the  river  St.  Matheo.  His  ch^trter 
bcara  date  of  October  S,  1629.  .  .  .  The  tenure 
is  declared  to  be  as  ample  as  any  bishop  of 
Duiiism  [Palsiine],  in  the  kingdom  of  Ecgland, 
ever  held  and  enjored,  or  ought  or  could  of  right 
have  held  and  enjoyed.  Sir  Robert,  his  heirs 
and  assigns,  are  constituted  the  true  and  absolute 
lunls  and  proprietors,  and  the  country  is  ercct«d 
into  a  province  by  the  name  of  CaiMlina  [or 
Osiolanal.  and  the  islands  are  to  be  called  the 
Camllna  islands.  Sir  Robert  conveyed  his  right 
some  time  after  to  the  earl  of  Arundel.  This 
nobleman,  it  is  said,  planted  several  parts  of  his 
acquisition,  but  his  attempt  to  colonize  was 
cb(Tkr<t  by  the  war  with  Scotland,  and  after- 
wards the  civil  war.  Ijord  Maltravers.  who  soon 
sftiT,  on  his  father's  death,  became  earl  of 
Arundel  and  Sussex  .  .  .  made  no  attempt  to 
avail  himself  of  the  grant  ...  Sir  Robert 
Heath's  grant  of  Und,  to  the  southward  of 
Virginia,  perhaps  the  most  extensive  posscMiion 
ever  owned  by  an  individual,  remained  for  a 
lon^  time  almost  absolutely  waste  and  uniulti- 
vnied.  This  vast  extent  of  territory  occupied  all 
the  ciiuotry  between  the  80th  and  36th  degnx'S 
(if  northern  latitude,  which  embraces  the  pres- 
ent Hiati's  of  North  and  South  Carolina,  Oeorgiu, 
[.Vlabama],  Tennessee,  Mississippi,  and,  with 
viry  little  exceptions,  the  whole  state  of 
lAiuiniiina,  aud  the  territory  of  East  and  West 
F'lriiln,  a  cnnalderable  part  of  the  state  of 
Mi.>i.»iiuri,  the  Mexican  provinces  of  Texas, 
Chiuhahi.,  <fec.  The  grantee  had  Uken  posses- 
sion of  the  country,  soon  after  he  had  obuineil 
his  title,  which  he  afterwards  had  conveyed  to 
till'  larl  of  Artindel.  Henry  lord  Maltravers  sp- 
lo'nn  to  have  obtained  some  aid  from  the  pMv- 
inee  of  Virginia  in  1689,  at  the  desire  of  Clutrles 
I ,  fur  the  settlement  of  Carolana,  and  the  coun- 
try had  since  become  the  property  of  a  Dr  Cox ; 
yit,  at  ihis  time,  there  were  two  poinU  only  in 
whirh  Incipient  English  scttlemenU  couKI  be 
dimirned ;  the  one  on  the  northern  shore  of 
All«>niarle  Hound  and  the  streams  that  flow  into 
It  1  he  |i<)|iulation  of  It  was  very  thin,  and  the 
gn-ntist  portion  of  It  was  on  the  north-east  liank 
iif  CliowM  river.  Tlie  settlers  bad  come  from 
llmt  part  of  Virginia  now  known  as  tlie  County 
"f  .Nanwmond.  .  .  .  They  bad  been  joined  by  a 
niimtn'r  of  Quakers  and  other  sectaries,  whom 
till'  ^|lirlt  of  intokrance  had  driven  from  New 
tuRlanil,  and  some  eralgranu  from  Rermudas. 
.  .  The  other  settlement  of  the  English  was  at 
the  niiiiiihof  Cape  Fear  river:  .  .  .  thoae  who 
luuipuKti  it  bad  come  ttaitiier  from  New  Koglaod 
« 


in  1659.  Their  attention  was  conflDed  to  rearing 
cattle.  It  cannot  now  be  ascertained  whether 
the  assignees  of  Carolana  ever  surrendered  the 
charter  under  which  it  was  held,  nor  whether  it 
was  considered  as  having  become  vacated  or 
obsolete  by  non-uaer,  or  by  any  other  means." — 
F.  X  Martin,  ffitt.  ef  N.  OanUna,  e.  1,  eh.  S 
and!. 

A.  D.  16*9.— Tha  Rojal  Chw^'tt  to  the  Gor- 
emor  and  Compaajr  of  MaaMbcbuetta  Bay. 
See  Massachusetts:  A.  D.  1628-1629,  The 
Dorchester  Compant. 

A.  D.  1639-1631.— Th«  Dntch  occnpation  of 
the  Delaware.  See  Delaware:  A.  D.  1699- 
1631. 

A.  D.  1630-1633.— Enrlisb  Conqneit  and 
brief  occnpation  of  New  Prance.  See  Canada 
(New  France):  A.  D.  1628-1632. 

A.  D.  1633.— The  Charter  to  Lord  Balti- 
more and  the  founding  of  Maryland.  See 
Martuikd:  A.  D.  1682,  and  A.  D.  1638-1637. 

A.  D.  1638.— The  piaatiag  of  a  Swedish 
Colony  on  the  Delaware.  See  Delaware: 
A.  D.  1638-1640 

A.  D.  i639-i7aa— The  BnccaaMra  aad  their 
piratical  warfare  with  Spain.  — "The  17th 
century  gave  birth  to  a  class  of  rovers  wholly 
distinct  from  any  of  their  predecessors  in  the 
annala  of  the  world,  differing  as  widely  in  their 
plans,  organization  and  exploits  as  in  the  princi- 
ples that  govctned  iheir  actions.  .  .  .  After  the 
native  inba)u':tnU  of  Haiti  had  been  extermi- 
nated, and  tilt  Spaniards  had  sailed  farther  west, 
a  few  adventurous  men  from  Normandy  settled 
on  the  shores  of  the  island,  for  the  purpose  of 
hunting  tlie  wild  bulls  and  hogs  which  roamed 
at  will  through  the  forests  The  smsll  island  of 
Tortugas  was  their  market .  thither  they  repaired 
with  their  salted  and  smoked  meat,  their  hides, 
Ac,  and  disposed  of  them  in  exchange  for  pow- 
der, lead,  and  other  necessaries.  The  places 
where  these  semi-wild  hunters  prepared  the 
slaughtered  carcases  were  called  'boucans,'  and 
tlicy  themselves  Iterame  known  as  Buccaneera. 
Probably  the  world  has  never  before  or  since  wit- 
nessed such  an  extraordinary  associaticm  as  tlieiis. 
Unburdenetl  by  women-folk  or  children,  these 
men  lived  in  couples,  reciprocally  rendering  each 
other  services,  and  having  entire  commuiuty  of 
property  — a  condition  termed  by  them  matelot- 
age,  from  the  word  '  matelot,'  by  which  they 
aadresaed  one  another.  ...  A  man  on  joining 
the  fraternity  completely  merged  his  identity. 
Each  member  received  a  nickname,  and  no  at- 
tempt was  ever  made  to  inquire  Into  his  antece- 
dents When  one  of  their  number  marrie<l,  he 
ceased  to  bu  »  buccaneer,  having  forfeited  his 
membership  by  so  civilized  a  proceeding.  He 
might  continue  to  dwell  en  the  coast,  and  to 
hunt  cattle,  hut  he  was  no  longer  a  'mstelot' — 
as  a  Benedick  he  ha<l  degenvr»t4-d  to  a  '  colonist.' 
.  .  .  Uncouth  anil  lawleaa  tliough  the  bucr«- 
neers  were,  the  sinister  signlflcatlon  now  attach- 
ing to  their  name  woiihl  never  have  iK'en  nirriled 
had  It  not  been  for  the  unreasoning  jealousy  of 
the  Spaniards.  The  hunters  were  actually  a 
source  of  protit  to  tlut  nation,  yet  fnmi  an  in- 
sane antipathy  to  Btrai,i;era  the  dominant  race 
resolved  on  exterminating  the  settlers.  Attacked 
whilst  dispersed  In  pursuance  of  their  avocations, 
the  latter  fell  easy  victims;  many  of  them  were 
wantimly  maivirrMJ,  othert  drseeed  Into  •lavery, 
.   .   ,   Breathing   hatred   and   vengeance,    'to* 


81 


t 


ii 


1  i 

1 .  M 

!■  li'l 


AMERICA,  MW-1700. 

brethren  of  the  coast'  uolted  their  scattered 
force*,  aod  a  war  of  horrible  reprisals  com- 
menced. Fresh  troops  arrived  from  Spain,  whilst 
the  ranks  of  the  buccaneers  were  filled  by  adven- 
turers of  all  nations,  allured  by  love  of  plunder, 
and  fired  with  indignation  at  the  cruelties  of  the 
aggressors.  .  .  .  The  Spanlunls,  utterly  failing 
to  oust  their  opponents,  hit  upon  a  new  ex- 
pedient, so  short-sighted  that  it  reflects  but  little 
credit  on  their  sUtesmanship.  This  waa  the 
extermination  of  the  homed  cattle,  by  which  the 
buccaneer*  derived  their  means  of  subsistence ;  a 
general  slaughter  took  place,  and  the  breed  waa 
almost  extirpated.  .  .  .  The  puffed  up  arrogance 
of  the  Spaniard  was  curbed  by  no  prudential 
consideration;  calling  upon  every  saint  io  his 
calendar,  and  raining  curses  on  the  heretical 
buccaneers,  he  deprived  them  of  their  legitimate 
occupation,  and  created  wilfully  a  set  of  desper- 
ate enemiea,  who  harassed  the  coloninl  trade  of 
an  empire  already  betraying  signs  of  feebleness 
with  the  pertinacity  of  wolves,  and  who  only 
desisted  when  her  commerce  had  been  reduced 
to  insignificance.  .  .  .  Devoured  by  an  undying 
hatred  of  their  assaihuits,  the  buccaneers  de- 
veloped Into  a  new  association  —  the  freebooters. " 
— C.  H.  Eden.  Tlu  Witt  India,  eh.  8.— "The 
monarchs  both  of  England  and  France,  but 
especially  the  former,  connived  at  and  even  en 
couraged  the   freebooters  [a  name  which  tlid 

{ironuuciation  of  French  sailors  transformed 
nto  'flibustiera,'  while  that  corruption  became 
Anglicized  in  iu  turn  and  produced  the  word 
filibusters],  whose  services  could  be  obtained  in 
time  of  war,  and  whose  actions  could  be  dis- 
avowed In  time  of  peace.  Thus  buccaneer, 
filibuster,  and  sea-rover,  were  for  the  most  part 
at  leisure  to  hunt  wild  cuttle,  and  to  pillage  and 
massacre  the  Spanlartls  wherever  they  found  an 
opportunity.  When  not  on  some  marauding  ex- 
pedition, they  followed  the  chase. "  The  piratical 
bucriir.eers  were  first  organized  under  a  leailer 
in  l«:t9,  the  islet  of  Tortuita  beiug  their  favorite 
rendezvous.  "  8o  rapid  was  the  growth  of  their 
settlemcnU  that  in  184t  we  find  govemore  ap- 
polnli-d,  and  at  San  Christobal  a  governor-general 
named  De  Polncy,  in  charire  of  the  French 
flilbiiaten  In  the  Indies.  During  that  year 
Tortuga  was  garrisoned  by  French  troops,  and 
the  English  were  driven  out,  both  front  that  tslt't 
and  from  Santo  Domingo,  securing  harboroee 
elsewhere  in  the  islands.  Nevertheless  conain 
of  iMilh  nations  often  made  .-Simmon  cause.  .  .  . 
In  [1«54J  Torlutfu  waa  aftiiln  recaptured  by  the 
SpanianU,  but  in  IMO  foil  once  m.ire  Into  the 
haniUof  the  French;  and  in  their  conquest  of 
Janinica  In  1655  the  British  troops  were  reen- 
forred  by  a  large  party  of  buncaneera."  The 
first  of  the  more  famous  buccaneers,  and  ap- 
pA'tntly  the  most  ferocious  among  them  all,  waa 
f.  Frenchman  railed  Franv'iis  L'Olonnols,  who 
harried  the  coast  of  Central  .\m«>rica  between 
isau-tnofi  with  six  ships  ami  7U*)  men.  At  the 
lame  time  another  buccaneer  name<i  Mansvelt, 
waa  rising  in  fame,  and  with  him,  as  second  In 
command,  a  \Vi  luliman,  Henry  Morgan,  who  be- 
came the  moot  niil"rimi»"f  all  In  1868,  Morgan 
attacked  and  caplurtxl  Uie  stnmg  town  of  Porto- 
bello,  oo  the  Isthmus,  cununltting  Indescribable 
at^'<ltiea.  In  107 1  he  onMsett  the  Isthmus, 
defi'titnl  the  Spaniards  in  battle  and  gained 
Heiwlon  of  tha  great  an.l  wealthy  clt^^  of 
>ama—  iUo  largest  and  richest  In  the  i.^tw 


possi 
rasa 


AMERICA.  1718. 

World,  containing  at  the  time  80,000  Inhabitanta 
The  city  was  pillaged,  fired  and  toUlly  destroyed. 
The  exploits  of  this  ruffian  and  the  stolen  riches 
which  be  carried  home  to  England  soon  after- 
ward gained  the  honors  of  knighthood  for  him, 
from  the  worthy  hands  of  Charles  IL  In  1680, 
the  buccaneen  under  one  Coxon  again  crossed 
the  Isthmus,  seized  Panama,  which  had  been 
considerably  rebuilt,  and  captured  there  a 
Spanish  fleet  of  four  riiips,  In  which  they 
launched  themselves  upon  the  Pacific.  From 
that  time  their  plundering  operations  were  chiefly 
directed  against  the  Pacific  cnaat.  Towards  the 
close  of  the  17th  century,  the  war  between  Eng- 
land and  France,  and  the  Bourbon  alliance  of 
Spain  with  France,  brought  about  the  discour- 
agement, the  decline  and  finally  the  extinction 
of  the  buccaneer  organization. — H.  H.  Bancroft, 
Hint,  oftht  PaciJUs  Stattt:  Central  Am.,  e.  3,  ch. 
86-80. 

Also  n»  W.  Thombury,  The  Butearutn.—k. 
O.  Exquemelin,  HM.  of  th$  Bueeaneeri.—J 
Bumey,  Jlitt.  of  the  Buceantert  nf  Am. — See, 
also,  Jamaica:  A.  D.  1665-1796. 

A.  D.  1655.— Submission  of  the  Swedes  on 
the  Delaware  to  the  Dutch.  See  Dclawakk: 
A.  D.  1640-1656. 

A.  D.  1663.— The  grant  of  the  Carolinas  to 
Monk,  Clarendon,  Shaftesbury,  and  others. 
See  North  Carolin*:  A.  D.  1668-1670. 

A.  n.  1664.— EoKlish  conquest  of  New 
Nether'and.    See  New  York:  A.  D.  1664. 

A.  D.  1673.— The  Dutch  reconquett  of  New 
Nethetland.    See  Nbw  Tokz:  A.  D.  167& 

A.  'O.  i673-i68a.— Discoreiy  and  explora- 
tion of  the  Mississippi,  by  Marquette  and 
La  Salle.— Louisiana  named  and  possessed 
by  the  French.  See  Canada  (New  Framck): 
A.  D.  1684-1678.  and  iefi»-1687. 

A.  D.  1674.— Final  surrender  of  New  Nethp 
erland  to  the  EnjrUsh.  Bee  Nbthiiilamiis 
(Holland):  A.  D.  1674. 

A.  D.  168;.— The  proprictaiy  Krant  to  Wil- 
liam Pcnn.    See  Pkrnstlvakia:  A.  D.  IIHI. 

A.  D.  i689-i6o7.— The  first  Inter-Colon  it 
War:  Kiu  WiUiam's  War  (The  war  of  the 
Leane  ofTAnnburc).  See  Canada  (New 
Fhanck):  a.  d:  1686-1600:  1693-16in:  also, 
NBwr<)l^DLAND:  A.  D.  1694-1697. 

A.  D.  1690.— The  first  Colonial  Concress. 
Sec  United  States  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  1690;  also, 
Canada  (New  France):  A.  D.  1689-16»<t. 

A.  D.  1698-1712.— The  French  colonitatica 
of  Louisiana.— Broad  claims  of  France  to  the 
whole  Valley  of  the  Mississippi.  See  Loi  isi 
ana:  A.  D.  I69(J-1712. 

A.  D.  1700-1735.— The  Spread  of  French 
occujtation  in  the  Mississippi  VaUey  and  on 
the  Lakea.  Se«  Canada  (New  Feanck):  A.  D. 
170«)-I7n5, 

A.  D.  17''  \— Union  af  the  two  Jeraevs  as  a 
royal  province.  See  New  Jerset  :  A.  U.  16)<t«- 
1788. 

A.  D.  170t.1713.-The  Second  InterAlo- 
lonlal  War :  Queen  Anne'a  War  (The  War  of 
the  Spanish  Succesalen).— Final  acouisition  of 
Nova  Scotia  by  the  BngUsh.  See  New  Kn 
LAND:  A.  U.  170S-1710;  CakaDA  (New  Fkancek 
A.  I).  1711-1718. 

A.  D.  17]}.— Division  of  territory  between 
England  and  France  by  the  Traaty  of  Utrecht. 
See  Canada  (New  FaaiiOK) :  A.  D.  1711- 
1718. 


ill 


AMERICA,  1729. 

A,  D.  1799.— Bad  of  tb*  proprietarr  mw- 
emment  in  Nortli  CaroUiw.  See  North 
Carolina:  A.  D.  1688-1729. 

A.  D.  1733.— The  colonization  of  Ceornn 
by  General  Oglctiirope.  See  Okoroia:  A.  D. 
178^1789. 

*•„?•  «744-«74«:-The  Third  Inter-Coion- 
uU  War:  King;  George'*  War  (The  W«r  of 
the  Auitnan  Succeieion).  See  Nb w  Ekouuid  • 
A  n  1744;  1745;  and  1745-1748 

^  °;  «74»-«7<o.— Unsettled  bonndair  dia- 
putet  of  England  and  France— The  fourth  and 
i*V.  "Vlf-ewonial  war,  called  the  French  and 
Indian  War  (The  Seren  Years  War  of  Europe). 
-Engliah  Coaqueat  of  Canada.  See  Cawada 
(New  Frakcb):  A.  D.  1750-1758;  1760;  Nova 
ScoTU:  A.  D.  1749-1756;  1755;  Ohio(Vau*t)- 
A.  D.  1748-1V6':  1764;  1756;  Cape  Br»ton 
IiiLA.vD:  A.  D.  17SS-1760. 
.  ^  ?•  '749-— Introdnction  of  nesro  alaTcry 
into  Gcorpa.  See  Oborou:  A.  D.  1735-1749. 
-  *•..*?•  i75'*"',7S3-— Diaaeniiona  amonr  the 
Engksb  Coloniee  on  the  eve  of  the  mat 
French  War.     See  Umiteo  States  of  Am.: 

A.  D  1754.— Tha  Colonial  Congress  at 
Albany.— Franklin's  Plan  of  Union.  See 
L  N;rti)  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1754. 

A.  D.  1763.— The  Peace  of  Paris.— Canada. 
Cape  Breton,  Newfoundland,  and  Louisiana 
east  of  the  Misaissippi  (except  New  Orleans) 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINEa 

ceded  by  France  to  Great  Britain.— West  of 
the  Miasissmpi  and  New  Oreans  to  Spain.— 
Florida  by  SJMun  to  Great  Britain.  See '  JBVMi 
X  BARS  War. 

^•,  °^'763-«764.-Pontiac's  War.    See  Pen- 

»h^R?;iI'.l*?•"i7*^  "~°4'!7'°S  dlacontent  of 
!?•  E'«||»n  Colonies.— The  question  of  taxa- 
tion.—The  Stamp  Act  and  its  repeal.  See 
Ukitbd  States  of  Am.:  A  D.  1760-1775.101766. 
„•*•  P\  '7o*-i7*9-— Spaniah  occupation  of 
New  Orieana  and  Weatem  LonisianiTandthe 
n5?.'*aXm'*'    «-^'^««--A.D.176(^ 

,.  ^  O- i;f7s-i78»._iadependence  of  tbeEne> 
lish  colonies  achieved.    See  United  States  or 

»  •  ^  ^-  i"'  (Apru.)  to  1783  (September). 

A.  p.  1776.— Erection  of  the  Spanish  Vice- 
reyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres.  See  AROENTras 
Repubuo'  a.  D.  1580-1777 

A.  D.  i8io.i8i6.—ReTolt,  independence  and 
Confederation  of  the  Arfentini  ProTinees. 
Bee  Aroi  stinb  Republic;  A.  D.  1806-1820 

A.D.  1818.— ChUean  independence  achieved. 
See  Chile:  A.  D.  1810-1818. 
kA.'*:  »•»•:'«"•— Indepeodence  Acquired 
by  Mexico  and  the  Central  American  Statea. 
See  .Mexico:  A.  D.  1830-1826,  and  Central 
America:  A.  D.  1821-1871. 

A.  D.  1824.- PsruTian  independence  woo  at 
Ayacttcbo.    See  Pkbc:  A.  D.  1820-1836. 


Linruistic  Clasti«eation.- In  the  Seventh 
Annual  Report  of  ibf  Bun-nu  of  Ethnolocv  ffor 
mr.m.  publi,h,..l  l„  imx  .Major  J.  W.?oVea 
!.•  DircTtorof  the  Bureau,  has  ^iven  aclagsiflca- 
tiun  of  lie  languages  of  the  \orth  Americnn  abo- 
rigini-s  msed  upon  the  most  n-cent  Investigations. 
The  following  Is  a  list  of  famllii's  of  speech  orlln- 
guistic  stocks    which  ar..  (Icflued    and    namc.1- 

ihJ^'?'f"'J''*"°i'"'''*  ''"™  •'"'  publication  of 
thi,  list  as  bring  but  part  of  the  Caddoan  stockl. 

-  A  gonqulm  -  Atliapascan.  -  Attacapan.- 
B«.tlmkan.-Cad(loan.-rhlinakusn.-C-hlmari- 
^sn -t  hlmmesyan.-rhin™,kan.-Chitiinachan. 
-(.humashan.— Coahulltcran— Cowlmn.-Cos- 
^m«in.-hgklmauan.-Esselcnlan.-Tro.iuol8n.- 
Kal»n<*,l,n-karankav.„n.-Keresnn.-'Kiowan. 

-  Kituanahan.  --  Kolusclmn.  -  Kulanniwii.  - 

Ausan -Lutuamlan.-Mariposan- M,.,,u..lum- 
naa-Mu.khogean.-N«l,l„san.-PHlait.nil,an 
- 1  iman.-PuJunan.-Ouoniti.an.-  Salinan,- 
MWmn.-S»,t*an.-8h5i«ntlan.-81i,,slumean. 
-W<.U8n.-8kltUgetan.-l  altllman.-Tnlloan  _ 
Timumianan.-TonlkaD.-Tonkawun.-rrhoan 
-W  «inatpuan.-WakMh8n.-W8»lK).in  -Welt 
'^r,  -y"""«k»n- -  Vokonan  -  Yunan  11 
'  '"'l"»  —  ^  uman.  —  Zufilan. "—  These   families 
are  severally  defined  In   the   sum ,  "ry  „7    n 
formation  given   below,    and   the   Sons   to 
.t!"e  1"  r'""V*'"'"«  »"/  hi'torical  Impor 
«i»e,  but  many  other  groupings  and  aiaocU- 

"ns,  «n.l  many  tribal  names'^  not  sclenU^lly 
^irff;  T  "^'l-^xhlblted  here,  for  the 
ZtlitL^.'L^:"  » /'Snlflowce  In  history 
"mture  ^~^  "'   frequent  allusion  in 

Ahipoast,    Bee  below ;  PAKPAi  Tauuts. 


AMERICAN    ABORIGINES. 


83 


.,^i.°V',*'  *'  Abenaques,  or  Taranteens.— 

Tlie  Abnakis  were  L-alleti  Taranteens  by  the 
Engli^,  and  Owenuguugas  by  the  Now  Yorkers. 
v"  ■  u   ?  ""if*  ■""'''  """  '  '"8«  portion  of  the 
ijortti  American  Indiana  were  called  Abnakis. 
if  not  by  themselves,  at  least  by  others.    ThU 
word  Abnski  U  found  spelt  Abenaques,  Abenaki 
Wapanachkl,  and  Wab>  oakies  by  different  writ- 
en.  of  varioua  naUons,  each  adopting  the  manner 
of  spelling  according  to  the  rules  of  pronunci- 
ation of  their  reSMctive  native  languages.  .  .  . 
The  word  geoenUly  received  Is  spelled  thus 
AbnakI  but  It  should  be  '  Wtobftnaghl,'  from 
the  Indian  word  'wanbanban,'  designating  the 
peop.e  of  the  Aurora  Borealis,  or  In  general,  of 
the  place  where  the  sky  commences  to  appear 
white  at  the  breaking  of  the  day.  .  .  .  ft  has 
been  difficult  for  different  writers  to  determine 
the  number  of  nations  or  tribes  comprehended 
under  this  word  AbnakI     It  being  a  genersi 
word,  by  itself  designates  the  people  of  tbc  east 
or  northeast.  .  .  .  Wo  dnd  that  the  word  AbnakI 
was  applied  in  genersi.  more  or  leas,  to  all  the 
Indians  of  the  East,  by  persons  who  were  not 
much  acquainted  with   the    atioriglnes   of   the 
country.     On  the  contrary,  the  eariy  writers  and 
others  well  acquainted  with  the  natives  of  Now 
Jrancu  and  Acadia,  and  the  Indians  themselves 
by  Abnakis  always    pointed   out  a  particular 
nation  existing  north  west  and  south  of  the  Ken- 
neber  river,   and   they    never   designated   any 
oth.t   people  of  the  Atlantic  shore,  from  Cap* 
Hatteras  to  Newfoundland.      .      The  Ahnakia 
had  five  great  villages,  two  amongst  the  French 
ctilonies,   which   must   be    the   village   of   St. 
J.^ph  or  finery,  ao<!  that  -f  «!.    PmnHj  do 
Sttlus,  both  In  Canada,  three  on  thu  head  waten, 


AHEBICAK  ABORIGINEa 

br  •long  three  riven,  between  Acadia  and  New 
^glua.  These  laree  rivers  are  the  Kennebec, 
the  AndroMoggin,  and  the  Saco.  .  .  .  The  nv 
tion  of  the  Abnalds  bear  evident  marla  of  hav- 
ing been  an  original  people  in  their  name,  man- 
nen,  and  language.  They  show  a  liind  of  ctvil- 
^tion  which  must  be  the  effect  of  antiquity, 
and  of  a  past  flourisliing  age."— E.  Vetromile, 
ThtAbnaJklndianiiifaineUut.  Boe.  CM., ».  «).— 
Bee,  also,  below:  ALoonitciAN  FAMn.T.— For 
some  account  of  the  wars  of  the  Abnakls,  with 
the  Kew  England  colonies,  see  Canada  (New 
Frahck);  a.  D.  1680-1690,  and  16»3-16»7i 
New  Eholaht;  A.  D.  1678  (Jclt— SbptO; 
1703-1710, 1711-1713;  and  Nova  Scotia:  A.  D. 
1713-1730. 

Absarokas,  Upsarokaa,  or  Crowa.  See 
below :  Sioi-,\s  F.tMiLV. 

Acawoios.    See  below:   Caribs  akd  thkib 

AcolbuM.    See  IIkzioo,  A.  u.  1825-1503. 

Adais.*— These  lodiuii!)  were  a  'tribe  who,  ac 
cording  tn  Dr.  Sibley  lived  about  the  year  1800 
near  tlic  old  Spanish  fort  or  mission  of  Adaize, 
'  about  40  miles  from  Natchitoches,  below  the 
Yattassees,  on  a  lalte  called  Lac  Macdon,  which 
communicates  with  the  division  of  Red  Kiver 
tlint  passes  by  Bavou  Pierre '  [Lewis  and  Clarke]. 
A  vocabulary  of  about  250  words  is  all  that  re- 
mains to  us  of  their  ianKuage,  which  according 
to  the  collector,  Dr.  Sibley,  '  differs  from  all 
others,  ami  is  so  difficult  to  spealc  or  understand 
that  no  nation  can  spealt  ten  words  of  it.  ...  A 
recent  comparison  of  this  vocabulary  by  Mr. 
Oatschet,  with  several  Caddoan  dialects,  has  led 
to  the  discovery  that  a  considerable  percentage 
of  the  Adai  words  havn  a  more  or  less  remote 
affinity  with  Caddoan,  and  he  regards  it  as  a 
Cmliliian  dialect."— J.  W.  Powell.  Setenth  An. 
ReiM-t,  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  PP-  45-46.— See 
preceding  page. 

Adirondf  ■••.—"This  ii  a  term  bestowed  by 
the  iroquij.j,  in  derision,  on  the  tribes  who 
appear,  at  an  early  day,  to  have  dcscendc'  tho 
Ltawas  river,  and  occupied  the  left  baniu  of 
the  St.  Lawrence,  above  the  present  site  of 
Qucliec.  about  the  close  of  the  15th  century.  It 
Is  said  to  signify  niea  who  eat  trees,  in  allusion 
to  their  using  the  Imrk  of  certain  trees  for  food, 
when  reduced  to  straits.  In  their  war  excursions. 
The  French,  who  entered  the  St.  Lawrence  from 
the  o'lilf.  culled  the  same  people  Algonquins— 
a  generic  appellation,  which  has  been  long 
empldvcd  and  come  into  universal  use,  among 
historians  and  philologists.  According  to  early 
accounts,  the  Adirondaciis  had  preceded  the 
Iriiquiiis  in  arts  and  attainments."— H.  R. 
SclKMilcrafl.  y-'lrt  on  the  Iruqwit,  eh.  5. — Sec, 
also.  iK'low;  IliutjL'OIS  CONFKUEllACT:  THEIR 
CoNql  EKTS.  Ac. 

jEsopus  Indians.  See  below:  AlAOMnfiAN 
Family. 

Agniers.— ..miing  several  names  which  tiic 
Mi'liaivUs  IMC  IkIcw;  iKotjfoih)  Imro  in  cariy 
culimi;il  liistiiry  was  tliat  of  tlio  Agniers.— F. 
Hirldnan,  fhe  Con^iirafj/  qf  I\>iitint,  ».  1.  p  0, 
fiMit-noff. 

Albaiaa.    iM>e  lirlow :  Pampas  TRtt;Ba 

Aleuts.    ><>'  Ih'I<i\v.  Ehkimaia.n  Family. 

Algonquiam  Algonkini  Family.—"  AImiuI  the 
p«'riiHi  l.*i(iii-l(MK).  ilicisc  ri'laUKi  lril>es  wlmm  wo 
now  !tu!!w  1(V  !!!•■  nsnie  "f  AlK<>nkin«  wen-  iit  tlie 
height  of  their  proeiK'rity.    They  occupl 


AHERICAN  ABOBIGINEa 

Atlantlccoast  from  the  SavaiiwUi  river  on  the  •oulli 
to  Oie  strait  of  Belle  Isle  on  tbe  north.  .  .  .  The 
dialecte  of  all  these  were  related,  and  evMently  at 
some  distant  day  bad  been  derived  from  the  same 
primitive  tongue.  Whkh  of  them  bad  preserveil 
the  ancient  forms  moat  closely,  It  may  be  prema 
ture  to  decide  podtively,  but  tbe  tendency  of 
modem  studies  baa  been  to  assign  that  place  tu 
the  Cree  —  the  nortbemmoM  of  aU.  We  cannot 
erect  a  genealogiral  tree  of  these  dialects.  .  .  . 
We  may,  howev  ,  group  them  in  such  a  manner 
as  roughly  to  indicate  their  lelatUMobip.  This 
I  do'— in  the  following  Hst:  "Cree.— Old 
Algonkln.—  Montagnato.  —  Chlpeway.  Ottawa. 
Potuwattomie,  Miami,  Peoria,  Pea,  Piankiahaw. 
Easkaskia,  Menominee,  Sac,  Fox,  Kikanoo  — 
Slieshatapoosh,  Secoffee,  MIcmac,  Mellsceet, 
Etchemin,  Abnakl— Mohegan,  Massachusetts. 
Siiavtoee,  Mlnsl,  Unaml,  Unatechtigo  [tbe  last 
three  named  forming,  together,  the  nation  of  the 
Lenape  or  Dekiwaresi,  Nanticoke,  Powhatan, 
Pampticoke.  —  Bhickfoot,  Oroa  Ventre,  Shey- 
enne.  ...  All  tlie  Algonkln  nations  who  dwelt 
north  of  tiie  Potomac,  on  the  east  shore  of 
Chesapeake  Bay,  and  in  the  basins  of  the  Dela- 
ware and  Hudson  rivers,  claimed  near  kinship 
and  an  identical  origfai,  and  were  at  times  unite<l 
into  a  loose,  defensive  confederacy.  By  the 
western  and  southern  tribes  they  were  col- 
lectively known  as  Wapanachkik— •  those  of  the 
eastern  region' — which  In  the  form  AI>tuU(l  is 
now  confined  to  the  remnant  of  a  tribe  in  Maine, 
.  .  .  The  members  of  the  confederacy  were  the 
Mohegans  (Mahicanni)  of  the  Hudson,  who  occu 
pied  the  valley  of  that  river  to  the  falls  above 
the  site  of  Albany,  the  various  New  Jersey 
tribes,  the  Dclawares  proper  on  the  Delaware 
river  and  its  branches,  including  the  Minbi  or 
Honseys,  among  the  mountains,  the  Nanticokes. 
between  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  Atlantic,  and 
the  small  tribe  called  Canal,  Kanawbas  or 
Oanawese,  whose  towns  were  on  tributaries  of 
the  Potomac  and  Patuxent.  .  .  .  LInguistkiaUy, 
the  Mohegans  were  more  closely  allied  to  the 
tribes  of  New  England  than  to  these  of  the 
Delaware  Valley.  Evidently,  most  of  the  tribes 
of  MassachusetU  and  Connecticut  were  compara- 
tively recent  oflshoow  of  the  parent  stem  on  the 
Hudson,  supposing  tbe  course  of  migration  had 
been  eastward.  .  .  .  The  Nartlcokes  occupied 
the  territory  between  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the 
ocean,  except  its  southern  extiemit/,  which  ap- 

Pears  to  have  been  under  the  control  of  the 
towhatun  tribe  of  Virginia."— D.  O.  Brinton, 
The  Lenape  and  their  Lfgend*.  eh.  1-2.—"  Mohe- 
gan", Munsees,  Manliattins,  MetOac>r  and  ollur 
afllhated  tribes  and  Imnds  of  Algonquin  linca»ri . 
inliabited  the  l)ank8  of  the  Hudsor  an<l  ilie 
islands,  bay  ttnds«'aboardof  New  York.ineimlinu 
Long  Island,  during  the  early  periods  of  the  ii.h' 
of  the  Irixiuois  Confederacy.  .  .  .  The  Moheuaiis 
nnaily  retired  over  tlic  Ilighlands  east  oi'  llii  in 
into  the  valley  of  the  Ilousatonic.  Tlie  Muii.-<i4 
and  Nantii.'kcsretlriHl  to  llic  Delaware  river  mA 
reunited  with  their  kindred,  the  LenaiK'es,  or 
modern  Deiuwares.  Tlic  Manlutttons,  mJ 
numerous  otlicr  bands  ami  subtril>cs,  rndtiJ 
away  under  the  influence  of  liquor  ami  dti^l  in 
their  tracks."— H  K.  Sclioolcraft,  Xotetou  lU 
Iroquit:  eh.  8  —  •'  On  the  basis  of  a  differ.  «e 
in  dialect,  that  portion  ol  the  AlRimqiiin  IikIiuiw 
which  dwelt  in  New  England  haslRin  clniiwilm 
two  divisions,  one  cousistiKb  of  Ihum  who  is 


•  Sci'  N  tr,  A|i|i«nillx  E,  vol.  I, 


84 


AMERICAN  ^BORIOmEa 

habited  what  is  now  the  State  of  Maine,  nearly 
up  to  its  western  border,  the  other  conglsting  of 
tlic  rest  of  the  native  popuhtiun.    The  Jfelne 
Indians  may  liave  been  some  15,000  in  number, 
or  somewhat  less  than  a  third  of  the  native  popu- 
lation of  New  England.    That  portion  of  them 
who  dwelt  furthest  towards  the  east  were  known 
by  the  name  of  Etetchemins.    The  Abenaquis, 
including  the  Tarratines,  hunted  on  both  sides  of 
the  Penobscot,  and  westward  as  far  as  the  Saco 
if  not  quite  to  the  Piscataqua.   Tlie  tribeafound 
in  the  rest  of  New  England  were  designated  by 
a  greater  variety  of  names.    The  home  of  the 
Penacook  or    Pawtucket  Indians   was  in  the 
southeast  comer  of  what  is  now  New  Hampshire 
and  the   contiguous  region   of   Massachusetts. 
Next  dwelt  the  Alassachusetts  tribe,  along  the 
bay  of  that  name.    Then  were  found  suceessi vel  i- 
the  Pokanoketa,  or  Wampanoags,  in  the  south- 
easterly region  of  MassachusetU,  and  by  Buz- 
zard's and  Nanagansett  Bays: the Narragansetta, 
with  a  tribuUry  race  called  Nyantics  in  what  is 
now   the  western  part  of  the  Statu  of  lUiode 
Island;  the  Pequiits,  between  the  NarragansctU 
and  Uie  river  formerlv  called  the  Pequol  Kivcr, 
now  the  Thames ;  and  tlie  Mohegans,  »r  ending 
themselves  beyond  the  River  Connec.icut.     In 
the  central  region  of  Massachusetts    were  the 
Nipmucks,  or  N'ipncts;  and  along  Cape  Cod  were 
the  Niiusef   who  appeared  to  have  owed  some 
fealty  to  tlie  Pokunokets.     The  New  Enirland 
Indians  exhibit^-d  an  inferior  typo  of  hui.ianity. 
.  .  .  Though  fleet  and  agile    when  excited  to 
some  nccasiomil  effort,  they  were  found  to  be  in- 
capable   of    continuous    labor.       Heavy     and 
phlegmatic,    they  scarcely  wept  or  smiled  "— 
J.  G.    Palfrey,    Comjiendiout  Ui$t.  of  N.  Enq., 
bic.    1,    eh.    i   (p.    1).— "The     valley    of     the 
'  Cahohatatea,' or   Mauritius   River   [i.  e.,  the 
Hudson  Kivcr,  as  now  named]  at  the  timi»  ilu<l- 
»on  first  ascended  ita   waters,    was   inhabited 
chleHy,  by  two  aboriginal  races  of  Alirnnquiii 
lineage,  afterwards  known  among  the  Euglish 
colonists  by  the  generic  names   of  Mohegans 
and    Mincces.      The     Dutcu    generally    called 
the   Mohegans,    Mahicans;   and   the    Mincces 
Sanhlkans.    These  two  tribes  were  sulKjivided 
into  numerous    minor    bands,    each   of  wlilcli 
had   a  distinctive   name.     The  tril)es   on    the 
east  side  of  the  river    were   generally    .Mohe- 
gans; those  on  the  west  side,  Mincees.      They 
were  hcre<litar^  enemies.  .  .  .  Long  Island,  or 
•  Si'wanhackv,  was  occupied  by  th3savai;e  tribe 
"f  Metowacks,  which  wassubdividcd  intovurioug 
(Inns.  .  ,  .  Stalen  Island,  on  the  opposite  side 
"f  the  bay,  was  inhabited  by  the  Monatons 
Inliinil,  to  the  west,  llv-d  the  R; -Itans  and  the 
llackmsacks;  while  the  regions  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  well-known  '  Hisnlands,'  south  of    Sandy 
ll.)<)k    were  inhabited  by  a  band  or  sub  trilK! 
called  the  Nevesiucks  or  Navlsinks.  .  ,  .  To  the 
N>iitli   and  west,   covering   the  c«!ntro   of  New 
Jcrwy.  were  the  Aquamachukesand  the  (Stanke- 
kaiis;  while  the  valley  of  the  IK'laware,  north- 
ward  from  the  Schuylkill,    was    inhabited  bv 
larioii,  tribes   of   the  Lenapc   race.  .  .  .  The 
.■^1  in.|  of  the  .Miinhattans  "  was  occupied  ov  the 
iribc  which  received  that  name  (see  Manhattan). 
On   the  shores  of  the  river,   above,    dwelt  the 
r..ppan»,  the  Weckquaeige"ks,  the  Sint  Sings,   I 
whose  thief  village  was  rameii  Ossln-Sing,  ,t  ' 
the  Place  of  Stones,' "  the  Pachami,  (he  Waorin-  I 
»tka,  the  Vi  appiagerg,  auU  the  Warouawaukongs 


AMERICAN  ABORIOINSa 

"Further    north,  and   occupying  the   pmejt 
counticsof  Lister  and  Greene,  wettj  the  Minqua 
clans  of  MInnesincks,  Nanticokes,  Mincces,  and 
Uelawares.      These  clans  had  pressed   onward 
from  the  upper  valley  of  the  Delaware.  .  .  .  They 
were  generally  known  among  the  Dutch  as  the 
^sopus  Indians."— J.  K.   Brodhcad,    Uut.  of 
t/ui  (state  of  X    r.,  ».  1,  eh.  8— "The  area  for- 
merly  occupied  by  the  Algonquian  family  was 
more  extensive  than  that  of  any  other  linguistic 
stock  in  North  America,  their  territory  reaching 
fiom  Labrador  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  from 
Churchill  River  of  Hudson  Bay  as  far  south  at 
least  as  Pamlico  Sound  of  North  Carolina.    In 
the  eastern  part  of  this  territory  was  an  area 
occupied   by   Iroquoian  tribes,   surrounded  on 
almost  all  sides-  ty  their  Algonquian  neighbors. 
O.    the  south  che  Algonquian  tribes  were  bor- 
dered by  those  of  Iroquoian  and  Siouan  (Cata ..  oa) 
stock,  on  the  southwest  and  west  by  the  Musk- 
hogi^an  and  Siouan  tribes,  and  on  the  northwest 
oy  the  Kitunahan  and  the  great  Athapascan 
fan- Mies,  while  along  the  coast  of  Labrador  and 
the  eastern  shore  or  Hudson  Bay  they  came  in 
contact  with  the  Eskimo,   who  were  gradually 
retreating  before  them  to  the  nortli.    In  New- 
foundland    they   encountered    the    Bcothukan 
family,  consisting  of  but  a  single  tribe.  A  portiou 
of  the  Shawnee  at  some  early  period  had  sep- 
arated from  the  main  body  of  the  tribe  in  central 
Tennessee  and  pushed  their  wav  down  to  the 
Savannah  River  in  South  Carolina;  where,  known 
OS  Savannahs,  they  carried  on  destructive  wars 
with  the  surrounding  tribes  until  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Idth  century  they  were  finally 
dri  en  out  and  join. ,i  the  Deliware  in  the  north. 
Soon  aftcrwanis  tlie  r?stof  tae  tribe  was  expelled 
by  the  Cherokee  and  Chicasa,  who  thencefor- 
ward  claimed  all  the  country  stretching  north  to 
the  Ohio  River.    The  Cheyenne  and  Arapaho 
two  allie<i  tribes  of  this  stock,  had  become  Sep- 
araiei'.  from  their  kindred  ou  the  north  and  had 
fo-      i  'heir  way  through  hostile  tribes  across  the 
M.  «  u..  to  the  Black  Hills  country  of  South 
-.iKota.  and  more  recently  into  Wyoming  and 
Colorado,   thus  fomiing  the  advance  guard  of 
the  Algonquian  stock  in  that  direction,  having 
the  Siouan  trilies  behind  them  and  those  of  the 
Shoshonean  family  in  front.     [The  following  are 
the]  principal  tribes:     •  -.nakl,  Algonquin,  Ara- 
im ho.  Chcvenne.  Conr   ,    Cree,  Delaware.  Fox, 
Illinois,   Kickapx),  JIahican,  Massachuset,  Me- 
nominee, .Miami,  Micniac,  Stohegan,  Montagnais 
Montauk,     Munsee,     Xanticokc,    Narraganset 
^auset,  Xipmuc,  Ojibwa.  Otuwa,  Pamlicc.  Pen- 
nacook,  Pequot,  Piankisliaw,  I'oltawotomi.  Pow- 
hatai!.    Sac.     Sliawn.'c,     Siksika,    V'ampanoag, 
"  appi-ger.     The  present  number  of  '.no  Algon- 
quian stuck  isab<iut  ».\«00,  of  whom  o'mut  60,000 
are  in  Canada  and  th  •  remainder  in  the  United 
StaU'S."— .1.   W.  i'uwell,  SKiilh  Annual  Ikpori, 
Bureau  of  Ethnot'uiy,  pj}  47-4S. 

Also  i.n  J.  W.  be  Forest.  Hut.  of  Iht  huUant 
of  lonnecliftU.—S..  Oallaliu,  t>ynoimH  of  tht 
Indian  Trifna  ( Aifhitobigia  Ainerieana,  t.  2) 
tHlro..  Krt.  2. —A  G.  Dnike,  Aboriginal  liaetn  of 
A.  Am.,  hk.  ;>-:(. —Sec.  also,  ijclow:  Delawauks; 
HoKIKANs;  SrtAWAVKSE:  SlsqiEa.tNNAS;  UJIii- 
"As;  iLLlNois.  — I..r  liie  Indian  wars  of  Xcw 
Eagland.  see  New  E.voi.ANUr  A.  U.  1837  (Tin 
Pehiot  Hak):  a.  D  1074-1675  to  1676-1678 
(M.VO    PllILIP'g    Witt!_.S,H-,     also,    PoKTUe'8 

War. 


85 


AMEmCAK  ABORIQINE& 


.  '       Jl 


Alibamai,  or  AlabamM. 
nooKAN  Family. 
Alleghant,   or   . 

"Till!  oldest  tribe  I 
there  U  a  distinct  t- 
The  term  is  perpetu... 


Bee  below:  MC8K- 


'egewi,   or   TalHcewi.— 
■'  United  States,  oi  which 
n,  were  the  Aliegliaos. 
.     .  I  u  the  principal  cliain  of 

muuntiiins  traversing  tlie  country.  This  tribe,  at 
■in  nntiquc  period,  Iind  the  seat  of  their  power 
In  tlic  Oliio  Valley  !ind  its  confluent  streams, 
whicli  Were  the  sites  of  their  numerous  towns 
and  villages.  They  appear  originally  to  have 
borne  the  name  of  Alii,  or  Alleg,  and  hence  the 
names  of  Tulligcwt  ami  Allegewi.  (Trans.  Am. 
Pill.  8oc.,  vol.  1.)  By  adding  to  the  radical  of 
this  word  the  particle  '  liany '  or '  ghany,'  meaning 
river,  they  described  the  principal  scene  of  their 
residence  —  namely,  the  Alleghany,  or  Iliver  of 
the  Alieghans,  now  called  Ohio.  The  word 
Ohio  Is  of  Iroquois  origin,  and  of  a  far  later 
period;  having  been  bestowed  by  them  after 
their  conquest  of  the  country.  In  alliance  with 
the  Lenanees,  or  ancient  Delawares.  (Phi. 
Trans.)  The  term  was  applied  to  the  entire 
river,  from  Its  confluence  with  the  Mississippi, 
to  its  origlb  in  the  broad  spurs  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies,  in  Xew  York  and  Pennsvlvanla.  .  .  . 
There  are  evidences  of  antique  labors  In  the 
alluvial  plains  and  valleys  of  the  Scioto,  Mhiml, 
and  Muskingum,  the  \Vsba8h,Kaska8kia.Cahok!n, 
and  Illinois,  denoting  that  the  ancient  Alleghans, 
and  their  allies  and  confederates,  cultivated  the 
soil,  and  were  semi-agriculturists.  These  evi- 
dences have  been  traced,  at  late  periods,  to  the 
fertile  table-lands  ot  Indiana  and  Michigan. 
The  tribes  lived  In  fixed  towns,  cultivating 
extensive  fields  of  the  zea-maize;  and  also,  as 
denoted  by  recent  discoveries,  ...  of  some 
species  of  beans,  vines,  and  esculents.  Tliey 
were,  in  truth,  the  mound  builders." — H  It 
Sclioolcnift,  Iiif'irmdti'iii  retfecling  the  Indian 
Tribft,  pt.  5,  p.  133.— This  conclusion,  to  wliich 
Mr.Mchoolcniit  had  arrived,  that  the  ancient 
Alleghans  or  Tallcgwi  were  the  mound  bui' ilers 
of  the  Ohio  Valley  is  being  sustained  by  later 
investigators,  and  seems  to  have  become  an 
accepted  opinion  amimg  those  of  liighcst 
authority.  Tlie  Alleghans,  moreover,  arc  being 
Identified  with  the  Clierokees  of  later  times.  In 
whom  their  nice,  once  supposed  to  be  extinct, 
has  app'rently  survived;  while  the  fact,  long 
suspected,  that  the  Cherokee  language  is  of  tlie 
Iroquois  family  is  lieing  proved  by  the  latest 
studies.  According  to  Indian  tradition,  tlie 
Alleghans  were  driven  from  their  ancient  seiits. 
long  ago,  by  a  combination  against  them  of  the 
Lenape  (Delawares)  and  the  Mengwc  (Iroquois). 
The  route  of  tlieir  migrations  is  Mug  trared  by 
the  cliaracter  of  the  mounds  which  they  built, 
and  of  the  remains  gatliereil  from  the  mounds. 
"The  general  movement  [of  retreat  U-fore  the 
IriH|Uois  and  Leniipi]  .  .  .  must  have  iH'en 
txuithwiinl,  .  .  .  and  tlie  exit  of  tlie  Ohio  mound- 
builders  was,  In  nil  prolmbiiity,  up  the  Kananah 
Vttiley  on  the  suiiie  line  that  the  Clierokees 
appear  to  liuve  followed  In  reaeliing  their 
historical  locality.  ...  If  the  hypothesis  here 
advanced  be  correct,  It  is  apparent  that  tlie 
Clierokees  enteri'il  the  immediate  valley  of  the 
tlississippi  from  the  nonliwest,  striking  it  In  the 
region  of  Iowa. "— C.  Thomas.  The  PniNtin  of  tht 
Ohio  Mounds  (Bureau  of  Ethtwiogu,  1889) 

Aljio   fx  Thr    sami'.   B'lrinl    ,Vw>irf»  of  the 
UttrtUn  SictivM  <(f  t*4  U.  a  (f\fUi  An.  Oept. 


AMERICAN  AOORIQINEa. 


of  the  Bureau  qf  Sthnology,  1883-84).— J.  Hecke- 
welder,  Actt.  of  Vie  Indian  tfationt,  eh.  1. — 
See,  lielow :  Cberokebs,  and  iRoquols  CoiirKD- 
EHAcv ;  also  America,  PREaisTORic. 

Amahuacma.    See  below :  Amdesiams. 

Andutes.    See  below:  SusqvEnANNAS. 

AndeiiUK.— "  The  term  Andeslans  or  An- 
tesians,  is  used  with  geographical  rather  than 
ethnological  limits,  and  embraces  a  numlicr  of 
tribes.  First  of  these  are  the  Cofan  In  Eqiiador, 
east  of  Clilmborazo.  They  fought  valiantly 
against  the  Spaniards,  and  In  times  past  killed 
many  of  tlie  missionaries  sent  among  them. 
Now  they  are  greatly  reduced  and  have  become 
more  gentle.  The  Huamaboya  arc  their  near 
neighbors.  Tlic  Jivnra,  west  of  the  river  Pa«- 
taca.  are  a  warlike  tribe,  who,  possibly  throiigli 
a  mixture  of  Spanish  blood,  have  a  European 
cast  of  countenance  and  a  beard.  The  half 
Christian  Napo  or  Qui  jo  and  their  peaceful  neigh- 
bors, the  Zaporo,  live  on  the  Rio  Napo.  The 
Yamco,  living  on  the  lower  Chamblva  and  cross- 
ing the  Marailon,  wandering  as  far  as  Saryacu, 
have  a  clearer  complexion.  The  Pacamora  and 
the  Yuguarzongo  live  on  the  Manfion,  where  It 
leaves  its  northerly  course  and  bends  toward  the 
cast.  The  Cochlquima  live  on  tlie  lower  Yavari ; 
the  Mayoruna,  or  Barbudo,  on  the  middle  Ucayall 
beside  the  Campo  and  Cochlbo,  tlie  most  terrible 
of  South  American  Indians;  they  dwell  In  the 
woods  between  the  Tapiche  and  the  MaroBon. 
and  like  the  Jivaro  have  a  beard.  The  Pano,  who 
formerly  dwelt  in  the  territory  of  LaUguna,  but 
who  now  live  In  villages  on  the  upper  Ucayall. 
are  Christians.  .  .  .  Their  language  is  the  prin- 
cipal one  on  the  river,  and  It  is  shared  by  seven 
otlier  tribes  called  collectively  by  the  mission 
aries  Manioto  or  Mayno.  .  .  .  Within  the  woo<U 
on  tiic  right  bank  live  the  Amahuaca  and  Shu 
cava.  On  the  north  they  Join  the  Remo,  a  pow 
crful  tribe  who  are  distinguished  from  all  the 
others  by  tlie  custom  of  tattooing.  Ouisiile  this 
P,ino  linguistic  group  stand  the  Campa,  Campo, 
or  Antis  on  the  east  slope  of  the  Peruvian  Cor- 
dillera at  the  source  of  the  Rio  BenI  and  Its  tribu- 
taries. The  Clinntaquiros,  or  Piru.  now  occupy 
almost  entirely  the  bank  of  the  Ucayall  below  the 
Piu'hilia.  The  Mojos  or  Moxos  llv  e  in  the  Bk>liviaL 
province  of  Moxos  with  the  small  tribes  of  the 
Baure.  Itonama,  Pacaguaro.  A  number  of 
smaller  tribes  belonging  to  the  Antesian  f^ 
need  not  be  enumerated.  The  late  Pn,  •  - 
JaiiK-8  Orton  described  the  Indian  tribes  • 
territory  between  Quito  and  the  river  A-r 
Thc  Xapo  approach  the  type  of  the  Qi 
.  .  .  Among  all  the  Indians  of  the  ProvTn 
Orleme,  the  tribe  of  Jivani  is  one  of  the  h 
These  people  are  divided  Into  a  great  numlx 
sub-tribes.  All  of  these  siM'nk  the  clear  musicid 
Jivaro  language.  They  arc  musciihir,  aetivi- 
men.  .  .  .  Tlie  Morona  are  cannibuls  in  the  full 
sens;  of  the  word.  .  .  .  The  Campo,  still  verv 
little  known,  is  perhaps  the  liirgcst  Indian  tribe 
in  Eastern  Peru,  and,  acconllng  to  some  i!< 
related  to  the  Incn  race,  or  at  least  witli  iluir 
auccessiors  They  are  said  to  lie  cannibiiN. 
tliough  James  Ort<m  does  not  think  thl.s  possible 
.  .  .  The  nearest  neighbors  of  the  CaniiK)  are  llie 
Ciiout:ikin>.  or  Cliontaiiiilro,  or  Chonquiro,  calUii 
also  I'iru  who,  acconllng  to  Paul  Mareoy,  are 
said  (o  lie  of  tlie  same  origin  with  tlic  Campo. 


J 


86 


but  the  language  is  wholly  tlHTefeat 

the  Pano  people  are  liie  wikl  Coaibo;  they  are 


A 


iiii.'iis 


iJIERICAK  ABORIOINEa 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


the  most  interesting,  but  are  patstng  Int    '  vtinc- 
lion." — The  Statidard  Xatural   iStt  s 

Kingtley,  td.),  e  6,  pp.  237-231. 

Apaclie  Grouj).*-Under  the  general  name  of 
the  Apaches  "I  include  all  the  savage  tribes 
mamiug  through  New  Mexico,  the  north-western 
iK>rtinn   of   Texas,  a   small    part  of   northern 
Mexico,  and  Aiizona.  ,  .  ,  Uwing  to  their  rov- 
ing proclivities  and  ince!<.,ant  raids  they  are  led 
first  in  one  direction  and  then  in  another.    In 
general  terms  they  may  be  said  to  range  about 
as  follows:    The  Comanchea,  Jrtans,  or  Nauni, 
consisting  of  three  tribes,  the  Comanches  proper] 
the     Yamparaclu,    and    Tenawas,    inhabiting 
northern  Texas,  eastern  Chihuahua,  Nuevo  Leon, 
Coabuila,    Uurango,    and    portions   of    south- 
western New  Mexico,  hv  Isnguage  allied  to  the 
Shoshone  family;  the  Apaches,  who  call  them- 
selves  Shis   Inday,   or   'men    of   the   woods," 
and  whose  tribal  divisions  are  the  Cbiricaeuis, 
Coyoteros,   Faraones,    Oilefioe,    Lipanes,    flan- 
eros,  Hescaleros,  MimbreRos,  Natages,  Pelones, 
Pinalefios,    Tejuas,    Tontoa,     and     Vaqucros, 
roaming   over   New   Mexico,  Arizona,   North- 
western Texas,    Cliiliuahua   and    Sonora,    and 
who   are   allied    by    language    to    the    great 
Tinneh  family;  the  Navaios,  or  Tenual,  'men,' 
as  they  designate  themselves,  having  linguistic 
affinities  with  the  Apache  nation,  with  which 
they  are  sometimps  classed,  living  in  and  around 
the  Sierra  dc  los  Mimbres;  the  Slaves,  occupy, 
ing  both  banks  of  the  Colorado  in  Mojave  Valley ; 
the    Hualapais,   near   the  head-waters  of   Bill 
Williams  Fork ;  the  Yumas,  on  the  east  bank  of 
the  Colorado,  near  its  junction  with  the  Rio 
Olla;  the  Cosninos,  who,  like  the  Hualapais.  are 
sometimes  included  in  the  Apache  nation,  rang- 
ing tlirough  the  Mogollon  Mounuina;   and  the 
Yampais,  between  Bill  Williams  Fork  and  the 
Kio  Ilasaayampa.  .  .  .  The  Apache  country  is 
probnblv  the  most  desert  of  all.  ...  In  both 
mountam  and  desert  the  fierce,  rapacious  Apache, 
inured  from  childhixxl  to  hunger  and  thirst,  and 
heat   and   cold,    finds   safe   retreat.  .   .      The 
Pueblos  .  .  .  are  nothing  but  t/artially  reclaimed 
Apaches    or    Comanches." — H.    H.    Bancroft, 
-\<j<«'m  Rncc  of  the  Paeifie  ^taUt,  v.  t,  eh.  5~ 
Dr.  Brinton  prefers  the   name   Yuma  for  the 
whole  of  the  Apache  Group,  confining  the  name 
Apache  (that  being  the  Yuma  wold  for  "fight- 
ing men  ")  to  the  one  tribe  so  called.     "  It  has 
ulso  iK'cn  called  the  Katchan  or  Cuchan  stock. " 
■^I).  O  Brinton,   The  Amrrican  liiw,  p.  109.— 
■See,  also,  IkIow:  Athapascan  Family. 

Apalacbei.—"  Among  the  aboriginal  tribes  of 
the  United  States  perhaps  mme  is  more  enig- 
matical than  the  Apalachos.  They  arc  mentioned 
us  an  Important  nation  by  many  of  the  early 
French  and  Spanish  travellers  and  historians 
their  name  Is  preservetl  by  a  bay  and  river  on 
the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  by  the 
great  eastern  coast  range  of  mountains,  and  has 
been  applied  by  ethnologists  to  a  family  of  cog- 
nate nations  that  found  their  hunting  grounds 
from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Atlantic  and  from  the 
t)hio  river  to  the  Florida  Keys,  ypt,  strange  to 
wy,  their  own  race  and  place  have  been  but 
»:u(s(«c(l  at  "  The  derivation  of  the  name  of  the 
Apiilaches  "has  been  a  questio  vcxata'  among 
liiclisnologists."  We  must  "consider  It  an  in- 
iliratiiin  of  ancient  connections  with  the  southern 
-""'L'if "';,'""•  'n  i***"  a  pure  Caiib  wonl 
Apihch*    in   the   Tamanaca  dialect  of  the 

*8m  Mote,  Apptodix  E,  vol.  I. 


hi 


Ouaranay  stem  on  the  Orinoco  signifies  'man,' 
and  the  earliest  application  of  the  n-me  in  the 
northern  continent  was  as  the  titlj  of  the  chief 
of  a  country,    'I'hommc    par   excellence,'  and 
hence,    like    very    many   other    Indian   tribes 
(Apaches,  Lenni  Lenape,  Illinois),  his  subjecto 
assumed  by  eminence  the  proud  appellation  of 
'The   Men.'  ...  We   have  ..   .   found    that 
though  no  general  migration  took  place  from  the 
continent  southwanl,  nor  from  the  islands  north- 
ward, yet  there  was  a  considerable  intercourse 
in  both  direc;ions;  that  not  only  the  natives  of 
the  greater  and  lesser  Antilles  and  Yucatan,  but 
also   numbers  of   the    Guaranay  stem   of   the 
southern  continent,  the  Caribs  proper,  crossed 
the  Straits  of  Florida  and  founded  colonies  on 
the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;   that  their 
customs  and  language  became  to  a  certain  extent 
grafted  upon  those  of  the  early  possessors  of  the 
soil;   and  to  this  foreign   language  the  name 
Apalache  belongs.    As  previously  stated,  it  waa 
used  as  a  generic  title,  applied  to  a  confederation 
of  many  nations  at  one  time  under  the  domina- 
tion of  one  chief,   whose  power  prolnbly  ex- 
tended from  the  Alleghany  mountains  on  the 
north  to  the  shore  of  the  Gulf;  that  it  included 
tribes  speakinL'  a  tongue   cloaely  akin  to  the 
Choktah  is  evident  from  the  fragments  we  have 
remaining.  .  .  .  The   location  of  the  tribe   in 
after  yean  is  very  uncertain     Dumont  placed 
them  In  the  northern  part  of  what  is  now  Ala- 
bama and  Georgia,  near  the  mountains  that  b^r 
their  name.    That  a  portion  of  them  did  live  in 
this  vicinity  is  corroborated  by  the  historians  of 
South  Carolina,  who  say  that  Colonel  Moore,  in 
1703,  found  them  'between  the  head-watera  of 
the  Savannah  and  Altamaha. ' .  .  .  According  to 
all  the  Spanish  authorities,  on  the  other  hand, 
they  dwelt  in  the  region  of  country  between  the 
buwannee  and  Appalachicola  rivere — yet  must 
not  be  confounded  with  the  Apalachicolos.  .  . 
They  certainly  had  a  large  and  prosperous  town 
in  this  vicinity,  said  to  contain  1,000  warriors. 
...  I  am  Inclined  to  believe  that  these  were 
different  branches  of  the  same  confederacy.  .  . 
In    the   beginning  of   the    18th   century  they 
suffered  much  from  f        vastations  of  the  Eng- 
lish, French  and  Cr    .      ...  About  the  time 
Spain    regained    possess    ■x   of   the    soil,    they 
migrated  to  the  West  an    jettled  on  the  Bayou 
Rapide  of  Red  River,      here  they  had  a  village 
numbering  about   50  souls."— D.    G.   Brinton, 
Nottt  on  the  Floridian  Penineuh,  eh.  2.— See, 
also,  below :  Mcskrooean  Family. 

Apclouaai.    See  Texas:  Toe  Aboriginai,  ih- 
habitants. 
Araicu.    See  below:  Gcck  on  Coco  Gkoup. 
Arapahoet.   See  above :  Aloonquias  Famblt. 
Araucanians.    Si  c  Chile. 
Arawaks,  or  Arauacat.    See  below ;  CAKiaa 

AND  THEIR  KiNDKEU. 

Arecunas.  See  below:  Caribs  and  triib 
Kindred 

Arikarai.  See  below.  Pawnee  (Cadi>.ian) 
Family. 

Arkansas.    See  Mow :  Siocan  Family. 

Aaainiboins.    See  below:  Siof.\s  Family. 

Athapascan  Famihr.— Chippewyani.— fin- 
nah.  —  Sarcees*— "  This  name  f.\thapascans 
i-r  Athabascans]  has  been  applied  to  a  class  of 
tribes  who  are  situated  north  of  the  great 
Churchill  rtvir.  and  uorlli  of  the  source  of  the 
fork  of  the  Saskatcbawine.  extending  wettwani 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINEa 


AMERICAN  ABORIOINEa 


i: 


tni  within  about  ISO  miles  of  tiie  Fkciflo  OoMO. 
.  .  .  The  name  ii  derived,  arbitrarily,  from 
Lake  Athabasca,  which  is  now  more  generally 
called  the  Lake  of  the  Hills.  Surrounding 
this  lake  extends  the  tribe  of  the  Chippewyans, 
•  people  so-called  by  the  Kcnistenos  and  Chip- 
pewas,  because  they' were  found  to  be  clothed, 
In  some  primary  encounter,  in  the  scanty  garb 
of  the  fisher's  skin.  .  .  .  We  ace  informed  by 
Mackenzie  that  the  territory  occupied  by  the 
Chippi'wyans  extends  between  the  parallels 
«f  6U^  and  65°  north  and  longitudes  from 
100°  to  110°  west"  — H.  R.  Schoolcraft,  In- 
ftrmation  Bttptcting  tKt  Indian  Triba,  pt.  5, 
p.  172.— "The  Tinneh  may  be  divided  into  four 
great  families  of  nations .  namely,  the  Chippe- 
wyans, or  Alliabascas,  living  between  Hudson 
Bay  and  the  Rocky  Mountains;  the  TacuUies,  or 
Carriers,  of  New  Caledonia  or  North-western 
British  America;  the  Kutchins,  occupying  both 
banks  of  the  Upper  Yukon  and  its  tributaries, 
from  near  its  mouth  to  the  Mackenzie  River,  and 
the  Keiul,  inhabitingthe  interior  from  the  lower 
Yukon  to  Copper  River." — H.  H.  Bancroft, 
The  Amative  Saeet  of  the  POeifie  Statet,  A.  3.— 
"  The  Indian  tribes  of  Alaska  and  the  adjacent 
region  may  be  divided  Into  two  groups  .  .  .  :  1. 
Tinneh  —  ChippewyaLS  of  authors.  .  .  ,  Fathi  r 
Fetitot  discusses  the  terms  Athabaskans,  Chip- 
pewayans,  Montagnais,  and  Tinneh  as  applied 
to  this  group  of  Indians.  .  ,  .  This  great  family 
includes  a  large  number  of  American  tribes  ex- 
tending from  near  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie 
south  to  the  borders  of  Mexico.  The  Apaches 
and  Na"<jos  lielong  to  it,  and  the  family  seems 
to  Intel  !>^ct  the  continent  of  North  America  in  a 
northerly  and  southerly  direc  m,  principally 
along  the  Hanks  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  designation  [Tinneh]  proposed  by  Messrs. 
Ross  and  Gibbs  has  been  accepted  by  most 
modem  ethnologists.  ...  3.  T'iinkets,"  which 
family  includes  thu  Yakutats  and  other  groups. 
— W.'n.  Doll,  Tribe*  of  the  Extreme  A'orthaett 
{Omtritnitiont  to  N.  Am.  Ethnology,  v.  1).  — 
"Wherever  found,  the  members  of  this  group 
present  a  certain  family  resemblance.  In  ap- 
pearance they  are  tall  and  tstrong,  the  forehead 
low  with  prominent  superciliary  ridges,  the  eyes 
slightlv  oblique,  the  nose  prominent  but  wide 
toward  the  base,  the  mouth  large,  the  bands  and 
feet  small.  Their  strength  ami  endurance  are 
often  phenomenal,  but  in  the  North,  at  least, 
their  longevity  is  slight,  few  living  beyond  fifty. 
Intellectually  they  rank  bclnw  most  of  tlicir 
neighbors,  and  nowhere  do  they  appear  as  fos- 
terera  of  the  germs  of  civilizutidn.  Where,  as 
among  the  Navajos,  we  find  tliiiii  having  some 
repute  for  the  mechanical  arts,  it  turns  out  that 
this  is  owing  to  having  captured  and  adopted  the 
memben of  more  gif ted  tribes.  .  .  ,  Agriculture 
was  not  practised  either  in  the  north  or  south, 
the  onlv  exception  being  the  Nuvajos,  and  with 
them  the  inspiration  came  from  other  stocks. 
.  .  .  The  most  cultured  of  their  bands  were  the 
Navajos,  whose  name  is  said  to  signify  'largo 
cornfields,'  from  their  extensive  agriculture. 
When  the  Spaniards  first  met  them  In  1541  they 
were  tillers  of  the  soil,  erected  large  granaries  for 
their  crops,  irrigated  their  fields  by  artificial 
water  courses  or  acequias,  and  lived  In  substan- 
tial dwellings,  partly  underground ;  but  they  bad 
not  then  learned  the  art  of  weaving  the  cele- 
brated  'Itavajo  blankeu,'  that  being  a   later 


acqnlaltkm  of  their  a.nlsana.'—D.  O.  Brinton 
The  Ameriean  Baee,  pp.  09- 73, — Bee,  aboT« 
Apachi  Oboup,  and  Blackfeet. 

Attinaa  (Caddoea).*  Sec  below:  Blacxfbbt. 

Attacapan  Pamilj — "  I>erivation:  From  a 
Choctaw  word  meaning  '  man  eater.'  Little  is 
known  of  the  tribe,  the  laLguage  of  which  forms 
the  lusis  of  the  present  family.  The  sole  know- 
ledge posaeaaed  by  Oallatin  was  derived  from  a 
vocabulary  and  some  scanty  information  fur- 
nished by  Dr.  John  Sibley,  who  collected  his  ma- 
terial In  the  vcrr  1805.  Oallatm  states  that  the 
tribe  was  reauccd  to  50  men.  .  .  .  Mr.  Oatscbet 
collected  some  3,000  wonis  and  a  considerable 
body  of  text  Ills  vocabulary  diffen  consider- 
ably from  the  one  fumislied  by  Dr.  Sibley  and 
published  by  Gallatin  .  .  .  ITie  above  material 
seems  to  show  tlmt  the  Attanipa  language  is  dis- 
tinct from  ill  others,  except  possibly  the  Chiti- 
macban." — J.  W.  Powell,  Seventh  Annual  Bipart, 
Bureau  of  Ethnolom,  p  57. 

Aymaras.    See  Fbbu. 

Astcca.  See  belcw:  Matas;  also  Mbxico: 
A.  D.  183S-1603 ;  and  Aztec  and  Mata  Pictcbb 
Wbitiso. 

Bakairi.    See  below:  CABraa, 

Balehitaa.    See  l>elow:  Pampas  Tribb8. 

Bannacka.   See  below :  SHoenoNBANFAini.T. 

Barbndo.    See  above:  Amdesians. 

Bar^    See  below    Oitk  or  Coco  Gbodp. 

Banre.    See  above:  Anoebians. 

Beothnkan  Family.— The  Beothuk  were  a 
tribe,  now  extinct,  which  is  believed  to  have 
occupied  the  whole  of  Newfoundland  at  the  time 
of  its  discovery.  What  is  known  of  the  language 
of  the  Beothuk  Indicates  no  relationship  to  anv 
other  American  tongue  — J.  W.  Powell,  Setenih 
Annual  Bept.  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  p.  67. 

Bilozia.    See  below :  Sioi'an  Family. 

Blackfeet,  or  Siksikas.—'  The  tribe  that  wan- 
C  'red  the  furthest  fn>m  tbe  primitive  home  of  the 
stock  [the  Algonquian]  were  the  Blackfeet,  or 
Sisika,  which  word  bAS  this  signification.  It  is 
derived  from  their  earlier  habitat  In  the  valley  of 
the  Red  river  of  the  north,  where  the  soil  was 
dark  and  blackened  their  moccasins.  Thoir 
bands  include  the  Blood  or  Kenai  and  the  Piegau 
Indians.  Half  a  century  apo  they  were  at  the 
head  of  a  confederacy  wLich  embraced  these  ami 
also  the  Sarceo  (Tinnc)  and  the  Atsina  (CadiUi* 
nations,  and  numbered  about  30.000  souls.  They 
have  an  interestim-  mythology  and  on  unusiiaj 
knowledge  of  the  ■  tellat  ions  "— D.  G.  Brin- 
ton, The  Amerieai.  ,taei.  p.  79 — See  above: 
ALOONquiAN  Family;  and,  below:  Flatueadh. 

Blood, or  Kenai  Indians.  See  above:  Buuk- 
feet. 

Botocudoa.    See  below:  Tupi — Oumiasi.— 

TUPUYAS. 

Brule'.    8<T  l)olow;  SiorAX  Family. 

Caddoan  Family.  Sec  below.  I'awmee  (Cah 
doan)  Family;  see,  also,  Tex.vs:  Tiie  Anohiu- 
inal  Iniiabitahts. 

Cakchiquela.  See  below:  Quicmcs,  and 
Mayas. 

Caluaa.    See  below:  TcMfQu.-.sA.N  Family. 

Cambaa,  or  Campo,  cr  Campa.  See  iib,<vu: 
Andesians;  also,  Bolivia:  Aboktoinal  In- 
habit arts. 

CaHaret.    See  Ecdaoob. 

Canaa.    See  Peru. 

Canichanaa.    See  Bolivia:  ABcnianiy^L  lit- 

BABITAHTS 


*Sct  Note,  Appendix  E,  vol.  I, 


£8 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES 


AHERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


CaaiencM.    See  below:    Iroquois  CoKno- 

■BACT. 

CarUy.    See  below:  Guck  or  Coco  Grocp. 

CarilM  and  their  Kindred. — "The  warlike 
and  unyielding  character  of  thewi  people,  lo 
different  from  that  of.  the  pniiUanimoug  natlona 
around  them,  and  the  wide  acope  of  their  enter- 
prise! and  ^^  andcrincs,  like  those  of  the  nomad 
tribe*  of  the  Old  World,  entitle  them  to  dis- 
tinguished attention.  .  .  .  The  traditional  ac- 
.counta  of  their  origin,  though  of  course  extremely 

i vague,  are  yet  capable  of   being  verifled  to  a 
great  degree  by  geographical  fact^  and  open  one 
of  the  rich  veins  of  curious  inquiry  and  specula- 
tion which  abound  in  the  New  World.      They 
are  wid  (o  have  migrated  from  the  remote  valleys 
cmbosomr-'i  in  the  Apalachian  mountains.    The 
earliest  u   mntc  we  oave  of  them  represent  them 
with  wea,)ons    >n  their  bands,  continually  en- 
gaged in  warn,   winning  their  way  and  shift- 
ing their  abode,  until,  in  the  course  of  time,  they 
found  themselves  at  the  extremity  of  Florida. 
Hete,   aljandonlng  the  northern  continent,  they 
passed  over  to  uie    Lucayos    [Bahamas],  end 
thence  gradually,  in  the  process  of  years,  from 
island  to  island  of  that  vast  verdant  chain,  which 
linlcs,  as  it  were,  the  end  of  Florida  to  the  coast 
of  Paria,  on  the  southern  continent    The  archi- 
pelago extending   from  Porto  Hico  to  Tobago 
was  their  stronghold,  and  the  island  of  Guada- 
loupe  in  a  manner  their  citadel.      Hence  they 
made  their  expeditions,  and  spread  the  terror  of 
their  name  through  all  the  surrounding  countries. 
Swarms  of  them  landed  upon  the  southern  con- 
tinent, and  overran  some  parts  of  terra  flrma. 
Traces  of  them  have  been  discovered  far  in  the 
interior  of  that  vast  country  through  which  flows 
ithe  OrooBoko.     The  Dutch  found  colonies   of 
them  on  the  banks  of  the  Ikouteka,  which  emp- 
ties into  the  Surinam;  along  the  Esquibi,   the 
Haroni,  and  other  rivers  of  Ouayana;  and  in  the 
country  watered  by  the  windings  of  the  Cay- 
enne "— W  Irving,  Life  and  Voyage*  of  Ootum- 
but,  bk  t,  e/f.  8(5  1).— "To  this  account  [sub- 
stantially as  given  above]  of  the  origin  of  the 
Insular  Charaibes,  the  generality  of  historians 
have  given  their  assent;  but  there  are  doubts 
attcndmg  it  that  ar^  not  easilv  solved.    If  they 
migrated  from  Florida,  the  imperfect  state  and 
natural  course  of  their  navagation  induce  a  be- 
lief that  traces  of  them  would  have  been  found 
on  those  islands  which  arc  near  to  the  Florida 
shore;  yet  the  natives  of  the  Baliamas,  when  dis- 
covered by  Columbus,  were  evidently  a  simiUr 
people   to  those  of  Higpaniolo.    Besides,   it  is 
suMcientiy  known  that  there  existed  anciently 
many  numerous  and  powerful  tribes  of  Charaibes 
on  the  southern  peninsula,  extending  from  the 
river  Oronoko  to  Esaequebe,  and  throughout  the 
whole  province  of  Surinam,  even  to  Brazil,  some 
of  which  still  maintain  their  independency.  .  ,  . 
I  incline  therefore  to  the  opinion  of  Martyr,  and 
conclude  that  the  islanders  were  rather  a  colony 
from  the  Charaibes  of  South  America,  than  from 
any  nation  of  the  North.     Rochcfort  admits  that 
their  own  traditions  referred  constantly  to  Gui- 
ana."—B  Edwards,  Jlitt.  ofBrit.  OaUmietin  the 
W.IiuHtt.bk.  1,  eh.  2.— "The  Carabisce,  Cara- 
oeeal,  Charaibes,  Caribs,  or  GoUbls,  originally 
occ  ^led  [In  Ouianal  the  principal  riverj,  but  as 
th"    Jutch  encroached  upon   their  possessions 
they  r.nired  Inlftnci,  and  arp  now  dally  dwind- 
ling away      Aceordtng  to  Mr   BiUhoute,  they 


89 


could  formerly  muster  nearly  1,000  lighting  men, 
but  are  now  [1885]  scarcely  able  to  raise  a  tenth 
part  of  that  number.  .  .  .  The  smaller  islands 
of  the  Caribbean   Sea  were   formerly  thickly 
populated  by  this  tribe,  but  now  not  a  trace  of 
them  remalna"— H.  G.  Dalton,  Iliet.  of  Britith 
Ouiarta,  e.  1,  eh.  1.  — E.  F.  im  Thiiru,  Among 
ths  Jndiant  of  Guiana,  eh.  6.  —  "Recent   re- 
searches have  shown  that  the  original  home  of 
the  stock  was  south  of  the  Amazon,  and  prob- 
ably in  the  highlands  at  the  head  of  the  Tapajoi 
river.     A  tribe,   the  Bakairi,  is  still  residsnt 
there,   whose  language  is  a  purs  and  archaic 
form  of  the  Carib  tongue."— D.  G.  Brinton,  So- 
eee  ami  IVopkt,  p.  888.       '  Related  to  the  Cariha 
sund  a  long  list  of  small  tribes  ...  all  inhabit- 
ants of  the  great  primeval  forest  In  and  near 
Guiara.    They  may  have  characteristic  differen- 
ces, but  none  worthy  of  mention  are  known.    In 
bodily  appearance,  according  to  ah    accounts 
these  relatives  of  the  Caribs  are  beautiful    In 
Georgetown  the  Arauacas  [or  Arawaks]  are  cele- 
brated for  their  beauty.    They  are  slender  and 
graceful,  and  their  features  handsome  and  regu- 
lar, the  face  havine  a  Grecian  profile,  aD,"  the 
skin  being  of  a  reddish  cast.    A  little  farther  in- 
land we  find  the  Macusbi  [or  MacusisJ,  with  a 
lighter  complexion  and  a  Roman  nose.    These 
two  types  are  repeated  In  other  tribes,  except  in 
the  Tarumi,  who  a.-e  decidedly  ugly.    In  mental 
characteristics  great  similarity  prevails. "— TA* 
Standard  Natural  Hittory  (J.  8.  Kingtley,  ed.),p. 
837. — "  The  Arawaks  occupied  on  the  continent 
the  area  of  the  modem  Guiana,   between  the 
Corentyn  and  the  .?omeroon  rivers,  and  at  one 
time  all  the  West  Indian  Islands.    From  some  of 
them  they  were  eariy  driven  by  the  Caribs,  and 
withia  40  years  of  the  date  of  Columbus'  first 
voyage  the  Spanish  had  exterminated  nearly  all 
on  the  Islands.    Their  course  of  migration  had 
been  from  the  Interior  of  Brazil  northward ;  their 
distant  relations  are  still  to  be  found  between  the 
headwaters  of  the  Paraguay  and  Schingu  rivers." 
— D.  G.  Brinton,  Saeee  and  Peopla,  p.  268-269.— 
"The  Kipohn  (Acawoios,  Waikas,   &c.)  claim 
kindred  with  the  Caribs.  .  .  .  The  Acawolos, 
though  resolute  and  determined,  are  less  hasty 
and  impetuous  than  the  Caribs.  .  .      According 
to  their  tradition,  one  of  their  hordes  removed 
[to  the  Upper  Demerera]  .  .  .  from  the  Masa- 
runi.    The  Parawianas,  who  originally  dwelt  on 
the  Demerera,  having  been  exterminated  by  the 
continual  Incursions  of  the  Caribs,  the  Waika- 
Acawoios  occupied  their  vacant  territory.  .  .  . 
The  Macusis  ...  are  supposed  by  some  "to  have 
formerly  inhabited  the  banks  of   the    Orinoco. 
.  .  .  As  they  are  industrious  ..ndunwarlike,  thev 
have  been  the  prey  of  every  savage  tribe  arounil 
them.     The  Wapisiana?  are  supposed  to  have 
driven  them  northwanl  and  taken  possession  of 
their  country.    The  Brazilians,  as  well  as  the 
Cari.is,  Acaivoios,  &c.,  have  long  beeti  in  the 
habit   tt  enslaving  them.  .   .   .   The  Arecunas 
have   oeen  accustomed    to    descend    from    the 
higher  lands  and  atUck  the  Macusis.  .  .  .  This 
tribe  is  said  to  have  formerly  dw;lt  on  the  banks 
of  the  Uaupes  or  Ucayari.  a  tributary  of  the  Hio 
Negro      .      The  Waraus  appear  to  have  been 
the  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  land     Very 
little,  however,  can  be  gleaned  from  them  re- 
specting their  early  history.  .  .  .  TbjTivitivoi 
mentioned  by  R  Icigh,  were  prcbab./  a  branch 
of  the  Waraua,  whom  he  calls  Quarawetea,"— 


«# 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


AMERICAN  ABORIQINEa 


\f.  (I.  Brett,  Indian  TrOet  of  Ouiana,  pt.  2,  eh. 
13. 

Caripuna.   S«!  below:  OrrK  or  Coco  Oiiorp. 

Cat  Nation,  or  Eriei.  S«e  below:  Hurons, 
&c.,  ami  lHo<ji-oi8  Cokteoeract:  Tbrih  Con- 
qi:est».  iSc. 

Catawbat,  or  Kataba.  See  below:  Siocak 
Family;  also,  Timi'iil-asaii. 

Cayusai.  See  below:  iRoqcoiB  CoiirEDEE- 
act. 

Chancat.    See  Perc. 

Chapas,  or  Chapaaeca.    dee  below:  Zapo- 

TEC«,  KTC. 

Cherokeet.— "The  Cherokee  tribe  hu  long 
been  a  puzzling  factor  to  studenti  of  ethnolosy 
and  North  American  languages.  Whether  tobe 
considered  an  abnormal  olbhoot  from  one  of  the 
well-known  Indian  Btocks  or  families  of  North 
America,  or  the  remnant  of  some  undetermined 
or  almost  extinct  family  which  has  merged  into 
another,  appear  to  be  questions  yet  unsettled. " 
— C.  Thomas,  Bttrial  ifoundi  <^  IA»  Northern  See- 
tiont  of  the  U.  8.  {f\/th  Annual  Sept.  of  the 
Bnreau  of  Bthnotogy,  1883-4).— FacU  which 
tend  to  identify  the  Clierokees  with  the  ancient 
"mound-builders"  of  the  Ohio  Valley— the  Al- 
leghans  or  Talligewl  of  Indian  traaition — are 
set  forth  by  Prof.  Thomas  In  a  later  paper,  on 
the  Problem  of  th'  Ohio  Mounds,  publisiied  by 
the  Bureau  of  Etbnologi'  in  1889  [see  above: 
AlleqiunsI  and  in  a  Ifttle  book  published  in 
1890,  entitled  "The  Cherokees  in  Pre-Columbian 
Times."  "The  Cherokee  nation  has  probably 
occupied  a  more  prominent  place  In  the  affain 
and  history  of  what  is  now  the  United  States  of 
America,  since  the  date  of  the  early  European 
settlement!),  than  any  other  tribe,  nation,  or  con- 
federacy of  Indians,  unless  it  be  possible  to  ex- 
cept the  powerful  and  warlike  league  of  the 
Iroquois  or  Six  Nations  of  New  York.  It  is  al- 
most certain  tliat  they  were  visited  at  a  very 
early  period  [1510]  following  the  discovery  of  the 
American  continent  by  that  daring  and  enthusi- 
astic Spaniard,  Fernando  de  Soto.  ,  .  .  At  the 
time  of  the  English  settlement  of  the  Carolinas 
the  Cherokees  occupied  a  diversified  and  well- 
watered  region  of  country  of  large  extent  upon 
the  waters  of  the  Catawba,  Broul,  Saluda,  Keo- 
wee,  Tugalco,  Savannah,  and  Coosa  rivers  on 
the  east  and  south,  and  several  tributaries  o'.  the 
Tennessee  ou  the  north  and  west.  ...  In  sub- 
sequent years,  through  frequent  and  long  con- 
tinued cuntlicts  with  the  ever  advancing  white 
settlements,  and  the  successive  treaties  whereby 
the  Cheroliccs  gradually  yielded  portions  of  the?r 
domain,  the  location  and  names  of  their  towns 
were  coDtiuually  changing  until  the  llnal  removal 
of  the  nation  [r836-1839]  west  of  the  Mississippi. 
.  .  .  This  removal  turned  the  Cherokees  back  in 
the  calendar  of  progress  and  civilization  at  least 
a  quarter  of  a  century.  The  hardships  and  ex- 
posures of  the  journey,  coupled  with  the  fevers 
and  malaria  of  a  radically  different  climate,  cost 
the  lives  of  perhaps  10  per  cent,  of  their  total 
populalior  T'"!  animosities  and  turbulence 
born  of  i:i<> '  of  1835  not  only  occasioned 

the  loM  of .  ll\es,  but  rendered  property  in- 

secure, and  in  consequence  diminished  the  zeal 
and  industry  of  tlic  entire  community  in  its  ac- 
cumuluiion  A  brief  period  of  comparative 
quiet,  however,  was  again  characterized  by  an 
advance  towanl  a  higher  civilization.  Five 
years  after  tlieir  removal  wa  find  from  the  re- 


port of  their  agent  that  they  are  again  on  the 
increase  in  population.  .  .  .  With  the  exception 
of  occasional  drawbacks — the  n^sult  of  civil 
feuds  —  the  proeresfc  of  the  nation  In  education, 
industry  and  civilization  continued  until  the 
outbreak  of  the  rebellioiv  At  this  period,  from 
the  l>est  attainaole  information,  the  Cherokees 
nu.nbered  21,000  souls.  The  events  of  the  war 
brought  to  them  more  of  desolation  and  ruin 
than  'perhr.ps  to  any  other  community.  Raided 
and  sacked  altematel;*.  not  only  by  the  Confed- 
erates and  t'nion  forces,  but  by  the  vindictiv* 
ferocity  and  hate  of  their  own  factional  divis- 
ions, their  country  became  a  blackened  and  deso- 
kkte  waste.  .  .  .  The  war  over,  and  the  \  ork  of 
reconstruction  commenced,  found  them  number- 
ing 14,000  impoverished,  heart-broken,  aud 
revengeful  people.  .  .  .  To-day  their  country  is 
more  prosperous  than  ever.  They  number 
22,000,  a  greater  population  thaii  they  have  had 
at  any  previous  period,  except  perhaps  Just 
prior  to  the  date  of  the  treaty  of  1880,  when 
those  east  added  to  those  west  of  the  Mississippi 
are  stated  to  have  aggregated  nearly  28,000  peo- 
ple. To-day  they  have  8,800  scholars  attend- 
ing 75  schools,  established  and  supported  by 
themselves  at  an  annual  expense  to  the  nation  of 
nearly  *100,000.  To-day,  18,000  of  their  people 
can  read  and  18,000  can  speak  the  Eng- 
lish language.  To-day,  5,000  brick,  frame  and 
log-houses  are  occupied  by  them,  and  they  have 
64  churches  with  a  membership  of  several  thou- 
sand. They  cultivate  100,000  acres  of  land  and 
have  an  additional  180,000  fenced.  .  .  .  They 
have  a  constitutional  form  of  government  predl 
cated  upon  that  of  the  United  States.  As  a  rule 
their  laws  are  wise  and  beneficent  and  arc  en- 
forced with  strictness  and  iustice.  .  .  .  The 
present  Cherokee  population  is  of  a  composite 
character.  Remnants  of  other  nations  or  trilies 
[Delawares,  Shawnees,  Creeks,  Natchez]  have 
from  time  to  time  been  absorbed  and  admitted  to 
full  participation  in  the  bemflts  of  Cherokee  citi- 
zenship."— C.  C.  Boyce,  The  Cherokee  Nation  iff 
Indian*  (Fifth  Annual  Kept,  of  'he  Bureau  if 
Ethnology,  1883-84).— This  eUborate  paper  by 
Mr.  Boyce  is  a  narrative  in  detail  of  the  official 
relations  of  the  Cherokees  with  the  colonial  and 
federal  governments,  from  their  first  treaty  with 
South  Carolina,  in  1721,  down  to  the  treaty  of 
April  27,  1868  — "  As  eariy  as  1798  Barton  com- 

fiared  the  Cheroki  language  with  that  of  the 
roquois  and  stated  his  belief  that  there  was  a 
connection  between  tliom.  .  .  .  Mr.  Pale  was 
the  first  to  give  formal  expression  to  his  belief  in 
the  atflnity  of  the  Cheroki  to  Iroquois.  Recently 
extensive  Cheroki  vocabularies  nave  come  into 
possession  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  and  a 
careful  comparison  of  them  with  ample  Iroquois 
material  has  been  made  by  Mr  Hewitt  'ihe  re- 
sult is  convincing  proof  of  the  relationship  of 
the  two  langu-ges.^  — J.  W.  Powell,  Seunth  An- 
nual Sept.  of  the  Bureau  of  Sthnotogg,  p.  77.* 

Also  ik  S.  O.  Drake,  The  Aboriginal  Bout  of 
N.  Am.,  bk.  4,  eh.  13-16  —  See,  above :  Alle 
ubans. —  See,  also,  for  an  accoimt  of  the  Che 
rokee  War  of  1759-1*61,  Soctk  Carolina:  A.  D 
1759-1761;  and  for  "Lord  iiinmores  War," 
Ohio  iVai  LET).  A   D  1774. 

Cheyennes,  or  Sheyennct.    See  above-   At- 
ooNqiiAN  Familt 

Chibchaa.—  The  moat  northerly  group  of  the 
tribes  of  tb«  Andes  "are  the  CundinamsKa  of 


•8«*  Note,  Appendix  E,  vol.  t. 


90 


AMERICAN  ABOKIQIHEa 


AMERICAN  ABOMGINES. 


the  table  lands  of  Bogota.  At  the  time  of  the 
conquest  the  watershed  of  the  Magdalena  was 
occupied  by  the  Chlbcha,  or,  as  they  were  called 
T  the  S'Ntniards,  Muyscas.  At  that  time  the 
vhlbcha  were  the  most  powerful  of  all  the 
autochthonous  tribes,  hod  a  long  historr  behind 
them,  were  well  advanced  toward  civilization, 
to  which  numerous  antiquities  txiar  witness. 
The  Chibcha  of  to-day  no  longer  ^Kik  the  well- 
developed  and  musical  htnguat:  uf  their  fore- 
fathers. It  became  extinct  about  1780,  and  It 
can  now  only  be  inferred  from  existing  dialects 
of  it;  these  are  the  languages  of  the  Turiero,  a 
tribe  dwelling  north  of  Bogota,  and  of  the  Itoco 
Indians  who  live  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
celebrated  Emerald  mines  of  Muzo." —  Tht  Stan- 
dard Natural  HMory  (J.  8.  Kingtky,  ed.)  e.  6,  p. 
215.— "As  potters  acd  goldsmiths  they  [the 
Chibchalranlied  among  the  finest  on  the  conti- 
nent"—D.  O.  Brlnton,  Jiaea  and  Ptaplu,  p  172. 
—See,  also,  CouMfBiAK  States:  A.  D  i36- 
1781. 

Chicaaaa.  See  below  :Hc8kbooea».  ult; 
also,  LodisiAHA:  A.  D.  1719-1750. 
Chichimecs.  See  Mexico:  A.  D.  l).^:.-160a. 
Cbimakuan  Family. — "The  Chimakum  are 
said  to  have  been  formerly  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  powerful  tribes  of  Puget  Sound.  Their 
warlilie  habits  early  tended  to  diminish  their  num- 
bers, and  when  visited  by  Uibbs  in  1854  they 
counte'  only  about  70  individuals.  This  sniiili 
remnti  i  '  cupied  some  15  small  lodges  on  Port 
Townsi.TiBay."— J.  W.  Powell,  SextUh  Annual 
Report,  Bureau  of  Ethndogy,  p.  62. 

Chimarikao  Family.— "According  to  Powers, 
this  family  was  represented,  so  far  as  linown,  by 
two  tribes  In  California,  one  the  Chi-m&l-a-kwe, 
lirtng  on  New  Kiver,  a  branch  of  the  Trinity, 
the  other  the  Cliimariko,  residing  upon  the  Trin- 
ity Itself  from  Burnt  Ranch  up  to  the  muuth  of 
North  Fork,  California.  The  two  tribes  are  said 
to  have  been  as  numerous  formerly  as  tlie  Uupa, 
by  whom  they  were  overcome  and  nearly  exter- 
minated. Upon  the  arrival  of  the  Americans 
only  25  of  the  Chimalakwe  were  left."— J.  W. 
Powell,  Seventh  Annual  Seport,  Bureau  of  Eth- 
notugy.  p.  63. 
Chioantecs.  See  below:  Z.vpotkcs,  etc. 
Chinookan  Family.—"  The  banks  of  the  Col- 
um  )iH,  from  the  Oi  -.nd  Dalles .  •■'  mouth,  belong 
to  the  two  branches  of  the  Tsiuai,  [or  Chinook] 
nation,  which  meet  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Kowlitz  River,  and  of  which  an  almost  nominal 
remnant  is  left.  .  .  .  Tlie  position  of 'hi  Tsinrk 
previous  to  their  depopulation  w.a,  ijs  at  >,ui'e 
appears,  most  important,  occupying  bo.  i. .  id";i  of 
the  great  artery  of  Oregon  for  a  dista..  ■  f  200 
miles,  they  possessed  t'  -^ncip!*!  then  :.i.'irt 
between  tlie  interior  %.<  i  e  ofean,  boii'.lless 
resources  of  provisions  c  juskinds,  and  iacil- 

itics  for  trade  almost  unequalled  on  tht  Paci- 
fic."—G.  Oilibs,  Tribe*  of  Wett  Waahington  and 
y.  W.  OreqimiCmtrib.  to  .V.  A.  EthruAogy,  v.  1), 
p.  164.— See,  also,  below;  Platbeads. 

Chippewas.  See  Ixlow:  Ujihwas;  and 
alwvc:    ALiioNijt'iAN  Family. 

Chippewyans,  See  below  :  Atrapascam 
Family. 

Choctaws.    See  below;  Mi-skhooeak  Pahilt. 

Chontals  and  Popolocas.—"  According  to 
the  ccn»ua  r)f  1880  there  were  31. (MK)  Indians  in 
Mexico  Iwlonxlug  to  IU«  iamilia  Cbontal.  No 
•uch  family  ezista.    The  word  cbonulll '  in  the 


NahuatI  language  means  simply  'stranger,' ano 
was  applied  by  the  Nahuas  to  any  people  other 
than  their  own.  According  to  the  .Mexican 
statistics,  the  Chontals  are  found  in  the  states  of 
Mexico,  Puebia,  Oaxaca,  Guerrero,  Tabasco, 
Guatemala  and  Nicarasua.  A  siniiliar  terra  is 
'popoloca,'  which  in  NahuatI  means  a  coarse 
fellow,  one  speaking  badly,  that  is,  broken 
NahuatI.  The  P'  poiocas  have  also  been  •  rected 
Into  an  ethnic  c  :ity  by  some  ethnog' iphers, 
with  as  little  lustice  us  the  Chontaliis.  They 
are  stated  to  have  lived  in  the  provincea  of 
Puebia,  Oaxaca,  Vera  Cruz,  Mechoacan  and 
Guatemala."— D.  G.  Brinton,  Tht  American 
Saee.  pp.  14i  1-158. 
Cbontaqntro*.  See  above:  Andesians. 
Chumasnaii  Family. —  "Derivation:  From 
Chumash,  the  name  of  the  danta  Rosa  Islanders. 
The  several  dialects  of  this  family  have  long 
been  known  under  the  group  or  family  name, 
'Santa  Barbara,'  which  seems  first  to  have  been 
used  in  a  comprehensive  sense  by  Lat^iam  in 
1856.  who  Included  under  it  three  languages,  viz. : 
Santa  Barbara,  Santa  Inez,  >  n  '  uj  Liuis  Obispo. 
The  term  has  no  special  r  -jce  as  a  family 

designation,  except  from  ^-  lut  the  Santa 
Barbara  Mission,  arounc  •'  o  one  of  the  dia- 
lects of  the  family  was  sj.  .s  perhaps  more 
widely  known  than  any  o.  ..tie  others. "— J.  W. 
Powell,  Seventh  AnnucU  Bepoit,  Bureau  of  Bth- 
nology.  p.  67. 
ClifMweller*.  SecAxEKicA:  Prehistoric. 
Coahuiltecjui  Family.— "  Derivation:  From 
the  name  of  the  Mexican  State  Coahuila.  This 
family  appears  to  have  inclu  Jed  numerous  tribes 
in  southwestern  Texas  and  in  Mexico.  ...  A 
few  Indians  still  survive  who  speak  one  of  the 
dialecto  of  thii  family,  and  in  1886  Mr.  Oatschet 
collected  vocabularies  of  two  tribes,  the  Come- 
crudo  and  Cotoname,  who  live  on  the  Rio  Grande, 
at  Las  Prietas,  State  of  Tamaulipas."- J.  W. 
Powell,  SetetUh  Annual  JSept.,  Bureau  tf  Eth- 
nology, p.  68. 

Coujiro,  or  Giuijira "An  exceptional  posi- 
tion is  taken,  in  many  respects,  by  the  Coajiro, 
or  Guajira,  who  live  on  the  peninsula  of  the 
same  name  on  the  northwestern  boundary  of 
Venezuela.    Bounded  on  all  sides  by  so-called 
ivilized  peoples,  this  Indian  xribe  is  known  to 
■    ve     .aiutained  its  independcpce,  and  acquired 
Well-deserved  reputation  for  cruelty,  a  tribe 
ich,  in  many  respects,  can  be  classed  with  the 
.  iclies  and  Comanches   of  New  Mexico,    the 
Araucanians  of  Chili,  and  the  Quaycara  and 
Guarani  on  the  Parana.    The  Coajiro  are  nostly 
large,    with    chestnut-brown    comp.ezion   and 
black,  sleek  hair.      While  all   the  other    coast 
tribes  have  adopted  the  Spanish  language,  the 
Coajiro  have  preserved  their  own  speech.     "They 
are  the  especial  foes  of  the  other  peoples.     No 
one  is  given  entrance  into  their  land,  and  they 
live  with  their  neighbors,  the  Venezuelans,  in 
constant    hostilities.    They    have    fine   horses^ 
which  they  know  how  to  ride  excellently.  .  .  . 
They  have  numerous  herds  of  cattle.  .  .  .  "They 
follow  agriculture  a  little."— TAc  Standard  A'at- 
ural  Hitlory  (J.  S.  KingiUy,  ed.),  t.  8,  p.  843. 
Cochibo.    See  above;  Andesians. 
Cochiquima.    See  above;  Andesians. 
Coco  Group.     See   below;  Guck   oh    Coco 
Gbocp. 
Coconoons.    See  below :  Mariposam  Famili 
Co£ui.    See  abore:  AHDBaiANa 


91 


AMERICAK  ABOKIOINES. 


AMKRICAN  ABORIGdEa 


CoUm.    See  Pmv. 

Comuiehes.  See  below:  Shosbohkak  Fak- 
n.T,  and  KioWAK  Familt;  and  above:  Apachb 
Groui. 

Conestogu.    See  below:  ScxjincHAiniAS. 

Conibo.    See  above;  ANDESiAiiit. 

ConoT*.    See  above:  ALOONqiiiAN  Family. 

Copenan  Familj.— ' '  The  territory  of  the  Copfl- 
ban  familv  Is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Mount 
SbasU  and  the  territory  of  the  Saateon  and  Lutu- 
amian  familici,  on  the  east  by  thi>  *:.rritory  of 
the  PalaihnihsD,  Yanan,  and  F^u'  ^unan  families, 
ami  on  the  south  by  the  bays  of  San  Pablo  and 
Suisun  and  tlie  lower  waters  of  the  Sacramento." 
— J.  W.  Powell.  Seeenth  Annual  Bept,  Burma  ef 
Ethitotngy.  p.  69. 

Coatanoan  Family. — "Derivation:  From  the 
Spanish  costano,  '  coast-men. '  Under  this  group 
name  Latham  included  five  tribes  .  .  .  which 
were  under  the  supcrrision  of  the  Blission  Dolores. 
.  .  .  The  terriu.ry  of  the  Costanoan  family  ex- 
tends from  the  Golden  Gate  to  a  point  near  the 
southern  end  of  Monterey  Bay.  .  .  .  The  surviv- 
ing Indians  of  the  once  populous  tribes  of  this 
family  are  now  scattered  over  several  counties 
and  probably  do  not  number,  all  told,  over  80 
indivjduaU.  as  was  ascertained  by  Mr.  Henshaw 
in  1H88.  Must  of  these  arc  to  be  found  near  the 
towns  of  8anta  Cruz  and  Monterey."— J.  W. 
Powell,  Setxnih  Annual  Sept.,  Bureau  of  Eth- 
not'xjy.  p.  71 . 

v'.reek  CoBfcderacy,— Crack  War*.  See 
below:  McsKHOoEAif  Familt:  also  United 
States  op  Am.  :  A.  D.  1818-1814  (AcoutT— 
April):  and  Florida:  A.  D.  181S-1818. 

Creea.    t^ee  above:  Aloonqi'Iam  Family. 

Croatana.    See  America:  A.  D.  lS87-tBiW. 

Crowa  (Upsarokaa,  or  Abaarokaa).  See 
below :  Siocan  Family. 

Cuatoa.    See  below :  Pampas  Tribes. 

Cunimare.  Bee  below:  GccK  ou  Coco 
Group. 

Cuyriri  or  Kiriri.  Bee  below :  GucK  or  Coco 
Ghoi  p 

Dakotaa,  or  Dacotaht,  or  Dahcolaa.  See 
beluw :  HiotiAN  Family  and  Pawnee  (Caddoan) 
Family. 

Oaiawaraa,  or  Lciuipt.— "The  pn)p<'r  name 
of  thu  Delaware  Indians  waa  and  is  l>eii&pi  (ft  as 
In  futliiT,  6  as  a  in  mate).  .  .  .  The  licnape 
wcn^  divliled  into  three  sub-tribes:  —  1.  Tlie 
MinnI,  Monseys.  Montheya,  Muhmi's,  or  Mini- 
sinks.  2.  The  Unami  or  Woname.vs.  3.  The 
UiiiiliU'litlgn.  No  explanation  of  tlicse  desiKna- 
tioiLS  will  Ih'  found  in  Hvckcwelder  nr  tlin  older 
writiTH.  From  Inwatlgatlons  amoiiK  living  D<'la- 
warts.  carrictl  out  ot  my  retjuost  by  Mr.  llorutlo 
Hale.  It  in  evident  that  they  art-  wlmlly  gt-o- 
gnipliii  111,  and  refer  to  the  location  of  these  sub- 
trilH'9  (in  the  Delaware  river.  .  .  The  MInsI 
lived  ill  the  m<»iiituin<ius  region  at  the  bead 
w»ur><  of  the  Di'laware,  above  the  Forks  or 
Junelioii  iif  llie  U'hIgli  river  .  .  .  The  I'namis' 
terril'iry  on  tlie  right  iMiik  of  the  Delaware  river 
extimli'il  fniiii  the  I^ehlnh  Valley  aoiithwanl.  It 
was  with  lliini  and  their  snuthern  nelghlxirs.  the 
UnaUrlitigiM.  that  Penn  dealt  for  the  land  ei'dinl 
to  him  ill  the  Indian  iIimhI  «f  1883.  The  MInsis 
did  not  taki'  imrt  in  the  transaction,  anil  it  was 
not  until  1 7.17  that  the  t'oh)nial  authorities  treated 
dimtlv  with  >be  latter  (or  the  ceaaton  of  their 
h-rrltiirv  The  Unalacbtlirp  or  Turkey  totem  had 
lis  iirliM  Ipnl  seat  on  the  aflliMDtsof  the  Delaware 


near  where  Wilmington  now  standi.  "--D.  Q. 
Brinton,  The  Zenape  and  Their  Legmdr,  eh.  8. 
— "At  the.  .  .  time  when  William  Penn  landed 
in  Pennaylvanta,  the  Delawarea  hod  been  subjju- 
gated  and  mode  women  by  the  Five  Mationa.  It 
18  well  known  that,  acccrdlng  to  that  Indian  mode 
ot  expreaaion,  the  Delawsres  wero  henceforth 
prohibited  from  ip\king  war,  and  placed  under 
the  sovereignty  oi  the  conquerors,  who  did  not 
even  allow  sales  of  land,  in  the  actual  possewion 
of  the  Delawans,  to  be  valid  without  their  appit>- 
batioa  Willlum  Penn,  bis  descendants,  and  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania,  accordingly,  always  pur- 
chased the  right  of  possesnion  from  the  Delawarea, 
and  that  of  Sovereignty  from  the  Five  Nationa. 
.  .  .  The  use  of  arms,  though  from  vety  differ- 
ent causes,  waa  equally  prohibited  to  the  Dela- 
ware! and  to  thn  Quakers.  Thus  the  coloniza- 
tion of  Pennsylvania  and  of  West  New  Jersey  by 
the  British,  commenced  under  the  most  favorable 
auspices.  Peace  and  tho  utmost  harmony  pre- 
valleii  for  more  than  sixty  years  between  the 
whites  and  the  Indians;  for  these  were  for  the 
first  time  treated,  not  only  justly,  but  kindly,  by 
the  colonists.  But,  however  gradually  and 
peaceably  their  lands  might  have  been  purchased, 
the  Dela wares  found  themsi'lves  at  last  in  the  same 
situation  as  all  the  other  Indians,  without  lands 
of  their  own,  and  therefore  without  means  of 
subsistence.  They  were  compelled  to  seek 
refuge  on  the  waters  of  the  Susquehanna,  us 
tenants  at  will,  on  lands  belonging  to  their  hated 
conquerors,  the  Five  Nations.  Even  there  and 
on  the  Juniata  they  were  encroached  upon.  .  .  . 
Under  those  circumstances,  many  of  the  Dela- 
warea determined  to  remove  weat  of  the  Allo- 
gliany  Mountains,  and,  almut  the  year  1740-JH), 
obtained  from  their  ancient  allies  and  uncles,  the 
Wyandots,  the  grant  of  a  derelict  tract  of  land 
lying  principally  on  the  Muskingum.  The  great 
body  of  the  nation  wii*  ->ill  attached  to  Pennayl- 
vanta. But  the  grouuiis  of  complaint  Increased. 
The  Delawares  were  encouraged  by  the  westeni 
tribes,  and  by  the  French,  to  shake  off  the  yoke 
of  the  Six  Nations,  and  tojoin  In  the  war  against 
their  allies,  the  British.  Tlie  frontier  settlemenU 
of  Pennsylvania  were  accordingly  attacked  both 
bv  the  Delawares  and  the  Shawnoes.  And, 
although  peace  was  made  with  them  at  Easton  In 
In  1798,  and  the  conquest  of  ('anada  put  an  end 
to  the  general  war,  both  the  Shawnoea  and  Dela- 
wares nmoveil  altogether  In  17S8  beyond  the 
Alleghany  Mowiilaiim.  .  .  .  The  yean  17eiV-1703 
are  tlic  true  period  nf  the  power  and  Important)' 
of  tho  Delawares.  Uuitetl  with  the  hlliawnoes. 
who  were  settliHl  on  the  SeioUi.  thev  sustuiiiiil 
during  the  Seven  Veiirs'  Wurthcdetllniiig  power 
of  France,  and  arn'iited  for  some  years  the  pro 
gress  of  the  Hrltish  anil  American  arm*. 
Although  a  iMirtlon  of  the  nation  atlli<-retl  to  tlie 
Amerleaiis  during  the  War  of  Inih'penileiii'e,  the 
main  iKxIy,  togitlier  with  all  the  weHtem  uatinnii 
niatlc  common  euiiiie  with  the  Itritish.  Ai  I, 
after  the  short  triite  whh  h  followed  the  treaty  of 
1783,  they  were  a^niii  at  the  heail  of  the  westeni 
confederacy  in  llirir  last  struggle  for  Indrpeu 
dence.  Placed  by  their  geogrHpliltal  situation  in 
the  front  nf  liiit'lti'.  they  were,  during  thoiu 
three  wars,  the  aggresaiini.  antl.  to  the  last 
moment,  the  imwl  at  live  and  fomildalilc  enemies 
of  Amerini.  Tlii'  ileeisivo  victory  of  Uenerni 
Wayne  (17M).  dlawilvetl  the  confederacy ;  and  the 
Delawarea  were  the  greatest  suffenin  hj  the 


02 


AMERICAN  ABORIOraSS. 

treaty  of  Greenville  of  1795."  After  thb,  the 
greater  part  of  the  Delawaiet  were  settled  on 
White  River,  Indiana,  "till  the  year  1810,  when 
tbey  anallr  ceded  their  claim  to  the  United 
States.  Those  residing  there  were  then  reduced 
to  about  800  souls.  A  number  .  .  ,  had  pre- 
Tiously  removed  to  Canada ;  and  it  la  dilflcult  to 
ascertain  the  situation  or  numbers  of  the  residue 
at  this  time  [1836].  Those  who  have  lately 
removed  west  of  the  Miaslasippl  are,  In  an  esti- 
mate of  the  War  Department,  computed  at  400 
souls.  Former  emigrations  to  that  quarter  had 
however  taken  place,  and  several  small  dispersed 
bands  are,  it  is  believed,  united  with  the  Senecas 
and  some  other  tribes."— A.  Gallatin,  Sgnopiu  of 
ttu  Indian  Tribet  {Aithaologia  Ameritana,  t.  8), 
inlrod.,  lect.  2.— See,  above:  ALooHi)tiiAn  Fam- 
ily; below:  Shawanese,  and  Pawnkb  (Cad- 
DOAS)  Fahilt.— Also,  PoNTiAc's  War;  United 
STATBrt  OF  Am.  :  A.  D.  1765-1768;  and  Moravum 
Bkethren;  and,  for  an  nccount  of  "Lord  Dun- 
morr's  War,"  see  Onio  (Valley):  A.  D.  1774. 

Eriet.    See  below:    Huro.vs,  Ac.,  and  Iro- 
qcoia  C'oNrKDERAcv :  Their  CoMttCEsrs,  Jtc. 

Etkimauan  Family.—"  gave  a  slight  Inter- 
mixture of  European  settlers,  the  Eskimo  are 
the  unlyinlukbitanuof  the  shores  of  Arctic  Amer- 
ica, and  of  lK>th  sides  of  Davis  Strait  and  Baf- 
fin Bay,  iucludioK  Greenland,  as  well  as  a  tract 
of  abuut  4UU  miles  on  the  Bvliring  Strait  coast 
of  Asia.    Southward  they  extend  as  far  as  about 
5tP  N.  L.  on  the  eastern  side,  60*  on  the  west- 
ern slilc  of  Aim'ricu,  and    from  Sy  to  00°  on 
the  slKirt'S  of  Hudson  Bay.    Only  on  the  west 
ihc  EMklmi)  near  their  frontier  are  interrupted 
on  two  small  spou  of  the  coast'  by  the  Indians, 
named  Kenmtyuns   and    UgalenMS,   who  have 
there  adviintx'U  to  the  sea-shore  for  the  sake  of 
flshinif.    These  coiuiU   of   Arctic   America,   of 
course,  also  conipriae  alt  the  surrounding  isUnds. 
Of  these,  the  Aleutian  Islands  form  an  excep- 
tional group ;  the  InhabitanU  of  Ihcso  on  the  one 
hand  distinitly  dilTeriuB  from  the  coast  people 
here  mentlriued,  while  on  the  other  they  show  a 
cIosiT  relationship  to  the  Eskimo  than  any  other 
nation.    The  Aleutians,  therefore,  may  be  con- 
sidered  as   only  an   abnormal    branch  of   the 
Eskimo  nation.  ...  As  reganls  their  northern 
limits,  the  Eskimo  people,  or  at  least  remains  of 
their  habitailous,  have  been  found  Dearly  as  far 
north  as   any    Arctic   explorers   have  hitherto 
advanced;  anil  very  possibly  bands  of  them  may 
live  still    fartlier    U)    the    north,  as    yet    quito 
uiikHown  to  us.  ...  On  comparing  the  Eskimo 
with  the   neighbouring  nations,  their  physical 
e.iiTiplcxl.m   certainly    seems    to   point    at   an 
Asiatic  origin;   but,  as   far  as   we   know,  the 
litest   liivesiigations   have  also  shown  a  tnin- 
Mtional  link  to  exist  lietween  the  Eskimo  and 
t.ie  oiher  American  nations,  which  would  suf- 
'Jiienliy  IikIIi ato  the  i>os8lblllty  of  •  common 
origin  from  the  same  continent      As  to  their 
iiMie  of  life,  the  Esklhi..   decidedly   resemble 
I  i«  r  Amerlcjw  iiclghlwurs.  .  .  .  WIthregardto 
I  icir  Luitfuage,  the  Eskimo  also  appear  akin  to 
tlie  American  nations  In  regard  to  Us  dcride<lly 
Cllysyntlietie  structure,     ifore,  however,  on  tlie 
otiier  hand,  we  meet  with  some  very  remarkable 
timilanilis  Mween  the  Eskimo  Idiom  and  the 
language  of  SIlnTia.  bcl.mirlnif  tn  th«  Altaic  or 
!•  M.Mi,i,  group.      .  .  Aecoidlng  to  the  Sagas  of 
he  lolandeh.,  they  were  already  met  wfth  on 
Uie  rant  niast  of  Grwnland  alioul  the  year  1000, 
•  Sff  .Nuif ,  Apiwndls  r.  v«I.  I,  93 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 

and  almost  at  the  same  time  on  the  east  coast  of 
the  American  csntinent.  .  .  .  Between  the  yean 
1000  and  1300  they  do  not  seem  to  have  occupied 
the  land  south  of  65°  N.  L.  on  the  west  coast  of 
Greenland,    where    the    Scaadinavian    colonies 
were   then   situated.    But   the  colonists  seem 
to   have   been    aware    of    their    existence   la 
higher  latitudes,  and  to  have  lived  In  fear  of  on 
attack  by   them,  since,    in  the  year  1866,  on 
expedition  was   .wnt   out   for   the  purpose  of 
exploring  tlie  abodes  of  the  Skisllngs,  as  they 
were   colled  bv  the   colonlsU.  .  .  .  About  the 
year  1480,  the  last  accounts  were  received  from 
the  colonies,  and   the  way  to  Greenland  WM 
entirely  forgotten  in  the  mother  country.  .  . 
The  features  of  the  natives  in  the  Southern  port 
of  Greenland  indicate  a  mixed  descent  from  the 
Scandinavians  and  Eskimo,  the   former,  how- 
ever, not  having  left  the  slightest  sign  of  any 
influence  on  the  nationality  or   culture  of  the 
present  natives.    In  the  year  1589,  Greenland  woa 
discovered  anew   by   John   Davis,   and  found 
inhabited  exclusively   by   Eskimo."— H    Rink, 
Tola  and  Traditions  of  tht  Okimo,  introd.  and 
«*.  6.— The  same,  The  SiUmo  tribm.—"  In  1868, 
I  proposed  for  the  AleuU  and  people  of  Innult 
stock  collectively  the  term  Ororians,  a*  Indicative 
of  their  coastwise  distribution,  and  as  supplying 
the  need  of  a  general  term  to  designate  a  very 
well-defined  race.  .  .  .  The  Orarions  are  divided 
into    two    well-marked    groups,    namely    the 
InnuiU.  comprising  all  the  so-called  Eskimo  and 
Taskis,  and  the  AleuU."— W.  H.  Dall,  TWiMof 
tke  Extrtmt  A'urthmtt  (Oontrib.  to  N.  A.  BA- 
nolon,  t.  1),  pt.  1. 

Eaaelenian  Family.— "  The  present  family 
was  included  by  Utham  In  the  heterogcneoui 
group  called  by  him  Salinas.  ...  The  term 
SoUnon  [is  now]  rcstrictvil  to  the  San  Antonki 
and  San  Miguel  languages,  leaving  the  present 
family  .  .  [to  be]  called  Esselenian,  from  the 
name  of  the  single  trilie  Essclen,  of  which  it  is 
composed.  .  .  The  tribe  or  tribes  composing 
this  family  occupied  a  narrow  strip  of  the  Cali- 
fornia coast  from  Monterey  Bay  south  to  the 
vicinity  of  the  Santa  Luela  MounUin.  a  distaiice 
of  about  50  miles.  "—J.  W.  Powell.  SnenIK  An- 
nual Btpt.,  Iliirniu  of  Ethm>l)tgy,  pp.  75-76. 
Btchcmins.  Sec  above;  Aloonquian Fahilt 
Buroct,  or  Yuroks.  See  below :  Modocs,  4c. 
Fire  Nations.    St-e  lielow:    lRoqi;ois  Cow- 

nCOERACY. 

Flatheodt  (Salishan  Family).^"  The  name 
Flathead  whs  commoiily  given  to  the  Choctaws 
though,  saVB  l)u  I'ral/.,  he  saw  no  reason  why 
they  should  l>c  so  distinguished,  when  the  prac- 
tice of  (bttcning  the  heml  was  so  general  And 
lotheenumerotiou  iiist  cited  [DocumenUry  Hist. 
"L?!;-"  '-P  '^^1  tlie  next  paragraph  ...  Is: 
'The  riatheads,  I'herakis.  Chlcachas.  and  Totlris 
ore  iDcluded  umltr  the  name  of  Flathoads  by  the 
IroquoU."— M,  K.  Force,  Hirnt  Rirtg  Aotioes  <rf 
tht  Indiant  of  mi,>.  p.  83.— "Tho  Salish  .  . 
are  distinctively  known  as  Flathesds.  though 
the  custom  of  deforiiiiiig  the  cranium  Is  nut 
conflnedtothem. '— I).  O.  Brinton,  Th*  Amm- 
tan  Haet.  p.  107.  -  •■  In  .  .  .  early  times  the 
bunten  and  trappers  mild  not  discover  why 
the  Blackfect  and  Flatheads  [of  MonUiuil  re- 
crlrt-!)  Ihrfr  p^p-H'ttve  dniisnaiinns,  for  liM 
feet  of  the  former  are  no  more  inclined  to  sable 
than  any  other  part  of  the  body,  while  the  beodt 
of  the  latter  possess  their  fair  proportlan  of 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


AMERICAN  AB0UI0INE8. 


* 


.»:<: 


rotunditT.  Indeed  it  ii  only  below  the  falls  snd 
npida  that  real  Flatbeadi  appear,  and  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Columbia  that  they  flourish  most 
supematurally.  The  tribes  who  practice  the 
custom  of  flatteoiug  the  bead,  and  who  lived  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  differed  little  from 
each  other  in  laws,  manners  or  customs,  and  were 
composed  of  the  Catlilumahs,  Killmucks,  Clat- 
sops,  Chinoolis  and  Cliilts.  The  abominable 
custom  of  flattening  tbvir  lieads  prevails  among 
them  all."— P.  Ronan,  Jliit.  Skttehoftht  Flat- 
head Indian  Nation,  p.  17. — In  Major  Powell's 
linguistic  classification,  the  "Salislian  Family" 
(Flathead)  is  given  a  distinct  place.— J.  W. 
Powell,  Smnth  Annuai  Sept.  of  the  Bureau  (if 
Btknoiogy,  p.  103. 

Fos  Indiana.  See  above:  Aloon^itiax 
Family,  and  below,  8acb,  <&c.—  For  an  account 
of  the  massacre  of  Fox  ludiuns  at  Detroit  Id  1713, 
see  Canada  (New  Fhance):  A.  D.  1711-1718. 
—For  an  account  of  the  Black  Hawk  War,  see 
nilnoto:  A.  D.  1833. 

Fntfians.    See  below:  PATAooMiAxa 

Gauiarapo*  or  Cuuchica.  See  below:  Pam- 
pas Tribes. 

GCa  Tribes.    Bee  below:  Tupl—Odabaxl— 

TCPCTAS. 

Cros  Ventres  (Minnetarec ;  Hidatas).*  See 
below:  HiOATaA;  aku,  above:  ALOONquiAM 
Familt. 

Gnaicams.    See  below :  Paxtas  Tribes. 

Guiyira.    See  above :  Coajiro. 

Guanas.    See  below:  Pampas  Tribes. 

Guarani.    See  b<!low :  TiFi. 

Guaranas.    See  U'Idw  :  Pampas  TRiBua 

Guck  or  Coco  Group.— An  pxtonsive  linguistic 
group  of  tribes  in  Bruzil,  on  and  north  of  the  Ama- 
zon, extending  as  for  iis  the  Orinoco,  has  been 
called  the  Ouck,  or  Coco  Rroup.  "There  is  no 
common  name  for  the  trruup,  that  here  used 
meaning  a  father's  bn)ther,  »  very  important  per- 
sonage in  thviiu  tribeii.  The  Ouck  group  em- 
braces a  large  number  of  trilioii.  .  .  .  We  need 
enumerate  but  few.  Tim  Cuyriri  or  Klrirl  (also 
known  as  Sabaja,  PimenieinM,  etc.),  number 
about  8,000.  Some  of  tliiin  iirv  half  civilised, 
some  arc  wild,  and,  witliout  re.strulut,  wander 
about,  especially  in  the  mountHins  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Pemambuco.  The  Aruieu  live  on  the 
lower  Amaion  and  the  Tocanliiis.  Next  come 
the  Manaos,  who  have  a  pms|H-et  of  maintaining 
themselves  longer  tlian  most  trtlxs.  With  them 
Is  connected  the  legetHi  of  tlie  golden  lord  who 
washed  the  gold  dust  from  liU  limbs  in  a  lake 
fsce  El  Doraixi].  .  .  .  The  liriim.  Bart,  and 
Cariay  live  on  the  Itio  Negni,  tlm  Cunimarion 
the  Juriia.  the  Maraiilia  <in  the  Jutny.  Whether 
the  ClmmictK-o  on  the  right  Imnk  of  the  Paraguay, 
belong  to  the  Ouck  is  uueertaiu.  Among  the 
tribes  which,  though  very  niueh  mixed,  are  still 
to  be  enumerated  with  the  Ouck,  arc  the  Tecuna 
and  tlie  Piisni.  In  language  the  Te<-unas  show 
many  similarities  to  the  {it»;  they  live  on  the 
western  buidem  of  Hreill,  and  exti  ii<l  In  Equador 
to  the  Pasta^a.  Among  tlietn  Kcur  peculiar 
masques  which  strongly  recall  'liuae  found  on 
Um  northwest  coast  of  North  Aiiieric«.  ...  In 
Ibe  same  district  belong  the  rauiN-,  who  are  no- 
ticeable from  the  fai-t  that  they  live  In  bamcks, 
Indeed  the  only  tribe  In  Houlli  America  In  which 
this  custom  appear).  Tli.  >  .iir.mwuiitic  bouses 
of  the  Uaupe  ate  call,  d  '  malliMa.'tlwy  are  build- 
ings of  about  130  feet  lung.  7.^  feet  wide,  and  M 


high.  In  which  live  a  band  of  about  100  persona 
In  13  families,  each  of  the  latter,  however,  in  its 
own  room.  .  .  .  Finally,  complex  trilws  of  the 
most  different  nationality  are  compreliended 
under  names  which  indicate  only  a  common  way 
of  life,  but  are  also  incorrectly  used  us  ethno- 

Sapblciuunea.  These  are  Ciinpiiuu,  Mimi,  and 
Iranha,  all  of  whom  live  in  the  ueiglilH)rhood 
of  the  Madeira  River.  Of  tlie  Caripii.ia  or 
JaQn-Av6  (both  terms  signify  '  wnterinen  '>.  who 
are  mixed  with  Quichua  bUxMl.  it  is  related  that 
they  not  only  ate  human  fleeib,  but  even  cured  it 
for  preservation.  .  .  .  Formerly  the  Mora  .  .  . 
w>'re  greatly  feared;  this  once    powerful  and 

Sopulous  tnbe,  however,  nas  almost  entirely 
estroyed  at  the  end  of  the  lust  century  by  the 
Mundruco;  the  remnant  is  scattered.  .  .  .  The 
Mura  are  the  gypsi;.-s  among  the  Indians  on  the 
Amazon;  and  by  all  the  other  trilws  they  are 
regarded  with  a  certain  degree  of  contempt  as 
puiahs.  .  .  .  Much  to  be  feared,  even  among  the 
Indians,  are  also  the  Miranha  (i.  e. ,  rovers,  vaga- 
bonds), a  still  populous  tribe  on  the  right  bimk 
of  theJapura,  who  seem  to  know  nothing  but 
war,  robbery,  muHer,  and  man-hunting."— 
The  Standard  Natuntl  Uiitury  (J.  8.  Kiu(nley, 
ed.).e.«,m^  846-348. 

Also  im  F.  Keller,  The  Amnion  and  Madeira 
Biter;  eh.  Sand  6.— H.  W.  Rates,  A  IfaturaUet 
on  the  Bittr  Amaeone,  eh.  7-13. 

Gnnchics.    See  below :    Pampas  Tribes. 

HacUnsncks.       See    above  :    ALuuNqcun 

FAMU.T. 

Hsidat.    See  below:    Seittaoktak  Family. 
Hidstsa,  or  Minnetarec,  or  Grosrentrcs?— 

"The  Hidatsa,  Minnetaree,  or  Urosventre  In- 
dhtns,  are  one  of  the  thn'e  tril>es  wliicb  at  pres- 
ent inhabit  the  |M'rmanent  vllluge  nt  Fort  Ber- 
thold,  Dakota  Territory,  and  hunt  on  the  waters 
of  the  Upper  Missouri  and  Yellowstone  Rivers, 
in  Northwestern  Dakota  uud  Eastern  .>Iontana. 
The  history  of  this  tribe  is  .  .  .  intimately  con- 
ui  I  ted  with  that  of  the  p>litieally  allied  trilies  of 
the  Aricarees  and  Manduns. "  'The  name,  Oros- 
ventres,  was  given  to  the  |<eonle  of  this  tribe 
"  by  the  early  French  and  CunHilian  adventun-rs. 
The  same  name  was  applied  also  to  n  tribe, 
totally  distinct  from  these  In  iangimce  snd 
origin,  which  lives  some  liiiiulD'ds  of  miles  west 
of  Fort  Bcrthold ;  and  the  two  nations  are  now 
distinguished  from  one  unothir  its  tinwventres  of 
the  Missouri  mid  Orosventns of  tlie  Prairie.  .  ,  . 
Edwanl L'mfreville.  who  tnuliil  onthe.Saxkatebe 
wan  River  from  liM  to  1Tn7.  .  .  .  ninarks: 
.  .  .  "They  [tlie  Caimdian  Kreiieh)  cull  them 
Qrusventres,  or  Big  Ihllies:  ami  Kilhout  uny 
reason,  as  they  are  us  conn  ly  iiiid  as  well  made 
as  any  tribe  whatever.'.  .  .  In  the  w<irk»  of 
many  travellers  they  are  called  iMIniietarces,  s 
name  which  is  smfled  in  various  wavs.  .  .  . 
This,  although  a  llidalsa  won!,  is  the  name  sp- 

Blied  to  them,  not  liy  tluniMlves,  liiil  liy  the 
landans;  it  signities  '  lo  cross  the  water.' 
or  'thiy  crussvu  the  water.  '.  .  Ilidntisii  wsn 
the  I  !ie  of  the  vllluge  on  Knife  Kivir 
farthi  from  the  Missouri,  llie  viilsge  of 
thmie  horn  Lewis  and  Clarke  lonsidend  the 
Minneurees  pro|M'r. "  It  is  the  naim-  "  now  geu> 
erally  used  uy  Uits  (leople  to  deslgiiaie  tkem- 
selves." — W.  Matthews,  KlhiuigrafJiii  niul  Vh\t- 
oiogy  of  the  Ilidatiu  ir.ui.i:s,  y.i.  I  i  {V.  A 
OxuLg.  and  Oeug.  f^'imit.  A'.  I .  //>iyi'rn,  .Vii. 
Pub.,  A'a.  7).— See  also,  iielow:  Slut  an  K.\mut. 


•■m  Msts,  ApptBdia  E,  vol,  •. 


M 


AMERICAN  ABORIOmEa 

Hitchitia.  See  below:  Hcskbooean  Famlt. 
Horikuu.— North  of  the  Mohcgans,  who  oc- 
cupied the  eut   bank   of   the    Hudson    River 
opijoslte  Albany,  and  covcrinjt  the  preaeot  coun- 
ties of  Columbia  and  Rensselaer,  dwelt  the  Al- 
gooldn    tribe   of   Horikans,    "whose   hunting 
grounds  appear  to  have   extended    from    the 
waters  of  the   Connecticut,  across   the  Qroen 
Slountains,  to  the  borders  of  that  beautiful  lake 
[named  Lake  George  by  the  too  loyal  Sir  Wil- 
liam  Johnson]   wliTch    might    now    well  bear 
their  sonorous  name." — J.  R  Brodhead    Hitt 
of  thf  State  of  N.   Y.,  p.  n. 
Huamaboya.    See  above:   AHDKauRB. 
Huancaa.    See  Pebd. 
Huattect.    See  below:   Matab. 
Huecot,  or  Wacot.    See   below:    Pawuxb 
iCaddoan)  Familt. 

Humas,  or  Onnaa.     See  below:    McaxBo- 
OEAN  Familt. 
Hupaa.*  See  below:   Modocs,  Ac 

Hurona,  or  Wyandota.— Neutral  Nation 

Eriea.— "The   peninsula   between   the    Lake* 
Huron.  Erie,  and  OnUrio  was  occupied  by  two 
distmct  peoples,   speaking  dialecU  of  the  Iro- 
quois tongue.    The  Hurona  or  WyandoU.  includ- 
ing the  tribe  called  by  the  French  the  Diononda- 
dlcs,    or   Tobacco    Nation,    dwelt   among   the 
forests  which  bordered  the  eastern  shores  of  the 
fresh  water  sea  to  which  they  have  left  their 
name;  while  the  Neutral  Nation,  so  called  from 
their  ueutrality  in  the  war  between  the  llurons 
Biui  the  Five  Nations,  inhal)ited  the  n<irthem 
si  ores  of  Lake  Erie,  and  even  extended    their 
e>  stern  Hank  across  the  strait  of  Niagara.     The 
|'4>ul»lion  of  the  llurons  has  been    variously 
stated  lit  from  lO.tXX)  to  80,000  souls,  but  proba- 
bly did  not  exceed  the  former  estimate.    The 
Irancwsns  and  the  JcsuiU  were  early  among 
tbein,  iind  from  their  descriptions  it  is  apparent 
that  m  legends,  and  superstitions,  nuinners  and 
haliiu,  religious  observances  and  social  customs 
they  vera  closely  asaimlUted  to  their  brethren 
of  tlieHve  Nations.  .  .  .  Like  the  Five  Nations, 
the  H  yandoU  wore  in  some  measure  an  agricul- 
lunil  iMople;  they  bartered  the  surplus  products 
of   their   maize   fields   to   surrounding  tribes 
usually  receiving  fish  in  exchange;   and  this 
tralllc  wiis  so  considerable  that  tlio  Jesuits  styled 
tlieir  country  the  Orunary  of  the  Algonciuins. 
Their  |.n»neritv  was  rudely  broken  by  the  bos- 
lilies  „f  the  Jlvo  Nations:  for  though  the  con- 
tlieting  parties  were  not  ill  mnt<he<l  in  point  of 
imiulKT*,  yet  the  united  counsels  and  fcnxiious 
energies  of  the  confederacy  swept  all    before 
K  m.     In  the  vcar  184B.  in  the  .ieptli  of  winter, 
tlielr  wiirrion  Invaded  the  country  of  the  Wvan- 
'.  n'tiH','"^"'.  «hflr  largest  villages,  and  Involved 
..I  Kiihln  m  indiscriminate  slaughter.    The  sur- 
vivcr.  iliHl  lu  panic  tern)r,  ami  the  whole  nation 
"ii!*  hn.ken  aii.i  disi«,rscd.     Home  found  refuge 
«iimn«  the  French  ..f  Canada,    where,   at    tl7e 
vilhjie  „f  I^,r,.tic,  ne„rQuelwc,  their  descendants 
Hill  nniain;  othera  were  incorporated  with  their 

'M  ond  Lake  Huperior,  and  sought  an  asylum 
"iMong  he  waste,  which  b.,r,lc.,«t  on  the  uorth- 
*»lerii  land,  of  the  Dahaitah.  Driven  back  l)y 
m-H.  Hirre  blsonhunter^  they  next  establtshwl 
lli.uiHelves  about  the  outlet  of  Uk"  «u!>eri'-r 
*" -l'...es.iid  Islands  In  the  northern  parts  of 


fc»teu.led  to  Detroit,  where  they  formed  a  per- 
•  Ikt  Mulf,  Apiwndla  E,  vol.  I.  gg 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 

manent  settlement,  and  where,  by  their  superior 
valor,  capacity  and  address,  they  soon  acquired 
an  ascendancy  over  the  surrounding  Algonquin* 
The  ruin  of  the  Neutral  Nation  followed  close 
on  that  of  the  Wyandots,  to  whom,  according  to 
Jesuit  authority,  they  bore  an  exact  rescmbiunco 
In  character  and  manners.    The  Senecas  soon 
found  means  to  pick  a  quarrel  with  them:  thev 
were  assailed  by  aU  the  strength  of  the  Insatlabfe 
confederacy,    and   within   a   few   years    their 
destruction    as   a   nation   was   complete."— F 
Parkman,  Th4  Contpiraeu  of  Pimtiac,  ch.  1.— The 
?'S?'  i^  •ff'it*  in  Aorlh  Amerien,  ch.  1  _ 
The  first  in  this  locality  [namely,  the  western 
extremity  of  the  State  of  New  York,  on  and 
around  the  site  of  the  city  of  Buffalo],  of  whom 
history  makes  mention,  were*ie  Attiouandar- 
onk,  or  Neutral  Nation,   called    Kah-kwas  by 
the  Scnecaa.    They  had  their  council-fires  along 
.  the  Niagara,  but  principally  on  iu  western  side! 
melr  hunting  grounds  extended  from  the  Gen- 
esee nearly  to  the  eastern  shores  of  Lake  Huron 
embracing  a  wide  and  important  territory. 
They  are  first  mentioned  by  Champlain  during 
hta  winter  visit  to  the  Hurons'n  1615  .  .      but 
he  was  unable  to  visit  their  territory.  .  .      The 
peace  which  this  peculiar  people  had  so  long 
maintained  with  the  Iroquois  was  destined  to  be 
broken.    Some  jealousies  and  collisions  occurred 
In  1W7,  which  culminated  in  open  war  In  1650 
One  of  the  villagcsof  the  Neutral  Nation,  nearest 
the  Senecas  and  not  far  from  the  site  of  our  city 
IButralo],  was  captured  in  the  autumn  of  the 
latter  year,  and  another  the  ensuing  spring.     So 
well-dlreetcd  and  energetic  were  the  blows  of 
the  Iroquois,   that  the  total  destruction  of  the 
Neutral  Nation  was  speedily  accomplished.  . 
The  survivors  were  adopted  by  their  conquerors. 
...  A   long    periiMl   intervened  Iwtwcen   the 
destruction  of  the  Neutral  Nation  aud  the  per- 
manent occupation  of  their  country  by  the  Sen- 
ecas, -- which  latter  event  occurred  after  the 
expulsion  of   the   Seneca*   from   the   Genesee 
V  alley,  by  the  expedition  under  General  Sulii- 
7»";  In  1'7»,  during  the  Revolutionary  War 
They  never,  as  a  nation,  resumed  tliulr  ancient 
seata  along  the  Genesee,  but  sought  and  fouml  a 
new  homo  on  the  secluded  banks  and  among  tha 
basswood  forests  of  the  IMsyo-wJ,  or  Buffalo 
treek,   whence  they  bad  driven  the    Neutral 
Nation  130  yearn  before.  ...  It  h.-M  been  as- 
sumed by  many  writers  that  the  Kali  kwas  and 
tries  were  Identical.     This  is  not  so.     The  latter 
acconling  to  tlie  nost  reliable  authorities,  lived 
south  of  the  we»tem  extremity  of  Like  Eria 
Vi".'.    ^}S7  "J!:'"'  '''■'"f'yt'J  by  the  IrtHiuois  in 
iwa.    The    kah  kwas   were   exterminatiMl   by 
them   as  early    as  18S1.    On  Coronelii's  map. 
pul.llslied  in   1(W8.  one  of  tho  villages  of  tha 
latu-r,  ca  leil  '  Kahouagoga,  a  destroyed  nation,' 
is  hicated  at  or  near  tho  site  of  Buffalo."— O.  11. 
Marshall,  Tht   .\i,i0jnt  frontier,  pp.  6-<J,  and 
foatn,:tf.—  - Wntwanl  of   the   Neutrals,  along 
the  Southeastern  shores  of  Uke  Erie,  and  stretch- 
ing as  far  vsM  as  tho  Oeiicseo  river,  lav  tha 
country  of  tho  Erics,  or,  as  Uiey  were  de'uomi- 
naUHl  by  the  Jesuits,  'U  Nation  Chat.' or  Cat 
Nation,  who  were  also  a  member  of  the  Ilim.n- 
IrjMjuois  family.    The  name  of   the  iHautlful 
lake  OR  Trfc»»  m-iTgia  our  city  [Buifai.i]  w«* 
cradhMl  is  their  most  enduring  monumcul    m 
lAku  Huron  is  that  of  the  generic  stock.    They 
want  caUed  lite  Cat  Nation  oithar  becauaa  thai 


,1 


ASfERICAN  ABORIOrNCS. 


-lotereiting  but  miicbtevous  animal,  the  raccoon, 
which  the  holy  fathers  erroneously  classed  in 
the  feline  gens,  was  the  totem  of  their  leading 
clan,  or  sept,  or  in  consequence  of  the  abundance 
of  that  mammal  within  their  territory. " — W.  C. 
Bryant,  Intending  Archofological  Studia  in  and 
about  Buffalo,  p.  12.— Mr.  Schoolcraft  cither 
identifies  or  confuses  the  Eries  and  the  Neutral 
Nntion.— H.  R.  Schoolcraft,  Sketch  of  the  HM. 
of  the  Aneient  Brif  (Information  Seipeeting  tht 
Indian  Tribet,  pt.  4.  p.  197). 

Also  in  J.  O.  Shea,  Inquiria  Rapeeting  the 
lott  Neutral  Nation  (»ame,  pt.  4,  p.  204).— D. 
Wilson,  The  Huron-Iroguoii  of  Canada  (rrani. 
Royal  Soe.  of  Canada,  1884).— P.  D.  Clarke, 
Origin  and  Traditional  IIi»t.  of  the  VTyandottei. 
— W.  Ketchum,  ift»r.  of  Buffalo,  t.  1,  th.  1-2.— 
N.  B.  Craig,  The  Olden  Time,  v.  1,  p.  225.— See 
below:  iRoquois  Confedekact ;  also,  Canada 
(New  Frasck):  A.  D.  160*-1611;  16U-1618; 
1634-1652;  1640-1700.— Sec,  also,  Postiac's 
Wah,  and  for  an  account  of  "Lord  Dunmorc'a 
War,"  see  Ohio  (Vallet):  A.  D.  1774. 

Illiooitaiid  Miami*.-"  Passing  the  countrv 
of  the  Lcnape  and  the  Shawanocs,  and  descend- 
Ing  the  Ohio,  the  tniTellcr  would  bare  found  its 
vdley  chiefly  occupied  by  two  nations,  the 
Hiamis  or  iSrightwees,  on  the  Wabash  and  tta 
branches,  and  the  Illinois,  who  dwelt  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  river  to  which  they  have 
given  their  name,  while  portions  of  them  ex- 
tendi'd  beyond  the  Mississippi.  Though  never 
subjugated,  as  were  the  Lcnape,  both  the 
Miamis  and  the  Illinois  were  reduced  to  the  lost 
extremity  by  the  repeated  attaclta  of  the  Five 
Natiors;  and  the  Illinois,  in  particular,  suffered 
so  much  by  these  and  other  wars,  that  the  popu- 
lation of  ten  or  twelve  thousand,  a.scribc'd  to 
them  by  the  early  French  writers,  had  dwindled, 
during  the  first  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, to  a  few  small  villages.  "—P.  I'arkman, 
Conapiraey  of  Pontine,  eh.  1, — See,  also,  above: 
ALOoNqiUM  Familt;  and  below:  Sacs,  Ac; 
also  Canada  (New  France):  A.  D.  166»-ie87. 

Incma,  or  Yncaa.    See  Peru. 

Innuita.    Sco  above:  Eskim.\la!(. 

lowaa.  See  below :  Siocan  Fak ilt,  and  Paw- 
MEE  (Cadddan)  Family. 

Iroquoia  Confedcrecr. —  !ro<|uoian  FamilT. 
— "  Attheo-jtsctof  the  16th  Century,  wlicn  the 
five  tribes  or  nations  of  the  Iroquois  coiil  'Icracy 
first  became  known  to  European  explorers,  they 
were  fuumi  occupying  the  valleys  and  uplani's 
(if  nortliom  New  York,  in  that  plrtun'sciue  and 
fruitful  region  which  stri'tilii'S  wi-stwanl  from 
the  hi'ad-witters  of  the  Hu<lwin  to  the  Ucncsce. 
The  Moluiwks,  or  Canii-ngns  —  hs  they  sliould 
pMpiTly  1k>  called  —  poascneil  the  Mohawk  Uiver, 
ami  covcnii  l<nke  (Scorge  and  Lake  Champlain 
with  tlii'ir  tidtilliu  of  large  canoes,  managed  with 
tlie  liolilncss  anil  skill  «lilch,  heriHlliary  in  their 
desctnilants.  make  them  still  thelH'St  Ixiatmen  of 
the  North  American  rivers.     West  of  the  Canien- 

ttastlieOiH-iiiaalH'IdtheBnallrivprand  lake  which 
)<.>ar  their  name.  .  .  .  West  of  tlie  Oneiilas,  the 
tm|H'rious  Unondagas,  the  central  and,  in  some  rc- 
siiccls,  tlie  ruling  nation  of  the  League,  [Kissesseil 
the  two  lakes  of  Onondaga  and  SkniHutclcs,  to- 
gether with  the  common  outlet  of  this  inland  lake 
gyijli/rn.  the  Oswego  HIver  tii  lis  lasiu*  (nlii  Lake 
Oniarlo  Still  pn>ceedlng  westwnni,  the  lines  of 
trail  anil  river  led  to  the  long  and  wlmling  stn-tch 
of  Lakv  Cayu(«,  about  wUch  w«n:  tlu*t«icd  tits 


96 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


towns  of  the  people  who  gave  their  name  to  the 
lake  ;  and  beyond  them,  over  the  wide  expansi' 
of  hills  and  dales  surrounding  Lakes  Seneca  and 
Canandaigua,  were  scattered  tlie  populous  vil 
lagcsof  the  Benccas,  more  correctly  calietl  Sonon- 
towanos,  or  Mountaineers.  Such  were  the  names 
and  abodes  of  the  allied  nations,  members  of  the 
far-famed  Kanonsionni,  or  League  of  Uniteil 
Households,  who  were  destined  to  become  for  a 
time  the  most  notable  and  powerful  community 
among  the  native  tribes  of  North  America.  Tlie 
region  which  has  been  described  was  not, however, 
the  original  seat  of  those  nations.  They  belonged 
to  that  linguistic  family  which  is  known  to  ethnol- 
ogists as  Uie  Huron-Iroquois  stock.  Tliis  stock 
comprised  the  Hurona  or  Wyandots,  the  Atti- 
wandaronks  or  Neutral  Nation,  the  Iroquois,  the 
Eries,  the  Andastcs  or  Conestogas,  the  Tuscaroras 
and  some  smaller  bands.  The  tribes  of  this  family 
occupied  a  long  irregular  area  of  inland  terri- 
tory, stretching  from  Canada  to  North  Carolina. 
The  northern  nations  were  all  clustered  about 
the  great  hikes ;  the  southern  bands  held  the  fer- 
tile valleys  bordering  the  head-waters  of  the 
rivers  which  flowed  from  the  Allegheny  moun- 
tains. The  lan^  iages  of  all  these  tribes  showed 
a  close  affinity.  .  .  .  The  evidence  of  language, 
so  far  aa  it  has  yet  been  examined,  seems  to  show 
that  the  Huron  clans  were  the  older  members  of 
the  group;  and  the  clear  and  positive  traditions 
of  all  the  surviving  tribes,  Hurons,  Iroquois,  and 
Tuscarora,  point  to  the  lower  St.  Lawrence  as 
the  earliest  known  abode  of  their  stock.  Here 
the  first  explorer,  Cartier,  found  Indians  of  this 
stock  at  Ilochelaga  aud  Stadacon£,  now  the  sites 
of  Montreal  and  Quebec.  ...  As  their  numt)ers 
increased,  dissensions  arose.  The  hive  swarmed, 
and  band  after  band  moved  off  to  the  west  aud 
south.  As  they  spread  they  encountered  ixHipla 
of  other  stocka,  with  whom  they  had  fn>quiDt 
wars.  Their  most  constant  and  most  dreailed 
CQcmies  were  the  tribes  of  the  Aigonkin  family, 
a  fierce  and  rcsUess  people,  of  northern  origin, 
who  everywhere  surrounded  them.  At  one 
period,  however.  It  the  concurrent  traditions  of 
both  Iroquois  and  Algonkina  can  be  believed, 
these  contending  races  'or  a  time  stayed  thtir 
strife,  and  united  their  'irces  in  an  alliance 
against  a  commou  and  formidable  loe.  This  foe 
was  the  nation,  or  perhaps  the  confederniv.  i^f 
the  Alllgewi  or  Talligewi,  the  semiclvilizii 
■  Mound-builders'  of  the  Ohio  Valley,  who  Imvo 
left  their  name  to  the  Allegheny  river  and  nimiii- 
tains,  and  whoso  vast  eariliworks  are  hiIII.  iifiir 
half-a-century  of  study,  the  jH-rplexily  of  an  l:a^- 
ologUts.  A  dcs|)er»te  warfare  ensued,  whiih 
lasted  almut  a  hundred  years,  and  endinl  in  the 
complete  overthrow  ami  destruction,  or  f  pul- 
sion, of  tlie  Aliigewl.  The  survlvon  of  tlu-  ( on- 
quen'd  p«'ople  tied  southwanl.  .  .  .  Tin  time 
which  has  elapsed  since  the  overthrow  of  the 
Alligewi  is  variously  estimatiKl.  The  nios>  |>nib- 
able  conjecture  places  it  at  n  pvrioii  ulonit  s 
thousand  years  before  the  present  day.  It  v  a* 
apparently  soon  after  their  expulsion  that  t,i« 
trinea  of  the  Huron-Iroquois  and  the  Algimkl.i 
stix-ks  RoatlcTfd  tliemst'lves  over  the  wide  n  krinn 
south  of  the  Great  Lakes,  thus  left  op^n  t"  ilnir 
ot'cupancy." — H.  Hale.  Introd.  to  Imv"">'  '""* 
of  H>lr'  —  AftT  th«  i-riinin(  of  Ihs  Kiiniiniins 
Into  the  New  World,  llic  Frvncb  were  Uie  riM  to 
6t'  iiivolviHl  In  hoalilltiea  with  the  lnii|Uiil«  und 
their  early  wan  with  .ibem  produced  a  hatred 


AUERICAir  ABORiaiNES. 

which  could  never  be  extinguished.    Hence  the 
English  were  able  to  win  the  alliance  r<f  the  Five 
Nations,  when  they  struggled  with  France  for 
the  mastery  of  the  North  AmeHeaji  continent, 
and  they  owed  their  victory  to  that  alliance,  prob- 
ably, more  than  to  any  other  single  cause.    Eng- 
land still  retained  the  faithful  friendship  and 
alliance  of  the  Iroquois  when  she  came  to  a 
struggle  with  her  own  colonies,  and  all  the  tribes 
except   the  Oneidas  were  In  arms   against  the 
Ami'ricaos  in  the  Revolutionary  War.     "With 
the  restoration  of  peace,  the  political  transactions 
of  the  League  were  substantlallv  closed.     This 
was,  in  effect,  the  termination  of  their  political 
existence.    The  Jurisdiction  of  the  United  States 
was  cxtendetl  over  their  -"nient  territories,  and 
from  that  time  forth  tL  /  became   dependent 
nations.    During  the  proffresa  of  the  Revolution, 
the  Mohawks  abandoned  their  country  and  re- 
moved to  Canada,  finally  establishing  themselves 
partly  upon  Orand  River,  In  the  Niagara  penin- 
sula, and  partly  near  Kingston,  i.here  they  now 
reside  upin  two  reservations  secured  to  them  by 
the  British  government  .  .  .  The  policy  of  ihe 
State  of  Ne-.v  York  [toward  the  Iroquois  nations] 
was  ever  j  ust  and  humane.   Although  their  coun- 
try, with  the  exception  of  that  of  the  Oncidaa, 
might  have  bei"   considered  aa  forfeited  by  the 
event  of  the  lU.  .'olution,  yet  the   government 
lever  tnforced  the  rights  of  conque»t,  iMit  ex- 
Unguished   the  1  .liun  title   to  the  coi;      ■.-  by 
purchase,  and  tn  aly  stipulations.     A  i,        .n  of 
the  Oneida  nation  [who  had  sold  their  .    ...»  to 
the  State,  from  time  to  time,  excepting  one  small 
i¥serv;ation]  emigrated  to  a  reservation  on  the 
river  Thames  In  Canada,  where  about  400  of  them 
now  [IS51]  reside.     Anot^ier  and  a  larger  band 
rcmovfd  to  Green  Bay,  in  Wisconsin,  where  they 
•till  make  their  homes  to  the  number  of  700. 
But  a  ».  tall  part  of  the  nation  have  n'malned 
around  the  seat  of  their  ancient  council-flro 
near  Oj.cida  Castle,  In  the  county  of  Oneida." 
The  Onoiiiiagas  "  still  retain  their  beautiful  and 
serladcd  valley  of  Onondaga,  with  suflicient  ter- 
ritory for  Ihclr  comfortable  maintenance.   About 
150  Onondagas  now  reside  with  the  Seneras- 
another  party  are  established  on  Grand  River,  In 
Canada,  and  a  few  have  removed  to  the  west. 
...  In  the  brief  spare  of  twelve  years  after  the 
first  house  of  the  white  man  was  erected  in  Cay- 
UK»  county  (178t»)  the  whole  nation  [of  Uie  Cay- 
ugMl  WAS  uprooted  ami  gone.     In  1793,  they 
ccileil,  by  Irenty.  all  their  lauds  to  the  htate,  with 
the  exrrptlon  o(  one  rewrvation,  which  they  fin- 
ally ahandonoi  aU.ut  the  year  1800.     A  p.)rtIou 
or  them  n  moved  f«  Green  Bay,  another  U)  Grand 
Klvtr,  Bi.(l  still  another,  and  a  much  larger  band 
•I'ttlf     r.t  Sandusky,  In  Ohio,  from  whence  they 
•  r^  ■emoviti  by  government,  a  few  years  nince 
into  'ho  Indinn  territory,  west  of  the  Missisxippl. 
Aboil  1208till  rj'slde aninngthe Svnecas,  'n west- 
ern New  \  ork.  ...  The  Tuscarorss,  after  re- 
moving from  the  Oneida  terrlti  rv.  flnallv  located 
Dtar  ilie  Niagara  river,  in  tl'    vicinity  of  Ia-wIs- 

'  '^i  *  "?^'  ^"''^  "'  ''"'"'  ^y  "'"  Hcnecaa. 
Li.. ,  V  "'"'•''"■  "'  "'e  Senecas  are  now  shut  up 
witliiii  thrtf  Hmall  n'servatlous.  the  Tonnwanda 
till- (attaraugus and  the  Allegany,  whiili.  united, 
woiii,  u,H  cover  the  area  of  one  of  the  kiiaer 
c.„,„,to.  of  the  Sf,.<-"_t...  U  MofRn,..  Th, 
U.„,nt  nf  ih,  Iniqum*,  ft*.  1,  M.  l._  "The  In- 

f.WO,  and  occupy  .aadi  to  th«  nUmiitcd  extent 
1 


97 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 

of  87,«77  acres.     With  few  exceptions,  theas 
people  are  the  direct  descendanto  of  the  native 
Indians,  who  once  possessed  and  controlled  the 
soil  of  the  entire  State."  —ij«)(.  of  Special  Uom 
tolntuttgatt  the  Indian  Problem  of  the  gtate  of 
y.   Y.,  im— In   17J5   the   Five  Nations  of 
Uie  Iroquois  Confederacy  became  Six  Nations 
by  Oe  admission  of  the  Tuscaroras,  from  N 
Carolina.  —  See  bel',w :    Iroqiois  Tbibes   of 
THE  SotJTH.— On  the  relationship  between  the 
Iroquois  and  the  Cherokees,  see  above :  Cuero- 

KBES. 

Iroquois   Cot  fcder»cy.  _  The   Legend   o( 
Hiawatha,  the  Founder.    Sec  Inoocoia  Co\- 

rSDERACT. 

IrMuois  Confederacj.— Their  Name.—"  The 
origin  and  proper  meaning  of  the  word  Iroquois 
are  doubtful.    All  that  can  be   said  with  cer- 
tainty la  that  the  explanation  given  by  Charlevoix 
cannot   possibly    be   correct.      The    name    of 
Iroquois,  he  savs.   Is  purely   French,    and  has 
beer    formed    from    the  term     hiro,'    'I  have 
spoken,'  a  word  by  which  these  Indians  close  all 
Uieir  speeches,  and  'kou4,'  which,  when  long 
drawn  out,  la  a  cry  of  sorrow,  and  when  brieSy 
uttered  Is  an  exclamation  of  joy.  .  .  .  But  . 
Champlain    had    learned  the    name    from    his 
Indian  allies  before  he  or  any  other  Fienchman 
so  far  as  is  known,  had  ever  seen  an  Iroquois! 
It  is  probable  th»'.  the  origin  of  the  word  is  to 
bcsoueht  in  the  Huron  language;  yet,  as  this 
is  similar  to  the  Irofjuuis  tongue,  an   attempt 
may  be  made  to  find  a  solution  in  the  latter 
According  toBruyas,  the  wo  " '  garokwa  '  meant 
a  pipe,  and  also  a  piece  of  touacco,  —  and,  in  ita 
verbal  form,   to  -,i..uKe.    This  word   is  found 
wmewhat  disguised  by  asr'rates,  in  the  Book  of 
Rite"i,  — denighroghkvvaycn.— •  let  us  two  smoke 
together.'.  .  .  In  the   iiid.;terminat«    form    the 
verb  becomes  'ierokwa.'  which  is  certainly  very 
near  to  Iroouols.  It  might  be  rendered  •  they  who 
smoke,'  or  'they  who  use  tobacco,' or,  briefiy 
'the  Tobacco  People."    This  name,  tlie  Tobacco 
Nation  ('  Nation  du  Petun ')  was  given  by  the 
French,  and  probably  also  by  the  Ai  -^nkins,  to 
one  of  the  Ilurtm  tribes,  the  Tionontates,  noted 
for  the  excellent  tobacco  which  they  raised  and 
sold.     The  Iroquois  were  equally  well   kno<vn 
for  their  cultivation  of  this  plant,  of  which  t'    y 
had  a  choice  variety."— U.  Hale.  Iro>juoi<i  Boo> 
of  RtUt.  <t pp.    note  A. 

Iroquois  Confederacy.  —  Their  conquests 
and  wide  dominion.  —  "The  projiit  of  a 
League  [among  the  'Five  Nations'  of  the  Iro- 
quois] originnU>'l  with  the  Oiioudagas,  among 
whom  it  nils  flrs^  suggesu-d.  as  a  nicans  to 
enable  them  more  cffcrtuall}  to  resist  tlie  pres- 
sure of  contiguous  nations.  The  epo<h  of  Its 
fcslabhshnunt  cannot  now  be  decisively  nsccr- 
taintnl;  although  the  clrcumstames  allcmling  Its 
forniatlcm  are  still  r-ewrved  bv  tradili.ii  with 
great  minutepess.  These  trniiltious  nil  refer  to 
iho  I  jrthem  shore  of  the  Onondaga  lake,  as  the 
plact  where  the  Iroquois  chit*  .  «iiili|.,|  |a 
general  congress,  to  agm  upo-  criiis  and 

priiiclnlesof  the  compact.  .  .  .  he  forma- 

tion of  the  League,  the  Iroquois  rapidly  la 

rx>wer  and  influence.  .  .  .  With  me  first  con- 
»<lousniii»  I  rising  power,  they  turned  their 
von^  viiirUiiwl  rt'iieuiiiiem  upoii  llie  Aitiron- 
daiks,  who  had  oppresscil  them  in  tlieir  lufancy 
as  a  nation,  and  had  expelhtl  tlicm  from  tliefr 
country.  In  the  Orst  struggte  for  tlie  ascendancy. 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


■■11 


'.  .  .  At  the  t  Tt  of  French  discovery  (153S),  the 
latter  nation  [>*>€  AdirondacliB]  appear  to  have 
beien  dispossesseu  of  their  original  country,  and 
driven  down  the  St.  Lawrence  as  far  as  Quebec. 
...  A  ntTv  era  commenceti  with  the  Iroquois 
upon  the  establishment  of  the  Dutch  trading- 
post  at  Orange,  now  Albany,  In  1615.  .  .  . 
Friendly  relations  were  establislied  between  the 
Iroquois  and  the  Dutch,  which  continued  with- 
out interruption  until  the  latter  surrendered 
'their  possessions  upon  the  Hudson  to  the  Eng- 
lish in  16M.  During  this  period  a  trade  sprang 
up  1).  tween  them  in  furs,  which  the  Iroqvols  ex- 
chan  iwl  for  Euroiie^n  fabrics,  bu',  Tiore  es- 
pecially for  fire-arms,  in  the  use  of  which  they 
w^  afterwards  destined  to  become  so  expert. 
The  English,  in  turn,  cultivated  the  same  rela- 
tions of  friendship.  .  .  .  With  the  possession  of 
flre-urms  commenced  not  only  the  mpid  eleva- 
tion, but  absolute  supremacy  O-  the  Iroquois 
over  other  Indian  nat'ons.  In  If  iO,  they  ex- 
pelled the  Neuter  Nation  from  the  Niagara  pen- 
Innulit  and  established  a  ^wrmanent  settlement  at 
the  moutli  of  '.hat  liver.  They  nearly  extermin- 
ated, in  1653,  the  Erics,  who  occupied  the  south 
Bide  of  Lake  Erie,  and  from  thence  east  to  the 
Genesee,  and  thus  possessed  themselves  of  the 
whole  area  of  western  New  York,  and  the  north- 
ern part  of  Ohio.  About  the  year  1670,  after 
thev  had  finally  completed  the  dtspereion  and 
subjugation  of  the  Adirondncks  and  Hurons, 
they  acquired  possession  of  the  whr '  country 
between  lakes  Huron,  Erie  and  Ontario,  and  of 
the  nortli  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Ottawa  river,  near  Montreal.  .  .  . 
Thev  also  made  constant  inroads  upon  the  New 
England  Indians.  ...  In  16«0,  the  Senecas  with 
60O  warriors  invaded  the  country  of  the  Illinois, 
upon  the  borders  of  the  Mississippi,  while  La 
Bolle  w.is  among  the  latter.  ...  At  various 
times,  bolh  bcfiire  and  after  this  period,  the  Iro- 
quois turned  their  warfare  against  the  Cherokces 
uprn  the  Tenuessee,  snd  the  Catawbas  in  South 
Canilina.  .  .  .  For  about  a  century,  from  the 
year  1000  to  the  year  1700,  the  Iro<;uois  were  In- 
volved in  an  almost  uninterrupted  warfare.  At 
the  close  of  this  period,  they  had  subdued  and  held 
In  nominal  subjection  all  the  principal  Indian  na- 
tions occupying  the  territories  which  arc  now 
embraced  in  the  states  of  New  York,  Delaware, 
Maryland,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvauia,  the  north- 
em  and  wistirn  Darts  of  Virginia,  Ohio,  Ken- 
tuckv.  Norlliem  Tennessee,  Illinois,  Indiana, 
Micliigan,  a  purtion  of  the  New  England  States, 
and  the  principal  part  of  Upper  Canaila.  Over 
these  liuliims,  tlie  haughty  and  imperious  Iro- 
quois excrcistil  a  constant  supervision.  If  any  of 
them  iKiame  invulv-l  in  domestic  difflculties,  a 
delegalinu  of  dilefs  went  among  them  and  re- 
storiHl  tnin(|iilllily,  prescribing  at  the  same  time 
tieir  fn'uri' ii'iiiluct."— L.  H.  Morgan,  Ltagutof 
the  In»iii"i'.  M  1,  ch.  1.—"  Their  [the  Irofjuois's] 
war-partii  s  mamed  over  lialf  America,  and  their 
name  wus  a  t.  rror  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Mis- 
■Issippi ;  but  when  we  ask  the  numerical  strength 
of  the  dri'aded  confederacy,  when  we  discover 
that,  in  the  days  of  their  greatest  triumphs, 
their  united  catitons  could  not  have  mustered 
4. out)  warrior.-.,  we  stand  amazed  at  the  folly  and 
dissension  wiildi  left  so  vast  a  region  the  prey 
of  a  liandful  of  bold  marauders.  Of  the  cities 
and  villages  now  so  thickly  scattered  over  the 
kMt  domain  of  the  Iroquoit,  a  single  one  might 

*  Sec  Notr,  Appendix  E,  vol.  I. 


boaat  a  more  numerous  population  than  all  Uie 
five  united  tribes."— F.Plirkman,  Ths  Oompir- 
(m  -f  Pantiae,  eh.  1. 

Iroquois  Confederacy:  A.  O.  1608-1700. 
—Their  wart  with  the  French.  See  Canada 
(New  Pbakcb):  A.  D.  1608-1611;  16H-1616; 
1634-165i»;  1340-1700;  1696. 

Iroquois  Confederacy:  A.  D.  t64S-i^9.— 
Thnr  destruction  of  the  Htirons  and  the 
Je-  ait  Missions.  See  Canada  (New  France): 
A.  D.  1684-1652:  also,  above,  Huroks. 

Iroquois  Confederacy:  A.  O.  168^1744.— 
Surrenders  and  cbnreyancr, j  to  the  EnKluh. 
See  New  Yoni  A.  D.  1684,  and  1726;  Vir- 
ginia: A  O.  1744;  Ohio  (Vaijj;t):  A.  D.  1748- 
1754;  United  States  op  Am.  :  A.  D.  17fl'  1768. 

Iroquois  Confederacy:  A.  D.  I778-I779-— 
Their  part  in  the  War  of  the  American  Revo- 
lution.    SeeUNITEDSTATESOr  AlfERICA:  A.  D. 

1778  (June— November)  and  (Jult);  and  1779 
(ArocsT— September). 

Iroquois  Tribes  of  the  South.*- "The 
southern  Iroquois  tribes  ocr-'riied  Chowan  River 
and  its  tributary  streams,  i  bey  were  bounded 
on  the  east  by  the  most  southerly  Lenape  tribes, 
who  were  In  possession  of  the  low  country  along 
the  sea  shores,  and  those  of  Albemarle  and 
l^miico  Sounds.  Towards  the  south  and  the 
west  they  extended  beyond  the  river  Neuse. 
They  appear  to  have  been  known  in  Virginia,  iu 
early  times,  under  the  name  of  Monacans,  as  fnr 
north  as  James  Kiver.  .  .  .  Lawson,  in  his 
accouut  of  the  North  Carolina  Indians,  enumer- 
ates the  Chowans,  the  Meherrins,  and  the  Not- 
toways,  as  having  together  95  warriors  in  the  year 
1708.  But  t!ie  Melierrins  or  Tuteloes  and  the 
Nottow"._,s  inhabited  respectively  the  two  rivers 
of  tliat  name,  and  were  principally  seated  In 
Virginia.  We  have  but  Indistinct  notices  of  the 
Tuteloes.  .  .  .  Ii  appears  by  Beverly  that  the 
Nottoways  had  preserved  their  Inaependence 
and  their  numbers  later  than  the  Powhatans,  and 
that,  at  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  they  had 
still  130  warriors.  They  do  not  appear  to  have 
mignited  from  their  original  seats  in  a  body.  In 
the  year  1820,  they  are  said  to  have  been  reduced 
to  27  souls,  and  were  still  in  possession  of  7.000 
acres  In  Southampton  county,  Virginia,  which 
had  been  at  an  early  date  reserved  for  them. 
.  .  .  The  Tuscaroras  were  by  far  the  must 
Dowcrful  nation  in  North  Carolina,  and  occuiiicd 
,  .  the  residue  of  the  territory  In  that  colony, 
which  has  been  described  as  Inhabited  tiy 
Irocjuois  tribes.  Their  principal  seats  in  1708 
were  on  the  Neuse  and  the  Taw  or  Tar  rivers, 
•  nd  according  to  Lawson  they  had  1,200  warriors 
in  fifteen  towns."  In  1711  the  Tuscnroms 
attacked  tlie  English  colonisU,  massacring  130 
In  a  single  day,  and  a  fierce  war  ensued.  "In 
the  autumn  of  1712,  all  the  iuhabitanU  south  and 
southwest  of  Chowan  River  were  obliged  to  live 
in  forts;  and  the  Tuscaroras  expected  assi^I,l:»■e 
from  the  Five  Nations.  This  could  not  Inive 
l)ecn  given  without  Involving  the  confetUniiy  In 
a  war  with  Gn-at  Britain:  and  the  Tusjiironu 
were  left  to  their  own  resources.  A  torxv,  nin- 
sisting  chiefly  of  southern  Indians  undir  the 
command  of  Colonel  Moore,  was  again  si  lit  liy 
the  government  of  South  Carolina  to  a».sist  tiie 
uiirlliiru  Cul<)iile».  He  besieged  and  took  3  f-rt 
of  the  Tuscaroras.  ...  Of  800  prisomrs  WW 
wen-  given  up  to  the  Southern  Indians,  wlio 
carried  them  to  South  Carolioa  to  sell  them  u 


98 


AMERICAN  ABORIomsa 


AHSRICAN  ABORiamES. 


dsTM.  The  Eutern  Tuscaroru,  whose  principal 
town  was  on  the  Taw,  twenty  miles  above 
Washington,  immediately  made  peaf;e,  and  a 
portion  was  settled  a  few  years  after  north  of 
tbe  Roanolce,  near  Windsor,  where  they  con- 
tinued till  the  year  1808.  But  the  great  body  of 
tlie  nation  removed  in  1714-lS  to  th«  ri-e 
Nations,  was  received  as  the  8ixth,  and  has  since 
shared  their  fate." — A.  Oaliatin,  Sgnapnt  oftht 
Indian  Tribti  (Arehaologia  Ammatna,  «.  3), 
introd.,  leet.  3. 

Also  in  J.  W.  Mooie,  JStt.  «<  iK  Carolina, 
e.  1,  eh.  8. — See,  also,  above:  iBoquou  CoN- 

FKOERACT. 

Itocos.    Seeebove:  CmacBASw 

Itonamos,  or  Itonomot.    Bee  above:  Akdb- 

tUNS;  also  BoLtVIA:  AbOBIQIKAL  iMBABITAllTa. 

livara,  or  Jivaro.    See  above:  ANDssujia 

Kah-kwas,    Sec  above:    Hcroks,  /■■;. 

KaUpooiaa  Familr. — "  Under  t'lis  family 
name  Scouier  places  two  tril>es,  the  Kalapoola'., 
Inhabiting  '  the  fertile  WilUmat  plr.ins '  and  the 
Tamkallie,  who  live  'more  in  the  interior, 
towards  the  so^.cesof  the  Willamit  River.' .  .  . 
The  tribes  of  the  Kalapooian  fanily  inhabited 
the  valley  of  Willamette  River,  Oregon,  above 
the  falls. ''—J.  W.  Powell,  SetientA  Annual  Bept., 
Bureau  of  Etknologjf,  p.  81. 

Kanawhas,    or     Ganawete.      See   above: 

AUKIM<irLAN  Familt. 
Kansas,  or  Kaws.    Sec  below :  Siocan. 
Kapohn.     See   above:    Cakibs   and   treib 

KlNDKEO. 

Karankawan  FamilT.— "The  Karankawa for- 
merly dwelt  upon  the  Texan  coast,  according  to 
ISiblcv,  upon  an  island  or  peninsula  in  the  Bay  of 
St.  Bcninrd  (Matagonia  Bay).  .  .  7n  1884  Mr. 
Gtttschet  fr.uud  a  Tonkawe  at  Poi  i  OritUn,  Texas, 
who  claimi'd  to  liave  formerly  lived  among  the 
Kuraukii-.,a.  From  him  a  vocabulury  of  twenty- 
five  t<  .-ms  was  obtained,  which  was  all  of  the 
language  he  remembered.  The  vocabulary  .  .  . 
8U(T  »«  ••  In.  rcnrenvnts  all  of  the  language  that  is 
e.xtant.  „udgi-,'  by  this  vocabulary  the  language 
•eema  to  be  distlrn't  not  only  from  the  Attiikapa 
b".t  from  all  ot;.  »."— J.  W.  Powell,  HexntX 
Annii'il  lit,tort,  Bu    an  of  Bthiuilogy,  p.  82. 

Karoks,  or  Cahroca.    See  below:    Modocs. 

Kaskaskias.    Sec  above:  Aluunuuun  Fam- 

«LV. 

Kaus,  or  Kwokwooi.     See  below:    Kcsan 
F.\Mi'.y 
Kan.,  or  Kansas.    Sec  lielow :  Siouan. 
Kenai,  or  Blood  Indians.*  Sccabove:  Black- 

rKET. 

Keresan  Family.— "Th!  .  .  .  pueblos  of 
Kiresau  sUKk  .  .  .  uro  situited  in  New  Mcxiit) 
ou  tbe  u|i|M'r  lUo  Orande,  on  ecveriil  of  its  smiill 
wes'irn  alliuenU,  and  on  the  Jemez  and  San 
ime.  which  also  are  trih.ilaries  of  the  Hio 
OMiide.'— J.  W.  Powell,  tSerrnlh  Annual  Bept 
Uur„vt  of  Ethnology,  p.  83. —See  PcBBLO. 

Kikapoot.  See  aliove:  Al.«oNyi:iAN  Famii.t 
and  IhIuw :    Sai-s,  Ac. ,  and  Pawnee (Caddoas) 

i  >MII.T 

Kiowan  Family.— "Dcrirall<m:  From  the 
hi"WH  word  K6i,  plural  Kii-igu,  meaning 
'K«yow«man.'  The  Comakche  term  kiyowl 
iiiijiiM  'rat.'  The  author  who  first  formally 
svpsntp.)  this  f.iiiiily  appears  to  have  bci'a 
liirmr.  .  .  .  Turner,  upon  the  strength  of  a 
v,«:ilnilary  furnlsh.il  by  Lieut  Whipple,  dla- 
» iiiH  from  tbe  opinion  expressed  by  IMke  and 

•  Sy  Xote,  Apiwndix  K,  v.il.  5.  99 


othen  to  the  effect  that  the  language  b  of  tha 
same  stock  as  tbe  Comanche,  and,  while  admitting 
that  its  relationship  to  Comanche  is  greater  than 
to  any  other  family,  thuUu  that  the  likeness  is 
m':iely  the  result  of  long  intercommunication. 
His  opinion  that  it  is  entirely  distinct  from  any 
other  language  has  been  indorsed  bv  Busch- 
mann  and  other  authorities.  The  family  is  rep- 
resented by  the  Kiowa  tribe.  So  intimately 
assochited  with  the  Comanches  have  the  Kiowa 
been  since  known  to  history  that  it  is  not  easy  to 
determine  their  pristine  home.  .  .  .  Pope  defl- 
nitely  locates  the  Kiowa  in  the  valley  of  the 
Upper  Arkansas,  and  of  its  tributary,  the  Purga- 
tory (Laa  Animaa)  River.  This  is  i.  substenSal 
accord  with  the  statements  of  other  writers  of 
about  the  same  period.  Schermerhom  (1818) 
places  the  Kiowa  on  the  heads  of  the  Arkansas 
.nd  Platte.  Esviier  still  they  appear  upon  the 
headwaters  of  the  Platte."— X  W.  Powell, 
Seventh  A  .nual  Beport,  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  p. 

KIrirl,    Cayriil     See    above:     Ouck    ob 
Coco  Okuiip. 

KitDnahan  Punily.—  'This  family  waj  based 
upon  a  tribe  variously  termed  Kitunaha,  Kutenay, 
Cootenal,  or  Flatbow,  living  on  the  Kootenay 
River,  a  branch  of  the  ColumbU  in  Oregon."— 
J.  W.  Powell,  Seventh  Annual  Sept.,  Bureau  ot 
Ethnology,  p.  85. 
KUmathi.  See  below:  Modocs. 
Kolnachon  Family.- "Derivation:  From  the 
Aleut  word  koiosb,  or  more  roperly,  kaluga, 
meaning  'dish,'  the  allusion  dng  to  the  dish- 
shaped  lip  ornaments.  This  family  was  based 
hy  Oaliatin  upon  the  Koluschcn  tribe  (the 
TshinkiUni  of  Marchand),  'who  inhabit  the 
islands  and  the  [Pacific]  coast  from  the  60th  to 
the  55th  degree  of  north  latitude.'" -J.  W. 
Powell,  Seventh  Annual  Bept.,  Bureau  of  Eth- 
wrlugy,  p.  88. 

Knlanapan  Family.— "The  main  territory 
of   the  Kulanapan  family  is  bounded  on  the 

ost  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  on  the  east  bv  the 
1  ukian  and  Copehan  territories,  on  the  north  by 
tlio  watershed  of  the  Russian  River,  and  on  the 
south  by  a  line  drawn  from  Bodega  Head  to  the 
southwest  comer  of  the  Yukian  terrlU)ry,  near 
•Santji  Rosa,  Sononw  Count v,  California.  "--J.  W. 
Powell,  l^reiUh  Arnual  Bept.,  Bureau  of  Eth- 
nology,  p.  88. 

Kuaan  Family.*-'  The  '  Kaus  or  Kwokwoos ' 
tribe  is  merely  mentioi  "d  by  Hale  as  living  on  a 
river  of  the  siime  name  etwcen  the  Uiuquu  and 
the  Clamet."— J.  W.  Pi  well.  HeteiUh  Annual 
Jiept..  Bureau  of  Ethn^iyy,  p.  89. 

Kwokwoos.    See  above:   Kusa..  Family. 

Lenape.      See    above:     Diilawaueb. 

Machicuis,    See  below:  Pampas  Thibes. 

Mscuabi,     See  above:    Cakibs  aud  theib 

KiNDBED. 

Mansos.    See  above;  Gees  ob  Coco  C Roin*. 
Maodans,  or  Mandanes.    See  belov. :  Siouam 
Fauilv. 

Manhattans.    See  above:  Aloohqpian  Fam- 
ily, ami,  piso,  Manhattan  Isl.and. 
Manioto,  or  Mayno,    See  above :  Andesians, 
Mapochins.    See  Chile:  A.  D.  1480-1724. 
MaranluL      See    above:      Ouck    ob    Coco 

(iKol  i'. 

Maricopsa.    See  N-low :  PrKBLos. 
Maripoaan Family.— "  Derivation:  A  Spanish 
word  meaning  '  butterfly,'  applied  to  a  county  in 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


AMERICAN  ABORIOINSa 


,';i 


California  and  subsequently  taken  for  the  family 
name.  Iiatham  mentions  the  remnants  of  three 
distinct  bands  of  the  C'oconoon,  each  with  its 
own  language,  in  the  north  of  Mariposa  County. 
These  are  classed  together  under  the  above 
name.  More  recently  the  tribes  speaking 
languages  allied  to  the  CoconQn  have  been 
trcnted  of  under  the  family  name  Yokut.  As, 
however,  the  stock  was  estublishfd  by  Latham  on 
a  sound  basis,  his  name  is  here  restored. " — J.  W. 
Powell,  AlcMiUA  Annual  Sept.,  Bureau  of  Eth- 
tuloSH,  p.  90. 

Matcoutina,  or  Matcontena,  See  below: 
Sacs,  &c. 

Maaaachosetts.  See  above:  ALooRqinAn 
Familt. 

Matagnayaa.    See  Bolivia:  Abobioo'al  ih- 

HADITANTg. 

Mayaa. — "In  his  second  voyage,  Columbus 
heard  vague  rumors  of  a  mainland  westward 
from  Jamaica  and  Cuba,  at  a  distance  of  ten  days' 
Journey  in  a  canoe.  .  .  .  During  his  fourth  voy- 
age (1803-4),  when  be  waa  exploring  the  Oulf 
southwest  from  Cuba,  he  picked  up  a  canoe 
laden  with  cotton  clothing  variously  dyed.  The 
natives  in  it  gave  him  to  understand  that  they 
were  merchants,  and  came  from  a  land  called 
Maia.  This  is  the  first  mention  in  history  of  the 
territory  now  called  Yucatan,  and  of  the  race  of 
the  Mayas;  for  although  a  province  of  similar 
name  was  found  in  the  western  extremity  of  the 
island  o(  Cuba,  the  similarity  was  accidental,  as 
the  evidence  is  conclusive  that  no  colony  of  the 
Meyas  was  found  on  the  Antillts.  .  .  .  Maya 
was  the  patriai  name  of  the  nativen  of  Yucatan. 
It  WHS  the  proper  name  of  the  northern  portion 
of  the  peninsula.  No  single  province  bore  it  st 
the  date  of  the  Conquest,  and  prol)ably  it  had 
been  bunded  down  as  a  generic  term  from  the 
period,  about  a  century  before,  when  this  whole 
district  was  united  under  one  government.  .  .  . 
Whatever  the  primitive  meaning  and  first  appli- 
cation of  the  name  Maya,  it  is  now  used  to  signify 
specitlcally  the  aborigmes  of  Yucatr.n.  In  a  more 
extended  sense,  in  the  expression  'the  Mara 
family,'  it  is  underst>xKl  to  embrace  all  tribes, 
wherever  found,  who  speak  related  dialects  pre- 
sumably derive<l  from  the  same  ancient  stock  as 
the  Maya  proper.  .  .  .  The  total  numlier  of 
Indians  of  pure  blood  speaking  the  Maya  proper 
may  be  estinutted  as  nearly  or  quitc2U<),U0U,  most 
of  them  in  the  political  limits  of  the  department 
of  Yucatan;  to  these  should  be  added  nearly 
100,1100  of  mixed  blood,  or  of  European  descent, 
who  use  the  tongue  in  daily  life.  For  it  forms 
one  of  the  rare  examples  of  American  languages 

fiossessing  vitality  enough  not  only  to  muiutuin 
ts  ground,  but  actually  to  force  itself  on  Euro- 
pean settlers  and  supplant  their  native  speech. 
.  .  .  The  Mayas  did  not  claim  to  be  autoch- 
thones. Their  legends  referred  to  their  arrival 
by  tlie  sea  from  the  East,  in  remote  times,  under 
the  leadership  of  Itzumna,  their  hero-god,  and 
also  to  a  less  numerous  immigration  from  the 
West,  which  was  connected  with  the  history  of 
another  henigtHl,  Kukul  (.'in.  The  first  of  these 
appears  to  he  wholly  mythical.  .  .  .  The  second 
tradition  deserves  mure  atfntlon  from  the  his- 
torian. ...  It  cannot  he  denied  that  the  Mayas, 
the  Kiehes  [or  Quiiiien]  Hud  the  Cukrhlqueis,  in 
their  most  venerable  traditions,  claimed  to  hbve 
migrated  from  the  north  or  west  from  some  part 
•f  the  present  country  of  Meska    'TiMe  tia- 


dittons  receive  additional  Importance  from  the 
presence  on  the  shores  of  the  Mexican  Gulf,  oa 
the  waters  of  the  river  Panuco,  north  of  Vera 
Cruz,  of  a  prominent  branch  of  the  Maya  family, 
the  Uuasteca.  The  idea  suggests  itself  that 
these  were  the  rear-guard  of  a  great  migration  of 
the  Maya  family  from  the  north  toward  the 
south.  Support  is  given  to  this  by  their  dUlect, 
which  '  most  closely  akin  to  that  of  the  Tzendala 
of  Tabasco,  the  nearest  Maya  race  to  the  south  of 
them,  and  also  by  very  ancient  traditions  of  the 
Aztecs.  It  is  noteworthy  that  these  two  partially 
civilized  races,  tt  Mayas  and  the  Aztecs, 
though  differing  radically  in  language,  had 
legends  which  claimed  a  community  of  origin  in 
some  indefinitely  remote  past  We  find  these  on 
the  Maya  side  narrated  in  the  sacred  book  of  the 
Kiehes,  the  Popol  Vub,  In  the  Cakchiquel 
'Records  of  Tecpan  Atillan,'  and  in  various 
pure  Maya  sources.  .  .  .  The  annals  of  the  Aztecs 
contain  frequent  allusions  to  the  Huastecs." — D. 
G.  BrintoD,  T?u  Maya  ChronieUt,  introd.— 
"Closely  enveloped  in  the  dense  forests  of  Chia- 
pas, Oautemaht,  Yucatan,  and  Honduras,  the 
ruins  of  several  ancient  cities  have  been  discov- 
ered, which  are  far  superior  in  extent  and  mag- 
nificence to  any  seen  In  Aztec  territory,  and  of 
which  a  detailed  description  may  be  found  in  the 
fourth  volume  of  this  work.  Most  of  these  cities 
were  abandoned  and  more  or  less  unknown  at  the 
time  of  the  [Spanish]  Conquest.  They  bear 
hieroglyphic  inscriptions  apparently  Identical  in 
character;  in  other  respects  they  resemble  eaeh 
other  more  than  they  resemble  the  Aztec  ruins  — 
or  even  other  and  apparently  later  works  in 
Guatemala  and  Honduras.  All  these  remains 
bear  evident  marks  of  great  antiquity.  ...  I 
deem  the  groiuids  suflldent  .  .  .  for  accepting 
this  Central  American  civilization  of  the  past  nsa 
fact,  referring  it  not  to  an  extinct  ancient  nice, 
but  to  the  direct  ancestora  of  the  peoples  still 
occupying  tho  country  with  the  Spaniards.  »iij 
applying  to  it  the  name  Slaya  as  that  of  the  hui- 
gtrige  which  has  claims  as  strong  as  any  to  l>e 
ccnsldcred  the  mother  tongue  of  tlie  linguistic 
family  mentioned.  .  .  .  There  are  no  data  liy 
which  to  fix  the  period  of  the  original  Maya 
empire,  or  its  downfall  or  breaking  up  into  riviil 
factions  by  civil  and  foreign  ware.  'The  cities  (i( 
Yucatan,  as  is  tleiirl/  shown  by  Mr.  Stephens, 
were,  many  of  them!  occupied  by  the  desceiui- 
ants  of  the  builders  down  to  the  con(|uest,  uiid 
contain  some  remuantsof  woodwork  still  in  gmai 
pn>servtttion,  although  some  of  the  structuns 
appear  to  be  built  on  the  ruins  of  otiiers  nf  a 
soinewhut  different  type.  Palenque  and  t'o|'nn, 
on  the  contrary,  have  no  traces  of  wchmI  or  otlii-r 
|H>rishable  material,  and  were  uninhabited  ami 
nmbably  unknown  in  the  16th  centurv.  Tlie 
loss  of  the  key  to  what  must  have  Wn  iin 
advanced  system  of  hieroglyphics,  while  tlie 
spoken  Innguu^e  survivtKl,  is  also  an  indicati'>u 
of  ^«'at  ttnti<iuity,  cimlirined  by  the  fact  that  the 
(Juich^  structuas  of  Guatemala  dilfeted  maltri 
ally  from  those  of  the  more  ancient  epociL  It  is 
not  likely  that  the  Maya  empire  In  its  integrity 
continued  later  than  the  3(1  or  4th  century, 
although  Its  cities  may  have  been  inliabite<l  iiiui  h 
laK'r.  and  I  should  llx  the  eixK-h  of  Its  hinli.st 
power  at  a  date  ureeeding  rather  liuin  foliou  iiii; 
the  Christian  era.  — H.  H.  Bancroft,  A'nftiw  Wiivi 
of  the  I'iieiHe  State4,  t.  2,  cA.  2;  «.  4,  cA  8-6/  a 
5,  eh.  U-18. 


100 


AMERICAN  ABORIOntEa 

Alm  a  Msrquli  de  KadsllUc,  Prehittorie 
Anuriea,  eh.  6-7.— J.  L.  Stephens,  Inddenlt  of 
Tratdin  Tueatan;  aud  Tratd  in  Central  America, 
<te.—B.  M.  Nonnao,  RanMei  in  Tueatan.— 
D.  Charnsy,  Aneitnt  Cititt  </  the  Ifew  World.— 
See,  also,  Mexico:  Ancuutt,  and  Aztec  axd 
IIata  Pictube-Writino. 

Majoruna,  or  Barbndo.    See  aboTe:  Andb- 

■UNR. 

Menomineet.  See  above:  ALOoxquuK  Fax- 
ILT,  and  Sacs,  &c. 

Hetbacs.    See  above:  ALoonqciAK  Family. 

'    Miamis,orTwightweea.  See  above:  Alqox- 

qcuN  Family,  iLLmois,  and  Sacs,  &c. 

Micmaci.    See  above:  A  loonquian  Family. 

Minp^ocs.— "  The  name  c'  Mingo,  or  Itlengwe, 

by  which  the  Iroquoia  weri  linown  to  the  Dcla- 

rtre*  and  the  other  louthe.  n  Algonlcins,  is  said 

to  be  a  contraction  of  the  l-  -pe  word  'Ma- 

hongwi,' meaning  the 'People  >.     the  Springs.' 

The  Iroquoia  poeseued  the  head-    <ter8  of  the 

riven  which  flowed  through  the  cou  try  of  the 

Delawares."— H.   Hale,   The  Iroquou    Book  of 

Bitet,  app.,  note  A. 

Minneconjou.    See  below:    Siouam  Family. 

Minaetarect.*    See   above:    Uidatsa;    and 

below:  SiocAX  Family. 

Miaquaa.  See  below:  ScBcjcEBASirAg;  and 
above:  ALnoxquiAX  Family. 

Minsis,  Manseea,  or  Miniainkt  See  above : 
Delawares,  and  ALOoni^nAN  '.'"amiiy. 

Hiranba.    See  above:  Gick  on  Cov-o Group. 
,    Missourif.    See  below:  Siouan  Family. 
I    Mixes.    See  below:  Zapotecs,  etc. 
Mixtecs.    See  below :  Zapotecs,  etc. 
Mocovis.    Sec  below:  Pampas  TRinES. 
Hodocs   (Klamatha)   and   their   California 
and  Oregon  neighbora.S-"  The  principal  tribes 
occupying  this  region  [of  Northern  California 
from  liogue  Ilivcr  on  the  north  to  the  Eel  Kivcr. 
south]  nrc  the  Klamaths,  who  live  on  the  licaii 
waters  of  the  river  and  on  the  shores  of  the  lake 
oftlmt  name;  the  Modocs.  on  Lower  Klamalh 
Lake  ami  along  Lost  I,'ver;  the  Shastas,  to  the 
(outh-wost  of  the  Ijikes;  the  Pitt  River  Indi.ins- 
the  Eurocs,  on   the    Klamath    River   between 
WeiUpek  and  the  coast;   the  Cahrocs,  on  the 
Klamath  River  from  a  short  distance  above  the 
junction  of  the  Trinity  to  the  Klamath  Moun- 
tains; the  Hoopahs  rr)r  llupas,  a  tribe  of  the 
Athanascnn  Familv]  in  Uoopah  Valley  on  the 
Tnnity  near  its   junction   with  the   Klamath- 
mimprous  trilws  on  the  coast  from  Eel  River  and 
llmiil)()ldt   Bay    north,  Euch   as  the  VVeovots 
Wallics,  Tolewahs,  etc.,  and  the  Rogue  ftivcr 
Indian_ .  on  and  alwut  the  river  of  that  name. 
The  >orilicm  Califomians  are  in  every  way 
superior  to  the  central  and  southern  tribes  "— 
li.  H.  Bancroft,  T/if  Natire  Jiaea  of  the  Fiinfie 
«a<M,  r.  1.  M.  4.— "On  the  Kkmath  there  live 
three  distmct  tril)c»,  called  the  Yvirok,  K^-rok. 
anil  Mo^lok,  which   names  are   said   to  mean 
MDfiiively,  -down  the  river,"  'up  the  rivir" 
aud  'hcMl  of  the  river.'  ...   The  Karok  ai^ 
prolmhly    the    finest    tribe    in    California. 
HiKipa    Valley,   on    the    Ix)uer    Trinitv,  Is  the 
home  of  .the  Ilii-pS],     Next  after  the'  Ka-rok 
they  are  the  finest  race  in  nil  that  region,  and 


AMERICAN  ABORIOINEa 

thev  are  the  French  in  the  extended  dUTusion  of 
their  language."    The'Modoks,  "on  the  whoto 
...  are  rather  a  cloddish,  indolent,  ordinarilr 
good-natured  race,  but  treacherous  at  bottom. 
Bulle-.   when   angered,   notorious   for   keeping 
Punic  faith.    But   their   bravery   nobody  can 
Impeach  or  deny;  their  heroic  and  long  defense 
of  their  stronghold   against  the  appliancea  of 
modem  civilized  warfare,  including  that  arm  so 
awful  to   savages— the   artillery  —  was  almost 
the  only  feature  that  lent  respectability  to  their 
wretched  tragedy  of  the  Lava  Beds  [1873]."— 8 
Powers,   Tribee  of  California  (Contributiont  f 
N.  A.  Ethnology,  e.  8),  eh.  1,  7,  and  27.— "The 
home  of   the   Klamath   tribe  of   southwestern 
Oregon  lies  upon  the  eastern  slope  of  the  south- 
em  extremitv  of  the  Cascade  Range,  and  very 
nearly  coincides  with  what   we    may  call  the 
head  watere  of  the  Klamath   River,  the  main 
course  of   which   lies   in  Morthem  California. 
•  '..■  "^^  '"*'°  **■'  °'  "'^  Jlodoc  peonle  was  the 
J»"ey  of  Lost  River,  the  shores  of  Tule  and  of 
Little  Klamafi  Lake.  .*.  .  The  two  main  bodiea 
forming  the  Klamath  people  are  (1)  the  Klamath 
Lake   Indians;   (2)   the  Modoc  Indians.     The 
Klamath  Lake  Indiana  number  more  than  twice 
as  many  as  the  Modoc  Indiana.    They  speak  the 
northern  dialect  and  form  th«  northern  chief- 
taincy. .  .  .  The   Klamath   people   possess  no 
historic  traditions  going   further  back  in  time 
than  a  century,  for  the  simple  reason  that  tliere 
was  a  strict  law  prohibiting  the  mention  of  the 
person  or  acts  of  a  deceased  individual  by  using 
his  name.  .  .  .  Our  present  knowledge  docs  not 
allow   us   to   connect   the   Khtmath   language 
genealogically  with  any  of  the  other  language* 
compared,   but  .  .  .  it  stands   aa   a  linguistic 
family  for  Itself."— .\.  8.  Oatschet,  The  Klamath 
Indiane  (Contributiont  to  N.  A.  Ethnolngy,  v.  8, 
pt.  1).— In  Major  Powell's  linguistic  classifica- 
tion, the  Klamath  and  Modoc  dialects  are  em- 
braced in  a  family  called  the  Lutuamian  Family 
derived    from   a   Pit   River   word   signifying 
"lake;"   the   Yuroks   In  a  family  called  the 
Weltspekan;  and  the  Pit  River  Indian  dialectl 

ftm    nrnvi  linnnllir    ant.    ar\af*    tn    »    Alctt^^t.  t II.- 


theVev.„ex<T    themin  th<  r  .t»terr.?r.;.Hil      V  ""'*'  'T   '"olu-nne  from  Scli.x>Icraft.  the 


1       v.       — "-   —-    -  ■•    *»..v»     Aiiuinu  uinii:\:u 

are  provuionallv  set  apart  in  a  distinct  family 
named  the  Pa.alhnihan  Family.— J.  \f.  Powell, 
Setenih  Annual  Heport,  Bureau  of  Ethnoloau  no 
89  and  n.  "^  "^n-yf- 

Mohares    (MojaTes).    See   above:    Apacbob 
Qhocp. 
Mohawks.     See     above:      Iroquois     Coh- 

FEDEIUCY. 

Mohegans,  or  Mahicans.  See  above:  Al- 
ooN(juiAN  Family;  and  below:  Stockbiiidoe  I.n- 
dlvnb;  also,  New  £.\aLAND:  A.  U.  Itl37. 

Montagnais.  See  nlwvc :  ALooMiiiAS  Fam- 
ily; and  Atilapabcan  Family. 

Montauks.   See  above:  Alookquiam  Family. 

Moquelumnaa  FamUy.-" Derivation:  From 
the  river  and  hill  of  the  same  name  in  Calaveras 
County,  California.  ...  It  was  not  until  18.58 
that  the  distinctness  of  the  linguistic  family  was 
fully  set  forth  by  Latham.  '^  ,,ier  the  h.ad  of 
Moquelumne,  this  author  gathers  several  vi«abu- 
laries  representing  different  languages  an.l  dia- 
lecU  of  the  same  stock.  These  are  the  TuhituI 
of  Hale,  the  Tuolumne  from  SclKwIcnift    the 


.     -  .  ,    -    —    ......    — --.^.-inii.  nii-i  It 

l...Mii(!iilar  imiuence,  or  perhaps  brute  force, 
w  ile.i  lliov  exeniso  over  the  vicinal  trihta. 
I  hey  are  ilie  Romans  of  Northcm  Callfomi.i  in 
Bielr  valor  and  their  wide-ri'aching  dominions ; 
•  .Sic  Noll',  .Vpiwiidix  i;_  y„|.  j_  2Q  J 


yem  vocabulary,  theChocuyem  and  Youliiousme 
patemostera,  and  the  Olaraeutke  of  Kostro- 
mitonov  in  BUers  Beitrtlge.  .  .  .  The  Moque- 
lumnan  family  occupies  the  territory  bounded 


1 

! 

iwif 

sii 

'IM' 

;l 


AMERICAN  ABORIOnnEa 

•D  the  north  hy  the  Coaumne  River,  on  the  eoath 
by  the  Fresno  River,  on  the  east  hr  the  Siem 
Nevada,  and  on  the  west  br  the  San  Joaquin 
Kiver,  with  the  exception  of  a  atrip  on  the  east 
banli  occupied  by  the  Cholovone.  A  part  o( 
this  h  r  ily  occiipfcs  also  a  territory  bounded  on 
the  south  by  San  Francisco  Bay.  "—J.  W.  Powell, 
Smnth  Annual  Sept.,  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  PP- 
•3-93. 

Moquit.    See  below:  Pueblos. 
I    Moron*.    See  above:  Ai^uesians. 
'   Moxos,  or  Mojoi.    See  above:  Ahdbhaxb; 
also.  Bolivia:  Aboriginal  Inhabitaiits. 

Mundrucu.    See  below:  TcPL 

Munsees.    See  above:  DELA.rAREi^,  and  Al,- 
ooNQi'iAN  Family;  also  Maniiattas  Island. 

Mura.    See  above:  GucK  or  Coco  Group. 

Muskhogean,  or  Matkoki  FamilT.— "Among 
the  various  nationalities  of  the  Gulf  territories 
the  Maskoki  family  of  tribes  occupied  a  central 
and  commanding  position.  Not  only  the  large 
extent  of  territory  held  by  them,  but  also  their 
numbers,  their  prowess  In  war,  and  a  certain 
degree  of  mental  culture  and  self-esteem  made 
of  the  Masliokl  one  of  the  most  important  groups 
In  Indian  history.  From  their  ethnologic  con- 
dition of  later  times,  we  infer  that  these  tribes 
have  extended  for  many  centuries  back  in  time 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Mississippi  and  beyond 
that  river,  and  from  the  ApaUchian  ridge  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  With  short  Intermissions  they 
kept  up  warfare  with  all  the  circumjacent  Indian 
communities,  and  also  among  each  other.  .  .  . 
The  irresolute  and  egotistic  policy  of  these  tribes 
often  caused  serious  difficulties  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  English  and  French  colonics,  and 
lome  of  them  constantly  wavered  In  their  adhe- 
■Ion  between  the  French  and  the  English  cause. 
The  American  government  overcame  tlieir  oppo- 
sition easily  whenever  a  conflict  presented  itself 
(the  S«'minoIe  War  forms  an  exception),  because, 
like  all  the  Indians,  they  never  knew  how  to 
unite  against  a  common  foe.  The  two  main 
branches  of  the  stock,  the  Creek  and  the  Cha'hta 
[or  Choctaw]  Indians,  were  constantly  at  war, 
and  the  remembrance  of  their  deadly  conflicts 
has  now  i  ..ssed  to  their  descendants  in  the  foira 
of  folk  lore.  .  .  .  Tho  only  characteristic  by 
which  a  subdivision  of  the  family  can  be  at- 
tempted, is  that  of  hinguage.  Following  their 
ancient  topograpliic  location  from  ea.it  to  west, 
we  obtain  the  following  synopsis:  First  branch, 
or  Maskoki  proper:  The  Creek,  Maskokalgl  or 
Maskoki  proper,  settled  on  Coosa,  Tallapoosa, 
ITpper  and  Middle  Chatahuchl  rivers.  From 
these  brnnclii'd  oti  by  si'gnientation  the  Creek 
portion  of  the  Seniinoles,  of  the  Y&massI  and  of 
the  little  YaMacraw  community.  Second,  or 
Apalachian  b-ancli:  This  southeastern  division, 
whioh  may  be  called  also  '  a  parte  potior! '  the 
nitcliitl  connfition,  anciently  comprised  tho 
trilws  on  the  Lower  Clmfiihuelil  river,  anil,  east 
from  there,  the  extinct  Apalachi,  tho  MikasukI, 
anil  tliu  llitchlli  portion  of  the  Seniinoles,  Yd- 
massi  and  Yaninemws.  Third,  or  Alibamu 
bmnch.  compriw'd  tho  Alibamu  villages  on  tho 
liver  of  that  name ;  to  them  belonged  the  Koas- 
iiti  and  Witumka  nn  Coosa  river,  its  northern 
atflueiit  Fourth,  Westi'm  or  Cha'hta  [Choctaw] 
braucii:  From  tlie  main  people,  liie  Clia'hlu, 
lettleil  l\  the  middle  portions  of  the  State  of  Mis- 
sissippi, the  Cliicasa,  Pascagoula.  Bilnxi,  Hums, 
lad  other  trilws  onee  became  separated  through 
•Srv  Note,  Appeuiiix  E,  vul.  S,  10 


AXKRIOAN  ABORIOINE& 

•egmentatlon.  The  strongest  evidence  for  s  com- 
munity of  origin  of  the  Maskoki  tribes  is  fur- 
nished by  the  fact  that  their  dialects  belong  to 
one  linguistic  family.  .  .  .  Hask6ki,  Maskogi, 
Istl  Maak6kl,  designates  a  single  person  of  the 
Greek  tribe,  sad  forms,  as  a  collective  plural, 
Maskokilgl,  the  Creek  community,  the  Creek 
people,  the  Creek  Indians.  English  authors  write 
this  name  Muscogee,  Muskhogee,  and  its  plural 
Muscogulgeo.  'nie  first  syllable,  as  pronounced 
by  the  Creek  Indians,  contains  a  clear  short  a. 
.  ,  .  The  accent  is  usually  laid  on  the  mid- 
dle sylUble:  Mask6kl,  Ma8k6gL  None  of  the 
tribes  are  able  to  explain  the  name  from  their 
own  language.  .  .  .  Why  did  tho  English  colo- 
nists caU  them  Creek  Indians  T  Because,  when 
the  EngUsb  traders  entered  the  Maskoki  counti; 
from  Charleston  or  Savannah,  they  bad  to  cross 
a  number  of  streams  or  creeks,  especially  between 
the  Chatahuchl  and  Savannah  rivers.  Gallatin 
thought  it  probable  that  the  Inhabitants  of  the 
country  adjacent  to  Savannah  river  were  called 
Creeks  from  an  early  time.  ...  In  the  southern 
part  of  the  Cha'hta  territory  several  tribes,  repre- 
sented to  be  of  Cha'hta  lineage,  appear  as  dis- 
tinct from  the  main  body,  «n<f  are  always  men- 
tioned separately.  The  !irench  colonists.  In 
whose  annals  they  figure  extensively,  call  them 
Mobilians,  Tohomes,  Pascogoulas,  B'iloxls,  Mou- 
goulach.-»,  Bayogoulas  and  Humas  (Oumas). 
They  have  all  disappeared  in  our  epoch,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Biloxi  {Major  Powell,  In  the 
Seventh  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnol- 
ogy, pliwes  the  Biloxi  in  the  Siouan  Family),*of 
wiiom  scattered  remnants  li%'e  in  the  forests  of 
Louisiana,  south  of  the  Ked  River." — A.  8.  Gats- 
chet,  .4  Migration  lyegendofthe  Cretklndianf,  1. 1, 
pt.  1. — "  'The  Uchees  and  the  Natclies,  who  are 
both  incorporated  in  tlic  [Muskliogee  or  Creek] 
confederacy,  speak  two  distinct  languages  alt* 
gether  different  from  the  Sluskhogee.  "rhe  Nat- 
clies, a  residue  of  the  well-known  nation  of  that 
name,  came  from  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
joined  the  Creeks  less  than  one  hundred  years  ago. 
The  original  scats  of  the  Uchees  were  east  of  the 
Coosa  and  probably  of  the  Chatahooehee ;  and 
thev  consi<ler  themselves  as  the  most  ancier*,  in- 
habitants of  the  country.  They  may  have  been 
the  same  nation  which  Is  called  Apalaclies  in  the 
accounts  of  Do  Soto's  expedition.  .  .  .  The  four 
great  Southern  nations,  according  to  the  estimate j 
of  the  War  Department  .  .  .  consist  now  [t8:(8] 
of  67,000 souls,  viz.:  The Cherokees.  1.5,000;  the 
Choctaws  (18,500),  the  Chicasas  (5,600).  24.0(K)j 
the  Muskhogees,  Seminoles,  and  Hitehittees, 
28,000;  the  Uchees,  Allbamons,  Co08a<la8,  and 
Natclies,  8,000.  The  territory  west  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, given  or  offere<l  to  them  by  the  United 
States  in  exchange  for  their  land.t  east  of  that 
river,  contains  40,000,000  acres,  exclusively  of 
what  may  be  allotted  to  the  C'liioasas." — A.  Gal- 
latin, Stfnoprii  of  th«  Indinn  Trihte  (Arehniliiyia 
Amrrimrui,  t.  2),  nert.  8. — S«'e below:  S  MINOI  Ei 
Musquito,  or  Mosquito  Indians. — '  That  po^ 
tlon  of  llomiuras  known  as  the  Musquito  Coast 
derived  its  name,  not  from  the  abunilume  of 
those  troublesome  insects,  but  fnim  h  native 
trilie  who  at  the  discovery  occupieil  tlie  shore 
near  Blewfleld  Lagoon.  They  are  an  iiiti  llicint 
people,  sliorl  tu  etaliire,  uiiiibUhIIv  (I„rk  in  <-'  i'r, 
with  finely  cut  features,  and  small  straiglit  noses 
— not  at  all  negrot<l,  except  where  there  has 
been  an  admixture  of  blood.  They  uumlier 
o 


AMERICAN  ABORIomEa 

ibont  6,000,  manr  of  whom  hare  been  p^rQj 
civilized  by  the  efforts  of  missionaries,  who  hj>7: 
reduced  the  language  to  writing  and  published 
In  it  a  numlierof  works.  TlieTunglasareone 
of  the  sub-tril  <  of  the  Musquitos."— D.  Q. 
Brinton,  ITu  .-.  riean  Haee,  p.  163.— See,  also, 
Nicaraoua:    A.  D.,  1850. 

NahiuM.  See  Mexico,  ADcneirr:  Tmc  Hata 
AND  Nadca  Peoples. 

Nanticoke*.    See  above  :  Aloonqcias  Fax- 

ILT. 

Napo.    See  above:  Asdesiaxs. 
Narragansetts.     See  above:     Alookqitiah 
Family;  also  KaoDK  Island:   A.  D.  1636;  and 
New  England:  A  D.  1637;   1674-1875;  1675: 
and  1076-1678. 

Natchesan  FamilT.— When  the  French  first 
entered  the  lower  Mfssissippi  valley,  they  found 
the  Natchez  [Na'btchi]  occupying;  a  region 
of  country  that  now  surrounds  the  city 
which  bears  their  name.  "By  the  persever- 
ing curiosity  of  Gallatin,  it  is  established 
that  the  Natchez  were  distinguished  from 
the  tribes  around  tliem  less  by  their  customs 
and  the  degree  1 1  their  civilization  than  by  their 
language,  which,  as  far  as  comparisons  have 
been  instituted,  has  no  etymologlci.1  affinity  with 
any  other  whatever.  Here  again  the  imagina- 
tion too  readily  invents  tlieories;  and  the  tradi- 
tion has  been  widely  received  th.it  the  rtfminion 
of  the  Natchez  once  extended  even  to  the 
Wabash.  Historr  knows  them  only  as  a  feeble 
and  inconsiderable  nation,  who  in  the  18th 
century  attached  themselves  to  the  confederacy 
of  the  Creeks. "— G.  Bancroft,  nM.  qf  tht  IT.  8. 

(Authnr't  Uitt  rtc),  «.  2,  p.  97 "Chateaubriand, 

in  his  charming  romances,  and  some  of  the  early 
French  ivritcrs,  who  often  drew  upon  their  fancy 
for  their  facts,  have  thrown  an  interest  around 
the  Natchez,  as  a  scmi-civil'zed  and  noble  race, 
that  has  passed  into  history.  We  find  no  traces 
of  civilization  in  their  architecture,  or  In  their 
social  life  and  customs.  Their  religion  was 
brutal  and  bloodv,  indicting  an  Aztic  origin. 
They  were  perfidious  and  cruel,  and  If  they  were 
stall  s\ipcrior  to  the  neighboring  tribes  It  was 
probably  due  to  the  district  they  occupied— the 
most  beautiful,  healthy  and  productive  In  the 
valley  of  the  Jllssisslppt- and  the  influence  of 
its  attractions  in  substituting  permanent  for 
temporary  occupation  The  residence  of  the 
grand  chief  was  merely  s  sjiacious  cabin,  of  one 
apartment,  with  a  mat  of  basket  work  for  his 
bed  and  a  log  for  his  pillow.  .  .  .  Their  govern- 
ment w.as  an  absolute  despotism.  The  supreme 
chief  was  miistcr  of  their  labor,  their  property, 
and  their  lives.  ...  The  Natchez  consisted  ex- 
clusively of  two  classes  — the  Blood  Royal  and 
its  connexions,  and  the  common  people,  the 
MIch-i-mioki-quIpe,  or  Stiukaris.  The  two 
classes  understood  each  other,  but  spoke  a  dif- 
ferent diulecL  Their  customs  of  war,  their 
treat  nicnt  of  prisoners,  their  ceremonies  of 
marriap',  their  fea.sts  and  fasU,  their  sorceries 
and  witchcraft,  differed  very  little  from  other 
savages.  Father  Charlevoix,  who  visited  Nat- 
chez in  1721,  saw  no  evidences  of  civilization. 
Their  villa>;e»  consisted  of  a  few  cabins,  or  rather 
ovccs,  without  windows  and  roofed  with  mat- 
K"a-  "^"C  liiiiiw  uf  the  Suu  was  larger, 
piaKtpre<i  with  mud,  Knd  a  narrow  bench  for  a 
icat  Biiil  l«,l.  No  other  furniture  In  the  mansion 
If  tins  grand  dignitary,  who  has  been  described 


•S«  .N'l.t,.  A 


'I'viiilix  K,  v„l.  i. 


103 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINEa 

by  imaginative  writer*  m  the  peer  of  Mont» 
lumal"— J.  F.  H.  Claiborne,  Mi„uKppi,  1. 1,  eK 
4.— In  1729,  the  Natchez,  maddened  by  Insolent 
oppressions,  planned  and  executed  a  general 
massacre  of  the  French  within  their  territory. 
As  a  consequence,  the  tribe  was  virtually  ex- 
terminated within  the  following  two  years. — 0. 
Gayarre,  Louitiana,  iU  Colonial  Hitt.  and 
Bomana,  2d  mriet,  Uet.  8  and  5.— ••  The  Na'btchi, 
according  to  Gallatin,  a  residue  of  the  wel]-i 
known  nation  of  that  name,  came  fiom  the! 
banks  of  the  Mississippi,  and  joined  the  CreS 
less  than  one  hundred  years  ago.  The  seashora' 
from  Mobile  to  the  Mississippi  was  then  in- 
habited by  several  small  tribes,  of  which  the 
Nalitchi  was  the  principal  Before  1730  the 
tribe  Uved  in  the  vicinity  of  Natchez,  Miss., 
along  St  Catherine  Creek.  After  their  disper- 
sion by  the  French  in  1730  most  of  the  remainder 
Joined  the  Chicasa  and  afterwards  the  Upper 
Creek.  They  are  now  in  Creek  and  Cherokee 
Nations,  Indian  Territory.  The  linguistic  rela- 
tions of  the  language  spoken  by  the  Taensa  tribe 
have  long  been  in  doubt,  and  it  is  possible  they 
will  ever  remain  so."— J.  W.  Powell,  iktenth 
Annual  Sept.,  Bureau  of  Ethnoh^y,  p.  96  —See 
Locislaxa:  A  D.  171»-1750.— Sec,  also,  above: 
MnSKROOEAN  Fawlt. 

NatcUtocbea.*  See  Texas:  The  Abobioinai, 
Ihhabitants. 

Nansett.    See  above:  Aloonqctiait  Family. 

Narajot.  See  above:  Atuap.isc.vn  Familt, 
and  APAcnE  Orocp. 

Neutral  Nation.  See  above:  Htnioss,  &c.i 
and    iKoquois    Confederacy  :     Tiieir    Con- 

<)CE8T8,  &c.  , 

Nes  Perces, orSahaptins.— "The  Sahaptins 
or  Nez  Perces  [the  Shahaptian  Family  in  Major 
Powell's  classitlcatlon],  with  theiralliliated  tribes, 
occupied  the  middle  and  upper  valley  of  tlM 
Columbia  and  its  affluents,  and  also  the  passos  of 
the  ii  -mtains.  They  were  in  contiguity  with 
the  Sho!!honcs  and  the  Algonkin  Blackfeet,  thus 
hold'ng  an  important  position,  intermediate  be- 
tween the  eastern  and  the  Pacific  tribes.  Hav- 
ing the  commercial  instinct  of  the  latter,  they 
made  good  use  of  it"— D.  G.  Brinton,  Tht 
Ameriean  Baee.p.  107. 

Also  is  J.  W.  Powell,  Setenth  Annual  Bept, 
of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnotog)/,  p.  lot). 

Niniquiquilat.    See  below :    Pampas  Tkibes. 

Nipmncs,  or  Nipnets.  Sec  above:  Aloon- 
qciAN  Family;  also.  New Enolaxd:  A.  D.  1674- 
1675;  1675;  and  1676-1678  (Ki.no  PniLiP's  Wak). 

Nootkas.    See  below:    Wakasu.vn  Family. 

Nottoways.    See  above:     Ii{o<)cou  'TiuBEa 

OF  THE   SOUTB. 

Nyantics.    See  above:  ALooxqciAif  Familt. 

O^alas.    bee  below:    Siouan  Family. 

Ojtbwaa,  or  Cbippewas.— "The  Ojibways, 
with  their  kindred,  the  Pottawattamies,  and 
their  friends  the  Ottawas,—  tlie  latter  of  whom 
were  fugitives  from  the  eastward,  whence  they 

liad  fled  from  the  wrath  of  the  Iroquois, were 

bonded  into  a  sort  of  confederacy.  They  were 
closely  allied  in  blood,  language,  Lumncrsand 
character.  The  Ojibways,  by  far  the  most 
numerous  of  the  three,  occupied  the  basin  ot 
Lake  Superior,  and  extensive  a<ljacent  rcirioos. 
In  their  boundaries,  the  career  of  Iroquoia 
conquest  found  at  length  a  check.  The  fugitive 
Wyandots  sought  refuge  in  the  Ojibway  hunt- 
ing grounds;  and  tradition  relates  that,  at  the 


AUERICAK  ABORtantsa 


AXBRICAK  ABORIQINBa 


I  ,t- ,« 


mtlet  of  Lake  Superior,  an  Iroquott  ws^p«tr 
onco  encouotered  ■  diaoitrout  rrpulie.  In  their 
mode  of  life,  they  were  far  more  rude  than  the 
Iroquoii,  or  even  the  louthera  Algonquin 
tribes." — F.  pRfkman,  Contpiraq/  <^  J^mtiae, 
A.  1. — "The  name  of  the  tribe  appeara  to  be 
recent  It  Is  not  met  with  In  the  oKicr  wrltem 
The  French,  who  were  the  earliest  to  meet  them. 
In  their  tribal  seat  at  the  falls  or  Sault  de  8ta 
Marie,  named  them  Suulteur,  from  this  circum- 
Itance.  M'Kenzie  uses  the  term '  Jibway,'  as  the 
equivalent  of  this  term,  in  bis  voyages.  They 
•re  referred  to,  with  little  difference  in  the 
orthographr,  in  General  'Vaabington's  report.  In 
1754,  of  hfs  trip  to  Le  Bccuf,  on  Lake  Erie; 
but  are  first  recognized,  among  our  treaty-tribes, 
In  the  general  treaty  of  Oreenville,  of  1794,  In 
which,  with  the  Ottawas  they  ceded  the  island 
of  MIchilimackinac,  and  certain  dependencies, 
conceded  by  them  at  former  periods  to  the 
IVeoch.  .  .  .  The  Chippewas  are  conceded,  bv 
writers  on  American  philidoKy  ...  to  speak 
one  of  the  purest  forms  of  the  Algonquin." — 
H.  R.  Schoolcraft,  Information  ritpteting  tht 
Hi*t.,  Condition  and  Protfteti  cf  tht  Indian 
Tribet,  pt.  6,p.  142. 

Also  at  O.  Copway,  27t<  Cgibwaf  Sation. — 
J.  O.  Kohl,  Kitchi-gami. — See,  also,  Pontlic's 
Wxn;  ami  above:  ALOoaqciAN  Family. 

Omahas.  See  below:  Siouas  Familt,  and 
Pawnee  (Caddoax)  Fahilt. 

Oneidaa.    Bee  above:  iBoqcon  Cosfxdbb- 

ACT. 

Onondaga*.  See  above:  Inoquois  Cokro- 
bbact. 

.   Orejones.    See  below;  Pampas  Tiubes. 
'   Osages.    See   below:    Siocam  Familt,  and 
Pawnee  (Caodoan)  Familt. 

OtoesiorOttoes.  Seo  bi-low:  Siocas  Familt, 
•nd  Pawnee  (Caddoan)  Familt. 

Otomis. — "According  to  Aztec  tradition,  the 
Otomis  were  the  earliest  owners  of  the  soil  of 
Central  Mexico.  Tbcir  language  was  at  the 
conquest  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  of 
any  in  this  portion  of  the  continent  Its  central 
rc-gions  were  the  States  of  Queretaro  and  Guan- 
ajuata  .  .  .  The  Otomis  are  below  the  average 
■taturi<.  of  dark  color,  the  skull  markedly  dolicho- 
cephai:  ,  the  nose  short  and  flattene<l,  the  eyes 
slightly  oblique."— D.  Q.  Brinton,  Tht  Amtri- 
tan  Rut,  p.  185. 

Ottawas.  See  above:  ALOonquiAK  Fajolt, 
and  Ojibwas. — See,  also,  Pontiac's  Wab. 

Pacaguara.    See  above:  Andesiaks. 

Pacamora.    See  above:  Andebians. 

Pamlicoes.    See  above :  ALooNqciAN  Familt. 

Pampas  Tribea.  —"The  chief  tribe  of  the 
Pampas  Indians  was  entitled  Ouerandis  by  the 
Spaniards,  although  they  callea  themselves  Pe- 
huclches  [or  Puclts — that  is,  the  Eastern].  Vari- 
ous segments  of  these,  under  different  names, 
occupied  the  immense  tract  of  ground,  between 
the  nver  Parana  and  the  republic  of  Chili.  The 
Querandia  .  .  .  were  the  great  opponents  to 
settlement  of  the  Spaniards  in  Buenos  Ayres. 
.  .  .  The  Ancas  or  Aracauoos  Indians  [see 
Chile]  resideti  on  the  west  of  the  Pampas'near 
Chili,  and  from  time  to  time  assisted  the  Q.icran- 
dis  in  transporting  stolen  cattle  across  the  Cor- 
diiieruM.  Tlit'  mmtheru  part  uf  the  PauipuS  was 
occupied  by  the  Batchitas,  Uhilches.  Telmel- 
ches.  and  others,  all  of  whom  were  liranehes  of 
the  original  Quelches  horde.    The  Guaroni  In- 


'104 


dlaos  were  the  most  famous  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can race*.  .  .  .  Of  tlieQuayanas  horde  there  were 
several  tribes — independent  of  each  other,  and 
speaking  different  tdioms,  although  having  the 
same  title  of  race.  Their  territory  extended 
from  the  river  Guaral,  one  of  the  amuents  into 
the  Uruguay,  for  many  league*  northwards, 
and  stretched  over  to  the  Parana  opposite  t^'s 
city  of  Corpus  ChristL  They  were  some  of  thi 
most  vigorous  opponentii  of  the  Spanish  invader& 
.  .  .  The  Nalicurgua  i^Uians,  who  lived  up  to 
near  21°  S.  lat  were  reputed  to  dwell  in  caves, 
to  be  very  limited  in  number,  and  to  go  entirely 
naked.  The  Gausarapos,  orUuuchiesdweltintM 
marshy  districts  near  where  the  river  Gausarapi^ 
or  Guuchie,  has  its  source.  This  stream  enten 
from  the  east  into  the  Paraguay  at  19°  le*  80"  a 
lat  .  .  .  The  Cuato*  lived  inside  of  a  lake  to 
the  west  of  the  river  Paraguay,  and  constituted 
a  very  small  tribe.  .  .  .  The  Orejones  dwelt  on 
the  eastern  brows  of  the  mountains  of  Santa 
Lucia  or  San  Fernando — close  to  the  western 
side  of  Paraguay  river.  .  .  .  Another  tribe,  the 
Niniquiquilaa,  had  likewise  the  names  of  Potie- 
ros,  Simanos,  Barcenos,  and  Lathanos.  Thev 
occupied  a  forest  which  began  at  about  \V  B. 
lat,  some  leagues  backward  (rom  the  river  Para- 
guay, and  separated  the  Gran  Chaco  from  the 
province  of  Los  Chiquitos  in  Peni.  .  .  .  The 
Guanas  Indians  were  divided  into  eight  separate 
segments,  for  each  of  which  there  was  a  particu. 
lar  and  different  name.  They  lived  between  20° 
and  23°  of  S.  lat  in  the  Gran  Chaco  to  the  west  of 
Paraguay,  and  they  were  not  known  to  the  Span- 
lards  till  the  latter  crossed  the  last-named  rivet 
in  1673.  .  .  .  The  Albaias  and  Puvagiias  Indians 
...  in  former  times,  were  the  chief  tribes  of  the 
Paraguay  territory.  .  .  .  The  Allwias  were 
styled  ^iM'hicjis  and  Enimgas  by  .  her  authors. 
At  the  time  of  the  Sn^oiards'  arrival  here,  the 
Albaias  occupied  thu  mn  Chaco  siile  of  the 
river  Para"  \ey  from  20°  to  22°  8.  lat  Here 
they  entc'  'nto  a  treaty  offensive  and  defen- 
sive with  ^^  Payaguas.  .  .  .  Tlie  joined  forces 
of  Albaias  a  Payiiguas  had  managed  to  extend 
their  territory  m  167d  down  to  24°  T  8.  on  the 
eastern  side  of  Paraguay  river.  .  .  .  The  Al- 
baias were  a  very  U\\\  and  muscular  race  of 
people.  .  .  .  The  Payagua  Indians,  before  and 
up  to,  as  well  as  after,  the  periixi  of  the  con- 
quest, were  sailors,  and  domineered  over  the 
river  Paraguay.  .  .  .The  Guaicurus  live<l  on  the 
Chaco  side  of  Paraguay  river  and  subsisted  en- 
tirely by  hunting.  From  the  1  .rl>arous  custom 
whJch  tneir  women  had  of  iadiic  ing  abortion  to 
avoid  the  pain  or  trouble  of  child-oeuriug,  they 
became  exterminated  soon  after  the  conquest. 
.  .  .  The  Tobas,  who  have  also  the  titles  of 
Natec<Et  and  Yncanaboite,  were  among  the  beat 
fighter*  of  the  Indians.  They  occupj  the  Gi-un 
Chaco,  chiefly  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Virmejo, 
and  between  that  and  the  Pilcomayo.  Ol  these 
there  are  some  rec  lins  in  the  present  dnv.  .  .  . 
The  Mocovis  are  likewise  stilt  to  be  founti  in  tl-.e 
Chaco.  .  .  .  The  Abipoiies,  who  were  also  styltil 
Ecusgina  and  Quiabenabaite,  liveii  in  the  Cbiucu, 
so  low  down  as  29°  south.  This  was  the  tri' -> 
with  whom  the  Jesuits  incorporated,  when  thiy 
erected  the  city  of  ban  Geronimo,  in  the  Gnm 
Chaco,  and  nearly  oppuoile  Goya,  iu  174ti."  — T. 
J.  Hutchin»on,  The  Parana,  eA  »-7.— "The  AM 
pones  inhabit  [In  the  18th  century]  the  provides 
Clisco,  the  centre  of  all  Paraguay!  they  have  no 


AMERICAN  ABORIOINSa 


AMERICAN  ABORIOINEa 


filed  abodes,  nor  mj  boundarie*,  except  what 
fear  of  their  nelghboun  baa  establiahed.  Tbejr 
toam  extemlvely  in  every  dirrction,  wheneT>!r 
the  opportunity  of  attadt'"^  their  enemies,  or 
the  necessity  of  avoiding  thtm  rei-^ers  a  Journey 
advisable.  The  northern  shore  of  the  Rio  Orande 
or  Bermejo,  which  the  Indians  call  Iflati,  was 
their  native  land  in  th?  hist  century  [the  17th]. 
Thence  they  removed,  to  avoid  the  war  carried 
on  against  Chaco  by  the  Spaniards  .  .  .  and, 
migrating  towards  the  south,  toolc  possession  of 
a  valley  formerly  held  by  the  Calchaquis.  .  .  . 
From  what  region  their  ancestors  came  there  is 
no  room  for  conjecture. " — M.  Dobrlzhoffer,  Aect. 
of  the  Abiponrt,  t.  2,  ch.  1. — "The  Abipones  are 
In  general  above  the  middle  stature,  and  of  a 
robust  constitution.  In  summer  they  go  quite 
naked;  but  in  winter  cover  themselves  with 
skir.5.  .  .  .  They  paint  themselves  all  over  with 
different  colours."— Father  Charlevoix,  Hitt.  of 
Paraguay,  bk.  7  (r.  1). 

Also  a  The  SUncard  Natural  Butorg  (J.  S. 
Kingly,  ed.),  r.  «,pp.  296-2C3.— 8e<;  also,  below: 

Tl'PI.— GCARAJtl 

Pampticoket.      See    above:    Ai/joitquuN 
Family. 
Pano.    See  above:  Andesiani. 
Papacot.    See  below:  Ptman  Fault,  and 

PtJEBLOS. 

Parawianai.    See  above:  Cabibs  asd  TBKm 

KiSDRKD. 

Pascogoulaa.      See    above:      Mcskbooeak 
Family. 

Pass<.    See  above:  OccK  OR  Coco  Qrocp. 

Patagoniant  and  Fueffians. —  "  The  Patago- 
nians  call  themselves  Chonek  or  Tzoueca,  or 
liiaken  (men,  people),  and  by  their  Pampean 
neighlxirs  are  referred  to  as  Tehuel-Che,  southern- 
ers. Tlicy  do  not,  however,  belong  to  the  Au- 
canian  stock,  nor  do  they  resemble  the  I'ampeans 
physically.  They  are  celebrated  for  their  staturr, 
many  of  them  reaching  from  six  to  six  feet  four 
Inches  In  height,  and  built  'n  proportioa  In 
color  they  are  a  rediiUIi  brown,  and  UL  j  aquiline 
noses  and  giKid  foreheads.  They  care  little  for  a 
sedentary  life,  and  roam  the  coast  as  far  north  as 
the  Rio  N'egro.  ...  On  the  inhoepiuble  shores 
of  Tierra  del  Fuego  there  dwell  thr-5  nations  of 
diverse  stock,  but  on  almut  the  same  plan .  of 
culture.  One  of  those  is  the  Yahgans,  or  Yapoos, 
on  the  Beagle  Canal ;  the  seconcT  is  the  Onaa  o' 
Aonik,  to  the  north  and  east  of  these;  and  tl 
third  the  Aliculufs.  to  the  north  and  west  .  . 
The  opinion  has  been  advanceil  by  Dr  Oeniker 
of  Paris,  that  the  Fuegians  represent  the  oldest 
tvpe  or  variety  of  the  American  race.  He  be- 
lieves that  at  one  time  this  type  occupied  the 
whole  of  South  America  south  of  the  Amazon, 
and  that  the  Tapuyasof  Brazil  and  the  Fuegians 
are  its  surviving  members.  This  interesting 
theory  demands  sHIi  further  eviaence  before  it 
can  be  accepted. "-  O.  O.  Brinton,  The  Ameriean 
HMe,  pp.  327-832. 

Pawnee  Family  (named  "Caddoan"  by 
Major  Powell).— '•Th'(  Pawnee  Family,  though 
6<mie  of  its  branches  have  long  been  known, 
is  perhaps  in  history  and  language  one  of  the 
least  umlcrstood  of  the  important  tribes  of  the 
«est.  !n  Isiith  rpsprcts  it  seema  to  eonitltulu 
a  distinct  group.  During  recent  years  its 
extreme  northern  and  southern  branches  have 
fvlnce»l  a  tendency  to  blend  with  surrounding 
Itocks;  but  the  central  branch,  constituting  the 


Pawnee  proper,  maintains  still  in  ita  advanced 
decadence  a  bold  line  of  demarcation  between 
itself  and  all  adjacent  trilies.    The  members  of 
the  famllv  are:    The  Pawnees  the  Arikaras,  the 
Caddos,  the  Uuecos  or  Wacos,  the  Kecchies,  tbe 
Tawaconies,  and  tbe  Pawnee  PIcW  or  Wichltaa. 
The  laat  five  may  be  designated  as  the  Southern 
or  Red  River  branches.     At  the  date  of  tlie  Louis- 
iana purchase  the  Caddos  were  living  about  40 
miles  northwest  of  where  Shreveport  now  standi. 
Five  years  earlier  their  residence  was  upon  Clear 
Lake,  in  what  is  now  Caddo  Parish.    This  spot 
they  claimed  was  the  place  of  their  nativity,  and 
their  residence  from  time  immemorial.  .  .  .  They 
have  a  tradition  that  they  ar   the  parent  stock, 
from  which  all  the  southern  br,      '^es  nave  sprung, 
and  to  some  extent  this  claioi  has  been  recog- 
nized. .  .  .  The  five  [southern]  Innds  are  now 
all  gathered  upon  a  reserve  secured  for  them  in 
the  Indian  Territory  by  the  Oovenunent.  .  .  . 
In    many   respects,  their   method   of  building 
lodges,  their  equestrianism,  and  certain  social 
ana  tribal  usages,  they  quite  closely  resemble  the 
Pawnees.    Their  connection,  however,  with  the 
Pawnee  family,  not  till  recently  if  ever  mentioned, 
is  mainly  a  matter  of  vague  conjecture.  .  .  .  The 
name  Pawnee  is  most  probably  derived  from  '  p&- 
rlk-I,'  a  horn;  and  seems  to  have  been  once  used 
by  the  Pawnees  themselves  to  designate  their 
peculiar  scalp-lock.  .  From  the  fact  that  this  waa 
the  moet  noticeable  feature  in  their  costume,  the 
name  came  naturally  to  be  tbe  denominative  term 
of  the  tribe.    The  word  in  this  use  once  prolmbly 
embraced  the  Wichitas  (I.  e..  Pawnee  Pictf)  and 
the  Arikaras.  .  .  .  The  true  Pawnee  territory 
till  as  late  as  1838  may  be  described  as  extending 
from  the  Niobrara  south  to  the  Arkan.sas.    They 
frequently  hunted  considerably  U'vond  the  Ax- 
kansas;  tradition  says  as  far  as  the  Canadian. 
...  On  the  east  they  claimed  to  the  Missouri, 
though  in  eastern  Nebraska,  by  a  sort  of  tacit 
permit,  the  Otoes,  Poncas,  and  Omahas  along 
that  stream  occupied  lands  extending  as  far  west 
as  tbe  Elkhom.    In  Kansas,  also,  east  of  the  Big 
Blue,  they  had  ceased  to  exercise  any  direct  con- 
trol, as  several  remnants  of  tribes,  the  Wyandots, 
Delawares,  Kickapoos,  and  lowas,  had  been  set- 
tled there  and  were  living  under  the  guardian- 
ship of  the  United  States.  ...  On  the  west  their 
grounds  were  marked  by  no  natural  boundary, 
but  may  perhaps  be  described  by  a  line  drawn 
from  the  mouth  of  Snake  liiver  on  the  Niobram 
southwest  to  the  North  Platte,  thence  south  to 
the  Arkansas.  .  .  .  It  is  not  to  be  supposed,  how- 
ever, that  they  held  altogether  undisturbed  pos- 
session of  this  territory.    On  the  north  they  wei« 
incessantly  harassed  by  various  bands  of  tiie  Da- 
kotas,  while  upon  the  south  the  Osages,  Coman- 
ches,  Cheyenncs,  Arapuhoes  and  Kiowas  (the  last 
three  originally  northern  tribes)  were  equally  re- 
lentless in  their  hostility.  ...  In  1833  the  Paw- 
nees surrendered  to  the  United  States  their  claim 
upon  all  the  above  descrilxid  territorr  Iving  south 
of  the  Platte.    In  1838  all  their  reniaitiing  terri- 
tory was  ceded,  except  a  reserve  30  miles  long 
and  15  wide  upon  the  Loup  Fork  of  the  Platte, 
It*  esstaru  limit  beginning  at  Beaver  Creek.     In 
1874  they  sold  this  tract  and  removed  to  a  reserve 
srrured  for  thcra  by  the  (iuveruuieut  in  the  In- 
dian Territory,  between  the  Arkansas  and  Cimar- 
ron at   their   junction."— J.   B.    Uunbar,    Th4 
I'avnee  Indiane  {Mag.  of  Am.  Uitt.,  April,  188% 


105 


pffl 

i  M 


^ 


AMERICAN  ABORIOINE& 

Atao  IN  O.  B.  GrinncII,  Paunee  Hero  Stone*. 
—  D.  O.  Brinton,  The  American  Race,  pp.  95-97. 
— .1.  W.  Powell,  SereiM  An.  liept.  of  the  Bureau 
of  EthnoUigy,  p.  59. — Sec,  iilso,  above:  ADAiHmul 

BLArKFEET. 

Payaguas.    See  nbovo:  Pampas  Thibeb. 

Penuelchei,  or  Puelti.  See  aboru :  Pampas 
Triiiks. 

Penacooks,  or  Pawtucket  Indians.  See 
above:  Aloonijiian  Family. 

Peoriaa.    BtM'alMivi':  Aloonqcian  FAMtLT. 

Pequots.  See  above:  Aloonquian  Family; 
and  below:  Suawanksk;  also.  New  Enouaku: 
A.  D.  J637. 

Piankishawt.  See  above :  ALoo!n)Cl  an  Faji- 
ILT,  and  Hai'h.  >!cr. 

Piegana.    Heo  above :  Blackfeet. 

Piman  Family. — "  Only  a  small  portion  of  the 
territory  oceupii'd  by  tliis  family  is  incliuled 
witliin  the  Vuited  States,  the  greater  portion 
being  in  Mexico,  where  it  extends  to  the  Uulf  of 
California.  The  familv  is  represented  in  the 
United  States  by  three  tribes,  Pima  alta, 
Bobaipuri,  and  Piipapi.  The  former  have  lived 
for  at  least  two  centuries  with  the  Mariropa  on 
the  tiila  KirerabiMit  lOU  miles  from  the  mouth. 
The  Sobaipuri  occupied  the  Santa  Cruz  and  San 
Pedro  Kivers,  triliularies  of  the  Gila,  but  are  no 
longer  known.  The  Papago  territory  is  much 
more  exten.sive  and  extends  to  the  south  icross 
the  bonh'r." — J.  W.  Powell,  Serenth  Annual 
Kept.,  Bureau  of  la/ino^jgy,  pp.  98-99.  — See 
below:  Pi  EHI.08. 

Pimenteiras.  See  above:  Qcca  OB  Coco 
Ohoi  r. 

Piru.     Seentiove:   AM>KSfAS«. 

Pit  River  Indian  >.    See  above :  Moixx»  (Ela- 

^ATIIS),  Ac. 

Piutes.    See  lulow :  Siio«HO!(F.AS  Family. 

Pokanokets,  or  W  mpanoa^s.  See  alnive : 
ALoo.Mii  IAN  Family;  also.  New  E.N<ii.ANi): 
A.  I>.  1874-1673;  1075;  1870-1678 (Kuiu  PuiLir  » 
Wah). 

Pcnkaa,  or  Puncat.  Bee  below:  Sioian 
Family:  and  above:  l'AWNEE(CAI)IH>A.N)FA.MtLY. 

Popolocas.    .SvalKive:   Ciiontals. 

Pottawatomiet.  See  aliove:  Aluoniji'IaM 
Family,  (Ijihha^  and  Mais,  4c. 

Powhatan  Confederacy. — "At  llie  time  of 
the  tlr^t  hellli'iiiint  by  the  Euro|H'anH,  it  has 
been  eHtiniatrd  that  there  were  nut  more  than 
3U,(MN)  IniiiaiiK  within  the  limits  of  the  Sute  of 
Virginia.  Within  a  ciriiiit  of  60  miles  from 
Jamestown.  Ciiiilaln  Snii.'i  says  then;  were 
about  JS.tttMl  wiida,  and  of  tliese  scarce  L.^tK)  were 
warriors.  The  whole  territory  U'tween  the 
moiintaitiM  and  the  wa  was  tHciipled  by  more 
than  4"  lrilif<,  :W  of  wlioni  were  uuilcil  In  a  con- 
fi-ilerHcy  iiiMhr  I'lmhalan,  whiwu  domliiionn, 
hereditary  an  I  :u  ijiilnd  by  conquest,  compriMct 
Ui«  whol"  iiiiin  i>  iH'twii'ii  the  rivers  James  and 
Potoniai  and  >  Meiiiled  into  tlie  interior  as  far  as 
the  fall:<  of  (he  principal  rivers.  t'Hnipbell,  in 
bis  History  "(  Mr^'iriia,  slates  the  number  of 
Powlwlans  Mi'ijicls  til  have  lieen  8,000.  Povi . 
halan  was  a  riiiiarkalile  man ;  a  sort  of  savage 
NHpoleoii,  who,  liy  the  fun  i'  of  his  character  and 
the  miperiiiriiy  oi  bin  taleiiis,  had  raided  hiniMlf 
from  llic  rank  of  a  ihIIv  eliieftnin  lo  something 
of  liniM'Hal  dik'iiity  and  pnwir.  He  had  twn 
nUi,.,  .,f  It!..  .:< .  oiK  •<<Ur,i  i'i.ahitUii,  v-UiiA- 
nlehiiioiid  now  Mands.  and  the  other  at  Wrrowo. 
eontuvo,  on  thu  uurtli  side  of  York  iUver,  wilhlu 


]()0 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 

the  present  county  of  Gloucester.  .  .  ,  Besides 
the  largo  confederacy  of  which  Powhatan  was 
the  chief,  there  were  two  others,  with  which 
that  was  often  at  war.  One  of  these,  called  the 
Mannahoacs,  consisted  of  eight  tril)cs,  ami  occu- 
pied the  country  between  the  liappahannoc 
and  York  rivers;  the  other,  consisting  of  five 
tribes,  was  called  the  Monacaus,  and  was  settled 
iH'tween  York  and  James  rivers  above  the  Falls. 
There  were  also,  in  addition  to  these,  many  scat- 
tering and  independent  tribes." — Q.  S.  Ilillard, 
Life  of  Citpt.  John  Smith  {Library  of  Am.  Biog.), 
eh.  4. — "The  English  invested  savage  life  with 
all  the  dignity  of  European  courts.  Powhatan 
was  styled  'King,'  or  'Emperor,'  bis  principal 
warriors  were  lords  of  the  kingdom,  his  wives 
were  queens,  his  daughter  was  a  '  princess,' 
and  bis  cabins  were  his  various  seats  of  resi- 
dence. ...  In  bis  younger  days  Powhatan  fasd 
been  a  great  warrior.  Ilcreilitarily,  he  was  the 
chief  or  werowance  of  eight  tribes;  through  con- 
questhisdomlnionshadlKcnextend.-i'.  .  .  ,  The 
name  of  his  nation  and  the  Indian  appellation  of 
the  James  Itiver  was  Powhatan.  He  himself 
possessed  several  names." — E.  Egglestou  and 
L.  E.  Seelye,  I'ueahmta*,  eh.  8. 

Also  in  Capt  John  Smith,  Deteription  of  Tir- 
finia,  and  General  Ilintorie  of  Va.  {Arher'i 
reprint  of  Woria,  pp.  Wi  and  MO). — See,  also, 
above:  AxooN«jfi.\!(  Family-. 

Puans.    See  U'low :  Siot.'AN  Family. 

Pueblos. —  "The  nonuomadic  semi-civilized 
town  and  agricultural  peoples  of  New  Mexico 
and  Arizona  ...  I  call  the  Pueblos,  or  Towns- 
pc'ople,  from  pueblo,  town,  population,  people, 
a  name  given  by  the  Spanianis  lo  sui  h  inhabi- 
tants of  this  region  as  were  found,  when  first 
discovered,  permanently  liK'ateil  in  comparatively 
well-built  towns.  Strictly  siM'aking.  the  term 
Pueblos  applies  only  to  the' villagers  s«-ttled  along 
the  banks  of  the  liio  Urande  del  Norte  and  its 
tributaries  between  latitudes  W  K'  and  W 
30',  und  although  the  name  is  einplovcd  as  a 
general  appellation  for  this  division,  it  will  be 
used,  for  tlie  most  part,  otdv  in  its  narrower  and 
popular  Nense.  In  this  iliviKJoii,  besiiles  the 
before  im  nlloueil  Pueblos  pM|sr,  are  embraced 
the  Moquis,  or  villagers  of  eastern  .Vrizoua,  and 
the  mm  iKunadic  agnculturtdnal  ions  of  the  lower 
(iiU  river,— the  Pimas,  .Mari<-oim8,  Papsgus, 
and  cognate  tril)es.  The  conntry  of  the  "Towiis. 
people,  If  we  may  credit  I.ieuieimiit  Simi>s<in, 
Is  one  of  '  almost  universal  barrenness.'  yet  inter- 
BjHrsi'd  with  fertile  s|>ols;  thai  of  the  agrii  ultural 
nations,  though  dry,  is  more  generally  pro- 
ductive. The  fame  of  this  so  called  civilizatinn 
reached  •Mexico  at  an  early  ilay  .  .  .  iiiixaggir 
aled  rumors  of  great  cltiis  to  the  north,  whii  li 
prom  I  ted  the  expeditions  of  .Mario  de  .M/a  in 
I.ViW.  of  Coronailo  in  l.%40.  and  of  1;»|h  jo  lo  !■>« 
|1.'>h;>j.  These  adventurers  vWteil  llie  north  >ii 
quest  of  the  fabuh>us  kingdoms  of  Oulvlrn, 
'Tontontj'ac,  Manita  and  others,  in  whii  li  griul 
riches  wen:  said  lo  exist.  The  iianii' of  cjtdvint 
was  aftcrwanis  applied  In  tliriii  to  one  or  mi  ro 
of  the  pueblo  cities.  The  imini'  (ilsila.  from 
Cilsilo.  Mexican  hull.  'Ih>s  l>i»oii. '  orwikt  ox  cf 
New  Mexico,  wher-  the  Spanianis  tirst  encoun- 
tenil  bullalo,  was  given  to  seven  of  the  lowni 
which   Were  aflerwanis    known    as    the  ,s<!»in 

t  ilies  ..f  (iU.ia.    itill  lli.».l  ot  Ihe  kiiiailln  kii.<»u 

at  the  pr  M'ht  day  were  mentioned  in  the  n  port* 
u(  Um  ear(jr  •xpeilitions  by  their  pn  sent  uauiea 


P. 


H  % 


AilERICAK  ABORIGINES. 


AMEMCAV  ^BOMGINEa 


.  .  .  The  towns  of  the  Pueblos  are  eascntially 
unique,  and  arc  the  dominant  feature  of  these 
aboriginala  Some  of  them  are  situated  in 
valleys,  others  on  mesas;  sometimes  they  arc 
planted  on  elevations  almost  inaccessible,  reached 
onlv  by  artificial  grades,  or  by  steps  cut  in  the 
solfd  rock.  Some  of  the  towns  are  of  an  elli[>ti- 
cal  shape,  while  others  are  square,  a  town  being 
frequently  but  a  block  of  buildings.  Thus  a 
Pueblo  consists  of  one  or  more  squares,  each 
enclosed  by  thrt'C  or  four  buildings  of  from  800  to 
400  feet  in  length,  and  about  150  feet  in  width 
at  the  base,  and  from  two  to  seven  stories  of 
from  eight  to  nine  feet  each  In  height.  ,  .  .  The 
stories  are  built  in  a  scries  of  gradations  or  re- 
treating surfaces,  decreasing  in  size  as  they  rise, 
thus  forming  a  succession  of  terraces.  In  lome 
of  the  towns  these  terraces  are  on  both  sides  of 
the  building ;  in  others  they  face  only  towards 
the  outside ;  while  again  in  others  they  are  on 
the  inside.  These  terraces  are  about  six  feet 
wide,  and  extend  around  the  three  or  four  sides 
of  the  wiuarc,  forming  a  walk  for  the  occupants 
of  the  story  resting  upon  It,  and  a  roof  for  the 
story  liencath;  so  with  the  storiea  above.  As 
there  is  no  iimer  communication  with  one  another, 
the  only  means  of  mounting  to  them  is  by  ladders 
which  stand  at  convenient  distances  along  the 
scvenU  rows  of  terraces,  and  they  may  be  drawn 
up  at  pleasure,  thus  cutting  off  all  unwelcome 
Intrusinn.  The  outside  walls  of  one  or  more  of 
tlie  lower  stories  are  entirely  solid,  having  no 
openinirs  of  any  kind,  with  the  c-vcention  of,  in 
some  tiiwns,  a  few  l<H)pholes.  ...  To  enter  the 
nMtmson  the  ground  HiHir  fMm  the  outside,  one 
must  mount  the  loilder  to  the  first  balcony  or 
tcrnKc,  then  descend  through  a  trap  door  in  the 
tlocir  liv  another  Imider  on  the  inside.  .  .  .  The 
sevcnif  stories  of  these  huge  structure*  are 
dividt'd  iiuo  multltuilinous  compartments  of 
greater  or  less  si/.i',  which  are  apportioned  to  the 
scvirsd  fumilk'S  of  the  tribe  " — H.  H.  BancMft, 
X'ltirf  tiiifetof  the  J'anJIe  f^<itet,  r.  1,  eh.  5  — 
"Tliire  can  be  no  doubt  that  Cibola  Is  to  t)e 
IcHiki'l  for  in  New  Mexico.  .  .  .  We  cannot  .  .  . 
ri'fiisc  ti)  adopt  the  views  of  Oenerat  Simpson 
and  '<!  Mr  W.  \V.  II.  Davis,  and  to  look  at  the 
puebhiof  Ziifilas  occupying.  If  not  the  actuni 
site,  lit  leant  one  of  tile  "sites  within  the  tribal 
area  of  the  Sivrn  ("Itles  of  I'lbola.  Xor  can  wc 
refuse  to  id.ntify  Tuxjiyan  with  the  Moqui  dis- 
trict, .mil  Aeiico  with  Aeoma."— .V.  F.  Ban- 
deller,  Hint.  Inlnnt.  to  Stiidia  umitngth4  Stdentnry 
Jiuli,ii,i  of  \.  .tfcTiVw  {l^ipfrt  of  the  Airhavlog. 
Init.  '/Am.:     Am.  Srie*.  r.    I). 

Alwi  in  ,I.  H.  Himpson,  Th)i  Itarrh  nf  Cony- 
luulii  —\^  II,  .Morgan,  Ihutet  and  Ilaiue-life  nf 
l^t  Am.  A^riffines  ((hntributioni  in  A'.  ,.l«i 
mw-t'-m.  T.  4),  M.  6— F.  11.  Cu.ihing,  My 
Ailniilnrctin  Xufli(<'rtiliirg.  t.  8-4). — The  same, 
fourl'i  Annwl  liriit.  nfth*  Hurrau  of  lilhn,'{.>qy 
(I»W'.'-n:|i.;V..478-IW).-F,  W.  Hlackmar,  «;m',iVA 
Ihttitnlifiia  nf  Ihr  SiHlhifett.  eh.  10 — See.  also. 
Amkhica,  Prriiintohic.  and  above:  PiM.\!< 
F.\jiii.v  and  Krrksan  Family. 

Pujunan  Family. —  ■  The  following  trilws 
Win'  |iliiied  ill  thi'  group  by  Ijitlmm:  Pujuni, 
Si.iimiie.  Tsaiimk  of  Hole,  and  the  Cusliim  of 
H<  hcMili  mft.  The  name  adopted  for  the  funiily 
i*  the  11. Lino  of  n  tfilw  given  ov  Hale.  This  v.:U 
"111'  "f  llie  two  races  into  which,  upon  the  Infor- 
matliin  of  Captain  Sutter  as  derived  by  Mr 
Dana,  all  the  Sacramento  tribei  wets  believed  to 


Pawnee    (Caodoah) 
CniLE:    A.    D.    1490- 


PiocAX  Family. 
Pampas  Tribes. 


See 


be  divided.  '  These  races  resembled  one  another 
in  every  respect  but  language. ' .  .  .  The  tribes 
of  this  family  have  Ix-en  carefully  studied  by 
Powers,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  most  all 
we  know  of  their  distributiou.  They  occupied 
the  eastern  bonk  of  the  Sacramento  in  California, 
beginning  some  80  or  100  miles  from  Its  mouth, 
and  extended  northwani  to  within  a  short  dis- 
tance of  Pit  River."—,!.  W.  Powell,  Serenth 
Annual  Sept.,  Bureau  of  Ethml'tgy,  pp.  99-100. 

Puncai,  or  Ponka*.    See    below:     Siovan 
Family;     and    above: 
Family. 

Puninuuidaii*.    See 
1724. 

Quapawt.    See  below 

Quelchet.    Sec  above 

Querandis,  or  Pehuelchei,  or  Puelta. 
above:  Pampas  Tribes. 

Quiches.—  Cakchiquels.— "  Of  the  ancient 
races  of  America,  those  which  approached  the 
nearest  to  a  civilized  condition  spoke  related  dia- 
lects of  a  tongue,  which  from  its  principal  mem- 
bers has  been  called  the  Maya-Quiche  lingidstio 
stock.  Even  to-day,  It  is  estimated  that  half  a 
million  persons  use  these  dialects.  They  are 
scattered  over  Yucatan,  Guatemala,  and  the  adja- 
cent territory,  and  one  branch  formerly  occupied 
the  hot  lowlands  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  north 
of  Vera  Cruz.  The  so-called  '  metnipi'litan  'dia- 
lects are  those  spoken  relatively  near  the  city  of 
Guatemala,  anil  include  the"  (akcliiiiuel,  the 
tjiilclie,  the  PokonchI  and  the  Tzutuhill.  They 
arL-  quite  closely  allied,  and  are  miitiiully  intelli- 
gilile,  resembling  each  otliiT  alxiiit  as  much  as  did 
in  ancient  Greece  the  Attic,  Ionic  and  Doric  dia- 
lects. .  .  .  The  clvillztttloii  of  these  people  waa 
such  that  they  uscil  viirious  mnemonic  signs, 
approaching  our  alphalwt,  to  riinrd  and  recill 
their  mytliology  and  hL^tnry.  Fragments,  more 
or  less  complete,  of  these  traditions  have  been 
preserved.  The  most  notalile  of  them  is  the 
national  legend  of  the  Quiihes  of  Guatemala,  the 
so-called  I'opol  Vuh.  It  was  written  at  an  un- 
known date  In  the  Quiche  dialect,  by  a  native 
who  was  familiar  with  the  ancient  n'conls."— D. 
O.  Brinton,  Uta j/t  of  an  Amerininiat,  p.  104. 

Also  in  The  some,  .lri/i<i/»  <)^M«  Cai-eMmelt. 
— H.  11.  Bancroft,  Xntire  HaWt  of  the  l\ieijie 
State*,  eh.  11. — See,  also,  above;  MAYAa 

Qulchnu.    Sec  I'KRr. 

Quijo,     Sec  above ;  Andesiass. 

Quonttcan  Family.— "  The  tribes  occupy  both 
batiks  of  the  lower  Klamath  from  a  raiige  of 
hills  a  little  above  Happy  Camp  to  the  jutirtlon 
of  the  Trinity,  and  the  Salmon  Ulver  from  its 
mouth  to  its  sources.  On  the  north.  Quoratean 
triliea  extcndeil  to  the  .\tliapaM'an  territflry  near 
theOn-gonllne." — ,1.  W,  Powell.  .SrivnM  Annual 
Rtpt,  liiirrau  of  Kthni)l<xj<i,  p.  101, 

Rapid  Indiant.~A  luiine  applied  by  varioua 
writers  til  the  ArapalnM'.'i,  and  ullier  triln-s. 

Raritant.    See  alnive;  AinnxqiiAX  Family. 

Remo.     See  alHive:  Amiksiws, 

Rogue  River  lodiaoa.*  See  alxive:  Modocs, 

ETC. 

Rucanai.    See  Perc, 

Sabaja.     Si-o  above ;   GfCK  or  Coto  Groit. 

Saci  (Saukii,  Foset,  etc.— 'The  Sauks  or 

H.-.i!kii»  iWhitr.  CUy'.,  anil  Y'^%-=.~.T  OntBgsm'r?. 
Bocnilwl  by  the  Europeans  and  .Vleoiikins,  but 
whose  true  name  is  Miuquakkiiik  (Kid  Clay),  are 
In  fact  but  one  natlun.    The  French  miHtunarie* 


•8««  Note,  AcimnJia  E,  vul.  t. 


107 


'  i 


.     tit 


•l 

AMERICAN  ABORIQINEa 

on  coming  flnt  in  contact  with  them,  in  the  year 
1863,  at  once  found  that  they  apolce  the  same  lan- 
guage, and  that  It  differeu  from  the  Algonkin, 
though  belonging  to  the  same  stock ;  and  also  that 
this  language  was  common  to  the  Kickapoos, 
and  to  those  Indians  thev  called  Maskootens.  This 
lost  nation,  if  it  ever  bad  an  existence  as  a  dis- 
tinct trll)e,  has  entirely  disappeareil.  But  we  arc 
informed  by  Charlevoix,  and  Mr.  Schoolcraft  cor- 
roborates the  fact,  that  the  word  '  Hasrcmlenck ' 
means  a  country  without  wikkIs,  a  prairie.  The 
name  Maacontens  was  therefore  used  to  designate 
■prairie  Indians.'  And  it  appears  that  they  con- 
sisted principally  of  Sauks  and  Kickapoos,  with 
an  occasional  mixture  of  Potowotamies  and 
Miamis,  who  probably  came  there  to  hunt  the 
BuiTalo.  The  country' assigned  to  those  Slascon- 
tcns  lay  south  of  the  Fox  River  of  Lake  Michi- 

San  and  west  of  Illinois  River.  .  .  .  When  first 
iscovered,  the  Sauksand  Foxes  had  their  si  ii» 
toward  the  southeru  extremity  of  Green  Bay,  on 
Fox  River,  and  generally  farther  east  than  the 
country  which  they  lately  occijplcd.  ...  By  the 
treaty  of  1804,  the  Sauks  and  Foxes  ceded  to  the 
United  States  all  their  lands  east  of  .  .  .  the 
Mississippi.  .  .  .  The  Kickapoo*  by  various 
treaties,  1S09  to  1819,  hiive  also  cedi'd  all  their 
lands  to  the  United  t  tc -.  They  claimed  all  the 
country  U'tween  the  Illinois  River  and  the 
Wubash,  north  of  the  pamllel  of  latitude  passing 
b^'  tlie  mouth  of  the  Illinois  and  south  of  the 
Kankakee  Riv. .  .  .  .  The  territory  claimed  by 
the  .^Ilaiiii»  ni.  >  Pianlvisliaws  may  be  generally 
stated  us  lia\  inglxin  Iwuniledeastwattlly  by  the 
Maunwu  River  of  Ijike  Erie,  and  to  have  In- 
clude<l  all  the  country  drained  by  the  Wabash. 
The  Pianklsliaws  occupied  the  country  twrder- 
ing  on  the  Ohio."— A.  Uallatin,  Sf/nopni  of  tKe 
Jrutiiin  Trihet  {Ai:-h,r.il,iyi,i  Aiiuriaitui,  r.  2), 
ititrml,  ttef.  2.— Tlie  Mo-icontins,  or  Mascoutlns, 
"w'Idiim  ttp|H>ar  alone,  but  almost  always  in 
contiictiiin  » itli  their  kindretl,  the  Uttagamies  or 
Foxi »  and  the  Kick.ipoos,  and  like  them  bear  a 
cUanicter  fur  tnaclury  and  dect'lt.  The  thn-c 
trllxs  may  have  in  earlier  days  formed  the  Fire- 
Natiiiii  [iif  the  early  Kn'Ueli  writers],  but,  as 
Giillatln  oliwrves  in  the  Archn'oloiia  Americana, 
it  is  very  doulitful  wlutliir  the  ItUscoutins  were 
ever  a  (llslinet  tribe.  If  this  lie  so,  and  there  is 
no  ri'asiin  to  reject  It,  the  disappearance  of  the 
name  nill  nut  lie  strange," — J.  G.  Shea,  liri^ 
U<i>iirfhf%  li'iijirf linn  thr  Miitf'tuliru  (.SrhaUeritfVt 
Iiif"rm.ilioH  /{ftikrlii.y  ImUnn  Trihtt,  }it.  4,  p. 
24."ii.— iSie  alMive.  Al.diivijii  an  Family.— For  an 
aci"iint  of   the   Uluck  Hawk  War  tux  Illinois, 

A.  u  i«a-,' 

Sahaptmt.     8<t  above:  Xf.z  Percics. 

Salinan  Family —This  iianic  is  given  by 
Mal..r  I'liwill  til  till'  SiiM  Antonio  and  San  Miguel 
dUliilK  >4|iiikcn  by  twd  trilK's  on  the  Sniiiiiui 
Rivir,  .M.iiit.r.y  C.Mmty.  Califoniia.  — J.  W. 
I'liwill,  Snnth  .'.ni,',.il  'lUi'irt.  Ihin.tu  vf  Klh- 
««/.»/»,  V   I"'  — ^>|'  I^-II.KNIAN  Faiiii.v. 

Saliihan  Family.    Sealmve:  Flatiieads, 

Sanhikans,  or  Minceet.    tSee  above:  Aixum- 

«JfHN   FvMII.V. 

Sans  Arcs.    S<h1h1(iw:  Sioian  Familt. 
Santeei.*  Si'e  iH'liuv    Mm  am  Family, 
Sarcee  iTinnehi.*  SiealKn.-:  BLACKtcer 
Sastcan  Famdy.—    The  single  tribe  upon  the 

L.....I, r    ...i.j,.i.    II..I..    i.-.-^.-i    1.1.    .- - - 

liKiiiid  by  him  t.i  ilie  Miutliweslof  tile  l.utuanil 
or  Klamath  tribts.        .  The  former  ttrrlUiry  of 

•  Uit  Nott,  ApiwiiJiA  K,  v.,1.  ft.  log 


AMERICAN  ABORIOIXES. 

the  Sasteaa  family  Is  the  region  drained  by  the 
Klamath  River  and  ita  tributaries  from  the 
western  base  of  the  Cascade  range  to  the  point 
where  the  KUmath  flows  througii  the  ridge  of 
hills  east  of  Happy  Camp,  which  forms  the 
boundary  between  the  Sastean  and  the  Quoratean 
families.  In  addition  Ui  this  region  of  the  Kht- 
math,  the  Shasta  extended  over  the  Siskiyou 
range  northward  as  far  as  Ashland,  Oregon.""— 
J.  W.  Powell,  Settnth  Annual  Jiepl.,  Bureau  of 
Ethndon,  p.  106. 

SaTmaiuUis.  See  above :  AixjONqut an  Familt. 

Seminolet. — "The   t»'rm  'senunole,'  or  'IsU 
Siman61e,'  signifies  'separatish'  or  'runaway,' 
and  as  a  tribal  name  points  to  the  Indians  who 
left  the  Creek,  especially  the  Lower  Creek  settle- 
menU,  for  Florida,  to  live,  hunt,  anil  fish  there 
in  independence.  The  term  does  not  mean  '  wild,' 
'savage,'  as  frequently  stated ;  if  applied  now  in 
this  sense  to  animals,  it  is  because  of  its  original 
meaning,   '  what   has  become  a  runaway. ' .  .  . 
The  Seminoles  of   modem  times  arc  a  people 
compounded  of  the  following  elements :  separa- 
tisU  from  the  Lower  Creek  and  Ilitcbiti  towns; 
remnants   of_^   tribes    partly    civilized    by    the 
Spaniards;  Yamasst  Indians,  and  some  negroes. 
.  .  .  The  Seminoles  were  always  regarded  as  a 
sort  of  outcaiu  by  the  Creek  tribes  from  which 
they  bad  aecedea,  and    no   doubt   there    were 
reasons  for  this.  .  .  .  These  Indians  showed,  like 
the  Creeks,  hostile  intentiuus  towaMs  the  tliirteen 
states  during  and  after  the  Reyolullon,  and  cr 
jointly  with  the    Upper  Crei'ks  on  Tall.ii-- .,1 
river  concluded  a  treaty  of  friemlship  with  the 
Spanianis  at  Pensni    la  in  May,  1784.     Although 
under  Spanish  contml,  the  Seminoles  entereil  into 
hiwtilities  with  the  Americans  in  1703  and  1813. 
In  the  latter  year  Payne  miko  [' King  Payne' j 
was  killeil  in  a  liattle  at  Alarhua,  and  his  brother, 
the  influential  Bowlegs,  died  sikiii  after     'These 
unruly  triliea  surpriseii  and  maannered  American 
settlers  on  the  Satilla  river.  Georgia,  in  1817,  and 
another  conflict  tx'gan.  which  terminated  in  tli« 
destruction  of  the  Mika.suki  and  Suwanec  river 
towns  of  the  Seminoles  by  General  Jackmin.  in 
Atiril,  1818.     [See  Flouiua:  A.  D.  1816-1818.) 
After  the  ceasiim  of  Florida,  and  itslnrtiriHiretiim 
Intothe  American  Unliin(l810).  the  Seminiiies  gave 
up  all  their  l4'rrilory  by  tlie  In'aty  of  Fort  Mimltrle, 
Sept.  18th,  18'i3,  ri'celvinglne.xVhangegiHiiUaiiii 
annuities.     When  tlic  guvemmeut  conrliiileil  to 
m<n-e  these  Indians  west  of  the  Mississippi  river, 
a  tn'aty  of    a  conditional    charactir   was  con 
eluded  with  them  at   Poyne's  landing,  in  1832 
The  larger  portion  were  ri'iniiveil.  but  the  more 
stulilmm  part  dlssenletl.  and  thus  gave  origin  to 
one  of  the  gravest  confiiits  wlilih  ever  isiurrrl 
iH'tween  Indians  and  whites.     The  Semituile  \> 
iH-gan  with  the  niassaen'  of  Major  Datlen  ri>r. 
mand  near  Wahoo  swamp,  IVcTmlier  2«lh.  \xXt, 
and  ciintinueil  with  unabated  fury  for  five  .Man. 
entailing  an  immense  expenditure  of  mone'v  uinl 
lives,      l,S,«    Fl,i>Kll)A      A.     I»,     1HI«V-I84!r)     A 
numliei  of    Creek    warriors    jiiln«l    the  hoatlh' 
8emlii"li-<  In  18;w.     A  census  iif  the  Heniimln 
taken  in  IMSi  gave  a  population  of  8.8W9.  with 
MtHI  negroids  lieloiiKliig  to  them      The  population 
of  tlw  Seminoles  In  IIm-  Indian  Territory  ainotinli  H 
U)  8,667  ill  1881.  .  .  .  TlH-n-  are  some  Siniinoli- 
now  in  Mexico,  who  went  there  with  their  negM 
slivrs.  ■     .\.  S.  Qathiul,  .i  ifii/rMi,.,,  L:/,.„i ./ 
IhtCrtrkJndiant.r.  I.  pi  1.  s«<,  a  — "  Ever  ulnie 
the  am  wttlemeut  of  Utesv  ludlaui  In  Florida 


i 


AMERICAN  ABORIOntj!^. 

they  h»ve  been  engaged  ta  %  itrife  with  the 
whites.  ...  In  the  unaoimous  judgment  of 
unprejudiced  writers,  the  whites  have  ever  been 
in  the  wrong."— D.  O.  Brinton,  Ab«e»  on  the 
Floridian  Penintula,  p.  148.— "There  were  in 
Florida,  October  1,  1880,  of  tl>e  Indians  com- 
monly known  as  Heminole,  208.  They  consti- 
tuted 37  families,  living  In  23  camps,  which  were 
gathered  into  five  widely  separated  groups  or 
settlements.  .  .  .  This  people  our  Ouvemment 
has  never  been  able  to  conciliate  or  to  conquer. 
.  .  .  The  Beminole  have  always  lived  within  our 
borders  as  aliens.  It  is  only  of  late  Tears,  and 
through  natural  necessities,  that  anj-  friendly 
intercourse  of  white  man  and  Indian  has  lieen 
secured.  .  .  .  The  Indians  have  appropriated  for 
their  service  some  of  the  products  of  European 
civilization,  such  as  weapons,  implements, 
domestic  utensils,  fabrics  for  clothing,  &c. 
Mentally,  excepting  a  few  religious  ideas  which 
they  received  long  ago  fn)m  the  teaching  of 
Spanish  missionaries,  anil,  in  tho  southern  settle- 
ments, excepting  some  few  Spanish  words,  the 
deminole  have  accepted  and  Appropriated  prac- 
tically nothing  from  tho  whito  man."--C.  Mac- 
Cauley,  Tht  SeminoU  Indian*  of  Florida  {Fifth 
An.  Rept.  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  1883-84), 
introd.  and  cK.  4. 

Also  ra  J.  T.  Sprague,  The  Floriila  War  — 
8.  O.  Drake,  The  Aiortffin-rl  RaeaofX  Am..  Ik. 
4.  eh.  6-21. — See,  also,  above:  Muskboobas 
Familt. 

SenecMj   their   oame.  —  "IIow  this  name 
ori>[inutrd  Is  a  'vcxata  qusstio'  among  Indo- 
antiijuarians  and  etymologists.     The  least  plausi- 
ble  supposition   is,    that    the    name    has   any 
refen-nce  to   the  moralist   Hencca.     Some  have 
supposed  it  to  be  a  corruption  o'  the  Dutch  term 
for  Vermillion,  cincbar,  or  cinnabar,  under  the 
assumption  that  the    Henecas,  being    the  most 
warliltc  of  the  Five  Nations,  used  tliat  pigment 
more  than  the  others,  and  thus  gave  origin  to 
the  name.    This  hypothesis  is  supported  Dy  no 
authority.    .    .   .   The    name    'Scnnecas'   first 
appiiirs  on  a  Dutch  map  of  1616,  and  again  on 
Jeiin  (Ic  Laet's  map  of  1633.  ...  It  is  claimed 
by  some  that  tho  word  may  be  derived  from 
'Sinnckox,'  tho  Algonquin  name  of  a  tribe  of 
Indians  spoken  of   in   Wassenaer's  Histoty  of 
Europe,  on  the  authority  of  Peter  Barenti,  who 
lrad«i  with   them   aljout    tho  year  1626.  . 
Without   assuming   to  solve   the  mystery    the 
writer  contents  himself  with  giving  some    '  u. 
which  may  possibly  aid  others  in  arriving     • 
ti'WMe  coneluslnn.     [Here  follows  a  discussion 
of  the  various   forms  of   name   by   which  tho 
Henecas  designated  themselves  and  were  known 
t"    the    Hunins,  fnmi    whrm    tho   JesulU  first 
lieardof  them.)    Hy  d^ol)pin^•  the  neuter  pre- 
liJt  O,  the  national  title  became  'Nnn-do-wah- 
Kiuih. '  or  •  The  grvat  hill  people, '  as  now  used  by 
tlie  Heneoas.  ...  If  the  name  8en«a  can  legitl 
nmtely  Ih-  derive,!  fn)m  tlic  Henera  w,.nl  •  Nan  ilo- 
wuhgaah'  .  .  .  It  ran  only  be  done  hv  prefixing 
'.Son.'  as  Has  tho  cuKtom  of   the  Jesuits,  «n<i 
iln.pplng  all  unnecessary  letters.     It  would  then 
I'lrr.i  the  word  'Ron  non-iio-waga.'  the  first  two 
snd  Isst  syllables  „f  which.  If  the  French  soun.ls 
of  the  letters  ar»;  given,  arc  almost  identical  In 
I'riinunclation  with  Henera      Tl'"  'h'"'  d'lBcu'tv 
i"|«ever,  wonkl  he  In  the  disposal  of  the  two 
i"i;*rll.ious  »yllabhMi.     They    may    hare   been 
uroppcd  ha  the  procesa  of  coutractiun  so  common 


109 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 

In  the  compoaltloD  of  Indian  words— a  result 
which  would  be  quite  likely  to  occur  to  a  Seneca 
name,  in  its   transmission  through  two  other 
languages,  the  Mohawk  and  the  Dutch.     The 
foregoing  queries  and  suggestions  are  thrown 
out  for  what  they  are  worth,  in  the  absence  of 
any^   more   reliable   theory."— O.   H.  JIarshall, 
HutoriealWntinge.p.m.-%tea.hove.  Iroquou 
ConrsDKRACY,  andHuRONs,  Ac. —See,  also  PoN- 
TiAc'8  War,  and  for  an  account  of  Sullivan's  ex- 
pedition against  the  Senecas,  see  United  States 
o'   Am.  :    A.  D.  1779  (AfousT  —  Septembbh). 
Slucaya.    See  above:  An desians. 
ShahaptiM     Family.       Sec     above:     Niz 
PEBc£a 
Shaataa.    See  above :  Sabtkan  Faxilt 
Shawantae,   Shawneci,  or  Shawanoea.  — 
Adjacent  to  the  Lenape  [or  Dclawares  — see 
above],  and  associated  with  them  in  some  of  the 
most  notable  passages  of  their  history,  dwelt  the 
Shawanoea,  the  Chaouanons  of  the  French,  a 
trfbo  of  bold,   roving,  and  adventurous  spirit. 
Their  eccentric  wanderings,  their  sudden  appear- 
ance! and  disappearances,  perplex  the  antiquary, 
and  defy  research;  but  from  various  scattered 
notices,  we  may  gather  that  at  an  early  period 
they  occupied  the  valley  of  the  Ohio;  that  be- 
coming embroiled  with  the  Five  Nations,  they 
shared  tho  defeat  of  the  Andastes,  and  about  the 
year  1672  fled  to  escape  destruction.   Some  found 
an  asvlum  in  the  country  of  the  Ix-napc,  where 
they  lived  ttnanta  at  will  of  the  Five  Nations; 
otuers   soujjht   refuge    in    the   Carollnas    and 
norida,   where,   true  to  their  native  Inatincta 
they  soon  came  to  blows  with  the  oTvners  of  the 
soil.     Again,  turning  northwards,  they  formed 
new  settlements  in  tho  valley  of  the  Ohio,  where 
they  were  now  suffered  to  dwell  in  peace,  and 
where,  at  a  later  period,  they  were  joined   by 
such  of   their  brethren    as  bad  found   refuge 
among  the  Lenape."— F.  Parkman,    The   cJn-^ 
epiraey  of  I^ntiaf.  ch.  l._"The  Sluiwnees  were 
not  found  originally  in  Ohio,  but  mlgnitoil  there 
after  17S0.    They  were  called  Chaouanons  by 
the  French  snd  Shawanoes  by  the  English.     The 
English  name  Shawano  changed  to  Shawanee 
and  recently    to    Shawnee.      Chaouanou    an<i 
Shawano  are  obviously  attempts  to  reiireseut  the 
same  sound  by  tho  orthography  of  the  t«u  re- 
spective languages.    .    .   .   Much  imlustry  haa 
been  used  by  rei-rnt  wriUTs,  e«|)ecially  bv  Dr 
Brinton,  to  trace  this  nomadic  tribe  to  its  original 
home;  but  I  think    without  sucicM.  .  .       We 
first  find  the  Shawano  in  actual  history  about  the 
year  1660,  anil  living almig  the  runilwrlanil  river 
or  the  tiimlwrland  and  Tennessee.     Among  the 
coniecluri'sastothelrcarlierhliitorv.  the  grc«n»t 
probability  lies  for  tho  present  wi'th  the  earliest 
account  — tho  account  given  by  Perrot.  and  ap- 
parenllv  obulneil   by  him  from  the  Slmwanoes 
thenutel.^s,   alxiut  tho    year    1«H0  — that   they 
formeriy   lived  by  the  lower  lakes,   aiul   were 
driven  thence  by  tho  Five  Nations  "—  M    p 
Force,  S>nu  Kitrlv  \oliff*  ofthf  Iiuli'ifin  pf  Ohio 
—"Their  [the  Shawnee's]  dialect  U  nmre  akin 
to  the    Mohegan    than    to  the    Deluwar,'.   and 
when,   In  16BJ,  they  first  apjieanil  in  the  area 
of    tho    Eastern    Algonkin   I'onfeilerarv     they 
came  as  the  friends  and  relatives  of  the" former 
Tl>:y  w<m  ^(vi,!r,i   Istr,  f:„ir  hxauU  "- -  1*1, ,u» 
proneriy  Plkoweu,  Mequachake,   Kiscapokoke' 
ChUicolhe.     "Of  these,   that  which  setthil  in 
Fenaaylvaoia  was  the  Plkoweu,  who  occupied 


if 

,   i'  m 


ii 


AMERICAN  ABORIOINES. 


•nd  gave  their  name  to  the  Pequa  Taller  In  Lan- 
caster county.  According  to  ancient  Mohcgan 
tradition,  the  New  England  Pequods  were  mem- 
bers of  this  band. " —  D.  O.  Brinton,  Tht  Lenape 
and  their  LegeruU,  eh.  2. —  The  same,  The  8ha\t- 
neet  and  their  Migralionii  (Uitt.  Stag.,  t.  10, 
1886), — "The  Shawanese,  whose  villages  were  on 
the  western  bank  [of  the  Susquehanna]  came 
Into  the  valley  [of  Wyominc]  from  their  former 
localities,  at  the 'forks  of  the  Delaware'  (the 
junctinn  of  the  Delaware  and  Lehigh,  at  Eostun), 
to  which  point  they  hnd  been  induced  at  some 
remote  periotl  to  emigrate  from  their  earlier 
home,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Waliasb,  in 
the  'Ohio  region,'  upon  the  Invitation  of  the 
Delawares.  'This  was  Indhm  diplomacy,  for  the 
Delawarcs  were  desirous  (not  being  upon  the 
most  friendly  terms  with  the  Hlngos,  or  Six 
Nations)  to  accumulate  a  force  against  those 
powerful  neighbors.  But,  as  might  be  expected, 
they  did  not  long  live  in  peace  with  their  new 
alllf.  .  .  .  The  Shawanese  [about  1*55,  or  soon 
after]  were  driven  out  of  the  valley  by  their 
more  powerful  neighbors,  the  Delawares,  and 
the  condict  which  resulted  in  their  leaving  it 
grew  out  of,  or  was  precipitated  by,  a  very 
trifling  incident.  While  the  warriors  of  the 
Delawares  were  engaged  upon  the  mountains  in  a 
hunting  expedition,  a  number  of  S(iuan's  or  female 
Indians  from  ilaughwauwame  were  gather- 
ing wild  fruits  along  the  margin  of  tlie  river 
below  the  town,  where  they  found  a  number  of 
Shawanese  sq'  ws  and  tlii'ir  children,  who  hud 
crosiieil  the  river  in  their  canoi-s  upon  the  same 
busini'Sii.  A  child  belonging  to  the  Shawaiiise 
having  taken  a  large  grasshopper,  a  quarrel  arose 
among  the  children  fur  the  possession  of  it,  in 
which  tlirir  mothers  soon  took  part.  .  .  .  'The 
quarrel  became  general.  .  .  .  Upon  the  return 
of  the  warriors  Ixjtli  tribes  prepared  for  batHe. 
.  .  .  The  Shawanese  .  .  .  were  not  able  to  sus- 
tain the  conflict,  and,  after  tlie  loss  of  atM)Ut  half 
their  tril)e,  the  rcmainiler  were  forced  to  flw  lo 
their  own  side  of  the  river,  shortly  after  whiih 
Ihev  ahiindiiued  their  town  and  removitl  to  the 
Ohfo."  This  war  betwwn  the  Delawares  und 
Bliawanese  ha-s  been  calletl  the  flrasshopper  War. 
—  L.  H.  Miner,  The  Yalltn  of  Wyimiiig.  p.  82.— 
See.  also,  above,  Ai"'mqciA»  Family,  and  Dela- 
ware*.—See,  alw,  PoKTiAC's  Wah;  I'mtkd 
States  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  ITeS-HeS;  and  (fur  an 
account  of  "  L<ml  Dunmnre's  War")  see  Ohio 
(Valley):  A.  I).  1774. 

Shcepcatcrt  (Tukuariki),  Sec  below:  Siio- 
RUoNKAN  Family. 

Sheyenne*.    Sec al>ove .  AixiongriAN  Family. 

Shosliooean  Family,  —  "This  iiiiiiiirtaut 
family  iMciipled  a  large  part  of  the  great  Intiriur 
basin  of  the  United  States.  Upon  the  mirth 
8h(»lii>nean  tribes  extendetl  far  into  On'gnn. 
meeting  hhnliapllan  territory  <in  about  the  Itth 
parnlU  1  or  along  the  Dlue  Mountains.  Upon  the 
DortlK'i^t  the  lastirn  limits  of  the  pristine  Imlii- 
tat  of  the  Shuiiliiiuean  tribes  are  unknown.  Tlic 
narrative  of  I^wis  and  Clarke  contains  the 
cxplirit  stnt< mint  Unit  the  Shoshotd  liands  tu- 
countiTed  upi'n  tlie  .Ii'lTenum  Uiver.  wlmsi'  nuni- 
mer  home  was  upon  the  head  waters  of  the 
Columbia,  formerly  lived  within  tlulr  own 
recolliitlon  In  the  plains  to  the  east  of  the  lli«iy 
Uotinlnms,  wiience  thiy  were  liriven  I"  liuir 
mountain  retri'ats  l>y  the  Miunetaree  (.\tslna), 
who  hiul  obtained  Ilreanus.  ,  .  .  Luter  a  divl- 


•:>»••  X"|p,  A|>|H'ii.li«  K,  vi.l.  }, 


1 


^HERICAK  ABORIOIXES. 


sion  of  the  Bannock  held  the  finest  portion  of 
Southwestern  Montana,  whence  apparently  they 
were  being  pushed  westward  across  the  moun- 
tains by  Blackfeet.  Upon  the  east  the  Tukuarika 
or  Sheepcatera  held  the  Yellowstone  Park 
country,  where  they  were  bordered  by  the  Siouan 
territory,  while  the  Washaki  occupied  south- 
western Wyoming.  Nearly  the  entire  moun- 
tainous part  of  Colorado  was  held  by  the  several 
bands  of  tho  Ute,  tlie  eastern  and  southeastern 
parts  of  the  State  being  held  respectively  bv  the 
Arapaho  and  Cheyenne  (Algonquian),  anu  the 
Kaiowe  (Kiowan).  To  the  southeast  the  Ute 
country  included  the  northern  drainage  of  the 
San  Juan,  extending  farther  east  a  short  dis- 
tance into  New  Mexico.  The  Comanche  divi- 
sion of  the  family  extended  farther  east  than  any 
other.  .  .  .  BouVgcmoiit  found  ■  Comanche 
tribe  on  the  ui'iHT  Kansas  River  in  1734.  Accord- 
ing to  Pike  Ilie  Comanche  territory  bordered 
the  Kaiowe  on  the  north,  the  former  occupying 
the  head  wai  s  of  the  Tpper  Ited  River,  Arkan- 
sas and  Rio  Oranoe.  How  far  to  the  southward 
Shoshonean  tribes  extended  at  this  early  period 
Is  not  linown,  though  the  evidence  tends  to  show 
that  they  raided  far  down  intoTexaa,  to  the  terri- 
tory they  have  occupietl  in  more  recent  years, 
viz.,  the  extensive  |ilains  fnmi  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains eastward  into  Indian  Territory  and  Texas 
to  about  97°.  Upon  the  south  Shoshonean  terri- 
tory was  limited  generally  by  the  Colorado 
River  .  .  .  while  the  Tusayan  (Moki)  hod  es- 
tabllslied  tlieir  seven  pueblos  ...  to  tlie  east  of 
the  Colorwlo  Chi(|uito.  In  the  s  ithwest  Slio- 
shonean  tribes  liad  poshed  across  i  ilifornia,  w- 
cupying  a  wide  ban.  country  t<  the  Paciflc." 
— J.  W.  Powell.  .St  ...,,  Anninil  Htpl.,  Hiireuu 
of  Ethnology,  pp.  109-110.— "The  Pah  Utes oc- 
cupy the  greatiT  paa  of  Nevada,  and  extend 
southward.  .  .  .  The  Pi  Utes  or  Piutes  inhabit 
Western  Utah,  from  Oregon  to  New  Mexico. 
.  .  .  The  Uosh  Utes  lUosuites]  inhabit  the  coun. 
try  west  of  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  extend  to  the 
Pah  Utes." — II.  II.  Bancroft,  Xatit*  Hat f  of 
tht  Paeijle  Statu,  t.  1,  eh.  4. 

Siktiua,  or  Sisikas.   See  above:  Blackfeet. 

Sionui  Family. —  Sioux,* — "The  nations 
which  Break  the  Sioux  language  may  be  con- 
sidcrc'  In  rttennco  both  to  their  reBwcllve 
dialecu  and  to  their  gi-ogniphiejil  position,  as 
consisting  of  fmir  sulMllvislons,  viz.,  tlie  Winne 
bagoes:  the  Sioux  proper  and  t!  !•  AstiinllHiiiH. 
the  Mineture  group:  and  the  •  iges  and  oilier 
southern  kindnil  triU-s.  The  u  innebagiHS,  so 
culled  bv  the  .Mguiikins,  but  ealltnl  Piiai!^  and 
also  Otcuagnis  by  the  Friueli,  and  lloroje  i  Ilith- 
eaters')  by  Hie  Onuihaws  and  other  soutliirn 
tribes,  call  theniMives  lltH'hungorab,  or  the 
"Trout'  nation.  Tlie  Ureen  Hay  of  Lake  .Mii  lil- 
gao  derives  its  French  name  from  theirs  illiiyi' 
lies  Puans).  .  .  .  Acconiing  to  tlie  War  Depart 
ment  they  amount  [IKW]  to  4.IXHI  souls,  ami  up 
pear  to  cultivate  the  soil  to  a  coiiaiderabledi  grti' 
Their  principal  stnta  are  on  the  Fox  lllvir  i( 
I^ke  Michigan,  und  towards  the  bends  of  iIk 
R«Kk  River  of  the  Mississippi.  .  .  .  The  M.'.x 
proper,  or  Niiudownuiiis,  names  given  to  ilum 
by  tile  Algonkliis  aiHl  tlie  Fri'nrh,  callHieniwhcs 
Dahcotas,  aii<i  sometimes  'Oihente  Shakiwns 
or  the  Seven  Fires,  and  are  divided  Into  wym 
bands  or  tritirs.  clowly  connei  ti^d  togrliur.  iui 
apparently  IndeiK'iident  of  each  other.  Thi  y  do 
Dut  appear  tu  hav«  b««ii  known  to  the  FreuJi 

0 


AXEBICAK  ABORIOINES. 


AM.?RICAK  ABORIOINES. 


before  the  year  1660.  .  .  .  The  four  moat  eastern 
tribes  of  the  Dahcotas  are  known  by  the  uam; 
of  the  Hendewahkaiitoan,  or  'Oens  du  Lar,' 
Wabkpstoon  and  Wahk pakotoon,  u'  'People 
of  the  Leaves,'  and  Hisitoans.  .  .  Ihe  three 
westerly  tribes,  the  Yanktons,  the  Yanktonans, 
and  the  Tetons,  \.andcr  between  the  Mississippi 
and  the  Slissouri.  .  .  .  The  Asslaiboins  (Stune 
Indians),  as  ( hey  are  called  by  the  Algonkins, 
are  a  Dalicota  tribe  separated  from  the  rest  oif 
the  natiim,  and  on  that  account  called  Hoha  or 
'Rebels,'  by  the  other  Sioux.  Tliey  arc  said  to 
have  made  part  originally  of  the  Yainktons.  .  .  . 
Another  tribe,  called  Sheyennes  or  Cheyennes, 
were  at  no  very  remote  period  seated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Red  River  of  Lake  Winnipek.  .  .  . 
Carver  reckons  them  as  one  of  the  Sioux  tribes; 
and  Mackenzie  inform*  us  that  they  were  drivru 
uway  by  the  Sioux.  They  now  [1886]  live  on 
the  heailwaters  of  the  river  Sheyenne,  a  south- 
western tributary  of  the  Missouri.  ...  I  have 
bcin,  however,  assured  by  a  well-informed  person 
wLu  trades  with  them  that  they  speak  a  distinct 
language,  for  which  there  is  no  European  inter- 
preter. .  .  .  The  Minetares(MiuetarceandMinc- 
taries)  consist  of  three  tribes,  speaking  three 
diSerent  languages,  which  belong  to  a  common 
stock.  Its  affinities  with  the  Dahcota  arc  but 
remote,  but  have  a[ipearcd  sufficient  to  entitle 
tliem  to  be  considered  as  of  the  same  family. 
Two  of  those  tribes,  the  Mnndanvs,  whose  num- 
ber d(H'S  not  exceed  l.SOO,  and  the  statiorary 
Minetiires.  amounting  to  3,0(10  souls,  including 
those  r.'illi'il  Annahawas,  cultivaU)  the  soil,  and 
live  in  villages  situated  on  or  near  the  Missouri, 
between  47^  and  48"  north  latitude.  .  .  .  The 
'thinl  Minetare  tribe,  is  tliat  known  by  the  nume 
of  the  Crow  or  irpsaroka  [or  Absarokaj  nution, 
probalily  the  Kceheetsiis  of  Lewis  and  Clarke. 
They  iir'c  an  erratic  tril>e,  who  hunt  south  of  the 
Missouri,  between  the  Little  Missouri  and  the 
southeastern  brunches  of  the  Yellowstone  River. 
.  .  Tlie  southern  Sioux  co.isist  of  eight  tril>c8, 
speaking  four,  or  at  most  five,  kindred  dhilecta. 
Tlicir  territory  originally  extended  along  the 
Mississippi,  from  oelow  the  mouth  of  tlio 
Arkansas  to  the  forty -Ant  degree  of  north  lati- 
tude. .  .  .  Their  hunting  grounds  extend  as  far 
west  as  the  Stony  Mountains:  but  they  nil  culti- 
vate the  soil,  and  the  must  westerly  village  on 
the  Missouri  is  in  about  100*  west  longitude. 
The  three  most  westerly  tribes  are  the  Qua[>pas 
nr  ArkauHns.  at  the  nmutb  of  the  river  of  that 
name,  and  tlie  Umges  and  Kansas,  who  tnhabi 
tlie  eiiiiiiiry  south  of  the  Missouri  and  of  tue 
river  K«ii!%ii«.  ,  .  .  The  Osages,  properly  Wau- 
saslie,  Wire  more  numerous  •■'  >l  powerful  than 
any  of  llie  neighbouring  tribi  ind  per|K'tua!ly 
at  war  with  all  the  other  It  i,  without  ex- 
npiing  the  KaiuMS,  who  «  unie  diuh'ct 

with  themselves.     TheyW'  iially  divided 

Into  (Inat  and  Little  ().<ui>;  :  aNiut  furty 

vears  iii;ci  ulmoNt  one  half  ot  nation,  known 

liy  the  name  of  Chaueera,  or  i  iermont's  bund, 
*|i.irilr<l  from  tue  r"ht,  and  removetl  u>  the 
rinr  .VrkansH.  The  villages  of  th<ise  several 
siiMi visions  are  now  [IHSe]  on  the  healnuters 
of  the  river  Osage,  and  of  the  Venllgri.s,  a 
iiorthiTn  tributary  stream  of  the  Arkansa.  They 
amount  toalHiut  ".'i.tHIO  souls,  and  have  ceded  a 
jMriiiiii  of  liiiir  ininis  t<i  the  L'nitetl  Mates,  re- 
nrvlug  to  themM'lvrs  a  territory  on  the  Arkansa, 
south  of  ^'  north  latlttuW,  oxtsiMUng  (rum  9V 

11 


to  I00»  west  longitude,  on  a  breadth  of  4{>  to  SO 
miles.  Tlie  territory  allotted  to  the  Cherokeea, 
the  Creeks  and  the  Choctaws  lies  south  of  that  of 
the  Osajj'c.  .  .  .  The  Kansas,  who  have  always 
lived  on  the  river  of  that  name,  have  been  at 
peace  with  the  Osage  for  the  last  thirty  years, 
and  intermarry  with  them.  They  amount  to 
1,500  souls,  and  occupy  a  tract  of  tbout  8,000,000 
acres.  .  .  .  The  five  other  tribes  of  this  sub- 
division are  the  lownys,  or  Pahoja  (Grey  Snow), 
the  Missouris  or  Neojehe,  the  Ottoes,  or  Wah- 
tootahtah,  the  Omahaws,  or  M^ias,  and  the 
Puncaa.  .  .  .  All  the  nations  speaking  languages 
belcUi^ing  to  the  Qrca*  Sirux  jfamily  may  .  .  . 
be  computed  at  more  than  50,000  souls." — A. 
Gallatin,  Sj/nnptig  of  t'^  Indian  Trihtt  (AreTtao- 
logia  Amei'cina,  t.  ':),  net.  1. — "Owing  to  the 
fact  that  'Sioux'  1<,  a  word  of  reproach  and 
means  snake  tr  enemy,  the  term  has  been  dis- 
carded by  many  later  writers  as  a  family  designa- 
tion, and  '  Dakota, '  which  signifies  friend  or 
ally,  has  been  employed  in  its  stead.  The 
two  worus  arc,  however,  by  no  means  prop- 
erly synonymous.  The  term  '  Sloui '  was  used 
by  Galktin  in  a  comprehensive  or  family 
».nse  and  was  applied  to  all  the  tribes  collec- 
tively known  to  him  to  speak  kindred  dialects  of 
a  widespread  language.  It  is  in  this  sense  onljr, 
as  applied  to  the  linguistic  family,  that  the  term 
is  here  employed.  "The  term  '  Dahcota '  (Dukota) 
was  correctly  applied  by  Gallatin  to  the  Dakota 
tribes  proper  as  distinguished  from  the  other 
members  of  the  linguistic,  family  who  are  not 
Dakotas  in  a  tribal  sense.  The  use  of  the  term 
with  this  signification  should  be  perpetuated. 
It  Is  only  recently  that  a  definite  decision  hai 
been  reached  respecting  the  relationship  of  the 
Catawba  and  Woccon.  the  latter  an  extinct  tribe 
known  to  have  lieen  liniruistically  niated  to  the 
Catawba.  Gallatin  thought  that  he  was  able  to 
discern  some  affinities  of  th:  Catawbau  language 
with  'Muskhogce  and  even  with  Choctaw,' 
though  these  were  not  sufficient  to  liidui-e  him  tn 
class  them  togetU'  r.  Mr.  Gatschet  was  the  lirst 
♦o  call  attention  to  the  presence  in  the  Catawba 
language  of  a  considerable  numlx>r  of  words 
having  a  Siouan  afflrity.  Recently  Mr.  Dorsey 
has  mailc  a  criticu  examination  of  all  the 
Catawba  linguistic  material  available,  which  has 
been  materially  increased  by  the  labors  of  Mr. 
Gatschet,  and  the  result  seems  to  justify  its  in- 
clusion as  one  of  the  dialects  of  the  widespread 
Slojan  family."  The  principal  trilH's  in  the 
Siouan  Family  named  by  Major  Powi'U  arc  tlio 
Dakota  (Including  Santoe,  Slsseton,  Walipeton, 
Yankton,  Yanktonnais,  Teton,  —  the  latter  em- 
bracing Hrule.  Sans  Arcs,  Blackfi-et,  Minnecon- 
jou,  Two  Kettles,  Ogu!ala,  Uncpapa),  AssiiialKilu, 
Umaha,  Ponca,  Kaw,  Osage,  tjuapaw,  Iowa, 
Otoe,  Missouri.  Winnebago,  .Mandaii,  Oros  Ven- 
tres, Crow,  Tutelo,  lliloxi  (see  MfBKIIooK.vX 
Famh.v).  Catawba  and  W.iccon. — J.  W.  I'.. well, 
a  tenth  Annual  Hept.  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnulogy, 
p.  113. 

Aljio  i!«  J.  O.  Dorwy,  \Hgrationt  nf  Simian 
Trihrl  {Af  nnin  A'lilu'riilint,  r.  iO.  ifarrh). — 
The  same,  i...  «n'  Itiili^nis -if  I/t<iitiitn,t  iV.P. 
adilnuA.A.A   S,  1898).— See.  nliovr:  HlIurSA. 

Sitietobs.    See  aU.ve  Sioian  K.tMii.v. 

Six  Natlona.  See  above:  Iiukjiuis  Coh- 
r«DBn,\cT. 

SkittaKctan  Family.— "A  family  design*- 
tiou  .  .  .  retained  (or  the  tribes  of  the  tjueea 

1 


' 


i.i'M. 


mi' 


AKSPTCAN  ABOniOINES. 


Charlotte  Archipelago  'which  hare  usually  been 
called  Ilaida.  From  a  comparison  of  the  vocabu- 
laries of  tlie  Haida  language  with  others  of  the 
neighboring  Koluschan  family,  Dr.  Franz  Boas 
is  incHned  to  consider  that  the  two  are  g''uetically 
related.  The  two  languages  possess  a  consider- 
able number  of  words  in  common,  but  a  more 
thorough  investigation  is  reqnisi'e  for  the  settlc- 

,ment  of  the  question." — J.  '■»'.  Powell,  tvxnth 

{Annual  Itrpt.,  Bureau  of  Ethm4ogy,p.  120. 

'    Snakes.    See  alwve :  SBOsnuxEAN  Family. 

I  Stockbrid^e  Indiana.—' '  The  Stockbridgc  In- 
dians wen'  originally  a  part  of  the  Ilousiitaimuck 
Tribe  [Molicgans].  to  whom  the  Ix'gislature  of 
JL-tesatlmsetts  granted  or  secured  a  township 
jafterward  called  Stockbridge]  in  the  vnnr  ITSi 
Their  numlxT  was  increased  by  Wapp!  m  and 
Moliikanders,  and  perhaps  also  by  lu  au  be- 
longing to  several  other  tribes,  both  of  New 
England  and  New  York.  Since  their  removal  to 
New  Stockbridge  and  Brotherton,  in  the  western 

Sarts  of  New  York,  they  have  been  joined  by 
[ohcgans  and  other  Indians  from  East  Connecti- 
cut, and  even  from  Rhode  Island  and  Long 
Island."— A.  GalUtin,  Sl/nopti*  of  Indian  Tribei 
[Arrhavlogta  Amrriea.ia.  t.  2),  p.  85. 

Also  is  A.  Holmes,  AnnaUofAm.,  1/36  (t.  2). 
—  8.  O.  Drake,  Aboriginal  Bacct,  p.  15. 

Susquehanna*,  or  Andastes,  or  Conestogat. 
— "  Dutch  and  Swedish  writers  speak  of  a  tribe 
called  Minquas;  .  .  .  the  French  in  Canada  .  .  . 
make  frequent  allusions  to  the  Oandostoguis 
(more  brieHv  Andast&i),  a  tribe  frieu<lly  to  tliclr 
allies,  the  Hiirons,  and  sturdy  enemies  of  the 
Iroquois ;  later  still  Pennsylvania  writers  speak 
of  the  Cipncstiigas,  the  tribe  to  which  Logan  be- 
longed, and  the  tribe  which  perished  at  the 
hands  of  the  Pnxton  boys.  Although  Gallatin 
in  his  map,  fullowed  by  Bancnjft,  placed  the 
Andiistis  n(  •  Ijxke  Erie,  my  researcln-s  led  mo 
to  correct  uds,  and  Identify  "the  Hu»(iMehannas, 
3Iinqua,  Ando^t^s  or  Oundastogiies,  and  Cones- 
to^as  as  iK'ing  all  the  same  tribt',  the  firf.t  name 
bemjj  apparently  an  appellation  given  them  by 
the  \  irgiiiia  triln-s;  the  second  that  given  them 
It  the  Algonquins  on  the  Delaware;  while  Oan- 
ilai.iiigue  as  the  French,  or  Conestoga  as  the 
English  wrote  It,  wos  tlieir  own  tril)al  name, 
meaning  cablnpole  men,  Natio  Perticarum, 
from 'Andusta,' a  cabin-pole.  .  .  .  Prior  to  1000 
the  Sus(iuehaunas  and  the  Mohawks  .  .  .  came 
Into  collisliin,  and'tlio  8iis(|uehttnuas  nearly  ex- 
terminated the  Mohawks  in  a  war  whitli  lasted 
ten  years."  In  1847  they  offeml  their  aid  to  the 
llurons  against  the  IriMiuols,  having  1,'MiO  war- 
riors trained  to  the  use  of  flreanns  by  thri'e 
Swedish  soliliirs;  but  the  proposed  alliance 
fallid.  During  the  third  quarter  of  the  17th 
century  tiny  wem  to  have  been  in  almost  con- 
tinuous war  with  the  Five  Nations,  imtil,  in 
1675,  tliey  wire  completely  overthrown.  A 
parly  of  almut  1(K)  relnat<\l  into  .Maryland 
oixt  biianii'  invi'lvdl  there  in  a  war  with  the 
coloni^i.H  mill  Were  de»ln>ye<l.  '■'riie  rent  of 
the  trilK-,  utii  r  making  (jveVtutfs  to  l»nl  Balti- 
more, Kiitiniiitcd  to  the  Kive  Nations,  and 
were  alliiwid  to  retain  their  ancient  grounds. 
When  l'enii.sylvaiiia  was  settled,  llii'y  iH'canie 
known  as  Coiieslogos,  and  were  always  friindly 
to  the  r"l"ii!«!«  "f  Penn.  ss  thev  had  !;!■!■!!  Ui  the 
Dutch  and  tSwedes.  In  1701  CauixHlaniili,  their 
king,  inaile  a  treaty  with  Penn,  anil  in  the  docu- 
Blent  they  are  stj'led  MinquaS;  Cdueatogoa,  or 


'.v.  .\..lc,  AplH  n.h.x  K,  v„|.5. 


112 


AHERICAIT  ABORIGINES. 

Susquehantiaf.  They  appear  as  •  tribe  In  a 
treaty  in  1748,  but  were  dwindling  away.  lu 
1763  the  feeble  remnant  of  the  triSe  became  iu- 
vlved  in  the  general  suspicion  entertained  by 
-c  colonists  against  the  led  men.  arising  out  of 
lassaeres  on  the  borders.  To  escape  danger  the 
poor  creatures  took  re'uge  in  Lancaster  jail,  and 
here  they  were  all  butchered  by  the  Paxton  boys, 
who  burst  into  the  place.  Parkman,  in  his  Con- 
spiracy of  Pontiac,  p.  414,  details  the  sad  story. 
The  lost  interest  of  this  unfortunate  tribe  centra 
in  Logan,  the  friend  of  the  white  man.  whose 
speech  is  so  familiar  to  all,  that  we  must  regret 
that  it  has  not  sustained  the  historical  scrutiny  of 
Brantz  ISajbt  {Tafiga/{fuU ;  or  Logan  and  Cant. 
Michael  Crttap,  Maryland  Hitt.  Soe.,  May.  1051 ; 
an<f  8r).  Albany,  1867).  Logan  was  a  Cones- 
toga,  in  other  words  a  Susquehanna."-  >J.  U. 
Shea,  yote  46  to  Oeorge  Altop't  Character  of  the 
Province  of  Maryland  (Oowan'i  Bibtiotheea  Ameri- 
tana,  6). —  See,  also,  above :  IiuMil'Ois  CoNrco- 

BRACT. 

Tacbie*.    See  Texas:  Thk  abobioinal  m- 

DABITANT8  AKD  TnG  NAMI. 

Tacullie*.    Bee  below:  Athapascan  Faxilt. 

Taenaaa,    See  Natcheban  Family. 

Takilman  Family.*— "  This  name  was  pro- 
posed by  Mr.  Gatschet  for  a  distinct  language 
spoken  on  the  coast  of  Oregon  about  the  lower 
Itogue  lUver."— J.  W.  Powell,  SecentA  Annual 
^pf-,  Bufau  of  Ethnology,  p.  121. 

Talligewi.    See  above :  Alleorans. 

TaSoan  Family.  -"The  tribes  of  this  family 
in  the  United  States  resided  exclusively  upon  the 
lUo  Grande  and  its  tributary  valleys  from  about 
33' to  about  86°.  "—J.  W.Powclf,  t^ixnth  An- 
nual liept..  Bureau  of  Ethnttlittry,  p.  122. 

Tappant.    See  above:  ALnoKiiriAK  Family. 

Taranteena  or  Tarratinci.  See  above :  Ab- 
NAKls ;  also,  ALOONqi'i AN  Family. 

Tarascans.-  "  The  Tarascaus,  so  called  from 
Tama,  the  name  of  a  tribal  goil,  had  tlie  reputa- 
tion of  being  the  tallest  and  handsomest  people 
of  SIcxico.  They  were  the  inhabitants  of  the 
present  State  of  .Mlehoacan.  west  of  the  valley  of 
Mexico.  According  to  their  oldest  traditions,  or 
|)erhu|>s  those  of  their  neighlmrs,  they  had  nii- 
grattHi  from  the  north  In  company  w'th,  or  about 
the  same  time  as,  the  Aztecs.  For  some  300 
years  liefore  the  conipiest  they  had  been  a  seden- 
tar)-,  Bemi-civiliired  people,  maintaining  their  in- 
dependence, and  progressing  steadll>  in  culture. 
When  first  encountered  by  the  Spaniards  they 
wcri'  quite  equal  and  in  some  respects  ahead  of 
the  Nuhuas.  .  .  .  In  their  costume  the  Taraiicos 
dlllered  considerably  from  their  neighbors.  The 
feather  garments  which  they  manufactured  sur- 
passed all  others  In  durability  and  lieauty.  C<it- 
ton  was,  however,  the  usual  material. "  —D.  (). 
llrlnton,  The  Amrrimn  Han,  ;/.  136, 

Tarumi,    Sec  above:  CAKiua  and  their  KiK- 

DRICl). 

Tecuna.    See  above :   Oitk  or  Coco  Ohoit. 
Tebuel  Che.    See  aliove:   PATArio.NiANa 
Telmelchei.     See  aliove:  Pami'ah  Tkiiie*. 
Tcquestaa.  SeelH'low:  Timi'vi'ana.n  Family. 
Tctont.    See  above:  Bioian  Fa;  ilv. 
Ttntecai,  or  Tcnez.    See  lielow :   Zapotccs, 

ETC. 

Timntjuanar  Family,  —  The  Tetjuestas.  — 
"  Beginning  at  the  southeast,  we  first  mei't  the 
hisiiiric  Timucua  family,  the  tribes  of  which  are 
extinct  at  the  present  time.  ...  In  the   Itlth 


, — —   -  —---J.  »  Mw    Av/uikttT*a  were  n 

niipratory  mople  and  a  colluries  gentium,  whose 
eirliist  liabitat  is  unknown.  Their  flrat  men- 
ti»n  occurs  In  1719;  at  that  time  and  ever  since 
they  roamed  In  the  western  and  southern  parts 
of  what  Is  now  Texas.  "—J.  W.  Powell,  Sntnlh 
Anri'ial  li-pt..  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  p.  126. 

Tontoi.    See  above:  APACHBGnorp. 

Toromonoi.    See  BoLniA:   Aborioikal  w- 

nAllITANTB. 

Totooacos.  —  "The  first  natives  whom  Cortes 
mot  on  landing  In  Mexico  were  the  Totonacos. 
Till  y  occupii'd  the  territory  of  Totonlcapan,  now 
inclu(!c<l  In  tin-  State  of  Vera  Cruz.  According 
to  traditions  of  their  own,  they  had  resided  there 
(<U0  vcars,  moat  of  which  time  they  were  Inde- 
ixndcnt,  though  a  few  generations  before  the 
arrival  of  the  .Spaniards  tliev  had  been  subjected 
liy  tlic  arms  of  the  JJonteiumaa  .  .  .  ftjiagun 
diMTibes  tliem  as  almost  white  in  color,  their 
hfwk  nrtilicially  deformed,  but  their  features 
rpeulor  and  handsome.  Robes  of  cotton  lieaull- 
fully  (ly.-d  Bcrved  them  for  gannents,  and  Iheir 
ii  t  Were    covered    with    sandals.  .  These 

peop],.  were  hijrhly  civilized.  Cempoalla,  their 
capital  city,  was  situate  about  five  miles  fr^m  the 
S.-1,  at  t^he  Junctirm  of  two  streams.  Its  houses 
v::f.-  r.,  hrW'A  asd  mnrtar,  and  each  Was  cur- 
rMinilcd  by  a  small  garden,  at  the  toot  of  which 
a  Htnam  of  fresh  wiiler  was  conductetl.  .  . 
Thn  ntllnitles  of  the  Totonacos  are  ilifflcult  to 
m«t«'out,  ,  .  .  Their  language  h»i  many  words 

1 


AlfERICATT  ABORIOmsa 

t 

oentuiT  the  Ttmucua  inhabited  the  northern 
and  middle  portion  of  the  peninsula  of  Florida, 
and  although  their  exact  Umits  to  the  north 
are  unknown,  they  held  a  pirtion  of  Florida 
bordering  on  Georgia,  and  some  of  the  coast 
islands  in  the  Atlantic  ocean.  ,  .  ,  The  people 
ri'ceived  its  name  from  one  of  their  TilUges  called 
Timagoa.  .  .  ,  The  name  means  'lord,'  'ruler,' 
'master'  ('atimuca,'  waited  upon,  'muca,'  by 
servants,  '  ati '),  and  the  people's  name  is  writ- 
ten Atimuca  early  in  the  l»th  century.  .  .  ,  The 
languages  spoken  by  the  Calusa  and  by  the  peo- 
ple next  in  onier,  the  Tequesta,  are  unknown  to 
us.  .  .  .  llie  Calusa  held  the  southwestern  ex- 
tremity of  Florida,  and  their  tribal  name  is  left 
recorded  in  CalusahatchI,  a  river  south  of  Tampa 
bay.  ...  Of  the  T?questa  people  on  the  south- 
eastern end  of  the  jwninsula  we  know  still  less 
than  of  the  Calusa  Indums.  There  was  a  tradi- 
tion that  they  were  the  same  people  which  held 
the  Bahama  or  Lucayo  Islands."— A.  8.  Oat- 
schet,  A  Migration  Legend  of  tAe  Creek  Indiant 
t.  1,  pt.  1. 

Tinneh.    See  above :  Athapascah  FAim,T. 

TiTitint*.  See  abore;  CABisa  ahd  thbib 
K»:dbed. 

Tlascalani.  Bee  Mexico:  A.  D.  1519  (Junb 
— October). 

T'linketi.    See  above :  Athapascan  Pamilt. 

Tobacco  Nation.  See  above:  Hcromb;  and 
iBoqidis  Confederacy  :  Their  name. 

Tobat,    See  above:  Pamp.vs  TitiBEa 

Toltect.    Sec  Mexico.  Ancient. 

Tonikan  Family.— "The  Tonika  are  known 
to  have  occupied  throe  localities:  First,  on  the 
Lower  Yaioo  Uiver  (1700) ;  second,  east  shore  of 
Mississippi  Kiver  (about  1704);  third,  in  Avoy- 
elles Parish,  I/)ui8iaua(1817).  Near  Marksville, 
the  countv  seat  of  that  parish,  about  twenty-flve 
are  now  living."—.!.  W.  Powell,  Seventh  Annui:l 
"'£!■  ^""'^^  of Ethmlo^,p.  12.5. 

Tonkawan  Family.- •'•  The  T6nkawa  were  a 


AHERICAK  ABORI'^mES. 

from  Maya  rooto,  but  it  has  also  many  mora 
from  the  Nahuatl."—D.  G.  Brinton,  The  Amtri- 
can  'jtcf,  p.  139. 

Tukuarika.    See  above :  8HOiHONiiANFAirn.T. 

Tupi.— Guarwii.— Tupnyaa.— "The  first  In- 
dians with  whom  the  Portuguese  came  in  con- 
Uct,  on  the  discos  ery  of  Brazil,  called  themselves 
Tupinama,  a  u-rn  derived  by  Bamhagcn  from 
Tupi  and  Mba,  -^mething  like  warrior  or  noble- 
man; by  Slartiu.  from  Ti'pi  and  Anamba  (rela- 
Hve)  with  the  signification  'belonging  to  the 
Tupi  tribe. '  These  Tupi  dwell  on  the  east  coast  of 
Brazil,  and  with  their  language  the  Portuguese 
were  soon  familiar.  It  waa  found  especially  ser- 
viceable as  a  means  of  communication  with  other 
tribes,  and  this  led  the  Jesuiu  hiter  to  develop  it  aa 
much  as  possible,  and  introduce  it  as  a  universal 
language  of  intercourse  with  the  Savages.  Thus 
the  '  lingua  geral  Brasilica '  arose,  which  must  be 
regarded  aa  a  Tupi  with  a  Portuguese  pronun- 
ciation. The  result  was  a  surprising  one,  for  it 
really  succeeded  in  forming,  for  the  tribes  of 
Brazil,  divided  in  language,  a  universal  mcani 
of  communication.    Wthout  doubt  the  wide  ex 


*    -— -— — •™"  ,-'■      "  .v-wui,  uvuuv  but;  wiue  ex- 
tent of  the  Tupi  was  very  favorable,  especiallr 
rince  on  this  side  of  the  Andes,  as  far  as  th« 
Caribbean  Sea,  the  continent  of  South  America 
was  overrun  with  Tupi  hordes.  .  .  .  Von  Mar- 
tins has  endeavored  to  trace  their  various  migra- 
tions and  abodes,  by  which  thev  have  acquh^ 
s  sort  of  ubiquity  in  tropical  "South  America. 
...  This    history  .  .  .  leads  to    the   supposi- 
tion that,  had  the  discovery  been  delayed  a  few 
centuries,  the  Tupi  might  have  become  the  lord* 
of  eastern  South  America,  and  have  spread  a 
higher  culture  over  that    region.      The    Tupi 
family    may    be    divided,   according    to    their 
fixed     abodes,    into    the   southern,    nonhem,! 
eastern,  western,  and  central  Tupi ;  all  these  an 
ngain  divided  into  a  number  of  smaller  tribes. 
The  southern  Tupi  are  usually  called  Ouarani 
(warriors*,   a  name  which  the  Jesuits  first  in- 
troduced.    It  cann<  t  be  determined  from  which 
direction  they  cam. .     The  greatest  number  are 
m  Paraguay  and  the  Argentine  province  of  Cor- 
rientes.     The  Jesuits  brought  them  to  a  very 
high  degree  of  civilization.     The  eastern  Tupi, 
the  real  Tupinamba,  arc  scattered  along  the  At- 
lantic coast  from  St.  Catherina  Island  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Amazon.     They  are  a  verv  weak 
tribe.     They  snv  thev  came  frotn  the  south  and 
west.    The  northern  Tupi  are  a  weak  and  widely 
scattered  remnant  of  a  large  tribe,  and  are  now 
in  the  p^>vlnco  of  Para,  on  the  island  of  Maraio 
and  along  both  banks  of  the  Amazon.  .  ,  ,  It 
is  somewhat  doubtful  if  this  peaceable  tribe  are 
really  Tupi.  .  .  .  The    central    Tupi    live    in 
several   irw  hordes  Iwtween  the  Tocantins  and 
Madeira.  .  .  .  Cutting  off  the  heads  of  enemii<  is 
in  vogue  among  them.  ,  ,  .  The  Mundrucu  , .  o 
esfH'cially  the  headhunting  tribe.     The  western 
Tupi  all  live  in  Bolivia.     They  are  the  onlv  ouet 
who  came  in  contact  « itli  llio  Inca  empire,  and 
their  character  and  manners  show  the  iiilliienco 
of  this.      Some  are  a  picture  of  iilvllic  ».Mvety 
and  patrianlial  mildness."— rA*  Sl'.indanl  'Xnt- 
unit  Ilti^l.  i.r.  S.  Kingtie//,  ed.)  p.  «,  ;i/.  24S-349 
—"In  fre(|iient  contlguitv  with  the  Tiiiii<  wai 
uuoihcr    su)«k,   also  widely  rtlspera<'d   I'l.rough 
Brazil,  callwi  the  Tupuyas.  of  whom  the  lloto- 
cu'los  in  eastern  Biazll  are  the  mo.st  promiuent 
tribe.      To  them  also  belong  the  Oes  nations, 
south  of  the  lower  Amazon,  and  others.    They 

3 


AMEBICAN  ABORIOINE& 


AMERICAN  ABORIOIXEa 


■re  on  a  low  grade  of  culture,  going  quite 
naked,  not  cultiTating  tiie  soil,  Ignorant  of  pot- 
tery, and  Willi  poorly  made  cauoes.  They  are 
doiichnccphalic,  and  must  have  inhabiteti  the 
country  along  time." — D.  O.  Brinton,  Haetiand 
Ptoplet,  pp.  269-270. 

Turiero,    See  above:  Crtjchab. 

Tttscaroraa.  See  above:  lBu<)noia  Cohtbd- 
SRAcv,  and  Iboqcois  Tribes  or  the  Soctb. 

Tntelocs.    See  above:  Siouah  Familt. 

Twightwees,  or  Miamis.    See  above:  Iixi- 

IK>I8. 

I  Two  Kettle*.    See  above :  Siou an  Fahilt. 
I   Uaupe.    See  above:  OucK  on  Coco  Oropp. 

Uchean  Family. — "The  pristine  homes  of  the 
Tucbi  are  not  now  traceable  with  any  degree  of 
certainty.  The  Yuehi  are  supposed  to  have 
been  visited  by  De  Soto  during  his  memorable 
march,  and  the  town  of  Cofltachiqul  chronicled 
by  him,  Is  believed  by  many  investigators  to 
have  stood  at  Silver  Bluff,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Savannah,  about  23  miles  below  Augusta. 
If,  as  is  supposed  by  some  authorities,  Coflta- 
chiqui  was  a  Yuchi  town,  this  would  locate  the 
Yuchi  in  a  section  which,  when  first  known  to  the 
whites,  was  occupied  by  the  Shawnee.  Later 
the  Y'ucbi  appear  to  have  lived  somewhat  farther 
down  the  Savannah.  "—J.  W.  Powell,  Setmth 
AnniuU  Sept.,  Bureau  cf  Bthnotogy,  p.  120. 

Uhitchet.    See  above:  Pampas  TRiBBa. 

IJirina.    See  above:  Occk  or  Coco  Qrodp. 

Uncpapaa.    See  above:  Siouan  Family. 

Upsarokat  or  Abiarokai,  or  Crowa.  8m 
above:  Siouam  Family. 

Utahs.    See  above:  Sbosbonsan  Family. 

Wabenakiea,  or  Abnakia.    See  above :  Abna- 

ES. 

Wacos,  or  Hnecoa.  See  above:  Pawksb 
(Cadi>ua>)  Family. 

Wahpetons.    Sec  above:    Sioc an  Family. 

Waiilatpuan  Family.  —  "Hale  established 
this  f»mily  and  plueiHl  under  it  the  CaiUoux  or 
Cayuse  or  Willetpoos,  and  the  Molule.  Their 
headquarters  as  indicated  by  Hale  are  the  upper 
part  (if  the  Walla  Walla  Itfver  and  the  country 
about  Mounts  Hood  and  Vancouver."— J.  W. 
Powell,  Sectnth  Annual  Report,  Bureau  of 
Ethnology,  p.  127. 

Waikaa.     See    above:    Carib8   and   thkib 

EiNIIKED. 

Wakashan  Family. —  "The  above  family 
name  wiu  baiivti  upon  a  vocabular}-  of  the 
Waku^ih  Indians,  who,  according  to  Qallatin, 
'  inlintiit  the  island  on  which  Nootlia  Sound  Is 
situated. "...  The  term  '  Wakash '  for  this 
group  of  languages  has  since  been  generally 
Ignurinl,  and  in  Us  place  Xootka  or  Nootka- 
Columbian  has  been  adopted.  .  .  .  Though  by 
no  means  as  appropriate  a  designation  as  could 
be  found,  it  seems  clear  that  for  the  so-called 
Wakahh,  Newitt^'e.  and  other  allied  languages 
lUsuallv  assemuleii  under  the  Kootka  family,  the 
jterm  Wakash  of  I!<<6  has  priority  and  must  be 
retained.  "—J.  W.  Powell,  tktrnlh  Annual  Be- 
fort,  Uurtati  of  Ethnoln<iy.pp.  120-130. 

Wampanoafs,  or  Pokaaoketa.    See  above: 

PoKANOKETS. 

Wapiiianaa.    See  above:  Caribs  and  their 

KiSDIlED. 

Wappinfcra.    See  above :  ALOosqinAii  Fam- 
aY. 
Waraua.    See  above :  CAJUBa  and  tbxibKik- 

DBSO. 


lU 


Waabakia.  See  above:  SRoaHONBAN  Family. 

Waahoan  Family.— "  This  family  is  repre- 
sented by  a  single  well  known  tribe,  whose  range 
extendea  from  Keno,  on  the  line  of  the  Central 
PsQ^fic  Railroad,  to  the  lower  end  of  Carson 
Valley."— J.  W.  Powell,  Seventh  AnnuiU  Be- 
port.  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  p.   181. 

Wichita*,  or  Pawnee  Picta.  See  above: 
Pawnee  (Caodoan)  Family. 

Winnebagoe*.    See  above :  Sioc an  Family. 

Wishoakan  Family.-"  This  is  a  small  and 
obscure  linguistic  family  and  little  is  known  con- 
cerning the  dialects  composing  it  or  of  the  tribes 
which  speak  it.  .  .  .  The  area  occupied  by  the 
tribes  speaking  dialects  of  this  kuguage  was  the 
coast  from  a  Uttle  below  the  mouth  of  Eel  River 
to  a  little  north  of  Had  River,  including  par- 
ticularly the  country  about  Humboldt  Bay." — 
J.  W.  Powell,  SetetUh  Annual  Beport,  Bureau  of 
Ethnology,  p.  188. 

Witnmka*.  See  above:  Mubsboukan  Fam- 
ily. 

Woccon*.    Bee  above:  Siouan  Family. 

Wyandot*.    See  above:   UuRONa 

Yamasia    and    Yamacrawa.     See  above: 

HCBKUOOEAN  FAMILY. 

Yamco.    See  above:  ANOBSlANa 

Yanan  Family. — "The  eastern  boundary  of 
the  Yanan  territory  Is  formed  by  a  nuiice 
of  mountains  a  little  west  of  Lassen  Butto 
and  terminating  near  Pit  River;  the  northern 
boundary  by  a  line  running  from  northeast  to 
southwest,  passing  near  the  northern  side  of 
Round  Mountain,  three  miles  from  Pit  River. 
The  western  boundary  from  Redding  southward 
is  on  an  average  10  miles  to  the  east  of  the 
Sacramento.  North  of  Redding  it  averages 
double  that  distance  or  about  20  miles, " — J.  W. 
Powell,  tiertnth  Annual  Beport,  Bureau  of 
Ethnology,  p.  135. 

Yankton*  and  Yanktonnaia.  See  above: 
SioCAN  Family. 

Yncas,  or  Incaa.    See  Pebc. 

Yuchi.    See  atmve:  Uchean  Family. 

Yuy^uanongo.    Sec  above :  ANDESiANa 

Yukian  Family. — "  Round  Valley,  California, 
subsequently  made  a  reservation  to  receive  the 
Yuki  and  other  tribes,  was  formerly  the  cliit  f 
seat  of  the  tribes  of  the  family,  but  they  also 
extended  across  the  mountaius  to  the  coast "— .! 
W.  Powell.  ,Sf«n<A  Annual  Btpvrt,  Bureau  if 
Ethnology,  p.  138. 

Yuman  Family.—"  The  center  of  distribution 
of  the  tribes  of  this  family  is  generally  emi- 
sideri'd  to  be  the  lower  t'olorudo  ani'i  tiiU 
Valleys." — J.  W.  Powell,  Secenth  Annual  /.'»■ 
port.  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  p.  137.— See  alxivp: 
Afache  Qrocp. 

Yuncaa.    See  Perc. 

Yurok*  or  Euroc*.    See  above:  Hoooca,<£c. 

Zaporo.     See  above:  ANDtsiANs. 

Zapotecs,  Mixtecs,  Zoquea,  Mixe*,  etc  — 
"The  greater  jmrt  of  Usxaca  IMexittij  and  llie 
neiglil><>riug  regions  arc  still  occupied  bv  the 
Ziipjtees,  who  call  themselves  Didja  za.  There 
arc  now  alK>ut  2«.'5,OUO  of  tliem,  aliout  SO.OtJU  uf 
whom  speak  nothing  but  their  native  tongue.  la 
ancient  times  they  constituted  a  power'al 
independent  state,  the  citizens  of  which  si"-'!!!  !0 
liave  been  quite  as  highly  civilized  as  any  meiu- 
ber  of  the  Aztec  family.  They  were  agritul- 
turol  and  sedentary,  living  in  viUages  uuj 
constructing  buUdiugt  uf  stone  and  mortar.    TIm, 


^'k 


k 


i^^i 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


AMHON. 


moit  renurkable,  but  bj  no  means  the  only, 
■pecimeni  of  these  still  remaining  are  the  ruins 
of  Mitla.  .  .  .  The  MIztecs  adjoined  the 
Zapocecs  to  the  west,  extending  along  the  coast 
of  the  Pacific  to  about  the  present  port  of 
Acapuloa  In  culture  they  were  equal  to  the 
Zapotecs.  .  .  .  The  mountain  regions  of  the 
isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  and  the  adjacent  portions 
of  the  states  of  Chiapas  and  Oaiaca  are  the 
habitats  of  the  Zoques,  Mixes,  and  allied  tribes. 
The  early  historians  drew  a  terrible  picture  of 
their  ralor,  savagery  and  cannibalism,  which 
reads  more  lilce  tales  to  deter  the  Spaniards  from 
approaching  their  domains  than  truthful 
accounts.  However  this  may  be,  they  have 
been  for  hundreds  of  yean  a  peaceful,  ignorant, 
timid  part  of  the  population,  homely,  lazy  and 
drunken.  .  .  .  The  faint  traditions  of  these 
peoples  pointed  to  the  South  for  their  origia 
.  .  .  The  Chinantecs  inhabited  Cbinantla,  which 
is  a  part  of  the  state  of  Oaxaca.  .  .  .  The 
Chinantecs  bad  been  reduced  by  the  Aztecs  and 
severely  oppressed  by  them.  Hence  they 
welcomed  the  Spaniards  as  deliverers.  .  .  .  Other 
names  by  which  they  are  mentioned  are  Tenez 
and  Teutecas.  ...  In  speaking  of  the  province 
of  Chiapas  the  historian  Herrera  informs  us  that 
it  derived  its  name  from  the  pueblo  so-called, 
'  whose  inhabitants  were  the  most  remarkable  in 
New  Spain  for  their  traits  and  inclinations.' 
Ther  bad  early  actjuired  the  art  of  horsemanship, 
they  were  skillful  m  all  kinds  of  music,  excellent 
painters,  carried  on  a  variety  of  arts,  and  were 
withal  very  courteous  to  each  other.  One  tra- 
dition was  that  they  had  reached  Chiapas  from 
Nicaragua.  .  .  .  Biit  the  more  authentic  legend 
of  the  Chapas  or  Chapanecs,  as  they  were  pro- 
perly called  from  their  totemic  bird'  the  Chapa, 
the  red  macaw,  recite<l  that  the  whole  stock 
moved  down  from  a  northern  latitude,  following 
down  the  Pacific  coast  until  they  came  to 
Soconusco,  where  they  divided,  one  part  enter- 
ing the  mountains  of  Chiapas,  the  other  pro- 
reeding  on  to  Nicaragua.  ' — D.  O.  Brinton, 
The  Aintriean  Raet,  pp.  140-146. 

Also  ix  A.  Bandelier,  Rept.  of  Anhaological 
Tour  in  Maico. 

Zoqnts. — See  above:  Zapotecs,  etc. 

ZuBian  Family.— "  Derivation:  From  the 
Cochiii  term  Suinyi,  said  to  mean  'the  people  of 
the  long  nails,'  referring  to  the  surgeons  of  Zulil 
whii  always  wear  some  of  their  nails  very  long 
(fushing)."— J.  W.  Powell,  Setenth  Annual 
R(pi>rt,  Bureau  of  Ethnotogy,  p.  138.  —  See, 
above,  PriBLos;  also,  America-  Preqibtoiuc. 

AMERICAN  CIVIL  WAR.  See  Csited 
Statks  op  Am.  :  a.  D.  1860  (Novbmbeb— De- 
CEMnERX  and  after.— Statistic*  ol  See  same- 
A.  n   1H6.5  (Mat). 

AMERICAN  KNIGHTS,  Order  oC  See 
United  States  or  Am.  ;  A.  D.  1864  (October). 

AMERICAN  PARTY,  The.  See  U.tiTED 
Statf.s  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  1*52 

AMERICAN  SYSTEM.  Tha.  See  Tabiw 
Leoislatios  (Ukiteo  States):  A.  D.  1816- 
1  •*■,'». 

AMHERST  COLLEGE,  Th«  foundinr  of. 
hee  hm'rATi4)N,  MoDKR.s 
.AMHERST'S  CAMPAIGNS  IN  AMER- 
ICA.   See  Canada  (New  Frasce):  A.  D.  1T58 
lo  1760. 

AMICITIJE. 


AMIDA,  Sicm  oC— The  ancient  city  of 
Amida,  now  Diarbekr,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Upper  Tigris  was  thrice  taken  by  the  Persians 
from  the  liomans,  in  the  course  of  the  long  wars 
between  the  two  nations.  In  the  first  instance, 
A.  D.  3.59.  it  fell  after  a  terrible  siege  of  seventy- 
three  days,  conducted  by  the  Persian  king  Sapor 
in  person,  and  was  given  up  lo  pillage  and 
slaughter,  the  Roman  commandt.-s  crucified  and 
the  few  surviving  inhabitants  dragged  to  Persia 
as  slaves.  The  town  was  then  abandonel  by  the 
Persians,  repeopled  by  the  Romans  and  recovered 
its  nrisperity  and  strength,  only  to  p!i.s.-i  through 
a  similar  experience  again  in  .503  A.  D..  when  it 
was  besieged  for  eighty  days  by  the  Persian  king 
Kobad,  carried  by  storm,  and  most  of  its  inhabit- 
ants slaughtered  or  ensUved.  A  century  later, 
K.  D.  603,  Cbosroes  took  Amida  once  more,  but 
with  less  violence.— O.  Rawlinson,  Seatnth  Great 
Oriental  Monarthy.  eh.  9,  19  and  24.— See,  also, 
Persia:  A.  D.  226-637. 

AMIENS. — Ori^n  of  lume.    See  Beloje. 

A.  D.  1507.— Sorpriie  by  the  Spaniardi.— 
Rccorenr  by  Henry  IV.  See  Fbasce:  A-  D. 
159»-159t! 

A.  D.  1870.— Taken  by  the  Germans.  See 
PkaSCE:  a.  D.  1870-1871. 


See  OuiLoa  or  Flakdibi. 


AMIENS,  The  Misc  ot    See  Oxford,  Pro- 

TISIOSS  OF. 

AMIENS,  Treaty  of  ( i say  1.— Negotiated  by 
Cardinal  W  olsey,  between  llenry  VIII.  of  Eng- 
Und  and  Francis  I.  of  France,  cstabliibing  an 
alliance  against  the  Emperor.  Charles  V.  The 
treaty  was  scaled  and  sworn  to  in  the  cathedral 
church  at  Amiens.  Aug.  IS,  1.527. — J.  S  Brewer, 
Heijn  of  Il'nry  VIIL,  t.  2,  eh.  26  ami  38 

AMIENS,  Treaty  of  (tSoi).  See  Fraxoc: 
A.  D.  1801-1802. 

AMIN  AL,  Caliph,  A.  D.  !m-%\Z 

AMIR. — An  Arabian  title,  sijrnifviug  chief  or 
ruler.  ' 

AMIRANTES.     See   M.iscarese    Is- 

LANDS. 

AMISUS,  Sieje  of.— The  siege  of  Amisus  by 
LuculliJa  was  one  of  the  important  operations  of 
the  Third  Mithridatic  war.  The  city  was 
on  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  between 
the  rivers  Halys  and  Lycu.'i:  it  is  repre- 
sented in  site  by  the  mollem  town  of  Sam- 
soon.  Amisus.  which  was  besi-ged  in  73  B.  C. 
held  out  until  the  following  yi  ar.  Tyrannio  the 
grammarian  was  among  the'prisoners  taken  and 
sent  to  Rome.— G.  Long,  Dtdii,*  of  tU  lijman 
ReixMie.  r.  3,  (h.  1  and  2. 

AMMANN.— TIUs  is  the  title  of  the  Mayor  or 
President  of  the  Swiss  Communal  Council  or 
Gemeindcrath.  Sec  SwrnERLASD :  A.  U  1848- 
1890. 

AMMON,  The  Temple  and  Oracle  oC— The 
Ammonium  or  Oasis  of  Ammon.  in  the  Libyan 
desert,  which  was  visited  by  .\lex:»ndi'r  the  Great, 
has  been  identified  with  the  oasis  now^  known  as 
the  Oasis  of  Siwah.  "The  Oa»is  <,i  Siwah  was 
first  visited  and  described  bv  Brown.'  in  1792; 
and  i»  identi;y  with  that  of  Ammon  fully  estab- 
lisheil  by  Major  Rennell  ('  Oeog.  of  Herodotus," 
pp.  .577-591).  .  .  .  The  site  of  the  celebrated 
temple  and  oracle  of  Ammon  was  first  discovered 
by  Jlr.  HamiituD  in  1868.  "  'Its  laraous  oracle 
was  frequently  visited  by  Greeks  fn)m  Gyrene, 
aa  well  as  from  other  pans  of  the  Hellenic  worid, 
and  it  vied  in  reputation  with  those  of  Delphi 


115 


AMMON. 


AMPHIKTTONIC  COCKCIL. 


*    i 


and  Dfxlona."— E.  H.  Bunbuiy,  IIul.  nf  Ana'fnt 
Qeog.,  ch  «.  ntet.  1,  andth.  12,  $ect.  1,  and  ru>te  E. 
— An  rxjM  .lition  of  SO.OOO  men  gent  by  Cninbyses 
tc  Amnion.  B.  C.  BS5,  is  said  to  have  perished  in 
tli3  desert,  to  tlie  last  man.  See  Eotpt:  B.  C. 
835-3:tt. 

AMMONITES,  The.— According  to  the  nnr- 
rative  in  Genesis  zlx:  80-89,  ttie  Ammonites 
were  descended  from  Ben-Ammi,  aon  of  Lot's 
''lecond  duuijliter,  as  the  Moabites  came  from 
Moab,  the  eldest  daughter's  son.  The  two  people 
are  inucli  assix'iatc*!  in  Biblical  history.  "It  it 
'hard  to  avoid  the  conclusion  that,  while  Moab 
was  the  settled  and  civilized  half  of  the  nation  of 
Lot,  the  Bene  Ammon  formed  its  predatory  and 
Bedouin  scetion." — G.  Grove,  Diet,  of  the  Bible. — 
See  Jews:  Tue  Eablt  Hebbew  History ;  also, 

AMMONITI.    8c(   Florencr  :   A.  D.  laW. 
AMNESTY      PR'SCLAMATION.       See 

United  St.\tks  OP  Am.   A.  D.  1868  (DECRMnER). 

AMOOR,  OR  AMUR,  The.    Sec  SinEHi.i. 

AMORIAN  DYNASTY,  The.  See  Btzah- 
inre  Empire:  A.  U  820-1057. 

AMORIAN  WAR,  The.  — The  Byzantine 
Emperor,  Theopliilus,  in  war  with  the  Saracens, 
took  and  destroyed,  with  peculiar  animosity,  the 
town  of  Zapetra  or  Sozopetra,  in  Syria,  which 
happened  to  be  the  birthplace  of  tho  reigning 
caliph,  Motassem,  son  of  Uaroun  Alraschid.  The 
caliph  had  condescended  to  intercede  for  the  place, 
and  his  enemy's  conduct  was  personally  insult- 
ing to  him,  as  well  as  attxiciously  inhumane.  To 
avenge  tlic  outrage  he  invaded  Asia  Minor,  A.  D. 
838,  at  the  head  of  an  enormous  army,  with  the 
speciiil  purpose  of  destroying  the  birthplace  of 
Thcophilus.  The  unfortunate  town  which  suf- 
fered that  distinction  was  Amoriuni  in  Phrygia, 
,  — wlieni'fc  the  ensuing  war  was  called  the  Amorian 
I  War.  Attempting  to  defend  Amorium  in  the 
'field,  the  Byznntines  were  hopelessly  defeated, 
and  the  doomed  city  was  left  to  its  fate.  It  made 
an  Iicn)ic  resistance  for  flfty-flve  days,  and  tho 
siege  is  said  to  have  ost  the  caliph  70,000  men. 
But  111'  entered  the  place  at  last  with  a  merciless 
sword,  and  left  a  heap  of  ruins  for  the  monument 
of  his  revenue—  E.  Gibbon,  Decline  ami  t'aU  of 
the  liatntin  Empire,  eh.  53. 

AMORITES,  The.  — "The  Hittites  and 
Amorites  were  .  .  .  mingled  together  In  the 
mountiiiis  of  Palesti.".e  iilte  the  two  races  wliirh 
ethnologists  tell  us  go  to  fora  the  modem  Kelt. 
But  the  Egyptian  monuments  teach  us  that  they 
were  of  very  different  origin  and  character.  The 
Hittites  were  a  people  with  yellow  skins  and 
'Mongoloid '  features,  whose  receding  foreheads, 
obliciue  eyes,  und  protruding  upper  jaws,  arc  rep- 
resenteii  ns  faithfully  on  their  own  monuments 
as  they  .'ir>'  on  those  of  Egypt,  so  that  we  cannot 
accuse  the  Egpytiiin  artists  of  caricaturing  their 
enemies.  If  tlie  Egyptians  have  made  the  Hit- 
tites ugly,  it  was  lieeause  they  were  so  in  rr'ality. 
The  Anuirites,  on  the  contrary,  were  a  tall  and 
hand.some  people.  They  arc  depicted  with 
white  skins.  Iihie  eyes,  and  reddish  hair,  all  the 
characteristics,  in  Met,  of  the  white  race.  Mr. 
Petrie  p<jiiit8  out  their  resemblance  to  the  Dar- 
danians  of  Asia  Minor,  who  form  an  inter- 
mediate link  between  the  white-skinned  tribes  of 
theOrw'k  !■-■•:;«  and  the  fairmmpieTtionwi  I,thy;in= 
of  Nortlieni  Africa.  The  latter  are  still  found  in 
largo  numbers  in  the  mountainous  regions  wiiieh 
Kretcb  eastward  from  Morocco,  and  are  usually 


known  unong  the  French  under  the  name  of 
Ksbyle*.     The  traveller  who  first  meets  with 
them  in  Algeria  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  by  their 
likeness  to  a  certaii.  part  of  the  population  in  the 
British  Isles.    Their  clear-white  freckled  skins. 
their  blue  eyes,  their  golden-red  hair  and  tail 
stature,  remind  him  of  the  fair  Kelts  of  an  Irish 
village ;  am'  when  we  find  that  their  skulls,  which 
are  of  the  so-called  dolichocephalic  or  'long- 
headed '  type,  are  the  same  as  the  skulls  discov- 
ered In  the  prehistoric  cromlechs  of  the  country 
they  still  inhabit,  we  may  conclude  that  they 
represent  the  modem  descendants  of  the  white- 
skinned  Libyans  of  tlie  Egyptian  monuments. 
In  Palestine  also  we  still  come  across  representa- 
tives of  a  faircomplexioned  bliie-eyc(f  race,  iu 
whom  we  may  see  the  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Amorites,  just  as  we  see  in  the  Kabyles  the  des 
cendants  of  the  ancleat  Libyans.     We  know  that 
the  Amorite  type  continued  to  exist  in  Judah  long 
after  tlie  Israclitisb  conquest  of  Canaan.    The 
captlvei  ti< ken  from  the  southern  cities  of  Judah 
by  Shidwk  in  the  time  of  Kehoboam,  and  de- 
picted by  him  upon  the  walls  of  the  great  temple 
of  Kamak,  are  people  of  Amorite  i  ngin.    Their 
'regular  profile  of  sub-aquiline  cast,'  as  Mr. 
Tomkins  describes  it,  their  high  cheek-bones  and 
martial  expression,  are  the  features  of  the  Amor- 
ites, and  not  of  tho  Jews.     Tail-     s  of  statuni 
hasalways  been  a  distinguishing     —■acteristic  of 
the  white  race.     Hence  it  was  tl    *,  the ..  .lakiin, 
the  An-orito  inhabitants  of  Hebron,  seemetl  to 
the  Hebrew  spies  to  be  as   giants,  while  they 
themselves  were  but  'as  grasshoppers'  by  tlie 
side  of  them  (Num.  xiii :  W).    After  the  Israei- 
itish  invasion  remnants  of  the  Anakim  were  left 
in  Gaza  and  Gath  and  Ashkelon  (Josh,  xi:  2'2). 
and  in  the  time  of  David,  Goliath  of  Gath  and  his 
gigantic  family  were  objects  of  dread  to  their 
neighbors  (2  Sam.  xxi:  15-22).     It  is  clear,  then, 
that  the  Amorites  of   Canaan  belonged  to  tho 
same  white  nice  as  the  Liliyans  of  Northern  Af- 
rica, and  like  them  preferred  the  mountains  to 
the  hot  plains  and  valleys  below.    The  Libyans 
themselves  belonged  to  a   race  which  can   Iw 
traced  through  the  peninsula  of  Spain  and  tLe 
westem  side  of    France  into  the  British  Isles. 
Now  it  iscnri>us  tliat  wherever  this  particular 
branch  of  the  white   iice  has  extended  it  has  bem 
accompanied  by  a  particular  form  of  cromlech, 
or  sepulchral  chamber  built  of  large  uncut  stones. 
.  .  .  It  has  been  necesaiiiy  to  enter  at  this  len(;tli 
Into  wliat  has  been  discovered  concerning  \\w 
Amorites  by  recent  research,  in  order  to  show 
how  carefully  they  should  be  distinguishc<l  from 
the  Hittites  with  whom  they  afterwards  inter- 
mingled.    They  must  liave  been  In  possession  of 
Palestine  long  before  t he  Hittites  arriveil  there. 
They  extended  over  a  much  wider  area."—  A.  II. 
Sayce.  The  Jlif'ilft.  rh    1. 

AMPHIKTVONIC  COUNCIL.  —  ".Vn 
Amphiktyonic,  or,  more  correctly,  an  Am  phi  k- 
tionlc,  body  was  an  assembly  of  liit  tribes  who 
dwelt  around  any  famous  temple,  gathered  t.i- 

f ether  to  manage  the  affairs  of  that  tiniple. 
here  wen-  other  Anijiliiktyonic  Assembli  s  in 
Greece  [besides  that  of  Uelplii],  amongst  »  liih 
that  of  the  isle  of  Kalaureia,  off  the  coas  "f 
Argcilis,  was  a  b<Kiy  of  some  celebrity.  Tho 
.•\iiij-hiktytin3of  IVIphl  nht.-iinri!  grmief  imp- ft- 
anee  than  any  other  Amphiktyons  only  tieeiiuse 
of  the  greater  ImiKirtance  of  the  Deljihic 
sanctuary,    and    because    it    Incidentally    bap- 

6 


AMPHIKTYOinC  COUNCIL 


AMSTERDAM. 


pened  that  the  gmter  part  of  the  Greek  na- 
tion had  some  kind  of   n>presentation  among 
them.     But    tliat    bodj  could    not  be  looked 
upon  as  a  perfect  representation  of  the  Oreek 
nation  wfaich,  to  postpione  other  objcctioni  to  its 
constitution,  found  no  place  for  so  large  a  frac- 
tion of  the   Hellenic  body  as  the   Arkadians. 
Still  the  Amphiktyons  of  Delphi  undoubtedly 
came  nearer  than  any  other  existing  body  to  the 
chancier  of  a  general  representation  of  all  Greece. 
It  is  therefore  easy  to  understand  how  the  relig- 
ious functions  of  such  a  body  might  tnctdentairy 
assume  a  political  character.  .  .  .  Once  or  twice 
then,  in  'he  course  of  Grecian  history,  we  do 
find  the  Amphiktyonic  body  acting  with  real 
dignity  in  the    name   of   united  Greece.  .  .  . 
Though  the  list  of  members  of  the  Council  is 
given  with  some  slight  Tariationa  by  different 
authors,  all  agree  In   making  the  constituent 
members  of  the  union  tribes  and  not  cities.    The 
representatives  of  the  Ionic  and  Doric  races  sat 
and  voted  as  single  members,  Me  by  side  with 
the  representatives  of   petty  peoples  like  the 
Hagn^sians  and  PhthiOtic  Achaiana.    When  the 
Council  was  first  formed,  Dorians  and  lonians 
were  doubtless  mere  tribes  of  northern  Greece, 
and  the  prodigious  development  of  the  Doric  and 
Ionic  races  in  after  times  made  no  difference  in 
us  constitution.  .  .  .  The  Amphiktyonic  Coun- 
cil was  not  eiaetlv  a  diplomatic  congress,  but  it 
was  muc""  more  like  a  diplomatic  congress  than 
it  was  like  tho  governing  asat^mbly  of  any  com- 
monwealth, kingdom,  or  federation.    The  Pyla- 
goroi  and   Hleromn^ones    were   not   exactly 
Ambassadors,    but  they  were  much  more  like 
Ambassadors  than  they  were  like  members  of  a 
British  Parliament  or  even  an  American  Congress. 
.  .  .  The    nearest    approach    to  the    Amphik- 
tvonic  Council  in  modem  times  would  be  if  the 
Ciillege  of  Cardinals  were  to  consist  of  members 
chosen  by  the  several  Roman  Catholic  nations  of 
Europe  and  America. " —  E.  A.  Freeman,  Ilut  of 
Fidernl  (fort..  t>.  1,  eh.  8. 
AMPHILOCHIANS,  The.    See  Akarha- 

KIANS. 

AMPHIPOLIS.— This  town  in  Macedonia, 
occupying  an  Important  situation  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  river  Strymon,  just  below  a  small 
lake  into  which  it  widens  near  Its  mouth,  was 
oriRinall v  called  • '  The  Nine  Ways. "  and  was  the 
soene  of  a  horrible  human  sacrifice  made  by 
Xerxes  on  bis  march  into  Greece.— Thlrlwall, 
//(»(.  nf  Oneff,  eh.  15.— It  was  subsequently 
taken  by  the  Athenians,  B.  C.  437,  and  made 
a  capital  city  by  them  ["ee  Athens:  B.  C. 
44i)-437],  dominating  the  surrounding  district.  Its 
name  being  changeilto  Amphipolis.  During  the 
I'oioponncsian  War  (B.  C.  424»,  the  able  Lacedie- 
monian  general,  Brasidas,  led  a  small  army  Into 
.Maccdotiia  and  succeeded  in  capturing  Amphl- 
|iolis,  which  caused  great  dismay  and  dlacoutage- 
niiiit  at  Athens.  Thucydides,  the  historian,  was 
"lie  of  the  generals  held  responsible  for  the  dis- 
a.<tcrand  be  was  driven  as  a  consequence  into  the 
tirtimalc  exile  which  pro<luced  the  composition 
c'f  his  liistory.  Two  years  later  the  Athenian 
denmgoffue-lcader,  Cleon,  took  command  of  an 
cxpeiiiticn  sent  to  recover  Amphipolis  and 
otlicr  poinu  in  Macedonli  and  Thraw,  It  was 
ilististrously  beaten  and  Cleon  was  killed,  but 
linisKias  fell  likewise  in  the  battle.  Whetlier 
Atli'.'ns  suffered  more  from  her  defeat  than 
bparu  from  her  victory  is  a  quesUon.  —  Thucy- 

11 


dldei,  JIutoiy.  **.  4,  leet.  108-185.  bk.  n,  leet.  1-11. 
—See,  also,  Atiie.vs:  B.  C.  466-i.M,  and  Greece: 
B.  C.  424-431.- Amphipolis  was  taken  by  Philip 
of  Macedon,  B.  C.  8S8.— See  Ouece:  B.  C 
359-858. 

AMPHISSA,  Sieee  uid  Csptore  by  Philip 
u  -5';S?'?«  *^-  C.  33»-33»).     See  Oribce: 

IS.  C  ooi-ooo. 

AMPHITHEATRES,     Roman "There 

was  hardly  a  town  in  the  [Roman]  empire  which 
had  not  an  amphitheatre  large  enough  to  contain 
vast  multitudes  of  spectators.  The  savage  ex- 
citement of  gladiatorial  combats  seems  to  have 
been  almost  recessary  to  the  Roman  legionaries 
in  their  short  intervals  of  inaction,  and  was  the 
first  recreation  for  which  they  provided  in  the 
places  where  they  were  stationed.  .  .  .  Gladia- 
torial combats  were  held  from  early  times  in  the 
Forum,  aud  wild  beasU  hunted  in  tlie  Circus; 
but  until  Curio  built  his  celebrated  double 
theatre  of  wood,  which  could  be  made  Into  an 
amphitheatre  by  turning  the  two  semicircular 
portions  face  to  face,  we  b&ve  no  record  of  any 
special  building  in  the  peculiar  form  afterwards 
adopted.  It  may  have  been,  therefore,  that 
Cuno's  mechanical  contrivance  first  suggested 
the  elliptical  shape.  .  .  .  As  specimens  of  archi- 
tecture, the  amphitheatres  are  more  remarkable 
for  the  mechanical  skill  and  admirable  adaptation 
to  their  purpose  displayed  in  them,  than  for  any 
beauty  of  shape  or  decoration.  The  hugest 
of  all,  the  Coliseum,  was  ill-proportioned  and 
unpieasing  ia  its  lines  when  entire."— R  Bum, 
Some  and  the  Campngna,  introd. 

AMPHORA.— MODIUS.  —  "  The    fRoman] 
unit    of   capacity    was  th*-  Amphora  or  Qua- 
drantal,  which  contained  a  tublc  foot  .  .  .  equal 
to  5.687  imperial  gallons,  or  5  gallons,  3  quarts, 
1  pint,  a  gills,  nearly.    Tlie  Amphora  was  the 
unit  for  both  liquid  and  dry  measures,  but  the 
hitter   was   generally    referred  to  the  Modius, 
which  conuined  one-third  of  an  Amphora.  .  .  . 
The  Culeus  was  equal  to  20  Amphorae.  "—W. 
Ramsay,  Manual  of  Roman  ArUia.,  eh.  13. 
AMRITSAR.    SeeSiKUB. 
AMSTERDAM:   The  rite  of  the  city.— 
"  In  1205  a  low  and  profitless  marsh  upon  the 
coast  of  Holhind,  not  far  from  the  confines  of 
Utrecht,  had  been  partially  drained  by  a  dam 
raised  upon  the  hitherto  squandered  stream  of 
the  Amstel.     Near  this  dam  a  few  huta  were 
tenanted  by  poor  men  who  earned  a  scanty  live- 
lihood by  fishing  In  the  Zuyder  Sea;    but  so 
uninviting  seemed  that  barren  and  desolate  spot, 
that  a  century  later  Amstel-dam  was  still    an 
obscure  seafaring  town,  or  rather  hamlet.    Its 
subsequent  progress  was  more  rapid.    The  spirit 
of  the  land  was  stirring  within  it,  and  every  por- 
tion of  it  thrilled  with  new  energy  and  Ufe. 
Some  of  the  fugitive  artizans  from  Flanders  saw 
in  the  thriving  village  safety  and  peace,   and 
added  what  wealth  they  had,  and,  what  was 
better,    their   manufacturing    intelligence   and 
skill,  to  the  humlilc  hamlet's  store.    Amsteldara 
was  early  admitted  to  the  fellowship  of   the 
Hanse  League;  and.  In  1842,  having  outgrown 
its  primary  limits,  required  to  be  enlarged.     For 
this  an  expensive  process,  that  of  driving  piles 
into  tlie  swampy  pkin,  was  necessary;  and  to 
this  circumstance,  no  doubt.  It  is  owing  that  the 
date  of  each  successive  enUrgcnient  has  been  so 
accurately  reconled. "— W.  T.  McCullagh,  Indut- 
trial  UMory  of  Thrtt  Natioru,  vol.  2,  M.  ». 


I 


AXT. 


ANABAPTISTS. 


AMT.— AMTER.  See  Scasdwatian 
Statm  (DB!OiAn«  — Icklasd):  a.  D.  1849- 
1874;  and  the  aame  (Nobwat).  A.  D.  1814-1815. 

AMUR,  Rntiian  Acquisition  of  the  batia 
of  the.    See  Siberia. 

AMURATH  I.  and  II.,  Conqneete  ot  Bee 
TUBBS :  A.  D.  18(10-1389,  and  1402-1451. 

MnCLM,  The  Silence  ot— Amrcls  waa 
the  chief  city  of  Laconia  while  that  district  ot 
Peloponnesus  was  occupied  by  the  Aclupans, 
before  the  Doric  invasion  and  before  the  rise  of 
Sparta.  It  maintained  its  Independence  against 
the  Doric  Spartans  for  a  long  period,  but  suc- 
cumbed at  length  under  circumstames  which 
gave  rise  to  a  proverbial  saying  among  the 
Ureeks  concerning  "the  silence  of  Amyds." 
"  The  peace  of  A  inycls,  we  are  told,  had  been 
so  often  disturbed  by  false  alarms  of  the 
enemy's  approach,  that  at  length  a  law  was 
passed  forbidding  such  reports,  and  the  silent 
city  was  taken  by  surprise.  " — C.  Thirlwall, 
Birt.  ofOreeee,  eh.  7. 

AMYTHAONIDAC,  The.   See  Arckw.— Ab- 

OOLIB. 

AN,  The  City  of.    See  On. 
ANABAPTISTS      OF      MONSTER.— 

"MQnster  is  a  town  in  Westphalia,  the  seat  of  a 
bishop,  walled  round,  with  a  noble  cathedral  and 
many  churches;  but  there  is  one  peculiaritv 
about  MQnster  that  distinguishes  it  from  all 
other  old  Ocrman  towns;  it  has  nut  one  old 
church  spire  in  it.  Once  it  had  a  great  many. 
How  comes  it  that  It  now  bos  none?  In  MQnster 
lived  a  draper,  Knipperdolling  by  name,  who 
was  much  excited  over  the  doctrines  of  Luther, 
and  he  gathered  many  people  in  his  bouse,  and 
8[)oke  to  them  bitter  wonls  against  the  Pope,  the 
bishops,  and  the  clej^.  The  bishop  at  this 
time  was  Francis  of  Waldeck,  a  man  much  in- 
clined himself  to  Lutheranism ;  indeed,  later,  be 
proposed  to  suppress  Catholicism  in  the  diocese, 
as  he  wanted  to  seize  on  it  and  appropriate  it  as 
a  possession  to  his  family.  Moreover,  in  1544, 
he  joiueii  the  Protestant  princes  in  a  league 
agamst  the  Catholics ;  but  he  did  not  want  things 
to  move  too  fast,  lest  he  should  not  be  able  to  se- 
cure the  wealthy  See  as  personal  property. 
Knipperdolling  got  a  young  priest,  na'ned  '^•-•t- 
mann,  to  preach  in  one  of  the  chutiacsaj,  >  .^t 
the  errors  of  Catholicism,  and  he  was  a  man  of 
such  fiery  eloquence  that  he  stirred  up  a  mob 
which  rushed  through  the  town,  wrecking  the 
churches.  The  mob  became  daily  more  daring 
and  threatening.  They  drove  the  priests  out  of 
the  town,  and  some  of  the  wealthy  citizens  fled, 
not  knowing  what  would  follow.  The  bijhop 
would  have  yielded  to  all  the  religious  Innova- 
tions if  the  rioters  hod  not  threatened  his  tem- 
poral position  and  revenue.  In  lUSi  the  pastor, 
Rottmann,  began  to  preach  against  the  baptism 
of  infants.  Luther  wrote  to  him  remonstrating, 
but  in  vain.  The  bishop  was  not  in  the  town ; 
he  waa  at  Mindcn.  of  which  Sec  he  was  bishop  as 
well.  Finding  that  the  town  was  In  the  hands 
of  Knippenlolling  and  Rottmann.  who  were  con- 
fiscating the  goods  of  the  churches,  and  exclud- 
ing those  who  would  not  agn>e  with  their  opin- 
ions, the  tiitihnp  a<lvanced  to  the  place  at  the 
hcaci  of  anme  soldiers.  Mnnstvr  cIowhI  Its  gates 
against  him.  Negotiations  were  entered  into; 
the  Landgrave  of  Hesse  was  called  in  as  pacifica- 
tor, and  articles  of  agreement  wore  drawn  up 
and  signed.    Some  of  tlie  churches  were  given 


to  the  Lutherans,  but  the  Cathedral  wis  reserved 
for  the  Catholics,  and  the  Lutherans  weie  for- 
bidden to  molest  the  latter,  and  disturb  their  re- 
ligious services.     The  news  of  the  conveislon  of 
the  city  of  Monster  to  the  gospel  spread,  and 
strangers  came  to  it  from  all    parts.     Among 
these  was  a  tailor  of  Leyden,  called  John  Becker 
son.    Rottmann  now  threw  up  bis  Lutheranism 
and  proclaimed  himself  oppowd  to  many  of  the 
doctrines  «Mch  Luther  still  retained.    Amongst 
other   things  be  rejected  was  infant  baotisin. 
This  creat^  a  split  among  the  reformed  in  MQns- 
ter, and  the  disorders  broke  out  afresh.    The 
mob  now  fell  on  the  cathedral  and  drove  the 
Catholics  from  it,  and  would  not  permit  them  to 
worship  in  It.    They  also  Invaded  the  Luthenin 
churches,  and  filled  them  with  uproar.    On  the 
evening  of  January  28,  1534,  the  Anabaptists 
stretched  chains  across  the  streets,  assembled  in 
armed  bands,  closed  thegates  and  phkced  senti- 
nels in  all  directions.     When  day  dawned  there 
appeared  suddenly  two  men  dressed  like  Proph- 
ets, with  long  ragged  beards  and  flowing  man- 
tles, staff  In  hand,  who  paced  through  tlie  streets 
solemnly  in  the  midst  of  the  crowd,  wlio  bowed 
before   them  and   saluted  them  as  Enoch  and 
Ellas.    These  men  were  John  Bockelson,   the 
tailor,  and  one  John  Mattheson,  head  of  the  Ana- 
baptists of  Holland.    Knipperdolling  at  once  as- 
sociated   himself   with  them,  and  shortly  the 
place  was  a  scene  of  the  wildest  ecstacies.    Mm 
and  women  ran  about  the  streets  screaming  ana 
leaping,  and  crying  out  that  they  saw  visions  of 
angels  with  swords  drawn  urging  them  on  to  the 
extermination  of  Lutherans  and  Catholics  alike. 
.  .  .  A  great  number  of  citizens  were  driven  out, 
on  a  bitter  day,  when  the  land  waa  covered  with 
snow.    Those  who  lagged  were  beaten;   those 
who  were  sick  were  carried  to  the  market- place 
and  re-baptized  by  Rottmann.  .  .  .  This  was  t<x> 
much  to  be  borne.    The  bishop  raised  an  army 
and  marclied  against  the  city.    Thus  began  a 
siege  which  was  to  last  sixteen  months,  during 
which  a  multitude  of  untrained  fanatics,  com- 
manded by  a  Dutch  tailor,  held  out  against  a 
numerous  and  well-armed  force.     Thenceforth 
the   city  was  ruled   by  divine  revelations,  or 
rathet.  bv  tlie  crazes  of  the  diseased  brains  ot 
the  prophets.     One  day  tliey  declared  that  all 
the  otScers  and  magistrates  were  to  be  turncJ 
out  of  their  offices,  and  men  nominated  by  them- 
selves were   to  take   their  places;  another  day 
Mattheson  said  it  was   revealed   to   him   that 
every  book  in  the  town  except  the  Bible  was  to 
be  destroyed ;    accordingly  all  the  archives  sd'I 
libraries  wire  collected  in  the  marketplace  nnct 
burnt.    Then  it  was  revealed  to  him  that  all  the 
spires  Were  to  be  pulle<l  down;    so  the  church 
towers  were  reduced  to  stumps,  from  which  the 
enemy  could  be  watched  and  whence   canima 
cou..'  nlay  on  them.    One  day  he  declared  be 
had  bet.,  ordered  by  Heaven  to  go  forth,  with 

Sromise  of  victory,  against  the  besiegers.  He 
ashed  forth  at  the  head  of  a  hirge  banil.  but  nu 
surrounded  and  he  and  his  band  slain.  The 
death  of  Matthes<m  struck  dismay  into  the 
hearts  of  the  Anabaptists,  but  John  Biickel»>a 
took  advantage  of  the  moment  to  establish  him- 
self as  head.  He  declared  that  It  was  revc?!.-d 
to  him  that  Mattheson  had  been  killed  because  be 
bad  dlsoI)eyed  the  heavenly  command,  ^vhich 
was  to  go  furtli  :v|th  few.  Instead  of  lli»t  be 
had  gone  with  many.     Bockelson  said  he  had 


118 


1  ♦!  ■ 


n 


m 


ANABAPTISTa 

been  ordered  In  vbion  to  marry  Mtttheion'i 
widow  and  auume  his  place.  It  waa  further  re- 
vealed to  him  that  MQnster  waa  to  be  the 
beaTenlr  Zion,  the  capital  of  the  earth,  and  be 
was  to  be  king  over  it.  .  .  .  Then  he  had  an- 
other revelation  that  every  man  was  to  have  as 
many  wives  as  he  lilied,  and  he  gave  himself 
sixteen  wives.  This  was  too  outrageous  for 
some  to  endure,  and  a  plot  waa  formed  against 
him  by  a  blaclcsmith  and  about  800  of  the  more 
reiipecteMi'  citizens,  but  it  was  frustrated  and 
led  to  tli<-  siezure  of  the  conspirators  and  the 
execution  of  a  number  of  them.  ...  At  last, 
on  midsummer  eve,  1536,  after  a  siege  of  sixteen 
months,  the  city  was  taken.  Several  of  the 
citizens,  unable  longer  to  endure  the  tyranny, 
cruelty  and  abominations  committed  by  the  king, 
helped  the  soldiers  of  the  prince-bishop  to  cliinb 
the  walls,  open  the  gates,  and  surprise  the  city. 
A  desperate  hand-to-hand  fight  ensued:  the 
streets  ran  with  blood.  John  ^kelson,  instead 
of  leading  his  people,  hid  himself,  but  was 
CRUglit.  So  was  Knipperdolling.  When  the 
place  was  in  his  hands  the  prince-bishop  entered. 
John  of  Leyden  and  Knippierdolling  were  cruelly 
tortured,  their  flesh   plucked  off   with  red-hot 

Einccrs,  and  *''en  a  dagger  waa  thrust  into  their 
earts.  Fir  .  their  Dodies  were  hung  in  iron 
cages  to  the  vof  athurch  in  MOnstcr.  Thus 
ended  this  ;  ous  drama,  which  produced  an 
indesorib.ible  effect  throughout  Germany.  Mons- 
ter, after  this,  in  spite  of  the  desire  of  the  prince- 
bishop  to  establUh  LutheranUm,  revened  to 
Catholicism,  and  remains  Catholic  to  this  day." 
—  S.  Baring-Qould,  Tht  Stury  of  Oermany,  eh. 
86. 

Also  rs :  L.  von  Ranke,  Hint,  of  the  Beforma- 
tinti  in  Orrmany,  bk.  6,  eh.  9  (s.  3). —C.  Beard 
The  Uiformatim  (Ilihbert  Ijert».,  1883)  ' 

AN/ESTHETICS,  The  diicoTerr  of. 
See  Medical  8cik>xe:  19th  Century. 

ANAHUAC— '•  The  word  Anahuac  signifies 
■  near  the  water '  It  was,  probably,  first  applied 
to  the  country  around  the  lakes  in  the  Mexican 
Valley,  and  gradually  extended  to  the  remoter 
regions  occupied  by  the  Aztecs,  and  the  other 
senncivilized  races.  Or,  possibly,  the  name 
may  have  been  intended,  as  Veytia  suggests 
(Hist.  Antio  ,  lib.  1,  cap.  1),  to  denote  the  land 
betwotn  the  waters  of  x\\v  Atlantic  and  Pacific." 
— \V.  H.  I'rescott,  Vonquntuf  Mexico,  bk.  1,  eh.  1 
noU  11— 8ee  Mexico:  A.  D.  1325-1503. 

ANAKIM,  The.  See  Hohites,  and  Amob- 
rrEa 

ANAKTOaiUU.    SeeKoRKTBA. 

ANAPA:  A.  D.  iSaS.— Siege  and  Capture. 
-  Cession  to  Russia.  See  Tirks:  A.  D.  1886- 
18i9. 

ANARCHISTS.— "The  anarehUU  are  .  . 
a  small  but   determined   band.  .  .  .  Although 
their  programme  may  bo  found  almost  word  for 
won!  in  Proudhon,  they  profess  to  follow  more 
closelv  Bakounine,  the  Russian  nihilist,  who  sep- 
araUMi  himself  from  Marx  and  the  Internationals 
anil  formed  secret  societies  in  Spain,  Switzerland 
Fnincc,  and   elsewhere,  and    thus   piopao-ated 
nihilistic  views;  for  anarohy  and  n!U!'i«  i  are 
pn^tt/  much  one   and  the  sane   thbt      ■  en 
nihilism   is   undrrstoo.}   in   t! :-     !dei.:i .icier 
WDse,   which    does    not    incluue.    as    it    does 
In     a     larger     and     more     mo<'<- .      sense 
tli<)9e  who  are  simply  poUtical  and  Cu....itutlonBl 
reformers.    Like  prince  Krapotkine,  Bakounine 


119 


ANCHORITES. 

OMM  of  an  old  and  prominent  Russian  famflr: 
like  him,  he  revolted  against  the  cruelties  anj 
Injiistices  he  saw  about  h'm;  like  him,  be  de- 
spaired of  peaceful  reform,  and  concluded  that  no 
great  improvement  could  be  expected  until  all 
our  present  political,  economic,  and  social  insti- 
tutions were  so  thoroughly  demolished  that  of  the 
old  structure  not  one  stone  should  be  left  on 
another.    Out  of  the  ruins  a  regenerated  world 
might  arise.    We  must  be  purged  as  by  fire. 
Uke  all  anarehiaU  and  true  nihilists,  he  waa  a 
thorough  pessimist,  as  far  as  our  present  manner 
of  life  waa  concerned.    Reaction  against  conser 
vrtisna  carried  him  very  far.      He  wished   to 
abolish  private  property,  state,  and  inheritance. 
Equality  is  to  be  carried  so  far  that  all  must  wear 
the  same  kind  of  clothing,  no  difference  beUig 
made  even  for  sex.    Religion  is  an  aberration  of 
the  brain,  and  should  be  abolished.    Fire,  dyna- 
mite, and  assassination  are  approved  of  by  at 
least  a  large  number  of  the  party.    T^ -y  are 
brave  men,  and  fight  for  their  faith  with  the 
devotion  of  martyrs.    Imprisonment  and  death 
are  counted  but  as  rewards.  .  .  .  Forty-seven 
anarchisu  signed  a  declaration   of   principles, 
which  was  read  by  one  of  their  number  at  their 
trial  at  Lyons.  ...  "We   wfah   liberty    [they 
declared]  and  we  believe  its  existence  incom- 
patible with  the  existence  of  any  power  what- 
soever, whatever  ite  origin  and  form  —  \rhether 
It  be  selected  or  imposed,  monarchical  or  repub- 
lican —  whether  inspired  by  divine  right  or  by 
popular  right,  by  anointment  or  universal  surf- 
rage.  .  .  .  The  best  governments  are  the  worst. 
The  substitution,  in  a  word,  in  human  relations  of 
free  contract  iwrpctuall  v  rcvisable  and  dissoluble 
is  our  ideal.  •'•-U  T.  £ly,  Prtneh  mui  Oemutn 
Soeialum  in  Modern  Timet,  eh.  8.— "In  anarchism 
we  have  the  extreme  antithesis  of  socialism  and 
communism.    The  socialist  desires  so  to  extend 
the  sphere  of  the  state  that  it  shall  embrace  all 
the  more  important  concerns  of  life.    The  com- 
munist, at  least  of  the  older  school,  would  make 
the  sway  of  authority  and  the  routine  which  fol- 
lows 1  herefrom  universal.    The  anarchist,  on  the 
other  hand,  would  banish  all  forms  of  authority 
and  have  only  a  system  of  the  most  perfect  lib- 
erty.   The  anarchist  is  an  extreme  individual- 
ist ..  .  Anarchism,  as  a  social  theory,  was  first 
elaborately  formulated  bv  Proudhon.     In  the 
first  part  of  his  work,  nVhat  is  Proprrty  V  he 
briefly  stated  the  doctrine  and  gave  it  the  name 
'anarchy, '  absence  of  a  master  or  sovereign.  .  . 
About  13  years  before  Proudhon  published  his 
views,  Josiah  Warren  reached  similar  conclusions 
In  America."— II.  L.  Osgood,  Seientifle  Anareh- 
itm  (Pil.  Set.  Quart.,  M,ir.,  1SN9),  ;,;,.  1-8.— See, 
also.  Nihilism,  and  Social  Movements 

ANARCHISTS,  The  Chicago.    See  Cm- 
CAOO:  A.  D.  1886-1887. 

ANASTASIUS  I.,  Roman  Emperor  (East- 
em.)  A.  D.  491-518. . .  .Anastasius  II..  A.  D 
71&-716.  • 

ANASTASIUS  III.,  Pope,    A.  P.  911-918 

•  •  i ^S^SSSP'."?  'V-'  •*"?«•>    ^-   D.  1153-1154. 

ANATOLIA.    See  Asia  Minor. 

ANCALITES,   The.— A  tribe  of  ancient 
Britons  whose  home  was  near  the  Thames 

ANCASTER,  Origin  of.    See  Cac8E!«n.b. 

ANCHORITfiS.-HER»SlTS.-"  The  fer- 
tile  and    peaceable    lowlands  of  England 
offered  few  spots  sufficiently  wild  and  lonely  for 
the  habiution  of  a  hermit;   those,    therefore. 


AKCHOKITES. 


ANGLES  AND  JUTES. 


who  visaed  to  retire  from  the  world  Into  a  more 
strict  and  solitary  life  than  that  which  the  mon- 
astery afforded  were  in  the  habit  of  immuring 
tbemxelves,  as  anchorites,  or  in  old  English 
'Ankers.'  In  little  cells  of  stone,  built  usuallv 
against  the  wall  of  a  church.  "There  is  nothing 
new  under  the  sun ;  and  similiir  anchorites  might 
have  been  seen  in  Egy  pt,  5()0  years  before  the 
time  of  St.  Antony,  Immured  in  cells  in  the 
.'temples  of  Isis  or  Serapis.  It  is  only  recently 
ithnt  .tntiiiuurics  have  discovered  bow  common 
(tills  practice  was  in  England,  and  how  frequently 
^Uie  truces  of  these  cells  are  to  be  found  about  our 
parish  churches."— C.  Kingsley,  The  Hermit*, 
p.  3i9. — The  term  anchorites  is  applied,  gener- 
ally, to  all  n-ligious  ascetics  who  lived  in  solitary 
cells.  —  J.  Bingham,  Antuf.  oft/u  Chrutian  Ch., 
bk.  7,  eh.  1,  net.  4.— "The  essential  difference 
between  an  anker  or  anchorite  and  a  hermit 
appears  to  have  been  that,  whereas  the  former 
paiised  his  whole  life  shut  up  in  a  cell,  the  latter, 
although  leading  Indeed  a  solitary  life,  wandered 
about  at  liberty.  '—R  li  Sharnc,  Int.  to  "Ojfcn- 
dar  of  Willi  in  the  Court  of  hutting,   London," 

AifciENT  REGIME.-The  political  and 
iooi;il  system  In  Fniuce  that  was  destroyed  by 
the  Kivoliitlon  of  1T8B  is  commonly  referred  to 
osllie  "nncien  regime."  Some  writers  translate 
t\i\*  in  the  literal  English  form — "the  ancient 
regime;"  others  render  it  more  appropriately, 
perhaps,  the  "old  regime."  Its  speciiii  applica- 
tion is  to  the  state  of  things  described  under 
Fhanck:  .\.  D.  17t<9. 

ANCIENTS,    The    Council  of  the.     See 

FbaMK:    A.I).   ITftTMCNK — tSUTKUBEH). 

1  ANCRUM,  Battle  of  —A  ciiccess  obtahied 
by  the  .VmIs  iivir  UN  English  force  making  an 
Incursion  into  tlie  ixinler  dlsirict."  of  their  country 
A.  1>.  I."i44.— J.  II.  Hurton,  lli»t.  vf  .ScvtUiml,  ch. 
85  (.-,  3). 

ANDALUSIA:  The  name.— "The  Vandal.s, 
.  .  .  tlioiigh  they  passetl  altogether  out  of 
Spain,  have  left  their  name  to  this  day  In  its 
soutliern  part,  under  the  form  of  Andalusia,  a 
name  wlii(  h,  under  the  Saricen  comiuerors, 
eninsuliL' — E.  A. 
'trupe.  ch.  4.  ixfl.  3. 
— Se,  also;  V.IND.4LS;  A.  I).  4W.  —  Kouglily 
siK-aking,  Aiulalusia  represents  tlie  country 
known  to  the  aniieuw,  first,  a»  TartcMus,  anil, 
latir.  as  Tiirdilani;i. 

ANDAMAN  ISLANDERS,  The.  tke 
Ifii'H;  Thk  .ViionriiiNAL  I.shabitants. 

ANDASTES,  The.    Heu  Amkhic.v.-*  Abohi 

OIMS:    .-sc  >*jrKnANNAA 

ANDECAVL— Tlie  ancient  name  of  the  city 
of  .\np  rs.  Knince,  and  of  the  tribe  which  oi^u- 
plicl   that   ngiou.      Bee   Vkmsti  or   \Vi!»Tliii.>J 

ANDERIDA.~ANDERIDA  sylva.- 
ANDREDSWALD,— ,\  gnat  forest  which  an- 
cleiiily  sinidHil  at  nim  Surri'v,  iSunsi'X  ami  Into 
Kent  (souliiiajiterii  England)  wascallinl  Auderiila 
B>l»a  by  the  lti>itmii.s  and  .Vmln'dawalil  liy  the 
Saxons.  It  coiiMi<hd  nearly  nitli  the  tract  of 
country  called  in  iii.nlerii  limes    the   Weald  of 


ijin lid  ilwlf  over  the  whole  pel 
1-reeniuii.  IIi»t»ricitl  {jtJty.  of  hnn 


against  the  Saxons.  In  the  fifth  centurr,  and  An. 
derida  was  only  taken  by  .-Elle  after  a  long  siege. 
In  tlie  words  of  the  Chronicle,  the  Salons  "slew 
all  that  were  therein,  nor  was  there  henceforth 
one  Briton  left."— J.  R  Oreen,  The  Making  of 
Eng.,  ch.  1. 

Also  ui  T.  Wright,  Ceit,  Rcmutn,  and  Saxon, 
ch.  5. 

ANDERSON,  Major  Robert.— Defenie  of 
Fort  Sumter.  (See  United  States  of  Am.,  A.  U. 
ISOiXOkckmbku);  IHfll  (.Mauch— April). 

ANDERSONVILLE  PRISON-PENS.  See 
Pbisoss  and  I'hison-Pkns,  Conreuekatk. 

ANDES,  OR  ANDI,  OR  ANDECAVI, 
The.    8<'e  Veneti  of  Webtebn  Gai'L. 

ANDORRA.— A  little  semirepublic  In  the 
Spanish  Pyrenees.  Enjoying  a  certain  self-gov. 
ernment  since  tlie  French  Kevolution.  it  is  prac- 
tically a  part  of  Spain.  The  inhabitants  are 
exempt,  however,  from  Spanish  conscription. 

ANDRE,  Major  John.  See  United  States 
OF  Ah.:  a.  D.  ITW*  (AiouBT— Seitemheki. 

ANDREW  I.,  II.,  and  III.,  Kior*  of  Hua- 
fary,  A.  D.  1046-1000,  1204-12:15,  1290-1301. 

ANDRONICUS   I.,  Emperor  in  the  East 

(Byzantine  or  Greek),   A.  D.    1 183-1 IM 

Aodronicui  II.  i  Palcolopit),  Greek  Emperor 
of  Constantinople,  A.  D.  1282-1328. ..  An- 
dronicus  III,  (Palcologui),  A.  D.  1328-1341. 

ANDROS,  Governor,  New  England  and 
New  York  under.  See  New  E.xoi.a.nd:  A.I) 
1080;  Mas8.^<  in  setts:  A.  D.  I671-10H6;  imd 
1080-1689;  New  Yoke:  \.  D.  1088;  and  toN- 
NECTK  it:  a.  U.  1(185-1687. 

ANDROS,  Battle  of  (B.  C.  407).  See 
GUEECE:   II,  V.   411-107. 

ANGELIQUE,  La  Mtre.  Sre  Port  Rotal 
and  Tilt:  Ja.nhi-.msts:  A.  D.  1602-i(i60 

ANGE  RS,  Origin  ot  See  Veneti  of  West- 
ern (iAII.. 

ANGEVIN  KINGS  AND  ANGEVIN  EM- 
PIRE.    See  Em.l.vnd;  A.  1).    115i-ll8U. 

ANGHIARI,  Battle  of  (1425).  See  Italv: 
A.  n.  1412-1447. 

ANGLES  AND  JUTES,  The,- The  men- 
tion of  the  Angles  by  Tacitus  is  In  the  followiiij 
raSHiice:  "  Ne.vt  [lo  the  I.angol)ardl|  come  (lie 
lleudjgni.  the  Aviones,  the  Anglil,  the  Variiii, 
the  Eudoses.  the  Siianloues,  and  NultlioueM,  wlio 
are  fenceil  In  by  rivers  or  forests.  None  of  iness 
trilK's  have  any  noteworthy  feature,  exci  pt  thiir 
eoninion  wonthip  of  Ertha.  or  motherfjirtli.  ami 
their  lieliif  ihat  »lie  Interposes  in  human  alfairs. 
ami  visil.s  the  iialloiis  in  her  car  In  an  islmui  if 
the  fH laii  there  is  a  nacnil  gnive.  andwithiu  it 
a  conseeraU'd  chariot,  eoTenil  over  with  a  irir 
meiit.  (July  one  prie.sl  la  permilti'd  to  touch  ii. 
He  can  |v  rcelvo  the  prisence  of  the  nc«l.|(»«  in 
tills  sacred  recesn,  and  walks  by  her  nlde  with 
the  utmost  revirence  as  she  Is  drawn  aloim  liy 
heifers.  It  U  a  seiisim  of  rejoUiiig,  and  fi  ^llvily 
nlgns  wherever  she  deignsto  go  and  lie  nnmii. 
They  do  not  go  to  battle  or  wear  arm»,ii<iy 
wea|Miii  Is  under  link;  |ieace  and  i|iilet  an'  »i|- 
coined  only  at  these  times,  till  the  godiU-M,  « '-iry 
of  Imnuiir  inlenoiirse,  is  at  length  n>l.  nl  I'y 
the  same  priest  10  her  temple.     Aderwards  ilw 


Kent,  to  whiih  It  gave  lu  imim'  of  iliu  Wahl  or  !  car.  llie  vestments.  aiMl,  If  you  like  lo  In  lii  \ 


Weald,  On  llio  wmtlH'm  <-oast  Imrder  of  the 
Anih'rida  ."^vlva  the  Koinani  eslalilUliid  the  Im. 
ixinaiit  loriress  and  jxirt  of  .\iidiriiltt,  which  has 
Iwu  iileiillllisl  with  Duxlerti  Pevensi-y,  jlere 
Itw  KoiuaiiO'Urlluiw  mode  an  obttiiufai    stand 


120 


11, 

the  divinily  lierMlf.  are  puriliisl  in  a  stint  lik-. 

SlaVrM    IMTfitftll  I)li<  ritf!.  who  f|rn   iriKtiifitlv    MU.kl. 

lowisl  up  liy  lis  »at*rs.  Hence  arises  a  my-iir- 
lous  ternir  and  a  iiinus  ignorance  toucen.iiik  ttis 
uatUK  v(  that  whkb  ia  maaa  only  by  men  duuuasl 


ANOLES  AND  JUTES. 

tn  die.    Thl«  branch  Indeed  of  the  Suevi  atretche* 
Into  the  remoter  regions  of  Glermany." — Tacltua, 
Qermnny;  trans,  bg  Church  ami  Brodribh.  eh.  40. 
—  "In  close  neiglibourhood  with  the  Saxons  in 
the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  were  the  Angll, 
a  tribe  whose  origin  Is  more  uncertain  and  the 
applicntionr  of  whose  name  is  still  more  a  matter 
oi  question.    If  the  name  belongs,  in  the  pages 
of  the  several  geogra^  lers,  to  the  same  nation, 
it  was  situated  Tn  the  time  of  Tacitus  east  of  the 
Ellje ;  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  It  was  found  on 
the  middle  Kibe,  between  the  Thuringians  to  the 
south  and  the  VarinI  to  the  north ;  and  at  a  later 
perio'  it  was  forced,  perhaps  by  the  growth  of 
S.'ir  "    ii  i  .Mna  power,  Into  the  neck  of  the  CIm- 
t>fk  ,., ::  ..-ma.     Tt  may,  however,  be  reasonably 
r;  <u!.tnl  whiihtr  »!•  i  hypothesis  Is  sound,  and 
It  is  !iy  no  nif.m!)  <  i ■• .  ■  whether,  If  It  be  so,  the 
An;  i'  were  not  "om  .tted  more  closely  with  the 
Til  ".Hijiaiisth.'iaT.    h  the  Saxons.    To  the  north 
.    I'lo  .VnL'l;  iittcr  i  .ey  had  reached  their  Schles- 
.,!.-  :..,.r  ,  •!•  -e  tje  Jutes,  of  whose  early  his- 
tory we  know  no„dng,  except  their  claims  to  be 
reunrdi'il  as  kinsmen  of  the  Ootbs  and  the  close 
siniiliirity  between    their  descendants  and  the 
neighbour  Frisians."— W.  Stubbe,   VoiM.  llitt. 
ofkiif/.,  T.  1.  eh.  3. —  "  Important  as  are  the  An- 
li\i%  it  is  nut  too  much  to  say  that  thev  are  only 
known  tlirough  their  relations  to  us  of  England, 
tbcirilisoendanU;  indcetl.wiclioutthi.spammount 
fuct,  tlu'y  would  be  liable  to  be  confuawl  with 
the  FriMiina.  with  the  Old  .Saxons,  and  with  even 
.>*liiviiniiin3.     Tlds  Is  chieMy  iK'causo  there  is  no 
Biitlsfiirtory  trace  or  fragment  of  the  Angles  of 
Ocrniiiny  within  tk^rmany ;  whilst  the  notices  of 
tliu  oIImt  writers  of  antiquity  tell  us  as  little  as 
tlie  (Jill'  wc  find  in  Tb(  itus.    And  this  notice  Is 
not  only  liricf  hut  complicated.  .  .  .  I  still  think 
that  till'  Angll  of  Tacitus  were— 1;  Tlie  Angles 
of  Enirlimd;  2:  Occupants  of  the  nortliem  parts 
of  lliinovor;  8:  At  least  In  the  time  of  Tacitus; 
4:  .\n.l  that  to  the  exclusion  of  any  territory  In 
Holsti  ifi,  wliieh  was  Friitian  to  the   west,   and 
Slavonic  to  tlie  east     Still  the  question  is  one  of 
gn-Ht  nuicnitude  and  numerous  complications." 
—  Ii.  U.  ijitham,  ?"*<  Oermaiiy  of  Tiuitiu;  EM- 
t^mrii.i,  Krt.  4H. 

Al.w)  I.N  J.  .M.  Ijippenhcrg,  flint,  of  Kng.  under 
Ihf  A'r/lofiijon  Kingn,  t.  \,  pp.  81>-1).-).  _  (St-e 
alio,  .\VH)<«Ki«,  aud  S.woNS  — Tlieconquestsand 
Bcttlcni.'nla  of  t|i(.  Jutes  and  the  Angles  In  Brit. 
nln  a^  dtwritiiil  under  EnolakdiA  U  440- 
47:t.  and  .MT-n;i:t. 

ANGLESEA,  Ancitnt.  Sec  Mona,  Moif afi  * 
an.!  N.iiiMAN!!:  htii-Otii  Ck-nti-hiks. 

ANGLOSAXON.-A  term  which  may  be 
Ciin>l.lcni|  as  a  comimuml  of  Angle  and  Saxon 
tlic  iiainci.  of  the  two  principal  Teutonic  triliei 
whic- 1  t<«ik  powsslon  of  Hrilain  and  formo.1  the 
hiifltsli  nnti.>n  liy  their  ultimate  union.  As  thus 
riii.inl.il  iin,|  UM'd  to  (icaignalo  the  race,  the 
iinirn,.L'..  and  llielnstitiiiionMwhlchresulKHl  fn)m 
lliat  unlnn,  it  ia  oulv  objectionable,  piThaps,  as 
h<ine  wiptrttuous.  Wause  KnglUh  is  the  ar 
c<pl.|i  name  of  the  |H-ople  of  England  and  all 
jx  ria  nniB  to  them.  TJut  the  term  Anirlo-Saxon 
M*  also  Nen  more  jMirtlcularly  employed  to 
'•'■^iitnale  the  Karly  fengll.h  pe<.plc  ami  their 
anmiaife  iK-foro  the  Norman  Con.iuest.  as 
i."-'h  liier  «.  r»  Anglo  Saxon  at  th,u  ptriM 
»'fl  txcame  Kiigli,b  aflrrwanls.     M(Kleni   his 


,,,,l,„.    „ »■—•■•.<■- uniB.       iqiKirni     DIS 

j'reemaa  (AormM  Vanjmtt,  ». 


tb«  term.    Mr. 


121 


ANJOU. 

1,  ru>t»  A),  says:  "The  name  by  which  otH 
forefathers  really  knew  themselves  and  by  which 
thev  were  known  to  other  nations  was  English 
and  no  other.  'Angll,'  'Engle,'  'Angelcyn,' 
'  Englisc,  are  the  true  names  by  which  the  Teu- 
tons of  Britain  knew  themselves  and  their  lan- 
guage. ...  As  a  chronological  term,  Anglo- 
Saxon  Is  equally  objectionable  with  Saxon.  The 
'Anglo-Saxon  perio<l,'  as  far  as  there  ever  wa« 
one,  is  going  on  still.  I  speak  therefore  of  our 
forefathers,  not  as  '  Saxons,"  or  even  as  'Anglo- 
Saxons,'  but  as  they  spoke  of  themselves, 
as  Englishmen— 'Angll,'  'Engle,'— 'Angel- 
cyn.'"— See,   also,    Saxoks,  and   Asoles  asd 

J  I'TES. 

.  ^"P.t?"'  ^■"'«  »'•  -Fought  in  Armenia. 
A.  U.  543,  between  the  Komans  and  the  Persians. 

ANGOLA.  —  The  name  now  given  to  the  ter- 
ritory which  the  Portuguese  have  occupi«l  on 
the  western  coast  of  South  Africa  since  the  16th 
century,  extending  from  the  Congo  Free  State, 
on  the  north,  to  Uamamland,  on  the  south  with 
an  interior  boundary  that  Is  somewhat  indefinite. 
It  is  divided  Into  four  districts,  Congo.  Louudo 
Benguela,  and  Mossanudes. 

ANGORA,  Battle  of  (140a).  See  Timoib; 
also.  TuHKS :  A.  I).  ia'tU-14ua 

ANGOSTURA,  OR  BIJENA  VISTA. 
Battle  of.     l^ee.MEXIio:  A    I).   lMO-1847 

ANGRJVARII,  The. -The  Angriv.iriwero 
one  of  the  tribesof  ancient  Germany.  "Their  set- 
tlemeuls  were  to  the  west  of  the'Wcser  See 
BRfCTKBl. 

ANI.— Storminr  of  the  Turki  (io6«).  Seo 
TiHKS:  A.  1).  KKjif  KCl. 

ANILLEROS,  The.  Seo  Spain:  A.  D, 
1814-1837. 

ANJOU :   Creation  of  the  County.— Origin 
of  the  Plontof eneti.  —  "  It  was  tlie  policy  of 
tins  unfairlv  depreciated  sovereign  ll'liaries  the 
Bald,  grandson  of  Charlemagne,   who  received 
In  llie  dismemberment  of  the  Carlovingiun  Empire 
tlie  Neustrian  part.out  of  which  wasdeveloped  the 
miHlem  kingdom  of  France.and  who  nigned  from 
840  to  877],  to  recruit  the  failing  r\nk8  of  llic  false 
and  degenerate  Frankish  arlatocracv,  by  cdliug 
up  to  his  peetuge  the  wise,  the  able,  tlie  honest 
aud  the  bold  of  ignoble  birth.  ...  He  sought 
to  surround  himself  with   new  men,    the  men 
without  ancestry;  ami  the  earliest  historian  of 
the  llouso  of  Anjou  ImiIIi  de«rilas  tliis  system 
and  affords  the  most  uplendid  exann>lo  of  the 
theory    adoptetl    by    tin.     king.      Preeminent 
amongst  these  parveniLs  wa.<  Torquatus  or  Tor- 
tulfus,  an  Armorican  peaaiiiit,  a  very  ruatic,  a 
biekwoixlsnmn.  who  livitl  by  hunling  and  such 
like  occupations,  almo't  iii  solitude,  cultivating 
hU  'nuillcis,'  his  'cucillettes,'  of  land,  and  driv- 
ing his  own  oxen,  hamcssi'il  to  hia  plough.    Tor- 
qualus  enter»'<l  or  was  inviteil  into  the  wrvico  of 
Cliarlesle  Chauve.  anil  rose  higli  in  his  sover- 
eigns contldence:  a  prudent,  a  lK)i(l,  ami  a  good 
man.      Cliarles  apooinliHl  him  Fore»U!r  of^the 
for.>at  rallcl  'tlic  Ilia,  kbirds  .Nest,'  the  'nid  du 
merle.'  a  pleasant  name,  not  the  le-ss  pleasant  for 
its  familiarity.     This  happened  during  the  con- 
rtiets  with  the  Northmen.      Torquaius  sirveil 
Charles  strenuously  li.  the  wars,  and  olifciliuil 
gnat  authority.     Tertullus,  sun  of  Torquutua. 
Hit.,  ijled  hia  raiiier's  energies,  quick  anil  acutei 
[lalii-nt  of  fatigue,  ambitious  mi.,|  tt»plring;   h» 
biraine  the  liegeman  of  Charlis;  and  his   mar- 
riage with  I'etnnlUa  the  Klng'i  cuusta,  Couol 


ANJOU. 


ANJOU. 


M 


Hugh  tlie  Abbot's  daughter,  introdnced  him 
into  the  very  circle  of  Uie  royal  family.  Ch4- 
teau  Landon  and  other  benefices  in  the  Qastinois 
were  acquired  by  him,  possibly  as  the  lady's 
dowry.  Seneschal  nlso  was  TertuUus  of  the 
same  ample  Oasitinois  territory.  Ingclger,  son 
of  Tertullus  ami  Pctronllla,  appears  as  the  first 
hereditary  Count  of  Aujou  Outre-Maine,— Mar- 

Suis,  Consul  or  Count  of  Anion, —  for  all  these 
ties  are  assigned  to  him.  \  et  the  ploughman 
Torqutttus  must  be  reckoned  as  the  primary 
Plantagenet :  the  nistic  Torquatus  foumled  that 
brilliant  fiimlly . "— Sir  F.  Palgrave.  JUiit.  of  Nor- 
mamiynnd  England,  bk.  1,  eh.  8. 

Ai.s<>  IN  K.  Norgiite,  England  under  tht  An- 
geein  Kingn,  r.  \,  eh.  2. 

A.  D.  987-1120.— The  ereatett  of  the  old 
Count!.- "  Pule  Ncrra,  Fiilc  the  Black  [A.  D. 
987-1040]  is  tlie  gn-atest  of  the  Angevins,  the 
first  in  whom  we  can  trace  that  marked  type  of 
character  which  their  house  was  to  preserve 
with  a  fatal  consuincy  through  two  hundred 
Tears.  He  was  without  natural  affection.  In 
bis  youth  he  bunied  a  wife  at  the  stake,  and 
legend  told  how  he  led  her  to  her  doom  decked 
out  in  his  giiycst  attire.  In  his  old  age  he 
waged  his  bitterest  war  against  his  son,  and 
exacted  from  him  when  vanquished  a  humilia- 
tion which  men  reserved  for  tlie  deadliest  of 
their  f(X'S.     '  You  are  cnnquere<l,  you  arc  cou- 

aueri'd!'  shouted  the  old  man  in  fierce  eiulta- 
nn.  HS  Oeoffry,  liridlctl  and  saddled  like  a  beast 
of  bunlcn,  criiwleil  for  pardon  to  his  father's 
feet.  .  .  .  But  ni'lllicr  the  wrath  of  Heaven  nor 
the  curses  of  men  linike  with  a  single  mishap 
the  fifty  years  of  lil«  success.  At  his  accession 
Anjmi  WttS  the  Inist  important  of  the  greater 
proviiKvs  iif  Friiiiii'.  At  his  death  it  stood,  if 
not  In  exU'Ut,  at  Uiist  in  ri'al  power,  first  among 
them  nil.  .  .  .  His  overthrow  of  Brittany  on  the 
field  of  Conniirrcux  was  followed  by  the  gradual 
absorption  of  Southern  Touralne.  .  .  .  His  great 
victory  at  rontlovol  crushed  the  rival  house  of 
Blois;  the  sri^uro  of  Siiumur  completed  his  con- 
quests in  till'  South,  while  Northern  Touralne 
was  wiMi  Mt  by  bit  till  only  Tours  resisted  the 
Anei'vli  Tlie ':naclnrous »<Uure  of  its  Count, 
Herlwrt  Wiikc-doif,  lift  Slalne  at  his  mercy  ere 
the  old  m»n  iHiiuiviilicd  his  unflnisheti  work  to 
his  son.  As  a  wiirrior,  Oeoflry  Martel  was 
barilly  Inferior  to  his  father.  A  decisive  over- 
thMw  wresleii  Tours  from  the  Count  of  Blols;  a 
.leei'nd  left  I'oitou  at  liis  mercy;  and  the  seizure 
of  he  .Msns  brought  him  to  the  Norman  lionler. 
Here  .  .  .  Ills    nilviinic    was    checked    by    the 

Senilis  of  Williiim  tin-  Con<|iieror,  and  with  his 
eath  thi'  krrinliiess  of  Anjou  W'cined  for  the 
tlmi-  to  hiivc  coinc  to  iin  end.  Slrlpixnl  of  Miiiiu- 
by  the  .Nornuitis.  and  weiikened  by  Internal  di» 
si'iisloMs.  till'  wi':ik  uiiil  protllirate  administration 
of  Full'  Idrliln  li  fl  .\iiJou  powerless  against  its 
rivals  aloiitr  till"  Si  iiiiv  It  woke  to  fresh  energy 
Willi  till'  uccosion  of  Ills  son,  Fule  of  Jerusalem. 
.  .  .  Full'  «ii»  till'  one  iiM-my  whom  Henry  the 
first  ri'iillv  (liiri-.l  ii  was  tii disarm  his  ri'-tless 
himtiliiy  limt  tin'  Kiiii:  yieldid  to  his  son,  (oof. 
ley  till'  IIiiiiiNonif.  the  hand  of  his  daughter 
Mtalllilii.'— .1.  It  llri'.n,  A  »h«Tt  lliitory  1/  «/w 
£ng!M  /V.'///c.  fh.  i.  »rt.  7. 

j^f  Mil  t«i  K  Niiri?i*te.  ^M/f2f|i^  utu^  fJU  ^M*. 
tin  Kingi.  r.  I,  eh    )J-l 

A.  D.  1154.— The  Couatt  beteint  Kinpef 
BaiUuUl.    bee  Esuladu:  A.  U.  1 154-1 IHU. 


A.  D.  IM4.  — Wrested  from  the  Encliib 
King  John.    Bee  France:  A.  D.  1180-1234. 

A.  D.  1*0^1443.  —  English  attempts  to  re- 
cover the  county.  —  The  Third  and  Fourth 
Houses  of  Anjou. —  Creation  of  the  Dnkedom. 
—  King  John,  of  England,  did  not  voluntarily 
submit  to  the  sentence  of  the  peers  of  Frano 
which  pronounced  his  forfeiture  of  the  cefs  ot 
Anjou  and  Maine,  "since  he  invaded  and  hod 
possession  of  Angers  again  in  1206,  when,  Ootb- 
uke,  he  demolish^  its  ancient  walla  He  lost  it  Id 
the  following  year,  and  .  .  .  made  no  further 
attempt  upon  It  until  1213.  In  that  vear,  having 
collected  apowerful  army,  he  htndedat  Itochclle, 
and  actually  occupied  Angers,  without  striking 
a  blow.  But  ...  the  year  1314  beheld  hbn 
once  more  in  retreat  from  Anjou,  nevir  to  reap- 
pear there,  since  he  died  on  the  lOth  of  October, 
1216.  In  the  person  of  King  John  ended  what  is 
called  the  'Second  House  of  Anion.'  In  12ii4, 
after  the  confiscations  of  John's  Pleach  inwik's. 
slons,  Philip  Augustus  established  beniiitary 
seneschals  in  that  part  of  France,  the  fir<<t  of 
whom  was  the  tutor  of  the  uufortunate  Young 
Arthur  [of  Brittany],  named  William  des  Roches, 
who  was  in  fact  Count  in  all  except  the  name, 
over  Anjou,  Maine,  and  Tourraine,  owing  allc- 
gUmce  only  to  the  crown  of  France.  The  S«'ne- 
schal,  WlUiam  des  Itoches,  died  in  1222.  lib 
son-in-law,  Amaury  de  Craon,  succeeded  lilm," 
but  was  soon  afterwanls  taken  prisoner  during  t 
war  in  Brittanv  and  lucarceraKHl.  Henry  III. 
of  £nglan<l  still  clalmol  the  title  of  Count  of 
Anion,  and  in  1330  he  "disembarked  a  consiil. 
erable  army  at  8t.  Malo,  in  the  view  of  re-run. 
quering  Anjou,  and  the  other  forfeited  posM'.-vsluni 
of  his  crown.  Louis  IX.,  then  only  fifteen  vtan 
old  .  .  .  advanced  to  the  attack  of  the  allli" .  hut 
In  the  following  year  a  peace  was  conciuili'd.  ths 
province  of  Ouienne  having  been  ceded  to  the 
English  crown.  In  1241,  Louis  gave  the  counties 
of  Poltou  and  Auvcrgne  to  his  brother  Alplionso; 
and,  in  the  y  \i  1244,  he  invested  his  brotber 
Charles,  Couut  of  Provence,  with  the  counili  s  of 
Anjou  and  Maine,  thereby  annulling  tlie  rank 
and  title  of  Seni'schal,  and  instituting  the  Tiiinl 
House  of  Anjou.  Charles  I.,  the  founder  of  the 
proud  fortunes  of  this  Thlni  House,  was  ainlii- 
tious  in  character,  and  events  long  favouml  hii 
ambition.  Count  of  l*rovence,  throuih  the  is. 
heritance  of  bis  consort,  had  not  lonK  been 
invested  with  Anjou  and  Maine,  ere  he  hhs  in- 
vitwl  to  the  conquest  of  Picily  [see  Italy 
(SoiTnKBN):  A.  1).  12.'iO-126.'<].''  The  Third 
House  of  Anion  endcsl  In  the  [wrson  of  .|..|in. 
who  became  King  of  France  In  1850.  In  lit'ifl 
he  invest4'd  his  son  Ijouls  with  Anjou  ami  .M  liur. 
and  in  1860  the  latter  was  cn'aU'd  the  llrsi  Piilie 
of  Anjou.  The  Fourth  llou«'  of  Anjou,  wliirh 
began  wl''.  this  (irst  Duke,  niiiio  to  an  nul  two 
generatiiuis  later  with  Ifciiu,  or  Itcgiilir,  —  the 
"good  King  KenA"  of  history  and  story,  mIiom 
kingdom  was  for  the  most  part  a  nainc  hikI  who 
is  bt'st  known  to  Kiiglisb  reailers,  |)<'rli;i|>9,  M 
the  fiitliir  of  Marifsnt  of  Aiijou,  tin-  .-i.mt- 
lu'ortinl  iiuitn  of  Henry  VI.  On  the  ilinih  of 
liisfnilier,  Louis,  the  second  duke,  itene  l.iomt 
liv  his  father's  will  Count  of  Uuhw,  his  iliitf 
brother,  Ixiuls,  Inheriting  the  dukeilom  In 
1434  the  brother  diitl  without  Issue  sii'l  Ken* 
siicereileil  lilin  In  Anjou,  .Maine  and  I'mm-uit. 
He  had  already  liecome  Duke  of  Uai,  n«  tbt 
adopted  heir  of  bis  great-uncle,  the  csrOhwI- 


122 


l^i 


AKJOU. 

duke,  and  Duke  of  Lomlne  (1430),  by  desinm- 
tion  of  the  late  Duke,  whose  daughter  he  lud 
married.  In  1435  he  rrceived  from  Queen 
Joanna  of  Naples  the  doubtful  Icgary  of  that 
distracted  kingdom,  which  she  had  previously 
bequeathed  first,  to  Alphonso  of  Aragon,  and 
afterwards — revoking  that  testament — to  Kent's 
brother,  Louis  of  Anjou.  King  Rene  enjoyed 
tbo  title  during  his  lifetime,  and  the  actual  king- 
dom fur  a  brief  period ;  but  in  1443  he  was  ex- 
pelled from  Naples  by  his  competitor  Alphonso 
(see  Italt:  AD.  1412-1447). —M.  A.  Hook- 
ham,  Life  and  Tina  of  Margaret  of  Aryou, 
iiitrod.  and  eh.  1-8. 

♦ 

ANJOU,  The  Engliih  HouM  of.  See  Eko- 
LAND:  A.  D.  115«-nK». 

ANJOU,  The  Neapolitan  HooM  of:  A.  D. 
ilM.— Conquest  of  the  Kinplom  of  th«  Two 
Sicilies.    See  Italy:  A.  D.  1250-1268. 

A.  D.  laSa.— Loai  of  Sicilv.— Retention  of 
Naples.     See  Italy:  A.  D.  1282-1300. 

A.  D.  1310-1383.— PoMcition  of  the  Hnn- 
garian  throne.  See  Hunoaky:  A.  D.  1301-1442. 

A.  O.  1370-1384.— Acquisition  and  lots  of 
the  crown  of  Poland.  See  Poland:  A.  D. 
lau-i.wi. 

A.  D.  1381-1384.— Claims  of  Louii  of  Anjou. 
—His  expedition  to  Italy  and  hit  death.  S% 
Italy:  A.  I).  134;i-i;W9. 

A.  D.  1386-1399.— Renewed  contest  for 
Naples.— Defeat  of  Louis  II.  by  Ladisla*. 
Set' Italy:  A.  I).  i;)S«-1414. 

A.  D.  1133-1443.— Renewed  contest  for  the 
crown  of  Naples.— Defeat  by  Alfonso  of  Ara- 
gonand  Sicily.    Sci^  Italy:  A.  D.  1413-1447. 

ANKENDORFF,  Battle  of.    See  OEOicAirr : 

A.  I>    l^-oT  (Fkbhiauv IlNK). 

ANKERS.    S.M'  .\n<  Hi.niTits. 

ANNA,  Ciarina  of  Rutaia,  A.  D.  1780- 
174(1 

ANNAM:  A.  D.  1883-1885.  — War  with 
France.— French  protectorate  accepted.  See 
I  HAS.  k:  ,V    I).  1H7.'>-INH»,  „n,|  Tonkim. 

ANNAPOLIS  ACADEMY.  .See  Educa- 
TtoN.  M.iiiKiiN  :  .\iiK»i(  A  :  A.  I).  I*M 

ANNAPOLIS  ROYAL.  See  New  Eho- 
I  AM'    A    l>   171)2-1710. 

ANNATES,  OR    FIRST-FRUITS.— "A 

Mti( ('  liail  existwl  for  mmw  liundreds  of  years 

all  ihe  churches  of  Kumpc,  that  bishops  and 
an  lilii»hcip«.  on  prescnution  to  their  seca,  should 
tmiwmii  to  the  pope,  .m  n-ciiving  their  bulls  of 
invisini.'nt,  one  ye.ira  iiiconio  from  their  new 
pnfirinitiu.  h  win  riilli'<l  the  payment  of  An- 
UHtcs,  or  (Irst  fruit*,  and  had  originaU'd  In  the 
lime  of  ilif  (■r»»ailc»,  aa  a  means  of  nMvldIng  a 
fuiul  for  (he  holy  wars,  (inc.!  establfshed  It  had 
wiilicl  into  curit4im,  ami  wm  one  of  the  chief 
rimitir.  Ill  of  the  papal  revenue  "—J.  A.  Kroude 
//M/..ry  ,/  En,jl,i,ul.  eh  4  —■•  The  claim  [by  the 
l"i|K  I  lo  ihe  flml  fruits  <if  bishoprics  and  other 
rrt.tii.Mii.iiiiwa»»ppBrpiiilvftr»t  made  In  Knghind 
l.y  Alnan.lcr  IV.  in  i2.Vl,  for  llvo  years;  it  was 
r,  IK  W.--I  hv  flnnent  V.  In  llliHl,  to  last  for  two 
vriirs.  «ii,(  It  was  in  a  meaauro  succMsful.  Ily 
.  oliii  \\n.  It  was  claimeil  llinnighout  Christen- 
"loin  for  ihrrn  years,  and  met  with  unlveiaal 
r.-,i.!,ow.,.  .  «!,,„,!,-  r.-..n!..=f«l  as  it  wia  ia 
t  II-  ( iMin.il  i.f  CiHiHtance.  ami  fn^uently  maile 
t «•  ...lijirt  of  debrtU-  in  iwrliani.nt  and  eoum-il 
tUt  dcuiauJ  must  bavu  UivQ  itigularly  oompUea 


ANTILLES. 

I  with."— W.  Stubbs,  Corut.  Hitt.  of  Eiv/..eh.  19, 
'  uet.  718. — See,  also.  Queen  Anse's  Bounty. 

ANNE,  Queen  of  England,  A.  D.  1702-1714. 

ANNE  OF  AUSTRIA,  Queen-regent  of 
France.    See  France:  A.  D.  1842-1(M3,  to  1651- 

ANNE  BOLEYN,  Marriage,  triM  and 
execution  oC  See  Esoland:  A.  D.  1S27-1534. 
and  1536-1543.  ' 

ANSAR,  The.  See  Mahometan  Conquest  : 
A.  D.  eo»-632.  ^ 

^Siii-J^   5*  England:  A  D.  1087-1185. 

ANSPACH,  Creation  of  the  MareraTate. 
See  Oermany:  13th  t'ENTunv  Separation 
from  the  Electorate  of  Brar  nbarg.  See 
Bkamiknbiko:  A.  I).  1417-164" 

ANTALCIOAS,  Peace  of  (B.  C.  387).  See 
Oueece:  B.  C.  899-387. 

ANTES,  The.    See  Slavonic  Peoples. 

ANTESIGNANI,  The.-"  In  each  cohort  [of 
the  lioman  legion,  in  Ca-sar's  time]  a  certain 
number  of  the  best  men,  probably  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  whole  detachment,  wan  a«sii:ned  as 
a  guard  to  the  standard,  from  whence  they 
derive.!  their  name  of  Antcsignani. "— C.  Meri- 
vale,  Ilitt.  of  the  Humiint,  eh.  K. 

ANTHEMIUS,  Roman  Emperor(Westcm), 
K.  D.  487-473. 
ANTHESTERIA,  The.    Sec  Dionysia  at 

I      A  Til  ICIffH 

ANTI-CORN-LAW  LEAGUE.    S.'o  Tar- 

IFK  I,KOI8L.*TION(KN(iLASD):    A.    1).    1H30-1839, 
and  lH45-lWfl. 

ANTI-FEDERALISTS.  See  United 
States  .)r  Am.  :  A.  I>.  17x9-1702 

ANTI-MASONIC  PARTY,  American.  See 
Nkw  Y.mik:  A.  1).  lH2fl-lM;!2 

ANTI-MASONIC  PARTY,  Mexican.    See 

MkXICO:     a.    I).    IHJ'.'-IM-.'H 

ANTI-RENTERS.-ANTI-RENT  WAR. 

See  LiviNoaToN  M  ».\on. 
ANTI-SEMITE       MOVEMENT.       See 

Jews:    19TII  C'F  STfRY. 

ANTI-SLAVERY  MOVEMENTS.  See 
Slavery,  Neoiio. 

ANTIETAM,  Battle  of.  Sie  rMTKD 
Statkk  OK  Am.  :  A  I).  lHfl3  (Hkpt.;  .Mxrvund). 

ANTIGONID  KINGS,  The.  .Se  Greece: 
B.  ('.  :I(I7-1!IT 

ANTIGONUS,  and  the  wars  of  the  Di^ 
dochl.  S<f  .Mai  KiKj.MA :  B.  C.  :)2a-^ll6:  315- 
310;  310-301. 

ANTIGONUS  CONATUS.  The  wars  ot 
See  Maceooma:  B.  C    :.'T:-244 

ANTILLES.-ANTILIA.-'  Familiar  as  U 
the  name.)f  the  Anillli's,  few  arc  uware  of  the 
anti.|uity  of  the  word:  wlillc  its  po'ciw  signitt- 
cancc  seta  etymology  .'ii  ilcllance.  Common  con- 
sent Identified  the  Antilia  of  legi'ml  with  the 
Isle  .if  the  Seven  Clllea.  In  th.'  year  734,  says 
till'  sUiry,  the  Aralin  having  ciini|iirn'il  most  iif 
the  SiMtnlsh  peninnula.  a  numlHT  of  Christian 
iMiilgrunU,  under  the  direction  of  ».viii  holy 
l.i.ilior«i,  among  them  the  anliliishop  of  Dimrto, 
siiiliil  wi'HtwanI  with  all  that  tlnv  ha.1,  and 
renched  an  Inland  where  they  foii'nd.il  wn-n 
towns.  Arali  KiogrH|ili.'n«  »|K'ak  of  an  Atlantic 
liilimd  called  In  .\nilvic  Kl  tennvn.  or  Al  tin  (Isle 
.if  SjTpenta),  a  uami'  whi.h  niay  pi'ssililv  have 
iTriiimc  by  rnmipti..i.   Alitilla.   .  Tiic' «'Vru 

binhops  wen'  lM'lleve.1  In  the  I«!h  ..iiturv  to  Iw 
still  repn'seuted  by  ijiclr  »uciv««iir«.  iiml'lii  pre- 
side over  a  nuncrvut  and  wvnitby  people.   Moat 


123 


vi^^ii- 


ANTILLEa 


ANTHC8TIONE8. 


I^grapbere  of  the  16th  century  believed  In  the 
I'Xistence  of  Antilia.  It  was  represented  as  lying 
west  of  the  Azores.  ...  As  soon  as  It  Iwciimo 
known  in  Europe  that  Columbus  had  di8covcre<l 
s  larf;e  island,  Kspnflola  was  at  once  identified 
with  Antilia.  .  .  .  and  the  name  .  .  .  Uas  ever 
Jnce  been  8|)pllefl  (reneniliv  to  the  West  Indian 
islands." — E.  ,1.  Payne,  Ilint.  of  tht  Xeie  Wovld 
mUtd  AmeHcii,  r.  1,  p.  9S.— See,  also,  West 
iNniKs. 

ANTINOMIAN  CONTROVERSY  IN 
PURITAN  MASSACHUSETTS.  See  Mah- 
baciubktth:  A.  U    18:1«-163H. 

ANTIOCH :  Founding  of  the  Citj.  See 
6elki'i'idj£;  and  M.\ckix>.m.\,  4c. :  B.  C.  310- 
8U1. 

A.  D.  36-400.— The  C  :'.  itiu  Church.  Sec 
CnRIsTI.\SITT:  A.  I).  Xi-uA. 

A.  D.  115.— Great  Earthquake.— "Early  in 
tlie  year  115,  acconling  to  tlie  most  exact  chron- 
ology, .  .  .  the  splendid  capital  of  Syria  was 
visited  by  an  eartliquake,  one  of  the  most  disas- 
trous apparently  of  all  llie  similar  inflictions 
from  whicli  that  luckless  ilty  has  |>eriodically 
suffered.  .  .  .  The  calamity  was  enhanced  by 
the  presence  of  unusual  er»)wds  from  all  tlie  cities 
of  the  east,  as.semt)led  to  i>«y  homage  to  the 
Emperor  [Trajiin],  or  to  take  part  in  his  expe- 
dition [of  conquest  in  tlie  east].  Among 
the  victims  were  many  Itomans  of  diatinctioii. 
.  .  .  Trajan,  liimself.  only  est'iipc-d  by  creeping 
throucli  a  winclow." — C."  Merivale,  Ilut.  of  the 
Uunitin*  ch.  0-^. 

A.  D.  360.— Surpriae,  maiaacre  and'pillaKe 
bj  Sapor,  King  of  Persia.  Sec  Persia:  A.  U. 
256-«27. 

A.  D.  526.— Deitruction  bT  Earthquake.- 
During  the  niirn  of  .Tustinian  (A.  I).  61»-.'>65;  the 
cities  of  the  lioinan  Empire  "were  overwhelmed 
by  earthiiiiukes  mon:  fricjuent  than  at  any  other 
period  of  history.  Antioi  h,  the  metropolis  of 
Asia,  was  eiilirily  destniyed.  on  the  20tli  of 
May,  Wi6.  at  the  very  tiim  when  the  inhabitants 
of  the  ftdjaci'nl  country  were  asseinble<l  to  cele- 
brate the  festival  nf 'the  Ascension;  and  it  la 
atllnnitl  that  '.i.Vl.tHHl  persons  were  crushed  hv 
the  fall  of  its  >uni|ituous  edillces."— J.  C.  L.  i(e 
Sismoiidl,   Full  of  the  llumnn  Kminre,  eh.  10. 

Also  IN:  E.  GihlHiu,  DfcUnt  and  thU  of  tht 
Bi>tfuin  K>ni»rf,  '•h.  4IJ. 

A.  O.  540.— Stormed,  pillaged  and  burned 
by  Choiroe*,  the  Persian  King.  Sec  Peusia: 
A.  I).  '.".'B  «2T. 

A.  O.  638.— Surrender  ti.  the  Arabs,    See 

MAUoMfTAN  t'oNylKST:    \.  D    Bll'J-flSlt. 

A.  D.  94)9.— Recapture  by  the  Byxantines.— 

After  hiiviin:  rt  iiiaiiM  d  H'.'H  yiam  in  tlie  |Kis»e»sion 
of  tlieS;ir!i<rii»  .ViiliiHli  tv.id  ritakeii  in  the  winter 
of  A,  I)  WWliy  tli.HyzaiitliM  EmiH'nir,  .Meeplio- 
riis  l'liiika'>.  tiiil  iieiaiiii-  again  a  <  'irlKllan 
city.     Three    \iars  l:it<r  tlie   .Moslems  i.iade  a 

freat  elTort  In  re<  over  the  1  Ity,  liiil  weredefentnl 
lie  IlyzHiiiine  anus  were  at  this  time  highly 
suecessf'il  ill  the  never  Hiding  Saracen  war,  anil 
John  Ziiniskes.  sueo'^wir  of  Nieephorua  Phokas, 
mantled  triuinplmnilv  to  the  Tigris  and  threat 
ene<l  even  llagd  id  Ilut  most  of  the  coni|Uests 
thus  iniide  in  Svria  and  M'sopotaniia  we.e  not 
:.  tinir.— '!.  Fliilav.  Ilnd.of  th«  Hfantint  Km- 
f.i,,.  ,i    /;  Tir.-Ii»i7,  .'.A    J.  r/i.  3.— S««B»»A>- 

TINK  KMnilK,  \     It.  IW)    lOM 

A.  D.  1097-1098  Siege  and  capturi  by  the 
CniMdert.     See  ChLsaUU;  A.  I).  lUM-lWB. 


A.  D.  1009-1144.- Principality.  See  Jeru- 
salem: A.  D.  1009-1144. 

A.  D.  1368.— Extinction  of  the  Latin  Prin- 
cipality,—Total  destruction  of  the  city.— An. 
tioch  fell,  before  the  arms  of  Bib:i  -  the  Sultan 
of  Egpyt  and  Syria,  and  the  Ijitii.  principality 
was  bloodily  extinguished,  in  1268,  "Tlie  lirst 
seat  of  the  Christian  name  was  dispeopled  by 
the  slaughter  of  seventeen,  and  the  captivity 
of  one  liundred.  thousand  of  ber  inhabitants." 
This  fate  befell  Antioch  only  twenty  three  years 
before  the  last  vc  tige  of  the  coni|Ue8ta  of  the 
crusaders  was  obliterated  at  Acre.— E.  Gibbon, 
Drdiite  and  Fall  of  the  Koman  Umpire,  eh.  59.— 
"The  sultan  halted  for  several  weeks  in  the 
idain,  and  nennittcd  his  soldiers  to  hold  a  large 
market,  or  fair,  for  the  sale  of  their  Ixioty.  This 
market  was  attended  by  Jews  and  pedlars  from 
allpartsof  the  East.  .  .  .  '  It  was, '  savs  the  Cadi 
Mohieddin,  'a  fearful  and  heartrending  sight. 
Even  the  hard  8tone»  Te  softeneti  with  griel.' 
He  tells  us  that  the  i..,  .Ives  were  so  numerous 
tlmt  a  fine  beartv  boy  might  be  purchased  for 
twelve  pieces  of  sliver,  and  a  little  girl  for  five. 
When  the  work  of  pillage  bad  been  completetl, 
when  all  the  ornaments  awl  decorations  liad  been 
cairied  away  from  the  churches,  and  the  lead 
torn  from  the  roofs,  Antiwh  was  flre<l  in  dif- 
fert^nt  places,  amid  the  loud  thrilling  shouts  uf 
'Allah  Acbar,'  ' 0<kI  is  Victorious. '  The  great 
churches  of  St.  Paul  and  St.  Peter  burnt  wltb 
terrllic  fury  for  many  daya"— C,  G,  Addison, 
T.'.c  Knii/htt  Temjil.irt,  ch.'9. 
♦ 

ANT'OCH  COLLEGE.  See  Edltatios. 
MolilcilN  :  Kkkohms:  A.  I).  ISt4  IHtfl. 

ANTIOCHUS  SOTER,  AND  ANTIO- 
CHUS  THE  GREAT.  S<e  Sklelcid.*:,  Tuk: 
B.   C    2H1-224.  and  221-187. 

ANTIPATER,  and  tha  wars  of  the  Oia- 
dochi.     See  Macehosia:  B.  C.  32;l-316. 

ANTIUM. — "  Antlum,  oneeallourishingcity 
of  the  V'olsci,  and  afterwanis  of  the  Itmians. 
their  conquerors,  is  at  present  niluced  to  a  miiiill 
numlHT  of  inhabitant.'*.  Originally  it  wan  niib- 
out  a  port:  the  harbour  of  tlie  Antiates  liaviin; 
lieen  the  neiglitKiuriug  indentation  in  theena.it  uf 
Ceuo,  now  Kettuno,  distant  more  than  a  mile  to 
the  eastwanl.  .  .  .  The  piracies  of  the  anciiut 
Antlat<'»all  proceede<l  from  Ceno.  orCerio.  wliere 
they  had  22  long  ships.  These  Numiciii:,  tii<>k: 
.  .  ,  some  were  taken  to  Home  and  their  rojtra 
siis|H'nded  in  triumph  In  the  forum  .  .  It 
(.Vnllimi)  was  reckoned  260  slailia.  or  iilioiit  Si 
miles,  fMin  Ostltt." — SIrW.  Oell.  'Jojix/.  nl'  I'mnr. 
1:  I. 

AN'iIUM,  NaT- 1  Battle  of  (i378>.  .<'. 
'k.mck:  a.  I).  1117K-1879. 

ANTIVESTiEUM.     S<-e  IIkitain,   Tiudm 

OK  <   Kl.TIC. 

ANTOINE  DE  BOURBON,  King  of  Ns- 
»arre,  A.  I,    I.W.VI,M7. 

ANTONINES,  The.  See  Uoke:  A.  I)  las- 
1811. 

ANTONINUS,  Marcus  Aurelius,  Roman 
Emperor,  A    D   IflllHii 

ANTONINUS  PIUS,  Roman  Emperor, 
A    l»    LlH-lBi. 

ANTONY,  Mark,  and  the  Second  Triumri- 
rale,     .^-Romk:  B   i     44  to  ,U 

ANTRUSTIONES.-In  the  Sali<'  law  of 
the  Krsnka,  there  is  no  trace  of  any  ni.':.-ni/«l 
order  uf  ooblUtjr,     "W«  uuict,  Uuwvvii,  will) 


124 


iMMM 


ANTRCSTIONES. 

terenl  titles  denoting  temporary  rank,  derircd 
from  offlces  political  and  judicial,  or  from  a 
position  alKiut  the  person  of  tl>e  king.  Among 
tlic«c  the  Antrustiooes,  who  were  tn  constant 
attendance  upon  tlie  king,  played  a  conspicuous 
part.  .  .  .  Antrustiones  ami  Convivie  Itegis 
[Rnmi\n9  who  held  the  same  position]  are  the 
prrdfcessors  of  the  V'assi  Dominici  of  later  times, 
and  like  these  were  bound  to  the  king  by  an  cs- 
peciul  oath  of  personal  and  perpetual  service. 
Thev  formed  part,  as  it  were,  of  the  king's 
family,  and  were  expected  to  reside  In  the  palace, 
where  they  superintended  the  various  depart- 
ments of  the  royal  household." — W.  C.  Perrv 
Thf  fhmkt.eh.  10.  " 

ANTWERP :    The  name  of  the  City.—  Its 
commercial  greatneai  in  the  i6th  ccnturr.— 
"The  city  was  so  ancient  that  Its  genealogints, 
with  ridiculous  gravifv,  ascended  to  a   p   lod 
two  centuries  before  tlic  Trojan  war,  snu  dis- 
covered a  giant,  n-ioicing  in  the  classic  name  of 
Antigonu.s,    established    on  the  Scheld.     This 
patriarch  exacted  one  half  the  merchandise  of  all 
navigators  who  paa'icd  his  castle,  and  was  ac- 
customed to  amputate  and  ctuii  into  the  river  the 
riglit  liands  of  those  who  iufriiised  this  simple 
tariff.    Thus  'Hand- werpen,'  hand  throwing,  be- 
came Antwerp,  and  hence,  two  liands,   in  th.' 
escutcheon   of   the  city,  were  ever  held  up  m 
iicnililic  attestation  of  the  truth.    The  giant  was, 
in  his  turn,  thrown  into  tlie  Scheld  by  a  hero,' 
named  BralK),  from  whose  exploits  Brabant  de- 
rivwi  it.-i  name.  .  .  .  But  for  these  antiquarian 
researches,   a  simpler  derivaticm  of  the  name 
wo"M  seem 'Hut' werf,' 'on  the  wharf.'    It  had   ' 
now  [in  the  first  half  of  the  16lh  centurj-j  be-   j 
ojimc  the  principal  entrep<1t  and  exchange  of  ' 
Europe  .  ,  .  the  commercial  capital  of  the  world.    | 
.  .  .  Venice,   Nurembnrg,    Augsburg,   Bruges 
were  sinking,  but  Antwerp,  with  Its  deep  and 
convenient  river,  stretched  iu  arm  to  the  ocean 
snd  anmht  the  golden  prize,  ns  it  fell  from  its 
sister  eitien'  grasp,  ...   No  citv,  except  Paris, 
8urpft.weil  it  in  population,  n,)ne  approached  it 
in  conmierelal  splendor."— J.  L.  Motley,     Tfit 
Rii  "fthi-  Ihitrh  lifpuhlif.  Hint.  IntnHt,  tn-t   13 
A.  D.  I3i3.-Mada  the  Staple  for  Bnrtieh 
trade.    See  supi.e. 

,  AD.  1566.— Riot  o.  'ae  Ima|;e-brcakcrs  la 
tue  Churches.  See  Nkthkri,.\!«d8:  A.  D  150ft- 
l.Vi". 

A.  D.  1576. -The  Spmnith  Fuiy.    See  Neth- 

i!RiAM>->  A  1).  MT.vis;:. 

.  \,  °-  .'577.-DeliTerance  of  the  city  from 
lis  Spanish  garrison.— Demolition  of  the  Cita- 
del.   See  Nktiikhi,\n1)k:  A    I).  I.ITT-I.WI. 
K^"  D;,'5*3' -Treacherous  attempt  of  the 
Duke  of  Aniou.  -The  French  Fury.    See  Xbth- 

EllUMm:    .V  I).   l,'i81-inM4. 

A.  D.  is84-i585.-Sie»e  and  redaction  by 
AI»«ander    Farnese.   Ouke  of   P»rma.-Thi 

.K^  •?•  ''<«-S«cri«ced  to  Amiterdam  in 
sA.mI"  J  °S  Mttneter—Cloilng  of  the 
acneldt.    s,>  Nktiikki.aniw:  A.  I)  "(U6-ttHH 

.nH'.kA',7°*~^'"l?"''*''*<'  *•  Marlborough 
'tot  •        "  '^""'"LAKDe:  A.  D.  ITlW- 

f-JlT-l-?"  *".""»•  "«'N''TilERLA«ne:  A.  H 
„;,^''"'  »"'  Aix  LACBArttut;    Tm  Co.«c. 

V. 


APOLLONIA  m  ILLTRIA 

A.  D.  i83a.-Sieje  of  the  Ciudel  by  the 
French.— Expulsion  of  the  Dutch  nrrison. 
SeeNETHEKLA-MW:  A.  D.  1830-1833. 

♦ 

APACHES,  The.    See  America;*  Arorio- 
«*ii*rYiI?iBe"^'  ■°''  Athapascan  Family. 
AfALACHES,  The.    See  Amkricak  Auob- 
I0I.NE8:  Apalacres. 

APAMEA — Apamea,    a    citv    founded    by 
Seleucus  Nicator  on  the  Euphrates,  the  site  of 
which  IS  occupied  by  the  modem  town  of  Bir 
had  become,  in  Strabo's  time  (near  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  Era)  one  of  the  principal  ante™ 
01  Asiatic  trade  second  onK  to  Ephesus.    Thap- 
sacus,  the  former  customary   crossing-place  of 
the  Euphrates,  had  ceased  to  be  so,  and  the  pas- 
sage was  made  at  Apamea.     A    place  on   the 
opposite  bank  of  the  river  was  calleil  Zeugma  or 
"the  bridge."    Bir  "is  still  the  usual  place  at 
which  travellers  proceeding   from   Antiwh  or 
Aleppo  towards  Bagdad  cross  the  Euphrt-.tes  "— 
E.  H.   Bunbury.  /fut.  of  Andent  Geog.,efi    22 
leet.  1  (r  2,  nn.  2W  and  817). 
APANAGE.     See  App.v.tAGE. 
APATURIA,  The.— An  annual  family  festi- 
val of  the  Athenians.  celebrat«i  for  three  days 
in  the  e..riy   part   of   the  month    of   October 
(Py-inepsion).       •  This    was    the    characteristic 
festival  of  the  Ionic  race;  handed  down  from  a 
period  anterior  to  the  c<mstitution  of  Kleisthenes 
and  to  the  ten  new  tribes  each  containinif  so  many 
demcs.  nnd    brinitlng    together   the   citizens  la 
t.ieir  primitive  unions  of  familv,  gens,  pliratrv 
\  etc.,  the  Bggri'cate  of  which  had  originallv  con' 
;   BtltuU-il  the  four  Ionic  tribes,  now  supenmnii.ited. 
j   At  the    Apaturia,  the  familv  ceremonies   were 
gone  through :  inarrlaecs  were  enrolliil,  acts  of 
adoption  wer.     promulgated   and   certified    the 
names  of  voii!l,fwl  citizens  first  entere<l  on  the 
gentile  and  phralricroll;  sacrifices  were  j..iritly 
ctl^ebratetl  by  tliese  familv  as.semblagcs  to  Zeus 
Phratrius,  AlhfnC.  and  otlier deities,  accompanied 
with  much  festivity  and  enjoyment. "—O.  Orote 
Uitt.  of  Hr„n.it.  3,  eh.  W  (r.  7). 
APELLA,  The.     See   Sparta:   The   Co»- 

•TITITIOS,  A( 

APELOUSAS.  The.    See  Texas:  The  ado- 

RK.IXAT.  InIIAHTTANTS. 

APHEK,  Battle  of.— .\  great  victory  won  by 
Ahah.  king  of  Israel  over  Benhadad,  klnir  of 
IMmascus— II.  Ewald,  Ili,t.   of  Itratl    bk    4 

Kft.   1.  .■  .  , 

APODECTiE,  The.- "When  Aristotle 
speaks  of  the  ..lllccra  of  govrrunient  to  whom 
the  public  revenuen  were  delivered,  who  kept 
them  and  dlstriliute<|  them  to  the  several  admin- 
istrative departments,  these  are  called,  he  adds 
apodectie  and  Invisurers.  In  Alhei.s  the 
apodecta;  wen-  ten  in  number.  In  accordaiiie  with 
the  numlwr  i.f  the  tritn-s.  Thev  were  appointed 
by  lot.  .  .  .  riiey  hail  In  their  p.is»emion  the 
lists  of  the  delitors  of  tlio  state,  received  the 
money  whicTi  whs  palil  in.  registered  an  aieounl 
of  It  and  iioteii  tlie  amount  in  arn^ar.  and  in  the 
council  house  in  the  im-sence  of  the  Ciiiicll, 
erased  the  names  of  the  debtora  who  had  palii 
the  deinancU  apiinst  them  from  the  li^t  and 
deposlte<l  Ihi-;  aiiain  In  the  an-hlves.  Finally 
they,  toictisrr  wll!-.  the  r.->!n,-f!.  sj.jntHit.m;!  the 
sums  rei-eivcd  "~A,  Boeckh,  Pubtie  ICainumy  <4 
Athtnt[tr.  h^  Uii.h).  M  3.  cA  4 

APOLLONIA  IN  ILLYRIA,  The  Fonad. 
ing  of.    Htx  KuuKViu. 

!5 


AP08TA8ION. 


AQUITAINE. 


i 

i    : 
I 

i 


APOSTASION.    SeePoLRTA 

APOSTOLIC  MAJESTY:  Orirta  of  tbe 
Titlf.    Sw  Hcnoart:  a.  D.  978-1111 

APPANAGE.—"  Tbe  tenn  appanage  denotes 
tuc  provision  maiie  for  the  younger  children  of 
a  king  of  Fnince.  This  always  consisted  of 
lands  and  feudal  superiorities  held  of  tbe  crown 
by  the  tenure  of  pi'cmge.  It  is  evident  that  this 
usage,  as  it  prtxlticed  a  new  class  of  powerful 
fcuduturies,  was  hostile  to  the  interests  and  policy 
of  the  sovereign,  and  retarded  tbe  subjugation 
of  tbe  ancient  aristocracy.  But  an  usage  coeval 
with  the  monarchy  was  not  to  be  abrogated,  and 
the  scarcity  of  money  rendered  it  imposaible  to 
prcvide  fur  the  younger  branches  of  the  royal 
family  by  any  other  means.  It  was  restrained 
however  as  far  as  circumstances  would  permit" 
— H.  Ilallam,  Tht  Middle  Agt».  ch.  1,  pt.  2.— 
"From  the  wonis  'ad 'and  'panis,' meaning  that 
It  was  to  provide  bread  for  the  person  who  held  it 
A  portion  of  appanage  was  now  given  to  each  of 
the  king's  younger  siins,  which  descended  to  his 
direct  heirs,  butln  default  of  them  reverted  to  tbe 
crown." — "t.  Wright,  Hut.  of  France,  v.  1,  p. 
808,  note. 

APPIAN  WAY,  The.— Appius  CUudius, 
called  the  Blind,  who  was  censor  at  Rome 
from  312  to  308  B.  C.  [see  Rome;  B.  C.  812],  con- 
structed during  that  time  "  the  Appian  road,  the 
queen  of  roads,  because  the  Latin  road,  passing 
by  Tusculum,  and  through  the  country  of  tbe 
Hernicans.  was  .so  much  endangi'rrd,  and  had 
not  yit  iKva  quite  rt'coveretl  by  the  Romans: 
the  Appian  road,  passing  by  Terracina,  Fundi 
and  Mola,  to  Capua,  was  intended  to  be  a  shorter 
and  safer  one.  .  .  .  The  Appian  road,  even  if 
Appius  did  carry  it  as  far  as  Capua,  was  not 
executed  by  him"  with  that  splendour  for  which 
we  !>tiU  admire  it  in  those  parts  which  have  not 
been  destniyed  intentionally:  the  closely  joined 
polygons  of  bas.ilt,  which  thousands  of  years 
have  not  Ixrn  able  to  displace,  are  of  a  some- 
what later  origin.  Appius  commenceil  the  road 
because  there  was  actual  need  for  It;  in  the  year 
A.  r.  4.'37  I B.  C.  '297]  peperlno,  and  some  years 
later  l)asalt  (silcx)  was  first  use<l  for  paving 
roads,  and,  at  the  beginning,  only  on  the  small 
distance  from  the  Porta  Capcna  to  the  temple  of 
Mars,  as  we  are  distinctly  told  by  Livy.  Roads 
constructed  acconling  to'  artistic  principles  had 
previously  existeil"— B.  O.  Nlebuhr,  Letti.  on 
the  Ifii-t.  of  limf.  leet.  45. 

Atjso  in:  Sir  W.  Oell,  Topog.  of  Rime,  v.  1. — 
U.  (1.  Mddell.  llhl   nf  R,mu.  r.  1.  p.  2.51. 

APPOMATTOX  COURT  HOUSE,  Lec't 
Surrender  at.  See  I'mtkd  Statks  or  An. ; 
A.  I>.  IKfi.'X.Veuii.:  Vihoinia). 

APULEIAN  LAW.    Mee  Majkst.^s. 

APULIA:  A,  O.  I04>-Iia7.— Normao  con- 
quest and  Dukedom.— Union  with  Sicily. 
Bee  It.\lv  (Soitiiers):  A.  D.  1000-1090,  and 
1081-1191. 

'    APULIANS,  The.    Bee  SAaiHET,  also.  Sam- 
BrrKd 

1    kq^^X.  SEXTIiC.    8ec  Haltks. 
-    AQUiG  SEXTIiE,  Battle  oC    See  Cixbm 
aNi>  Tkitosh^:   H  C.  118-103. 

AQU/E  SOLI&— The  Roman  name  of  the 
long  famous  naiiTing  place  known  In  mfNiem 
Kn^Und  M  ihc  iiiv  ..f  luth.  Ii  wiw  gpU-udtdty 
adomol  In  Roman  limes  with  temples  and  other 
editicea— T.  Wright,  tV»,  Hman  and  Saxm. 
«A  5. 


AQUIDAY,  OR  AQUETNET.-The  native 
name  of  Rhode  Island.  See  liooDB  Iblahu; 
A.  D.  1638-1640. 

AQUILA,  Battle  of  (1434).  See  Italy: 
A.  D.  1412-1447. 

AQUILEIA.— A<|uileia,  at  the  time  of  the 
destruction  of  th:)i  city  by  tbe  Huns,  A.  D.  452, 
was,  "both  as  a  fortress  and  a  commercial 
emporium,  second  to  none  in  Northern  Italy.  It 
was  situated  at  the  northernmost  point  of  the 

fulf  of  Hadria,  about  twenty  miles  northwest  of 
tieste,  and  the  place  where  it  once  stood  is  now 
in  tbe  Aust'ian  dominions,  just  over  the  Iwrder 
which  sepb  ates  them  from  the  kingdom  nt 
Italy.  In  tae  year  181  B.  C.  a  Rimian  colony 
had  been  sent  to  this  far  comer  of  Italy  to  serve 
as  an  outpost  against  some  intrusive  tribes,  called 
by  the  vague  name  of  Oauls,  .  .  ,  Possessing  a 
good  harbour,  with  which  it  was  connectc<l  by  a 
navigable  river,  Aquileia  gradually  liccame  the 
chief  entrepdt  for  the  commerce  between  Italy 
and  what  are  now  the  Illyrian  provinces  «( 
Austria." — T.  Uodgkin,  Italy  and  tier  Intadert, 
bk.  2,  eh.  4. 

A.  D.  338. — SicKe  by  Mazimin.  Sec  Rome: 
A.  D.  238. 

A.  D.  388.— Orerthrow  of  Mazimna  by  The- 
odosius.    See  Rome    \.  P.  879-89S. 

A.  D.  45a. —  Destiuctiob  by  the  Han*.  Sec 
HvKS;  A.  D.  4S2;  also,  Venice  :  A.  D.  452. 

AQUITAINE:  The  ancient  tribes.— The 
Roman  conquest  of  A<iultania  was  achieved.  B.  ('. 
66,  by  one  of  Caesar's  lieutenants,  the  Youiicor 
Crassus,  who  first  brought  the  people  callcil 
the  Sotlates  to  submission  and  then  deflated 
their  combined  noighbors  in  a  murderous  buttle, 
where  three-fourths  of  them  are  said  to  have 
been  slain.  The  trib<'S  which  then  subniittdl 
"were  the  Tarbelll,  Bigerriones,  Preclaui,  Vo 
cates,  Tarusatcs,  Elusates,  Oarites,  Ausci,  Oar- 
umnl,  Bibuzates  and  C(ico8at>:a  The  Tarlulll 
were  In  tho  lower  Iwisln  of  the  Adour.  Thiir 
chief  place  was  on  tin'  .site  of  the  hot  spriiii;9  «f 
Dax.  The  Btgerrlon.'S  appear  In  the  imme 
Bigorre.  The  chief  place  of  the  Elusates  was 
Elusa,  Eause;  and  the  town  of  Auch  on  the  rivir 
Gers  preserves  tho  name  of  the  Aus»l.  Tlie 
names  Oarites,  If  the  name  Is  genuine,  and  li:ir 
umni  contain  tbe  same  element.  Oar,  as  the 
river  Oanimna  [Garonne]  and  tho  Oers.  It  ii 
stated  by  Walckcnaer  that  the  inhabitants  «f  tlie 
southern  part  of  Les  Landes  are  still  eulliil 
Cousiota.  Cocosa,  Canss^quc,  is  twenty  four 
miles  from  Dax  on  the  road  from  Dax  t"  llir- 
deaux." — O.  Long,  Dri-lint  of  (he  linnan  Rt- 
pubtie,  v.  4,  M.  6. — "Before  tho  arrival  ft  the 
nracbycephalic  Llgurian  race,  the  Hnriaiii 
rangcil  over  the  greater  part  of  France.  ...  If, 
as  seems  |  robable,  wo  may  Identify  llieie  with 
tl.  Aquitani,  one  of  the  three  races  wliuh  oc- 
cupied Gaul  In  the  time  of  Cn'sar,  they  uiiisi  have 
retreated  to  the  nelghlHiurhiiod  of  the  r>rtnir» 
before  the  beginning  of  tbe  historic  peri.ii"— 
I.  Taylor,  Origin  of  the  Arynne,  ch.  2.  »«■'.  G. 

In  Casar**  time.    See  Oaul  debchiiieo  it 

CiKSAR. 

Settlement  of  the  Visigotha.  Bee  Ooni 
(ViBUMirns):  A.  P.  410-419 

A.  0.  567.- Divided  belwean  the  M«rdf  is- 
gtaa  Kinn.    See  Fhanks:  A.  I)  nil-7v.> 

A.  O.  OSi-TM.-Th*  independent  Oukei 
aad    tlMir  lubjufatioa.— 'lliu    old  Ikjiuu 


126 


AQCITAINE,  A.  D.  681-768. 

Aquitanik,  in  the  first  division  of  the  spoils  of 
the  Empire,  had  fallen  to  the  Visigoths,   who 
conquered  it  withoi.*.  much    trouble.      In    the 
struggle  between  them  and  the  Merovingians,  it 
of  course  passed  to  tlie  victorious  party.     But 
the  quarrels,  so  fiercely  c<>nt<'st«!  between  the 
different  members  of  the  Frank  monarchy,  pre- 
vented them  from  retaining  a  distant  possession 
within  their  grasp:  and  at  thia  period  [6ai-718, 
when  the  Mayors  of  the  Palace,  Pepin  and  Carl, 
were  gathering  the  reins  of    government  over 
tlie  three    kingdoms  —  Austrasia,   Neustria  and 
Burgundy— into  their  hands],  iudo,  the  duke 
of  Aquitalne.  was  really  an  independent  prince. 
The  population  had  never  lost  its  Roman  char- 
acter; it  was,  in  fact,  by  far  the  most  liomanized 
in  the  whole  of  Gaul.     But  it  had  also  received 
a  new  element  in  the  Vaacones  or  Gascons  [see 
B.tsqf  s],  a  tribe  of  Pyrenean  mountaineers,  who 
descen.   ..g  from  their  mountains,  advance^    to- 
wards ti.  •"  north  until  their  progress  was  checked 
by  tlie  broad   waters  of  the  Garonne.     At  this 
time,  however,  thev  obeyed  Eudo,     '■  This  duke 
iif  A   uiuine,    Eudo,    allied   himself   with    the 
Neustrians    against    the    ambitious    Austrasian 
Mayor.  Carl  .Martel,  and  shared  with  them  the 
crushing  defi-at  at  Soissons,  A.  D.    718,    which 
established    the     Hammerer's     power.       Eudo 
s(knowltdgc<i  allegianre    and  was    allowed  to 
retain  hi.s  dukedom.     Hut,  halfacenturv  after- 
wards. Carl's  son,  Pepin,  who  had   pushed  the 
•faineant '  Merovingians  from  the  Frank  throne 
and  seated  himself  upon  it.  fought  a  nine  years' 
war  Willi  the  then  duke  of  Aquitalne.  toestablish 
his  Mjverciguty,     "The  war,  which  lasted  nine 
ytara    [TBO-TftH).  was  signalized    by    frightful 
rHvagi>  and  destruction  of  life  upon  Ixith  sides, 
until,   at   la.st.  the   Franks    became    nuisters  of 
IVrri,  Auvergne.  and  the  Limousin,  with  their 
priuripal  cities.     The  able  and  gallant  Guaifer 
['IT  Waiferj  was  as-iassinateil  by   his  own  sub- 
jects, and  Pepin  had  the  satisfaction  of  tlnally 
uniting  the  grand-durhy  of    Aquitalne  to  the 
ninnarchy    of  the   Franks."— J.   O.    Shepoard 
Fdl  nf  liome.  Irrl.  8,  ^' 

Al.so  i.\:  P,  0<xlwin.  Ifitt.  nf  Frani-f :  Ancient 
Oaiil.  rh.  lt-15,-\V,  H.  Perry,  The  Franla.ch. 
5-6. 

A.  D.  732.-R«T»Ked  by  the  Motiemi, 
Sie  .MArioMKTAN  ('iiNyiKKT:  A.  I),  71.VT32. 

A.  |3.  781.— Erected  into  ■  separate  king> 
dom  by  Charlemagne,— In  the  year  TMl  Cliarle- 
nmitne  crerted  Italy  and  Aquitalne  into  separate 
liingilimn.  placing  his  l»-o  infant  sous,  Pepin 
and  l.uclwig  or  Louis  on  their  nsiK'Otive  thr^mes, 
"  file  kingdom  of  Afjuitalue  enibratTii  Vasconla 
lOascnn'),  Sqillniania.  Ac|iiiiaine  pmtier  (that 
IB.  thi  ..untry  Iwtween  the  OaMuiu  and  the 
l/ilni  :iiul  the  county.  8uli8<'quentlv  the  duchv, 
of  roulouse.  Niiuiinally  a  kingiloi'n.  Aquitaliie 
wasinn'ality  a  p^)vince.  entirely  dependent  on 
tlie  central  or  personal  government  of  Charles 
•  I  he  nominal  designations  of  king  ami 
kiugduni  might  gratify  the  feelinns  of  th« 
Aijuitanians,  but  It  was  a  »<lieme  coutriviil  for 
hdMini;  iheiu  in  a  stole  of  atisolule  depc^nileuce 
sn.l  sulionllmitlon,"— I  I,  MomU-rl,  IIM.  of 
I  IfirltM  Ihr  llroil.  A*  a,  rA   11 

A.   p.   843  _ln    the    dirition    of    Charle- 
"'^P'*  Empire.     S,e  Fha.n.  k:  A    l>.  Wa. 
fc,n,:,4      "'VJS'.-The  and  of  the  nominal 
tangdom.- The  disputed  Ducal  Titl«.-'('«r 
loman  [who  died  8WJ,  ion  of  LuuU  Ui«  HUm- 


AQCTTAIIfE,  A.  D.  1137-1152. 


merer,  was  the  last  of  the  Carlovingians  who  bore 
the  title  of  king  of  Aquitalne.     This  vast  sute 
ceased  from  this  time  to  constitute  a  kingdom 
It  had   for  a  lengthened    period   been   divided 
between  powerful  families,  the  most  illustrioua 
of  which  are  those  of  the  Counts  of  Toulouse 
founded  in  the  ninth  century  by  Fredclon,  the 
Counts  of  Poitiers,  the  Counts  of  Auvergne,  the 
Mar       j>sof  Septimania  or  Gothia,  and  the  Dukes 
of  Ga^. .  .ny.     King  Eudes  had  given  William  the 
Pius,  Count  of  Auvergne,  the  investiture  of  the 
duchy  of  Aquiuine.     On  the  extinction  of  that 
family  in  928,  the  Counts  of  Toulouse  ami  those 
of  Poitou   disputed  the  prerogatives  and  their 
quarrel  stained  the  south  with  blood  for  a  long 
time.     At  length  the  Counts  of  Poitou  acquired 
tJie  title  of  Dukes  of  Aquitalne  or  Guyenne  [or 
Guienne,  -supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of  the 
name  of  Aquitalne,  which  came  into  use  during 
the  Middle  Ages],  which  remained  in  their  house 
up  to  the  marriage  of  Eleanor  of  Aqiiitaine  with 
Henry    Plantagenetl.    [Henry    II.),    King    of 
England  (1151)."— E.   De  U<innecho«e,  Ilirt.  of 
fYance,   bk.    2,   eh.  3,  fool  iwte.—"  The   diichv 
Aqiiitaine,  or   Guyenne.  as   held    bv  Eleanor's 
predecessors,  consisted,  roughly  speaking,  of  tlie 
territory  between  the   Loire  lind   the  Garonne 
More  exactly,  it  was  bounded  on  the  north  bv 
Anjou  and  Touraine.  on  the  east  by  Berry  anil 
.\iivergne.  on  the  south  east  by  the  l^uercy  or 
County  of  Cahors.  anil    on    the  south-west  by 
Gascouy,  which  had  been  united  with  it  for  the 
last  humlred  years.     The  old   Karolingian  king- 
dom of  A(juitania  had  been  of  far  greater  extent  • 
it   had,  in    fact,    included    the    whole   country 
iK'tween  the  Loire,  the  Pyrenees,  the  Khone  and 
the  ocean.     Over  all  this  vast  territon-  the  Counts 
of  Poitou  as.serteil  a  theoretical  cla'im  of  over- 
lordship  by  virtue  of  their  ducal  title;  they  had 
however,  a  formidable  rival  in  the  hou.se  of  the 
Counte  of    Toulouse.  "—K.    Xorgate,    EngUmd 
'initrr  the  Angetin  King»,  r.  1.  eh.  10— See,  also 
TolXOlSE:   lOrii  AND  llTll  Ck.ntikiks 

A.  p.  1 137-"52.— Transferred  by  mar- 
"■f«  from  the  crown  of  France  to  the  crown 
of  England — In  1137,  -the  last  of  the  old  lineof 
the  dukes  of  Aquitalne— William  I.\.,  son  of 
the  gay  crusader  and  troubadour  whom  the  Ued 
King  had  ho|)e<l  to  succeed  —  died  on  a  pilgrim- 
age at  Compostella.  His  only  .son  WH.saliettdy 
dead,  and  before  setting  out  for  his  nilgrimago 
he  did  what  a  greater  personage  hail  done  ten 
years  before:  with  the  consent  of  his  barons  he 
left  the  whole  of  his  dominions  to  his  daughter. 
Moreover,  he  iH'queathiil  tlii'  giri  herself  as  wif« 
to  the  young  king  Ix>uis  ( VII,  ]  of  France.  This 
marriage  more  than  doubled  the  strength  of  the 
Ireiich  crown.  It  gave  to  L.miIs  absolute  pos- 
8»'ssion  of  all  western  Aqiiitaine,  or  Guvenne  as 
it  was  now  iH'ginning  to  h,'  .ailed:  that  is  the 
counties  of  Pi.liou  and  Gas< v,  with  the  im- 
mediate overlonlsliip  of  the  whole  district  Iviug 
between  the  I>.|re  and  the  P\  renees,  the  Itliona 
and  the  oc-ean:- a  territory  five  or  six  times  as 
large  as  his  own  royal  domain  and  over  which 
his  predecessors  had  never  U-en  able  to  assert 
more  than  the  merest  shadow  of  a  nominal  siiiHTi- 
"rity.  "  In  \\\l  I^.uls  obtained  a  divorce  from 
hn-.:fivt,  sunrnafrin^  uji  Hit-  gr.al  territory 
which  she  had  adiliil  to  his  dominions,  ruher 
than  maintain  an  unhappy  union.  'The  same 
;■.  ..r  tl.e  gay  duchess  was  w'eddtil  to  Ileurv  Plan- 
tagvnvt,  then   Duke  of  Nonuandy,  aftorwania 

27 


AQUTTAINE,  A.  D.  1137-1152. 


ARABIA. 


nonry  IT.  King  of  England.  By  .is  marriage 
Ai|uitiiinr  txTunii'  joini'ii  to  tlip  crown  of  England 
and  rcnmined  ho  for  three  hundred  years. —  K. 
Norgrite,  Eiigtaiui  under  the  AngetitiKingt,  v.  1, 
cA.  «. 

I3th  Century.— The  state  of  the  ■outhem 
parts.     See  I'novENCE:  A.  1),  1179-1207. 

A.  D.  1360-1453.—  Full  sovereigfnty  pot- 
aessed  by  the  English  Kings.— The  final  con- 
quest and  union  with  France.—  "  By  the  Peace 
of  Hntijtny  [see  Fkanck;  A.  D.  133.-1380]  Ed- 
wanl  III.  nsigned  his  cliiinis  on  the  crown  of 
Fnnee;  Init  he  was  recognized  in  return  as  inde- 
pendent I'rinoe  of  Aiiuitnine.  without  any  hom- 
age or  superiority  iH'ing  reserved  to  the  French 
monareli.  When  Aqiiitainc  therefore  ^n"  inn- 
quered  bv  FViinee.  partly  in  the  14th,  fully  in 
the  l.Vh  century  [see  Fr.\nce:  A.  D.  1431-1453], 
it  was  not  the  "reunion  '  of  a  forfclte<l  flcf,  but 
the  absorption  of  a  ilistinct  and  sovereign  state. 
The  feelings  of  .\ciuitaine  itself  seem  to  have 
been  divide<l.  The  nobles  to  a  great  extent, 
though  far  fnim  universally,  preferred  the  French 
connexion.  It  better  felf  in  with  their  notions 
of  chivalry,  feudal  deiK-ndency,  and  the  like; 
the  privileees  too  which  French  law  conferred 
on  noble  birth  would  make  their  real  interests 
lie  that  way.  But  the  great  cities  and,  we  have 
reason  to  believe,  the  niiuss  of  the  people,  also, 
clave  faithfully  to  their  ancient  Dukes;  and  they 
had  go<Kl  reason  to  do  so.  The  English  Kings, 
both  by  habit  and  by  interest,  naturally  pro- 
tected the  municipal  li))erties  of  Bourdeaux  and 
Bayonn<'.  and  ex]>osed  no  part  of  their  subjects 
to  the  liormrs  of  Fn-ncli  taxation  and  general 
oppression."— E.  A.  Freeman. 7'Ac  t\nnk»  and 
the  (liiiih  {,/li»ti>noil  A.'»».f//».  1»<  tierie*,  .>'<>.  7). 

AQUITANI,    The.     Sic    InEKiANS,    The 

Westkun. 

ARABIA.— ARABS:  The  Name.-" There 
can  be  110  doubt  that  the  name  of  the  .\rib.s  Wiis 
.  .  .  j.'iviii  from  their  living  at  the  westernmost 
part  of  .\sia;and  their  own  word  'Qlmrh,'  the 
'  West.'  is  another  form  of  the  original  Semitic 
nami'  .Vnib." — O.  Hawlinson,  Sotcj  to  llerodotui, 
T.  2.  I'.  71. 

The  ancient  succession  and  Tusion  of  Races. 
—  'The  population  of  .Vnbia,  after  limg  cen- 
turii's.  more  especially  after  the  propagation  and 
triumph  of  Islamism'  In-iame  unifonn  through- 
out the  pininsida.  .  .  .  Hut  it  was  not  always 
thus.  It  W!is  very  slowly  and  gradually  that  the 
Inhabitants  of  the  various  parts  of  .\nibia  were 
fused  into  one  race.  .  .  Several  distinct  races 
successively  immigrated  into  the  |K>ninsula  and 
remained  wparati'  for  many  ages.  Their  dis- 
tinctive cliaracteristies,  their  manners  and  their 
civilisation  pnive  that  these  nations  wen-  not  all 
of  cric  bliKxI.  Vp  to  the  time  of  .Mahimiet, 
sevi  nil  <lilTrrent  languages  were  spoken  In 
Ariliia,  ami  it  was  the  intrixluctlun  of  Islamism 
alone  tliut  g:ive  predotninence  to  that  one 
ainonjrst  ihi  ni  now  callid  Arabic.  The  few 
Arabi.tn  hislciriaiis  di'sirvirig  of  the  name,  who 
have  used  any  discernment  in  coUecting  the 
tnulili.ins  of  iheir  lounlry,  Ibn  Khaldoun.  for 
cxamiile.  distinguish  thn'C  suecessive  popula- 
tions in  the  ■H'nluinla.  They  divide  ihea<-  primi 
live,  seeimdary,  and  terllnry  Arabs  Into  three 
divisions,  callfl  .^riba,  Motanba,  anil  Mostarebs. 
.  .  .  The  .Vrilia  were  the  first  and  most  ancient 
Inhabituutt  uf   Arabia.     They  cuusistod  prln- 


cipsllr  of  two  great  nations,  the  Adites,  gprung 
from  Ham,  and  the  Amallkaof  the  race  of  Aram, 
descendants  of  Sheir,  mixed  with  nations  <if 
Bcctmdary  importance,  the  Thumudites  of  the 
race  of  Ham,  and  the  people  of  the  Taam,  and 
Jadis,  of  the  family  of  Aram.  The  Motarcba 
were  tribes  sprmig  from  Joktan,  son  of  EImt, 
always  In  Arabian  tradition  calle<l  Kahtan.  The 
Mostareba  of  more  mo<lcrn  origin  were  Ismae'- 
itish  tribes.  .  .  .  The  Oushitcs,  the  first  in- 
habitants of  Anabla,  arc  known  in  the  national 
traditions  by  tlie  name  of  Adites,  from  their  pn)- 
genitnr,  who  is  called  Ad,  the  grandson  of  Ham. 
All  the  account  given  of  them  by  Arab  his 
torians  are  but  anclful  legends.  ...  In  the 
midst  of  all  the  fabulous  traits  with  which  th<  ie 
legends  abound,  we  may  perceive  the  remem- 
brance of  a  powerful  empire  founded  by  the 
Cushites  In  very  er.r'.Y  ages,  apparently  including 
the  whole  of  Araoi  Felix,  and  not  only  Yemen 
proper.  We  also  tnd  traces  of  a  wealthy  nation, 
constnictors  of  grea*  buildings,  v"h  an  advanced 
civilisation  analogous  to  that  of  Chaldtra,  pro- 
fessing a  religion  similar  to  tiie  Babylonian;  a 
nation,  in  short,  with  whom  material  progress 
was  allied  to  great  moral  depravity  and  obscene 
rites.  ...  It  was  alamt  eighteen  centuries  be- 
fore our  era  that  the  Joktanites  entered  Southern 
Arabia.  .  .  .  According  to  all  appearances,  the 
invasion,  like  all  events  of  a  similar  nature,  whs 
accomplished  only  by  force.  ,  .  .  After  this  in 
vasion,  the  ("ushfte  element  of  the  jmpulation. 
Ix'ing  still  the  most  numenms,  and  possessini; 
great  superiority  in  knowledge  and  civilisjitinn 
over  the  Ji>kta.iites,  who  wen'  still  almost  in  the 
nomadic  st  Te,  soon  recovered  the  moral  and 
material  supn'nia<'y,  and  political  dominion,  A 
new  empire  was  formed  in  which  the  power  still 
ladonged  to  the  Satwans  of  the  race  of  Cush. 
,  .  .  Little  by  little  the  new  nation  of  Ail  waa 
formeil.  The  centre  of  Its  power  was  the  cinntry 
of  Slieba  proper,  where,  acconling  to  the  teiith 
chapter  of  Ginesis.  there  Wiis  no  primitive  ,1  ok 
tanite  tribe,  although  In  all  the  ni  ighlmurinij 
provinces  they  were  already  settleil,  .  .  .  ll  was 
during  the  first  centuries  of  the  si'iiind  .\  liu- 
empire  that  Yemen  was  temporarily  siibjic inl 
by  the  Egyptians,  who  callwl  it  the  laml  of  I'lin, 
.  .  ,  Conquered  during  the  minority  of  Thothnies 
III.,  and  the  regency  of  the  Princess  lliui-u. 
Yemen  appt'ars  to  have  been  lost  by  the  Ki.'\  p 
tians  In  the  troub'ous  times  at  the  close  of  ilie 
eighteenth  dvniusty.  liamses  II.  recovered  it 
almost  immediately  after  he  a.sccndi'd  the  tlinme. 
and  it  was  not  till  the  time  of  the  elTeinii.ate 
kingsof  the  twentieth  dytm,sly,  that  this  siili mliil 
oniament  of  Egyptian  jvower  was  tinully  l.».t 
.  .  .  The  concjuest  of  the  land  of  Pun  nnilt-r 
llatasu  Is  related  in  the  elegant  lias  nliefs  ,,f  ihe 
temph-of  Deir  el-Hahari,  at  ThelM's,  oubli.-lnd  ly 
M.  Duemlchen.  .  .  .  The  bus  ifliefs  of  the 
t<'mpleof  I)eir  el-HidiarlaflonI  undoubleil  jiroefs 
of  the  cxistenee  of  commerce  betwwn  Imlii  and 
Yemen  at  the  time  of  the  Egyptian  cxpnliliim 
under  Hatasu.  It  was  this  commene,  much 
more  than  the  fertility  of  its  own  soil  iiii'l  ill 
ni\tural  priMluetlons,  that  made  Southeni  .\ralii« 
one  of  the  richest  countries  in  the  world.  .  . 
V:'.r  a  long  time  It  wa»  carried  on  bv  hir.d  ::r;)v. 
by  means  of  caravans  cnissing  Araliia,  for  tde 
navigation  of  the  Red  S»'tt,  much  more  ilillicMlt 
and  dangerous  than  that  of  the  Imllan  iKma, 
was  not  atlemptod  till  soom  centuries  later  .  . 

128 


ARABIA. 


ARABIA. 


Th«  c«i«v«M  of  myrrh,  incense,  and  balm  crosa- 
in?  .\nibia  towanis  the  land  of  Canaan  are  men- 
tiunfil  in  the   Bible,  in  the  hist/iry  of  Joseph, 
which  lielongs  to  a  period  very  near  to  tlie  first 
esUiblishmcnt  of  the  Canaanites  in  Syria.     As 
S(K)n  as  commercial  towns  arose  in  Phnpnioia,  we 
find,   as  the  prophet  Ezekiel  said,   'The  mer- 
chants of  Sheba  and   liaamah,  tliey  were  thy 
merchants:  they  occupied  in  tliy  fairs  with  chief 
of  all  spices,  and  with  all  precious  stones  and 
pnhl.'.  .  .  A  drreat  number  of  Phfrnician  mer- 
chants, attracted  by  this  trade,  established  them- 
wlves    in    Yemen,     Hadramaut,     Oman,     and 
Bnhrein.     Phcenician  factories  were  also  estab- 
lished at  several   places  on  the  Persian  Gulf, 
amiinKst    others    in   the  islands  of   Tylos  and 
Arvail.  formerly  occupied   by   their  ancestors. 
.  .  .  This  commerce,  extremely  flourishing  dur- 
ing the  nineteenth  dynasty,  seems,  together  with 
thi-  Egyptian  dominion  in  Yemen,  to  have  cea-sed 
under   the    feeble    and    inactive    successors  of 
Kamses  III.  .  .  .  Nearly  two  centuries  pa.ssed 
away,   when   Iliram  and    Solomon  despatched 
>  tsels  down  the  Red  Sea.  .  .  .  The  vessels  of 
the  two  monarchs  were  not  content  with  doing 
merely  what  had  once  before  Uvn  done  under 
the  Egyptians  of  the  nineteenth  dynastv,  namely, 
fetching  from  the  ports  of  Yemen  the"  merchan- 
dise  collected    there   from   India.      They   were 
much  bolder,  and  their  enterprise  was  rewanled 
with  suivess.     Profiting  by  the  regularity  of  the 
miinsKins,  they  fctclusi  the  products  of  India  at 
first  lwn<l,  from  the  very  place  of  their  shipment 
in  the  ports  of  the  land  of  Ophir,  or  Abhira. 
These  distant  voyages  were  repeated  with  suc- 
cess as  long  as  .Solomon  r<igne('.     The  vessels 
goinjr  to  Oiihir  necessarily  touched  at  the  ports 
(if   Vemin  to   take    in    provi.sious    and    await 
fiivmirable  winds.     Thus  the  renown  of  the  two 
allied    kings,    particularly    of    the    power    of 
Silomcin.  was  sprea<l  in  the  land  of  the  Aditcs. 
This  was  ;he  cause  of  the  ii>urney  made  bv  the 
quien  of  :  'icba  to  Jerusalem  to  see  Solomon. 
.      .  The  sea  voyages  to   Opliir.   and  even   to 
Yiiiicn.  ceaM'd  at  the  death  of  Solomon.     The 
wpurritiim  of  the  ten  tribes,  and  the  revolutions 
that  simultaneously  took  plw'e  at  Tvre,  rendered 
iiiiy  su(  h  exp('ditii>ns  impracticable.  .  .  .  The 
eni|iire  of  the  second  Adites  lasted  ten  centuries, 
(luring  which  the  Joktanite  tribes,  multiplving 
in  cadi  generation,  lived  amcrngst  the  C'lishite 
Halmans.  .  .  .  Thea-ssimilationof  thcloktanites 
to  the  I'lisliites  was  so  complete  that  the  revolu- 
t:un    whiih    gave    political    supremacy   to  the 
( escenilanLs  of  Joktan  over  those  of  ('usli  pro- 
Mu   d  no  sensible  change  in  the  civilisation  of 
icm :ii.     Kui  although  using  thesame  language, 
the  two  elements  of  the  population  of  Southern 
Aniliia  wire  still  i|uile  distinct  from  each  other, 
ami  antag.inistic   in   their   interests.  .  .  .   1^  tli 
W(T.'  .alicil  Sabieans,  but  the  Bible  alwavs     ,re- 
fiilli  dislingiiishes  them  bv  a  different  V     ,«)g- 
r'i|'li\ .  .  .      Tlie  majority  i.f  the  Salwai      .ish- 
iti's,    however,    especiallv    the    superior      istes 
rcf'is,,!  1,1  submit    to   tlie  Joktanite    voke.     A 
isparatii.n.  therefore,  took  pliU-e,  giving  rise  to 
the  .Vrab  proverb,  'divided  as  the  Saha'ans  '  and 
tMc  mass  of   the  Adites   emigrat«l    to  another 
c:".:T.!ry      Acti^flli,^-  i„  M.  faussin  de  r,.r<e\  at, 
lie  passage  of  the  Saba'ans  into  Abvssinla  ii  to 
'»'  alinliuted  to  the  consequences  of  the  revolu- 
li'ii  that   eslabllsliHi    Joktanite   supri'macy   in 
» L'li,  n.  .  .  ,  The  date  of  the  paaaage  of  the 
•J 


Sabteans  from  Arabia  into  Abyssinia  ismuch  more 
difflcult  to  prove  than  the  fact  of  their  having 
done  so.  ,  .  .  Yarub,  the  con(iueror  of  the 
Adites,  and  founder  of  the  new  monarchy  of  Jok- 
tanite Arabs,  was  succeeded  on  the  throne  bv 
his  son,  Y'ashdjob,  a  weak  and  feeble  prince,  o"f 
whom  nothing  is  recorded,  but  that  he  allowed 
the  chiefs  of  the  various  provinces  of  his  states 
to  make  .hemselves  independent.  A' J,  Shems, 
surneiiied  Sheba,  son  of  Y'a.sh(ijob,  recovered  the 
power  his  predecessors  had  lost.  .  .  .  Abd  Shems 
ha('  several  children,  the  most  celebrated  being 
Ilimyer  and  Kahlan,  who  left  a  numerous  pos- 
terity. From  fhe.se  two  personages  were  de- 
scended the  greater  part  of  the  Yemenite  tribes, 
who  still  e.\isted  at  the  time  of  the  rise  of  Islam'- 
ism.  The  Himyarites  seem  to  have  settled  in 
the  towns,  whilst  the  Kahlanites  inhabited  the 
countrv  and  the  deserts  of  Y'emen.  .  .  .  This  is 
the  sulistance  of  all  the  information  given  by 
the  Arab  historians."— F.  Lenormant  and  E. 
Chevalier,  ifunual  of  Ancient  Biit.  nf  the  £att 
bk.  7,  eh.  1-3  (r.  2). 

Sabaans,  The.— "For  some  time  past  it  has 
been  known  that  the  Himyaritic  mscriptions  fall 
info  two  groups,  distinguLshed  from  one  another 
by  phonological  and  grammatical   diflen  nces. 
One  of  the  dialects  is  philologically  older  than  the 
other,  containing  fuller  and  more  primitive  gnim- 
matical  forms.     The  inscriptions  in  this  dialect 
iH'long  to  a  kingdom  the  capital  of  which  was 
at   Main,  and  which  represents  the  country  of 
the  .Minieans  of  the  ancient-s.     The  inscriptions 
in  the  other  dialect  were  engraved  ■)v  the  princes 
and  people  of  Saba,  the  Sheba  of  the  t)ld  Testa- 
ment, the  Satxeans  of  classical  geograpliv.     The 
Salwan  kingdom  lasted  to  the  time  of  Sioham- 
med.  when  it  was  destroyed  bv  the  advancing 
forces  of  Islam.     Its  ruh"rs  for  several  gcncra- 
lions  had  been  converts  to  Judaism,  luid  had  lieen 
engaged  in  almost  constant  warfare  with  the 
Efhiopic  kingdom  of  Axum.  which  was  backed 
by   the  influence  and  subsidies  of   Home  and 
Byzantium.     Dr.  Gliiser  seeks  to  show  that  the 
founders  of    this  Ethiopic   kingdom  were  the 
Habitsa,   or  Abyssinims,   who   migrated    from 
Himyar  to  Africa  in  the  second  or  flrst  century 
B.  C. ;  «  hen  we  flrst  liearof  them  in  the  inscrip- 
tions they  are  still  the  inhabitants  of  Nortliem 
Yemen  and  .Mahrah.     .More  than  once  the  Axum- 
ites  made  themselves  masters  of  Siuthem  .\mbia. 
AlHiut  A.  I).  3<)(),  they  occupied   its  ports  and 
islands,  and   from  il'iO  to  3T«  even  the  Sabaan 
kingdom  wm  tributary  to  them.     Their  last  suc- 
cesses wen'  gainiKl  in  .')■.;■"..  when,  with  Bvzantine 
help,  they  eon(iuen(l  the  w  hole  of  Yemen.     But 
the  Sabiean  kingdom,  in  spite  of  its  temporary 
subjection  to  Etiiiopia,  had  hmg  been  a  formitl- 
able  State.     Jewish  cohmics  settled  in  it,  and  one 
of  its  prin(vs  became  a  convert  to  the  Jewish 
faith.     Mis  8ucccs.sors  gradually  exu-nded  their 
douiinion  as  far  as  Omiuz.  and  after  the  success- 
ful n  volt  from  Xwim  in  378,  bn)ught  not  onlv 
the   Hholc  of    the  southern  coast  under  tlici'r 
sway,  but  the  western  coast  as  well,  as  far  north 
as  Mekka.     Jewish  influence  made  itself  felt  in 
the  future  birthplace  of  .Mobamincd.  and  thus 
introduced  those  ideas  and  N'liefs  which  snlise- 
(|(uullv  iiad  so  pnifoiind  an  effect  up(m  the  hirtli 
of   Islam.     The   Byzantines  and  Axumites  en- 
deavouTd  to  counteract  the  influence  of  Judaism 
bv  means  of  Christian  eohinies  and  progelvtism. 
The  rviult  wan  a  conflict  between  SabA  luid  it* 


129 


ARABIA. 


ARAVISCt 


aamilants,  which  took  the  'nnn  of  a  conflict 
bvtwern  the  membere  of  *'.  two  religions.  A 
violent  peraerutinn  was  Qirected  against  the 
Chrisitians  of  Yemen,  avenged  by  the  Etiiiupian 
concpiest  of  the  country  and  the  removal  of  its 
capitnl  to  San 'a.  Tlic  intervention  of  Persia  in 
the  struggle  was  soon  followed  by  the  appear- 
ance of  MohamnxHlunism  upon  the  scene,  and 
Jew,  Christiiui,  an<i  I'arsi  were  alike  overwhclme<l 
by  tlie  flowing  tide  of  the  new  creed.  The  epi- 
g'raphic  evidence  makes  it  clear  that  the  origin 
of  the  kingdom  of  SabA  went  back  to  a  distant 
date.  Dr.  Glaser  traces  its  history  from  the  time 
when  its  princes  were  still  hiit  Makarib,  or 
'Priests,'  like  Jethro,  the  Priest  of  Midian, 
through  the  ages  when  they  were  'kings  of 
8abS,  and  later  still  '  kings  uf'SabA  and  liaidun,' 
to  the  days  when  thev  claimed  imperial  suprem- 
»-y  overall  the  princfpalilies  of  Southern  Ariilila. 
It  was  in  this  later  period  that  they  dated  their 
inscriptions  by  an  era,  which,  as  Ilalevy  tlrst  dis- 
covered, cnmsponds  to  115  B.  C.  One  of  the 
kings  of  Saba  is  mentioned  in  an  inscription  of 
the  Assyri.m  king  Sargon  (B.  C.  715),  and  Dr. 
Uliuier  M-lieves  that  he  has  found  Ids  name 
In  a  '  Ilimvaritic '  text.  When  the  la.st  priest, 
Samah'ali  f)arrahh.  b«>came  king  of  Sabft.  we  do 
not  yet  know,  but  the  age  must  be  sutflciently 
remote,  if  the  kingdom  of  8ab4  already  existeil 
when  the  Queen  of  Sheba  came  fn)m  "Ophir  to 
visit  .Solomon.  1  he  visit  need  no  longer  cause 
ast(mishmi  nt,  notwithstanding  the  long  journey 
by  land  which  lay  betwei'n  Palestine  and  the 
soutli  of  Amhia.  ...  As  we  have  seen,  the  in- 
scriptions of  Ma'in  set  before  tis  a  dialect  of  more 
priiiiiiive  character  than  that  of  SabJ.  Hitherto 
ft  liad  iHrn  supposed,  however,  that  the  two 
dialo'Ls  were  8[>oUen  contemporaneously,  and 
that  the  Mina-an  and  Salwan  kingdoiiis  existed 
side  liy  side.  But  i»eogn>pliy  olTeri'd  dilliculties 
in  tlie  way  of  siuh  a  Ix'lief.  since  the  wats  of 
Miiiaan  power  were  emlK'ddiHl  in  the  mi<lst  of 
the  Saliaan  kingdom,  much  as  the  fragments  of 
Cromarty  are  emlx'dded  in  the  midst  of  otlur 
counties."  Dr.  Gla-sor  has  now  made  it  clear  that 
tlie  old  supposition  was  incorrect,  and  that  the 
Slinaan  kingdom  pnceded  the  rise  of  .Sal>£.  We 
can  now  understand  why  it  is  that  neither  in 
the  Old  Testament  nor  in  the  Assyrian  in.scrip- 
tions  do  we  hear  of  auy  princes  lif  Ma'in,  and 
that  though  the  cl.as.siojil  writers  are  acnuainled 
with  the  Mina^an  people  thev  know  nothing  of  a 
Mina>an  kingdom.  The  ^liiKean  kiiigilom.  in 
fact,  with  its  culture  and  monuments,  tlie  relies 
of  which  still  survive,  must  have  nourished  in 
the  grev  dawn  of  histoi-y,  at  an  epo<li  at  which, 
as  we  fiave  hitherto  iiiiagined,  Arabia  was  the 
home  only  of  nomad  barbarism.  And  yet  in  this 
re'nioie  age  alphat)etie  writing  was  already  known 
and  iiractisrd,  the  alphaliet  iH'ing a  iiKxliticatioii  of 
tlie  I'ha'iiieian  written  vertically  and  not  horizon- 
tally. To  what  an  curly  date  liri'  we  ri'fern'd  for 
the  origin  of  the  Plio'iiician  alphnbel  itself!  The 
Miiiaan  Kingdom  must  have  liait  a  long  exi.>^t- 
enee.  The  names  of  thirty-three  of  its  kings  are 
alriady  known  to  us.  ...  A  power  wliieh 
reached  to  the  Ixjnlera  of  Palestine  must  neces- 
sarily have  come  into  contact  with  the  g;  it 
monarehies  of  the  ancient  w>irld.  Tiie  army  of 
.Julius  Uallus  wun  doiilitiervs  not  tlie  iint  »iiieii 
had  sought  to  gain  possession  of  the  cities  ami 
(pice  ganlens  of  the  south.  One  such  invasion  is 
•Uuded  to  in  an  inacription  which  waa  copied  by 


130 


H.  Halivj,  .  .  .  But  the  epigraphy  of  ancient 
Arabia  is  atill  in  its  infancy.  The  inscription^) 
already  known  to  us  represent  but  a  small  pro- 
portion of  those  that  are  yet  to  bo  discovered. 
.  .  .  The  dark  past  of  the  Arabian  peninsula  Ims 
been  suddenly  lighted  up,  and  we  And  that  loii^' 
before  the  days  of  Mohammed  It  was  a  land  uf 
culture  and  llt<>ratuiv:,  a  seat  of  powerful  kini.' 
doms  and  wealthy  commerce,  which  cannot  fail 
to  have  exercised  an  influence  upon  the  general 
history  of  the  world." — A.  H.  Sayce,  Ancient 
Arnhia  [ConUmp.  I!ee.,  Ike.,  1889). 

6th  Century.— Partial  conquest  by  the  Abys- 
tinians.     Sec    Vuys8INL\:    6tii  to   16tb    Cen- 

TCniES. 

A.  O.  609-633. — Mahomet's  conquest.  See 
MAnoMETAN  C'o.n<}I!K8T:  a.  D.  609-633. 

A.  D.  1517.— Brought  under   the   Turkish 
sovereignty.    Sec  Tukks:  A.  D.  1481-1520. 
» 

ARABS,  Conqoesti.  See  Mahomctas 
CUN4UEST.— Medical  Science.  See  Medical 
Science:     7-1  Itd    Cbnturibs.— Trade,    tjee 

TltADB,  AHCIENT  AKD  MEDI.SVAL. 

ARACHOTI,  The.— A  people  who  dwelt  an- 
ciently in  the  Valley  of  the  Arghandab,  or  Ir- 
gundab,  in  eastern  Afghanistan.  Herodotus  gave 
them  the  tribal  name  of  "Pactyes,"  and  the 
modem  Afghans,  who  call  theins«'lves  "  Pashtun " 
and  "Pttkhtun,"  signifying  "  mountaineers,"  are 
prolmbly  derived  from  them. — M.  Duncker,  Iliit, 
iif  AntitfKiti/,  bk.  7,  ch.  1. 

ARAGON :  A.  D.  I035-I358.— Rise  of  the 
kingdom.     See  Spain:  A.  D.  1035-1258. 

A.  O.  1 133.— Beginning;  of  popular  repre- 
sentation in  the  Cortes. — The  Monarchical  con- 
stitution.    See  Cohtks.  The  Kari.y  Si'AMi-i!. 

A.  D.   1318-1338,— The  first  oath  of  alle- 

f:iance   to  the   king, — Conquest   of  Balearic 
stands.— Subjugation  of  Valencia.  Sec  .Simin: 
A.  I).  i2i2-ii;tM, 

A,  D.  1410-1475.— The  Castilian  dynastj. 
—Marriage  of  Ferdinand  with  Isabella  of 
Castile.     See  Si-ain:  A.  1).   13(1H-14T'J. 

A.  D.  1S16.— The  crown  united  with  that 
of  Castile  by  Joanna,  mother  of  Charles  V.  ^ 
Spai.n:  A.  D.  1490-1517. 


ARAICU,  The.   .See  Amehicas  Abouioixes; 

Gt  CK  OK  ClKO  GllOl  I'. 

ARAM.— ARAM  NAHARAIM.  — APAM 
ZOBAH  — ARAMiGANS.  See  Skmh»  :il>o, 
Semitic  l,A.Not:AoK«. 

ARAMBEC.     Sie  Xouimiieiia. 

ARAPAHOES,  The.  Se.'  Amkuicax  .Vim 
uuii.SEs:  .\l.(iONniiAS  FA.MII.V,  and  I'awm.k 
(I'ABiHiAN)  Family. 

ARAR,  The. —  The  ancient  name  of  the  river 
Saone.  in  Frame. 

ARARAT.  — URARDA.     See  At.Anoi>us« 

ARATOS,  and  the  Achaian  League,  ^e« 
GkekcE:  M.V.  28i>-146. 

ARAUCANIANS,  The.    See  Chilf. 

ARAUSIO. — A  Ilontaii  colony  wus  (ouniled 
by  .\iigustus  at  Antiisio,  which  is  repns<iiii-.i  ia 
name  and  site  by  the  m-Hlern  town  of  Dniiui .  in 
the  department  of  Vaueliis*',  Fnini-e.  \x  niilrt 
north  of  .Vvignon. — P.  GiHxiwin,  llitl.of  Friiia: 
AiiC  iliiul,   bk.  'i.  rh.  5. 

ARAUSIO,  Battle  of  iB.  C.  105).  See  Cat- 
BHi  andTkutones:   B.  C.  li;l-l(>3. 

ARAVISCI  AND  OSI,  The.  — "  Wli.itier 
...  the  Aiavisci  migrated  into  Pannouia  iron 


ARAVISCI 

the  Ori.  t  Oermtn  race,  or  whether  the  0><  came 
from  the  Arariaci  into  Germany,  aa  both  nations 
still  retain  the  same  languajre,  institutions  ami 
customs,  is  a  doubtful  matter." — "The  locality 
of  the  Aravisci  was  the  extreme  north-eastern 
part  of  the  province  of  PannonU,  and  would 
thus  stretch  from  Vienna  (Viodobona).  eastwards 
to  Itaab  (Arrabo),  taking  in  a  ponion  of  the 
southwest  of  Hungary.  .  .  .  The  Osi  seem  to 
have  dwelt  near  the  sources  of  the  Oder  and  the 
Vistula.  They  would  thus  have  occupied  a 
jiiirt  of  Oallicia." — Tacitus,  Otrmnny,  trant.  bg 
Chuirh  and  Brndrihb,  irith  nrog.  ruttet. 

ARAWAKS,  OR  ARAUACAS,  The  See 
Americ*-*  Aborioines :  Caribs. 

ARA..  "S,  The. — This  name  seems  to  have 
Ntr  applietl  to  a  number  of  Asiatic  streams  in 
anrii-nt  times,  but  is  connected  most  prominently 
with  an  Armenian  river,  now  called  the  Aras, 
which  flows  into  the  Caspian. 

ARBAS,  Battle  of.— One  of  the  battles  of  ihe 
Komiins  with  the  Persians  in  which  the  for- 
mer suiTcrcii  defeat.     Foiipht  A   D.  1581 

ARBELA,  or  GAUGAHELA,  Battle  of 
(B.  C.  3311.     See  .Macedo.nia  :  B.  C.  334-330 

ARBITRATION,   Intematioiul.    See  In- 

TF.R.VATIO.VAL  ArBITRATIO.N. 

ARCADIA.— The    central  district  of  Pelo- 
ponnesus, the  jieat  southern  peninsula  of  Greece 
-a  district  surrounded  by  a  singular  mountain 
circle.     "From  the  '.cle  of  mountains  which 
h.is  been  pointed  ou'    all  the  rivers  of  any  note 
take  their  rise,  and  i.-om  It  all  the  mountainous 
ranges  direree,  which  form  the  many  headlands 
Md  poinU  of  Peloponui'sus.     The  interior  part 
of  the  country,  however,  has  onlv  one  opening 
towards  the  western  sea,  through  which  all  its 
waters  How  united  in  the  AInheus.     The  pecu- 
liar character  of  this  inhind   tract   is  also  i„- 
(Teased  i)y  the  circumstauce  of  its  bein?  inter- 
sected by  some  lower  secondary  chains  of  hills, 
which  compel  the  waters  of  the  valleys  nearest 
to  the  ?re«t  chains  either  to  foim  lakes,  or  to 
»eek  a  vent  by  subterraneous  passages.  Hence  it  is 
that  in  the  mountainous  distnct  in  the  northeast  of 
Pel(ip<innesiis  many  streams  disappear  and  again 
emerge  from  the  earth.     This  region  Is  Arca.lia; 
a  country  consisting  of  ridges  of  hills  and  ele- 
vatiii  plains,  and  of  deep  and  narrow  valleys 
With  streams  Ilowing  through  channels  forme«i 
by  precipitous  rocks;   a  country  so  manifestly 
separatetl   by  nature  from  the  rest  of  Pelopon- 
nesus that,  although  not  politically  united,  it  was 
always  considered  in  the  light  of"  a  single  i  .im- 
munity.    Its  climate  was  extremely  cold :  the  at- 
mosphere dense,  particulariy  In  the  mountains  to 
the  nnrth:  the  effect  which  thia  had  im  the  char- 
acter and  dispositions  of  the  inhatdtants  has  Ijeen 
<lis(ntH'd   in  a  masterly  manner   by  Polvbius 
liims<lf  a  native  of    Arcadia."— C.   O.  MdIUt' 
//ly.  „nd  Ahliq.  of  the  Done  Raft.  bk.  1,  eh.  4  — 
•Ihe  later  Koman  poets  were  wont  to  speak  of 
Are:ulia  as  a  smiling  land,  where  grassy  vales 
w.Hi,T,il  by  gentle  and  pellucid  streams,  were 
tnhabited  by  a  race  of  primitive  and  picturesque 
sliepl.enls  and  shenherdesses,  who  dividcil  their 
time  iHtween  tending  their  flocks  and  making 
love  to  one  another  in  the  most  tcniler  and  roman- 
tir    fashion.     This    Mvllic    conception    nf    x\v 
'"in'rv  and  the  people  is  not  to  U  traced  in  tbc 
HI  llellen.'  poj-u,  who  were  better  acquaint^ 
« itli  tlie  actus  facu  of  the  case.     The  ArcadUina 
we-e  sufflcicmly  primiUve,  but  there  waa  very 


ARE0PAGC8. 

little  that  was  graceful  or  picturesque  about  (heir 
land  or  their  lives.  "-C.  H.  Hanaon,  The  Land 
tf  (irteu,  pp.  8HI-.382. 

B.  C.  37i-362._The  union  of  Arcadian 
towns.  Restoration  of  M«ntinei«.— Buildin* 
of  Megalopolis.— AUiance  with  Thebes'- 
y!f?  ?"«  ■^*^  »n<i  Elis—Disunion— 
Battle  of  Mm,une»a.  See  Greece:  B.  C.  871 
and  371-3u,^ 

B.  C.  33».  -  rerriteries  restored  by  Philip  of 
Macedon.    See  Greece:  B.  f  ;KT-a{6 

B.   C.  243-i46.-In  the  Achaiaa  Leafne. 
See  Gbeece:  B.  C.  280-14«.  ^ 


See 


ARCHIPELAGO,  The  Oakes  of  the 

Maxos:  The  SIedl«vai,  Dikedox. 
ARCHITECTURE.    See  Sities  in  Archi- 

TKCTimi. 

-,ARCHON.    See  Athens:  From  the  Doriak 

MlORATIO!*  TO  B.  C.  68.3. 

ARCIS-SUR-AUBE,     Battle     ot     t   3 
*^V=S.^A  ^  ^  '^'*  (Jani  art-March). 
.  ArTSr^'  Battle  of  (17961     See  Frasce: 
A.  IX  I79«-1797  (October-April). 

ARCOT:  A.  D.  I7si.-Capture  from  the 

.'^  ,.,^°''  <**f«°e«   oy   Olive.     See  I.ndia  : 
A.  L>.  l»43-17,'i'2. 

ARCTIC    EXPLORATION.    See  Polak 

ElPLOBATIOX, 

^'^S?*? •  Po™»t  of.-The  largest  forest  In 
early  BriUiin.  which  covered  the  itreater  part  of 
modem  Warwickshire  and  "of  which  Shakes- 
peare's Arden  became  the  dwindled  representa- 
I'^'c-  -J.    Ft  Green,    The  ilakinj  of  England, 

ARDENNES,  Forest  of. -"In  Oesar'a 
t  me  there  were  in  [Gaul]  very  exten.sivc  forests, 
the  hirgest  of  which  was  theArduenna  (Arden- 
nes), which  extended  from  tlie  banks  of  the  lower 
Uhine  probably  as  far  as  the  shores  of  the  Xorth 
'^J-"— 0.  Long.  Ikdintofthe  Komnn  llep'thtir 
r  3,  eh.  22.- "Ardennes  is  the  name  of  one  of 
the  northern  French  departments  which  c-ontains 
a  part  of  the  forest  .\rdenne8.  Another  part  is 
in  Luxemburg  and  Belgium.  The  old  Celtic 
name  exisU  in  England  in  the  .Vrden  of  War- 
wtctshire."— y^«*im*.  r.  4.  cA    14 

^5S?.'{.9L'*  ARDRIGH,  The.  See  Tcath. 
,  ARDSHIR,  OR  ARTAXERXES,  Found- 
ing of  the  Sassanian  monarchy  by.  See  Per- 
sia: B.  C.  l,V)-.\..  D.  228. 

ARECOMICI,  The.    See  Volcje. 

ARECUNAS,  The.  Sec  America.v  Abo- 
rigines: Caribs  axd  their  Kindred 

AREIOS.    See  Aria. 

ARELATE:  The  ancient  name  of  Aries.  — 
The  territory  covered  by  the  old  kingdom  of 
Aries  is  sometimes  calledthe  .\relate  See  BtrB- 
ol-ndt:  a.  D.  1127-1378,  and  Salves. 

ARENGO,  The.  See  San  Marino,  Tm 
KEriBLrr  iw. 

AREOPAGUS,  The. -"Whoever  [in  an- 
cient Athens!  was  suspected,  of  havii  q  blood 
upon  his  hands  had  to  abstain  from  app  oaching 
the  comniim  alurs  of  the  land.  Aoco.-dingly 
for  the  purpose  of  judgments  concerning  the 
gjilt  .  Iilofxl,  choice  had  been  made  of  the 
barren.  r.Kky  height  which  lies  opposite  the 
ascent  t..  thr  clladci.  It  was  detilcatiHi  lo  Ares 
who  was  said  lo  have  been  the  first  who  was  ever 
jiidgetl  here  for  the  guilt  of  blood ;  and  to  the 
Ennyes,  the  dark  powen  of  the  guilt  stained 
conscience.     Here,  instead  of  a  single  judge  a 

ISl 


ARE0PAGU8. 


ARGENTINE  REPUBUO. 


' 


college  of  twelve  men  of  proved  liilogrlty  con- 
ducUil  the  trial.  If  the  accused  h:iil  an  eiiual 
numlMT  uf  votes  for  and  against  him,  he  was 
acquitted.  Tlie  court  on  tlie  hill  of  Arcs  is  one 
of  the  most  ancient  institutions  f  Athens,  and 
Done  achieve<l  for  the  city  an  earlier  or  more 
widely-8^.  ad  recognition.  —  E.  Curtius,  Hint, 
oj  Oretef,  bk.  i.  r>i.  3. —"The  Areopagus,  or, 
as  it  was  interpreted  by  an  ancient  legend. 
Mars'  Hill,  wa.s  an  eminence  on  the  western 
side  of  the  Acroiwlls,  which  from  time  Immemo- 
rial hud  lieen  the  seat  of  a  highly  revered  court 
of  criminal  justice.  It  toiik  "cognizance  of 
charges  of  wilful  murder,  maiming,  poisoning 
and  un«>n.  Its  forms  and  modes  of  pn«ec<ling 
were  peculiarly  rigid  and  solemn.  It  was  held 
in  the  open  air,  perhaps  that  the  judges  might 
not  be  polluted  by  sitting  under  the  same  roof 
with  the  criminals.  .  .  .  The  venerable  character 
of  the  court  seems  to  have  detemiineil  Solon  to 
apply  it  to  another  purpose;  and,  without  mak- 
ing any  change  in  Its  original  jurisdiction,  to 
erect  it  into  a  supreme  council,  mveMed  with  a 
sup<'rintending  ami  controlling  authority,  which 
extended  over  every  part  of  the  social  system. 
He  constituted  it  the  guanlian  of  the  "public 
morals  and  religion,  to  keep  watch  over  tlie  "iu- 
cation  an<l  conduct  of  the  citizens,  and  topn  ect 
tiic  State  from  the  liisgracc  or  pollution  of  wan- 
tonness and  profaneness.  He  arme<l  it  with  e.x- 
traoniinary  powers  of  interfering  in  pn'ssing 
emcrgenciea.  to  avert  any  sudden  and  imminent 
dang<  r  which  threatencilthe  public  safety.  The 
na*i;'e  of  its  functions  rendered  it  scarcely  pos- 
sible pncisily  to  detino  their  limits:  and"Sol(>n 
probably  tho"uglit  it  best  to  let  them  remain  in 
that  ol)seurity  nhieli  magnifies  whatever  is  in- 
distinct. .  .  '  It  WHS  tilled  with  archons  who 
had  discharged  their  offlee  with  appn>veil  liilelitv, 
and  they  held  tlieir  seats  for  life."— 0.  Thirlwall. 
Jliiit.  of  Griece,  r.  1,  ch.  It. — Tliesc  enlargeil 
functions  of  the  Areopagus  were  withdrawn 
from  it  in  the  time  of  Pericles,  through  the 
agency  of  Ephiultes.  but  were  restoreii  alMiut 
B.  C.  "4(KI,  after  the  overthrow  of  the  Tliirty.— 
"Some  of  the  writers  of  antiquity  ascribed"  the 
first  estulilishment  of  the  8<'nate  of  AreoiKicus 
to  Solon.  .  .  .  But  there  can  lie  little  doubt  that 
this  is  a  mistake,  and  that  the  senate  of  .Vre 
opagus  is  a  primordial  institution  of  imnuinnriul 
anti(|uity,  though  its  constitution  as  w.li  as  its 
functions  tmderwcnt  many  changes.  It  stcKul  at 
tlrst  alone  as  a  permanent  ana  collegiate  au- 
thority, iprik'inally  bv  the  sidi-  i^f  the  kings  and 
ufterwunls  hy  the  side  of  the  :irihonai  it  would 
then  of  (ourse  Iw  known  by  the  title  of  The 
Boole,  —  the  senate,  or  council;  its  distinctive 
title  •senate  of  Areopagus,"  Iwrrowed  from  the 
place  where  its  sittings  were  held,  would  nut  Iw 
bestowiHl  until  tlie  formation  by  'Solon  of  the 
second  siniite,  or  eoiiiuil,  from  which  there  was 
neeii  to  diseriminate  it. "— (•  Oroti',  Hint,  nf 
Orwff,  ]it.  '.'.  eh.  10  {'  ;i).— Stx',  also,  Athens: 
B.  C.  477  Wi.  :ind  4rtti  4.'')4. 

ARETHUSA,  FounUin  of.  See  SvmcisE. 
'  AREVAC^,  The.— One  of  the  tribi-s  of  the 
CeltilHTians  in  uiieient  Spain.  Their  cliief  town, 
Kumantia.  was  the  stronghold  of  Celtibcrian  re- 
sistance 111  the  Roman  conquest  See  Xumau- 
TIAN  W  i.. 

ARGAOEIS,  The.    Sec  Phtl*. 
ARGAUM,  BsUle  of   (1803).     See   India: 
A.  D.  179B-1S0'5. 


ARGENTARIA,  B«tU«of(A.  D.  37D.  See 
Alemanni:  a.  I).  3TH. 

ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC:  Aboricinal 
inbabitaot*.    See  American  Aborioines:  Ti  cl 

— Ol'AKANI. 

A.  D.  1515-1557.— DiKOTery,  exploration 
and  early  aetttement  on  La  Plata.— First 
fonndinK  of  Bucnot  Arres.     See  Parauiav: 

A.  I).  i.M.i-i,'..-.:. 

A.  D.  1580-1777.- The  final  foondinc  of  the 
City  of  Bueno.  Ayrea.— Conflicts  of  Spain  and 
Portugal   on    the    Plata.— Creation    of  the 
Viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres. — "In  the  year 
15WI  the  foundations  of  a  lasting  city  were'luiil 
at  Buenos  Ayres  liy  Dc  Garay  on  the  samesitiiu- 
tion  as  liail    twice    previously   been  clioaen  — 
namely,  by  Mendoza,  and  by  Cabeza  de  Vara, 
respectively.     The  same  leader  had  before  tliis 
founded  the  settlement  of  Santc  Fuonthe  Hartimi. 
The    si>e   selecteii    for    the    future    capital    of 
the  Pampas  is  probably  one  of  the  worst  ever 
chosen  for  a  city  .  .  .  has  probably  the  wcir«t 
harbour  in  the  world  for  a  large  commerdal 
town.  .  .  .  Notwithstanding  the  inconveiiii me 
of  its  harbour.  Buenoa  Ayres  soon  became  tin- 
chief  coinmereial  entrepot  of  the  Valley  of  tin- 
Plata.     The  settlement  was  not  effected  wilhniit 
some  severe  llghling  iH'twceii  I)e  Oaray's  fnnv 
and  tlie  Querandies.     The  latter,  however,  wiri' 
effectually    quelled.  .  .  .  The    Spanianis   Here 
now  nominally  masters  of  the  Rio  de  La  I'lati 
but  they  had  still  to  apprehend  hratilities  on  ili,' 
part  of  the  natives  tietween  tlieir  few  and  f.ir 
distant  settlements  [concerning  which  set;  F.vii  t 
Gf.w:  A.  n.   l.'ib'i-l.-w;].     Of  this  Ihibility  It,. 
Garay  himself  was  to  form  a  lamentable  e.\iiiii|>li' 
On  his  passage  back  to  Asuncion,  having  imau 
tioiisly  landiil  to  siiip  near  the  ruins  of  the  ell 
fort  of  San  Espiritu.  he  was  surprised  by  a  purtv 
of  mttives  and  munien^tl,  with  all  his  conip;inl 
ons.     The  death  of    this  brave  Biscayaii   wa* 
moiinied  as  a  great  loss  by  the  entire  colnnv 
The  importance  of  the  cities  founde<l  by  him  win 
soon  apparent:    and  in  tO'iO  all  the  st'ltlenieiits 
south  of  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Paniiia  aii'l 
Paraguay  were  formed  into  a  separate,  indipi :i 
dent  govcniiiient,  under  tlic  name  of  Riode  l.i 
Plata,  of  which  Buenos  Ayres  was  declare. I  the 
capite'      This  city  likewise  iK-came  the  seii  of 
a  bislio;!    :.  .  .   .  The  merchants  of  Seville   wlui 
had  olitjiiiieil  a  monopoly  of  the  supply  of  .Mexico 
and   P<';u,  reganled  with   niucli    jealousy    the 
prospe.  t  of  a  new  opening  for  the  S<iiith  .Viiieii- 
can  trade  by  way  of  Iji  Plata,"  and  iircKiirnl  re 
strictions  upon  it  whiili  were  rela.iiHl  in  Itlis  *. 
far  as  to  permit  the  sending  of  two  ves.si-lsof  Iiiii 
tons  each  every  year  to  Spain,  but  sulijeet  t"  a 
duty  of  ,50  per  cent.     "  t'niler  this  misentlile 
coinmereial  legislation  Buenos  Avres  contiiiiutl 
to  langui.sh  for  the  first  century  of  its  exisn  me. 
In  17i.'i,  after  the  treaty  of  I'treclit,  the  KiiLrlisli 
.  .  .  obtained  the  'asiento' or  contract  for  mi|>- 
|)lying  Spanish  colonies  in  America  with  .Vtrioan 
slaves,  ill  virtue  of  which  tliey  had  permission  to 
form  an  establishment  at  Buenixs  Ayres.  iinil  10 
send    thither   annually    four  ships  wiih    1 '.'OO 
negroes,  the  value  of  which  they  might  e\i>ort  in 
produce  of  the  country.     They  were  strieili  for 
bidden   to    introiiuie   other    gooils    than    tlnw« 
iieiressary    for    their    <iwn    estabiisiiinenis:    iiiu 
under  the  temptation  of  gain  on  the  one  siile  and 
of  demand  on  the  other,  the  asiento  ships   natur- 
ally became  the  means  of  trausactiag  a  coiuider 


132 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC.  1880-1777. 


able  contraband  tnde.  .  .  .  Tho  English  wore 
not  the  only  amuKglerH  In  the  rivt-r  Plate.     Uy 
tlic  treaty  of  Utrecht,  the  PortiiKueite  hail  obtained 
llie  important  settlement  of  C'olonia  [the  first 
Nttlement  of  the  Banda  Oriental — or  'Eastern 
UorJer'— afterwards  calleii   Uni^juay]    directly 
fiicini;  Buenos  Ayres.  .  .  .  The  Portuguese,  .  .  . 
not  contented  with  the  po«ses.,ion  of  Colonltt  .  .  . 
<c>mmence<l  a  more  important  settlement  near 
.Miiiite    Video.       From    this    plaie    they    were 
(li'tliMlired  bv Zavala  [Uovenior  of  Buenos  Ayres], 
«Ihi.  Iiy  order  of  Ids  government,  proceeded  to 
I'slalilish  .settlements  at  that  plai  e  anil  at  .Mnldo- 
iiiulo.     I'nder  the  oIotvc  detaileil    circumstances 
iif  lonlention  .  .  .  Wiis  founded  the  healthy  and 
airncahle  city  of  Monte  Video.  .    .  .  The  incvi- 
talile  consequence  of  this  state  of  tilings  was  fresh 
antaironism  between  the  two  countries,  wluch  it 
«  IS  .sought  to  put  an  end  to  by  a  treaty  tx'tween 
thf  two  nations  conclude<l  in  li.V).     One  of  the 
:irti(  U'S  stipulated  that  Portugal  should  cede  to 
Spain  all  of  her  establishments  on  the  eastern 
Ii-ink  of  the  Plata;  in  return  for  which  she  wsa 
t"  receive  the  seven  missionary  t<iwns  [known  as 
tlie  ■  Sven  Keductions ']  on  llie    Iruiruay.     But 
.  .  .  the  inhabitjints  of  tlie   Missions  natundlv 
n  In  Hell  against  the  idea  of  l)«ing  han<ied  ovit  to 
:i  |ieo|ile  known  to  them  only  by  their  slave  deal- 
in:.'  atrocities.  .  .  .  The  result  was  that  wlien 
a.iHKt  natives  had  lieen  slaughtered  [in  tlie  war 
knnwii  as  the  War  of  thi'  l*;ven  Keductions]  and 
till  ir  ^ittlenients  reduced  to  ruins,  the  Portuguese 
ri  imdiiited  tlie  compact,  as  thev  coiilil  no  Linger 
uiiiw  their  eiiuivalent.  and  they  still  tlierefore 
ri-T. lined   Colonia.      When    hostilities    were    re- 
nrwisl  in  1762,  the  governor  of  Buemw  Avrcs 
Miceeeded  in  pos.sessing  himse'f  of  Colonia; 'but 
inthi- fiilloning  year  it  was  resto.iil  lo  the  Por- 
tuiu,  «■,  who  continued  in  pos.-essiiin  until  1777, 
wlaii  it  was  definitely  ceded  to  iSpain.     Tlie  con- 
tinual incroachnients  of  the  Portuguese  in  the 
Kill  lie  I,a  Plata,  and  the  imputiity  with  wliich 
llie  (iintniband   trade  was  carried' on,  together 
with  llie  questions  to  which  it  constantlv  gave 
rise  Hiih  foreign  governments,  had  long 'shown 
tlie  iimssity  for  a  change  in  ttie  government  of 
that  n.l.iny;  for  it  was  still  under  the  superinten- 
ilinie  of  the  Viceroy  of  Peru,  n'siiling  at  Lima, 
H.ooo  miles  distant.      The   Sjianish  authorities 
nil    rilingly  resolveil  to  give  Iresh  force  to  their 
ri^pri  sentatives  in  llic  Rio  de  La  Plata;  and  in 
ITTii  ihey  took  tlie  Important  resolution  to  sever 
till-  mnnection  bctwe»'n  the  provincesof  Li  Plata 
mill  the  Viceroyalty  of  Peru.     The  former  were 
iiiiw  en  I  t«l  into  anew  Viceroyaltv,  tlie  capital 
iif  which  was  Buenos  Ayres.  ...  To  this  Vice- 
r.  •  illy  was  appointeil    Don  Pedro  Ccvallos.  n 
("riiiergoverniirof  Buenos  Ayres.  .  .  .  The  ti  ret 
act  of  Cevallos  was  to  take  possession  of  the  island 
of  St.  Katherine.  the  most  Important  Portuguese 
possession  on  the  coast  of  Brazil.     Procveiiing 
till nie  to  tlie  Plate,  lie  razed  the  fortifications  of 
Coliinia  to  the  ground,  and  drove  the  Portuguese 
from  the  mighlmurhiKKi.     In  October  of  the  foi- 
l-wing year.  1777,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed 
■;  St.  Ihlefonso,  lietwecn  Queen  Maria  of  Portii- 
wul  and  Charles  IIL  of  Spain,  by  virtue  of  which 
St   K.;'lierine's  was  restored  to  the  latter  country 
wiiilst  Portugal  withdrew  from  the  Banda  Orien- 
'-'    r  Iniguay,  r,iv\  reliiiquislied  ull  pretensions 
to  ihc  right  of  navigating  the  Kio  de  La  Plata 
atiii  itsHlfluenU  beyond  its  own  frontier  line. 
The  Vioiroyalty  of  Buenot  Ayre*  w 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC,  1806-1820. 

Into  the  provinces  of— <1.)  Buenos  Ayres,  tho 
capital  of  which  was  the  citv  of  that  name,  and 
which  comprised  the  Spanish  pisscsslons  tlint 
now  form  the  I{epiiblic  of  Uruguay,  as  well 
as  the  Argentine  provinces  of  Buenos  Avrc'S, 
Santa  Fe,  Entrc  Uios.  and  Corrientes;  (2.)  Para- 
guay, the  capital  of  wliich  was  Asuncion,  and 
which  comprised  what  is  now  the  Republic  of 
Paraguay;  (.3.)  Tuciiman,  the  capital  of  which 
was  St.  lago  del  Estero.  and  which  included 
what  are  to-day  the  Argentine  provinces  of  Cor- 
dova, Tucuman,  St,  lago,  Salta,  Catamarca, 
Kioja,  and  Jujuy;  (4.)  Las  Cliarcas  or  PotosI, 
the  capiul  of  which  was  Im  Plata,  and  which 
now  forms  the  Kepiiiilic  of  Bolivia;  and  (5) 
Chiquito  or  Ciiyo,  the  capital  of  wliich  was  Men- 
doza,  and  in  wliich  were  comprehended  the  pre- 
sent Argentine  provinces  of  St.  Luiz,  Jleiidoza, 
and  St.  Juan."— U.  O.  Watson,  Spniiith atul Pt>r- 
turjiuK  Suuth  Ameriru,  r.  2,  i-h.  13-U. 

Auto  IK;  E.  J.  Payne,  /filtiry  of  European. 
Oianit;  ch.  17.— S.  H.  Wilcockc,  Hut.  uf  Ifa 
i  i«rmy«;/y  nf  liueiu^  Ai/rt: 

A.  D.  1806-1830.— The  Engltth  ioTasion.— 
The  Revolution.— Independence  achieved.— 
Confederation  of  the  Provinces  of  the  Plate 
{*'»«»  "d  its  dissolution.- •Tiielnideof  the 
1  late  Kivir  had  enorniouslv  increaseil  since  the 
substitution  of    register  sliips   for   the  annual 
flotilla,  ami  the  erection  of  Buenos  .Vyres  into  a 
viceroyalty  in  177H;  but  it  was  not  until  the  war 
of  1797  that  the  English  iK-canie  aware  of  its  re.1l 
e.vtent.     The  British  cruisers  hiul  enough  to  do 
to  maintain  the  blockade:  and  when  the'Knglish 
h'urniil  that  millions  of  hides  were  rotting  in  tho 
warehouses  of  .Monte  Video  and  Buenos  -Vyrcs, 
they  concluded  that  the  people  would  si«)n  sec  that 
their  interests  would  be  liest  served  by  submis- 
sion t/i  tlie  great  nival  power.     The  peace  put 
an  end  to  these  iili-is:  but  Pitt's  favourite  pro- 
ject for  destroying  Spanish  influence  In  South 
America  by  the  English  arms  was  revived  and 
put  in  e.xecution  siHin  after  the  opening  of  tlie 
second  European  war  in  1803.     In  lHofl  ...  he 
sent  a  squadron  to  the  Plate  River,  which  offered 
the  liest  point  of  attack  to  the  British  Ueet.  and 
the  roail  to  tho  most  promising  of  tlie  Sjianisli 
colonics.     The   English,    under  Gcniriil    IkTes- 
ford,  though  few  in  numtwr,  soon  tisik  Buenos 
Ayres,  for  the  Spaniards,  territied  at  the  sight 
of  British  troops,  surrendered  without  knowing 
liow  insignilicant  the  invading  force  really  was. 
When  they  found  this  out,  tliey  mustereil  cour- 
age to  attack  lU-resford  in  the  citadel;  and  the 
English  commander  was  obliged  to  evacuate  the 
place.     The  English  soon  afterwards  tiMik  pos- 
session of  .Monte  Video,  on  the  other  side  of  tlie 
river.     Here  they  were  joined  by  another  s<iua- 
droii,  wlio  were   under  orders,    after  reducing 
Buenos  .\yres.  to  sail  round  tlic  Horn,  to  take 
Valparaiso,  and  establisli  posts  across  the  conti- 
nent connecting  timt  city  with  Buenos  Avres 
thug  executing  tlie  long-cherislied  plan  of  Loni 
Anson.     Buenos  .Vyres  was  therefore  Invcsteil  a 
.second  time.     But  the  English  land  forces  were 
too  few  for  their  task.     The  Spaniards  spread  all 
round  the  city  strong  breastworks  of  oxhides, 
and  collecteil   all   their  forees   for  its  defence. 
Buenos  Ayres  was  stormcf)  by  the  Enslish  a; 
two  points  on  the  .'ith  of  July,   1WJ7;  but  they 
were  unable  to  hold  their  ground  against  the 
i.  j._,j       1   >""-'e«»'n8    fire    of    tho    Spaniards,    who    were 
sub-divided  I  greatly  superior  in  numbers,  and  the  next  day 

133 


AROENTINE  BEPCBLIC,  1806-1880. 


AROENTmE  REPUBLIC,  181»-;874 


pr 
I  in 


Ihcy  capitulated,  and  ngreed  to  evacuate  the 
T)rovincp  within  two  monllis.     The  EDKlish  had 
inaKini-d  that  the  colonists  would  readily  flock 
to  tlieir  standard,  and   throw  o(t  the  yoke  of 
Spain.     This  was  a  great  mistake ;  anrl  it  needed 
the  event*  of  tWW  to  lead  the  Spanish  colonists 
to    their   iiuU'pendvnce.  ...  In  1810,  when  it 
came  to  he  known  that  the  French  armies  had 
croaaed  the  Sierra  Morena,  and  that  Spain  was  a 
conquered    country,    the    colonista    would    no 
longer  submit  to  the  shadowy  authority  of  the 
colonial  olBoers,  and  elected  a  Junta  of  their  own 
to  carry  on  the  Government.    Moat  of  the  troops 
in  the  colony  went  over  to  the  cause  of  inde- 
pendence, and  easily  overcame  the  feeble  resist- 
ance  that  was  macic  by   those  who  remained 
faithful  to  the  regency  in  tlie  engagement  of  Las 
Piciiras.    The  leaders  of  the  revolution  were  the 
advocate  Castelli  and  General    Belgrano;   and 
under    their    guidance    sj-arcely    any    obstacie 
stopped    its    progress.     Thev    even    sent  their 
armies  at  once  into  Upper  Peru  and  the  Banda 
Uriental,  and  their  privateers  carrie<l  the  Inde- 
pendent flag  to  the  coasts  of  the  Paciflc;  but 
tliese  successes  were  accompanietl   by  a    total 
anarchy  in  the  Argentine  capital  end  provinces. 
The  most  intelligent  and  capable  men  had  gone 
off  to  flght  for  litjcrty  elsewhere;  and  even  if 
they  had  remained  it  "would  Imve  been  no  easy 
task  to  establish  a  new  government  over  the 
scatterc<l  and  half-civilized  population  of  this 
vast  country.  .  .  .  The  flrst  result  of  indepen- 
dence was  the  formation  of  a  not  very  intelligent 
party  of  country  proprietors,  who  knew  nothing 
of  the  mysteries  of  politics,  and  were  not  ill- 
content  with  the  existing  onler  of  things.     The 
huxiness  of  the  old  vireroyal  government  Wds 
dell-gated  to  a  supreme  Director;  but  this  func- 
tionary   was    little    more    than    titular.      How 
limited  the  aspirations  of  the  Argentines  at  flrst 
were  may  lie  gathered  from  the  instructions  with 
wlilrh  liclgrano  and    Uivadavia  were    sent    to 
Europ<'  In  1814.     Thev  were  to  go  to  England, 
and  ask  for  an  Englisli  proleclomte;  If  possible 
under  an  English  princi'.     They  were  next  to 
try  the  same  plan  in  France.  Austria,  and  Kus- 
sia.  hikI  lastly  in  Snaln  ilself:  and  if  Spain  still 
rcfuseii,  were  to  offer  to  renew  the  subjection  of 
the  colony,  on  condition  of  certain  spedfltHl  con- 
cessions lieing  made.     This  » iis  indeed  a  strange 
contrast  to  the  lofty  aspirations  of  the  C'oloni- 
bians.     On  arriving'at  Hio,  the  Argentine  liele 

fates  were  assured  by  the  English  minlsU'r, 
xir.i  StrangfonI,  lliat.  as  things  we",  no  Euro- 
p«'an  power  would  do  anything  for  them:  nor 
did  tliey  Biicn-eil  Im'IUt  in  Spain  itself.  Mean- 
while tlie  governmi'nt  of  tlie  Ouenoa  Avres 
junta  was  |Kiwerh-aa  outside  the  town,  and' the 
country  was  fast  lapsing  Into  the  utmost  dis- 
onler  and  confusion.  At  length,  when  Oovera- 
ment   could   lianlly   he  said   to  exist  at  all.  a 

Kiieral  ciingiTHs  of  the  provinces  of  the  I'late 
Iver  luwmbled  at  Tiicuinan  in  1N)8.  It  was 
n-siilvei|  that  all  the  states  shoiilil  unite  In  a  con- 
finhriillon  to  be  called  the  TnltiHl  l>nivince»  of 
the  I'lale  HIvir:  and  a  musillulltiu  was  cWkt- 
aliil.  In  imitation  of  the  famous  one  of  the 
I'liilcd  Swtes,  providing  for  two  legislative 
rliamiirraand  a  pn-sident.  .  .  ,  The  inniienee  of 
the  capital,  of  which  all  the  other  provinces 
were  knnly  jeakitis,  predonilnstiii  In  the  eon.  i 
gn-m,  auil  Piiyrredon,  an  nctivi'  Biienoa  .\yni  I 
poUticlau,  wo*  iumIv  suprtiue  Uiivclor  ol   tlM 


134 


Confederation.  The  people  of  Buenoa  Ayres 
thought  their  city  destined  to  exercise  over  the 
rural  province*  a  similar  influence  to  that  which 
Atliens,  under  similar  circumstances,  had  exer 
cised  in  Greece;  and  able  Buenos  Ayreans  like 
Puyrrcdon,  San  Martin,  and  RIvadavla.  now  lic- 
carae  the  leaders  of  the  unitary  party.  The 
powerful  nrovincials,  represented  by  such  men  aa 
Loner  and  Quiroga.  soon  found  out  that  the  Fed 
eral  scheme  meant  the  supremacy  of  Buenos 
Ayres.  m.d  a  political  change  which  would  deprive 
them  of  nifist  of  their  influence.  The  Federal  sy» 
tem,  therefore,  could  not  be  expected  to  last  very 
long;  ani  it  did  in  fact  collapse  after  four  years 
Artigas  led  the  revolt  in  the  Banda  Orient.ii 
fnow  Uruguay],  and  the  Riverene  Provinces  soon 
followed  the  example.  For  a  long  time  the 
provinces  were  practically  under  the  authority 
of  their  lix-iil  chiefs,  the  only  semblance  of  poliii- 
chI  life  lieing  conflued  to  Buenos  Ayres  itself"— 
E.  J.  Payne,  HM.  of  Eunrptnn  Colonia.  M.  17 
Also  ix:  M.  O.  Mulhall,  TKe  BnglM  in  fi 
Amerifa.  eh.  10-13,  iiiirf  16-18. -J.  Miller,  .Vrm- 
oiri  nf  General  Hitter,  eh.  8  (r.  1).— T.  J.  Patre, 
/yi  Ptiita.  the  Argentine  Gutfederation  and  Pnni'. 
guay,  eh.  ;!1. 

A.  D.  1819-1874.— Anarchy,  ciril  w«r,  deipot- 
Ism.— The  Ions  itranle  for  ordtr  and  Con- 
federation.—"A  new  Congress  met  in  1819  aiul 
ma<ie  a  CunstitutioD  for  tlie  country,  which  wus 
never  adopti-d  by  all  the  Provinces.     Pueyrnnlon 
resigned,  and  on  June  10th,  1819,  Joai  Rondeau 
was  elected,  who.  however,  waa  In  no  conditlou 
to  pacify  the  civil  war  which  had  broken  out 
during  the  government  of  his  pre<lecessors     At 
the  commencement  of  1830,  the  last  •  Director 
General'  was  overthrown;  the  municipality  uf 
the  city  of  Ruenos- Aires  seUwl  the  government; 
the  Confedi'ralion  was  tieclared    dls»<ilved,  ainl 
each  of  its  I'rovinces  receivol  lilierty  to  orKniii?e 
itself  as  it  pleased.     This  was  anarchy  otfirially 
pn>claime<l.     After  the  fall  in  the  safiie  yenr  ..f 
some  military  chiefs  who  had  seized  tlie  "power 
Gen.    Martin    Rodriguez  was   named    Oovernur 
of  Buenos- Aires,  and  he  auccee<led  In  esubliiih- 
ing  some  little  onler  in  this  chaos.     He  dKwe 
M.  J.  Garcia  ami  Bernardo  Rtvadavia  — mie  of 
the  most  enllghtenivl  Argentines  of  h.stinus- 
as  his  Ministers.     This  administration  did  a  un  ;it 
(leal   of    goiKi    by    exchanging   conventions   ,.f 
friemlship   and    comment-,   and    ent.'ring   Into 
diplomatic  relations  with  fon-Ign  natiims.     At  tin- 
end  of  his  term  General  \jt»  Heras  — iHh  May. 
1824  — took    charge    of    the    government,    siij 
called  a  Constituent  Assembly  of   all  the  I'm 
vinces,   which  met  at  Buenns-Airps.    DccciiclHr 
mth,  and  electeil  Bemanio  Kivailavia  Pri>liic  iii  ,pf 
the  newly  Confiilerated  Kepiibllc  on  the Ttli  K-li- 
ruary,  18M.    This  excellent  Argentine.  hn».  v,  r. 
found  no  Bssislanee  In  the  Congn>aa.     No  iimli  r 
staniling  muld  la-  come  toon  the  form  or  IIh'  tut 
of  the  Coiiailtiition,  nor  yet  upon  the  pliici.  nf 
B'sldence  for  the  national  Oovemnient      WlilM 
Rivadavia  di'sln'<l   a  centraiiziil  Constitution  — 
cHlle<l  lien"   '  uninlarian '— and  that  tlie  ■  it  v  nf 
Buenos  Ain's  ahouhl  Iw  de<'laml  capital  nf  llw 
Republic,  the  majority  of  Congress  hel<l  « ,|if 
fen-nt  opininn.  and  this  dlvergpiicc  cuiiscij  ihe 
nwigimtkin  of  the  President  on  the  5th  July.  I«.!7. 
After  (his  event,  the  attempt  to  esUhlish  a  (nu- 
fixleratlim  which    would    (ncliide    a!!    th«    !"?:■_ 
vlncf*  was   considennl   a*   defeated,  ami   esili 
Plurlnoc  went  on  lt«  own  way,  whlUt  Uueuuc 


AROKimNE  REPUBUC.  1819-1874 

Aires  elected  Manuel  Dorrego,  the  chief  of  the 
fedenU    party,    for    IM    QovemoT.      He    was 
inaugarated  on  the  18th  August,  1827,  and  at 
once  undertook  to  organize  a  new  Confederation 
of  the  Provinces,  opening  relations  to  this  end 
with  the   Oovemment   of   Cordoba,    the  most 
imporUnt  Province   of  the   interior.     He  suc- 
ceeded in  ntisUbiishing  repose  in  the  Interior, 
and  was  instrumental  In  nreservinir  n  general 
peace,  even   beyond   the   limits  of  "his  young 
country.    The  Emperor  of  Brazil  did  not  wish 
to  acknowledge  the  righu  of  the  United  Pro- 
vinces over  the  Cisplutinc  province,  or  Banda 
Oriental  [now  Uruguay!.     He  wishe.!  to  annex 
it  to  his  empire,  and  declared  war  to  the  Argen- 
tine Kepublic  on  the  10th  of  December,  18a«. 
An  army  was  soon  organized  by  the  latter,  under 
the  command  of  Oeneral  Alvear,  which  on  the 
2iilh   of   February,    1827,    gained   a   complete 
victory  over  the  Brazilian  forces  — twice  their 
numN-r  — at   the  plains   of   Ituzaingd.   in  the 
Brazilian    province   of    Hio   Orande    do    8ul 
The  navy  of  the  Argentines  also  triumphed  on 
several  ocr-uions,  w)  that  when  England  otfered 
her  intervention,  Brazil  renounced  all  claim  to 
till-  territory  of  Uriiiruiiy  by  the  convention  of 
the   27th    August,   182M,  and    the    two   parties 
agreed  to  recognize  and  to  maintain  the  neutralily 
and   independence  of   that  country.     Dorrego 
however,  had  but  few  sympntliii'4  "in  the  army' 
ami  a  short  time  after  his  n-lurn  from  Brazil   the 
«r)lilier!i  uniler  liavailc  relielleil  and  forced  him 
to  fly  to  the  country  on  tlie  Ist  December  of  the 
same  year.     There  he  found  aid  from  the  Com 
mander  General  of  tlie  country  districts    Juan 
Manuel  Kosas,  ami  fornu'<l  a  snuill  liattalio'n  witli 
the  intention  of  marrliing  on  the  cily  of  liuenos- 
Alres.      Hut    Lavalle    triumphed,      took     him 
friioner,  and  shot  him  without  trial  on  the  13th 
l)eeemlier.  .  .  .  Not  only  did  the  whole  interit)r 
of  the    province    of    Buenos  Ain-s    rise  agiiliist 
Uvslle,  under  the  direction  of  Kosas,  but  al*i  ii 
Urge  part  of   other  Provinces  consideml   tlili 
event  as  a  declaration  of  war.  and  the  National 
tongresa,  then  assembled  at  Santa  Fo,  declare  I 
Lavalles  government  illegal.    The  two  parties 
fought  with  real  fury,  butin  1829,  after  an  Inter    | 
view  Mween  Kosas  and  Lavalle,  a  temporary   ' 
reenncillation  wa«e(Tect«l.  .  .  .  The  legislature 
Kf  Hiienos  Aires,  which  had    been  convoked  on 
mniunlof  tile  reiH.nHllatloo  between  Uvalleand 
K't«M,  electiKl  the  lalt.r  as  (Jovemor  of  the  I'n) 
V  t.,r.  on  IVcemher  6th,  188U,  and  accor.le.1  to 
him  ejtraordjnary  p..*,™.  .  .  .  During  this  the 


ftrst  iMriiHl  of  his  government  he  di.l  not  app.  .r 
m  Ills  true  nature,  and  at  its  conclusion  1; 
nriisiM  a  n-  election  and  retired  to  the  counir\ 
Oenera  .luan  R.  Bidearce  was  then-17tli 
l>e.ember,  18.13- name<l  Oovernor,  but  could 
"Illy  maintain  hlnistir  simie  eleven  months- 
\  uimont  »uccee«le<l  lilm.  also  for  a  short  time 
"illy  Now  the  moment  hail  come  for  liiMns 
"I   sereple.!  the  almost  unlimil.-.|  IMcUtorshlp 

Ml.  Hgnetlln  a  horrible  nwii.ier  like  a  ma,i 
man.  until  his  fall     .Several  times  the  attempt 

valiant  efrorta  of  p,>iieral  Uvalle  d.-serve  to  lie 
mentliwid;  but  all  was  in  vain    Kos..  n-mglaea 

rmni.fi-*^'''*"'''. **'■'''''"'  •""""  J"**  Do 
liLi  J!r'.i^*'"™"rj''.""  province  of  Enlr.- 
HkM,  U>  •UiuoD  wltli  tlM  province  of  Corrlcnte. 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC.  1880-1891. 

and  the  Empire  of  Brazil,  rose  against  the 
Dictator.    He  first  delivered  the   Republic  of 
Uruguay    and   the  city  of  Monte- Video  —  the 
asylum  of  the  adversaries  of  Roaas- from  the 
army  which  besieged  it,  and  thereafter  passing 
the  great  river  Parani.  with  a  relatlvelylarOT 
army,  be  completely  defeated  Rosas  at  Montt- 
Vo'lSf'^f,"'!?''  ""eno^-Alrcs,  on  the  3rd  February, 
ieoi     iJuring  the  same  day,  Roaas  souirht  arid 
received    the   protection   of   an    English    war- 
vessel  which  was  In  the  road  of  Buenos  Aires,  In 
which  he  went  to  England,  where  he  still  118761 
resides.     Meantime  Urqulza  took  charge  of  the 
Government  of  the  United  Provinces,  under  the 
title   of    'Provisional    Director,"   and   called  a 
general  meeting  of  the  Governors  at  San  Nicolis 
a  frontier  village  on  the  north  of  the  province  of 
Buenos-Aires.    This  assemblage  confirmed  him 
in  his  temporary  power,  and  called  a  National 
Congress  which  met  at   Santa  Fe  and  ma<le  a 
Watlonal  Constitution  under  date  of  2.'5th  May 
18.M.     By  virtue  of  this  Constitution  the  Con- 
gress inet  again  the  following  year  at  Parani,  a 
city  of  Entre-Hios.  which  hail   lieen  made  the 
capital,  and  on  the  5th   Mav.  elected   Oeneral 
t  rqulza  the  first  President  of  the  Argentine  Con- 
federation   ...   The    important    province    of 
Buenos-Alres,  however,  had  taken  no  part  in  the 
dclibcrHtions  of  the  Congress.      Previously,  on 
the  11th  September  1832,  a  revoluthm  against 
Irquiza,    or     rather     against    the    Pnnlncial 
trovemment  in  alliance   with   him,  had   taken 
place  and  caused  a  temporary  separation  of  the 
J  rovlnce  from  the  Republic.     Several  efforU  to 
pacify  the  disputes  utteriy  failed,  and  a  Imttle 
took    place   at   Cepeda   in    Santa  Fe,    wherein 
I  rciulia,  who  commandeil  the  provincial  troops 
was  victorious,  although  his  success  led  to  no 
<ieflnite  result.     A   short  time    after,   the   two 
armies  met  again  at  Pavon  — near  the  site  of 
the  former  lialtie- and  Buenos  Aire*   won   the 
diiy.    This  secured  the  unity  of  the  Republic 
of   which    the    victorious   General    Bartolome 
Mitre     was    elected    President     for    six     years 
froin    October,    1869.     At    the    same   time    the 
>»tional    Oovemment     was    transfemsl     from 
InrntiA    to    Buenos- Aires,  and    the    latter    was 
<l.il8iT<l  the  temporary  capital  of  the  Nation, 
riie  Kepublic  owes  much  to  the  Oovernn.ent  of 
.Mitre,  and  It  is  prolwhle  that  he  woiil<l  have  done 
more  good.  If   war   had  not    liMken   out   with 
Pnraguav.  In  1863  |s.y-  ParaoiavI      The  Argen 
""  ■     '■  e  of  the 


136 


tines  t.Kik  iwrt  In  It  as  one  of  the  three  aijie.1 
States  against  the  Dictator  of  Paraguay  Fran- 
cisco SoUno  Ixipez.  «)n  the  I2lli  (hiober,  1868 
Domingo    Faustino    .Snrmiento   siicreeiled  Oen' 

?'''r',H'"l';, ''■?■"'''•■■"">■  The  litlHMober; 

1«74,  Dr.  Mcoliis  .Vveilaneda  surci'isled  him  in 
the  Oovernment. '-ri    Napp,    Th*   Ar^ntint 

Also  IK:  D  F  Sannicnto.  L^fe  in  Ihf  Arnfntint 
KriiHhlir in  Ihe  Ihiiit r,f  ihf  Turinh  —A  \  King 
I'rrHtjffiwri/nin  in  th,  Arornlinf  Hrp'Mir 

A.  D,  tUo-l89l.-Tht  Constitution  «nd  its 
workinr.  —  Govcmmtntal  comiption.  —  Tht 
R«*olutloB  of  1890,  and  tha  financial  coUaps*. 
—  'The  Argentine  const  It  111  Icihul  svsiem  In  Us 
oMtwaril  form  corresponds  c  liwlv  to  that  of  the 
I  iilte.1  Slates.  .  .  But  llw  iriwiir.l  arace  of 
eu  -hiraKl  t»„hlt,-.  "pfBl,*  i,  hrking,  and 
political  practice  fails  below  the  level  of  a  self 
governing  democracy.  Congn-ss  enacts  lawa, 
but  the  Prusldvnt  as  coumanasr  in  chief  of  Uw 


!       -. 


AROENTINE  REPCBUC,  1880-18»1. 

limy,  and  as  the  head  of  a  civil  service  depend- 
ent upon  his  will  and  caprice.  posHosws  abso- 
lute authority  in  administration.  The  country 
is  governed  by  executive  decrees  rather  tlian  by 
constitutional'  laws.  Ele«:tions  are  carried  Iiv 
military  pressun^  and  manipulation  of  the  civil 
service.  .  .  .  President  Roca  [who  sun^eoicd 
Avellanetia  in  IHMI)  virtuallv  nondnnted,  and 
elected  his  brother-in-law,  Juarez  Celman,  as 
his  successor.  President  Juarez  set  Ids  heart 
upon  controlling  the  succession  in  the  interest  of 
one  of  his  ri'liitives.  a  prominent  official ;  but  was 
forciil  to  retire  before  he  could  carry  out  his 
purpose.  .  .  .  Nothing  in  the  Argentine  sur- 
priseil  me  more  than  the  boldness  and  freedom 
with  which  the  press  attaclicd  the  government 
of  the  day  and  exposed  its  corruption.  .  .  .  The 
government  paid  no  heed  to  these  attacks. 
Ministers  di<l  not  trouble  themselves  to  ri^pel 
charges  atTecting  their  integrity.  .  .  .  This 
wholesome  criticism  from  an  indejiendent  press 
had  one  important  effect.  It  gave  direction  to 
public  opinion  in  the  capital,  and  involved  the 
organization  of  the  Union  Civica.  If  the  coun- 
try had  not  iH'en  on  the  verge  of  a  tinancial 
reviUnion.  there  might  not  have  been  the  ri'volt 
against  the  Juarez  lulministration  in  July,  1890; 
but  wltli  ruin  and  disaster  confronting  them, 
men  turned  agninst  the  President  whose  incom- 
petence and  venality  would  have  been  conilone<l 
If  the  times  had  tieen  good.  The  Union  Civica 
was  founded  when  the  government  was  charge<l 
witli  niiilailministration  in  sanctioning  an  illegal 
issue  of  #W,0(H».tHK)ofpapermoney.  ,  .  .The  gov- 
ernment was  suddenly  confn>nte<l  with  an  arinni 
coalition  of  the  liest  battalions  of  the  anny.  the 
entire  navy, and  the  Union  Civica.  The  manifesto 
ImhciI  liy  the  l{«>vn|utionarv  Junta  was  a  terrililc 
arnilginiient  of  the  I>i)liti(ik1  crimesof  the  Junn'Z 
Uoverninent.  ,  .  .  The  revolution  onenetl  with 
evi'ry  prospect  of  suci'ess.  It  failed  from  the 
incapacity  of  tlic  leaders  to  co-opcrati'  liarino- 
nioiisly.  On  July  10.  1890,  the  defc-rtion  of  the 
army  was  discovered.  On  July  M  the  n-volt 
briilie  out.  For  four  days  there  was  blo<><Uhe<l 
without  definite  plan  or  purp<Me.  No  deter 
mined  attack  was  made  U|H>n  the  government 
p«l;ice.  Till'  Meet  opj'ned  a  fantastic  boinliard 
nient  upon  thi  suhurlis.  There  was  iiiexpliciible 
mlsmanagenii'iit  of  the  insurgent  forces,  and  on 
July  '.ill  an  ignnmiiiioiis  surrender  to  the  govern 
nii'iit  with  It  pnKiamation  of  general  amnesty 
tiinrml  KiH'a  riinnlnetl  la'hind  tlie  seines,  apiwr 
enlly  iiin^li  r  nf  the  situation,  wliile  Presiilent 
Jimri'j  hiiil  Heil  to  a  plai-e  of  nfiiitc  on  the 
Ui>s;irii<  niilwny.  and  twi>  factions  of  the  nrniy 
wiri'  playiii)!  nl  cross  pur|NM'S.  and  the  (Hilii-e 
and  tlie  vnhintetn  of  tlie  Union  Clviia  were 
shiHitIng  wiiinin  and  chihln-i  in  the  stnits. 
Anoihir  week  of  h<i|H<|eas  confusion  p>iss<il,  anl 
Uc'iiiml  iliN'a  aniiouiioMi  the  n-signitlinii  nf 
Pri'siilint  Jiisri'/.  and  the  suecesslon  nf  vice 
Pnsiili'iit  l*i'l|i'i;nni  Then  the  city  was  illiiml 
IMti'd.  and  for  threi>  days  there  was  a  pitnile 
moniiini  of  popnliir  njoiiing  over  a  victory  which 
DolNsiy  exi'pl  tli'mrai  l(-H'a  undersliMHi.  .  . 
In  June,  I-*!!!  Ilir  ili  pl.iralile  state  of  .Vrgentine 
flnance  wim  nvnileil  In  a  luminous  sta<einent 
made  by  Pnsiiliiit  Pellegrini.  All  business 

Inti'n-sts  wiTi'  stagnant.     Immignilion  liad  Inh'u 
llivcrtiil     U>    Hi'..i:ll  .    All      Inijostrica     wi<n< 

pMslraUsI   exi-epl    (Milltics,    and  the  pernicious 
Mtlrlty  displayed  by  factluni  was  an  evil  augury 


AKQONAUTIC  EXPEDITION. 

for  the  return  of  prosperity.  .  .  .  During  thirty 
years  the  country  has  trebliHl  its  populatiun,  its 
Increase  bein.i;  relatively  much  more  rapid  than 
that  of  the  United Htatesduring  the  same  pcriixl. 
The  estimate  of  the  present  popuUtion  [1892]  la 
4.000,000  in  place  of  1,160,000  in  1857.  .  .  . 
Disastrous  as  the  results  of  political  government 
and  flmmeial  disonicr  have  been  in  the  Argeii 
tine,  its  ultimate  recovery  by  slow  stages  U 
probable.  It  has  a  ningniocent  railway  system, 
an  industrious  working  population  recruited 
from  Euro|K-.  and  nearly  all  the  material  appli- 
ances for  progress. "  —  I.  N.  Ford,  Trajnml 
Ameriea.  eh.  «.— See  Cosstitutiow,  Aroektink. 
A.  D.  189a,— Pretidcntiml  Election.— Dr. 
Luis  Saenz- Pcna,  former  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  and  reputed  to  Ih'  a  man  of 

5reat  integrity  and  ability,  was  cliosen  Presi- 
ent,  and  inaugurated  October  12,  1892. 

ARCINUSAE,   Battle   oL     See   Greece: 
B.  C.  40«. 
ARCONAUTIC   EXPEDITION,    Tbe.- 

"The  ship  Argo  was  tlie  theme  of  many  songs 
during  the  oldest  |H'riiids  of  the  Un'cian  Kpic, 
even  earlier  than  the  (Myssey.  The  king ..KCtCs, 
from  whom  she  is  diparttng,  the  lieru  Jasdn,  who 
commands  her.  and  the  gixidesa  iltrf,  who 
watches  over  him,  enabling  the  Argo  to  traverse 
diatanc(«  and  to  csca|i<>  liangers  which  no  aliip 
hail  ever  before  encountereil,  are  all  cln-iini 
stances  briclly  glanced  at  by  Oilyaseus  in  his  iiar 
rative  to  Alkinous.  ,  .  .  Jasiin,  eommnniieii  liy 
Pelias  to  depart  in  quest  of  tile  golden  Hei'ce  Ik>- 


longing  to  tlie  speaking  ram  which  had  earriiil 
awav Phrvxus  and  ililT?,  was e-Li.-ouraged  by  ihr 
oracle  to  fnvite  the  noblest  vouth  of  (Irw-ce  to  his 


aid.  and  tifty  of  the  most  ilistingiiiNlieti  nmonL'st 
them  obeyed  the  call.  Il(>nikl0a,  TliOsius. 
TelaniAn  and  P><k'us.  Kastor  and  Pollux,  Mus 
and  Lvnkcus  —  '/.HCn  and  Kalats,  the  wliii."il 
sons  of  Hort-as  — Meleager.  Amphiaraus.  Ki'ph 
ens,  LaertCs.  .\iitiilykus,  Memetius,  Aktor.  Kr 
ginus,  Kunh^mus,  Auka'us,  Picas,  IVriklviin'iMii. 
Augeaa,  Eurytiis.  Adin(<tus,  Akastiis,  kaiir. 
Kuryalus,  P^ueleiV  and  I/<<itus,  Askalaphiis  :im>I 
lalmcniu,  wen' among  them.  .  .  .  Since  s<i  in  oiy 
able  men  have  tn'ateil  it  as  an  undispiihj 
reality,  and  even  made  it  the  pivot  of  systiiiiiiiii 
ciminological  calculations.  I  may  heri!  i^'Imhi  iIh 
opinion  long  ago  expressed  by  Ileyne.  ami  m'  11 
Indicated  by  Bumiann.  that  the  pris-ess  of  ilj. 
seeting  the  story,  in  si'srch  of  a  liasis  of  fari  i» 
one  altogether"  friiilliss.'— (1.  Orole,  IlitI  -t 
(trtfff.  r.  1,  i>l  1.  cA.  1:1.—"  In  the  rich  1  lu-i'  r 
of  myths  which  surround  tlie  captain  of  tin 
Argo  and  his  fi  Hnws  are  pn'si'rvisl  to  iis  tin' 
whole  life  and  doings  of  the  nnn'k  niariiimi' 
Irilaw,  which  gndiially  iinltinl  all  the  iiaia|>.  »l!li 
one  another,  and  altractisl  Hellenes  dwilliin,'  111 
the  mi  St  different  seats  into  the  splnn' nf  iliur 
activity.  .  .  .  Tlie  Argo  was  sidii  to  liuvi' 
welghi'tl  anchor  from  a  variety  of  (sifts—  fh'in 
lolciis  in  Thiiwaly,  from  Antlieiion  and  Siplie  m 
Ikpolia:  IIh*  home  of  Jason  hinwlf  wns  •■!, 
Mount  IVIion  liy  ttie  sea,  ami  again  on  !,•  tnir.-s 
and  in  Corinth;  a  clear  pnsif  of  how  h- iih' 
gemtius  wen'  the  in.  iienoes  running  on  v.iii'us 
cimsts.  However,  tlie  myths  of  the  Argn  mrt 
developed  in  the  gri'Stesl  comph-teness  mi  •!•• 

\*Hg»K4'un    gulf.   In    tile    ■#>>!«    nf    Ih"  Min^i      ^'"i 

they  are  IIk'  first  with  whom  a  perceptible  in  >i- 
nwDt  uf  tiM  Pulaagiaa  tribw  bcyand  tba  srs     is 


136 


AROONAUTIC  EXPEDITION. 

other  wonb,  s  Oreek  bUtonr  io  Europe  — be- 
gin*. "—  E.  Curtlus,  UM.  of  Orttee,  hk.l.ch.  %-ii. 
ARCOS.-  ARCOLIS.  — ARC!  VES.— ■ '  No 

district  of  Oreece  contains  so  deoae  a  lUccoiatoD 
of  powerful  citadels  in  a  narrow  space  as  Argo- 
lls  [the  eastern  peninsular  projection  of  the 
Peloponnesus],  Lofty  Larissa,  apparently  de- 
iigned  by  nature  as  the  centre  of  the  district,  is 
succeeded  by  Mycen»,  deep  In  the  recess  of 
the  land ;  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  lies  Mides, 
at  the  brink  of  the  sea-coast  Tiryns;  and  lastlr, 
at  a  farther  distance  of  half  an  hour's  nurch, 
Kaupliu.  with  its  harbour.  This  succession  of 
ancient  fastnesses,  whose  Indestructible  struc- 
ture of  stone  we  admire  to  this  day  [see  Schlie- 
mann's  '  Mfftna'  and  Tirynj']  U  clear  evi- 
ilenoe  of  mighty  conflicU  which  agitated  the 
tiirlit'Ht  days  of  Argos;  and  proves  that  in  this 
line  philn  of  Inaclius  sevcrnl  principalltiea  must 
have  arisen  by  the  side  of  one  another,  each 
putting  iU  conlldcnce  in  the  walls  of  its  citadel ; 
some,  according  to  Uielr  position,  maintaining 
an  intercourse  with  other  lands  by  sea,  others 
rather  a  connection  with  the  inland  country. 
The  evidence  preserved  by  these  monuments  "is 
liorne  out  by  that  of  the  mvlhs,  according  to 
which  the  dominion  of  Danaus  is  dirlded  among 
his  successors.  Exile<l  Pnptus  Is  brought  home 
to  Argos  by  Lycian  bands,  with  whose  lidii  he 
builds  the  cottstfortress  of  Tirvns,  where  he 
holds  sway  as  the  first  ami  mightfest  In  the  land. 
.  .  .  The  other  line  of  the  Itanaidie  is  also  tu- 
tlnuilely  connected  with  Lyria I  for  Perseus  .  . 
[who)  on  bis  return  from  the  East  finmds  Mycenn"! 
as  the  new  regal  seat  of  the  uniUnl  kIngiiiHn  of 
ArnDs.    is  himself  essentially  a  Lt-clan   hero  of 

I)..l.»        I... I. .„..!....    ...      .1...      II      *!.„       ../      .  1. 


ARQ08. 

but  Impotent  competitor.  By  what  steps  the 
dechne  of  her  power  had  taken  place,  we  are  un- 
able to  ;nake  out,  nor  can  we  trace  the  succes- 
sion of  her  kings  subseiiucnt  to  Pheidon  fSth 
centurv  B.  C  ]  .  .  The  title  [of  king]  existed 
(thougli  prolmbly  with  very  limited  functions) 
Bt  the  time  of  the  Persian  \Vjir  [B.  C.  490-»791. 
.  .  .There  is  some  ground  for  presuming  that 
the  king  of  .\rgos  was  even  at  tliat  time  a  Her- 
akleid  — since  the  Spartiins  offeri-d  to  him  a 
thini  part  of  the  comniiind  of  the  Hellenic  forec 
conjointly  with  their  own  two  kings.     The  con- 

auest  of  Thyn.^  ;e»  by  the  .Spar.ans  [about  847 
.0.]  deprived  the  Argeians  of  a  valuable  por- 
tion of  their  Periirkis,  or  depimdcnt  territory. 
But  Omeie  and  the  remaining  porlion  of  Kynu- 
ria  still  continued  to  belong  to  ihcm:  the  plain 
round  their  city  was  very  priNliittive;  and.  ex- 
cept Sparta,  tliere  was  no  other  power  in  Pelo- 
p<mnesus  superior  to  them.  .Mykenie  and  Tirvns 
nevertheless,  seem  lioth  to  have  been  indepen- 
dent States  at  the  time  of  the  Persian  War  since 
IxHh  sent  contingents  to  the  Iwtlle  of  Plaliea, 
at  a  time  when  Argos  held  aloof  and  rather 
favoured  the  Pcrsian-s. "  —  O.  Orote,  Ilitt  of 
Grttee.pt.  i,  ch.  8  (r.  2). 
B.   C.   4g6-4at.  — Calmmitout   War   with 


;,  T     .    .    ","■■  ■"""•■»".<  •  «.»<.i«ii   iHTu  oi      ntiii  extone<l   fnmi  the  .fiir  nrtuns  «t  Vuni.lln 

n.htl».longing,o  the  rrlglono^  Apollo.  .  .  .    !  and  rava«-d  the  Argivet^ri  or        Thcffl^^^^ 
Finally,  lleracles  him.icif   s  cimnect    '  w  th  tho      m,..t.....r,.ii  .i.„i.  J ..  .  ;,  .  ,■,'"•  ■^' *," '"''» 


Finally,  Heruiles  him.icif  Is  cimnect  "'  with  the 
fsinily  (if  the  Pcrseids,  as  a  prince  .,om  on  the 
Tir)-nthlan  fastness.  .  .  .  During  these  divisions 
III  ihe  house  of  Danaus.  ami  the  misfortunes  lie- 
falling  that  of  Pro'lus,  foreign  fHmilit>s  aci|uire 
inliuiiice  and  ilominlon  in  Argos:  these  ai«  of 
the  race  of  .Eolus,  and  oriKinally  hehmg  to  the 
hHrNiur-coiintry  of  the  western  coast  of   Pelo- 
IHinui'sus  — the  Amytlia<inidfe.  .  .  .  While  the 
ilominion  of  the   Argive  land   was  thus    sub- 
iliviiled.  and  Ihe  native  warrior  nobility  sulme- 
(liiciilly  eihausteil  itself  in  savage  Internal  feuds, 
s  new  roysl  house  But'n<-<li'd  In   grasping  the 
•upn-me  power  and  giving  an  entirely  new  im- 
|)..rl«iire  u»  Ihe  wiuntry.     This  house  was  that 
•if  the    Taatalidff  [or    Pklofiim,    which    see] 
unlUil  with  Ihe  I'ones  of  Achmin    piipulallon. 
.  .  .  The  n-siiltie  of  fact  Is.  tliat  Ihe  ancient  dy- 
nasty, c<iiine<'lul   by  descent   with   Lycia     was 
nvcrthniwn  by  the  house  whicli   derive<l    Its 
I'riirin  from  LydIa,  ,  ,  ,  The  poetic  myths,  ab 
hiirring  long  rows  of  names,  mention  thre.>  prin- 
i'«s»  niling  hen'  In  suciTsslon.  one  leaving  the 
"vpinnf  I'rloiMU)  the  other,  vlt.  Atri'Uu,  Thv 
ivi«  and   Agnmeinniiii.     Mvcenw   Is  "he  chli-f 
"Hi  of  their  rule.  whi.  h  Is  i^it  restricted  to  the 
ilKtri.t  of  Argos."— E.  Curtlus,  UitofUi-r^ 
Ml,  M.  8  —After  th.-  Uiric  invasion  of  lia- 
1 1  ii  ivinnesiis  {mv  Urketk:   Tii«  .Mhikatiom.. 
sKi,  DoKuNs  AXD  Io!ii.*ssi,  Argtis  appears  In 
UfiTk  history  as  a  IViric  state,   originally   the 
fori'miist  one  in  iMweramI  Influence,  but  humlli- 
sinl  after  Iohk  years  of  rivalrv  bv  her  HrMrmn 
r»  iMlilnmm.        Argia  never  forgot  that  »li 


Sp«it».— Noo-«ction  in  the  Persian  War.— 
Slow  recoTtryof  th*  crippled  State.— "Ono 
of  the  heaviest  blows  which  .Vrgos  ever  sustained 
at  the  liand  of  hertnulitioiml  foe  befell  her  alNiut 
41«  B.  C,  six  years  before  the  Hrst  Pi-rsiim  In- 
vasion of  Qrvwe.  A  war  with  .Sparta  having 
broken  out,  Clmmenes,  the  Ijirnl.i.moniin  king, 
"iicceeileil  in  landing  a  lurire  uniiv,  in  vessels  ho 
Imil  extone<l   from  the  .Et'lnetuns.  at  Nuuplin 


muslenif all  their  ?orces  to  nsint  him.  and  the 
l»i>  nrinies encampeti  opiMislte  emh  other  nenr 
Tirvns.  I'leomenes,  however,  eoiitriveil  to  at- 
tack the  Argelans  at  a  moment  niieii  they  weto 
unprepareil,  making  use,  if  Hernlotus  is  to  be 
credited,  of  a  stratagem  which  proves  tlie  ex- 
Irente  incapacity  of  the  opposing  generals,  and 
completely  routed  them.  The  Argeians  loik 
n>fuge  In  a  sacred  «•  ive,  to  which  the  rcmorsu- 
less  Spartans  set  lire,  and  so  de<itrove<l  almost 
the  whole  of  them.  No  fewer  than  HidOl)  of  the 
citizens  of  Argfis  perislietl  on  this  dlsuHtrous  day. 
I'leomene*  might  have  captured  the  city  Itself- 
but  he  was,  or  a/TeoUM  to  Is-,  liiiiden-d"  bv  nn- 
fttvouralile  omens,  and  drew  oH  his  troops. '  The 
loss  sustained  by  Argos  was  so  ss'verc  as  to  re- 
duce her  for  some  years  u>  a  coiidiilon  of  girat 
weakness;  lull  this  was  at  the  time  a  fortunate 
circumstance  for  the  Hellenic  ciiiiw,  Inasiiiiich  as 
It  enabled  the  [.iMetilieinoniiins  to  devoie  their 
whole  encrifles  to  llie  work  of  reslstanii^  to  the 
Persian  invasion  wllhmii  fenrof  eminii-sat  lumie. 
In  this  great  work  Arifm  t<s>k  no  iMrt,  on  the 
iHiaslon  of  either  the  tirst  or  wccinj  atU'mpt  of 
the  Persian  kinirs  lu  bring  Hellas  under  their 
dnmlnion.  Inde-l,  the  city  was  strongly  sus- 
ix-cteil  of  '  medisInK  '  t<<iii|enclrs.  In  the  jiertod 
following  the  final  overthrow  of  the  Persians, 
while  .Vi hens  was  pursuing  the  sple-.^id  career 
of  aggrandisement  and  conqueat  tli  it  maile  li<.r 
Ihe  fori'mosl  stale  In  Ureece,  and  while  the  Lace- 
dirmonUiis  were  paralyzed  by  ilie  revolt  of  the 
Mes»-s!3!!s.  .\rgo»  n^4fw=*i  rtf-'ii-fh  aftti  in 
flueiice.   whl<  h    site  at  imce  emplovol  and    In 


„--       .  ,,,,,^  aHwi    K^iftn  iiiAi  HIM-    hiwl 

i;^nXtwiM^'5'^''L:^t.r"^'-''l".;."'«  r*-'' "V»'-  han..rp;;ih.v:'""'"Tde",;';puta: 

«r  iwiiDg  tuwanis  ttpwta  wm  tbat  of  a  jvaluua     Un(  MyoMMl  aati  TJrya^  WhUe  iht  cooimUwI 

137 


AR008. 


ARIANISM. 


■erenl  other  lemi-independent  places  In  the  Ar- 

Silld  to  acknowledge  her  ■upreraac>  During 
e  first  eleven  years  of  the  Pi-loponnesian  war, 
down  to  the  peace  of  Nlclaa  (421  B.  C),  Arg » 
held  aloof  from  all  participation  in  the  struggle, 
adding  to  her  wraith  and  perfecting  her  military 
organization.  As  to  her  domestic  conditions  and 
political  sysu-m,  little  is  known ;  but  it  Is  certain 
tiiat  the  govi'rament,  unlike  that  of  other  Dorian 
states,  was  dcmocretic  in  its  character,  though 
there  was  in  tlie  city  a  strong  oligarchic  and 
philo-Laconiiin  party,  which  was  destined  to  ex- 
ercise a  decisive  influence  at  an  important  crisis." 
—  C.  H.  Hanson,  The  Land  of  Oiteee,  eh.  10. 

Also  w  :  O.  Orote,  IliH.  of  Oreeee,  pt.  2,  eh.  86 
(e.4). 

B.  C.  4ai-4i8.  — Lean*  formed  against 
Sparta.— dutbreak  of  War.— Defeat  atlfan- 
tinea.  —  RcToiution  in  the  OUnrchical  and 
Spartan  interest.  See  Orbkcb-B.  C.  421-418. 
B.  C.  395-3S7— Confederacj  acaiiMt  Sparta. 
—The  Corinthian  War.— Peace  of  Antalddas. 
See  Qrkece:    H,  C.  SMIMST. 

B.  C.  371.— Mob  outbreak  and  maasacre  of 
chief  citizens.    80c  Greece:    B.  C.  871-363. 

B.  C.  338.— Territories  restored  by  Philip  of 
Macedon.    SccUkef.ce:    B.  C.  8S7-886. 

B.  C.  271.— Repulse  and  death  of  ^rrbns, 
king  of  Epirus.  See  Macedokia  :  B.  C.  277- 
844. 

B.  C.  a39.—Lil>erated  from  Macedonian  con- 
trol.   SecURKKcK:    B.  C.  2HO-146. 

A.  D.  a67. -Ravaged  by  th*  Cotha.  See 
OoTlIs;    A.  11.  2.'>H-a«f 

A.  D.  39$.— Plundered  br  th*  Goths.  Sec 
Oothd:    .\.  T).  3B,'>, 

A.  D.  1463.— Taken  by  the  Turks,  retaken 
by  the  Venetians.  8ee  Greece:  A.  D.  1434- 
147U. 

A.  D.  168A.— Taken  by  the  Venetians.  Sec 
Tl'BKS:    A.  1).  I«(*4-16»6. 

» 

ARGVRASPIDES,  The.-"  He  [Alcxamler 
the  Orcnil  then  marched  into  India,  tlml  he 
might  Imve  lii^  eniiiiro  hounded  by  the  ocenn, 
and  tlie  cxtn'nic  |mrts  of  the  f^ust.  ThHt  tli« 
equipments  of  Ills  army  miRht  be  suitable  to  the 
gli)ry  of  the  K.xiittiltion,  lie  mounted  the  trap- 
pings of  the  homes  snd  the  arms  of  the  soldiers 
with  silver,  ami  lall.d  a  body  of  his  men,  from 
having  silver  sliliUls,  Argyraspldes."- Justin, 
Z/iV'.ry  (tr.tn:  fty  J.  S.  WnUrnn).  bk.  13,  eh.  7. 

AiJio  im:  I'.  Thlriwall,  Hint.  M  '}rttet,  eh.  5«. 
— S<T.  iilw).  Ma('Kim>ma:  B.  C.  ^23-816. 
ARCVRE.    So<'  (RRTSR. 
ARIA.~AREIOS.-ARBIANS.-The  name 
bv  whiih  till'  llcrirud  and  its  valley,  the  illstriit 
of    modern    llrnit,  was   known  to  the  «nil<nl 
Ort'eks.    Il«  liiliiililtuntswcro  known  as  the  Ari'l- 
ans  —  M    l>iiii<  kir.  Iliil.  of  Anliq..  hk.  7,  rh   1. 
ARIANA.  — "  Mtnitio  uses  the  name  Arlsiin 
for  the  liinil  of  lilt    v  nations  of  Iran,  enifpt 
that  of  the   Mnlin  and    I'treians,  i.  e,,  for  the 
whole  eaulini  half  of  Iran"— AfghaniiUn  and 
BelixK-hlMtaii  —  M.  Diinckrr.  Uia.  of  Aiititiuitu, 
f.  8,  Mr.  7,  M    I, 

ARIANISM.-ARIANS.-F>r)mthesemnd 
century  of  lt.n  rtiatenrr,  the  Christian  rliurrh 
was  diviiliil  by  hitter  controversies  tourhing  the 
mystery  of  the  Trinity.  "The  word  Trinltv  Is 
iouiiil  liritlMr  ill  ilie  Holy  Scriptures  nor  m'tlio 
writings  of  the  Hnit  ChrUthms;  but  it  liail  been 
Mipioyed  frum  the  beginning  uf  the  sewud  cvn- 


138 


tury,  when  a  more  metaphysical  turn  had  been 
given  to  the  minds  of  men,  and  theologians  had 
begun  to  attempt  to  explain  the  divine  nature. 
.  .  .  The   Founder  of   the    new  religion,    the 
Being  who  had  brought  upon  earth  a  divine 
light,  was  he  God,  was  he  man,  was  be  of  an  in- 
termediate nature,  and,  though  superior  to  all 
other  created  beings,  yet  himself  created  t    This 
latter  opinion  was  held  by  Arius,  an  Alexandrian 
priest,  who  maintained  it  in  a  series  of  learned 
controversfaU  works  between  the  years  818  and 
823.    As  soon  as  the  discussion  had  quitted  the 
walls  of  the  schools,  and  been  taken  up  by  the 
people,  mutual  accusations  of  the  gravest  kind 
took  the  place  of  metaphysical  subtleties.    The 
orthodox    party   reproached  the   Ariana    with 
bUspheming  tlie  deify  himself,  by  refusing  to 
acknowledge  him  in  the  person  of  Christ.    The 
Ariana  accused  the  orthodox  of  violating  the 
fundamental  law  of  religion,  by  rendering  to  the 
creature  the  worship  due  only  to  the  Crcntor. 
...  It  was  ditncult  to  decide  which  numbcreii 
the  hu'gest  body  of  followers;  but  the  ardent  en- 
thusiastic spirits,  the  populace  in  all  the  great 
cities  (and  especUlly  at  Alexandria)  the  women, 
and  the  newly-founded  order  of  the  monks  of 
tiie  desert  .  .  .  were  almost  without  exception 
partisans  of  the  faith  which  has  since  been  de- 
clared orthodox.  .  .  .  Constantine  thought  this 
question  of  dogma  might  be  decided  by  an  as- 
sembly of  the  whole  churcii.     In  the  year  82.'5. 
he  convoked  the  council  of  Nice  [see  ?Jic.«a[ 
CofNclL  orl,  at  which  800  bishops  pmnouncil 
in  favour  of  the  equality  of  the  Son  with  the 
Father,  or  the  doctrine  generally  rrgar  li  .1  as 
onh<xlox,  and    condemned  the  Ariana  to  exile 
and  their  books  to  the  flames."— J.  C.  L.  dc  81s- 
mondi,  FiiUofthe  Rniuin  Umpire,  eh.  4. —  "The 
victorious  faction  [at  the  Council  of  Nice]  .  .  . 
anxiously  sought  for  some  im-concilable  mark 
of  liistinction,  the  rejection  of  which  might  in- 
volve the  Arians  in  the  guilt  and  cnnaeqiienrcs 
of  heifsy.     A  letter  whs  publicly  read  ami  igno- 
mlntously  torn.  In  whidi  their  patron.  Eiis«T)lus 
of  Nicomnlin.  Ingeniously  confesw'd  that  thi'  ml- 
misnion  of  the  hom(M)usion,  or  consubatantial,  a 
word  already  familiar  to  tlie  Platonists,  was  in- 
compatible with   the   principles  of  their  tliiii. 
logical  system.     The  fortunate  op|M)rti.nitv  was 
eagerly   cmliraced.  .  .  .    The  consulMtnnliality 
of  the  Father  and  the  Son  was  esUbllshed  liv  the 
Coimcil  of  Nice,  and  has  liecn  unanimoiisfy  re- 
ceive<l  as  a  fiinilanienfjil  article  of  the  Cliristlim 
faith  by  the  consent  of  the  Greek,  the  l.atln.  the 
Oriental  and   the    I'Mti-stant  churches."     N.it- 
withntanding   the  ili-cisloii    of   the    Coiinrll  of 
Nice  against  It.  the  heresy  of  Arliis  ciintliiiietl  to 
gain   ground  in  tlie   Kast.     Even  the  Kin|M'ror 
Conslanfine  hti-ame  frieiully  to  it,  and  the  noim 
of  Conifantlne.  with  some  of  tlie  later  eniiMn.rii 
who  foUowiii  them  on  the  eastern  throne,  wi  n- 
anient  Arians  in  belief     The  HomcNiuniniiH,  ..r 
ortlioilox,  were  siilijecteil  to  peraecution.  whi,  h 
was  illnK-ttil  with  spe<-ial  bitterness  againxt  tin  ir 
git-nt  leader,  .\thanaslus.  the  famous  l>it<lio|i  if 
Alexantlria.     But    Arianism    was  weakemil  bv 
lialr-spllttiiig   illstinciions,     which     resullitl    in 
many  diveriring  cni-ils.     "The  sect  which  as- 
serteil  the  iloctrtneufa  'similar  sulistanc*''  was 
the  moat  numemiu.  at  !<>iut  In  thn  pnivimTa  of 
Asia.  .  .  .  'I'he  Greek  woril  which  was  rhiwa 
to  express  this  mysterious  resemblance  bears  »<> 
close  an  aflSoity  to  the  orttodu  symbol,  Ibat  th* 


ARUNISM. 

profane  of  every  age  have  derided  the  furioua 
contests  which  the  difference  of  a  tingle  diph- 
thong excited  between  the  Homoouslans  and  the 
Homoiouslans. "  The  Latin  churches  of  the 
West,  with  Home  at  their  head,  remained  gen- 
tmlly  arm  in  the  orthodoxy  of  the  Homonusian 
creed.  But  tlie  Qoths,  who  had  received 
their  -"hristianity  from  tl)e  lUut,  tinctured  witli 
Arianism,  carried  tlut  ueresy  westward,  and 
apreaii  it  among  their  barl>arlan  neighbors  — 
\nnil»i9,  BurguQillaiisand  Sueres — through  the 
iutlucnce  of  the  Uotliie  Bible  of  Ulfllas,  which 
lie  iiikI  his  missionary  succesaors  bore  to  Uie  Teu- 
tonic peoples.  "  The  Vandals  and  Ostrogoths 
lieraevered  in  tlie  profession  of  Arianism  till  the 
liaal  ruin  [A.  O.  833  and  553]  of  the  kingdoms 
wliich  they  had  founded  in  Africa  and  Italy, 
Tlie  barbarians  of  Gaul  submitted  [A.  D.  807] 
to  the  orthodox  dominion  of  tlio  Franks;  and 
Spain  was  restored  to  the  Catholic  Church  by 
the  voluntary  conversion  of  the  Visigotlis  [A.  D. 
SN9]."  — E.  Qibbon,  Veelitu)  and  mi  of  tht 
Riiiuin  Empire,  ch.  21  nitd  87.  —  Theodoaius 
formally  proclaimetl  his  adiiesion  to  Trinitarian 
orthodoxy  by  his  celebrate<l  olict  of  II.  D.  880, 
and  commanded  its  acceptiince  in  the  Eaatem 
Empire.  See  Home:  A.  U.  879-89.5.— A.  Ne- 
sndcr,  Oen.  Hut.  of  Chrut.  Bel.  and  Ch.,  Iran: 
bi/  Torn/,  V.  i,  $tft.  4. 

Almi  in:  J,  Alzog,  3fanualof  Cniv.  Ch.  Hitl 
««•(.  IKKIU.— W.  O.  T.  Shcild,  Uut.  of  Chrut. 
Diirli-ine,  At.  8.— J.  H.  Newman,  Ariant  of  Vie 
Ftiurlh  CtHtiiry.  —  A.  V.  Stanley,  Leett.  on  the 
Hilt,  uf  the  Hut.  Ch.,  IteU.  3-7.—.!.  A.  Domcr, 
Uitt.  iif  the  Dtivluimtent  «/  lite  Itoctrine  of  the 
/Vrwrt  nf  Chritt.  die.  1  (r.  2).— S'f,  also.  OoTiis: 
A.  0.341-381:  FiiA.iKs:  A.  D.  181-511;  also, 
OoTilsiViKiiioTiis):  A.  O.  507->V)9. 

ARICA,  Battlt  of  (i88o).  Sec  Chile:  A.  D. 
l83:Mmt. 

ARICIA,  Battle  of.— A  victory  won  by  the 
Riimaiis  oviT  llic  .Vuruncians.  B.  C.  497,  which 
suiniiuirily  endi'd  a  war  that  the  latter  had  lie- 
clarc<l  Hguinst  the  former. —Li vy,  Jliil.  of  Btme 
bk.  -i.  eh.  M.  J  J  . 

ARICIAN  GROVE,  Tht.-The  sacred  grove 
St  Aricia  (one  of  the  towns  of  old  Latium,  near 
AllNi  Louga)  was  the  center  and  meeting-place 
of  an  curly  league  among  the  Latin  peoples 
«li.iut  which  little  is  known.— W.  Ihne,  Hiit.  of 
liwu.  hk.  «,  rh.  8.— Sir.  W.  Ovli,  Toitng.  of  Hume 
r  I.— "On  the  northern  shore  of  the  lake  [of 
.Viiiii]  ridht  under  the  preri|iitou.<i  cliffs  on  which 
the  nicKltrn  vlllttifeof  .Nenii  is  fwrrheil,  stood  the 
M(  hnI  KMve  mid  sttnctiiary  of  Diuna  Nemort- osis 
or  nihiiii  of  llie  Wo.n1.  .  .  .  The  site  was  cx- 
Divntfi  iu  1883  liy  Sir  John  Saville  Lumley 
KiiitliMi  ai.  .hassador  at  Home.  For  a  genenii 
ili'uriiilion  of  the  site  and  exinvations.  tee  the 
AllHiiieum.  lOth  Ortolier,  188,1.  For  deUlis  of 
111.  llii.|Hiii.e'Bull.'tlnodell'  Instltutodi  Corris- 
I1..111I.M1M  Archeoiogioa,"  tHH.V  .  .  .  The  hike 
:iiiil  thi'  If n.ve  wen'  Miini'tinii'S  known  as  tlie  lake 
Mv\  itrovi-  of  Aril-ill.  But  th.'  t.iwn  of  AricU 
(the  mi«l..rn  U  Itliiia)  was  situated  about  three 
iiiil..»  i.tT,  Ht  the  f.M  of  the  All«n  Mount.  .  .  . 
\i  1-or.liiig  to  one  utory,  the  woniliip  of  llUna  at 
N.iiii  was  iu^liriiU.<l  by  On-stes,  who,  after 
killiiiit  Thoaa,  King  of  tlie  Tauric  Chcrs-weso 
■'■"■  '•-«>■  HI  rt^l  wllli  his  shitrr  t.)  Itaiy,  hrinij- 
iu«  Willi  liim  the  Image  of  ilie  Tauric  Diana. 
■  .  .  Wllhiii  the  aancliMry  at  NemI  grew  a  cer- 
laiu  tree,  of  which  Do  branch  might  be  broken 


1S9 


ARIZONA. 

Only  a  runaway  sUve  wag  allowed  to  break  oft 
ir  he  could,  one  of  lu  boughs.  Success  in  the 
attempt  entitled  him  to  flght  the  priest  in  single 
combat,  and  It  he  slew  him  he  reigned  In  his 
stead  with  the  title  of  King  of  the  Wood  (Rex 
Nemorenals).  Tradition  averred  that  the  fateful 
branch  was  that  Golden  Bough  which,  at  the 
Sibyl's  bidding,  iEneas  plucke.1  before  he 
cssaved  the  perilous  journey  to  the  world  of  the 
dead.  .  .  .  This  rule  of  succession  by  the  sword 
was  observed  down  to  imperial  times;  for 
amongst  his  other  freaks  Caligula,  thinking  that 
Hie  prJest  of  NemI  bad  held  office  too  long 
hired  a  more  stalwart  rufflan  to  slay  nini."— 3. 
O.  Frarer,  The  OoMen  Bough,  eh.  t   leet  1 

ARICONIUM.— Atown  of  Koman  Britain 
which  appears  to  Imve  been  the  principal  mart 
of  the  iron  manufacturing  industry  in  the  Forest 
of  Dean.— T.  Wright,  The  Celt,  tlie  Soman  and 
the  Siuvn,p.  161. 

ARIL  The.    See  LraiANa 

ARIKARAS,  The.  See  American  Abori- 
gines: Pawnee  (Caddoax)  Family. 

ARIMINUM. — The  lioinun  colony,  planted 
In  the  third  century  B.  C,  wliicli  grew  into  the 
modern  city  of  Rimini.  See  ItoMK:  B.  C.  205- 
191.— When  Cesar  entered  Italy  as  an  Invader, 
crossing  the  frontier  of  Cisiilpine  Oaul  — tlio 
Hubiron  — his  first  movement  was  to  iK-cupy 
Ariminura.  He  baited  there  for  two  or  three 
ww'ks,  making  his  preparations  for  the  civil  war 
wliich  he  had  now  eiiU-rul  uiKm  and  wiiitiiig  for 
the  two  legions  tliat  he  had  oriicnil  from  OauL 
—  r.  M.Tlvale,  iHiit.  ufthe  Iliminm,  eh    14 

.  A?l9y^*-°"S'  *^'°K  of  'he   Lombardi, 
A.  I).  626-638. 

ARISTEIDES,  AacendancT  of.  Sec  Ath- 
E.Ns:  n.  C.  477-402. 

ARISTOCRACY.-OLIGARCHY.- 

•■  Aristocracy  signitlcs  tlie  rule  of  the  Ih'sI  men. 
If.  however,  this  epithet  is  n^fc-m-d  to  an  absolute 
ideal  standard  of  excelUiice,  it  is  miinif.st  that 
an  aristocratlcal  government  is  a  mere  alistract 
notion,  which  has  nothing  in  liistorv.  or  in  nature 
to  correspond  to  It.  But  if  w.'  corit.'iit  ourselves 
with  taking  the  same  terms  in  a  iilutivc  si-nse, 
.  .  .  aristocrHcy  .  .  .  will  Ik'  tli:it  form  of  gov- 
ernment In  which  tlie  ruling  f.w  are  distin- 
guished from  the  multitude  livilliiHtrimis  birth 
hereilitary  wcailli.  and  iMr-iiiiul  •ncrit. 
Whi'never  siicli  11  change  t.K.k  jil.iir  in  ilie  char- 
acter or  the  n-iiitivo  iMmitioii  (if  thu  riiliiiir  Ixidy, 
that  it  nolongi-r  conimaml.-.l  lli.t  resp..  1  of  fu', 
subjecta,  but  four  I  itself  opiM.sc.|  to  them,  and 
eom|)elliHl  to  direct  its  nuiwiin-s  iliieily  to  the 
pn'st'rvation  of  its  jiower,  it  ceased  to  Itv,  iu  the 
Greek  sinsc  an  ari»t.K'ra»  v;  it  U'liinie  a  faction, 
ail  oligarchy."— C.  Thirlwall.  Jliel.  of  Orteee, 
eh,  10. 

ARISTOUNEAN  war.    S<e  .MEB««.^iAa 

.\  Alia,  t  lUHT  AND  Second. 

ARIZONA:  Th*  Name.-"  Arizona,  proba- 
bly .\rlr.oiiae  in  ita  original  t.irm.  was  tlic  native 
au.l  pMliably  I'lina  name  .if  tin-  pluei-- of  a 
bill,  valley,  stream,  or  some  otli.r  lisnl  feature 
—  just  south  of  the  mixlern  iNiuiidurv,  in  the 
mountains  still  so  cnllnl.  on  tli.'  li.wlWal.rs  of 
the  stream  Howing  past  Saric ,  wliir.^  the  famous 
I'laiiehas  de  Plata  mine  wus  disovenil  in  ilis 
niiililie  of  Uie  IHtli  »*ntury,  ili.-  iiaiiii'  being  first 
known  to  Spanlanls  in  tliat  coninrlion  nii.llH-ing 
'"'" "  niinaa. 


Known  10  spanlanls  In  tliat  coninrlion  nii.1  Ih< 
ii|)plie<l  to  the  mining  camp  or  n'al  i\v  nili 
Iba  aburlxliiel   mouliig  of   thu   term  U 


ARIZONA. 


ABKAN8AS. 


known,  tboueh  from  the  common  occurrence  In 
this  region  of  the  prefix  '  ari,'  the  root '  son,'  and 
the  termination  'ac,'  the  derivation  ought  not  to 
escape  the  researrh  of  a  competent  student. 
Sucli  guesses  as  arc  extant,  founded  on  the  native 
tongues,  offer  only  tlic  barest  possibility  of  a 

Sartial  and  accidental  accuracy;  wliilo  similar 
criva'ions  from  the  Spanish  are  extremely 
absurd.  .  .  .  The  name  should  properly  be  writ- 
ten and  pronounced  Ariaona,  as  our  English 
sound  of  the  z  dws  not  occur  in  Spanish." — 
H.  H.  Bancroft,  Jlut.  of  tht  PMi«c  State;  t.  13, 
p.  620. 

Aboriginal  Inhabitant*.  See  Amekicas 
Adorkiines:  Pukblos,  Ai'achk  Group,  8ho- 
•noNEAN  Family,  a.nd  Utahs. 

A.  D.  1848.— Partial  acquitition  from  Hex- 
leo.    See  Mexico:  A.  D.  1848. 

A.  D.  1853.— Purchase  by  the  United  SUtee 
of  the  ■outnem  part  from  Mexico. — The  Gads- 
den TreatT.— "On  December  30,  1858,  James 
Gadsden,  United  StiUes  mini»tt-r  to  Mexico,  con- 
cludiil  a  treaty  bv  which  the  boundary  line  was 
moved  southwanl  so  as  to  give  the  United  States, 
for  a  monetary  consideration  of  110,000,000.  all  of 
modem  Arizona  south  of  the  Gila,  an  effort  so 
to  fix  the  line  as  to  include  a  port  on  the  gulf 
being  unsucces.<<ful.  ...  On  the  face  of  the 
matter  this  Uaiisilen  treaty  was  a  tolerably  satis- 
factory settlement  of  a  boundary  dispute,  anil  a 
purrhitse  by  the  Unitwl  States  of  a  route  for 
a  southern  railroad  to  California." — H.  H.  Ban- 
croft, JJiit.  of  the  hmjie  Htiitet,  e.  13,  «*.  30. 

ARKANSAS,  The.     See   Axericam   Abo- 

KKiiNKw:  SiiiiAN  Family. 

ARKANSAS:  A.  D.  1543— Entered  by  Her> 
nando  de  Soto.  See  Florida:  A.  1>.  1338- 
IW.'. 

A.  D.  1803.— Embraced  in  the  Louisiana 
Purchase.     Sic  I.m  isiana:  ,V  I).  17WH-1803. 

A.  D.  181Q-1836.— Detached  from  Missouri. 
—Organized  as  a  Territory.— Admitted  as  a 
State. — ■■  I'rcpiinitiiry  to  the  assumption  of 
stute  gnvcrnniciit,  the  limits  of  the  Missouri 
Territory  were  nstricletl  on  the  south  by  the 
parallel  of  3tP  M  north.  The  restriction  was 
maiie  by  an  act  nf  Congress,  approved  March  3, 
181V.  entitled  an  '.\ct  establishing  a  separate 
territorial  govcrtiinciit  in  the  southern  portion  of 
the  Missouri  Tcrritury."  The  pirtlon  thus  Sep- 
aratc'i  was  sulwcuucntly  orgaiiizoi  into  the 
second  grade  of  ti'rritorial  government,  and 
Coloni'l  Jaini's  Miller,  a  meritorious  and  dislin- 
gulsl'.cil  iitltciT  of  the  Northwestern  army,  was 
ap|H>intcd  tint  KDvcmor.  This  territory  was 
kniiwn  H*  the  .Vrkuiisas  Territory,  and,  at  the 
periiNl  of  its  tlr'<l  organization,  contained  an 
aggregate  nf  nearly  U.tMW  inhabitants.  lU 
limits  ciiniprisi'd  jiII  llie  territory  on  the  west  side 
of  the  Mississippi  U'lween  the  parallels  83"  and 
30'  80',  <ir  iHiwtin  the  northern  limit  of  I.oui- 
siana  and  the  souilicrn  Ixiundary  of  the  Slate  of 
Missouri.  On  tlic  west  it  rxtendeil  iiulellnitely 
to  the  Mcxiciiii  territories,  »t  least  (WW  miles. 
The  Post  of  .Vrkiiiisiis  was  made  the  seat  of  the 
new  govenmii'iit  The  population  of  this  exti-n- 
slve  tiTritiiry  for  several  years  was  comprisiil 
chiefly  In  the  setlli'nicnls  upon  the  tributaries  of  1 
While  HIver  niirj  iiie  m  Fmncis:  upon  the  Mis-  ! 
Blsslppl.  Iietwi'i  II  Ni'w  .Madrid  and  Point  Chicot;  { 
aiul  U|Min  IniIIi  Kide*  of  the  Arlunsas  Kiver. 
wlthia  lUO  miles  ul  lis  muuUa,  but  sapedally  in 


the  Tidnlty  of  the  Post  of  Arkania*.  .  .  .  S« 
feeble  was  the  attraction  in  this  remote  region 
for  the  active,  industrious,  and  well-disposed 
portion  of  the  western  pioneers,  that  the  Arlcan- 
sas  Territory,  in  1880,  ten  years  after  its  organ! 
zation,  had  acquired  an  aggregate  of  only  30,8^ 
souls,  including  4,676  sUves.  .  .  .  The  western 
half  of  the  territory  had  been  erected,  in  1834, 
into  a  separate  district,  to  be  reserved  for  the 
future  residence  of  the  Indian  tribes,  and  to  be 
known  as  the  Indian  Territory.  Prom  this  time 
the  tide  of  emigration  began  to  set  more  actively 
into  Arkansas,  as  well  as  into  other  portions  of 
the  southwest.  .  .  .  The  territory  increased  rap- 
idly for  several  years,  and  the  census  of  1835 
gave  the  whole  number  of  inhabitants  at  08,134 
souls,  including  9,630  slaves.  Thus  the  Arkan- 
sas Territory  in  the  last  five  years  had  doubled 
its  population.  .  .  .  The  people,  through  the 
General  Assembly,  made  application  to  Congress 
for  authority  to  establish  a  regular  form  of  stats 
government.  The  assent  of  Congress  was  not 
withheld,  and  a  Convention  was  authorized  to 
meet  at  Little  Rock  on  the  first  day  of  January, 
1886,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  and  adopting  a 
State  Constitution.  The  same  was  approved  oy 
Congress,  and  on  the  13th  of  June  following  the 
Statie  of  .Arkansas  was  admitted  into  the  Federal 
Union  as  an  independent  state,  and  was,  in  point 
of  time  and  order,  the  twentv-flfth  in  the  con- 
federacy. .  .  .  Like  the  Missouri  Territory, 
Arkansas  had  been  a  slaveholding  country  from 
the  earliest  French  colonies.  Of  course,  the 
institiitiim  of  negro  slavery,  with  proper  checks 
and  limits,  was  sustained  by  the  new  Constitu- 
tion."— J.  W.  Monette.  lUtntrery  nnd  Settkment 
of  the  Vatlfii  of  the  Mimuipiri.  bk.  6,  eh.  17  (0. 
2).— Sec,  also,  United  Stati:^!  or  Ax.:  A.  Dl 
1818-1821. 

A.  D.  1861  (March).— Secession  Toted  down. 
See  United  States  or  Am.  :  A.  U.  1861  (March 
— April). 

A.  D.  1861  (April).— Coremor  Rector's  reply 
to  President  Lincoln's  call  for  troops.  See 
United  States  of  .\m.  :  A.  1).  1861  (April). 

A.  D.  186a  (Januarr— March).— AdTance  of 
National  forces  into  the  Stats.— Battle  of  Pea 
Ridge.  See  United  States  or  Am.  :  A.  1). 
1862(Janiart— March :  Misnoimi— Arkansas). 
A.  D.  i86a  (July— September).- Progress  of 
the  CiTil  War.  See  United  States  or  Am.  : 
A.  D.  1863  (JcLY— Septemrcr:  Missouri- 
Arkansas). 

A.  D.  iSAa(Decemb«r).— The  Battle  ofPrairie 
Grove.  See  United  States  or  Am.  :  A.  D. 
1863  (Skptembkh  — December:  Missouri- 
Arkansas). 

A.  D.  1863  (January). —The  capture  of 
Arkansas  Post  from  the  Confederates.  S<'e 
United  St.\tks  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  1863  (Januahv: 
Ahkanhan). 

A.  D.  1863  (July).— The  defence  of  Helens. 
Si*  United  States  or  Am.  ;  A.  U.  186:1  (.Irn: 
On  the  Miwisrippi).  1 

A.  D.  1863  (Angast— October).— The  break* 
ing  of  Confederate  anthority.— Occupation  of 
Little  Rock  by  National  forces.  See  I'NiTKq 
SiATEsor  Am.  :  A.  D.  1888(.\LouaT— OiToBtu.' 
Arkansas — MisaorRi). 

A.  D.  1864  fMarch^.OetoberV-'Lsst  !«> 
portaat  operation*  of  the  War.— Price's  Raid. 
SiH-  United  States  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  1864  ^MAJtcU 
— tXToaui:  AasAMsas— XissuuHi). 


140 


ARKANSAS. 

A.  D.  iSAi.— First  steps  toward  Receutrue- 
tion.  See  I  sited  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1868- 
I8M  (December — Jclt). 

A.  O.  1865-1868.— Reconstrnction  com- 
pleted. See  United  States  op  Am.  :  A.  D.  186S 
(Mat— JcLT),  to  1868-1870. 

• 

ARKITES,  The— A  Canaantte  tribe  wlio 
occupied  the  plain  north  of  Lebanon. 

ARKWRICHTS  SPINNING  MACHINE, 
OR   WATER-FRAME,   The    inTention  oi 
See  Cotton  Manufacture. 
ARLES :  Oriria.    See  Saltes. 
A.  D.  411.  —  Double  siere.    See  Brttaui: 
A.  D.  407. 

A.  D.  435.- Besieged  by  the  Goths.  See 
OoTns  (VwiooTHs):  A.  D.  419-451. 

A.  D.  508-510.— Siege  by  the  Frmnks.— After 
the  overthrow  of  the  VUigotliic  kingdom  of 
Toulouse,  A.  I>.  507,  by  the  victory  of  Clovls, 
king  of  the  Frsoks,  at  Voclad,  near  Poitiers, 
"the  great  city  of  Aries,  once  the  Roman  capital 
of  OttuI,  maintained  a  gallant  defence  againfit 
the  united  Franks  and  Burgundians,  and  saved 
for  generations  the  Vlaigothic  rule  in  Provence 
nn.l  southern  Languc<liir.  Of  the  siege,  which 
lasted  apparently  from  UnS  to  510,  we  have  some 
f.niphic  details  In  the  life  of  St.  Ciesarius,  Bishop 
of  Aries,  written  by  his  disciples."  The  city 
was  relieved  in  510  bv  an  Ostmgothic  army,  sent 
by  king  Theodoric  of  Italy,  after  a  great  battle 
in  which  30,000  Franks  were  reported  to  be 
slain,  "  The  result  of  the  Iwttle  of  Aries  was  to 
put  TheodoHc  in  secure  possession  of  all  Pro- 
vpnoi-  and  of  so  much  of  Languedoc  as  was 
nwdful  to  ensnrr  his  acn>ss  to  Spain"- where 
tlie  Ostrogotliic  king,  as  guardian  of  his  Infant 
grandson,  Amalaric,  wa-s  taking  care  of  the  Visi- 
gnthic  kingdom.— T.  Ilodgkiu,  Ilalg  andUer  In- 
twkfcr*.  bk.  4,  th.  9. 

A.  D.  933.— Formation  of  the  kiardom.  See 
BiiidiMiv:  A.  I).  W»-93:t. 

A.  D.  1033-1378.  — The  breakinK  up  of  the 
kingdom  and  its  gradual  absorption  in  France. 
8i«lt\i((UNi)Y:  A.  I).  10;«.  ami  tl27-l.'J78. 

1002-1107.- The  fl  court  of  Provence. 
Sit  I'kovence:  A.  D.  9»3-li)0'J,  and  1179-1207. 

♦ 

AitHADA,  The  Spanish.     See    Enqland: 
A.  I>   ivs. 
ARMAGEDDON,    S<'e  Meoiddo. 
ARMAGH,  St.  Patrick's  School  at.     Sec 
Ihkiaso:  .'itli  ii.mh  Centuries. 

ARM AGNAC,  1  he  counts  of.  Sec  France  : 
A.  I»   I;t27. 

ARMAGNACS.  Sec  France:  A.  D.  1880- 
14l\  iin.l  I4I.VI410. 

ARMENIA. —  "  Almost  immediately  to  the 
west  i.f  tlie  Caspian  tli.tv  rises  a  high  tableland 
cliversilled  by  ninuiilaliis.  wliirli  stretches  east- 
"iinl  fcr  more  tliiin  eighteen  degrees,  lietwecn 
the  HTlh'uid  41st  parallels.  This  highland  may 
pr..|Krly  Iw  reganlftl  as  a  eonllnuation  of  the 
criui  Imiieiin  pluU'au,  with  wliiih  it  is  connected 
at  Its  sinithnistem  comer.  It  comprises  a  por- 
tion of  till-  nLxlem  Persia,  th<'  whole  of  Armenia, 
■iiiil  ni(»t  of  Asia  Minor.  lis  primHpal  moun- 
l:iin  rinff.s an-  latitudinal,  or  from  west  hi  east. 
only  the  inlnor  onu  takins  the  oppfwite  or  l<in. 
KliieiiiiiiliiinTiioii  .  .  .  The  lieart  of  (hemoun 
lai'i  rinion,  the  ir.Ml  extending  from  the  district 
of  hrivnn  on  the  e»»i  tn  the  upiier  course  of  the 
hliii  Irmsk  river  and  the  vicinity  of  Sivia  upon 


ARMENIA. 

the  west,  was,  cs  it  stm  Is,  Armenia.    Amidst 
these  natural  fastnesses,  In  a  country  of  loftt 
ridges,  deep  and  narrow  valleys,  numerous  and 
copious  streams,  and  occasional  broad  plains— a 
country  of  rich  pasture    grounds,   productive 
orchards,  and  abundant  harvests— this  interest- 
ing people    has    maintained  itself  almost  un- 
changed from  the  time   of  the  eariy   Persian 
kings  to  the  present  day.    Armenia  was  one  of 
the  most  valtuble  portions  of  the  Persian  empire, 
funilshlng,  as  it  did,  besides  stone  and  timber, 
and  several  most  important  minerals,  an  annual 
supply  of  20,000  excellent  horses  to  the  stud  of  the 
Persian  king."— O.  Rawlln8<m,  Fice  Grmt  Man- 
anhiet:  Pertia,  eh.  1.— Before  the  Persians  es- 
tablished their  sovereignty  over  the  country,  "it 
seems  certain  that  from  one  quarter  or  another 
Armenia  had  been  Arianized;  the  old  Turanian 
character  had  passed  away  from  It;  immigrants 
had  flocked  in  and  a  new  people  had  Xteen  formed 
—the  real  Armenians  of  later  times,  and  indeed 
of  the  present  day."    Submitting  to  Alexander, 
on  the  overthrow  of  the  Persian  monarchy,  Ar- 
menia fell  afterwards  under  the  yoke  of  the  8e- 
leucidae,   but    gained  independence  about   190 
B.  C,  orenriier.  Under  the  influence  of  Partbia, 
a  branch  of  the  Parthian  royal  family,  the  Arsa- 
cids,  was  8Ubse(iiiently  placed  on  the  throne  and 
a  dynasty  established  which  reigned  for  neariy 
six  hundred  years.    The  fourth  of  these  kings, 
Tigranes,  who  occupleil  the  throne  In  the  earlier 
part  of  the  last  century  B.  C,   placed  Armenia 
in  the  front  rank  of  Asiatic  kingdoms  and  in 
powerful  rivalry  with  Parthia.     Its  sul>se<iuent 
history  is  one  of  many  wars  and  invasions  and 
inuch    buffeting    between    llomans.    Partlilans, 
Persians,  and  their  successors  in  the  conflicts  of 
the  eastern  worid.     The  part  of  Armenia  west 
of  the  Euphrates  was  called  by  the  Koinans  Ar. 
menia  Minor.  For  a  short  period  after  the  revolt 
from  the  Seleucid  monarchy,  it  formed  a  dis- 
tinct kingdom  called  Sophene.  —  O.  liawlinson. 
Sixth  niut  Sffrnth  Umit  Orientnl  Mim-irehic 

B.  C.  69-«8.— War  with  the  Romans.— Great 
defeat  at  TirranocerU.— Submission  to  Rome. 
See  Home;    H.  C.  78-6H.  and  69-63. 

A.  D.  1 15- II 7.— Annexed  to  the  Roman 
Empire  by  Trajan  and  restored  to  independ- 
ence by  Hadrian.    .See  It>ME:    A.  1).  tW-liw. 

A.  D.  4aa  (?).— Persian  Conquest.— Becomes 
the  satrapy  of  Persarmenia.  See  Persia: 
A.  D.  826-627. 

A.  D.  ioi6-i07t.— Conquest  and  dcTastatioa 
by  the  Seljuk  Turks.  «<■<■  Ti  rks  (Skuiuks): 
A  I).  1(XM-I(l8:i.  and  1063-1073. 

iath-i4th  Centuries. -The  MedicTal  Chrit- 
tian  Kingdom.— "The  hist  decade  of  the  lath 
century  saw  the  establishment  of  two  small 
ChristfHn  kingiloms  in  the  L,evant.  which  long 
outlived  all  other  n-lios  of  the  Crusades  except 
the  military  onlers;  and  which,  with  very  little 


help  from  the  West,  susiidiied  a  Imzardo'us  ex 
Istence  In  complete  contrant  with  nimmt  every- 
thing around  them.     The  kiniriloms  of  Cyprus 
and  .\rmenla  have  a  hislorv  vi  ry  closelv'inter- 
twineil.  but  their  origin  ami  most  of  tliVir  cir- 
cumstances were  very  dilTen-nt.     Ilv  Armenia  as 
a  kingdom  Is  mi-ant  little  mon>  thai)  the  ancient 
Cillcia.  the   ka.!    !«-lB.-nrn  Tsnni-  sii-l  i!,r  sra. 
from  the  frontier  of  the  principaliiv  of  Antioch 
I  oaatwani,  to  Ki  lendcris  or  Palivopolis,  a  little 
j   beyond  Sileucia;   this  lerritorv,  which  was  com, 
'  puted  to  contain  16  days'  Joumey  In  lenfthj 


141 


ARMENIA. 


ARNiEANa 


raeuQicd  from  four  mile*  of  Antioch,  by  two  In 
breadtb,  waa  separated  from  tlie  Oreater  Ar- 
menia, which  before  the  perim]  on  whicli  we  are 
now  employed  had  fallf  n  under  the  away  of  the 
Seljuks,  by  tlie  ridges  of  Taurus.  The  populit- 
tion  wiis  composed  largely  of  the  sweepings  of 
Asia  Miuor.  Christian  tribes  which  had  laltea 
refuge  in  the  mounuins.  Their  religion  was 
partly  Orcclt,  partly  Armenian.  .  .  .  Their 
rulers  were  princes  descended  from  the  house  of 
the  BagriuitiiE.  who  had  governtHl  the  Greater 
Armenia  as  liings  from  tin-  year  883  to  the  reign 
of  Constantine  of  M»nciinn('lius,  and  had  then 
merged  their  hazardous  independence  in  the  mass 
of  the  Orceli  Empire.  After  the  seizure  of 
Asia  Minor  by  the  Seljuks,  the  few  of  tlie  Biigra- 
tidiB  who  Imd  retained  possession  of  the  moun- 
tain fastnesses  of  Cilicia  or  the  strongholds 
of  Mcsopotmnia,  act<"d  as  independent  lords, 
showing  little  respect  for  Byzantium  save  where 
there  was  something  to  be  gained.  .  .  .  Rupinof 
the  Mountain  was  prince  [of  Cilicia]  at  the  time  of 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Saladln;  he  died  in 
1189,  and  his  successor,  Leo,  or  Livon,  after  hav- 
ing successfully  courted  the  favour  of  pope  and 
emperor,  was  recognised  as  king  of  Armenia  by 
the  emperor  Henry  VI.,  and  waa  .  rowned  by 
Connul  of  Wittelsbach,  Archbishop  of  Mainz,  in 
1198."  The  dynasty  ended  with  Leo  IV.,  whose 
"  whole  reign  was  a  continued  struggle  against 
the  Moslems,"  and  who  was  aasassuiated 
about  1343.  "The  five  remaining  kings  of  Ar- 
menia sprang  from  a  branch  of  the  Cy  priot  house 
of  Lusignan  [see  Cvpnca :  A.  D.  1193-14891. *— 
W.  Htubbs,  Left:  on  the  Stuilu  of  Mediatal  and 
Votknt  UM..  ttet.  8. 

A.  D.  1633-1635 — Subjugated  by  Peraia 
aad  renined  by  the  Turkf .  See  Tcbks  :  A.  D. 
lOantMo 

A.  0. 1895.— Turkish  Atrocities  in.  See 
TrnKs:  A.  I).   189.'). 

* 

ARMENIAN  CHURCH,  The.-The  church 
of  the  .Vniicniaiis  is  "the  oldest  of  all  national 
churches,  They  were  converted  by  St.  Gregory, 
called  'The  Illuminator,'  who  was  a  relative  of 
Dertad  or  Tiridatcs,  their  prince,  and  had  been 
forced  to  leave  the  count  ••  at  the  same  time  with 
him,   and   settled  at  C.  'n    Cappadocia, 

where  he  was  initiated  into  u.  >  hristian  faith. 
When  tliey  returned,  both  prince  and  p<'ople  em- 
braced the  Oosm!  ilirougli  the  preaching  of 
Oreifory,  A.  P.  "ira,  and  thus  presente<l  the  first 
insum  I'  of  an  entire  nation  becoming  Ciiristian. 
.  .  .  Hy  an  accident  lliey  were  unrepresented  at 
[the  Council  of]  Chalcedon  r.\.  D.  ^il],  and, 
owing  to  the  poverty  of  their  language  in  words 
serviceable  for  the  purixMcs  of  thiiilogy,  they 
had  at  that  time  but  one  woni  for  Nature  and 
Person,  iu  consequence  of  which  they  misunder- 
stood the  decision  of  that  council  [that  Christ 
p()aaesse<{  two  natures,  illvlne  and  human,  in  one 
Person)  with  suttlcicnt  cleameM.  ...  It  was 
not  until  elithty  four  years  had  elapsed  that  they 
finally  :idiipii-ii  Kutychianism  [the  diKtrine  that 
the  dlviiiiiy  Is  the  sole  nature  in  Christ],  and  an 
anathema  wns  pninoiinci'd  <m  the  Chalcedonian 
decrees  iiaili  '  — H.  F.  Toier,  The  Vhurrh  and 
the  liulirn  Kmpirr,  rh.  .1— "The  religion  of 
Armenia  could  not  derivi.  iiiocli  gUny  frijm  the 
ieaniing  or  tlie  power  of  its  inhabitants.  The 
royalty  explreil  with  the  origin  of  their  schism; 
ptui  their  Christian  kings,  wiio  arose  and  fell  in 


the  18th  century  on  the  confines  of  Cilicbi,  were 
the  clients  of  the  Latins  and  the  vassals  of  the 
Turkish  sultan  of  Iconium.  The  helpless  nation 
has  seldom  been  permitte<l  to  enjoy  the  tran- 
quility of  servitude.  From  the  eariiest  period 
to  the  present  hour,  Armenia  has  been  the  theatre 
of  perpetual  war:  the  lands  between  TauHs  and 
^rivan  were  dispeopled  by  the  cruel  policy  of  the 
Sophis;  and  myriads  of  Christian  families  were 
transplanteil,  to  perish  or  to  propagate  in  the  dis- 
tant provinces  of  Persia.  I'nder  the  rod  of 
oppression,  the  zeal  of  the  Armenians  is  fervent 
and  intrepid;  they  have  often  preferred  the 
crown  of  martyrdom  to  the  white  turban  of  Ma- 
homet; they  devoutly  hate  the  error  and  idola- 
tiy  of  the  Greeks."— E.  Gibbon,  DeelintandfUll 
of  the  Ronuin  Empire,  ch.  47. 

ARIIINIANISM.    8eeNETiiERLA]fDS:A.D. 
160»-1619. 

ARMINIUS,  The  Detirerance  of  Germany 
by.    SeeOERMANT:  B.  C.  8-A.  O.  11. 

ARMORIAL  BEARINGS, Oricin of.— "As 
to  armorial  bearings,  there  is  no  doubt  that  em- 
blems somewhat  similar  have  been  Imm'-moriailv 
used  both  in  war  ami  peace.     The  shields  of  aii- 
cient  warriors,  and  devices  upon  coins  or  seals, 
bear  no  distant  resemblance  to  modern  blazonry! 
But  the  general  introduction  of  sucli  bearings,  as 
hereditary  distinctions,  has  been  sometimes  at- 
tributed to  tournaments,  wherein  the  championi 
were  distinguished  by  fanciful  devices;  some- 
times to  the  crusades,  where  a  multitude  of  all 
nations  and  languages  sto(Ml  in  need  of  some  vis- 
ible token  to  denote  the  banners  of  their  respec- 
tive chiefs.    In  fact,  the  peculiar  symbolsof  her- 
aldry point  to  both  these  sources  anil  have  bei-n 
borrowed  in  part  from  each.     Hereditary  an..j 
were  perhaps  scarcely  used  by  private  families 
liefore  the  beginning  of  the  thirt<-enth  century. 
From  that  time,  however,  they  became  verj^  gen- 
eral,"- H,  Hiillam,  The  Middle  Age*,  eh.  8,  pt.  2. 
ARMORICA. —  The  peninsular  projection  of 
the  coast  of  Gaul  between  the  mouths  of  tlio 
Seine  and  the  Loire,  embracing  modem  Brittany, 
and  a  great  part  of  Normandy,  was  known  to 
the  Romans  as  Amiorica.     The  most  importaut 
of  the  Armorican  triln's  in  Ciesar's  time  was  llmt 
of  the  V^enetl,     "  In  the  fourth  and  fifth  centu- 
ries, the  northern  coast  from  the  Loire  to  the 
frontier  of  the  Netheriands  was  called  'Tract us 
Aremoricus.'  or  Aremorica,  which  in  Celtic  sit'- 
nirtes  '  maritime  country.'    The  commotions  iif 
the  third  century,  which  continual  to  incn'asi 
during  the  fourth  and  fifth.   reiM'aU^lly  drovi' 
the  Itomans  from  that  country.     French  antiqii;!- 
ries  imagine  that  it  was  a  regularly  constitim-il 
G.'dlic  republic,  of  which  Clilovis  had  the  protci'- 
torate,  but  this  Is  wrong,  "—H,  O.  Xiebuhr,  hel: 
on  Ancient  Ethnography  nmt  Uexg.,  t.  2,  p.  81H 

.\Leo  im:  E.  II.  Bunliurv,  llitt.  of  Anci.ut 
Of,)}.,  t.  2,  p.  23.1.— Se.',  alsi'i,  Vkneti  of  Wk.-t- 
KKN  0.\ri,,  and  InEKrANs,  The  Wksterm. 

ARMOUR  INSTITUTE.  See  KDUCATio.f, 
MuiianN:  America:  A,  D,  1824-1893. 

ARMSTRONG,  General  John,  and  the 
Ncwbnrgh  Addresses.    See  Vn  im  d  States  of 

Am,  :  A.  D.  1782-1783 Secretary  of  War.- 

Plan  of  descent  on  Montreal.    Sw  Ukited 
Statbs  or  Am,:  A,  I),  1813  (Oct,— Nov.). 

ARMY   PURCHASE,   Abolition  of,     P=« 
E.<cni,ANl>:  A.  D.  1871, 
ARNAANS,  The.    See  aHUCB:  The  Ml- 

OIUTIONa. 


142 


ARNAULD. 

ARNAULD,  JacqaeliBe  Marie,  and  the 
MooMtetT  of  Port  ftoy»l.  See  Pobt  Rotai, 
»nd  the  Jasseihsts:  A.  D.  1603-1660 

ARNAUTS,  The.    Sec  AtBAMiAjis,  Midl« 


ARTHtm. 


See 


ARNAY-LE-DUC,  Battie  of  (1570). 
FKASfK:  A.  D.  1588-1570. 

ARNOLD,  Benedict,  and  the  American 
ReTolution.  See  Casada:  A.  D.  177.%-!  776 
»nd  I  SITED  States  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  1775  (Mat);' 
1 . . .  (J  rtr— October)  ;  1780  (Anocsr— Septem- 
BEH);  1780-1781;  1781  (J  ANUART-May,  ;  1781 
(.Mat— OrToBER).  '' 

r*^9^°  °?  bRESCIA.  The  Repablic 
of.     SefUoMF.:  A.  I>.   114.V1I.55 

ARNOLD  VON  WINKELRIED.  at  the 
U^l*«8      ""  **"■*  '^'^''^^'"^"O-  A.  D 

ARNULF,    Kinr    of  the     East    Franki 

&rA%^8«»=  '^'"'^ "'  "•'^  "" 

ARPAD,  Dynaety  of.  See  Hcnoariass: 
1114  I  Mill W^'""™'  "  Hcnoary:  a.  D.  972- 
ARPAD,  Siece  of.— C.n.lucted  by  the 
n  7"*>o  ^<"?"*r'"'  T'Kl«'h  Hlescr.  boijinning 
^,h  tP.**  Ii"li.ng  twoyeBin.  The  fall  of  the 
city  brought  with  it  the  submission  of  hII  nortii. 
"'iw^.'V;r>    "   **»."•«      l«.Vri.i.  M.  2. 

ARQUES,  Battle*  l,,(icSo).    See  FHiNrr- 
.V.  I)   1.^9-1,590.  *^      oee  *B.4SCE. 

UWUU*^'^"^''  '^'"-     ^  f'WRENCE:  A.  D. 
ARRAPACHITIS.    See  Jews:  The  E«i,y 

nEllKKlV  Hl?TORT.  ^AKI.l 

ARRAPAHOES,  The.    See  .\xebicaj.  Abo- 
"■'I'^^.Aloo.s.ji-ian  Family.  »«  *ki. 

ARRAS:  Oripn.     S<e  BeL(i«. 

A.   D.  1583.— Submiision    to   Spain      See 
Netiu;ki..\.nu«:  A.  D.  1.584-1.585.       ^^ 

A.   D.    I654.— Uniuccesiful  Siere   hi    the 
f.?"'im  ^°°"-    ""'"^  *■«*•'«:  A.   D 

-♦ 


Pears,  rA<  fUl  of 


Sec 
See 


ARRAS,  Treaties  of  (1415  aaj  J4,r^ 

APBW-^.RJ**.i-'^i'''"'f^'*-^'^-'*^ 

ARRETIUM,   Battle  of  (B.  C    38«) 

R..MK.  H.  C.  2»,5-191  *'• 

ARROW  HEADED  WRITING.    See  Cc 

.NEIKOIIM  W  HITISO.  oee  LC 

ARSACIDiE,    The—The  ilvnaatv  of  Par- 
......  kmjs  were  so  calle,!.  from  'the  Lnder  .ff 

a.  lin...  Araaces,  who  Id  the  r..volt  of  Partwi 

n1ms.11    10    the   throne.       Acnmling   to    some 
..nu..nt  writers  Arsaoe.,  was  a  Bactrifn  •  ac^  nl 

(^r'„VS,f  VV'^T-?-  ««-«^''!^'^-^A 
AKbEN-In  one  of  tlie  earlier  raids  of  the 


Armenian  commerce." E 

OaiularUinople,  eh.  2. 

Lakf  of^v»„'  irJ^f-T^",  ""''''"'  '^«'n«  0'  the 
sfraho      P   H  ^"""^K  ''  »l^'  *^"«'  Thopitis  by 

ArmenT.'^'^JIr h^a'  C^builtTnlki  t.°' 
superintendence  of  Hanni[;:i.Vhile  «"re  uL^^ 
Armenia.     At  a  later  tin.e  it  was  c^Hed  Ve^il 

Pe1."^^f.^5^=„.e4^°''G'j-ANUS,Kin.of 

^^enie,  Ochu.,  King  of  Perwa,  B.  C.  a.wl 
^. . . .  Artaxerxes,  or  Ardshir,  Foiiuder  of  the 
f"j^*»  »»n"chy.    See  PeksLi:  B  C  im! 

ARTEVeT^    8eeDAST..0ERD. 
AKieVELD,    Jacqnes    and    Philio    Van- 

rs.'raStj^Vi^iis/''""'-  «-^--": 

RMn7*xf  S*  ^*'^\  *°"*  *•"*  Knights  of  tha 

a  wo^nr?*'  "  h'^torical  Arthur  or  not 
;„' ...         "  ?'  t*°  ""'St  now  be  devoted 

nrin  V'!"'*"'*  never  calls  Arthur  a  gwledi/^r 
pnnce  bi.t  emperor,  and  it  may  be  inferr«l  tlSl 

I  man,  tl  ,?.L""'T'  */'*']'"'  JepartuR..  of  the 

aJnr  ^™^  '"!'"'T'  ""=  L.""'  'i'le  of^lmper 
ator    emperor.'  and  made  it  into  'amheramlvr ' 

»V!..k:  »«>m— .    imperator   ceased    to    have 

anything  more  to  say  to  this  couX  theS 
was  given  to  the  highest  olBcer  In  the  iaian 
woXvr'fmr  "."'«?'«'■  "-d  thatK 

or  wiioever    it    was    tliat    wrote    the    HistorU 
Brittonum    a.scril».d    to    hlni-      fh.'ii.     a«? 
U  r,,,r..«>ntod    «,h.ing  in  Impsny  wiUi^he 
kings    of    the    Brythous    in    deff   of    their 
common  country.  L  Mng  their  "*1rr  ,  w^ 

-ui;x^ii:fa??iX;;:a!;Sp^l* 

w^snootLerlhan  Arfhur.it  would  .uW*~ 
reason  why  that  writer  called  Mael^S  -uilll? 

143 


ARTHUR. 


ARTAXS. 


Itrli  dntoo,'  'the  dngon  or  war-captain  of  the 
bland,'  and  why  the  latter  and  fats  auocewors 
aftvr  him  were  called  bv  the  Welsh  not  gwledigs 
but  kings,  though  thefr  great  ancestor  Ciineda 
was  only  a  gwlediK.  On  the  other  band  the 
way  in  wliicli  Oilclas  alludes  to  the  uncle  of 
Mac'lgwn  without  even  giving  his  name,  would 
Mvm  to  suggest  that  in  liis  estimation  at  least  ho 
was  no  more  illustrious  than  his  predecessors  in 
the  position  which  he  held,  whatever  that  may 
have  been.  How  then  did  Arthur  become  famous 
above  them,  r  '  how  came  he  to  be  the  subject 
of  so  much  story  and  romance  t  The  answer,  in 
short,  which  one  has  to  give  to  this  hard  question 
mayl  be  to  the  effect,  thnt  besides  s  historic 
Arthur  there  waii  a  Brythonic  divinity  named 
Arthur,  after  whom  the  man  may  have  been 
calleil,  or  with  y  hose  name  his,  in  case  it  was  of 
a  different  origin,  may  have  become  identical  in 
sound  owiag  to  an  accident  of  speech;  for  both 
explanations  are  possible,  as  we  shall  attempt  to 
Buow  later.  Leaving  aside  for  a  while  the  man 
Arthur,  and  assuming  the  existence  of  a  god  of 
that  name,  Ut  us  see  wliat  could  be  made  of  him. 
Mythologically  speaking  he  would  probably 
have  to  be  regarded  as  a  Culture  Hero;  for,  a 
model  king  and  the  institutor  of  the  Knighthood 
of  the  Itound  Table,  he  is  represented  as  the 
leader  of  cxpeiiitions  to  the  isles  of  Hades,  and  as 
one  who  stood  in  somewhat  the  same  kind  of 
relttion  to  Owalchmel  as  Owydion  did  to  I  Leu. 
It  is  needless  here  to  dwell  on  the  character 
usually  given  to  Arthur  as  a  ruler:  he  with  his 
knights  around  him  may  be  compared  to  Con- 
chobar,  in  the  midst  of  the  Champions  of  Emain 
Madia,  or  Woden  among  the  Anses  at  Valhalla, 
white  Arthur's  Knights  are  called  those  of  the 
Round  Table,  around  which  they  arc  described 
sitting:  and  it  would  lie  interesting  to  under- 
stand the  signification  of  the  term  Round  Table. 
On  the  whole  it  is  the  table,  proliablv,  and  not 
lu  roundness  that  is  the  fact  to  which  to  call 
attention,  as  it  possibly  means  that  Arthur's 
court  was  the  first  ejrly  court  where  those 
present  sat  at  a  table  at  all  in  Britain.  Xo  such 
thing  us  a  common  table  figures  at  Conchobar's 
court  or  any  other  descrilml  in  the  old  legends 
of  Ireland,  and  the  same  applies,  we  lielieve,  to 
those  of  the  old  Norsemen.  The  attribution  to 
Arthur  of  the  first  use  of  a  common  table  would 
fit  in  well  with  the  character  of  a  Culture  Hero 
which  we  have  ventured  to  ascribe  to  .  ',  and 
it  derives  countenance  from  the  pn-tem'  i '  jtory 
of  the  liound  Table;  for  the  Ar'.hu'-'  .'gend 
traces  it  back  to  Arthur's  father.  L'thr  iragon, 
in  whom  we  have  under  one  of  his  y  names 
llie  king  of  Hades,  the  realm  whenc  II  culture 
was  fable<i  to  have  been  deriveil.  In  a  wider 
i<ense  the  Itound  Table  possibly  signified  plenty 
or  abundance,  and  might  be  compared  with  the 
table  of  the  Ethiopians,  at  which  Zeus  and  the 
other  gods  of  Greek  mythology  used  to  feast 
from  time  to  lime." — J.  Rhys.  Stmlirt  in  the 
Art>iiin,in  lieg^nii^ch.  1. — 8ee.  also  Ci'MBRI.V 

ARTHUR,  Chester  A.— Election  to  Vice- 
Preiidency.  —  Snccestion  to  the  Presidency. 
(>ee  I'.NiTED  States  ok  Am.  :  A.  D.  ItWO  and 
1M<1. 

ARTI  OF  FLORENCE,  See  Florbuce: 
A.  I»   ri.VV-1298. 

ARTICLES  OP  CONFEDERATION 
{American).  See  Umtf-o  States  or  Am.  : 
A.  1>.  1777-1781,  ud  17t).'i-17a7. 


ARTICLES  OF  HENRY,  The.  See  Po. 
LAND;  A    D.  1S78. 

ARTOIS,  The  Houie  ot  See  BotntBoii, 
The  House  of. 

ARTOIS :  A.  D.  1529.—  Preteiuioni  of  the 
Kinr  of  France  to  Suseraintr  resigned.  Kee 
Italy:  A.  D.  15a7-15S». 

ARTS,  The  Fine.  See  Music,  Paistiso 
Scm.piURR,  Stti.eh  ih  Akciiitectubk. 

ART  YNI.    See  DmiuBoi. 

ARVADITES,  The.  — The  Canaanite  inhnb 
Itanu  of  the  island  of  Aradus,  or  Arvad,  and  wl),) 
also  he'd  territory  on  the  main  land. 

ARVERNI,  'The.  See  JEom;  also,  Oaitls. 
and  Allobrooer. 

ARX,  The.  See  CAPrroLOfB  Hill,  also 
Oens,  Roman. 

ARXAMUS,  Battle  cf.— One  of  the  defeats 
sustained  by  the  Romans  in  their  wars  with  the 
Persians.  Battle  fought  A.  D.  803.— O.  Raw- 
liu.son,  Sertnth  Grmt  Oriental  Monareha,  rh  24. 

ARYANS.— ARYAS.—"Thlg  family  (which 
Is  sometimes  called  Japhetic,  or  deacenduuts  of 
Japhet)  includes  the  Hindus  and  Perdans  among 
Anatic  nations,  and  almost  all  the  peoiiles  ut 
Europe.  It  may  seem  strange  that  we  Engllth 
should  be  related  not  only  to  the  Oermans  mul 
Dutch  and  Scandinavians,  but  to  the  Kus.si:in!i. 
French,  Spanish,  Romans  and  Qreeks  as  will; 
stranger  still  that  we  can  claim  kinship  with 
such  distant  peoples  as  the  Persians  and  llindus. 
.  .  .  What  seems  actually  to  have  been  the  ca>e 
is  this:  In  distant  ages,  somewhere  rbnut  the 
rivers  Oxus  and  Jaxarles,  and  on  the  north  of 
that  mountainous  range  called  the  Hindoo- KiKish, 
dwelt  the  ancestors  of  all  the  nations  we  Iwvo 
enumerated,  forming  at  this  time  a  sini;!)'  ami 
united  people,  simple  and  primitive  in  tluir  way 
of  life,  but  yet  having  enough  of  a  comnn  1  na- 
tional life  to  preserve  a  common  language.  Thev 
called  themselves  Arvas  or  Aryans,  a  wuril 
which,  in  its  very  earliest  sense,  seem.-,  t.i  havf 
meant  those  who  move  upw.irds,  or  strak'ht 
and  hence,  probably,  came  to  stand  for  the  noble 
race  as  compared  with  other  races  on  whom,  of 
course,  they  would  lixik  down.  ...  As  thiir 
numbers  increas«Hl.  the  space  wherein  thty  ilwilt 
became  too  'mall  for  them  who  had  out  of  one 
formed  mnny  different  peoples.  Then  lieira"^  a 
series  of  migrations,  in  which  the  collei  tion  of 
tribes  who  spoke  one  language  and  forninl  otif 

ale  started  off  to  seek  their  fortune  in  new 
1.  .  .  .  First  among  them.  In  all  prohaWlity, 
started  the  Kelts  or  Celts,  who,  tniMlliug 
Perhaps  to  the  South  of  the  Caspian  ami  the 
North  of  the  Black  Sea,  found  their  war  to 
Europe  and  spread  far  on  to  the  extrenii  \Vest. 
.  .  .  Another  of  the  great  families  who  1.  ft  the 
Arvan  homo  was  the  Pelasgic  or  the  linro^- 
Italic.  These,  journeying  along  first  South 
wnnis  ai:d  then  to  the  West,  passed  through 
Asia  Minor,  on  to  the  countries  of  (JriTfe 
and  Italy,  and  In  time  separated  into  those 
two  great  peoples,  the  Greeks  (or  Iblliin-^,  m 
'ley  came  to  call  themselves),  and  the  It  'nians 
-  .  .  Next  we  come  to  two  other  great  fiiiiilies 
of  nations  who  seem  to  have  taken  tin-  ume 
route  at  first,  ami  perhaps  began  their  travels 
toeelher  as  the  Qreeks  and  Romans  did  Ti!?«e 
are  the  Teutons  anil  the  Slaves.  .  .  .  The  word 
Slave  comes  from  Slowan,  which  in  old  Shivonitu 
meant  to  speak,  and  was  given  bytheSinvoniini 
to  themselves  aa  the  people  who  could  s|><sk  ii 


144 


ARTANa 

oppottUon  to  other  mktioni  whom,  u  they  were 
not  able  to  undentand  them,  they  were  pleaaed 
to  cuDsider  u  dumb.  The  Oreek  word  harbami 
(whence  our  barbarUiu)  arose  in  obedience  to  a 
lilie  prejudice,  only  from  an  imiutinnof  babbling 

such  as  is  made  by  laying   'bur-bar-bar.'" 

C.  F.  Keary,  Itaitn  ofj/ittorp,  eh.  4.— The  above 
passage  seta  forth  the  oider  theory  of  an  Aryan 
f»milv  of  nation*  aa  well  aa  of  languages  in  its 
uii'iuulifled  form.    Ita  later  moditlcatlons  are  in- 
iliiHted  in  the  following:     "The  discorery  of 
.Sanscrit  and  the  further  discovery  to  which  it 
led.  that  the  languages  now  variously  known  as 
Aryan,  Aryanic,  Indo-European,  Indo-Oermanic, 
InJn-Celtic  and  Japhetic  are  closely  akiu  to  one 
another,  spread  a  spell  over  the  world  of  thought 
which  cannot  be  aaid  to  have  yet  wholly  passctl 
away.    It  was  hastily  argucil  from  the  kinship 
of  their  languages  to  the  kinship  of  the  nations 
that  spoke  them  .  .  .  The  question  then  arises 
as  to  the  home  of  the  'hoiethnos,'  or  parent 
tribe,  before  its  dispersion  and  during  the  pro- 
ethnic  p«rio<l,  at  a  time  when  aa  yet  there  was 
neither   Greek   nor  Hindoo,    neither    Celt    nor 
Teuton,    but  only    an    undifferentiated   Arran. 
Of  course,   the   answer   at   lirst   was  — w'hcro 
could  it  have  been   but  in  the  East.    And  at 
length    the   glnttulogist  found  it  necessary  to 
sliift    the    cradle  of  the    Aryan    race  to  the 
nciichbourhood  of  the  Oxus  and  the  Jaxartes,  so 
as  to  place  it  somewhere  between  the  Caspian 
Si'S  and  the  Himalayas.     Then  Diwtor  Latham 
liolillr  ralseil  his  voioe against  the  Asintic  theory 
aliogether,  and  stated  that  he  reganled  the  at- 
tempt to  deduce  the  Aryans  from  Asia  as  n-sem- 
blinj  an  attempt  to  derive  the  reptiles  of  this 
country  from    those    of    Ireland.      Afterwards 
Benfcy  argued,  from  the  presence  in  the  vocabu- 
lary common  to  the  Aryan  languages  of  words 
for  bear  and  wolf,  for  birch  and  beech,  and  the 
absence  of  certain  others,  such  as  those  for  liun 
tiger  »nd  palm,  that  the  original  home  of  the 
Arya      must  bare  been  within  the  temperate 
101.      .  Europe.  ...  As  might  be  expected  in 
the  >    a;  of  such  a  difficult  question,  those  who 
are  inilined  to  believe  in  the Eurogiean  origin  of 
the  Aryans  are  by  no  means  agreed  among  them- 
selves as  to  the  spot  to  be  fixed  upon.     Latham 
place<l  it  east,  or  south-east  of  Lithuania,  in  Po 
du!ia,  or  Volhyniii;  Benfey  had  in  view  adistrict 
nlH.ve  the  Black  Sea  and  not  far  from  the  Cas- 
I'l.iri;  Peachcl  fixed  on  the  slopes  of  the  Caucasus- 
(  uno  on  the  great  plain  of    Central   Europe 
Hiirier  on  the  southern  part  of  Russia;  POsche 
on  the  tract  between  the  N  iemen  and  the  Dnieper  ■ 
L.  Gelger  on  central  and  western  Germany;  and' 
ieiikaon.Sranilinavia.'  — J.  Rhys,  Ai<«  T/ieorirj, 
in  .^nrl'nm-tl«n  Hee.,  Jan.,  t8S»).—"  Aryan,  in 
Mi.ntiflc  language,  is  utterly  inapplicable  to  race 
11  nuaus  language,  and  nothing  but  language- 
an.l.  if  we  si.eak  of  Aryan  race  at  all,  wp  should' 
Kn.iw  that  it  means  no  more  than  x  +  Aryan 
r,'"'"  ;  i      •  K  ''■'■*  •I'^'srwl   sttain  and  again 
Umi  If  I  say  Aryas,   I  mean  neither  bloo.!  nor 
tK|n.-«,  nor  hair  nor  skull;  I  mean  simply  those 
who  »i>eak  an  Ar)an  language.     The  same  ap 
riles    to    Hindus,    Greeks,    Romans,    Germans. 
I  (lis  un.l  Slaves.  ...  In  that  sense,  and  in  that 
w  nse  only,  do  I  mv  that  even  the  hU-k.'st  (fin. 
'liiyepresent  an  earlier  suge  of  Aryan  speech 
"n.!  thought  than  the  fairest  ScamllnaVians 
1.  'it.  answer  must  be  given  as  U>llie  place  where 
uuf  Aryan  ancestors  dwelt  before  their  «paration, 

"  146 


ASIA. 

whether  in  large  swarms  of  millions,  or  in  a  few 
scattered  tents  and  huts,  I  should  still  say,  as  I 
s«i<l  forty  yean  ago,  'Somewhere  in  Asia.'  and 
no  more.  —  F.  Max  Mailer,  Biog.  of  W,>rd»  am» 
Home  oftheArynt.  tk.  6.— The  theories  which 
dispute  the  Asiatic  origin  cf  the  Aryans  are 
strongly  presented  by  Canon  Taylor  in  T/io 
Oni/xn  of  the  Arynnt,  by  G.  H.  Readall.  in  The 
ii'"'."  "J"^  Aryan*,  and  by  Dr.  O.  Schnuler  in 
Pifhulone  Antiquitia  of  the  Aryan  I\,,ple». 
—  See,  also,  Ijtdia:  The  ABomoisAL  IsnABiT- 
ARTS:  The  iMvioRATroir  amd  Co.vqcESTS  of 
TBI  Abtab,  and  Edropk 

TIUS.—    Ihe  term  As  [among   the    Romans] 
and  the  words  which  denote  its  divisions,  were 
not  confined  to  weight  alone,  hut  were  applied 
to  measures  of  length  and  capacity  also,  and  in 
general  to  any  object  which  could  be  regarded  as 
consisting  of    twelve  eoual   parta.     Thus  they 
were  commonly  used  to  denote  shares  into  which 
an    inheritance  was  divided."     As  a  unit    of 
weight  the  As.  or  Libra,    "occupied  the  same 
position  In  the  Roman  system  as  the  pound  does 
in  our  own.     According  to  the  most  accurate 
researches,  the  As  was  equal  to  about  Hi  oz 
avoirdupois,  or  .-ST.?  of  an  avoinlupois  pound  " 
It  '■  was  divided  into  13  ecjual  parts  calle<i  unciie 
and  the  uncia  w.is  divided  into  24  equal  pans 
called  scrupula. "      •  The  As.  regarded  as  a  coin 
[of  copper]  originally  welghiKl,  as  the  name  im- 
plies, one  pound,  and  the  smaller  copper  coins 
those  fractions  of  the  pound    'enoted  by  their 
names.     By  degrees,  however,  tiie  weight  of  the 
As,  reganled  as  a  coin,  was  greatly  iliminished. 
»Ve  are  told  that,  alwut  the  conimenii-ment  of 
the  first  Punic  war.  it  had  fallen  from  12  ounces 
to  a  ounces;   in  the  e.irly  part  of    the  second 
Punic  war  (B.  C.  817),  it  was  reduced  to  one 
ounce;  and    not   long   afterwards,    by  a   Lex 
Papiria,  it  was  fixe.l  at  half-an-ounce,  which  re- 
mained the  standard   ever   after."    The  silver 
cojns  of   Itome  were  tlie  Denarius.  ef|uivalent 
ter  217  B.  C.)  to  16  Asses;  the  Quinarius  and 
tile  Sestertius,  which  became,  respectively,  one 
half  and  one  fourth  of    the  Denarius  in  value. 
The  Sestertius,  at  the  close  of  the  Republic,  is 
estimau-d  to  have  been  equivalent  in  value' to 
two  pence   sterling    of    English    money.     The 
coinage  was  delnised  under  the   Empire      The 
principal  gold  coin  of  the  Empire  was  the  De- 
narius Aureus,  which  passed  for  2.1  silver    De-    ' 
narii.— W.  lUmsay,  M.iiimi  of  Ihiiuin  Antio  . 
(■A.  13.  ■  " 

ASCALON,  Battle   of    (A.  D.  looo).    See 
Jeki-salem;    a.  I).  1099-1144. 
.  ASCANIENS,  The.     See    Brande.vbcro: 

A.  D.  998-1142. 
ASCLEPIADiC,  The.     See  Medical  Scr. 

B.N('E,   GlIKKK. 

ASCULUM.  Battle  of  (B.  C.  aTo).  See 
Rome  :  B  C   -i^i-irr,  /y;     °  ^ 

_  ASCULUM,    Massacre    at.    Sec    Rohe: 

B.  C.  90-^. 
ASHANTEE    WAR,    The    (1874).      See 

ASHBURTON  TREATY,  The.  See 
United  States  of  Am.:  A.  D.  1842 

ASHDOD.    .Scr  PntusTiSEs. 

ASHTI,  Battle  of  (1818).  See  Ibdia:  A.  D. 
181 6-1  Ml  9. 

w  «  ®l^  •  J*"  N»me.— "  There  are  grounds  for 
belieTing  Europe  and  Asia  to  hare  originaltf 


ASIA. 


ASIA  MINOR 


■ignlfletl  '  the  west '  ud  '  the  owt '  respectively. 
Both  are  Semitic  terms,  and  pnilutlily  paaneil  to 
the  Qn<p|is  from  tlie  I'l>aMii(  iaug.  .  .  .  The 
Greelis  tirst  applied  the  'itlc  [Asia]  tr>  tliat  por- 
tion of  the  eautern  continent  which  lay  nearest 
to  them,  and  with  which  they  became  first  ac- 
quiiinlecl  —  the  coant  of  Asia  Minor  opposite  the 
Cyclades;  whence  they  extended  it  as  tiiiir 
knowledge  grew.  Still  it  hud  alwars  a  speiial 
application  to  the  country  about  Ephesus  — O. 
lian'liiison,  Xotit  to  llertHtiitu;  r.  8.  p.  83. 

ASIA:  The  Roman  Prorincc  (lo  called). — 
"As  originally  constituted,  it  corresponded  to  the 
dominions  of  the  Itinn  of  Pergamus  .  .  .  left 
by  the  will  of  Attalus  III.  to  the  lionuin  people 
(B.  C.  133).  ...  It  included  the  whole  of  Mysii 
and  liVdia.  with  ..ISolis,  Ionia  and  Caria,  except 
a  ■mull  piirt  wliicli  was  subject  to  Rho<les,  ami 
the  greaUT  part,  if  not  the  whole,  of  Phrygia. 
A  portion  ol'^  tli(>  last  region,  however,  was  de- 
tached from  it."— E  H.  Bunbury,  Hut.  o/Aitcien^ 
Oeog.,  ch.  20,  urct.  I 

ASIA,    Central.— Hongol    Conque**      Sec 

MOXOOI.B. 

Turkish  Coaqaeit.    See  Turks. 

Rutf ->n     '~''aqueiti.    See    Russia;    .V.   D. 

:  ■         ■        .m(9-i>wi. 

A-  'j^  I-'.  '  UR. — "Thenameof  AsiaMinor,  so 
'i.  i.  .11-  to  the  stmlcnt  of  a-icient  geogra{)i..y,  wa> 
•  ■•!  I  UM'  I  ulier  among  Greek  or  itoman  writers 
u  1  a  very  late  pi^riod.  Orosius,  wlio  wrote  in 
111.  5fth  century  after  the  Christian  era.  is  tlic 
Ir-'  xtant  writer  who  employs  the  term  in  its 
-,!•  .;  rp  «en.«e'— E.  11.  Bunbury, //><(.  of  An- 
ci.iil  ''■■",/..  e/i  7,  »rt.  2.— The' name  Anatolia, 
wliirli  is  of  <»n'ek  origin,  synonymous  with 
"TIk'  Levant,  signifying  "  The  Sunrise, "  came 
Into  use  among  the  Byzantines,  aluut  the  10th 
century,  aud  was  adopted  by  their  su(xessors, 
the  Turks 
Earlier  Kingdom*  and  People.    See  Phrtoi- 

A.NSAS11  MVKIANI*.— LyOI.VNS— C'ABIASS.— LVCI- 
AS*  —  liirilYSIANS  — PoSTf;!  (CAPr.ADOClJk). — 
PaPHLAC.OSI  ANS.  — TROJA. 

The  Greek  Coloaies.— "  The  tumult  which 
had  lx'»'n  caused  by  the  irruption  of  the  Thts- 
protians  into  Thessaly  and  the  displacement  of  | 
the   population  of  Greece   (see  Grekce:    Tiie 
MiORATio.N.  Ac]  did  not  siiUsiJe  within  the  lim-    i 
its  of  the  p.-iiinsuia.     From  the  north  and  the   i 
8.1UII1  those  inlialtitantg  who  were  uiialilo  to  main- 
tiiii  their  v'ri'unci  against  the  incursions  of  the   i 
Tlies.salians.  .Vriiai'ans.  or  Dorians,  anil  preferred   ■ 
exile  to  Militiiission.  sought  new  homes  in  the  is-   | 
lands  of  tin-  .\ei;ean  and  on  the  western  coast  <.f   ! 
Asia  Miii.T      The  migrations  eimtinucd  for  sev-    ' 
eral  generations.     When    il  length  tliev  came  to   ' 
an  end,  aii.l  the  Anatolian  roast  from  >lount  Ma   ' 
to  the  Tri.ipian    headlami,    with  the  adjacent 
islands,  was  in  tlie  posin-ssion  of  the  Greeks,  tlirei' 
great  divisions  or  trilvs  were  distinguished  in 
the    new     settl.'ment.<:     Dorians,     loniuns,    and 
Aeolians,     In  ^pite  of  the  presence  of  some  alien 
elements,  the  Dorians  and  loniaiis  of  Asia  Minor 
weri' th"  sjinif  trilx-sas  the  Dorians  and  lonians 
of  Omii-      Thf  .\eolian-s.  on   tlie  other  hami, 
were  a  eomposite  tribe,  as  their  name  implii- 
...   Of   these  three  divisions   the  Aeolians  lav 
farthest  tolhenirth.     The  precise  limiu  of  tlieir 
territory  were  differently  nxed  bv  ilitferi'nt  au 
thorities       ,      The  Ae<ilie  cities' fell   into  two  ' 
groups     a  northers,  of  which  lyCslNn  was   the 
centre,  and  ■  Kiuthem,  compowd  of  the  cities  in 


the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  Herrous, 
and  founded    fn)m    Cyme.  .  .  .  The   northern 

frmip  included  the  islands  of  Tenedos  and  Leslios. 
n  the  latter  there  were  origiaally  six  cities: 
Methymna,  Mytilene,  Pvrrha.  Eresus,  Arisha, 
and  .\ntisHa,  but  Arisbs  was  aubaequently  con 
quered  and  enslaved  by  Mytilene.  .  .  .  The  sec 
ond  gn'ut  stn-am  of  migmtion  pniceeded  from 
Athens  (after  the  death  of  Cislrus —  we  Athens  : 
From  the  Doriak  Mioration  to  B.  C.  683  — 
aiconiing  to  Greek  tradition,  the  younger  sons 
of  Codrus  leading  these  Ionian  ei 'h  >nisl8  acMss 
the  Aegean,  first  to  the  Carian  citv  of  Miletus  — 
see  Mii.KTis, —  which  they  capturi  1,  and  tlien  ti> 
the  eoiM(Uesl  of  Ephesus  aiid  the  island  of  .Samos] 
.  .  .  The  colonies  spread  until  a  dodecapolis  was 
establislH'd,  similar  to  the  union  widch  tln' 
lonians  had  founded  in  their  old  settlements  oti 
the  nortliem  shore  of  Peloponnesus.  In  some 
cities  the  Ionian  popidution  formed  a  minority. 

,  .  Tlie  eolonisati(m  of  Ionia  was  undouhlKlly, 
'n  the  main,  an  achievement  of  emigrants  from 
.Vttiea.  but  it  was  not  accomplished  by  a  simile 
faintly  or  in  the  space  of  one  lifetime.  .  .  .  Tlie 
two  f  st  famous  of  the  Ionian  cities  xerv  Mi- 
letus and  Eohesus.  The  first  was  a  Carian  eily 
previously  known  as  Anactoria.  .  .  .  Ephesus 
was  originally  in  the  hands  of  the  Li'lesres  niul 
the  Lydians,  who  were  driven  out  by  tlie  lonians 
undiT  .\ndroclus.  The!  ancient  sanctuary  of  the 
tutelary  gtsldess  of  the  place  was  transfonnni 
by  the  (ireeks  into  a  temple  of  Artemis  who 
was  here  worshippetl  as  the  gochieas  of  birtl  ind 
productivity  in  accordance  with  Oriented  r  lier 
than  Hellenic  Ideas."  The  remaining  Ionic  .  'ics 
and  islands  were  .Myus  (naineil  fnMii  the  m  ><- 
quitoes  which  Infested  it,  and  wiii.  h  liii.ilty 
drove  the  colony  to  abamhm  it),  l*riene,  !'.!', 
thrac,  ClazomeniB,  Teos,  I'hocaea,  t.ilop! 
Lebedus,  Samos  and  Chios  "Chios  was 
inhabited  by  Cretans  .  .  .  aiid  subsi-quent !  \ 
Curians.  ...  Of  the  manm'r  in  which  Cliio^ 
came connecteil  with  the loni.ins  the  Chians  1 
give  no  clear  account.  .  .  The  southe;  .  | 
of  the  Anat.'lian  coast,  and  the  southem-m 
iiUids  in  the  Aegean  were  colonis<-d  bv 
Dorians,  who  wresteti  them  from  thi?  Phoeiiii 
or  Carian  occupants.  Of  the  islands,  Crete  is 
most  lm|iortant.  .  .  .  Crete  was  one  of  the 
est  centres  of  civilisation  m  tin  Aegean 
Chetr  ].  ,  .  .  The  Dorian  (.  .ny  in  Rho'-* 
like  that  in  Crete,  was  ascribed  to  ihi'  band  win  .1 
left  Argos  under  the  eomiriand  of  Althaemeni-~ 
,  ,  .  Other  islands  col.  .nisi'd  by  the  Dorians  Win 
Thera.  .   ,       Mehw,  ,   Cnrpathus,   Culv.irit, 

Nisyrus,  ::nd  Cm.  .  From  the  islands,  the 
Dorians  g|  .ad  to  tie-  mainland.  The  p<  nin«iila 
ofCnidus  vas  |>erha|.s  the  first  scttlemeni  ,  . 
Ilalicarna^sus  was  f..unded    from  TnH'reti.  :iri.l 

■le  Ionian  element  must  have  Wvn  .  .insi.lirilL, 
,  Of  the  Dorian  ei!ii.s,  six  uniteil  in  th.  ..in- 
a.in  wi.rship  .f  Apoll-  on  the  heaiilaiid  .  !  in 
'. Ilium,  Tiles,  were  I.iudus,  lulysu.s,  ai,ii  (  s- 
iniriis  in  iih.siis.  Cos.  ami,  on  the  mami  1:.  1 
llali(arntis.sus  nii.l  Cnidus  ,  ,  ,  The  tern:  ry 
which  the  .\e.ilians  acquired  is  d<'»<ril«.!  'v 
llensiotus  as  more  fertile  than  that  miupi.l  '  v 
the  lonians,  but  of  a  less  excellent  i;limste  ft 
was  inhabiti  '  by  a  niiiiilM-r  of  tritws  .on.ng 
whicli  the  '!'•  or  Ti  ucri  were  the  clii.  f 
In  Homer  the  il  habitants  of  the  city  of  111.  Inn.! 
are  Dardani  or  Troes,  and  the  name  Teurri  i  »-» 
11, 1  occur.     In  historical   time*  the  liergi'tM 


-si 

■r 


1  li.e 
•  •\d- 


146 


ASIA  MINOR 

wbo  dwelt  tn  the  town  of  the  lame  name  .  . 
v»r  Lampaacus,  and  also  formed  the  lubject 
papulation  of  Miletua,  were  the  only  remnants  of 
IhU  once  famous  natioD.     But  their  former  jfreat- 
ress  was  atteste<l  by  the  Homeric  po<?ms.  and  the 
cccurrence  ot  the  name  (iergithians  at  various 
places  in  the  Troad  [see  Troja].     To  this  tribe 
ticloneed  the  Troy  of  the  Grecian  epic,  the  site 
«(  which,  bo  far  as  it  represents  any  historical 
city,  is  fixed   at   Hiasariilc.     In   the    Iliad    the 
Trrijan  empire  extends  from  the  Aesepus  to  the 
Oiicus;  it  was  dividol  — or,  at  least,  later  his- 
l.irians  speak  of  It  as  divided —into  principali 
t.'s  which  recognised  Priam  as  their  chief     But 
tSe  Homeric  descriptions  of  the  city  ami  its  emi- 
nence are  not  to  be  taken  as  historically  true. 
Whatever    the    power  -nd   civilisation   of   the 
sDcienr  stronghold  exhumed  by  Dr.  Sohliemann 
may  have  been,  it  was  necessary  for  the  epic 
piie't  to  represent  Priam  and  his  nation  as  a  d:in- 
perous  rival  in  wealth  and  arms  to  the  gmit 
kings  of  Mycenae  and  Sparta.  .  .  .  The  tradi- 
tional dates  fix  the«<-  colonies  [of  the  Greek.*  tn 
Asia  .Minor]  in  the  generations  which  *■  Ilowed 
th*-  Trojan  war.  ...   We  may  suppose  iiiat  the 
colonisation  of  the  Aegean  and  of  Asia  Miniir  bv 
tae  Greeks  was  coincident  with  the  expulsion  o"f 
the  Phoenicians.     The  greatest  extensiun  of  the 
Pho<^  dan  power  in  the  Aegean  seems  to  fall  in 
■he  1".  !i  century  B.  C.     From  the  13th  it  was 
grailu^i  iv  on  the  decline,  and  the  Greeks  were 
-nslili':  !o  secure  the  trade  for  them-.! ves.  . 
By  lllio  B.  C.  Asia  Minor  mav  have  Ijeen  in  ■ 
h,".niU  of    the  Greeks,  tli    iuti  the   Phoeniti^i; 

;11  mai;  mod  themv  ives  in  Rhodes  ui.  ' 
•  vpms.  '..  A  all  attei-  pts  at  chronology  u: 
illusory."— i;  .\bbott, /.  rf  of  Ortfee.  eh.  i  (e  li 
-Vlsoln:  L.  Curtius,  j-:-t  of  Oruet,  hk.  2  cA 
8  I  1).-G.  Orote,  »/i,r  f  Onefe.  pt.  2,  eh 
\X-\:,  —J.  A.  Cramer,  Oet-,-  irutHitt.  Ihtrription 
tf.Uit  .)fin»r,  net.  6  (r.  1).  — See,  also,  .Miletis 

Phi  KE.lSrI. 

B.   C.  784-539. -Proiperity  of  the  Greek 
Colonies.— Their  SubmistiontoCrcesus,  King 
of  Lydia,  and  their  conquest  and  anuexation 
to  the  Persian  Empire.— "  The  Grecian  ,  r,|,,nies 
on  tlic  r  .>iist  of  Asia  early  rose  to  wealth  bv  means 
of  tmile  and  manufactures.     Though  wc  hav.  n.it 
the  ni' Mus  of  tracing  their  comnii  •  e.  we  know      it 
it  wa-.  considerable,  with  the  inoilier  i 
with  Italy,  and  at  length  Spain,  with  Pi 
ami  t!i.-  interior  of  Asia,  ^     .nee  th.  ,iro<lii. 
of  I:,  U\  pa»,sed  to  Greece      The  V 
had  '  if  woolen  mnnufnctufes,   . 
commerce  to  the  Euxine.  ot.  all  ? 
ihcy    founde<I   factories,   and    exr 
III  liiufjrt'jres  and  other  goods  with 
ai.  1  the  n    ehbouriiiiT  peup|c!i    for 
rnv  l,i,l,       bees-wax,    flax,    Iwmp. 
Tlnf      .  ven  reason  t.i  suppo~  ths 
of        ■    .iia.  their  tni  iers  hart.  •    ' 
no:  :  ,r  from  the  conti;    i  of  Chii 
.      But  while  thev  »•->>  adv 
»n.i prosperity,  apowerfi;   rnona 
i'l  l.v.lia.  ,.f  which  tl  •■  i-v 
at  th..  r«)iof  Mount  Tti 
of  th     Mermna.:  ilynast 
iTiiu-x,.  whose  reign  Ik 
at).. lit   IS  r    734 

ast 
»  Lv 


Ionian  cities  on  ti 
«  half  theelTor 
iluce  these  sta:    • 
l'»l-    K)  [ft    t. 


I'sifln^,     \  ..i 

nde.i    ti'ieir 

is-.i  of   which 

ingctl    (heir 

iieScv'hians 

...ve-      <„.l. 

etc. 

means 

if  war.  ^ 

MiLETI  - 

.  iT  in  we.t!  it 
'  •T■r\^^^\  it.self 
.Sanies,  a  citv 
is._       yges,  the  flrs't 
'f  -      iian  kiiiifA  (See 
IM     •.<lti)  li.ive  t«.gun 
-'"' — ^^.-  ^^Hirii!  the 
I  hiring  a  century  and 
■d=»n  monarchs  to  re- 
re  una    .limi:      At  length 
iSft-!     Jtr    .»M,rHted    C'rtuus 


ital 


14; 


A8U  MINOR 

mounted  the  throne  of  LydU,  and  he  nude  aH 
Asia  this  aide  of  the   River  Halvs  (Lycia  and 
tilicia    excepted)   acknowledge  "his  dominion. 
1  he  Aeoliar.,    lonten  and  Dorian  cities  of  the 
co,«t  all  paid  him  tribute;  but.  according  to  the 
!   usual  rule  of    eastern  conquerors,    he   meddled 
I  not  with  their  political  institutions,  and   their 
!   might  deem  themselves  fortunate  in  being  insured 
,   against  war  by  the  payment  of  an  annual  sum  of 
tnoney     Cr-psiis,  moreover,  cultivated  the  friend- 
}  ship  of  the  L.ircpean  Greeks. "     But  Crtesus  was 
;  overthrown.  B.  C.  IVM,  by  the  conquering  Cvrus 
;  and  his  kingdom  of  Lydia  was  swallowed  ti'p  in 
I   the  great  Persian  empire  then  taking  form  fsee 
Persia:  B.  C.  54i>-.521],     Cyrus,  during  his  war 
,   with  trcEsus,  had  tried  to  entice  the  lontans 
"""y ',f"m  the  latter  and  win  them  to  an  alliance 
with  himself     But  they  incurre<l  his  resentment 
by  refusing.     ' '  They  an.l  the  .EolUns  now  sent 
amimssadors.  praying  to  be  received  to  submis- 
,  sion  on  the  same  terms  as  those  on  which  they 
1  had  obeyed  the  Lvdian  monarch ;  but  the  Mile- 
I   sians  alone  found  favour:  the  r-st  had  to  prepare 
!   for  war.   They  repaired  the  walls  of  their  towns. 
I  and  sent  to  .Spartii  for  ai  J.     Aid.  however  was 
I  refused :  but  Cyrus.  Ixing  called  awav  bv  the 
war  wMth  Babylon,  neglected  th-m  for  "the 'pres- 
ent.   Tlir.e  years  aft.  rwards  (Ol.  .59.  2),  Harpa- 
giis.  who  had  saved  (  yrus  in  his  iiifsincv  from 
Ills  .grandfather  .\styac  ■     ,ime  as  governor  of 
i.y.lia.      He  instantly   ,)r.-[«»red  to  reduce  the 
-ities  of  the  coast.     Town  after  town  submitted 
.he  Teians  abandoned    theirs,   and    retired   to 
-Vbdera  in  Thrace:   the  Phoc*ans,    gettiii      on 
shipboard,  and  vowin:;  never  to  ntum,  saik     .'or 
Corsica,  and  l»  ng  there  harass<-.|  by  the  Car- 
tliagenians    an.l     Tyrrhenians,    they    writ    to 
Rliegion  in  U&\\    and  at  length  founded    ■  issalia 
(Marseilles;    .n  •■»■  coast  of  Gaul.     The      -ecian 
coloniM  tho-  ^     ame  a  part  of  tlie  P.r         em- 
P'f^    — T.  K  i-'htley,  Hitt.  of  Oreeet,  pt         49 
Also  IX:      :   rodotus,  Uint..  tr.  and  e,l    ',y  O 
R.iiet,,M,n.         \,  arulapp.—  yi.  Duncker,  i/i»«. 
of  .Uti'/uitit      .    8.  eh.  (5-7  (r.  6). 

B.  C.   Soi-493  —The  Ionian  revolt  and  its 
suppretaion.     S<e  Persia:  B.  C  .521-49:) 

B.  C.  479.—  A  -hens  aisumea  the  protec:ioa 
of  loma.     .See        -ie-vs:  B.  C  4;tt-478. 
«^"  ^-  S'^^■~^  Jrmation  of  Confederacr  of 
Deloa.     Sec  Gil        •  :  B.  C.  4Ta-477. 
,.  8-  C-  413.—       aute  again  demanded  from 
the  Creeks  by  the  Persian  Kior.— Conspiracy 
against  Athena.     Se.-  Greece ;  B.  C.  4;:i 
''•  C.  4i3-4»--ReTolt  of  the  Greek  cities 
m  Athens.— Intrigues  of  Ai-biades.    See 
^  ece;  B.  C.  4I$-41>. 

^-  C.  4ta.— Re-submission  to  Persia.    See 
Hstv:  B.  C.  4>I«-J0.>. 

B.  C.  401-400.— Espeditton  o-  Cyrus  the 
.  cunger,  and  Retreat  of  the  Tea  Thousand. 
.■>..<.  I'kksia:  B.  C  40I-1(X). 
.  B  C.  399.387.— Spartan  war  with  Perki« 
in  -naif  of  the  Greek  cities.— Their  abao- 
dooment  by  the  Peace  of  Anta,cid*s.  See 
GiiKECE:  B.  C.  I199-:J«T. 

B.  C.  334— Conquest  by  Alexander  the 
Great.     Nr  .Hacedoxia  :  B  C   3;«-.t<o 

B.  C.  3ot.— Mostly  annexed  to  the  'hracian 
Kingdoir.  of  Lysimachus.  Sie  M.  ixjxia, 
&r  :  «.  t .  310-aoi. 

B.  C.  281-324.— Battle-ground  of  the  war- 
ring monarchies  of  Syria  and  Egypt  — 
Changes  of  nuutert.    See  Selbucid*. 


ABU.  MINOR. 


ASSASSINS. 


B.  C.  191.— Fint  Entrance  of  the  Romaiu. 
—  Their  defeat  of  Antiochaa  the  Great.— 
Their  expansion  of  the  kin^om  of  Pttfm- 
mnm  and  the  Republic  of  Rhode*.  Sve  Hsuco- 
cms:  B.  C.  224-187. 

B.  C.  iao-65.  —  Mitbridatea. —Complete 
Roman  Conqoeit.  See  Mitiihidatic  Wars; 
alio  KoMK  -.  B.  C.  T8-(M,  and  HU-m. 

A.  D.  4S>ioo.— Rite  of  Chriitian  Churchei. 
Bee  CunuTiAMiTY  :  A.  I>.  33-lU(). 

A.  D.  39a.— Dio.  .etian'i  scat  of  Empire  es- 
tablished at  Nicomedia.  See  Uome:  A  D. 
»n-my 

A.  D.  te»4a8.— Persian  invasions.-  DcHt- 
trance  by  HeracUus.  See  ItoME:  A  D.  S«S- 
•28. 

A.  D.  1063-109*— Conquest  and  ruin  br  the 
Scljuk  Turks.  See  Turks  (8eui'Ks):  A.  D. 
lU6a-107a:  aod  1073-1092. 

A.  D.  1097-1149.- Wars  of  the  Crusaders. 
Bee  Ckisadks:  A.  D.  1090-1099.  aod  1147-1149. 

A.  O.  iM4-ta6i.— The  Empire  of  Nicaa 
•ad  the  Empire  of  Trebisoad.  See  Orbbs 
Ehpihr  or  Nic.cA.        ^ 

ASIENTO,  OR  ASSIENTO,  The.  See 
Blaveht:  a.  D.  189U-1778;  Utrrcht:  A  D. 
1713-1714;  Aix-la-Cbapkllr,  Tub  Cunorrm 
op:  Enulard:  a  D.  1789-1741:  aod  Qburuia: 
A.  I).  173S-1743. 
ASKELON.  See  PniurriNEs. 
ASKLEPIADS.— ■■ThmuKhout  all  the  his- 
tortinl  »iiv*  lof  On^rrv)  the  dcun-DdauU  of 
Axkl^piiw  [or  Eaciiliipiuitj  w<-rc  nuinvniua  and 
widely  dilTuartt.  The  many  familiva  or  Kcntca 
.callnl  A«ltl<<|iia<U.  who  dvvnini  th«iiup|vFt  to 
[the  Ktudy  and  pnu'liiw  of  mi-diiiiit-,  and  who 
|prini'i|«llr  dwfit  near  Ihf  tt'iiipli'a  of  Aakl<>|>iiiii. 
fwhilher  auk  and  aulTcrin);  nii-u  cnmo  to  olimiii 
Irvlicf  — all  n-coitnUi'il  the  K'xt.  not  tni-rrly  aa  thv 
'otijtH'tof  their  t'omiiion  worHliip,  hut  alim  aa  tlirir 
actual  pM)(«uttor. "— U.  Urole,  Jlitl.  of  Umet, 
ft    1.  fh.  9 

ASMONEANS,  The.  Ber  Jews:  B.  C.  Ifltt- 
40. 

ASOKA.     S.'e  I  Mil  A  :  B.  C.  813-  -s 
ASOV.    See  Azop. 

ASPADAN.— The    ancient  name  of  which 

that    of    lijialian    ia   a   corniptnl    form. — U. 

Rawlin.tiin,  Fit*  limtt  M'in-irrhut:  Vnlia,  eh.  I. 

ASPERN-ESSLINCBN      (OR       THE 

MARCHFELOl,   Battle  of.     See  Uermany: 

A.    I>.    IWWIJaNIAKV— .IlNKI. 

ASPIS,  The.    Stf  PiiALAXX 

ASPROMONTE,  Defeat  of  Garibaldi  at 
(lS6a>.    S.-..  It  MY    A.  I)   li^rtJ  l-iW. 

ASSAM,  Enflish  Acquisition  of.  See 
Inku    .\    U   IHjS  IHiCT 

ASSANDUN,  Battle  ef,-Tlie  lUtb  sn<l 
lai>l  Iwtlli'.  .\  l>  UMA.  tH'tween  l^lmimd  Iron- 
alili  ••.  till'  Kiitrli<h  Kinit.  and  hin  Danlnh  riviij, 
t'liiil,  or  (aniile,  for  llic  I'rown  of  Knglaml. 
The  Kni{li«h  w.-re  li-rrihiy  dcfi-atiil  ami  the 
flowiT  of  tlii-lr  ni>l>lllly  iwrloliol  on  iIh-  Scld. 
iTIw  nwdt  WW  «  ■livUion  of  tht'  kioedoni:  hut 
Kdinund  wxin  iliiil.  i>r  wan  klllixl  Avhiuttton. 
In  K-scj.  wiiii  ihi'  Iwtllr  jjnmud.  Hw  Knolanu: 
A    l>    UTU mitl 

ASSASSINATIONS,  NoUbls.- Abbas, 
Pasha  of  Erjrpt.^  .s<'<'  F^iypt:  A  I).  IN4o  l*iw 
.  .  .  Aiczandtr  !!.  of  Ratiis.  ^><.  tcr'-ii.l, 
n  |m;u  I'M)  Reatoun.  Cardinal.  r«<i!>i<>T. 
LaMi  a  1)  IMI.  ...B«ck«t,Th»mM.  xeeKliu- 


laicd:  A.D.11I»-1170.  ..Bnckinrbam.  SeeKNa 
laud:  a.  D.  1838. .  .Casar.  See  Komp.:  B.  C.  44. 
. .  .Capo  d'Istrea,  Count,  President  of  Greece, 
See  Orebcb:  A.  D.  1880-1863. .  ..Carnot. 
President.  See  Francb:  A  D.  1894-1898.... 
CsTendish,  Lord  Frederick,  and  Burke,  Mr. 
See  Ireland:  A.  ?).  1883. . . . . Concini.  See 
Prance:  A.  D.  161&-1619. . .  .Danilo,  Prince  of 

Montenegro    (1S60).      See    Mo:  teneuro 

Damley.  See  Scotlaiid:  A.  D.  LMl-lseS. . . . 
Francis  of  Guise.  See  Framcb:  A.  D.  1900-1563. 
— GarAcId,  President.  See  United  States 
OP  Ax. :  A.  D.  1881 .. .  .CusUtus  III.  of  Sweden. 
See  SoANDiHAVUN  States  (Sweden):  A  I). 
1730-1793.... Henry  of  Guise.  See  France: 
A.  D.  1584-1589. . .  .Henir  III.  of  France.  See 
France:  A.  D.  1S84-18)J».... Henry  IV.  of 
France.     See  France:   A.  D.    1599-1000..... 

Hipparcbua.    See  Athens:  B.  C.  500-510 

John,  Duke  of  Burgundy.  See  France:  A  D. 
1415-1419.... Klcbor,  General     See  Francs: 

A.    D.    1800  (January— June) Kotscbue. 

See  Oermajty:  A.  D.  1817-1890.. ..  .Lincoln, 
Preaident.    See  United  States  op  Am.  :  A.  I). 

1805   (April    14tb) Marat.     See    Francs: 

A.  D.  1798  (July).  . .  .Mayo,  Lord.    See  India: 

A.  D.  1803-1876  . .  .Murray,  The  Regent.  S<e 
Scotland:  A.  D.  1501-1568.  ...Omar,  Caliph. 
See  Mahometan  Coni)UESt.  Ac.  :  A.  D.  661  ... 
Paul,  Csar  of  Russia.   See  Rumia:  A.  D.  1801. 

Perceral,  Spencer.    See  England:  A.  I>. 

1806-1813.... Peter  III.  See  Klwia:  A.  U. 
1761-1762  ...Philip of Maccdoo.    SeeOBKErG: 

B.  C.  857-836  ...Prim,  General  (1S70).  tV« 
Spain:  A.  D.  1866-1873. . .  Rissio.    8.-e  Scot 

lakd:  a.  I).  1561-1.568 Rossi,  Count.     Si'* 

Italy:  A.  D.  1848-1849. ..  .Wallsnstein  (16141. 
See  Orrmahy:  A.  I).  1683-1634. ..  .Wili.ua 
the  Silent.  See  NETORRLANDe:  A.  P  l.V<l- 
1584  ...Witt,  John  and  ComeUua  de.  .S« 
NBTaERLANDS:  A.  U.  1673-1674 

ASSASSINS.  The.-"  I  must  apeak  ...  of 
Uiat  wonderful  nnithrrhni<d  of  the  Aiuwtiiitia. 
which  during  the  12th  aod  13th  rcnturiea  «pri  ad 
•uch  terror  thn>UKh  all  Aaia,  Miiaaulman  and 
Chriathio.  Their  deeda  sliould  be  atudkil  is 
Von  liammer's  hiat4iry  of  their  order,  of  w  iilcli 
however  there  is  an  excellent  analyaU  In  TavInD 
iliatory  of  Mohammedaniain.  The  word  .Xwiiviiti, 
it  muat  lie  rrmeinbcreil,  in  itaunlluary  alitnilic^i 
lion,  ia  derived  fnnn  this  order,  sod  not  the  n- 
vene.  Tlu)  Aaaaaaina  were  not  so  callnl  Im  ,iii'«< 
I'ley  were  miinlerera.  but  munterera  are  vMit! 
»M««Kln«  la'<'au«<-  tin-  Aaaaaaina  were  murdenm. 
Tlif  orl){ln  of  the  word  Aaaaaain  haa  Ihi  n  mm  I 
dUj.iUnl  liy  oriental  acholara:  but  IHaiiplinitlii 
la  MillU'leully  written  U|mid  llie  Aaiatic  liiKlcirv  "| 
the  12th  century.  The  Aaaaaaina  wen'  iioi.  -n  '.  ily 
JUH-Hkinif,  adynsaly,  hut  miher  an  onhr.  lik.  ilie 
Templars: 


■nly  the  ollliti  of  ( Irand  Ma>li  r.  Ilkii 
the  Caliphate,  lM'<«m«  bereililarv.  They  »<rv 
orii(iniilly  a  liraoch  of  the  KKynllan  Ixhitiiu  liii^ 
[nee  .M\iiiiMKT.*N  ("imm'EaT:  .\.  I»  9il8  li;il 
ami  at  Hnt  proteased  tlH>  principlea  of  thai  k^  i 
But  then' can  lie  00  doubt  that  llieir  lniitr.i« 
IriiU'  latanieal  last  smere  iH'ffatiiHi  of  all  n  lii^i'  a 
ami  all  niomlity.  '  To  U'lU've  nothing  an!  M 
dan'  eterylhinjt'  waa  the  aumniary  of  iIkK 
l4-achlnK  Tlieir esoteric  principh'.  adiln""'!'!  t« 
the  lion  Initialed  nu'inhen  of  tlie  iinli  r  inl 
•jliiptt  idiiid  t.tM-.Ii«'lKe  Ut  Uh*  Hiil  t»f  iii' •>  "<* 
IN'riora  If  tbe  .Vaaaaain  waa  ohiertil  to  laki''>< 
a  Caliph  or  a  Suluit  bjr  tits  dagger  ut  Uw  li"*^ 

148 


ASSASSINS. 

the  deed  wu  done;  tf  he  was  ordePMl  to  throw 
bimae  (  from  the  ramparts,  the  deed  was  done 
likewije.  .  .  .  Their  fuunrler  was  IlasaaD  8ubuh 
who,  in  1090,  shortly  before  the  death  of  Maiek 
Shah,  seized  the  castle  of  Alamout  —  the  Vul- 
ture's nest — in  northern  Persia,  wlience  tliey  ex- 
tinded  their  possessions  over  a  whole  chain  of 
niduntiiin  fortresses  in  tliat  country  and  in  Syria. 
The  Umud-Master  was  the  Shvikh-al-Jebel,  the 
fninoua  Old  tkn  of  the  Mountain,  at  whose  name 
Etirupeand  Asia  shuddered. "— E.  A.  Freeman, 

Ifiil.  iiiut  CiiTuiUfli  nf  lilt  Sartutnt.  Uet.  4. "  In 

tilt'     Piitimide    KImlif    of     Egypt,    they    [the 


ASSYRIA. 


.Vswiissuis,  or  Ismailiens  of  Syria  and  Persia]  be- 
lii'lil  an  incarnate  deity.     To  kill  his  enemies,  in 
uli.itfver  way  they  l)est  could,  was  an  action. 
till'  merit  of  which  could  not  be  disputed,  and 
Ilii.'  reward    for    which    was  curtain."      Hasan 
hiibiih.  the  founder  of  tlie  Order,  died  at  Ala- 
moiit  A.  D.   1124.     "Prom  the  day  ho  entereil 
Aliiiriut  until  that  of  his  death  — a  period  of 
tliirtj-flve  years  —  he  never  emcrgel,  but  upon 
nvnnodialons,  from  the  seclusiim  ot  his  house. 
I'ililcM  and  inscrutable  as  Destinv.  lie  watclied 
Ihf  irimbled  world  of  Oriental  ixriitics,  himself 
iiivisililo,  and  whenever  he  perceived  a  formida- 
ble f(i«',  caused  a  dagger  to  be  driven  into  his 
heart.  "    It  was  not  until  more  tlun  a  centurr 
after  the  deatli  of  iu  founder  that  the  fcarfiil 
orgauijation  of  the  Assassins  was  extinguished 
(.V.  I).  IS.-)')  by  the  same  Hixxl  of  Mongol  inva- 
sion wlilcli  awept  Bagdad  and  tlie  Caliphate  out 
of  enLicuce.  —  R   D.  Osbi>rn,  ItUtm  uiuler  Iht 
Kkiilijunf  lii'jiUd,  pi.  3,  (A.  8.—  W.  C.  Taylor, 
nut    '/  Miihiimmriltnitm  aiut  its  SefU,  e/i.  9.— 
Till-  .\~«i«iii»  wen"  rootol  out  from  all   tiieir 
striMiglioliU  in  KuhlaUn  and  the  neighboring  re- 
giim.  sail  were  pravticallr  cxterniinatol,  in  li57, 
by  tlif  .Mongols  under  Khulagu,  or  Houlagou' 
bmthi-r  of  .Mongu  Khan,  the  great  sovereign  of 
the  .H.mgol  Empire,   then  nignlng.     Alamut 
the  \  uiture's  Nest,    was  demolished.  —  II     II 
llowiirlli.  Iliit.iiflht  MonifJt,  fkirt  I,  p.  193-  ntui 
I'iria.         l(l-l(H-S<-e  Haoi>ai.:  A.  D.  I'iW 

ASSAyE,B4ttltof(iao3).   SeelHDiA:A  D. 

ITilt  |sii.-, 

»»?SI¥°^X  °'' J"?  NOTABLES  IN 
FRANCE  (I7t7),    See   Pkas        A.  U.  1774- 

ASSENISIPIA.  Tht   propoMd  Stktt  of. 

**  NoHriiwKsT  Tkhhitohy  of  tub  United 

t>TATK»UK  .Vn  :   .\.  I).  I7M4. 

*|SIDEANS,  Tht.    See  Cihsidim.  Tub. 
ASblENTO,  The.    S...  .\-iknto 
ASSICMATS.     Hee   PnAME  •  A.  D.  17S»- 
l.iM     ITW-ITK,',  (Jii.r-ArKiii;  also,  MoNiT 

ASSINARUS,  AthtoiAo  defsat  and  tur- 
Ac4fi.'.oV.,  i^''  '*»"*"»'<  »  C  4IV4i:l 
AasiNlBQlA.     Nee    NimrnwMT     Tkiihi- 

TcMll>...KrvN»|l\ 

ASSINIBOINS.  Th..    See  Anemcan  Aao- 

■VllSK-     MilUAN  KaMII.V 

AA?^l'i?'M     ^''*      ■'••«>y-        *«      EHOLANO: 

A   II  ttw:»  (SKrtKMnKw) 
ASSIZE  OF  BREAD  AND  ALE. -The 

A«M/..  „f  Hriail  an.1  Ale  w.m  ni,  Kngllsh  .mil. 
wm.or  ,.,i«,imcnt,  .laling  l««-k  to  iIh.  llnicf 
l-iiry  11  |„  tlK.  lath  miiury,  which  flx«l  il,,. 
ITl...  ,.r  iliiw.  cimmiHlitic.  by  a  scale  rcir"i«i.d 
L,  I '  f "'  'v.  tT  "'"'■'•■'  I'"'-'-*  "t  wlicat.  Iwrlcy 
•"  Ulrly  as  the  b«j;liwiin  «'  H"  Usl  wBtury  and 


149 


wa»  only  abolished  in  London  and  tU  neighbour- 
hood  about  thirty  years  ago  "-that  is,  early  in 
n®,-''/^'"  century. -O.  L.  Cndk,  Uut!  of 
Brituh  Ommerce,  t.  1    n   1,37  "' 

Ar SIZE  OF  CLARENDON,  The.  See 
Enc        -j:  a.  n.  IIBJ-IITO 

ASS'ZE  OF  JERUSALEM,  The.-"  No 
sooner  had  Godfrey  of  U<,uilloii  [flecte<I  King  of 
Jerusalem  after  the  Uiking  of  the  Holy  City  by 
tlie  Crusaders  A.  I),  lOOoT accepted  tlii  offlreolT 
supreme  magistrate  than  he  solicite.1  the  public 
and  private  advice  of  the  Utin  pilgrims  who 
were  the  best  skilled  in  tlie  statutes  and  custona 
of  turope.  From  these  materiaU.  with  tha 
counsel  and  approbation  of  the  Patriarch  and 
barons,  of  the  clergy  and  laity,  Oodfrev  com- 
posed the  Aiwlsc  of  Jerusalem,  a  precious" monu- 
nient  of  feudal  jurisprudence,      tiie  new  code, 

'h^'  f*  ^1  "'*  "*"''-"'.  "'«  •^'"8'  «''e  Patriarch 
and  the  Viscount  of  Jerusalem,  was  deiMwited 
In  the  holy  sepulchre,  enriched  with  the  im- 
provementaof  succeeding  times,  ami  resm'ttfullv 
consulted  as  often  m  anv.loubtful  question  aroii 
in  the  tribunals  of  Palestine.  Wtli  the  king- 
dom and  city  all  was  lost;  the  fragments  of  the 
written  law  were  preacrve<l  by  Jealous  tradition 
and  variable  practice  till  the  middle  of  the 
tiirteenth  century.  The  co<le  was  restore.1  by 
the  pen  of  John  dlbelin.  Count  of  Jaffa,  one  of 
the  principal  feudatories;  and  the  final  nvislon 
was  accomplUliwI  in  tlie  year  thirteen  IniiidrMl 
and  sixtynliie  for  the  use  of  ilie  Latin  kingdom 
nf  Cyprus. "-E.  Uilibou,  Ikdimami  FMof  Iht 
Homan  Kii^hiy,  r/i.  .V). 

ASSIZES.— "  Tlie  formaledicU  known  under 
the  name  of  Asslxcs,  the  Assizes  of  Clarendon 
and  N(.rt linmpton.  the  Assize  of  Arms,  the 
Assize  of  tlie  Forest,  and  the  Assizes  of  Mca.Hures. 
are  the  only  relics  of  the  legislative  work  of  tira 
perio.1  [reign  of  Henry  II.  Fn  England].  Tliese 
eilicu  arc  chieHy  comp<»«l  of  new  regulations 
tor  tlie  enfonx^ment  of  roval  Justice  la 

this  respect  they  strongly  fi-semble  the  caiiitu- 
arietof  ilie  Frank  Kings,  or,  to  go  farther  lliick. 
the   cflicu  of   tlic    Homan    pncUirs  Tlie 

term  Asaize,  which  comes  Into  use  in  this  mean- 
ng  about  the  midilie  of  the  twelfth  centiirv 
Urth  on  the  contliirnt  ami  in  England,  apinari 
to  bo  the  i>ro|Hr  Norman  name  for  such  edicts. 
...  In  the  ■  Assize  of  Jerusalem'  it  simnlv 
means  a  law:  and  the  same  in  Henrys  Kirllla- 
lion  Secondarily,  it  meiins  a  form  of  trial 
Mlol>lislie<l  by  the  (uirtlcular  law,  as  tlie  Ori'at 
,\Mi«e,  the  Assize  of  Mort  dAiicesl.r;  and 
lliliil  y  the  curl  h.1,1  to  lio|,|  ,„cli  trial.  In 
wlilc  I  ai'tiM-  It  li  conimoiily  iiaed  at  the  pnwnt 

''*ior.^» """■'•'•  '■""'  ''**'  "/AV.M.  13. 
A99UR.     Sti  AssYHIA. 

ASSYRIA.— For  matter  relating  to  Anyrlan 

history,   the   reader  Is  nferrinl   to  the  caption 

?.?.!"/'?•."""''.' *''''■''  "  " '"  •»'  «l»"'  The sub- 
Jert  Is  defernd  to  that  part  of  this  work  which 
will  go  later  Into  print,  for  the  reason  tliat  every 
month  Is  addinc  to  tlie  knowlwlgeof  thestiidenta 
of  ant  ieiit  oriental  history  and  clearing  away  dis- 
pute.! <|tieatlona  It  is  <,iiltv  p,«|bre  that  the 
Unw  Utw«n  the  publication  of  our  Hrst  volume 
and  t>ur  fourth  or  lifih  may  make  important  ad- 
ditions to  the  scanty  literature  of  the  subject  In 

ancient  cities  In  tlw  hjut.  bringing  u>  light  larin 
llbranr  eollerlions  of  inscribed  rlav  tableU  - 
Mcnd  and  hblurical  writlajt,  oiBctal  ivroid^ 


A88TIUA 

bnalneii  oontruti  imd  muiy  TsrtetlM  of  intcrip-' 
tloiM,— have  almoct  leTolutionlud  the  rtUuT  of 
ancient  histonr  and  the  vlcwg  of  antiquity  derived 
from  It.     "  M.  Botta,  who  waa  appointed  French 
coMul  at  Moaul  in  1842,  waa  the  «nt  to  com- 
mence excavationa  on  the  aHea  of  the  burled 
cities  of  Anyria,  and  to  him  la  due  the  honour  of 
the  flret  diicovery  of  her  long  loat  pahuxa.    M. 
Hotta  commenced  hia  Uboura  at  Kouyunjik,  the 
ihrge  mound  oppnalte  Moaul,  but  he  found  heie 
Tery  little  to  compeuaate  for  hi*  laboura.    New 
at  the  time  to  excaTationn,  he  doea  not  appear  to 
have  worked  In  the  beat  manner;   M.  Botta  at 
Kouyunjik  contented  himwif  with  ainkinic  piu 
in  the  mound,  and  on  these  proving  unproduc- 
tive abandoning  them.     While  M.  BotU  waa  ex- 
cavating at  Kouvunjik,  hia  attention  waa  called 
to  the  mounda  of  Khonabad  by  a  native  of  the 
Tillage  on  that  site ;  and  be  aent  a  party  of  work- 
men to  the  spot  to  commence  excavaUon.    In  a 
f-'w  days  his  perseverance  waa  rewarded  by  tlie 
ilbcoTcry  of  some  aculpturca,  after  which,  aban- 
doning the  work  at  Kouyunjik,  he  transferred 
his  esublishmcnt  to  Khoraabad  and  thomughlv 
explored  that  site.  ...  The  palace  which  M. 
Botta  hail  discovered  .  .  .  is  one  of  the  most  per- 
fect Aiwvrian  buildings  vet  explored,  and  forms 
an  eio'llent  example  of  Assyrian  architecture. 
Beside  the  palace  on  the  mound  of  Khonabad, 
M.  Botta  also  opew  1  the  rem^ina  of  a  temple' 
and  ■  grand  porrh  decorated  by  six  wingetl  bulls. 
.  .  .  The  operations  of  M.  BotU  were  brought 
to  a  close  in  184.1,  and  a  snlenild  collection  of 
sculptures  and  other  antif|ultlea,  the  fruits  of  liU 
labiiun,  arrived  in  I>arla  in  1844  and  was  dc- 
waited  in  the  louvre.     Afterwards  the  Krenrli 
Ooveninient  ap|H>lnU-d  M.  I'lurt consul  at  Mosul. 
and  he  r.>ntlnue<l  some  of  the  excavations  of  liN 
predi'oe««or.  ...  Mr.  Layard,  whose  alttiiiloii 
was  carlv  lum-.I  In  this  dlrrctlon.  vtsitrfl  tlir 
country  In  l»4il il  sfh'rwanls  Umk  a  great  In- 
terest In  tlip  ex'itvalions  iif  M.  Botta.     At  length. 
In  184,1,  Ijiynnl  was  enaliliil  through  the  assis' 
tani'e  of  .SirMratfonI  Canning  to  commence  exca- 
vallnns in  Asayria himself    OnlheSlhof  Novrm- 
brr  lie  st«n«l   fn)m  Mosul,  and  dean-ndnl  the 
Tigris  to  Nlmmud.  .  .      Mr  Uyanl  haadearrilicil 
In  his  works  with  great  minutenrM  Ills  suniwlre 
rxcavallons,  and  the  remarkable  and  Interesilnv 
dlarovirlrs  he  rowle.  .  .  .  After  making  tlii-n' 
diaixiveriea  in  Assyria,  Mr.  Uvartl  vlsll.-.l  Hal.v 
lonla.    and  upeoeil   trrnchis  in   several   of    ifif 
mounils  there.     t)n  the  ntuni  of  Mr.  LaynnI  in 
EnirlniHl,  excavations  wrro   continued    In    the 
Kii|>lintl).s  valley  uiidi-r  the  superintrmlence  of 
(••oIimhI  (now  Wr  Ilenryl  Itawllnson.     I'mler  his 
(lln-itlnnii.  Mr.   Ilormuni  liaasam,  Mr.  Loflus. 
kimI  Mr  Tsrlor  excavated  various  sites  and  made 
hMimniiMillsroveric*,  the  British  Museum  tri-rW 
ing  till'  U'Rl  of  the  monunu'nla     The  materials 
roUi'itt-.l  III  tlir  national  miiM>uma  of  Kramv  ami 
KngUiiil.   and   the   ti  merous  inscrintlooa  pub 
llalMil.  Hiiroite,!  ilie     '  nlion  of  the  bamed,  and 
very  simiii  loniidintlili   light  was  thrown  on  the 
historr,  liniji'iigf,  nninnir*.  and  customs  of  an 
clent   AsKjria  anil  lUbylnnla."— O    Smith,  At 
fliri,in  thtnmntt,  rk.  I.— "(hie  of  the  moat  Im- 
poruni  remtluof  Wr  A.  II.  Uranl's  exploiatloos 
at   Niueveh  wa«  the  liisroviry  of   the  ruinnl 
library  of  the  ancient  city,  now  Iniried  under  the 
piithb  trf  K™iT-jniii:      TSm,  i.r..ferii  .lay  (auiri. 
belirtiglng  to  this  library  not  only  fumlalied  the 
•tudenl  with  an  immjitv  nait  of  UlHuy  ■utter. 


160 


ASTT. 

but  ^  with  dfawt  aidi  toward*  a  knowledge  of 
the  Aayitan  syUabMy  and  lan>tia«&    Among 
the  liteistun  nprewnted  in  the  libntry  of  Kou- 
yunjik were  lisU  of  cfaaractoa,  with  their  various 
phonetic  and  IdeogTapbic  meanlnga,  tablea  of 
synonymes,  and  catalogueaof  the  nameaof  phuiu 
and  animals.    Thla,  however,  waa  not  alL    The 
Inventors  of  the  cuneiform  lyatem  of  writing  had 
been  a  people  who  preceded  the  Semitea  in  the 
occupation  of  Babyloaia,  and  who  spoke  an  ag- 
glutinative Unguage  utteriy  different  from  that 
of  their  Semitic  aucceaaora    Theae  Acc»dlan« 
u  they  are  usually  termed,  left  behind  them  a 
conaiderable  amount  of  literature,  which  was 
highly  prixed  by  the  SemitiG  Baby kmiana  and  As- 
syrian*-   A  large  portion  of  the  NInevite  tablets 
accordingly,  condste  of  Interiineaf  or  paralici 
tr  nalationa  from  AocadUn  into  Aaayrian,  aa  well 
aa  uf  reading  books,  dictionarie*,  and  grammars 
In  *hich  the  Accadian  original  la  plact  i  by  tin- 
side  of  iUA**yrian  equivalent.  .  .  .  The  bilingual 
tcxU  have  not  only  enabled  acholars  to  recover 
the  long-forgotten  AocadUn  hmguage ;  they  have 
also  been  of  the  greateat  poaifble  assistance  to 
them  in  their  reconstruction  of  the  Assyrian  dic- 
tionary itself    The  three  expeditiona  conducted 
by  Mr.  George  Smith  [187»-1879],  aa  well  as  the 
later  one*  of  Mr.  Hormuzd  Rassam,  have  adiird 
largely  to  the  sUx-k  of  Ubieta  from  Kouyunjik 
originally  *<<|ulred  for  the  British  Museum  l.y 
Sir  A.  II.  Layard,  and  lave  alao  brought  to  light 
a  few  other  tablet*  from  the  librariea  of  Baby- 
lonia."—A.  H.  Sayce,  /Vwa*  light  from  tA«  An- 
eitnt  Monument;  ch.  1. 

AMOWifJ.  Rawlinann,  Flrfflrfnt  HHmarrhitt 
TV  AdMNf  Mannrchf,  ek.  ».— M.  Diincker,  Jli,t 
vf  AHtiqnity,  blu.  B-4._8w,  alao,  Habvi.onh- 
BMim*;  LlHRAHIKS,  Ani'IKXT;  EoUCATIO.t 
AMCIBIIT;  MoRIT  ADO  BAKai.NU. 

ASSYRIA,  Epeajrm  Canon  oC— "Just  as 
tliere  were  arrluHis  at  Athens  and  consuls  at 
Home  who  were  ek-cted  annually,  an  among  tlw 
Assyrians  tlicre  was  a  custom  of  elerllng  one 
man  to  lie  over  the  year,  whom  they  cnlliil 
■llmu,'  or  'eiMHtym.'  .  .  .  BnliykHiInn  and 
Assyrian  doruim-nta  were  more  generally  <IiiI(n| 
by  the  iinines  of  tlieae  epoovms  than  l^v'thst  nf 
the  n-igning  King.  .  .  .  li  IHAi  s,,  II,.„ry 
Itawllnson  i|lsctivere<l  the  fragment  .f  the 
eponym  ramiu  of  Assyria.  It  was  one  of  ihc 
grenilmt  and  must  liiiii<irt«nt  dlsciiverh-s  mp 
made,  for  It  ha*  dt-ciiitil  iletlnltely  a  greiit  iiuiiiy 
poinu  whleh  iHlierwIae  i-iiiild  wver  have  Ixiii 
clwiml  up.  FragmenU  of  wven  niplcsof  ihU 
canon  were  foiiiHl,  ami  from  thene  lli«  i-li-iinol(ii;y 
of  Assyria  ha»  lii«n  dctlnitely  wtllrtl  from  II  l' 
13*1  to  aUiiit  H.  (•  (WO  — K  A.  W  Uuilit.'. 
ifaA|f<.i«|.iii    A,(/>  >iHrf  lliatorfl,  rh.  it 

ASTOLP,  KlBC  of  th«  Lembwda,  A,  I) 
74l»  7W 

ASTRAKHAN  :  The  Khwutc  H.-e  Mox 
oois:  A.  n    I8*«-1I»| 

A.  D,  ts««.— RaaaiM  renulat  of  tha  Turks. 
acelti'ssiA:  .\.  I)   l.VM-lsfl 

ASTURIANS,  The.    Si-e  ('AirrAnniA<i« 

ASTURIA8:  Rtaitt«ace  to  the  Moonsh 
Canaaeat.    SivHpaisi:  a   I)  7I!V-T3i 

A8TY,  OR  ASTU,  The.-Tlie  an.  I.  ni  .  iir 
of  Alh<'n*  proper,  aa  dUtlniulslieil  fn«ii  llsn.n 
nart.d  hariior*.  waa  chIIiiI  the  Astv,  nr  A>iu 
—J.  A.  »t.  J..hn,  I'h*  tIrlUiui.  ht.  l,'fk  4 

Aun  IN  W.  M.  I.eake,  r"j>-/nip*y  »f  .IMms, 
-a.  la— tie*,  alao,  Atiuun:  Amu.  *c. 


ladgeot 
AmoD^ 
if  Kou- 
Tsrious 
bica  of 
f  planu 
L  Thp 
ing  bad 
>  in  the 

anag- 
3m  that 
adiaiM, 
them  a 
!h  waa 
1D(I  As- 
taUrts, 
parallel 
aa  wril 
nmare, 

by  tbi- 
lingual 
recover 
!J  have 
mc«  to 
an  die- 
ducted 
laathp 

adilid 
yunjik 
urn  1))' 
» iJKht 

Bahy- 
h$Aif 


trrhin: 
.  JIM. 

ONII; 
»TIO!«, 

Uit   M 

ula  at 
tg  the 
g  "lie 

CHJIctl 

and 
diilcil 
hat  iif 
Henry 
f  I  he 
i>f  the 
1  enr 
iiuiiiy 
'  Ixell 
if  Ihii 
Kiliiirv 
111' 
iud):e. 

A.  I) 
urki. 


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ATHENS. 

ASTVNOMI.— Certain  police  offldab  In  an- 
ririit  Athena,  ten  in  number.  "Tlicy  were 
>'linr|f^-a  witli  hII  thiit  IM-Iimgs  to  street  tupet- 
vision,  e.  f..  tlie  eli>iuisinK  of  the  streets,  for 
wliicli  piir|Mwv  the  copntlngl.  or  Htreetsweepers 
wen>  under  tlii'ir  onlcra;  tlie  securing  of  momlity 
snil  decent  lieliiivivur  in  the  strwts."— O.  F. 
i^Miwinn,  AHlii/.ofdrreee:  TJie Stult, pi  ;1  rA  3 

ASUNCION :  A.  D.  1537. -The  foundiiiK 
of  the  city.  See  Paiiacuav:  A.  D  ISl.Vl.m 
„AJAf EOS,  ATTABEGS,  OR  ATTA- 
BECK5.— "  From  tin-  deilim-  of  tlic  dynasty  of 
Siljook  to  the  coniiucst  of  Persia  by  ilulakiMi 
Khan,  tlie  mm  of  Clunuliia,  n  |K-rio<l  of  more 
than  a  century,  that  country  was  distracted  by 
the  contests  of  |Mlly  princes,  or  governors, 
(sllnl  AttalK-ffs,  wlio,  taking  advantage  of  the 
wealtness  of  the  last  S)'lj(H)kian  monarchs,  and 
iif  tlie  (listraetlDnK  wliicli  followed  their  final 
t'Xtinrtion,  estalilishcd  ihoir  authority  over  some 
of  tlie  finest  provinces  of  the  Empire.  Many  of 
these  petty  (lynastles  ac.iulrixl  such  a  local  fame 
as,  to  this  day,  gives  an  Importance  to  their 
memory  with  the  inliahiunts  of  the  countries 
liver  wldch  they  nik.l.  .  .  .  The  wonl  Atta- 
Ih'k  is  Turkish:  it  is  ,1  compound  wonl  of  'atta  ' 
ma»li-r,  or  tutor,  ami  'Im-v',  lonl;  and  signifies  a 
governor,  or  tutor,  of  a  lord  or  prince. '^Ir  J 


ATHENS. 

Malcolm,  Ilitl.  ofPenin,  t.  1,  eh.  9.— "It  Is  true 
tliat  the  Atabeks  appear  but  a  short  space  as 
actors  on  the  stage  of  Eastern  history;  but  these 
•tutors  of  princes'  occupy  a  position  neither 
Insignificant  nor  unimportant  In  tlie  course  of 
events  which  occurrcl  (n  Syria  and  Persia  at  tlie 
time  thc^y  fiourlshed. "— W.  H  Moriey,  Prefiu» 
to  Xirkhimrt  IIM.  of  the  AUibela.—iieK.  also 
8ai.ai>in,  The  Empirb  or. 

A.^^^,Kf^*r'   '^    '-"•      ^-^    P-- 

ATELIERS  NATIONAUX  OF  1848.  AT 
PARIS.  See  France:  A.  I).  1848  (Pebkuart 
— Mav).  and  (April— DECKMncii). 

ATHABASCA.  The  Diitrict  at  SeeNoRTii- 
WEST  Tkriutories  or  Canada. 

ATHABASCANS,  The.  See  America.1 
Aborioinrm:  Atiiapasca.n  Family. 

ATHALAYAS.  See  Sardinia,  The  Island 

NAME  ANI>  EAKLV  IIISTORT. 

»AJ,5.^  ":.•- ^THE  L I  NO.- ATHE  L- 
BONOE.    See  Ad>:l. 

ATHENRY,  Bi  ;tle  of.— The  most  desperate 
liattle  fought  by  the  Irish  in  resisting  the  Eng- 
lish conquest  of  Ireland.  They  were  terribly 
slaughtered  and  the  chivalry  of  Connauifht  wa» 
crushetl.  Tlie  Imttle  occurrwl  Aug.  id  K  D 
1316.— .M.  Uaverty,  nut.  <^  Irttamt,  p.  888. 


The  Preeminence  of  Athena.— "  When  we 
«j«'ak  of  UretK-e  we  think  first  of  Athens. 
T"  citizens  and  to  stninirers  hy  means  of  epic 
reiiiatiuiis  and  ilrainiilii-  siMKtacles,  she  presented 
M  idealised  image  of  lifi,.  itself.  Slie  was  the 
Inline  of  new  lih'as,  ilie  inotlierclty  from  which 
[p.Htr.v.  eio,iuen<T,  and  philosophy  spreail  Ui 
distant  lands.  While  ihe  chief  dialects  of  Greece 
mrvive,  each  not  as  a  mere  dialect  but  as  the 
latittuaKc  of  literal un-,  -a  thing  unknown  in  the 
lii-tory  of  any  oth.r  people,— the  Attic  idiom, 
in  which  llie  cliara<-teiisiic  eleinenta  of  other 
lii:!!^^  met  and  wen-  lileiiileil.  has  become  to 
u^  :!■•  It  ilid  to  the  aiieieula,  the  very  type  of 
ll.lltnic-  spiTch.  .\iliens  was  not  only  the  'capl- 
lii!  of  liriTce.'  tlie  'scliiN.l  of  Greece;  it  deserves 
ilie  mine  appllisl  to  il  in  an  epitaph  on  Euripides: 

Ins  iiMuilry  is  Alliens.  UrviHV  of  Onwce.'  The 
rays  of  the  Gn-ek  giniiis  hen'  found  a  centre  and 
>  f,.,iis  —  S.  II.  Itiilelier,  S„ne  AepteUofthe 
iirni  /,V;ii««.  ;,/,  ;w  :«.— "Our  interest  in  an- 
111  lit  lii«iory.  it  may  Im-  wild,  lies  not  in  details 
liiil  in  hirge  massi-s.  It  mailers  little  how  early 
ilii  Anailiaiis  aci|iiinil  a  iMililieal  unity  or  what 
-N.iliisdid  111  .Myei'ii^e:  llial  which  Interests  us  is 
the  I  oii.ijiullon  of  Alliens,  llie  repulse  of  IVrsIa, 
III.-  Iirlef  liLsmi  of  TImIn's.     Life  is  not  so  long 

"'"  * Hi«|a'iiil  oiinlaysover  the  unimportant 

fat.-  of  iiiiintirestlni;  trilMHi  and  towns. " 

Area  and  Population.— 'The  entire  cireult 
yi  llie  Astv  (Ihe  lowiT  lily,  or  AHiens  pMper] 
lj'm<  Widls  and  mariiime  city,  taken  as  one  in- 
>i -im .  IS  e.|ual  to  alKiut  17  English  miles,  or 
I  !■<  «ta.|es.  This  is  very  dilTerent  frtim  the  8U0 
iiii-l.s  »lii(h  Dion  Chrysostom  states  to  have 
iHin  Hie  cireuinfen-iu'e  of  iIm>  mnny>  w.ills  an 
e-iiiimi.ejiceisling  liy  more  than 'J()stailes  even 
til.    sum  of  tlie   iM'riplieries  of   Ihe   Astv  and 

l.iraH     towns,   a< nling    to    the  numh^n  of 

iiiutj.lides.  ,  .  .  HoiiM!  was  cin-uUr,  bjriBcuM! 


ATHENS. 


161 


triangular,  and  Athens  cnnslste<l  of  two  cireuUr 
cities.  Joined  by  a  street  of  four  mil<.»  in  length 
—  a  figiir...  ihe  siiiwrflcles  of  which  was  not  mora 
tlian  the  fourth  part  of  that  of  a  citv  of  an  eiiual 
cireiimfcrent')-,  in  a  cireular  form,  'llenif  wlien 
to  Home  within  the  walls  were  wMed  suburb* 
of  eipial  extent,  ita  popuiatlim  was  greater  than 
that  of  all  Attica.  That  of  Athens,  altiiough 
the  moat  populous  city  In  Greece,  was  prolMldr 
never  greater  than  aOti.lXK) ."— W.  M.  Leake 
Ti>iKx/mpAiff,f  Alhfiu.  KTt  \"  ' 

loniaii  Orii^in.    Sec  IKini  vns  and  Ioni  vns. 
The   BecianinK  of  the  citj-atate.  —  Hew 
,  Attic*  was  abwirbcd  in  it*  capital.-  ■  In  the 
j  ilays  of  Ceeniiis  and  the  first  kings  [see  Attic \1 
;  down  to  Ihe  nign  of  Thes.us,  Allien  was  dividisl 
I   Into  ctmimunra,  having  their  own  town  halls  luiil 
'   inagistratM.     Emi-pl  In  case  of  alahu  the  whole 
pople  did  not  assemble  In  council  under  the 
king,  but  administered  their  own  alTairs.  and  ad 
vised  together  in  their  several  townships      Some 
of  them  at  times  even  went  to  war  with  him,  ai 
the  Elciisinians  under  Euinolpua  with  ErtY-tlieiis. 
Hut  when  Theseus  came  to  the  throne,  he,  iM'Ing 
a  iMiwerfiil  as  well  as  a  wise  ruler,  among  other 
Improveiiients  in  the  ailininislratlim  of  tlie  coun- 
try, (IIssoIvihI  the  councils  and  separate  govern- 
ments,  and  unlti.d  ail  the  inhabltanU  of  .Vttica  In 
the  present  city,  eslalilishing  omi  council    and 
town  hall.     They  continiieil  to  live  on  tlielr  own 
lands,  but  he  comiH'IKsl  them  to  resort  to  Athens 
as  their  inetni|><ilis.  and  liem-eforwanl  tliev  were 
all  InscrilNHl  in  tlie  roll  of  her  ciiizens      .V  ^ri^l 
city  thus  anw  which  was  linndtHi  down  hv  The- 
«<iis  to  his  di'siTndaiita,  and  fniin  his  da\  1.1  thta 
the  .\f!i..ntw=  Mv,>  rp»Hlsf!y  relrbratctf  thr  n»- 
lloiial  festival  of  the  Synoeria,  w  'union  of  the 
communes '  in  honour  of  the   goildess  .\ihene. 
liefore  his  lime,  what   is  now  the  Acmtiolls  and 
Utv  gruuiMl  lying  unOer  It  to  tbo  south  wa*  tlM 


PLA!»  OF  ATHENS. 
*Vor,i  "MytM^y  and  iloKwmmU  of  Ancinl  AiStra,"  by  Jatu  JT.  BarrUon  and  MargartI  d*  O    rerrall 


BARBOBa  ITIUUta. 

152 


ATHEKa. 


ATHENS,  a  C.  634. 


dtr.    Many  icmoim  may  be  urscd  In  proof  of 
thfintolcment"— Tliucydldes,  Uittor^  (Jowttfi 
tniM.).  bk.  2.  uet  13. 
Al«)  in  :  M.  Duncker,  Ilitl.  of  Ontte,  bk.  8,  ck. 

TC  3). 

From  the  Doriaa  MiKration  to  B.  C.  683.— 
End   of    kiofahip    and    inatitntion    of    the 
Arcboni.— At  the  epoch  of  the  Biicntiaa  and 
Doriiin  mignitiona  (itee  Oreeck:    The  Miora- 
Ti<>N>i.  Attica  was  RucKled  by  fugitives,   both 
finm  tlic  north  an<l    from    the    Peloponnesus. 
"  Hut  tlic  btilli  of  the  refugees   paase*!  on  to 
Asia,    and   built  up   the  cities  of    Ionia.  .  .  . 
Wiivn  the  swnrnis  of  emigrants  clcantl  off,  and 
Athens  is  again  discernable,  the  crown  has  passeil 
fn>m  the  old  nival  house  of  the  Cecnipidae  to  a 
family    of   exiles    from    Peloponnesus.  ...  A 
genrriitiiin  later  the  Dorian  invasion,  wlilch  hail 
(iverwlii-lmcil  Corinth   and  torn  away   .Megara 
from  tlie  Atlic  dominion,  swept  up  b)  the  verv 
gales  nf  Alliens.     An  oracle  declared  that  the 
city  would  never  fall  if  its  ruler  perishol  by  the 
luind  of  the  Invaders;   therefore   King  Codrus 
<iisi;iii«'<l  himself  as  a  peasant,  set  out  for  the 
Dorian  (»nip.  struck  down  the  first  man  he  met, 
and  WHS  himself  slain  by  the  secimd.     The  Inva- 
sion fHiled,  and  the  Athenians,  to  perpetuate  the 
memory  of  their  monarch's  patriotism,   would 
not  hIIiiw  the  title  of  '  king '  to  be  borne  by  the 
ciesr  ndanls  who  succoedetf  him  on  the  throne, 
but  cimnged  the  name  to  'archon,'  or  'ruler,' 
.  .  .  Tiiosc  legends  evidently  cover  some  obscure 
vhanci's  in   the  internal   history  of  Attica." — 
C  W  C.  Onuin.  HM.  of  Onter,  ek.  11.— "After 
the  death  of  Coiinis  the  nobles,  taking  advan- 
tage, pi'rhaps,  of  the  opportunity  afforded  by 
the  ilispute  between  his  sons,  are  said  to  have 
alK)li^lll•d  tlip  title  of  king,  an<l  to  have  substi- 
tuted fnr  it  that  of  Archon.     Tills  cliange,  how- 
ever, seems  t4>  have  lieen  im|H)rtant,  rather  as  it 
iiiiliiated  tile  new,  pn-cnrioua  tenure  liy  wliiili 
tlie  royiil  power  was  lield,  tlian  as  it  immetliately 
affwte.l  the  nature  of  the  olBce.     It  was,  Inditil, 
still  held  for  life :  and  Medon,  the  »on  of  Codrus, 
trHiisrnilled  it  to  his  posterity.  .  .  .  After  twelve 
n>lgn»,   ending   with   that  of  Alcminm  JB.  C. 
7.VJ],  the  duration  of  the  office  was  limited  to 
ten  jKirs;  anil  through  the  guilt  or  calamity  of 
Ilippoineiies,  the  fourtli  decennial  archon,  the   ; 
h.viise  of  .Me<lim  was  deprived  of  its  privilege,    | 
iinil  the  supreme  magistracy  was  tlirown  o|«:n   I 
t>  till-  whole  body  of  nobles!     This  change  was  i 
■  eilily  followeii  by  one  much  more  important.    1 
The  duration  of  tlie  arclionship  was  again   ; 
rnluie.l  to  a  single  year  [B.  C.  883);  and,  at  the   < 
*itm    time,  its  branches  were  severeil  and  ills-    I 
triliiited  among  nine  new  magistrates.     Among   I 
tlu-ii-.  tlie  llrsl  111  nink  retaineil  the  distinguish-    j 
iii^'  title  nf  the  .Vrchon.  and  the  year  was  markeil   I 
I'v  his  imiiie.     He  representeil  the  majesty  of  the  I 
siite.  iin.l  exeri'iiieii  a  |Hruliar  jurisdiction  — that 
wliii  li  liiiii  U'longiil  to  the  king  ■■  tlie  common 
[im-i.t  iif  hi.-i  ik-ople,  the  protector  of  families, 
llie  iTuiirdian  nf  iirphniM  and  heiresses,  and  of 
the    irmeml    right.i    of    inheritance.     For    the 
sienii.l  iinhiin  the  title  of  king  Ibasileus],  If  it 
h!iii  lueri  laid  aside,  was  reviveil,  at  the  func 
t!  .^>  .i-:«lgneil  to  hlin  were  those  moat  associated 
»;tli    111.  lent  nKolh'ctlimB.     He  repreM-nleil  tin. 
k    .;    1^  liie  higli  priest  of  his  people;  he  regit- 
liiel  the  lelelimtion  of  the  mysteries  and  the 
m.»t  .*,lei!in  fesiiviils;  diH-l.led  all  causes  which 
ifftcted  tht  Intcrtuu  of  reli|[tua  .  .  .  Tlie  tltinl 

153 


archon  bore  the  title  of  Polemarch,  and  filled 
the  place  of  the  king  as  the  leader  of  his  people 
In  war,  and  the  guanlian  who  watche<l  over  its 
security  in  time  of  peace.  ,  .  ,  The  remaining 
six  arcuons  recelveil  the  common  title  of  thesmo- 
thetes,  which  literally  signifles  Icgislatom,  and 
was  probably  applied  to  them  as  the  Judges 
who  determined  the  great  variety  of  causes 
which  did  not  fall  under  the  cognizance  of  their 
colleagues;  because,  in  the  abst'nce  of  a  written 
cmlc,  those  who  declare  and  interpret  the  laws 
may  Ix?  properly  said  to  make  them."— C.  Tlilrl- 
wall,  Ilut.  nf  ChttM,  ek.  n.— •  We  arc  In  nu 
coiiditloD  to  determine  the  civil  classiAcatiou  and 
IMiliticul  constitution  of  Attica,  even  at  the 
period  of  the  Arclionship  of  Kreon,  683  B.  C, 
when  authentic  Athenian  chronology  tirst  com- 
mences, much  less  can  we  pretend  to  any  knowl- 
eilgc  of  the  anterior  centuries.  ...  All  the 
information  which  we  possess  respecting  that 
old  polity  Is  derive<l  from  authors  who  lived 
after  all  or  must  of  these  great  changes  [by 
Solon,  and  later) — and  who.  finding  no  records, 
nor  anything  better  than  current  legends,  ex- 
plained the  foretime  as  well  as  they  could  by 
guesses  more  or  less  ingenious,    generally  at- 

tachetl  to  the  dominant    legendary    names." 

O.  Qrote,  IIM.  of  Grteet.  pt.  2,  ek.  10. 

Also  is:  O.  P.  Schftinann,  Antiq.  nf  Greeee: 
The  Sl,iU,  pt.  8,  ck.  3— >L  Duncker,  Ilia.  „t 
Qrrtft.  bk.  8,  ek.  7  (r.  Si. 

B.  C.  694.— Under  the  Draconian  Ltgitlt' 
tion.—  "  Drako  was  the  flrst  tliesniotliet,  who 
was  called  upon  to  set  down  hi^i  tliesinoi  [onii- 
naiices  and  decisions]  in  writing,  and  thus  to  in- 
vest them  essentUlly  with  a  diameter  of  more  or 
less  generality.  lu  the  laUT  and  la-tterkiiown 
times  of  Athenian  law,  we  find  these  anriions de- 
prived In  great  measure  of  their  jwiwers  of  Judg- 
ing anil  deciding,  and  restricUil  to  the  task  of 
first  hearing  of  parties  and  collecting  the  evi- 
ili'iice,  next,  of  introducing  the  matter  for  trial 
into  tile  appnipriate  dikastery,  over  which  they 
pri-sided.  Originally,  there  was  no  separation  of 
powers;  the  archons  both  Judged  and  adminis- 
tered. .  .  .  All  of  till'!*!'  functionaries  belonged 
to  the  Eupatrids,  and  nil  of  them  doubtless  acteil 
more  or  leas  in  the  imrrnw  interest  of  their  onler: 
moreover,  there  was  ample  nsiin  for  favouritism 
In  the  way  of  coiinlvniii'e  as  well  ns  antipathy  on 
the  part  of  the  arciiniH  That  such  was  decid- 
edlv  the  case,  and  tliat  disionteiil  Ixifan  to  bis 
serious,  we  may  infer  fmni  the  ilutv  iiii|Hiseil  on 
the  thesmothet  Drako.  U.  C.  6-U.  to'  put  in  writ- 
ing the  Ihesnioi  or  oniiimnces.  so  tliat  tliey  niiglit 
Ir-  '  shown  publicly  '  and  known  befnreliiind. 
He  did  not  meddle  w"ilh  the  political  ci institution, 
and  in  his  onlinances  .VristolleliiiilH  little  worthy 
of  remark  except  the  cxlri'me  severity  of  the 
punishments  awanleil:  petty  thefts,  or  even 
pn>vi>d  idleness  of  life,  Is'ing' visited  with  death 
or  disfranchisement.  But  we  are  not  to  i-oiiKtriie 
this  reiiuirk  as  demonstrating  aiiv  special  inhu- 
manity in  the  ciiaraiter  nf  Drako,  who  was  not 
investeil  with  the  large  power  wliich  Solon  af- 
terwanis  enjoyed,  and  cannot  Ik-  Iniagined  to 
liave  imposeil  u|)im  the  cimimunilv  si'vere  laws 
of  his  own  ln%-ention.  .  .  .  The  general  sjiirit  of 
jM-iial  legl«|iiili>n  liiid  tutom"  '^>  niiieh  niiUler. 
during  tlie  two  centuries  wliieli  foilowiHl.  that 
the-K-  old  nnlinnnees  appeiiieil  In  .Vristotle  intol- 
erably rignnms."— 0.  Orote,  JIul.  of  Urttet,  pt. 
2,  eh.  10  (p.  3). 


1^» 


*      -3f 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  eiS-M6. 

B.   C.    6ia-S9S.— Coniplfmey    of   Cylen.— 
Buitbment  of  the  Alcmaonida.— The  flret  at- 
tempt at   Alhiiw  to  overturn   the  oligiin-liUnl 
government  ami  establish  a   pemonal   tyranny 
was    miule,    B.    C.   613.    by    Cvlon    (Kylon),   a 
patrieian,  wminlaw  of  the  tyrant  of  MeKiira, 
viho  was  em-ouniKiil  anil  helped  In  his  under- 
takinif  by  tlie  latter.      The    conspiracy  failed 
misembly.      The  imrtisnns  of  Cylon,  blockaded 
in  the  acropolis,  were  forwd  to  surrender;  but 
they  plaitnl  thi'msclvps  under  the  protection  of 
the  goddess  Minerva  and  were   nn)niise<l   their 
lives.     Mon-  elTectuulIy  to  retain  the  protection  of 
the  KiNldes!)  until  their  escape  was  effected,  they 
attache<l  a  conl  to  her  altar  and  held  it  In  tliefr 
hamis  as  they  pas.s.i|  out  through  the  midst  of 
their  enemies,      rnhappily  the  cord  bnike.  and 
the  archon  Mepacles  at  once  declared  that  the 
safcKuanlof  Minerva  was  withdrawn  from  them, 
whereu|Mm  they  were  massacrol  without  mercv, 
even  though  they  fled  to  the  neighlwring  altars 
and  clung  to  lliem.     The  treachery  and  bad  f.iith 
of  this  cruel  deed  does  not  seem  to  have  dis- 
turbed  llie  Athenian  p<'ople,  but  the  sacrilege 
involved  In  it  ciiuse.1  horror  and  fear  when  they 
had  had  time  lo  rellcit  upon  It     Megacles  anil 
his    whole  family  — the    Alemmnnids    as    they 
were  called,  from  the  name  of  one  of  their  an- 
cestors—  wiTc  held  accountable  for  the  affront 
to  the  gods  and  were  considered  polluted  and 
accursed.      Every  public  calamity  was  ascribed 
to  their  sin,  and  at  lenirth,  after'a  solemn  trial, 
they  wen-  banislni)  from  the  city  (about  586  or 
695  B.  ('.),  while  the  dead  of  the  family  were 
disinterreil  ami  east  out.     The  agitations  of  this 
affair  e.\eriis<d   an  im|iortant  influence  on  the 
course  nf  eviiits.    which  o|)ene<l   the  way  for 
Solon  anil  his  roiistitiilional  reforms.— C.  Thirl- 
wall.  Ilitl.  <if  If nifr,  rh.  II. 
j    Ai.si)  IN :  (}.  (irote.  Ilinf  of  Orvfff.  pi.  2  eh.  10 
B.  C.  610-586.— StruKle  with  Henra  for 
Salunis.— Cirrhcan  or  First  Smcred  \Var.— 
"The  petty  state  of   Megara.  which,  since  the 
earlier  iigi-s  had,  from  the  dependent  of  .\thens. 
grown  up  to  the  dignity  of  \.n  r  val,  taking  ad- 
vantage .if  the  internal  dissensions  in  the  latter 
city,  suiiiiilid  in   wre-^Mng  rr,m  the  Athenian 
governnii'iit  the  isle  of  Sahimls.     It  was  not,  how- 
ever, w  ithoiit  bitter  and  repeatei]  struirgles  that 
Athens  at  la.st  siibinittitl  to  the  Gurrender  of  the 
Isle.      lim,  after  signal  losses   and  defeats.  a.s 
nothing  is  ever  more  oilious  to  the  multitude 
than  uiiHucressful  war,  so  the  popular  feeling 
was  siirli  as  to  induce  the  government  to  enact  a 
decri'e  by  ttliiih  it  was  forbidden,  njion  pain  of 
death,  I.,  pn.posi'reassi'rting  the  Athenian  claims. 
.  .  .   .Many  cif  tlir  younger  [mrtion  of  the  com- 
munitv,  pining  at   the  dishonour  of  their  einin- 
try,  uriil  1  au-i  r   f"r  enterprise,  were  secretly  in- 
cliniMl  t..  luiiriti  iiaiiiT  any  stratagem  that  niiglit 
iniluie  111.'  r.v.TMil  of  the  decree.     At  this  time 
there  went  a  rip..rt  tliniugh  the  city  that  a  man 
ofdisiiiigiii.|i..|  birth  .  .  .  had  incurred  the  con. 
•ecratiiig  mi«f.iriune  ..f  in.sanity.     Huddenly  this 
person  apjs  ami  in  ilie  market  "place,  weariiig  the 
peculiar  ba.k'e  |a  cip)  that  distinguisheil    the 

*'<•'' \«rifi.liiig  the  M. me  from  which  the 

heral.is  iiiadi'  tliiir  priKlamations,  he  began  tore- 
citeaiiiiula  poi'in  upon  the  lossof  Salamis,  Isildly 
repniviiig  tin- 1  ..w.-inlii-i.  of  the  people,  a!::!  in 
citing  tliiiiiuk'nin  t.iwnr.  ilisKuppostnl  insanity 
protectiKl  him  fr.iin  the  law  -his  rank,  ri'pula- 
tiuo,  and  the  circumstance  of  his  being  himself  a 


154 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  SM. 

natlre  of  Salamis,  conipiretl  to  give  to  hit  exhor- 
tation a  powerful  effe«'t,  and  the  friends  ho  hiil 
s«'cure<l  to  back  his  attempt  louuly  priK-iaiineil 
tlieir  applauding  sympatliy  with  tliJ  spirit  of  the 
address.     The  name  of  the  pritendiil  mai'man 
was  8olon,  son  of  Execestides.  the  descendant  of 
t'iKlrus.  .  .  .  The  stratagem  and  llie  eloi|uence 
of   Solon  produced  Its  natural  elTect  11 '^in  Ms 
spiriteil  and  excitable  audiem-e.  anil  the'  public 
enthusiasm  p<>rmitteil  the  oliganhical   govern- 
ment to  propos)^  and  effect  the  reiieal  of  the  law. 
An  expedition  was  decreed    and  planneil,   ami 
Silon  was  lnvest<-il  with  its  command.     It  was 
but  a  brief  struggle  to  recover  the  little  island  of 
Salamis.  .  .  .  But  the  brave  and  nwiiute  .Mega- 
rians  were  not  men  to  lie  disheartenni  by  a  sin- 
gle reverse :  they  iwniistiKl  in  the  eonU-st- losses 
were  lustaineil  on  eit'ier  side,  and  at  length  both 
slates  agreeil  lo  refer  their  several  claims  on  the 
sovereignty  of  the  island  to  the  decision  of  Spartan 
arbiters.     And  this  ap|M-al  fnim  arms  to  arbitnt- 
tion  is  a  pnwf  how  much  throughout  (JriiHi)  had 
extended  that  spirit  of  eivilisution  which  is  hut 
an  extension  of  the  sense  of  justice.  .  .  .  The 
arbitration  of  tlie  unipin-s  in  favour  of  Athens 
only  suspended  hostiliiii-»;and  the  Megarians.iiil 
not  cease  to  watch  (aii.l  shortly  afdTwanIs  they 
found)  a  fitting  oci-asi.Hi  to  n-gain  a  settlement  so 
tempting  to  their  ambition.     The  creilit  ai-iiiiind 
by  Solon  in  this  expedition  was  shortly  after- 
wards  gn-ally  increasisl   in   the  esliiiuition   of 
(}«.!•«■.     In  the  Bay  of  (%)rinth  was  siluati-.i  a 
town  calleil  CIrrha.  inhabited   by  a  flirce  and 
lawless  race.  who.  after  devastating  the  sacnd 
territories  of  nelplil,  sacrilegiously  iK-siegiil  the 
city  Itself.  In  the  desire  to  |K)sst.ss"  themselves  of 
the  treasures  which  the  piety  of  (Jreei-e  had  ac- 
cumulaU-d  in  the  Temple  of  "Apollo.     Solon  ap- 
pi-ared  at  the  Amphictyonic  i-ouncil,  repri'senteii 
the  sacrilege  of  the  ("'irrha-ans.  and  iM-rsuailiHl 
the  Oreeksto  arm  in  defenc-eof  the  altars  of  iliiir 
tutelary  gml  [B.  C.  .'i!).)].     t'listhenes.  the  tyrant 
ofSicvon,  wnssentascoinmnnder-in-chief  against 
theCirrhffians:  and  (according  to  Plutan-li)  the 
reconls  of  Delphi  inform  us  that  Aicmieon  was 
the  leader  of  the  Atlienians.     The  war  (knonu 
as  the  First  Sacreil  War)  was  not  very  sucii'ssfu! 
at  the  onset;  the  oracle  of  Apollo  was  consultiil 
and  tile  answer  makes  one  of  the  most  amusing- 
aneciloU'S  of  priestcraft.     The  Is-siegers  were  in- 
f.irmed  by  the  gisl  that  the  placi;  woul.i  not  \v 
niliiciil    until  the  waves  of   tlie  Cirrlmiin    Sia 
washed  the  territories  of  IVIphi.     The  reply  lur- 
pleXiHl  the  army  .  but  the  suiierior  sagiui'ty   .i{ 
Solon  was  not  slow  in  discovering  tlial  the  'h..ly 
intention  of   the  oracle  was  lo  appropriate  the 
lands  of  the  Cirrhteans  to  the  prolll  of  the  lem- 
pie.     lie  therefore  ailvisi<d  tlie  besiegers  to  .nt- 
tark  and  to  ciini|uer  Cirriia.  and  to  delicate  its 
whole  territory  to  the  wrvi™  of  the  g.sl.     Tin- 
advice  was  adopU^I  —  CirHia  was  taken  (II.  i'. 
.'►><«) :  it  iK'came  thenceforth  tin  arsenal  of  Delphi. 
ami  the  insult|.|l  deity  ha.l  '  le    aatisfaili.iu    .f 
Wfing  the  sacred  lands  washiil  by  the  waves  .f 
theflrrhieanSi'a.  .  .  .  The  I'vlldan  gaimscni 
meneiil,  or  were  reviveil,  in  celebrali.iii  of  this 
victory  of  the  Pythian  gisl."  — Sir  K     Ibilwer 
l.yttim,  Atkfiut:  ht  Itiie  and  Fall.  I,k.  •i.tl.   1.— 
S«.e,  also,  Dki.piii. 

B.  C.  594.— The  Constitution  of  Soion. - 
The  Council  of  Four  Hundred.— •  N>l.>n, 
An'hon  01.  46,1,  was  chosi'n  nnsliat.ir  K.piitv 
and  moderation  are  described  by  the  ancients  •■is 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  894. 


Contlitutttm 


ATHENS,  B,  C.  5M. 


the  chanctrriitirs  of  hii  mlr  -     le  det«rmined  to 

ali»llsli  the  pririle^ra  of  part.^uUr  clane*.  and 
the  nrliitniry  power  of  otflcera,  and  to  render  all 
the  pHrtiilimtont  in  riril  and  political  freedom 
equal  In  the  eye  of  the  low.  at  the  same  time 
ensuring  to  every  one  the  integr.ty  of    those 
rights  Ik  which  his  real  merits  entitled  him;   on 
the  other  hanil,  he  was  far  from  contemplating  a 
tnt«l  subversion  of    existing    regulations.  .  . 
Wlmliver  was  excellent  in  prescription  was  In- 
ciirpiirale<l    with    the    new    laws    and    therehv 
stjinipiil  afresh;  hut  prescription  as  such,  witii 
tlie  exi  I  ption  of  some  unwritten  r^'igious  ordin- 
snces  cif  the  Eumolpids,  was  deprivetl  of  force. 
The  liiw  was  destinitl   to  be   tne  sole  centre, 
whence  every  memlM-rof  the  political  community 
WHS  til  derive  a  flxiil   rule  of  conduct." — \\'. 
Wai'lmmuth.  IlitlortMl  Antiqtiitifi  of  the  Greek; 
mrt  V\  (f.  I ),— ■•  Tlie  factions,  to  allay  the  reviv- 
ing «nimi»ilies  of  which  was  Solon's  immoliate 
olijeit.  had,  at  that  time,  formed  parties  corre- 
spomliiig  to  the  geographical  division  of  the 
country,  which  wc  have  already  adverted  to; 
tlie  I'ciliiei,  or  inhabitants  of  the  lowlands,  in- 
Bisleil  on  a  strict  oligarchy;   the  Panili,  on  the 
coast,  who,  <lid   we   not   find  the    Alcmaeoiiid 
Mipii Ics at  their  head,  might  be  considered  the 
w.iillliiir  p<)rtion  of   the  people,  wished  for  a 
mixcil  cinstitution;  buttlie  Diacrii  orilrperacrii 
fcif  tlie  uiountninous  district)  forme<l  the  great 
nmjority,    who,    in    their    Impoverished    state, 
loiikeil  for  relief  only  from  a  total  revolution. 
Sdlim  niiulit,  had  he  so  chosen,  liave  made  him- 
self tvnint  by  heading  this   |)oiiulace:    but  he 
prcferr.cl  iietirig  ns  mediator,  and  with  this  view 
cauxd  himself  t»  tw  elected  archon,  B,  C.  504. 
a.*   tv  inir    un    Kupatrid    of    the    house  ...  of 
t'oiiru<  "— C.  F.  Hermann.  Mil imal »/ the  Pnlilif.il 
Anli'iiitiet  nf  Orrm,   r/i.    !i,    utt.    106.— "The 
chief  power  was  vesteii  in  the  collective  people; 
but  in  onler  that  it  might  lie  exercised  with  ad- 
vsmiL-e  it  was  nei-easary  that  they  should  lie 
emlim.il   with  common   rights  of   citizenship. 
Solon  etieetiil  this  by  raising  the  lower  class 
from  itideiiradaliou,  and  by  subjecting  to  lei;al 
eontpi.l   thos*'    who  had    till    now    formed   the 
ir^verninir  onler,  as  well  as  by  rendering  the 
lilwrty  of  l«iih  dependent  upon  the  law. 
This  <  li.inite  was  bmuglit  aUmt  by  two  onlin- 
smvs,    which  must    not   he  reganle<l  as  men' 
p  iiiclies  for  the  al.nses  of  that  pericsl,  hut  na  the 
pcnniin.nt  Imsis  o!   free  an<l  legal  citizenship. 
The  one  was  the  .Sisachlheia;  tlds  was  eimeted 
by  Solon  to  afTonl  relief  to  oppr(<s.se<l  debtors, 
'  V  riiluiing  their  debts  In  nmoimt,  and  by  rais- 
iiiiT  till-  value  of  money  in  tlie  payment  of  inter  st 
an.l  iirineipal;  at  the  same  time  he  abrogaleii 
Ilie  former  rigorous  law  of  debt  by  which  the 
(n-eni.in  might  lie  reduced  to  servitude,  and  thus 
w'un-il  to  him  the  unmolested  pos.session  of  his 
h  L':il  rinhlH.  .  .  .  A  secimd  onliimncc  enjoineil 
lliat  their  full  and  entire  rights  sliould  be  resloreii 
l'>iinriii/.ens  who  bud  incurred  Atlmia,  except 
'■      al'solute    criiuinnls.       This    was    not    imlv 
■i.->iimc|  to  heal   the   woimda  which  had  bwn 
fjiUMid  by  the  previous  dissensions,  but  as  till 
that  time  the  law  of  debt  had  been  able  to  re 
riuoe  .  Ill/ens  to  Atlmia.  and  the  majority  of  the 
AtH!-:    pointed  ,«,!   |,y  s„!,.n   Were  slave*  for 
iiei't,  iliat  ileclaration  itnud  in  clow  ramnectlon 
'"til  the  Selsachthela.  and  had  the  effect  of  a 
pn»  laniatUm  from  the  state  of  Ita  intention  to 
fiurantee  the  validity  of  tbe  new  ciUxeoablp 


155 


.  .  .  The  rlifht  of  n»tur«llzatlon  wan  miited  by 
8olon  to  deserving  adens,   when  8,000  citizena 
declared  tlienisrivei  in  favour  of  the  measure, 
but  these  new  citizens  wen-  likewise  deficient  in 
a  few  of  the  privileges  of  citizenship.  .  .  .  The 
statement    tliat    Solon    received  a  great  many 
fon-igners  as  citizens,   and  every  artizan   that 
presented  liimself,  appi-ara  highly  improbable, 
as  Solon  was  the  first  legislator  w"ho  aystemati- 
cally   regulated  the  condition  of    the  Mettvci. 
The    MctfBci  .  .  .  probably  timk   the   place  of 
the  former  r>emiurgi ;  their  (xisition  was  one  of 
sufferance,  but  the  protection  of  the  laws  woe 
guaranlee<l   them.  .  .  .  The  servile  onler,   ex- 
eluKively  consisting  of  purchased  aliens  and  their 
desci-ndanis,  did  not,  as  a  bo<ly,  stand  In  direct 
relation  with  the  state;  individual  slaves  beoime 
the  pmperty  of  individtiul  citizens,  but  a  certain 
number  were  cmploywl  by  the  state  as  cjerka, 
etc.,  and    were    abandoned    to   the    arbitrary 
pleasure  of  their  oppreasive  taskmastera.  .  .  . 
Those  who  were  manumitted  stiKxl   upon  the 
footing  of  Metwci;  the  citizens  who  enfranchised 
them   liecoming  their  ProsUt*.  .  .  .  I'pon  at- 
taining the  age  of  pulierty,  the  sous  of  citizent 
entered  public  life  under  tlie  name  of  Ephebt. 
The  stale  gave  them  two  years   for  the   full 
development  of  their  youthful   strength.  .  .  . 
Upon  the  expiration  of  the  second,  and  accord- 
ing to    the  most  authentic  accounts,    in   their 
eighteenth  year,  they  n'ccived  the  sliield  and  spear 
in  the  popular  assembly,  complete  armour  being 
given  to  the  s<ms  of  those   wlio  had  fallen  in 
battle,  and  in  the  temple  of  Agniulos  took  the 
oath  of  young  citizens,  the  chief  obligations  of 
which  concerneii  the  defence  of  their  country, 
and  then  for  tlic  space  of  one  or  two  years  per- 
forme<l    military  service    In    the    Attic  border 
fortn-sses  under  the  nameof  PerifMili.     The  cere- 
mony of  arming  them   was  followed  by  enrol-' 
ment  In   the  book  which  contained   the  names 
of  those  who  hail  attained  majority;   this  em- 
jHiwennl  the  young  citizen  to  manage  his  own 
fortune,    preside  over  a  household,   enter    the 
popular  assembly,  and  speak.     When  he  asserted 
the  last  right,  viz.,  the  Isi  coria,  Parrhesia,  he 
was  d<-nominated   Ithetor,  and  this  appellation 
denoted  tlie  difference    between    him    and    the 
silent  memlier   of    the    tts.semblv,    the    Idiotes. 
.  .  .  V\mn  attaining  his  3ihh  year,  the  citizen 
might  assert  his  su|H'rior  rights ;  he  was  qualified 
for  a   member  of  the  sworn  Iribunnl   entitled 
Heliiea.  .  .  .  The  woni  lleliast  does  not  merely 
signify  a  Judge;  but  the  citizen  who  has  fully 
attaineil  maturity.  .  .  .  Tlie  judges  of  the  courts 
of  the  Diietetie and  Kphetjc.  wliich  existe<l  without 
the  circle  of  theonliimry  Iribuimls.  wen-  required 
to  lie  still  older  men  tliiin  the  Heliiists,  viz.,  SO  or 
60  years  of  age.     8<5lon  ap|Hiiiite<l  gradations  In 
the  rights  of  citizenship,  acconling  to  the  con- 
ditions of  a  census  In  n'feri'iice  to  olfli-esof  state. 
.  .  .   Upon  the  principle  of  a  conilltioiml  equality 
of  rights,  which  assigns  to  every  one  iw  much  ai 
he  deserves,  and  which  is  high'ly  elmmcteristic 
of  Solon's  policy  in  geneml.  lieinstitiitol  four 
cIhsw'S  acconling  to  a  valuation;  thesi-  were  ttie 
IViilaeiwiomeiliiiiiii     [whose    land    yielded    .WO 
ineasun-s  of  wheat  or  oil),  the  ilippeis  [horse- 
men], the  ZougitJE  [oAiiers  of  ■  voke  of  mules], 
and   the  Tlietes  [or  laltonrs].   'Tlic  valuation, 
however,  i^nly  altectnl  thai  portion  of  capital 
from  which  contributions  to  the  state  biirtheni 
were    required,    coniequcntly,    accoidlng    (a 


i! 
il 


11 


ATHEN'H.  a  C.  5M. 

BAekh,  a  taxaMe  capital.  .  .  .  The  Thptca,  the 
laat  of  thrw  rbuaes.  were  not  rt-KuIarly  iiim- 
moixtl  to  ptTfiirm  military  iervici",  but  only 
exrn-ianl  flu-  civic  riftlit  as  tnemlKn  of  the  a»- 
wmlilyamllhelawniiirts:  .  .  .  the higheat class 
exclusively  siipplieil  the  superior  offlcea,  auch  as 
the  arrhonship.  anil  lhniU);h  this  the  council  of 
the  Armpatriis.  .  .  .  In  lieu  of  the  former  coun 
oil  of  Hdministration,  .  f  which  no  memorial  has 
Jieen  pre«er^•e<l.  Solon  inatituted  a  Council  of 
four  hunitreil  citizens  tulten  from  the  lirst  three 
riasw-t,  100  from  .very  Phyle,  of  which  no 
person  iimler  30  years  of  agecoukl  lie  a  member. 
The  appointments  were  renewed  annually:  the 
cancliilBtia  underwent  an  examination.  a<i<l  such 
as  wire  deemed  eligible  drew  lots."— W.  Wachs- 
muth,  IliftoriMl  AniioKitif  of  the  Orttkt.  tct 
4«-47  (r.  1). 

Also  in  :  O.  P.  Schnmann,  Antii/.  nfOnev:  Tht 
StnU.  pt.  3.  eh.  3,  ».r  4.— E.  Abbott,  llitt.  «f 
Orrrrt,  pt.  11,  eh.  3  - (>.  (Jroie,  Jli»t.  of  Oreeer. 
eh.  11.— Plutarch,  .v^.n.— Aristotle  OithtOinM. 
of  Athens  (tr.  hi/  K  nmtr).  eh.  5-13,— S,*.  also, 
AKEni-AitrK.  I'KYTANf,!'.  llKi.iif      "ind  Okbt. 

B.  C.  560.510.— Tht  tyrar  >f  th?  Piti*. 
tratidB.— "The  constituliiin  .1..,  he  [Solon | 
framed  was  fountl  lo  lie  tnsr,  i  n  even  in  his 
own  lifetime.  .  .  .  The  po  r  ••  ?  v  re  still 
{VMir.  in  spiteof  the  S'iMi.  ti.a  reform 

of  the  conHtitution.     At  ti.        ■■         .nc  the  ad- 
mission of  the  lowest  elasH  ^uie  of  prop- 
erty to  the  ri({hta  of  Atl             .'itizenship.  and 
the  authority  (tiven  to  tl.     ^.^-m  nil    Assi'mbly. 
bad  thniwi. .» i>ow.  r  into  the  hand.t  of  the  masses 
which  rtlliii  the  nun-  conservative  citizens  with 
resentment  and  alumi    And  so  the  oUl  party  quar 
rels,  which  hiul  dividiil  Altii-a  before  the  reforms 
of  Silon.  reappeanii  after  them  with  even  ereater 
vioUnre.     The  men   of   the   plain    were   le<l   by 
Miltiades.  a  grandson  of  the  tyrant  of  Corinth, 
and  l.ycurgus.  the  so,i  of  Aristolaidas:  the  men 
of  the  shore  by   .Mipacles.  the  Alcnueonid,  who 
had   ncently  striniitbeueil   the  position  of  his 
familv    by    his    niHrrmpe    with    Agariste,    the  ' 
dfughter  of  Clistliiiies  of  Sicvon.     At  the  liead 
of  the  mountaiiii'iT-  sIiknI  I'isistratus,  a  descend     j 
ant  of  the  roviil  stork  of  Nestor,  who  .  .  .  had   ' 
greatly  distintfuished  himself  in  the  Salaminian 
war     As  he  possessiil  propi'rtv  in  the  neighlsir    I 
hooii   of  Marathon.   I'i>lstratu8  may  have  In-en  I 
intimately   known    to    the    inhabitants    of    the 
iidjaient  bills.      .      Silon  watcheil  the  failure  of  ' 
his   hopes   with   the   dwp<.8t   dlstn-ss       He   en-    ' 
de.'ivoun^l  to  recall  the  leaders  of  the  contend     ' 
liitr    parties    to  a  sensi-    of    their    duty   to  the 
roiinlry,  and  to  siHiihe   the   bitterness  of  their 
followers.      With   a   true  instinct  he  regarded 
Pisistratus  as  by  fur  the  most  ilangeMUS  of  the 
three.     Pi.sistnitus  was  an  approved  general,  and 
thi  faction  whiili  he  li  d  was  composeil  of  (Mpor 
men  who  had  uothinj;  to  lose.  .  .  .  I'isistratus 
met  the  vehenunt  e\|iri-sslons  of  Solon  by  driv     j 
Ing    Wounded     into     the     market  place.       The  ! 
peoples    friend    had    siilTenil    in    the   peop|<.-H   ! 
cause;  his  life   nn*  in  ilanger.      The  incident  ' 
MU!i.il  the  .\thenians  to  an  unusual  exercise  of  '■ 
poliit.al    flower       WiiliiMit    any    previous    (lis.   I 
cussioii  in  the  t'ouni  il.  a  decree  was  pas8e<l  bv   i 
the  [H-ople  all.iwinc  I'isiijiralus  tosummnd  hini    ■ 
self  with  a  b.,!y  i.".!::r,!  ,:f  tiftv  men.  srr!  to  arm  : 
them  with  liulis.     'I'lius  prolei-teil,  he  threw  off  i 
all    disifuises.    and    e»labli»hed   himself  in   the  ! 
Acropolia  a*  tyrant  of  Athens  [B.  C.  S«0].  ,         I 


106 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  SlO-507. 

Hemdotu*  tells  us  that  Pisistratus  was  a  just 
and  miolerate  rtiler.     He  did  not  alter  the  l.i«s 
or  remove  the  existing  forms  of  governnimi 
The   Council   was  still    elected,    the    Assign.).! 
continued  to  meet,  though  it  is  impmliable  il, 
eltliei  the  one  or  the  other  was  allomil  to  exti  uri 
Its    functions    beyond    domestic    affairs       The 
arcbons  still  continueil  to  lie  the  executive  i.  ,^-,> 
trates  of  the  city,  and  ca>.a  of   munler    mr.' 
triiil,  as  of  old,  at  the  An'M|«gus.     The  tyrant 
contented  himself  with  occupying  the  Aenipiilia 
with  his  tnmps  ami  securing  lin|Mirtant  ixmN  in 
the  administration  for  his  faniiivorhisadbereMlK  ' 
Twice,    however,    Pisistratui 'was  driven    fr.m 
power  by  the  combination  of  ills  opp<ment.s.  an.l 
into  exile,  for  four  years  in  tlie  lirst  instance  m  ! 
for  ten  yi-ars  in  the  last :  but  A  ibens  was  compi  1;, .  | 
toacci'pt  him  for  a  ruler  in  1  he  end.   "PisiMiratus 
remained  in  undisturbed  piawtssion  of  the  thrni,, 
till  his  death  in  S27  B.  C.     lie  was  sui  1 1  i-,ie.i 
by  his  eldest  son  Hippias.with  whom  Hippnrelni.i 
and  Thessalus,  his  younger  si'im.    wen-  usv ,  j 
ated  in  the  government.'^     But  thi'se  vouiik.'ir 
tyrants  B<«n  mads  themselves  intolerarilv  liati 
fill,  and  a  eonspimcy  formed  against  thVni  Ij 
I   lUrmistius  and  Arisiogellon  wiis  succeH^ful  i'-i 
I  taking  the  life  of  HipiMtn-hus.     Kour  years  Inti  r 
In  .510  B.  C,  with  the  helpof  IVlphI  and  S^.n 
Hippias  was  driven  from  Ih.-  city.     Clislli,    ,.^' 
at  the  iiead  of  the  exileil  .\ ..  nuionids.  wu-  the 
I   master  spirit  of  the  n'voluti.ii,  and  It  wa«  i.iil.r 
:   his  guiiUmvthat  the  .\theuian  ilemisrHlic    ■■•n 
stitiition  was  n-organizcd.— E.  Abbott,  JJttl  ..r 
I    Oreere.  r.  1,  eh.  l.'i. 

I       AI.SOIN.  ii.  Gwte. lliDt.nf  (7 reeee. eh.  U'l ml. <> 

I       B.  C.  510-507.— The  constitution  of  Clei 

i  thenet.— AdTance  of  democracy.-  -Tlie  .x 

I   pulsion  of  the  llsistratids  left  the  deniih  rati,;,l 

:    party,  wlw.h   had    first   raiatil    them  to  p..H,r 

t   without  a  liader.     The  A^.-inaHinids  had  »l.i  ivj 

I   lieen  iiin8ider..|  as  its  ad . ersarii-s.  ihoufrh  tti.v 

I   were   no    Iitis  opposed    1      the    faiiion   .f    Ilie 

n.iblea.  which  seeiiui  at  tJiis  time  to  bav.    '   .n 

headeil  by  Isagonis.   .       .  Clei»then<.sf.uiii.|        , 

self,  as  his  party  hait   alwavs   Invn,   unal.,.    m 

oi|>e  with  it;  he  resoh.-.i,  ti,'.  r,.fore,  to  sliilt  his 

ground,  and  to  attai  li  hiii.-    '  to  that  p.rMiUr 

cans*,  which  Pi.iiKimtus  liail  u>.  .1  as  the  Mepr  inn 

sloneof  his  amliition.     His  aim.*,  however,  ».n 

not  conllned  to  a  teinpot  irv  lulvanlnge  over  liis 

rivaij;   be  planned  an  in.)    r'ant  chiuiL'e  in  ilie 

■■onsiitution,    which   shoulil       .rever    l.n  ak   the 

|Hiwerof  his  whole  onler,  bv    iiiwih  ini:  *.  nie  .i 

the  main  link.'  by  wliieh  thef.-  »w»v  was  *  ,  iir»  I. 

Kor  this  piir|i.«e.  having  gaimil  "the  con;i.i.  :;,¥ 

of  tlie  coniiiKinaltv  and  oblaiuiil  the  sanrii.r.i  .,f 

the  Delphic  oracle,  be  alsilishtHl  the  fcmr  am  i,  ut 

triU'S.  and  made  a  fresh  geographiial  lir.  imii 

of   Attica  inio  ten    new  trilas.  eaeh  .if    »hi.  .'1 

Imre  a  name  derived  fnun  wime  Attii  la  f"      I"!;. 

ten    trilas    Were    siiUliviihil    into    diMruK 

various  extent,  called  denies,  ea,  li  (•.im.iiiiij:^.  , 

town    or   village.   .  .   ,  t  hi«theni.s    up|u.,rs   t.. 

have   prewrVHl   the  an.ient    pbratriis.    !■  .t  ss 

they  Were  now  left  lnsulatt.<l   bv   liie  sNliti -ii 

of  the  Irilas  to  which  they  lal.int'.  I,  th.  i  i.~t 

all  poliiieal  iin|H.rtance.  .   ,  .  Cleisihein^  it  the 

same  lime  ini  nai«-il   the  strength  ..f   'I, .;. 

nionally  by  making  a  great  inani  m-w  hm/.i:*. 
and  be  is  ^ji.i  (,,  haw  enfram  n.  itl  1  -uv 
alicna- and  these  Nith  residenuaii  u'l. 
from  abroad  —  but  slaves.  .  Tin- 
frame  of  the  s  •■.  .e  wai  leorgauizc"     o  cur; 


..Jl'TS 


ATHl     S.  B   C 


«7. 


with  the  new  ci!viki..o  of 
S'Oafe  f>^  the  Fotir  Hufs^ii 
Fits  llur     ml,  tha»   *ift>    n 
( irh  tri'       uhI  '       '  '  i* 
WM  wlat     'I  to  th,,  •     i!.. 
I  f  earh       «  filling  i 
thirty"'     iliiys    In  « 
(illfifn        nij  elrrtwl  ■ 
triN^i  t  i  piv«lde  «t  th-' 
■■f  the  P»->f)lf   which   .. 
four  timfr     'n  the  iii>intl 
uivsijrneil  !'   t-mh  met'lin^' 


ihc      antry.     The 

•<l  wii.  Inrreaied  tr. 

,'ht  !»■  (li^wn  from 
*         of  thi'  [•r.ufclcnry 

the  fifty  c*»U(iHll"''H 
•ttlrc  for  thirty  five  •  r 
"■•(ion.  ind  nine  roiin- 
from  < a'h  of  thp  'n^r 
inril  ami  the  Au^-mlily 
<  no«  ■  ille<l  ri'giilHrly 
'■erfiiin  Imnincaii  heing 
The  Ht'ltaa  w«s  alwi 


u.-<.^i^  ■••-•■    ■      >  <»■  '.    ••■ii.Kd^  am.   itt-it^n  "visa  itiMi 

(iistriliutp<l  ir-.itenr<)un»:  anil  the  Mim  division 
hcnreforth  [  TVa  'I  in  m<>«t  nf  'he  pMblic 
offl'H,  thouj;!!  th'  imt)er  of  tl.i-  in:hoii«  re- 
mained iinohnngf-l.  To  C'lelsthi  i  •*  also  1% 
;i»(ril>e<l  iie  f'lrrtiKl  inatiliition  of  the  ostracism. 
Th'w  rtMinire«.  anil  the  influcnre  they 
acqiiinit  for  tl«ir  niithor.  reduced  the  j"irty  of 
Isaginiit  to  utK-r  wi-akni-gs.  and  they  saw  no 
pr.i[.rt!  of  maintainin;.'  themselves  but  bv 
f.  rt  iirn  ai'i  '  Isacror.i'*.  m  iiinJingly.  applied  fi'r 
help  to<  I-  -tnenes.  one  of  iji,-  kings  of  (Sparta, 
who  h'ui  11, ready  interfereil  i-i  Athenian  affairs 
by  »«Bu.iii.j  nt  the  expuKion  <  i  the  Pi»i«tratida' 
Cle'i^i-ni*  re'-p'iniled  In  fining 'o  Atheon  with 
a  *r-,i]\  f.'rre  [B.  C.  -V)^,  wi  h  sufficed  t..  nver 
a».  '!'  people,  and.  li  -liming  dirtatorial 
a'lthor  be est»!'i.»hi'd  Ini/orasin  power.  With 
:in  Hltei'ii  led  niirranijement  if  the  govornment. 
!!  hi'gin  by  iKiniiliing  7"<(  'imiliel^desisnateii 
I'V  Uig'ir..-'.  lui'l  then  prooec'l'  I  to  s'lrpress  the 
Oiiu.cil  of  the  Fii.-  Hundn  ir.d  i  I'ldge  the 
gr.vi  rnment  in  the  hands  if  ,rre  Hundreil  of 
iiw  fi^ieml  -  p«itisai;i.  W '.•■:.  himever.  the 
f.MiDiili  r« resit-" <l  '.W.^  attempi.  the  p-ople  took 
i.''!rt,  :•'!.  (!•  II.  :hs  nnd  *'>i,'nr«»  having 
•  ipi.  'i  I,,  eii.i  ..  i  !■'«;  in  a  ! ,  !;.  ,nd  beslegwl 
fie'ti  tli-r'  As  tun  w-re  not  {rejiared'to 
(,ii>.lJiin  ;i  .-"k-e  thiy  mp;  .'ated  .  r.  the  thirl 
li.ij  :  ('!ei;  in„  and  Iva.'nris  were  l«'rmltted 
t  ilepiirt  «iih  the  1,nr,  la'nionia;i  trooiw,  hut 
thiv  wir  •M,nnelle.l  lo  niiandon  thei-  'idherents 
toihemer.y  'f  their  eneiiiicn.  AH  were  put  to 
ileiih.  and  rl.i-thenes  and  the  70<)  banisheil 
fanilies  retiirw,!  triumphan'ly  Ij  Athens." 
Clii'Pienes  so^n  aft,  r« irdii  nii'^d  a  force  with 
whiih  to  But«ii'e  .\!h.  n«  and  restore  Is-igoras. 
T  '•  .\theniiins  in  their  alarm  sent  an  embassy  to 
S'lf  itstiiwiMcit  •!!■  proterti.m  of  t'>e  Persiin.<. 
For!iin»lely.  nothing  came  of  it,  and  Ck-omeues 
wa-s  Ml  nmdi  opixised  in  his  project,  bv  the 
f iriDthian*  and  "tiier  allies  of  Sparw,  ili'al  he 
had  !    tiive  It  up.— C.  Thirlwall,  Hit.  if  Uretft 

.Si.eeilV:  <;  Grote.  lift  of  Greeet,  pf  2  M  31 
-K.  AW-itT,  //,»(  of  lirem:  rh.  1.'!.  — Aristotle 
,  .,  rV  '...,.•  of  AtUu'Mr.  hyf:  /Wfi.fA.  30-23 

B,  C.  509-506.— Hoitile  undettakinn  of 
Kleomenes  and  Sparta.-  Help  aolicited from 
the  Persitn  king,— Subjection  refuted.— Fail- 
ure of  Spartan  tchemei  to  reitore  tyranny.— 
Protest  of  the  Corinthians.— Succeaifui  war 
with  Thebes  and  Chalcis.— "  With  Spans  it 
i>;,*  otivioiis  th.it  the  Alliiniatui  now  hail  a 
deadly  inMrri'l,  and  on  the  01  or  side  they  knew 
that  lllppiis  was  sci-king  t  >  pr.  ripitatc  on  them 
the  i«m-,r  of  the  Pemlan  king  It  seemed 
Tit-T-^f-rt-  tti  hr  a  m.i:trr  ..f  ,;,  n,  necewiitv  10 
sntii  ipal.  the  intrigues  of  their  Iwnnhed  tvfant ; 
I'nd  the  Alheninns  accordingly  M-nt  ■inilmaaadors 
w.  .sanh  is  U)  i;.  ik  ar.  ind.pi.mlent  alliance  with  ' 
Uie    Persian  uc>.-'t.      The   envoys,    oa    being 

15 


ATHEN'S,  B    C.  S01-4SK3 

bitnigbt  Into  the  presence  of  Artaphemet,  the 
Satrap  .,f  Lydia.  were  told  that   Darei'-  woul.i 
admit  them  to  an  alliance  if  they  would  give 
htm  earth  and   *ater.— in  other   words    if  they 
would  «'  knowledge  themselves  l.is  slaves.     To 
this  den. and  of  absolute  subjection  the  envoys 
^■ave  an  aaaeot  which  was  indignantly  npudl- 
ated  tc    the  whole  boily  of  Athenian  citizens. 
-  .  .   toiled  for  the  tini«-  In   his  eff,,rts,   Kleo- 
menes  was  not  cast  down.     Keganimg  the  Klela- 
theoian  constitution  as  a  personal  iiis-jlt  to  hlm- 
«lf.  he  was  resolved  that  Isagoraa  should   be 
despot  of  Athens.      »>ummoning   the  allies  of 
Sparta  [including  the  Bipotian  League  headed 
by  Thebes,  and  the  people  of  Ctialcis  in  Eulwai 
he  led   them  as  far  as  Eleusis,    12  miles  only 
from  Athens,   without   Informing  them  of  the 
purpfine  of  the  campaign.     He  had  no  sooner 
cor  feaeeil  it  than  the  Corinthians,  declaring  that 
they   hail   been  brought  away  from  home  on  an 
unrighteous  errand,  went  back,  f.illowed  bv  the 
other  Spartan  King.  Demaratos.  the  son  of  Aris- 
1   ton;    and  thN  conflict  of  opiniin  broi:e    ,pthe 
I  rest  of  the  army.     This  discomltur-  ■  '  'their 
enemy seemeil  to  Inspire  fresh  strenj^t,    n  ,  ,  the 
Atlienians.  who  won  a  series  of  ticiories   over 
the  B<  ioiians  and  Euboiai  ■   —  complet,  !v  over- 
thmwing  the  latter  — the  ihalcidians— taking 
possession  of  their  t  Ity,  and  making  it  a  peculiar 
colony  and  dependency  of  Athens —.See  Kler- 
triia.     1  he  anger  of  ftleomenes  "on  being  dis- 
conifltcd  at  Eleusis  by  the  defection  of  his  own 
anil's  was  heightened  by  indignation  at  the  dis 
C'lvery  that  in  driving  o"nt  his  friend  Hippias  he 
h.'id  tieen      tnply  the  tiHil  of  Kleisth,  iies  and  of 
the  Dilpi,  .0  prjestc";    whom    KIei..thene!.  had 
bri))eil      It  was  now  clear  to  !,  '11  and   to  his 
countrymen    that    the    Atheniai,,     would     not 
aciiuie-re  in  the  pr«<lomiimnce  of  Sparta,   and 
that  if  they  retaini-d  their  freeibm,  the  power 
of  Ath'ns  would  «,ion  be  eijual  to  their  own. 
Their  only  fafety   lay,  therefore,    in  pr.ividing 
the    Athenians    with    a  tyrant.     An   invitation 
»»s,    therefore,  sent  to  Hippia.<.  at  Sigeion.    to 
attend  a  congress  of  the  allies  at  Simrtu.  who 
were  summoned   *o  me<t  on  ;lie  arrival  of  the 
eilled    iesp/it  "     The  appointed  congnss   was 
lield,  nnd  the  Spartans  bi.sought  their  allies  to 
aid  t!j,m  in  hiim'olinit  the  Athenian  iKmocnicy, 
with  the  iihj'it  of  resl.iring  Hippias  to  (wiwer 
But  sfuin    itic  (■,..: 't.ians    protestwl,    bluntly 
sugg  «!ii  •    !     sf  rtans  thoueht  tvrsnny 

a  !!.;.)<:  fv  ,f  flrst  try  it  for  tliem- 

scivps.  B)      ,.    g  in   his  own   iH'half, 

attempii!  i->  ooovince  tnem  that  the  time  was 
comiue  ■;•.  which  thi  .  wouhi  find  the  Athc- 
DiiK'fr  a  th-rr  in  their  si  !c.  For  the  present  his 
exhortat  ri  .rs  w.  r,  thrown  a\-By.  The  allies 
protested  Nii«iiir.:oijsly  against  hfl  attempts  to 
interfere  wilh  ilie  inlenaradministmtion  of  any 
Hellenic  liij  ,  am!  the  banished  tyrant  went 
back  disapiiouit.  .1  to  Sigeion,  "—{f.  W.  Cox, 
77ie  Gr,,kt  irmi  tht  J^trnart;  rh.  4. 

Also  in  U.  Omte,  Ilitt.  of  ijnere,  ol  2  M 
Slir-J  '  /-      •      ■ 

B.  C.  501-490.— Aid  to  lonians  against  Per- 
»ia.— Provocation  of  King  Darius.— His  wrath 
and  attempted  vengeance.  —The  first  Persian 
invasions.— Battle  ot  Marathon.—  it  is  un- 
denlalile  that  the  extension  of  tlie  Persi  in  do 
ininii  !i  liver  Asia  .Miuor,  Syria,  and  Eirypl  gave 
a  violent  check  to  the  onwaril  movcmeni'of  (Jni-k 
life      On  the  other  hand,  it  seemed  a."  if  the  great 


ft- 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  801-490. 


iViftait 
War. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  501-490. 


IP: 


enterpriK  of  Diiiiiiii  Hyiuupl*  Kgafntt  the  Scy- 
tliiiUM  (luglit  to  have  uuitiil  thi-  Um'k!!  hiiiI  IVr- 
»iHU».     It  was  of  a  pint  whli  the  ^rciunil  policy 
of  Darius  that,  after  ilefeatinft  ««  nianv  other aif- 
vernarie*,  lie  unilertook  to  iirevent  for  all  sue 
ceediii);  ihiic  a  ri'iM-titioa  of  tlioae  Innnils  with 
whieh.  Dome  reiiluriea  before,  the  Seylhiaiis  luiil 
visiteil  Asia  and  the  civilized  worlil.     He  ixw- 
Htietti  authority  enough  to  unite  the  ililfenut 
nations  whieh  ola-yed  his  sceptre  in  a  srri'at  eain- 
paijrn  iiKainst   the  S<ytlilan8.  ,  .  .  The  Ureeks 
Were  his  Uiil  allies  in  his  eainpai);n:  lliey  built 
him  the  bruise  by  whieh  he  crossed  the  Uoai>oru». 
and  nix)  the  briiltre  of  Ikmu  over  the  Dnuuln- 
by  which  he  made  his  invasion  into  the  enemy's 
U-rriiory.     Tlie  n>sult  was  not  one  which  coiild 
pro|HTly  lie  called   unfortunate;  yet  it  was  crr- 
laiulyofa  very  doubtful ehanu'ter   .   .   .   Aureiit 
region,  in  which  they  had  already  obtalnt^l  very 
eonsidemble  lutluenee,  was  closed  to  Iheiii  oii<"e 
more.     The  I'ersiau  anny  bniuirht  uv  ixipula- 
tiohn  u|H.n  the  htrymou.  many  11  numUr  and 
imliviilually  weak,  under  the  dominion  of  IVrsia 
Kid  even  Amyutas.  thi'  king  of  Makeilonia.  one 
of  a  raceof  rulcrsof  (ireek origin,  was  cominlled 
to  do  homaice  to  ih«  On-»i  King.      Thus  the 
movement  nliieh   had  Ihri'st  liack    the  Unrk^ 
fnim  Kgypt  and  Ania  Minor  maih'  lulvani-es  even 
Into  tlie  ri'L'iiins  of  Kuro|>e  which  lN>nlered  u|k>u 
Northern  llelhw.     It  was  an  almiMt  imvltable 
conx  i(ueineof  this  (liatthe  (in-i'ks  wen'  menac<'il 
and   Hlnilemil  even  in  tlieir  pro|M'r  lioiue.      .V 
pn  le\t  and  i>p|Nirtunily  for  au  atuiek  ui>.m  the 
IJreek  i?dand«  was  pn-M'nIitl  lo  the  IVrslam  liv 
the  i|Uei>lionsat  issue  iMtwiTUtlie  |Kipulalion»o'f 
the  lilies  and  the  tyranla.  .   .   .  The  iuitnmieiil 
by  whom  the  erinU  wiu  Immght  alsiiit  was  in.i 
a  (H-raou  of  .iiiv  great  im|Hinau<r      Ii  is  noi  -M 
ways  grial  iiaiuns.  or  nalun-s  strong  in  (he  euii     I 
niousness  of  their  own  (mwers.  that  bring  ..m    ' 
■iii'h  Cdulllcl*,  Ibis    is  i.,rnetiiiies  llie   work  ..t 
IhoM'    tlexilile  chanu-lcrs  which.   Uiug  al    ilic-   ! 

point  of  contact   tatween  II pposing  f.mv-     ' 

pass  tn>m  one  side  to  the  other     Such  a  (  hara.      I 
Ur  was  Aristagoras  of  .Miletus    .  .Morally    ' 

ronleiii|iiil,|e.  b,it  gifltsl  Inl.lle.lually  with  a  I 
rajiiT"  iif  ill. as  of  unlimilisl  exiinl.  .\risiagon.s  \ 
maiie  for  hini«  If  an  im|M'risliable  name  by  Wu,^  ' 
the  lirst  lo  eclerlaln  the  thought  of  a  r,,l|,ell».  ' 
on|h«iiion  lo  the  Persians  on  the  pari  of  „||  i|,<  ^ 
Ureeks,  iven  conlem;<lating  the  |Mis»iliility  of 
waKiiiga  griala'uUuiiTHiifiilolTen.Hive  warup..ii 
lluui  II.-  aiUMuninsi  m    Mil.iiis  liis  ,>hii    i 

ri»U'nali.>h  .f  |h.w.raiii|  the  nst.iriiion  !.•  ib.- 
|»..l.|.'..f  Ih.ir  ..Id  laws  A  g.  ii.  ml  ..v.  r 

thn.n  ..f  t\rannv  eiisuisl  |||  ('  .VMj.   iin..|yiii;.'    ' 
a  r.  n.li   fr..iii   I',  rsia.  an.l  Siriligl  w.ri    ,v,r\'    ' 
wh.re  a|>|...uil..|      Thi'  supniiii'   jh.iv.t  In   il.,- 
ciii.s  ».„    l.r^,|  u|H.n  a    goal    un.l.rsiaudiii-' 
iMtw.-in  111.  Ii.i|,l,rs..r  |h.w.r  an.l  the   l'.r,ian~ 
th.-  fi.l  Ih.i  .,11.    .,f  11,,^,  rulirs  f.iiuel  111.' au 
tli..hty  ..I  til.'  r. Tsi  uis  iiil.il.  ralile  was  Ih.'  ►ii.'ii  ,| 
f.ir  1  iiiimrvil  r.'>..||      Ari.iag.ims  hiiiis.  If  »,,|     i 

unl  inly  niit.iiii.,.,|  ii,etvnuuij,  il i|,.  r  l\r:iiiii   '< 

w.r.'  .oii,|»||,i|  |„  nil,.  ||„,  ^,,„„.  ,,,„„:    g„|    i 
thus  111.  (ili.s.  a.sMiiuiiig  at  Ilie  same  liin.' .i.l.'ne.     ; 
iTili.-    orgaiii/aii..ii      cum.'    into    li.miiiii\    uiih 
INrsi.i  riie  .hies  aii'l   Hlan.ls  w  hi;  h   |,;el    i 

«ii..fl.nt»'.'ii  for. I'll  i..«.ibiiil„ione,,ii|,lii,,t  i,,,,,,.  ! 
to  ni^.i  till  INrsiaiis  l.\  ilM-irowu  iiimid.-.i  iir.rts  I 
fcveii  Anslag.iras  ....d.l  !..'•  ,ve  e»|«',i.',l  „,  ! 
much  .   M.'vi»ii.,|  Uk.      iiHui,  tiM'  •iroiiif     ' 

W  trf  UM!  Ofwk   powers.   In   pinou.    au.|  en     i 


108 


deftvorrd  to  carry  her  with  him  In  his  plans.  .  . 
Ilejected  by  Sparta.  Aristagonis  N'Uuk  himself 
to  Athens.  .  .  .  The  .\i:ieniaiis  granteil  Arista- 
g.>ras  twenty  ships.  t»  which  the  Ereirians,  from 
friemlship   to  Miletus,    ailihsl   five  more.     Th.. 
e.)ur»ge  of  tlic  lonians  was  thus  revive<l,  and  an 
ntuick  ii|ion  the  l>i<rsiaii  d.iminion  rommenciil. 
din'cti.d.  not  inileisl  against  Siisa.   but  against 
Sanlis.  in  their  immisliaie  M.-iglilMirlioiNl.  the  enpi 
tal  of  the  satmpy  whicli  iiii|Mised  on  them  their 
heKvl(.8t  bunlens.  .  .  .  Rv  I  he  burning  of  , Sanlis 
in  which  a  sanctuary  of'  Kyls-le  had  bis-n  ile 
stniyisl.  the  Syrian  nations  luul  Xuva  outragtsl  in 
the  iHTson  of  their  g.sls.     We  know  that  it  was 
part  of  the  system  of  the  l>ersians  to  take  the 
goils  of  a  country  uii.hr  tli.ir  prot<H-tl.m.     N..r 
w.iul.l  the  gn-at  king  who  thought  himself  ap- 
|Kiinte.l  to  U<  masii-r  of  Iheworid  fall  Ui  n'si-nt 
an  Invasion  of  his  .l.imini.>iis  as  an  insult  railing 
for  n-venge.     The  hostile  attempts  of  the  lonians 
made   no  gn-at    impn-sfi.in    u|Min  him,   but   li.- 
aske.l  who  wen-  the  Alh.iiiaiis,  of  whose  shan- 
In  the  campaign  h.'  Iia.1  lN'.'n  informtil.     Tli.y 
wen-  r.in-igiiers.  of  wliosi'  jsiwi'r  tl  •  king  had 
scarcely   heanl.  .   .   .  Th.'  eiilerprise  of    Arista 
gonis  hiwl  meanwhih-  i-ausisl  genend  (simmotl..n 
He  had  by  far  III.-  larger  part  of  Cyprus    t.. 
gether  with  th,-  fariaiis.  .m   his  si.le.     All  Hi.- 
country  iii-ar  the  l'n.)M.iitis  and  the  Hellesp.mt 
was  in  n'volt.     Th.-  I'ersians  wen-  eom|M'lle.l  t-. 
I   make  it  their  flrst  onci-rn  t.i  suppn-ss  this  iiisiir 
i  n-clion.  a  task  whi.-h.  if  atleinpte.l  by  wa.  .11 1 

I   not  pnmiise  to  Is'  an  .asv In  their  llrsl  .'ii 

I  .-."iintcr  with  the  I'lioniiians  th,>  lonians  ha.l  ih.- 

I   a.|yaulage.     When.  Ii..».-yi-r.   the  foni-s  of  ih,. 

I   gn'at  enipin-  wen-  asst'inliLsl.   the  liisurn'i  lion 

i   was  everywhen'    put   il.iwn    .    .    .    Il    must   U. 

n'<'konisl  am..ng  Hi.' c(iiisi,|iien<S's  of  Ih.- baltl ' 

.if  ImIv,  by  w..ii-li  tin- i..iiiliiiiall.m  againsi  tliu 

renian  enipln-  lia.|  In.  n  aniiiliilatisl,  that   King 

I'arius.  ii..t  ninteiii  « iib  Inving  isinsoli.lati<.|  In-, 

il.imlnion  in  l.inia.  on.i' n-  n'siinnsl  lii.-  pl.-i 

.>■  pushing  f..rwar.|  into  Kiin.|M.,  of  whiih  hit 
i^nlerprise  against  li.  '  S  yihians  f.imi.sl  part 
with  the  execuli..n  of  lliis  pniject  he  e.>miiii> 
siontsi  one  of  the  priii.lpal  ii.rs.ins  of  ih.'  i'iii|iir.' 
ami  theco'iri.  Mar.loiiius  byname,  wh.iii 

he  unltisl  I.)  his  family  by  marrying  him  I..  Iils 
.laughter  This  g.-nl nl  ,-nau...|  t|ie  M.  II, , 

poMI  with  a  large  army,  his  ih.-t  always  a.-.. .mi 
panviiig  him  al.mir  the  shon- whilst  I'm-  |iu..ie-.| 
.m  by  (he  maiiilan.l  ||.-  ..nis-  m..n'  siil»|.i,.| 
.Maki-.l.inla.  ph.liably  lln- .lisiri.-ls  whieh  li.-ul  11..1 
yi-l.  liki'  111.-  .Mak. -.Ionian  Iviruf,  l«s-iibroiii,'lil  into 
sulij.-i-tion.  an.l  cai.-  ...it  tint  his  aim  »n 
.lin-.t.sl  againsi  Kntnaaii.l  Atli.-ns.  Ihe  .-lu-ini.  s 
..f  III.-  king  III   lie    .i,,rmv   wal.  rs  n.  .,r 

M.iiint  AthiH,  whi.h  hav.-  alwa*  s  ina.l.- the  n.,,1 
gili.ai  of  llu'  .Kg.-an  .lull. nil.  his  H.et   sntf.  r.  I 

ship  wns-k     Hut  niilioui  11  iva' Biip|H.rl»h nil 

not  li..|s'  to  gain  |h„„-«|,,i,  ,,f  „„  i,|„i„l  a,,.!  i 
marilim.-  !..» n  !.itual.  .1  ..11  a  pnmiont-iry  Ki.  11 
l.y  lin.l  111'  en,  ,iiiit.-r.-.l  r.si»iaii.e  mi  llial  ti- 
I  'Uii.l  it  a.lvisiil.l.  I,,  p,>,l|Hiii<  Ih.'  further  .  »i.ii 
ti'.iiof  Ills  UM.hrtakiiigsl..  iii.,i|i.rliiii.-  In 

•  ■r.l.r  t,.  siiIkIu.-  Ill,'  n,  il.itraiils.  .-.is.  1  illy 
.\lli.  Il- and  Knirii.  aii.uli.  r  slli-ni|il  was..rkMn 
1/.-.I  «iili..iit  .1. 1..y  I  ii'l.  r  two  g.-ii.-rals  ..ti.  .f 
wh..iu.  Ifcihs.  wi.aM.sh    ih.-.aher,  Aria'.h.  n..^. 

'he  s I  III.-  fcitripof  S,ir.|is  of  Ihi-  s.tlli.    liiin,- 

aii'l  brolln-r  ..(  lln-  hinm  wli.i  was  in  alli.n..' 
with  llippias.  a  marilitii.  .  (|HHliii.iii  was  uii.l.  f 
Ukeii   fur    tlu^     iiuuH-dlale    subjugukm  ..f  Itw 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  S01-49a 


War. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  48»-t80. 


Miuifli  iuhI  the  maritime  dlttrlett.    It  wu  bm  dc 
lignrd  (or  open  iKMtility  Kgmliut  the  Oreelu  In 
jSt'iKraL  .  .  .  Their  design  wu  to  uUtlze  the  in- 
U'n»]  diaension*  of  Oreece  in  conquering  Uie 
nriocipal  enemief  upon  whom  the  Oieiit  King 
liid  awom  venminoe,  and  preieating  them  a* 
I  Kptires  at  hit  feet     The  project  luccredetl  in 
iliccaseof  Kretria.     In  spite  of  a  brave  rraist- 
»nce  it  fell  by  treachefy  into  their  hands,  and 
ihry  could  avenge  the  sacrilege  committed  at 
Sutlln  bv  pluniiering  and  derastating  Orucfw 
unrtuaries.     Tlicy  expected  now  to  be  able  to 
over|M>w(T  Athi'iis  alao  without  much  trouble. 
...  It  was  »  cin'iinMtancu  of  great  value  to  the 
Atheniita.H  that  there  was  a  mun  amongst  them 
who  was  familiar  with  tlie  PiTxian  tactin.     This 
was  .Miltiatii.'H.  tboBimof  Kiiimn.  ,  .  .  Although 
a  Thnii'iHn  priufe,  lie  had  never  oenaeil  to  be  a 
cltizt'Q  of  Athens.     Here  be  whh  im|H'u('liv<l  for 
bsTing  held  a  tyranny,  but  was  ac<|ultte(l  and 
clinarn  strateKUS,  for  the  democracy  could  not 
rejrrt  a  man  who  was  so  admirably  uualiHed  to 
lie  at  their  head  In  the  intcn-luuige  of  hnatilitles 
with  Persia.     Miltiadt-H  was  ciiuducting  his  own 
personal  quarrel  in  uiiderulilnir  the  defence  of 
.Utii'a.     The  force  of  tliu  I'eniaiis  was  indeed 
inoom;  jably  tlie  larger,  but  tlie  plains  of  Mara- 
thon, on  which  they  were  drawn  up,  prevented 
Ihrir  |iru|H'r  deployment,  and  they  saw  with  as- 
timisbment  the  Athenii'i  hoplites  displaying  a 
(runt  as  extendeil  as  their  own.     These  troops 
now  rushed  upon  tlu-m  with  an  im|H'tus  which 
gtfK  swifk'r  at  every  monu'ut.     TIm-  Persians 
I'ssiiy  succeeded  In  Itrcaking  through  the  centre 
of   llic  Athenian  army;  but   tiMt  was  of   no 
momtnt,  for  the  strength  of  the  onst't  lay  in  the 
two  wings.  wIktc  now   l>ei,'»n  a   hand-to-liand 
flght.     The  Ptmian  swon!,  formidable  elsewhere, 
was  not  adapted  ki  do  gooil  service  against  tlie 
brm/r  armor  and  the  siwar  of  the  Hellenes.     On 
l»th  tUnits  the  Athenians  jbtaine<l  the  ailvan 
U','c.  anil  now  attaclted  tlie  I'erslan  com  re,  which 
WM  iii>t  able  to  withstand  tl  e  onslau)(lit  of  men 
will  ~e  natural  vlitor  was  heig  iienetl  by  gymnastic 
Iraimrig.     The  Persiaiu,  to  'heir  mislortune,  had 
(»l™i!ili-<l  uwm  di's-rtior  in  the  ranks  of  their 
npiKiiiiMUi,  fiiile.1  In  tl,;..  h.i|H',  they  rvtreatwl   Ui 
the  shore  and  to  their  ships,      liiniiliitus  in- 
tiinatti  that  the  iVrsiiins  had  sa-cret  intelligence 
with  a  party  in  Alliens,  and  t<Kik    th«'ir  course 
rmnd  the  pnnnonuiry  of  Hiinium  towani  the  city, 
UI  the  lio|ie  of  surprisiuii  It      But  when  they 
>»m- 1"  anchor  Ow  Albeiiians  ha<l  arrived  alsii, 
Miillhiy  saw  themH<'lv<-s  once  mo^■  coufronte)) 
liy  the  vli-lors  of   Miiratb«n."~L.  von  Kaoke, 
Chi  .>  rml  IliMorji,  t.     ,. 

Aiao IX ;  lleroiloius,  ll,M>My.  hk,  t.  ~ V.  Duruy 
llitt  ./  Ilrfrv,  eh  lB(r  •.') —S,^,  ,u,  Pkhsi;^- 
H  ('  JJI-IIU,  siiil  Uhkki'k:  U.  C.  4U'j  491,  and 

B  C.  4*9-4*o.-Ceadamaatian  ud  dMtk 
of  »liltiades.-Th«  ^Kinataa  war.— Naval 
power  created  by  Tbamistoclta.—    The   vie 

1  If)  ..f  Marathon  was  chiefly  iliie  to  Miltlailea, 
it  w  u  he  who  bniught  on  the  eiiiraK<'ine„t,  and 
he  umihief  in  niniinaiid  on  tlie  day  when  th« 
lain.-  wss  foUKht.  Much  a  brilHanl  siMXvaa 
KPiily  Improvwl  hia  p<iaition  to  the  Hty,  and 
'__«'ii<.l  in  his  enemies  a  sllll  de^'|>er  batrad 
Kv.r  on  the  wslch  for  an  opportunity  to  null 
"  •'!  their  rivsl  it  was  m)t  long  befora  they 
I  "111  I  i«ie  rioon  after  bla  vickiry,  Mllthules 
i-auk  lirfuic  the  AtbuBhuM  with  ■  rwtucal  that  a 


159 


iqtiwtamnf  70 Ihlpi might  he  pbccd  at  hl« din- 
Posal.  The  purpo*)  for  which  he  required  them 
he  would  not  disclose,  though  pkidglng  his  wont 
that  tlie  espeditiuo  wouhf  mid  hrgely  tc  the 
wealth  and  praaperitv  of  the  dty.  The  request 
being  grante<l,  he  sailed  with  Uie  ships  k)  Para 
an  ishuKl  which  at  Uiis  dme  waa  subject  to 
■•ersia.  From  the  Parians  he  demanded  100 
tah-nts,  and  wiR-n  tliey  refused  to  pay  lie  block- 
aded the  city.  So  vigorous  and  succe.«f'd  waa 
the  resistance  olTereil  that,  after  a  long  debiy 
Miltiailcs,  hinuelf  dangcrouslv  woiualwl,  was 
aimpellcd  to  return  home,  flls  ewniit-i,  with 
Xantbippus  at  Uieir  head,  at  once  nlUiknl  liim 
for  misconduct  in  the  enterprise.  .  .  .  Mihiadcs 
waa  unable  to  reply  in  |iersoii ;  he  was  carried 
Into  court,  while  hb  friends  pb-ailed  his  cause. 
1  he  sentemw  was  given  agaiuat  him.  but  the 
penalty  was  re<lucc<r  from  dealh  to  a  line  of  .10 

«','"'*•     **  '*''*"  •  •"""  *"•  "*'"'  '•""•  <''""^ 
Miltiades  could  pay;  he  waa  thrown  into  prison 
as  a  public  debtor,  where  be  soon  dii^d  from  liw 
inortiUcarlon  of  his  wound.  .  .  ,  His  comtemna- 
tion  wsa  one  in  a  long  series  of  simihir  punish- 
ments.    Tlie  AthenUns  never  learnt  to  lie  Just 
to  those  who  served  them,  or  to  dbitinguish  be- 
tween trencherr  and  errors  of  Judgment.  .  .  , 
We  Imve  very  little  Information  about  the  state 
of  Athens  Immediately  afk-r  tlie  battle  of  Mara- 
thon.    8o  far  as  we  can  tell,  for  the  ciinmology 
Is  most  uncertain,  ahe  was  now  cngageii  in  a  war 
Willi  .Cgina.  .  ,  ,  Meanwhile,  a  man  was  rising 
to  (wiwer,  who  may  be  said  to  have  creak-d  the 
bisl.iry  of  Athens  fur  the  rest  of  the  century,— 
Tliemistocles,  the  sim  of  Neocles.  ...  On  the 
very  day  of  Marathon,  Themiska  lea  lit  I  prolw- 
biy  roaile  up  bis  mind  that  the  I'emians  would 
visit  Greece  again.      What  waa  to  keep  them 
away,   so    long  as    they   were   masters  of    the 
.«geanT     .      With  an  Insight  almost  incredi- 
ble be  perceived  tliat  the  Athenians  couW  be- 
come a  maritime  nation;  tluit  AtlH-na  ixmiessea 
barlaiura  large  enouirh  to  receive  an  enormous 
llitt,  awl  capable  of  Iieing  strongly  fortilled: 
tliat  In  posassslon  of  a  fleet  slie  could  not  only 
•.•(■ure  her  own  safety,  but  stand  forth  as  a  rival 
iH.»er  k>  Hiwrto.     But  ho-v  coiihl  Tbeinlskxles 
Iniluce  the  AtbeoUns  k>  abamlon  the  Hue   In 
which  they  had  bee?>  so  successful  for  a  nuaie  of 
warfare  In   which  even   Miltiades  liad    failed? 
After  the  fall  of  the  great  gi-ueral,  the  conduct 
of  alTalrs  was  in  the  bamls  of  X.uithippua  .  .  . 
and   Aristldes.    .    .    .   They  were   by  no  p-  tns 
prepared  for  the  change  which  ThemiskK-iea  -vaa 
lunllMting       This    Is  more   especially   true  of 
Aristldes     He  had  been  a  friend  of  Cllstlienes; 
lie  waa  known  m  an  atimirer  of  rtpanan  customa. 
.   .  .   He  luwl  bi«n  mmmi  in  command  at  Mare- 
t!:  m,  and  was  now  the  moat  eminent  geia-ral  at 
Aihena     Frimi  him  Themislocles  cuuld  only  ex- 
|MH|  the  mi«t  resolute  opiwaition.     Xaiithippiis 
ami  Aristldes  could  reckon  on  the  au|)|iiirt  of  old 
traditions  and  gieat  contiectlons      Themialocb'S 
bail  no  aupiiort  of  tlie  kind      lie  hail  to  maU 
his  party        .    .  (^Hlacioua  of  tlwir  oan  (msi 
lion.  AristiileaamI  Xantbliipiis  lis'kcit  ^itbcou 
tempt   uimn  tie    l.n.it   of   nun    who  Umm   t  v 
itatber  rounil  tticir  unmannerlv  and  unruUlvaliil 
leaiU-r      AimI  ther  might.  |H'riia|>s.  Imvi.  hihiu. 
kilneil  their  poailiim  if  it  bail  not  Is-in  (or  llio 
.iC^ineUn  war     That  unlucky  slriiunlr  bail  l»' 
gun.  ai»n  after  the  reforms  of  (^lt»ibriii'<.  wiili 
an  unprovoked  attack  u(  the  .Egiot  lans  ou  tba 


■i  j   : 


ATHENS.  B.  C.  480-480.  P 

roMt  of  AttloadWe  B.  C),  [.Eginii  being  «lll.-.l 
wiih  Thobft  in  the  war  nipntiimvil  alMivp  — H.C, 
."«)a-."i001.  It  was  rpni-wril  when  tlio  .Ks^iwWris 
frivo  fiirth  mm!  water  to  the  lieraliU  of  l)«rii;»  in 
4U1.  an  I  tlioii^h  sustX-ndtil  at  thn  tirap  of  tlw 
Persian  Inviwion.  It  broke  out  aRiiln  witli  re- 
i:cwcil  fepK-ilv  noon  aftorwanls.  Tlie  .tijini'Uins 
liaii  the  stroncer  fleet,  and  defeated  the  Athenian 
lililpa.  "Such  experiences  naturally  causeit  a 
I  hanjre  in  the  minds  of  the  Athenians.  ...  It 
was  clear  that  the  old  arrangements  for  the  navy 
wi'n-  n,iit4>  inade(iuale  to  the  task  which  was 
now  reciuired  of  them.  Yet  the  leaders  of  the 
BtHte  ntide  no  proposals."  TliemlstiM-les  now 
"rame  fnrwarrl  publicly  with  pm|KMaU  of  naval 
ri'form,  and,  as  he  expected,  he  drew  upon  liim- 
wlf  the  strenuous  opposition  of  Aristldes.  .  .  . 
It  w,ts  clear  that  notiiin:;  doHsive  i-ouM  Ik- d.me 
in  llie  .Bjfinet.tn  war  u:dess  the  proponaN  of 
TliemistiK'les  werv  lurriid ;  it  was  c ciiillv  i  l.'ar 
i;iat  thiy  never  would  N-  c.irried  while  Aristides 
uiid  Xanthippus  were  at  banc!  to  ojipow  tlieni. 
I'nder  these  clrcumsianei'S  n^courw  was  had  to 
the  safety-valve  of  the  cunstilullon.  OitrMlnm 
was  proposiHl  and  afciptcd;  and  in  this  inaiiner. 
br  483  H.  C,  Themistocles  h:iil  got  rid  of  inilli  of 
Ins  rivals  in  the  city.  He  wm  now  master  of 
the  situation.  Tlwonly  obstacle  to  the  reall- 
^.illon  of  his  plans  was  the  expense  involve<l  in 
liiiilding  ships.  .\nd  IhU  he  was  able  to  meet 
by  a  Imppy  accident,  whl.h  broui{ht  into  the 
inasury  at  this  time  a  large  surplus  from  the 
.■-ilver  mines  from  Ijiurium.  ...  By  the  sum- 
mer of  4M0,  the  Athenians  .  .  were  able  to 
I.I  inoii  180  Teasels.  lK>sides  jiroviding  30  for  the 
use  of  the  Chalcideans  of  Eulxca.  ...  At  the 
F'une  time  ThemistiK?les  set  alxitit  the  f.irtilica. 
li  m  of  the  i'eimus.  .  .  .  I'ould  he  have  earrieil 
t!>r  .Vthenians  with  him.  be  would  have  made  the 
l*tire«»  the  capital  of  the  country,  in  onler  that 
the  Khips  and  the  city  might  Im-  (n  lioac  connec 
tion  llul  for  this  the  people  were  not  pre- 
panil  ■— E.  Abbott,  Ptrifitt  and  Iht  U 'Ilex  Aje 
:f  .Ith.iu.  eh.  a 

Ai.-<.>ix:  IMutareh,  AnMi,U:~Tlumi,lu-Uii. 

B.  C.  4II-479-— CoBcrait  at  Corinth.  -Or- 
Ksoised  Helltaic  Union,  undtr  the  headship 
of  Sparta      S<'e  (IukkiK    II  ('  4'4|    KJ 

B.  C.  480-479.— The  second  Persian  i.-j»a- 
•ion.  -  Thcrmopylx,  Artcmisium,  Salaiiis, 
Platxa.  -  Abandonment  of  the  City.—  ■  I'lie 
l;i-.l  d:iys  of  KariiiH  wi  n-  il  mdi  d  by  tlie  di«is|i  r 
of  Mar.itli.in.  ■tliiit  Imtle  firmrd  llif  luniirii} 
|M.lnt  of  his  go.Kl  f.iniine.' and  it  w.iild  wtiu 
th.it  il.e  news  of  it  I11I  to  sevir.il  Iniiirn-iiiont. 
partiiularly  that  of  Eifvpt,  Imt  tbev  wen- sin;! 
put  down  t>arius  dlid  (lllymp.  T.l  .li.  siil 
Xi  rxcT  whosui  (•••.■dwl  bim.  K^mpreventi'il  fru:-! 
t-ikiii.'  rvcriire  on  the  .V!lM>ni:im  by  ctii-  nv.ill  of 
l.il.\pl.  will,  Il  cniTiigi'd  bin  uitrnti  vii  d  rl'i;;  tlie 
flrvi  M.iM  .if  lii«  n  i:fn.  Hut  he  com;,!  t,  ly  ivm 
oil  r  d  \\v  l:iK'iri;rnt*  after  Ihi'y  biwl  ii.  1  ■!  ;iiaet| 
lli.iii*  Ivi  1  all  ml  four  or  live  yi'srt.  and  hi  llien 
made  pnpariii  >«•<  firihat  vi'ti.reimi>  on  .Vrliiria 
for  Khiih  bis  tnrbirlan  pride  was  Im  riu.;  The 
anouiil  iif  tlie  ilirre  years'  pr<'p:irili..ni  of 
X<r\r«.  h  .*  lie  a«■^mbled  hl«  army  In  ,\sla 
Mill  r.  hoiv  he  m.idr  a  bridge  ai  nnts  the  llelli-s 
Ik.iil  II  1*  he  cut  a  1  uial  tbMUith  llie  Islliinus  of 
Mi'iiil  .\l!ini  t.i  prevrnt  hU  Hiil  In  iiig  di'»iroyi'd 
by  »1  .ritiH  —  ill  Itii4  is  known  lo  every  om-  » Im 
has  r  ad  llirt«|ii!u»  History  U  hi'n-  so  mm  h  In 
l<r»<ne«  with  |«sjlry.  Ibtl'thiy  '-aa  00  longer 


'•"  ATHENS,  B.  C.  480-479. 

IT. 

be  ippimted.  .  .  .  The  Qrceks  awaited  thp  at- 
tack (Olyiup.  7.5,  1).  ■  but  they  wer.'  not  asrreid 
among  tbemwlvn.     The  Argivcs  from  halreil  i<| 
H,Hkrta  Joined  the   Persiaiia,  and  tlie  miserable 
UoeottaiU  likewise  auppurtmi  them.     The  otherH 
kept  togetlier  only  fnim  neo-asity ;  and  without 
the  noble  tpirlt  of  the  Alh<'ni.iiw  Onvce  would 
have  btwn  loet,  and  that  from  the  most  paltry 
circumstance*.     A  dispute  arose  as  to  who  was 
to  be  honoured  with  tliusupn'ine  eommaml:  the 
Athenians  gave  way  to  all.  for  their  oalv  desire 
was  to  lave  (Ireece.     Had  the  Persians  miiveil  on 
rapidly,  they  would  have  met  with  no  resistance, 
but  their  proceeded  slowly,  and  matters  turniil 
out  dllferently.'    A  Ort-ek  annv  was  encfuipetl 
at  Tetniic,  at' the  entmii(!e  of  Tbeasaly,  and   at 
llrst  iletermineil  on   defending  Tlieasiily.     But 
they  must  have  «e«'n  that  they  could  Iw  "entirch 
surrounded   from    l'p|MT  Thensiily;    and  when 
they  thus  diseoven-l  the  Imposdibllity  of  stop 
ping  the  Persians,  they  relreansl.    The  n:irr,iliv'> 
now  contains    one    ineonei-ivable  eir<'Uiiistani:<' 
after  another.  ...   It  is  Incoaciivalile  tint,  as 
the  tSreeks  did  make  a  stand  at  Tlieriiiop>  jai-.  11 1 
one  else   took    lii.s   piisilion   thire  exispt   Kiu^ 
Ixs)nidas  and  his  .'Spartans,  not  ineluiling  even 
the  IJlct^laemonians.  for  they  n'niained  at  hoini': 
Only    l.0(«)     Phociatis    (a-eupiisl    the     bei.,'hla. 
though  that  |ie<iple  might  sunl?  have  furnislud 
10.(li»!>  men;  4IN»  of  the  Ittaiitians  wi're  |Hwteil  in 
the  n-ar.  as  a  sort  of  hostages,  as  Hennlotus  re 
marks,  and  7IH)  Thespians.     Where  wi'ni  all  the 
rest  of  the  Oreeks  t  .  .  .  (."oiiiilli'ss  hosts  an-  in- 
vading Uns>ee ;  the  (tnrks  want  to  defend  them- 
selves,   and  are  making  active  pn'iMniiions  at 
■ea;  but  on  lanil  hundredsof  Ihoiuands  are  met 
by  a  small  baud  of  l'elo|Hmnesiaiis,  7iH)  Thes- 
pians. 4110  Thelians  as  hostages,  and  1,1)1)0  Pho- 
elans,  stationed  on  the  helirhtal     A  pass  is  ivhu. 
pleil,  but  only  that  one,  and  the  others  an'  left 
ungiianUsl.  .  .  .  All  this  Is  ipiite  uninielliLMble; 
it  would  r.lmnst  ap|iear  as  If  there  had  Ic-i-n  an 
Intention  losacritliw  I.i<-<midas  and  his  men,  but 
we  cannot  supixna^   this.     These  ciicumstanii  < 
aloni'  aiiggi'st  to  us.  that  the  numbers  of  i!ie 
IN'rslan  army  cannot  have  Ixs'niu  gn>al  as  liny 
ar»'  deserilssi;  but  even  if  we  n-duiv  ilic  in  to  in 
Immense  extent,  it  still    n-inains  lucoiii'.i\ilili' 
why  Ibi'y  wen-  not  opposed  by  greaur  nuniluM 
of    the    (Jrei'ks,    fir    as  afierwanls    they    viii 
tun-l  111  attack  the  Persians  in  the  opin'riil,:,  it 
was  iirlainly  mmh  nion-  natiiml  to  opiMw  tlniu 
while  inarching  across  tile  bills,      llul  Inmevi  r 
this  may  be,  it  Is  an  iindoiibied  fact,  tli.it  l,i'iiii 
das  and' his  Hpartaiis  fill  in  the  contest,  of  wlm  h 
we  may  form  a  emiispii  in  from  the  dem  ripiini 
of  Hennlotua,  wlien  afar  a  n-slstance  of  tbni- 
lays  they  were  surrouiidnl  by  the  Perslms      .\ 
fiw  of  tfie  Sp  irlaus  estM|Msl  00  very  ex.  nn^^ilile 
LTi'unds.   but  lliiy   were  so  geiieruliy  di^|ii»i-il. 
that   their  life   la-came  unendurable,    an  I  lie  v 
maile  away  with  tbi-mselves.     This  Is  11  rtaiiilv 
historiiiil.  .  .   .  After  the  victory  of  Tlhriniiiyliie 
all  Hellas  lay  open  bi'foB<  the  I'ersiaiis.  and  tin  v 
now  advamssi  towanis  Athens,  a  disianci-  nlil'  li 
Ibey  iiiuld  march  in  a  few  days    Thels's .iixin  I 
her  gates,    and    Joyfully   ail'inllted    them    fmni 
halnsl  of  Athens     •  Mrantlme  a  portion  of  ilw 
armv  ap|M-«red  befnn-  Iti-lphI      It  Is  almost  in 
eoncelvHlile  that  the  Persians  did  nol  smiiisl  i.i 
biking  the  temple    .  Tim  miracles  by  wlmli 

the  li'mple  Is  said  U>  have  Is-en  saviil.  an-  re 
peated  li  tbe  Muoe  manner  duriuy  Ihu  attack  of 


160 


ATHENS.  B.  C.  48(M7S. 


War. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  47JM78. 


ti>e  (knli.  But  the  temple  of  Delphi  wu  entalnl  7 
not  plundered.'.  .  .  Thecitynf  .Vthenthiul  Inthe 
mnntime  been  •baixloDed  by  all  the  imipli- ;  tliH 
di-fcaerlea  had  taken  refuge  intlieiinull  Uliuiil  of 
HaUmU,  or  of  Troezen,  'and  all  the  Athenians 
capable  of  bearing  arm*  embarked  in  the  Itect. ' 
.  .  .  The  Perriaiiathu*  took  Athena  without  any 
resiitanee.  .  .  .  Durins  the  nme  dajri  on  which 
the  battle  of  Thermopylae  waa  fought,  the  Oreek 
flert  wu  engaged  in  two  indeciilTe  but  glorious 
battles  near  the  promontorr  of  Artemisiunt    '  In 
a  thin)  the  Peralana  gained  the  upper  haml.  and 
when  the  Qreeks  at  the  same  time  heani  of  tlie 
defi-at  at  Thermopylae,    tbcy   withdraw,    and 
doul>ling  Cape  Sunium  aailc<l  towarda  8aUmi». ' 
(}<>l  arnt  them  a  sUirm  whereby  the  Periiana  in 
tlicirpursuittufferHiiihipwrcck.  .  .  .   While  tlie 
(itwk  fleet  waa  tlationeil  in  the  channel  between 
tlif  island  of  Salamis  and  Attica,  towania  Pi- 
rieeuB.  discord  broke  out  among  the  Ore.  k».   The 
I'l'loponnesiaos    thought    only    of    ihemaeive*: 
Ihi'vliml  fortlHed  the  luhmus;  tSere  they  wnre 
aswmlilml.  and  there  they  wanlcl  to  offer  resist- 
naif  u>  the  Persians.     In  their  folly  they  fnrgol, 
that  if  the  enemy  with  his  superior  fleet,  ahiiulil 
limi  Hirainst  IVInponnesus.    they    mii(lit    land 
wlMn-vertheyllke<l.  .  .  .  ButThemlaUirl«s  now 
dclared,   that  all  the  hopes  of  the   Atlicninns 
weriMlirecled  Uiwanis  the  r?roviTy  of  their  nwti 
rity;  lliat,  if  the  Peloponnesians  should  sarrirt<v 
Ihcm.  sod.  thinking  of  tliernselvea  imlv.  stmiihl 
alKinilon  Attica  to  the  barbarians,  the  Ath<-ni;tii4 
wouM  not  be  so  childish  as  to  sacriflce  thenvHclvcs 
f.ir  tlii-rn,  but  would  Uke  their  women  anl  rliil 
iln'n  cm  Imanl  their  ships,  and  sail  far  away  from 
tli<>  IVnians  to  tlie  ii^land  of  Sardinia,  or  some 
otiiir  place  where  Oreek  colonies    were  eslnti- 
li<li'-.l.  that  there  they  would  settle  as  a  tnv 
pe..pli',  and  aliandin   Peloponersus  to  iu  fat.- 
and  that  then  the  peninsula  would  sixm  be  in  the 
hand*  of  the  enemy.     This  frighU>n<.<l  the  Pelo. 
iiorininiirn.  and  they  resoleed  tosUnd  by  Athene 
It  in  ivj.lint  that,  throughout  that  timei  Thi'iiiis- 
ti.  1. 1  luwl  u>  struggle  with  the  m<Mt  intolemlile 
dilliultiii,  which  the  allies  placet!  In  his  w«v.  as 
well  as  with  Ihrlr  Jealousr,  meanness,  and  into- 
lince.     ' Tlw  riid'-nem of  tl>e  Spartans  ntid  Cor- 
iritliiinsltnowlirtr  morpHtronglvcimlnwlii".  with 
liic  nittiem.-iit  of  the  Atlvniaiis.   than  on  lliat 
K'TiMoii.'    But  after  he  hwl  tried  erervihini; 
«ii_i  ov,ni.tne  by  everr  pussitile  means  a  liiindri-  i 
liTiTrtit  dimcullies.  he  yet  saw,  tliit  he  c.mi|,| 
n  t  n-lyon  the  perseverance  of  the  IVI..[),inne- 
'i.in«,  anl  th:it  ifiey  would  turn  to  tlie  I-ilhmin 
.1  H,.,,!  a,  X.rses  shoiiM  pr<K-ee<l  in  th-il  dine 
11 .11      II.-  an-..nlingly  induml  the  Persian  kin^, 
'>y  a  f  11-*  mrwitte.  ti  snrnninit  the  Un'i.k  fleet 
f.rili.-  piiriKMc  of  rutting  off  tlieretn-itof  tlie 
I '  I  .|..nn.-,ian<      IFe  deifarpd  Uims<.|r  n-a.lv  10 
■    livi  r  iIm-    whole  of  the  Oreek    rte>-t    into'  hi* 
|ii>i.li      riiiiilevli*  was  iiuiteui  tlie  inin.l  of  the 
i .  roaiM.  X.rx.-«  Wlercl  him.  and  follow.^  Iiis 
',     ■?'.     ^*"'"  Themi«t.irles  waa  thus  sum  of 
III..  IMotKmneslans.  the  ever memorable  Imtile  of 
>»Uini«.-,imrm.n<iil,  which  isas  certainly  hisl.iri- 
<al  4>ilMt  .>f  Canme.  orany  molcm  battle  ■  what 
•  V  rtl»  niiml.ers  may  lie. '    The  battle  pr.K*e.l«| 
N.m.  what  In  the  manner  of  the  battle  of  l,.lpiig 
wirnlhewue  waadecidnl.  aportl.mof  th.»ie  wlio 
"ii'hi  1,1  liarr  Jolneil  their  (.ountrymen  b.f..re 
i"«  I.-  .-onimon  cause  with  the  Onirks  Tlieir 

*.v«ii>uii«-r«ase<l  thericuwyof  ibeOreeks 
lenaln  si  the  battle  of  thUmls  Is,  all  the  .uvounis 


lei 


of  what  tnok  pU  e  after  It.  are  rerr  doubtful. 
ThU  much  is   certain,  that    Xerxes  letumed 
leaving  a  portion  of  his  army  utid.r  .Mardonius 
in  Greece;'      .  .  Winter  was  now  approaching, 
and  .Uantonlus  withdrew  from  ravagt^l  Altica 
taking  up  his  winter-quarters  partly  In  Thesaalr 
aii,|  partly  in  BoeotU.  .  .  .  l*lie  pr.>lwbillly  is 
that    tlie    Athenians    remained    the    winUr    In 
Hilainis  in  sheds,  or  under  the  ojien  sky      Mar- 
il.inius  offered    to  restore  to  them  Attl(»  unin- 
juriMl,  w  far  as  It  had  not  alreadv  been  devas- 
uited,  if  they  would  conclude  peace  with  him 
riie."  might  at  that  time    have  obtained  anv 
terms    they    pleased,    if    they   had   abandoned 
the  common  cause  of  the  Greeks;  and  the  Per 
sians  would  have  kept  the  peace;  f.ir  when  thev 
ionclud«l  t^•l.tles    they  observe<l    them:    they 
were  not  faithless  barb«1ana.     But  on  this  occa. 
sion  again,  we  see  the  Athenian  people  in  all 
Its  greatness  and  excellence;  it  scorned  su<h  a 
pe«.i.,  and  pref..rn.d  tlie  goi.1  of  the  Pelopon 
neaians.  ,  .  .   .Uardmiius  now    again    advauei-tl 
towanls  Athens;  the  Spartans,    who  ouglit  10 
have  prooeeilod  towards  Oithaeron,  had  not  ar 
rived,   and  thus  he    again    t<»ik    posw-wion  of 
Attica  and  ravaged  it  completely.     At   hngth 
however  (Olymp  7a.  «).  the  Aih.-bians  pnvailed 
upon  the  Peloponnraians  to  leave  the  Uthmua, 
and  thev  gradually  advance.1  towards  B<ieotl». 
Tliere  the  battle  of  Plataeac  was  fought 
In  regani  to  the  accounts  of  thN  battle  it  is  his- 
torimlly  certain  that  it  was  completely  wi>ii  by 
the  Greeks,  and  that  the  remn.int.i  of  the  Peniao 
armv  retreatetl  without  lieinn    vigorously  pur- 
sue.1.     It  must  have  reachnl  Asia,  tmt  ft  then 
diaapp«ra.     It  U  also  histort(.ally  certain,  that 
I  auaanias  was    the    commander  of    the  allied 
army  of  the  rirceks.  .  .  .  After  ihelr  vl.uiry 
the  (Jreeks  a<lvance<l   towanls  ThelM-s      In  ai- 
(Mrlancj  with  a   vow   which    tliey   ha.1    luaite 
'"•fore  the  war,  Thelies  ought  Ui  have  Im-n  di- 
»lrove.l  by  the  Greeks.     But  their  opinion.i  were 
divi.l,.,!.  ...  On  tlie  same  day  on   whidi    the 
luttle  of  Plataeae  was  fiHight.  the  allied  Greeks 
gainiN]  as  complete  a  victory  at  sea  \fier 

this  vi<tory  of  Mycale.  the  itmian  cities  rev..li,-.i 
against  the  Perstaos  "—a  O  Miebuhr  /^lurr^ 
on  AnfienI  llUtorf,  s.  >,  ImU  87  .i»-f  IW 

AlJM  t!t:  Herodotus.  Uutor^;  tn,m  ,iml  fl 
A.V  If  AiWi'<w.>«,  »t  7  (p  4l.-Pliilarrh  Thf 
nM.«-W«._<J  W  C.x.  rh,  l/r^kM„n'l  l'.r.„„., 
f;  C.  479-47I-— Pretaction  of  looi*  assumed. 
— Sitja  ud  captur*  of  Scstus.-KcbuildiaK 
And  cnlarK*m«nt  of  the  city  and  its  walla.— 
laterferanct  of  Sparta  foiled  by  Tbemistoclct. 
— '  The  ailvanUgt.li  oliuiiie.1  by  the  ll<.||.ne«  (in 
their  w.ir  with  Per<ja|  eame  ii|)oo  Ihrm  so  unex- 
|«H'te,lly  as  t/>  lln.l  them  totally  unpnpart-.l, 
anl  aiTorlingly  einharrassivl  bv  ilieir  own  vie 
I.iri.'s.       VVIliI     was    to    be    d.Mie    with    Ionia  ? 

""  'I'c   wholt inirv  to  lie   ndmilte<l    into 

the   llilli-ni nfedi-ralion  T    T.kv    gn-al   a    n- 

»pon«ihilliy  woiil.l   In  the  opinion  of  the  Peloixm 
nesiins.  Ik.  Iniiirrwl  liyaui-haslep  It  would 

Ik'  Is.tler  Ui  saiTirtiv  the  eounlrv.  and  extalilish 
the  lonians  in  w.illements  in  I'.ther  pans  at 
the  expense  of  tliott-  who  hail  favi.nn..l '  the 
M«l.-t.  1.  e  .  ..f  the  Argives,  Hivotians  I^k  ri 
siK,  and  Tlie»«ahsns  .  The  Athenians  on 
the  other  hand.  esp.Mised  the  i»use  of  iht.  litiea 
l.inla  oiiitiil  to  lie  a  bulwaik  airainat  Iha 
Harliarljiot  aii.l  i..  \v\tm\(  Ui  tin-  llilli-nea 
The  Aiiieiilana  (.iiiud  a  supptiri  iu  Iha  fMilag 


H 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  4T»-«T8. 

piCT»laot  kmoof  the  lonluu,  who  were  MturallT 
oppowd  to aaj forcwl •ritliment.     Accorilliialv, 
in  the  lint  liMUm-e,  ^ialn»ll,  Lesboa,  I'hicw,  «n.l 
•  number  of  other  iiUoJ  towni,  werv  uliuitli'il 
into  the  confederation  .  .  .  and  a  new  Ijcllu* 
wa»  formed,  a  Oreek  empire  comprehending  U)th 
•Meaofthe  lea.     CdUKideratlooa  of  caiitiuo  made 
it  neceaanry,  alMve  all,   to  lecura  the  paaaage 
from  Aain  to  Europe:  for  it  waa  unireraall;  liC' 
Beved  that  the  bridge  over  the  Hetleapont  was 
•Uhir  (till  In  exisU'Uce  or  bad  been  reatnred. 
When  it  waa  found  to  hare  been  deatroyed,  the 
Feloponnealana  urged  the  termfawtion  of  the  cam- 
paign. .  .  .  The  Atheniana,  on  the  other  hand, 
declared  theni«rlvp«  n-aoWed  ...  not  to  leave 
unllnished  what  they  had  begun.     Seatua,  the 
atrongeat  fortrcaa  on  the  Hellespont,  ought  not 
to  be  left  In  the  hands  of  the  enemy ;  an  attack 
on  it  ought  to  be  risked  without  deUiy,  before 
the  city  bad  prepornl  for  a  siege.     They  allowcil 
the  IVlii|H>niiesians  to  Uke  their  departure,  hikI 
under  the  command  of  Xauthippua  united  with 
the  ships  of  the  lunlana  and  Uelleapontiana  for 
the  purpose  of  new  undertakings. "  The  PersUns 
in  8estua  resisted  obstinately,  enduring  a  long 
•iege,   but  were  forced  to  surrender   at   hut. 
"Meanwhile,  the  main  point  conaiatcd  in  the 
Atheniana  having  n'maioed  alone  In  the  field.  In 
their  having  fratt-mlziHl  with  the  lonlana  aa  one 
naval  power,  and  having  after  such  successes 
attained  to  a  conadence  in  victory,  to  which  no 
eoterprlae  any  longtr  seenmi  either  too  distant 
or  toodUleult.     Alrewly  they  regarded  their  city 
•a  the  centre  of  the  ci«»t  lands  of  Qnm.     But 
what  was  the  cnnilitioo  of  tUa  litv  of  Athena 
itaelf?    A  ffw  fragini-nts  of  the  ancant  city  wall, 
a  few  scattrred  bouses,  which  had  served  the  Per 
aian  romnian<lers  as  tbrlr  quarters,   were  yet 
st4adlng .  the  rest  was  aabes  and  ruins      Afi«-r 
the  battle  of  IMataw  the  iohabiunts  bad  retume<l 
from  Salamis,  Tr>eaene,  and  -Egina;  not  even  the 
••et  and  lu  crews  were  at  hand  to  afford  them 
aaslstsnce.     They  endeavoured  to  make  shift  aa 
heat  they  could,  to  pass  through  tlie  trials  of  the 
winter.     Aa  soon  as  the  apriag  arrived,  the  res- 
toration of   the  city  waa  comouincad  with  all 
poasible  actlvitv.  But  even  now  It  was  nut 

the  comforts  of  dnmrsticllr  which  occupuxl  their 
thoughts,  but,  above  all,  the  city  aa  a  whole  and 
iU  security  To  Tbemlsl.«les.  the  founder  of 
the  port  town,  public  contldeiice  was  iu  ibis 
matter  pro|wrly  accorded. "  It  waa  not  poMiblv 
■to  carrj-  out  a  i.cw  and  regular  plan  for  the 
city;  but  it  waa  ns..lv«l  to  extend  lu  circum 
ference  beyond  thi-  circle  of  the  ancient  walU, 
_so  aa  to  be  aide.  In  case  of  a  future  sieir.'. 
to  offer  a  retreat  to  the  country  (MipuUl Ion  with 
In  the  capital  Itai-lf  Hut  the  Albtniana 

wer«'  not  even  to  be  |  i<rrallted  to  build  lliclr 
walls  umiisturbeil .  for.  as  Mion  as  (heir  t-raml 
plan  of  u|ieratioiu  Utaiue  known,  the  envy  and 
insidious  jeabmity  of  tbilr  nrubbours  broke  out 
afreafa  The  IVIotHinnrswn  staler.  aUite  all 

^glnaand( 'irintb  W-iinol  u>  dirctt  tbt  atten 
lion  of  ^<|lana  to  lur  >iiuatbm  of  affairs. 
Aa  at  Htiarta  illy  waila   wrm  objected    to   on 

princlpb),  au.1  as |..uhui prevaitnl  with  riitaril 

to  the  fai  I  tttsi  a  well  fortlAmt  tiiwn  was  iiupreg 
aable  to  ilw  ullltery  art  of  Uir  IV l.itMifin.-.ian..  it 
was  artualiv  rr«.linl  at  aiiv  prti-e  to  provctil  tbe 
buildinir  of  ihr  walls  In  .\tn, «  ||,it  f.wMiainr  , 
sake,  the  lalrrfi-rriu  •-  iiMK^taken  by  .fMns  was 
put  upon  tha  grouu<l  Uw;  >„  tba  eveni  ut  a  (uiiir» 


U)2 


ATHEira,  B.  C.  4n-4M. 

invasion  of  th«  country,  only  tbe  paniaaolaeoulii 
be  successfully  defended  ;  that  central  Qreei  < 
would  neceasarUy  be  abandoned  to  the  eneniv 
and  that  every  forUfled  city  io  H  would  fuml'li 
htm  a  dangerous  base.     "  At  auch  a  criaia  craft 
alone  could  be  of  avaU.     When  the  Sparun* 
made  their  imperious  demand  at  Athena,  Themis 
toclea  ordered  the  immedhta  oeaaatioo  of  buil.l 
ing  operations,  and  with  aaaumed  lubmiaaivt 
neaa,  promised  to  present  himself  at  BparU,  In 
order  to  pursue  further  negotlationa  in  person 
Un  his  arrival  there,  he  allowed  one  day  after 
*^«  »»^'  to  «o  by,  pretending  to  be  waiting  for 
bis  fellow  envoys. "    In  the  meantime,  all  AUitns 
waa  toiling  aight  and  day  at  the  walla,  and  time 
enough  waa  gained  by  the  audacious  duplicity 
of  TBemistoclea  to  build  them  to  a  safe  height 
for  defence.     "  The  enemies  of  Athens  saw  that 
their  design  bad  been  foiled,  and  were  forced  to 
put  tbe  best  face  upon  their  discomflture.    They 
now  gave  out  that  they  had  intended  nothing  b.' 
Tond  go.«l  ailvice."— E.  Curtiua,  Uut.  of  Om^, 
I*.  8,  cA.  a  (e.  8).  J  . 

ALao  IN  O.  W.  Co».  Uul.  of  Qrtttt,  U.  i  eh 
7-«  (».  1-3). 

B.  C.  47H77-AUe««tion  of  the  Aaiatic 
Creeks  from  SpuU.— Fonutioa  of  the  Con- 
fedcracy  of  Osles.— The  founding  of  Athenian 
Bmpirt.     SeeUiiKErB:  B.  C.  4i(M7i. 

B.  C.  477-4te-— CoostitBtional  fains  for  the 
democracy. —Aacendsncx  of  Aristcidss.- De- 
clining Mpalarily  and  ostracism  of  Themis- 
tokles.— Taa  sastentation  of  the  commons.- 
Tho  strippiog  of  power  from  the  Areopagus. 
-  At  the  time  wheu  lite  I'onfcilrracv  of  I). I.., 
was  formed.  "Ihe  Persians  siill  bilil  not  only 
tbe  Important  poats  of  Kion  on  the  Strvmon  suil 
iKiriskus  lu  Thrace,  but  also  sevi-rnl  other  posu 
in  that  country  which  are  not  s|>ecilled  to  us 
We  may  thus  understand  why  tlie  Oreek  citlea  on 
and  near  the  Chaikidic  (H-ninsula  .   .  .  were  n..t 
lesa  anxioua  to  seek  protection  In  Ihe  bostmi  if 
the  new  confeilenicy  than  tbe  I>orian  islandu  uf 
Ithodes  and  Coa.  the  Ionic  inlands  of  rtamoa  an.l 
t'hios,  the  .Kollc  l^aboa  and  Teneiios,  or  (.  n 
tinenul  towns  such  aa  Miletus  and  Byiantlum 
SKMae  sort  of  union,  organised  and  ol.li 
gatory  u|iun  esi-h  city,  was  inilis{M  ii.table  U>  iht- 
saf.'ly  of  all      Indit-il,  even  with  tliat  aid.  at  tlii- 
time  aliea  the  t'lmfnlrnky  of  llrlos  Has  I.fHl 
f.irmeil.  it  waa  by  no  nu-atis  certain  the  AsUiii 
Miiniy  would  I*  effectually  kept  out.  eaiiecialh  at 
the  IVnuiw  were  strong  iiul  im-r.  ly  from  tii.ir 
own   font     but  also  from   tlie  aiti  of  lutirhul 
|>art»-»  In  many  of  the  (ireclan  stali-s— trail. irt 
wiUilii.  as  well  as  ivilc»  without.     Amonc  tin  «• 
trBiU>rs,  tbe  first  lu  rank  as  well  as  the  iin^t 
fomildabli .     was      the      Spartan      l>aii>aiil:i»  ' 
Pausanbia,  whose  trrasonablc  iiitrigun  ailh  \h>- 
Peraiau^klngjiegan  at  Uruntium  (See  (iKtri  i 
H  t'  47H-4**)  was  ion\icti4l  some  nine  or  i.u 
years  later,  and  suifervd  a  terrible  fair    Uu.t 
shut  within  a  temple  to  wbli  h  he  had  tieil   i,i.a 
starved.         IIU  trmaiaiable  projects  lni|.li.«i.  I 
and  brought  to  dUgraiT  a  man  far  Kriimr  il.m 
blmwlf-the   Atbiiiiao  Tlomlstokles  Tl« 

rhirj"  lagainst  Thiiiil«iokli-«)  of  rolliitlon  wlili 
tbi  Ivrsians  loiimris  li«.lf  with  tlir  jirii.-iS 
movement  of  |H>lllli'»l  |>artiea  .  .  Tbi- rnnltv 
of  Tbemistokles  sod  Arialeldes  had  Urn  irriitiiv 
•piMasml  by  tbe  iuvaaloo  of  Xersrs.  oiilili  ti.l 
'  upon  both  the  (xremplury  un twlij  .x 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  477-Ml 


ATHENS,  a  C.  477-409. 


cni>peratloD  agaiiut  a  commoii  enemy.  And 
apparently  it  wu  not  returned  during  the  timu* 
whii'h  laiin.Hliiitcly  •mTcwItxi  the  return  of  tlio 
Atlirnlsns  t<i  their  country:  at  leaat  we  bear  of 
both  in  elTei'tive  M-rvira  and  in  promineDt  puatn. 
Tbeniistoltles  ■tanili  forward  aa  the  contriver  of 
the  city  wall*  ami  architect  of  Peiraeua:  Aria- 
triiles  \»  commander  of  t  lie  fleet  and  flrat  organiaer 
of  the  ('iinfe<leracy  nf  I>elo«.  MoreoTer  we  leem 
hi  detect  a  change  in  the  character  of  the  latter 
lie  hmi  ceaMil  to  be  the  champion  of  Athenian 
old  fMbioned  landed  intereat,  agalnat  Themit- 
toklej  aa  the  oriicinator  of  the  maritime  inno. 
TntiiHif  Thoae  InnoTationi  bad  now,  aince  the 
battle  of  Halamia,  become  an  eatabliahed  fact. 
.  .  .  Prom  henceforth  the  fleet  ii  endeared  to 
every  man  aa  the  grand  force,  offentive  ami 
defenilve,  of  the  atate,  in  which  character  all 
the  iniHtical  leuiler*  agree  In  accepting  it.  .  .  . 
The  iriri  iiies,  and  the  men  who  manned  them, 
takin  iilhrtively,  were  now  the  determining 
element  in  the  ii'tate.  Mori-oTcr,  the  men  who 
nwrineil  them  had  juat  rcturniil  tnim  Salamis, 
fnsli  friiiu  aiceiie  of  trial  and  danger,  anil  from 
a  hurt  est  of  vliUiry,  whiih  had  ci|ualizeil  furtlie 
iiiuiiietit  nil  AthenianaaaaulTerera.  Ht  combatant*, 
anl  lilt  imtriulH  .  .  .  The  piilitical  change 
ari-iiiii;  from  hence  In  Athene  waa  not  leM 
imsiiriaiit  than  the  niilltury.  'The  muritimo 
miiliiiii.le,  authiin  of  the  Tirtiiry  of  Halamin." 
nil  I  iiKtrumeiitii  of  the  Tiew  viKallon  at  Athriiii 
»« luaii  of  the  Dillan  Cimfederacj .  HpiHiirniiw 
K-  ,  h.Unl  in  the  political  cim»tltiril.in  al-n;  imt 
ill  iiiiy  w.iy  M  a  separate  or  privile^iil  rla^a,  but 
a»  li  :ui  nini;  the  wlinle  iiiasH.  atn-nstheiiini;  the 
ilriL  K 'aii.il  M'litiiiii'iit,  and  proleiting  iitfain'-t 
all  i.iii){iii«.'.l  |Hiliiiral  Ine.iualilies    .  Rirl,- 

afi' r  I.I.-  nliirii  to  Atti.a,  tlii'  Klel-illiii.i.ih 
C"i.-iiuiiiui  wiw  enlHri,-i'i|  ai  ri -i  iit.<  elicililii  / 
to  '.i:-  iiiaifi^lraiv  Anoriini;  tii  that  cmi'il 
tiii-ii.  tlie  f  Mirth  nr  la-t  rlais  i.n  the  Suli  iilaii 
nil  i«.  iiirhiillnj;  the  inn^iileraMe  maj'Titv  if 
fn  •<  I  Reren.it  a<lMii^»l!ile  to  iKTl.e*  i.f  siate. 
til  .illiy  pi.,-i.ii!«  ij  votes  In  (■•ininiui  with 
111  I  »l.  no  [wnmn  waa  eliKilile  to  lie  a  magia- 
Irni.-  mil,  w  he  Ixlonged  to  one  of  the  Ihne 
lii^  I.n  l.isMH.  Tills  restriction  naaiKiwanniillid 
ail  I  .  Ii.iliility  cxirti.leil  to  all  the  riliitena.  We 
nil.  i|.|rriilale  the  »ln.n«lh  of  deling  with 
wUi.  ii  ■  II  h  rif..rm  waa  ileinaniliil  when  we  find 
til  11  it  H.H  pr,i|»i«.||  liy  Ari«teiilea  .  .  .  The 
I'.'iiiliriiy  tliiiB  eimiireil  to  hliii,  pMliably  heigh- 
till.. I  li)  Minie  n.>;r.  t  fur  hU  prevloua oatraciam, 
w.i«  raleulali'.l  tii  aiijiilre  |irrni«nence  fnim  hU 
•traik'lilfiirn  ird  "id  iiKnrnipiilile  character,  ihiw 
brmicht  Into  atri.nj!  relief  by  hia  function  aa 
aaaiwir  to  the  new  Ilellan  i'onfeileracy.  On 
the  other  hand.  Ilie  anieuilen.r  of  Tbrmiatoklea, 
Ih.iuifh  ao  often  e «all«l  by  hin  unrivallnl  poliil 
cal  genlua  and  daring,  aa  well  aa  by  the  algnal 
value  of  hia  public  rieoniniinilationa,  waa  aa 
ofti  a  iiverthMwn  by  bi»  diiplii  Ity  of  meana  ami 
unprineipleil  ihlral  (..r  mmer  New  p<.lilli»| 
epliiuentaaprung  iip  against 'him.  men  ~ .  iiiiia- 
Ihisi,,,  with  Arl.lii.l.-,  <»f  the*,  the  chief 

wiri.  KimoD  [f'ini  ^1  ,..,n  i.f  Miltiadeai,  and 
AUiiiinn  ■  In  411  II  (  riieinialokiet  waa  aent 
ini  i.ili.  liT  a  v.iti.  I.f  iMw.  ism.  and  retired  to 
Arc  H  Five  yi  ir»  lull  r  be  waa  accuaed  of 
ri>ii.|.licitr    In     the     trii«onalile    intriguea    of 

lui.iiilaa,  and  All  li.  i! mrt  of  the   I'emlan 

kill- .  where  Ii..  .p,  nt  the  niiiaiml.  r  i.f  hia  ihiv« 
■■  AriitieiJea  iliol  aiMiit  three  or  f mr  yvnn  after 


the  ottndim  of  ThemlatoUea."— O.  Orote.  IhtT. 
offtnui.  pt.  2,  eh.  44  (e.  8).— Th«  conatituti<iDal 
ellectauf  the  Peraian  war,  and  the  political  situu- 
lion  of  Athena  immediatelv  after  the  war,  at« 
Kpreaented    tomewhnt    dJITerpntlv    from    the 
account  almve,  in  the  lately  iliscovered  work  on 
the  Conttitutlon  of  Athens  which  ia  attributed  to 
Ariatotle.     The  following  is  iiuotiil  from  one  of 
the  tranalatlona of  the  latter:  "  After  the  Median 
war  the  council  of  Areopacus  [.See  AREOPAOua] 
recovered  strength  ami  ruled  the  Mate,  nottliat 
any  law  conferred  the  hegeiiii.iiv  on  them,  but 
becaiiae  the  aristricmtic  partv  b 'd  the  credit  of 
the  victory  at  Salamia.     For'  when  the  generals 
hud  dvapaircd  of  the  country  and  pnK'laimeil  a 
aauve  qui   peut,  the   Areop'agiia  mi.sed   funila, 
gave  every   man  eight  drachinna  («a.  (d  )  and 
iiulu(.ei|  them  to  man  the  ahipa.     In cona-'ipnni e 
of  thia  public  aervii  e  the  Kci  liiiia   vlelled   the 
aacen.leney  to  the  Are<ipagu«.  and  public  arairj 
were  niltiifrably  adininiatereil  during  the  follow. 
Ing  ep<Mb.     For  thev  acipiin-d  the  ort  ef  w.ir, 
iiiaite    their    name    )ionoiiri.<l     tliroinrbout    tlic 
IleUenic  worM,  and  posai-axd  tbemaelvea  of  the 
aovereignly    of    the  sea    with    the    conacnt    of 
Ijikeilaimon.     At  tbia  time  the  leaden  of  the 
conimona  were  Aristeides,  »,n  of   Luainuicboa. 
ami  TbemUtokles.  ».n  of   Neukba ;   the  latter 
alU'Houa  of  the  arts  of  war.  the  former  reputeil 
eminent   in  stalesmanabip  imd   honeat    la'Vond 
biHC«ntcmpor:irie-i :  wliirb  i  li^raeters  made  tbclr 
e.eintrymen  emplor  the  .  iie  as  a  general,  the 
other  aa  a  ci.umllW      Tlie  nlniiliring  of  the 
walla  of  Athena  waa  tliiir  j.  int   work,  thougb 
tb.'V  Were  otherwise  at  feml.     The  ilelarbment 
of  the  lonlans  from  Persia  ana  the  formation  of 
an  alliance  with  i^parta  were  iliie  to  the  counocla 
of     Ari.steidet.     who     wi/ed     the     opportunity 
nfforileil  by  the  diacreiiit  east  ..n  the  I,akonlana 
I  y  the  conduct  of  Pausanias.     lie  tmi  orlginallv 
npjK.rtloucd,    two    year*    after    the    battle    of 
Sijamla,    in    the    anbonship    of    Timi»thenct 
i  '.''*  n  v.),  the  ctmtribiition  to  be  pail  by  the 
{..lander*.     .    .     .     Hulwipii  nlly,     when  'lofty 
tbiiughta  filled  every    laMoin  and   wealth    waa 
aecumulating,     Arisl'eblea     advised      tliem    to 
adminlater    the     beseni.ny     with     their    own 
banda.  to  leave  their  naii'ilrv  oiiupatii.ns  and 
flx  their  domicile  In  the  liiv'     Siisientnlii  n.  be 
pnmiiseil,  would  be   pniviilid  for  all,  elllier  aa 
aoMiers  or  aailor*  in  aeti\e  mrvbe,  orastriH.pa 
in  garriaon  or  aa  pul.lic  airvanH;  and  then  Ibey 
eould  increase  the  vit'ourof  ili.ir  imperialsway. 
They  foilowni  hia  advice,  ami.  taking  the  rule 
into  their  own  hanila.  n-iliie.  d  tlieir  alliea  to  the 
poeitlon  of  voaaala.  except  tlie  Cliiana,  I-eablanji. 
and  Hamlant,  whom   Ibi  y   kept   aa  aatellitea  of 
their  |M>wer,  and  |>erniiiii.<l   to  n-tain  their  own 
constitutions  and  to  rule  lliilrownilep«.n<lencie*: 
and  they  provided  f,.r  their  own  austentalion  by 
the  melhwl  wbiih  Aristeldea  lndicali.<l:    f.ir  iii 
the  end  the  public  revenues,  the  tales  and  llie 
thbutea  of  the  alliea  gave  nialnlenaiiee  to  more 
than  S<),(NX)     There  were  A.ISK)  dliasts  or  Jiir..ra, 
I  «!)">  anhers.    \:i(.M)  eavalry,   .VMI  ainalofs.    .'lOO 
s..|ilieraof  thediK  kyani  narriaon,  .Wcilv  ^iiar.la, 
TiNt  home  i-iaglslrates.  TiHt  foreign  magiMnti-a, 
'.'."riNi  bravv  armed  aoiilier*  (this  was  tin  Ir  hum 
tier  at  the  iieglnnlng  of  the  I'elii|>oiiii..slan  «ari, 
4.ISNI    salbira    manning    til)    giianUbips.     .' is>i) 
•iiilors  nppolnteii    by    lot,   manning   2(1  tribute 
11. Meeting   ships,   and    In   ti|.lill..u   In   tli<  se  the 
I'rutuneion,  the   orphans,  lliu  gaolcra  .  and  all 


hvi 


ATHENS,  a  C.  477-l6«. 


1  p«noni  were  malnuinad  at  the  expense  of 
Uw  mtioiwl  (mwury.     Tlie  iiulvnutiou  of  the 
comm..n»  wiu  thun  secured.     The  17 yi«r« » hi. li 
foniiwiHl  the  Mnliau  w»r  were  about  the  inTiixi 
dunii).'  which  the  country  continued  umlcr  ll.c 
tMcrmieocy  of  the  Areopagui.  though  lis  uristo- 
«»tic  fraturei  were    mdually   on   the   wiiiie. 
»h.n  the  nuMes  had  grown  more  and  more 
pnpoiiilerBtit.    Ephtaltea.    aon   of   Sophoiii.li-a. 
npulfil  iiui>rniptible  in  hi*  loyalty  U>  iler.ioc 
ncy.  became  Itwicr  of  the  commooa.  and  iK'Ran 
to  attack    the    AfiNipagua      Firat.    he    put   to 
deatli  many  of  its  membera,  by  impeachint;  tliein 
of  ofrin<vi  commitiiHl  in  their  admiuinlralion. 
Afterwanlii  in   the  archonahip   of  Komrn  (468 
B.  (jhe  dcinH>llHl  the  council  itaelf  of  all  lla 
more  recently  aciiuired  attributea.  which  were 
the   kcynlone  of  tlic  eximiiie  constitution,  and 
dUtrtbuted  them  aiming  the  Senate  of  SiHI,  Iho 
Enlea a,  niiil  tlir  court*  of  law.     In  thi*  work 
he  had  the  <■<.  ..iMrati.«  of  Thembtoklea.  who 
wa*  hmiai'ir  an  An-opagite,  but  expe.tinx  '"  '"« 
tmpt-ached  f..r  tnawiiiuble  <^>rrc«|x>iid.n<e  with 
iemta.  .  .  .   KphiHltcs  and   TbemiHUiklcH   kept 
accmine  the  Arinpuirua  before  the  H.-iiute  of 
000,  and  afruin  iK'f.irc  the  cinnmona,  till  ftnallv 
they  8irip|«<l  it  of  all  |u  principal  functions 
The  asaassiiKition  of  EphtulU'*  lir   the  instru 
mentality  of  Arist.»lil(.«  „f  Taniiirra  foll„w«| 
not  lonif  after      Sui  li  win-  i|,r  .inimistam cs  I'f 
the  overthrow  of  tlie   An-oijajrus.      After  this 
the  ileeradailoii  of  the  cimstltiillon   priHcciltil 
witliout    intermission    trtm     the    eapcriicss    cif 
r>olitician*  to  it  in  (Mipuhir  favour:  ami  at  the 
•anie  time  there  hapiH'iietl  to  be  no  oritani/ier  of  I 
the  aristwratic  party,  whose  heiul,  Kiiiion.  the   I 
aon  of  .Miltiades.  aax  tisi  yonnit  for  siHne  y.-ars  I 
to  enter  iMilitical  lit..;  l»-siilea  which  their  rank*  I 
were  muili  dcvastalMl  by  war.     Kxpeditioiiurv   i 
forces  were  recruited  by  eonarription ;    and  as  j 
the   tfi-ncrals  hail   no  military  ex|)erience    and   • 
ow.-.!  their  ap|K>inliuenl   u.  the  nputalion  ..f  | 
their  aneestont.    each  expetlition    entuileil    the 
•acrlfice  of  4.(HM»  r)r  8.000  Uvea,  chiellv  of  the 
noblest  son*  of  Athena,  whether  lielonKing  tollie 
wealthy  claaw-s  .>r  to  the  commmu."— Arixtotle 
Wa  tht  t'omlitiiUiiit  nf  Alhriu  itr,  by  K.  i*(*le  ) 
«».  M-'ifl— Oulliealsive.  Dr  Abls.ti  c<iminenla 
aa  follows:  "S.i  miiih  of  this  account  aa  refers 
to  Themistocles  may  be  at  om-e  dismi.-«e<i  u  un 
historii-al.  ...   If  tlie  evidence  of  Thucvilidia 
U  U>  count  for  anythiiiir,  it  i*  quite  certain  that 
Tbemisliicles  flually  left  (Dreece  for  I'eraia  alioiit 
4«8  H  <■  .   I'lutan-h  says  not  a  word  aUiut 

ThemisUicles  But  the  remainder  of  the  account 
/of  the  attack  on  the  Areopa»riis]  is  aiipiMiHeil 
liy  all  our  autliorill.s-if  indee<l  it  i.  not  merely 
re[Maled  l.y  tliem    -E  Abbott,  JU.I  „f  (irmi 

Ai.~>  IN  J    !•    Mahaffy,    /h-.JJ,,,^  ,„    On-rk 
llfi.rfi  ;,   Ml  -  riiit.,r<  h.  rhrmifil:^l,t 
Hi'e.  ulw.,  I.I..W     H    (■    4(l«4.-,4 

B.  C.  470-464.—  Conlinuad  war  aguaat  Ik* 
Peraiana  -  Cimoa'a  *lctori«a  at  the  Euryma- 
don.-Kt»olt  and   aabjugatiea  of   Naao*.- 

•  I  iiil.r  tlir  K'H'laiM-t'  of  Athena,  the  niir  hlmIiisI 
the  i'<T-.lans  «a»  mntinueil.  liinon  IKimohi 
s-iilt-i   with  a  Meet  to  the  coast  of  Thraie  (nil 

Inid  Hieife  to  Ei. n  the  Htrvnion  |H  (     47ii 

The  IVrnlan  ;rirrl«in  made  a  «r->llaiii  defence 
an<l  iiriiilly  Hoc, «  i(„.  ^ov.nior,  Miher  than 
siirreiid.  r.  ciist  nil  hi-  ^old  nti,|  tiltir  into  the 
nver,  anil,  l.auoK  rai«ii  a  huge  pile  of  w.»«l. 


m 


▲THEMS.  a  C.  406-154. 

'I'T  J**?,  **»"•  «Wldi»n  and  ilarea.  tad  Ui.l 
their  Nxliea  on  It ;  then  setting  flrs  to  It.  ho  flunir 
hiouelf  into  thetbmaa:  the  garriaon •urtendere.l 
at  discretion.     Uuriacua  was  attacked  in  vain 
liut  all  the  other  Persian  garriaona  in  Eumiw 
were  reduced.      C'imon  then,  aa  executor  of  an 
Amphictvimic  decree,  turnwl  hia  arma  against 
tlie  piratic  Dohipiauaof  the  laleof  Hcyraa  whom 
he  ex|)elled,  and  fllletl  the  ialand  with  Athenian 
c  iloniata.    t>n  this  occaaion  he  aought  and  found 
(as  wa*  auppoaedl  the  bones  of  the  lero  Theseus 
who  had  died  in  thiaiafaindlMOyean  bafoie;  and 
he  brought  them  in  hia  own  trireme  to  Athens  — 
an  act  which  gainetl  him  great  farour  with  tli« 
people.     By  thia  time,  acme  of  the  confederates 
w-ere  grown  wearj  of  war,  and  began  to  miiriimr 
at  the  toila  awl  cxpenae  to  which  it  put  ihein 
The  peopteof  Naxua  were  the  flrat  who  ikwi 
tively  refused  to  contribute  any  longer:  but  the 
AthenUna.  who  had  taaled  of  tlie  sweet*  of  cm 
iiiand.  wouhl  m>t  now  iiemiit  the  exertiae  of  fn. 
wjll  to  their  allies.     Cimon  appeared  (((I.  :k;(i 
m.  (    4W|  with  a  large  Heet  before  Naxoa:  the 
ftaxians  defended  themselvea  with  rigour  hni 
were    at    length    forced    to    aulimit:    and'  the 
Athenians  hail  the  hardihiKKl  to  leduce  them  i  i 
the  condition  of   subjnts  to   Athens  — an  ex 
amphi  which  they  siM>n  fothiweil  in  other  cnnev. 
.   .  .   After  the  reduction  of  Naxos,  Cimon  will, i 
over  U)  the  (imst  of  Asia,  and  learning  that  tli, 
Pemhin  generals  hud  aMenibletl  a  large  fleet  sn,l 
army  In  I'ainphvlia.  he  c<il|«teil  a  tieit  of  Jiii) 
IrinniesHt  (nidoa,  'ith  which  lie  prtKiwIed  i,. 
the  c.ia«t  of  that  country,  and  laid  hiege  to  ||„ 
city  of  l>haaelis.  which,  though  On-ck    ol.n.l 
the   Persian    monarch      Having   re.iuce.1  ii  i,, 
siihmisaion.  he  resolved  to  proceed  and  Htiuilt 
the  I'eraian  fleet  ami   arniv.  which  be  lenrnnl 
were  lying  at  the  river   Euryniedon.     On  hi. 
arrival,  the  Persian  fli-et.  of  *iO  triremes,  tenr 
ing  at  first  to  flght  till  HO  I"h.»iilcian  »ei.i«N 

which  they  were  ex|M<  tliiir.    rhould  ii ii, 

kerit  in  the  river:  but  hiuling  that  the  tJn.i.* 
were  preparing  to  attack,  they  put  out  to  „, 
and  engaged  them      The  action dhl  not  coniiniM 
Jong:  the  Ihrlwrians  fle<l  to  the  hind:  atsi.liii., 
fell  inUi  the  hamls  of   the  victors,  anl  seieml 
wer»'  destniywi.      Without  a  moment  s  ililiv 
Cimon    iliseitiliarknl    his    men,   ami    M  th.in 
Bgainiit   the  htnd    forces     the  reauitance  of  il,e 
renians  was  olwtinute  for  some  time   but  at  lait 
tiM-y  turiieii  ami  Il.^l.  having  their  . >imp  a  i,r,  v 
to  Ihe  coni|iieron:  and  Cinion  had  thus  the  r»  e 
glory  of  having  gain),<l  two  inip<irtant  vieton.. 
ill  the  one  day.     Hearing  then  that  the  «tt  |'1„, 
nicUn   vesaela   were   at    llyilroa.   in  the  M,   „( 
«  yprus   he  iniiiie,lialclr  saileil  thither  and  l...|c 
or   de»ln.ve,i  the  wluib<  of  tlicm.     The  victor, 
on    the    Kiirymedoii   niav  Iw   regarded  as  ilm 
lerniluatlon  of  the  lonfll.  I   lirtween  (ireece  «i„l 
'.'"'"      '"'"■  .*■"■'"■  »''''  it  «»l    7H.4)  |H  «'  4ti,'ii 
Xerxes  wa-)  n^xuutinaieil.  and  the  usual  confmion 
l.«.k  f.la.  e  in  Ihe  court  of  Sua*' -  T.  Keightley, 
Jli't   -r  i;n,,r.  1,1    I.  M    la 
_Ai.soi:,  W    >V    ix.yi  ru  .\gt  ,ff  }Vn^.  .k 

S.  1.  also  I'F.HsiA  ;  H   (     4>*«-(a'i 

B.  C.  4M-4S4  -  Lcaderahip  is  the  Drlisn 
confederacy  chaafed  to  *OT*rei|a«r.  -Revolt 
and  subjugation  of  Tbasos  -  Help  le  Spsrt. 
and  Its  ungraciou*  requital.-  Fall  mmt  e».l« 
of  Cimon  Rise  of  Pericle*  aid  tae  demo- 
cr»t»e  Mti-Spartu  policy. -RcMMal  oi  th» 


ATHENS,  a  C.  466-lU. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  Ma-tSl 


federal  tmtnrj  from   Detoi Bnildinx  th« 

Loog  Wkli*. — "  It  wot  now  evUciii  ti>  ilw  tvbolc 
l>.iily  •>(  tUe  allies  of  Athena  that  by  jolaint;  the 
IcijitR  they  bmJ  proviliil  thenuelvi-s  with  a 
nlstivM  rather  than  a  leader.  .  ,  .  Two  yvAT* 
■iltr  the  niluctlon  of  Nazoa  another  powi  rf iil 
UlauJ Ktnte  broke  out  into  rebellion  aminiit 
tlie  iupn'Riacy  of  Athens.  The  people  of 
Tba-wM  bad  from  viTy  earlr  tliiiei  poeacned 
tcrribjrr  on  the  mainland  or  Thrane  opposite 
to  thrtr  Island.  By  holding  this  r<Kk>t-8llp 
liiey  encromed  the  trade  of  the  V.illcy  of  the 
StrymDti.  and  held  tbe  riclt  giKl  luiries  of 
Miiuiit  Panzaciu.  But  the  Athenians,  after  the 
I'.iplure  of  Eton,  set  themscivi'ii  tu  devilop  that 
|K>rt  as  the  commercial  n-ntrc  uf  TlinifX'.  .  .  . 
.V  spot  called  'The  Nine  Ways,'  .  .  where 
tlist  inmt  river  first  bogitis  to  bri«t>!i!i  out  into 
iui  estuary,  but  can  still  be  spanned  by  a  bridfre, 
WBK  the  chosen  site  of  a  fiirtnais  tu  secure  the 
h  lilt  of  Athens  on  the  land.  But  the  native 
'I'krarian  tribes  band««^  tbenuielves  tof^ther,  and 
fi'U  u|Hia  the  invaders  with  such  dc^ipt  ration  tti:;t 
.  .  .  the  .\thenianarmii!S  were  defeat!  d.  ...  It 
was  probably  tbe  discuuraf^iniDt  which  this 
ilrfent  lauwHl  at  Athena  that  embnlilemil  Tlias<><i 
to  di>clari'  iHfr  aeci'iuiion  from  the  ('•>nfeileracy  of 
Delia.  She  wisbvl  to  atve  her  Thrnciaa  trade. 
In  fiiH'  Athens  could  nuilie  anotbi  r  attempt  to 
iliM-rt  it  fmiii  her.  Tlu-  Tlmsiaii!!  dii  uot  rely 
•>n  tliiir  own  n-aourfcs  alone;  tliev  euiisU'il  tbe 
I'limi'iiins  and  .M.icetioniunjt  of  ibe  mainland, 
fiiiii  M-nt  to  Sparta  to  ciuieavnur  to  iuiluce  the 
rphiirs  to  decUrti  war  ou  .\!h<ns."  The  Spar- 
t  iiis  were  well  illsixtmil  to  taki'  up  the  oaiiiv  of 
f^H*  ThaMians;  but  ut  tbat  luunieiit  tbey  were 
KVirnlii  limil  liy  tiie  calainilr  of  the  frightful 
Linui|:iakr  uf  464.  in»bujtly  followed  liy  the 
nsiMiT  of  tlu'  Ilcloti  itntl  tbi-  tbini  Mcssrnian 
«:ir  I.S.C  MrxsKsuN  War.  Tiiic  TiiiaU).  "Tliu 
ivluriil  Hiuie  was  tbtrifore  b  ft  to  its  own  re- 
>>"Unv«:  and  tbeiie  wire  so  coiuiJernlile  t!i  it  she 
hiM  uut  ataiust  thi'  force  of  Lie  Atlu-ni.m  con- 
f;'.|i'r»iy  for  two  wlifile  v<ar<.  .  ,  .  .slw  was 
oliiiiCi'd  at  but  to  .'<urnn<lir  to  Ciiuon  [fl  ('. 
W,i].  whose  army  bud  lintg  ln-eu  lyin.;  before 
brr  walls  Like  Na.fii*.  olie  wasi  puut.ihcd  for 
Iht  cIi  fpction  by  the  loss  of  hi  r  war  tlo-t  and 
I  IT  fortiMcaltons.  ninl  thu  iiii|M>>:tion  of  a  Hne  of 
maiiv  In^'ntM.  Still  mure  iralliii .'  must  have  lieen 
lur  low  of  her  tnuie  Willi  Tiirocc,  wbiih  now 
|iito«Ml  I'litin-ly  into  AtlHuia-i  Imiuis.  .  .  Tlie 
^|i«rtaii>  weri'  atlll  riii;iiKi'>l  i:i  a  ib'«|M>rale  ulruK- 
>.'l>-  with  liifirreviiluti  sulijii !»  wluii  tli  •  niceof 
IttHN'"  raiiie  tuamii  I.  I'liuoii.  nbowa^nowat 
ih<  l,<  iL'lil  of  bin  n|oit:iiioii  ami  imwir,  saw 
ui'.li  il|.ilre.is  Ibc  tnul.l.'s  of  tlic  i  ity  be  so  much 
a.liiiiri  .1  lie  set  liiiiiicir  to  inT'iuailf  liie  .Vibe- 
i.i»ii»  that  tbi'y  i«ubt  t.i  fon  it"  old  itriulai'S, 
iiiilwii-  fnim"ile<tm. Ihn  tlie  bi.itc  which  Lid 
»iiaiii|  Willi  »lnm  l.i.-  itlory  i.f  llie  i'eraian  war. 
Ill*  |i|iiii!iii^  HiiK  lii'iterly  o|'|>ow^|  by  the 
hiiii  Spartan  partv  iii  .Vtlicni',  lieald  bv  two 
«l«t.5nitu,  Epiii.lii.  n!vl  ririiiii,  who  had 
itir»«ily    come    in  o    riotiiv    ii»    nuia'.'ontnu    of 

•  iroon      Hut   tli n     i:iniro'i<    »ii,|    uiiwi«' 

|«iliiy  pri'vailel,  ami  4  mo  b"i'liu-a  <vere  Kent 
to  tin-  sill  of  S|Birt;i  (M  <■  4il':|  Tbi.  army 
was  putsiKil  by  mn-fortiim  .  it  was  so  uiioiin  i-mi 
fill  in  nttai'kiiiK  Illiiiiii-  that  the  ."<|mrtaii» 
stirlba..!  11.  failun'  to  .11  will  ratber  than  ill 
ink  riiey.  Ili.nfon-.  Uuun  to  trial  ilmr 
aUla  wnb  madwii  dtacu.irlisj ,  auil  at  lust  sent 


them  home  wttbout  a  word  of  thanks,  merrlr 
statiui;  that  their  services  could  be  of  n.i  fur.hi'r 
u*f  [See  MKtiaK!(iA!«  W.vii.  Tiik  Tufni)].  This 
ru  liiiess  and  ingmtituilc  fully  Justified  llio 
au-.i-Spurtan  party  at  Athena  .  .  .  I'limm  was 
n!iw  no  lon)^r  able  to  deal  with  the  policy  of 
the  state  as  he  chose,  and  tbe  ci>:iiluct  of  altair* 
Ix'inn  to  po-sa  into  tlie  honJa  of  nun  whose  for- 
eii;n  and  domestic  policy  were  alike  opp<>.*-d  to 
all  his  views.  Ephialt<'4  and  Perirles  procewled 
to  form  alliances  abro:ul  with  all  tbe  states 
which  were  ill  disposed  towani  Sparta,  and  at 
home  to  commence  a  revision  of  tlic  coastitulion. 
They  were  determined  to  carry  out  to  Its  fur- 
thest logical  development  the  dcmocmtic  ten- 
dency wbicli  Cleistiieucs  bad  Intrxluci-d  iuto 
the  AUicnian  polity.  Of  Kphialtes,  the  sou  of 
Sojihonidcs,  comparatively  lit  le  ii  known.  But 
Pericles  .  .  .  was  the  son  of  Xanthippus,  the 
accuser  of  Miltiodes  In  4Hi>,  B.  C.  and  the  victor 
of  Mycale  and  Sestos;  while,  on  his  mother's 
tide,  he  came  of  the  blooii  of  the  Alcmai'onldae. 
Piricles  was  staid,  self-contained,  and  luiuebty — 
a  klranire  chief  for  the  popular  party.  But  Ms 
nlaLiiiiiablp  to  CleUtbenes.  and  the  enmity  which 
exited  U-tween  hU  bouse  and  that  of  "rimon. 
ur^i-d  him  to  eiipouiie  the  cauiic  of  ili-n-.ii.ricy. 
.  .  .  While  riiiion  bad  Gn^ece  iu  bin  mind,  Pcfi. 
r!(  >  could  only  think  of  Athins,  n;i  I  tlie  'eitiixr 
of  llie  times  was  favourable  ii  tbe  n:trro«er 

f'.Ii-y.  .  .  .  Till-  first  aim  wbirh  I'lridn  in.! 
ll'liioltes  set  iH'forc  tbeniwlvi's  w:i;  t!ii'  cu'.iins 
il  i«u  of  tbe  |>"Wer  of  the  .\n>ops;:iH  [  Vi  :i!i  .ve: 
II.  V.  47:-irt','|.  Tbat  IhxIv  had  ►imc  the  I'lr. 
si  in  war  N  ronie  the  Rtronj,')io!d  of  liiu  C'orwrva 
tie  and  pliilo-I^imiau  party.  .  .  .  Kpbialles 
t  hik  tbe  li-oil  in  the  ;ittack  on  tbe  .\n-  pinus. 
it.'  cb'Mc  a  moment  when  Ciniou  wan  anny  at 
*  %  bint  on  a-wi.sting  a  r  Inllion  arainst"  the 
Gr  at  Kinff  which  hiul  liroken  out  iu  ^^,-y•lt. 
After  a  violent  struggle,  he  succnilid  in  i  irry- 
li\i  »  law  which  deprivifd  the  .Vreopapus  of  its 
stiiii  lit  censorial  power,  awl  nduitnl  It  I  la  lu?  n? 
c  I  lit  to  try  bomioiiles.  .  .  .  When  Cinion  cumu 
bitiie  fmin  r».'ypt  he  was  wildly  enMcul.  .  .  . 
Ilivo  irsc  was'lud  to  the  tixt  of  iwlrirism.  It 
ili'i  i'ltl  :i:;:iinst  Cimon,  who  then-fore  win:  into 
banisl.nii  lit  [R.  ('  l.^.a).  Hut  tbi*  wronk'M-ainst 
tlic  ({riatist  pinir.  I  of  .Xllii-ns  wai.  not  l..u^ 
afur,  avin.','i''l  by  an  over  ^i.tlousaud  uiiHirui.ii 
lous  frieiiil.  Kphialtes  was  slain  bv  ika.sa.v.iii«  in 
his  own  liouii'  .  .  .  The  imnifiliale  ti  -.nil  of 
this  munler  ».«  to  b  :ive  Peril  len  in  sile  ant 
uudividi  I  coiiiruand  of  the  ilimo< ratic  party 
The  fon-iifn  poliiy  of  IVricles  ko'D  biiin  to 
Involve  .Mbeiii  in  trouMes  at  home.  He  con- 
cluded alb  inin  with  .Vrjjot  sn<l  I'lieixily,  both 
sial.-s  at  V:  riaiiiv  »iib  Spart.i,  and  then  liy  maile 
a  i.i!li»lon  witli  ibe  I.aii-dsmouian  confiihtncy 
ineviubli-.  II'  pive  slill  more  illriit  olTime  to 
t'.irint!i.  oik  of  the  most  powerful  menil«'n  of 
thiit  loiifidri-aiv,  by  comluilinK  a  cb.*'  ullianra 
with  Mc-art.  In  IbKiitU.  ti«).  be  siirftsl  up 

(nnoly.  by  trivini;  an  aitive  suppon  to  tin- ditiio- 
cratir  I'lrty  ri  Ihit  country  Tliisi'  provma- 
tjoni  ou'ii-  I  »  .ir  iiii'viuible'  In  (."iH  n  ('  tbe 
utor'ii  burst    .  .\t   tbe   niimiiut   of   t!  r   .iii 

bri' ik  "f  till'  ilrit  I'liporta'it  naval  wir  iviii'  Ii  she 
b'kl  lo  tt  iL-'  nitli  a  (lisik  eii-iny  sii.i .  the 
firinitiion  of  bi  r  i  tni»i^-'.  .Vthin-i  t-v>K  iivo  In, 
li.i.iiil  si.  (IS  ■''II,-  iir-i  V -IS  ib'llni.l  to  _-uanl 
aitMiiist  .ill'  H-'-v  f  ti  i.-(i.riiij.i-s  h>  SI. I.  ii  .'i.ii 
kistt  I  in  tlie  irau.sfen'Ui.t'  l'..iii  lli'loa  |o  .Viiuus 


lU'-j 


ATHSN8,  a  C.  408-154. 

Itj*??^,  ••!??*"'  •u'JwHUft  between  46t  and 
434  B.  C]  of  the  oentnl  trauur>-  of  the  confed- 
eracy. ...  It  waa  not  long  before  the  Athe- 
niaiu  came  to  regard  the  tiwwury  aa  thcfr  own 
and  to  drew  up»n  it  for  punly  Atllc  needi. 
Which  had  no  connection  with  tho  welfure  of  the 
other  <J'nf«l';™l«*  •  ■  .  The  second  important 
event  of  the  year  438  B.  C.  was  the  commence- 
ment of  the  famoua  'Loug  WalU'  of  Atfena 
[See  I.«xo  Wall*].  .  .  .  When  they  wetx'  lln- 
tehed  Athena,  Peineus,  and  I'hal.run..  formed 
the  aovlea  of  •  raat  fortiaed  trlanjrle,  while  the 
■pace  between  them,  a  oonaiderable  ejtpanae  of 
open  country,  could  be  utilized  ai  a  place  of 
refuge  for  the  nopuUtion  of  Attica,  ami  eren  for 
their  flocki  and  j>erd*"-C.  W.  C.  Oman,  Zfirt. 
tf  Oretce.  th.  23-34. 

At  JO  IK  E.  Abbott.  PtridMandthf  0,JUn  Ant 
!f  "t'^f^'of*-  £;«  -C- Thiriwall,  lli,t.  ,.f<}r,en, 
<*.  17  (e.  3).— Plutarch,  CSmon;  P.-ir-l., 

,^-  p-  4«<J-449-— Ditaatrona    expedition   to 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  460-440. 


Ml 


^  M  *'»  i*  "°  "••  P«lopouneiian  Coaat. 
—Recall  of  Cimon.  —  Hia  last  enterprise 
•minat  the  PerauiM.-The  disputed  Peace  of 
Omon  or  C*HUa.--Fi»e  years  truce  with 
3>*rt*-—  Inurus.  king  of  some  ..f  ihe  Ubvan 
trib.-8  on  the  wesurn  bonier  <if  Kirvpt  had 
Mcitid  an  iiiBiirPection  there  airuinxt  tin"  Persians 
[about  400  B.  (J,  and  liisamhoritv  wasaeknowl- 
edged  thn.mrhont  tlie  pnurer  (Kift  of  ih.-  o>un- 
trv  Art«»er.xes  irnt  his  lirr.ilier  Aehamencs 
with  a  pnat  anny  to  -luell  tlii*  reMli.m  An 
Atheniim  armament  of  ':(I0  ^ail.yii  was  lying  at 
the  time  off  (  ypni«.  ut.i  Inariw  wnt  to  irfxain 
lt»  H^iM^lanc.v  The  Alluniin  omimanden 
wlicth.r  rul|„Hln«  ihcir  own  ilbK-relioii.  or  after 
oMer^r.ivivwl  fn.in  home,  fiiiitiwl  (vimn  and 
lianiii:  Joined  wiili  ih,-  lii»urL'ent.t.  eiiAlili-<l  iliem 
tod.  fiat  Ail.,emeiit.,,  who  fell  in  the  l«iile  by 
the  iK.ii.l  ,.r  InariH.  Tluy  llieii  s.,ilul  up  the 
:sile  1,1  M.  nii^hiH,  «hen'al>.i.lvof  IViviar,  and 
si'ine  I.^;,i|,i,iiM.  who  Mill  .ulh.r.il  to  Hair  eaiiae 

'^n"'.";.-'.'.'-*"^"'""  "'  """'  '!"-'rt<r  of  llie  liiv 
ea)I.Hl    While  (;„si|e.     Tlie  r.^t  w,w  Mii.i.vt  io 

'","■'"• •'  ""■'■<•  '!"•  Atiuiihuw  st,iti.,ii,-,i  iheiii. 

H'lvis.  ami   l*«ie(;„|    H...   I'.rsiaiH  \rtax 

tT\,H    Milt    a    IVrsi.m.    naind    .Mu^.l  a/,.,     to 
h|urn.  «iili  a  aiiiii  of  inoiiev.  U)  t»- .  int.]  ,vmI  in 
linliiiitf  the  |.riiKi|)ul  H[«rtiriui  to  um  i|„  ,r  iiitiii 
<n.,     „.  as  to  enttaee  their  roiiiilrvio.  i,   i,,  an 
ti|mli;i..n  aeaiiwt  Altioa      Meiralia/iiH  .li,l  „„t 
tiiul  I!.,,   hailing   .-^paruuis  unwillinL'   t.,  t.-.iiie 
hinni..p>.v.  l,„t  tiM y  »,*m  u>  have  Urn  unahle 
t..rrri,h  r  him  tlie  M-rvUe  for  wliirli  it  wa.-  oll.r.,! 
Ith.HiM- .nil  h,.|,|  out:  and  S|wrta  had  |.i..l,:il.iv 
iM't  v.t  -uilUiently  .itiMr  n-eover«l  her  sinnetli   ' 
ornstor..!  internal  traii.iullity.  to  vi  iiiiir,  f>u  llie   j 
|ir.l»i'.Mliiiva.<ion     SoiniriimcHirsol  !lil   ta  i{oei». 
thai  n in  lM\e  r.iMhe,|  Aiheiis.  and  h..>,  qiu,  k- 

"•">' Tey  with  whiih  i-eriifc,  i.,.«  Lritrd   ' 

the    e..nij.l,iion    of    the    Umf    walb.  Riu    [ 

•mohtf  l.is  M|,|H.n,.i,t»   llM-ri'    wac  a  fa.   im   -vho  i 
Tlew.nl    il„     pniitr.iw  of  thN    unnt    «..rli    in   a   ! 
dlffK.i.i  li.;lii  from  Ciiiioii  an.l  aaw  ill  11    i><4  iIk.    > 
meuiM.i  vniruip  tie    liah  |h  iideiHr  ..|   Aih.iu. 
lull  a  »ml«  irk  of  the  hut.il  .-.mimon  lin       riiey 
l<"i  Wou,.i  hu\e  i.-hi.||y  laeii  ,„|  li,v,„li„^    ,nin   i„ 
Aili.a.    ul.i.  h   i„l,.|„  „,^i„  ij„.,„   i„  ,|,  ,,r,,;.|,  , 
Uie    work    ..i„|    Us    aiith..r«'     Tlil«    |,.irl>  'wa* 
weuM.I  ,,f  .,  mpatliv    win,  |h,.  Siwriaii  .'«|„.,|l 
Moil  »huh  .aihe  lo  Ihe  heU,  ,,f  i>.,rl,  .    ai,.,!  |.,,, 
ri».»i.iii-    im5T  li   ('.and  ,vhi.  h  .l.(.,ii  ,1   ii„. 
AUHiiiaa.s  St  Ta!i,n;ra  i.-m  liiiij;.  t     ll.  I     4J»- 


(4M).    In  4*1.     the  Hpartans  were  remimhil  thsl 
Uiey   were  nlw>  llahk.  to  he  atlacki'il  at  In, me 
An  Athenian  arman.<!ut  of  .V)  galleys  and   il  we 
may   trust   Dlodoni,,    with  4,0(10  li.avy   armefi 

'"".''"4.'"    *""•"'•    ""'''"^    "■"""'I     I'el' l««>ni»s..u» 
under  TolmiilcH.    hiinit  tlie  Spartan  arwimi  ,t 
Uythlum.  took  u  town  immeil  Chaleia  tnloi  i-jutf 
to  the  Corinthians,  aiHl  defeated  the  .Mryonian, 
who  atUinntwi    to  op|i.»ie    the    landiiiij  of    n,; 
tniopa       Hut    Uie    miMt    imi>ort.inl    advantaite 
gained    in    the    exp.-illtion  was  tla-   <ai.iure  of 
«aup«etu.s,  whl<  h  lMl.,n«ed  t<,the(»/oliaii  |,,xh 
ans,  ani  now  fell  inu>  thelmmlsof  ih.  .Viheninn^ 
at  a  very  stusoiuihle  Jimcture.     Tlie  ihini  M,., 
aenian  war  luui  Just  conu-  to  »  rlom.     The  hnl^  e 
defenders   of    lihonie  luul  olitaiiMil  hoiiourahi,. 
^rma  .  .  .  Ttie  U-jiiew-d  were  pemiitteilto  ,,u,i 
Pelopoiinesus  with  thiir  families,  on  eoii,litlo,i 
of  MnK  rietaioeil  in sUverv  if  thev  ever  i\ iiim*,i 
Tolmkles  now  settled  tlie  hoim-hM  waiaienrs  in 
^aupnotus.  ...     Hut    these      «ie<fi>M n     wrre 
couiiterlMlanoed  hy  a  ifverse  whieh  l»  fil    the 
arros  of  Athena  thia  same  year  in  antrtlur  <(  uarf  er 
After    the    def.-at    of    Aelueinens,    Artaxerxes 
disappointed  Ui  hia    hoiaa    of    assiiOani'r   from 
Hoarta,  .      .    raised    a  great  army,    whieh  be 

Shiccd  unler  the  command  of  an  abler  general 
legabyzus,     son    of     Zopynjs.        Megabyius 
defeaUtl  the  insurgenta   and    their   allies,    and 
forced  the  Greeks  to  evacuate  Memphis,  and  to 
take  refuge  in  an  island  of    ibi    Nile,    named 
froaopitiii,  whieh  rontuini,datown(:aniil  Hyblus 
where  he    taak-gt^d  tliem    for   18  niuhili»;      At 
iengtli  he  reaort«l  to  tlie  eontrivanee  of  tuminv 
thj'  stnum.    .    .    .    Tl«'  (Jreek  galleys  ».r.all 
left  aground,  and  were  Itnil  by  tlie  Atl,.  iiiano 
tlieniselvi-s,  that  they  might   not    fall   into  the 
ineniy  s  hamls.     Tlu-  iVrslnn.  then  man  h<d  intj 
tin'  bilanil  over  Ihi-  dry   lail  of  the  ri>.r     the 
tirypiiaus  in  dlsmav  aliiindi4ieil  tin  ir  alii,  »   who 
ver<.  oMnaiwentl  "by  riiimlars   aial  almost  all 
destroyui.  .  ,  .   InanishiinHilf  wrjilairnvedhito 
the  lunda  of  ihi-  I'eniiaiM  and  pu*  to  d<-«t'h. 
Kirypt  .  .  .   was  aifaiii  niliu'eti  under  ilie  Per- 
sian yoke.  ex.'eiK  a  (airt  of   tlM'  Ulta,    where 
an  itlar     pnti'iHler,     iianit'd     AmvrtieiiH,     who 
assum«-.l  the  tftU'  of  king      .   ,  malntaiiuHl  him 
self  for  several  yejim  against  tla'  power  of  Uie 
I  emhin  iiioiiarrhy.     Hut  tlu-  iiiiafortuiii'   of  thi- 
Atlienlans  ilkt   not  rial  with  tlie  il.-»tnirtion  ot 
the  gr, at  lie, i  and   army  whi.  h  lia.1   lain  tir-t 
iinployixi  III  ila   war.      fhev  ha<l  eiit  a  s<iiiadroii 
of   SU    galh  y»  lo   the    relief  of    lUIr  >  o.intr\ 
men.     whiih.  arriving    la-fofe    tlie  news   of  the 
reo-nt   divu,j,  r  luul  naelasl   tlwm.    em.  reil  th-- 
M.iwlesiaii  bran.  Ii,,f  iIm.  Ml,-      Tlay  were  la  i- 
MirprJM.l  h\  a  <i.iiil,iii...l  alta.k  ..f   the  IVrsiiiM 
hiial  f,.f>.-  anil  a    i'luanii  iaii  lle.t.  aial  lint  fi  « 
e.s..i|    .1  lo  In  ar  tia-  inoumfiil  thiiiiiTN  I,.  Alliens 
\  .1  e\en  aft.  r  i;,i-  .  alaiiiilv  wi-  hml  th.    Aiheni 
tins.  mitHiiiim  i  r  |«aii',  but  Unl  on  .  »i.  mlinir 
th  ir    |«>«i  r.     ami    annoying     llM-ir     enemies  ' 
Ijirlv  In  4,M  il«  >    ,.,,1  „„  n.a,||||,a,  („,„  tj^,. 
t-ily.  1,1  n-I.,r..  a  riikr  iiaiiieil  ( ireaiii.,  who  hail 
Urnilriv.n  oui      ■   H„|   ||„.  Bii|»rioritv  of  the 
llaasiillaii- 111  ia>.ilrv   .li.ik.sl  all   Ih.lr  oiiera 
lions  III  ihi  tH  1.1    II,.  V    f.,11,  ,1  in  an  ,i,,  ,„„,  „p,<, 
I'hanuiiii-   aii'l   »iri    al    k  iiirlh   fori  .si  lo  retlf* 
viiili.mt  haiiii.,  ni.,aii|.li..|ii,|  any  of  thiir  ends, 
ll  »  ...  |»r!,,i|  ,  •.,  ».,,il„.  t|„.  |„i>,ii,    .li.,rt|,|M>int 
niii.t  ili;ii  I'iri,  |,  <  shortly   afi.rwanU  .  nilatrked 
HI     l'i(.a-    «  11,   I  ikM,  „„.„      „,,,(     ,.,.„|j,n,    ^1, 
south     side    of    Uie    i  orimhiau    gulf    made    a 


lit) 


ATHENS.  B.  C.  46(M4B. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  Ut-Ul. 


dcfCTDt  on  the  territory  of  Sieyon,  knd  routed 
the  8lcyon  fun*  «ent  to  nppoee  bii  Umilin^.  He 
then  .  .  .  laid  liege  to  the  town  of  (Kniadie. 
.  .  Till*  attempt,  hnwevcr.  proved  unvucreu- 
fill:  and  the  general  result  of  the  campalfpi 
•ernu  not  to  have  been  oo  the  whole  advantage- 
»ui  or  en<viiraplni{.  ...  It  neeni*  to  have  twcn 
not  long  after  the  event*  which  have  been  juit 
related  that  Cimon  wan  m'alliHl  from  biieille; 
and  the  ilerree  for  that  p-irpnuo  was  moved  by 
Perli-leii  himself ;— a  fart  whii-h  avema  to  Inti- 
mate that  aome  change  ha-l  taken  place  In  the 
relations  or  the  temper  of  pnrtiea  at  Athens. 
.  .  .  The  three  yenrs  n.-st  follo.ving  CImon'l 
return,  as  we  have  Hxeil  its  dat«'  [H.  C.  4SI  or 
4.VI!,  pnsaeil.  happily  for  hia  contemporarici, 
without  alTori'ing  any  m.itter  for  the  hiatnrlan ; 
and  thi:>  pause  wih  followed  by  a  dre  years' 
trace  [with  8[>art.il,  In  tlie  course  of  which 
Omon  embarked  in  hia  Inst  eipe<lilion,  and 
dieil  near  tlie  scene  of  his  ancient  glory.  The 
prete.-i.lcr  Amyrtaus  hail  solicited  succtiur  from 
the  .\ili<  iil:itia  .  .  Cinion  WHS  appointed  to  the 
cuniiii.ind  of  a  fleet  of  ;'<ki  g.-ille.vs.  with  which  he 
uile.1  to  Cvpnis.  and  siiit  a  wpiadrnn  of  W)  to 
the  a.*»i-t.inci>  of  Amyrtieus,  while  he  hlmaclf 
with  the  rest  laid  sic-,  to  <  ilium.  Here  he 
wai  (urri.'d  off  by  illiii-«  or  the  cimaequences 
of  s  woiinci;  and  theaii?i.tment  was  siMm  after 
conipi  ilid.  by  want  of  pr.. virions,  to  raise  the 
sii'Bc  !t«l  Cymon's  spirit  still  aniinnled  his 
counlrMU'U,  who.  when  thev  had  Miled  away 
with  liis  remains,  fell  in  with  a  great  flwt  o"f 
l'lii»-iiiii,in  and  t'ilirlan  galleys,  near  the 
Cypriiii  SiliiMiis,  and,  having  compl.  tely  de- 
feate.i   tli.iii,  followed   up   tlieir  lunal   vicU)ry 

with  iiiiithir  wliich  they  gni I  (m  short,  cither 

over  liie  tn>"|)i  wliieh  had  h.ndeil  from  tlie 
enenivs  sldps.  or  over  a  land  force  by  which 
Ih.'V  were  supportinl.  After  thin  they  were 
ioineii  by  ilie  stjiiadron  wlih  h  liad  been  ai-nt  to 
Egypt,  and  winch  returne<l.  It  would  >p|iear, 
wlthiiut  having  achieved  anv  material  object' 
and  all  sailed  home  (B.  C.  440).  In  aftcrtlmea 
Cimon's  miliu-.ry  renown  was  enhuuce<l  by  the 
report  of  ■  pi-ai-e  [aometiiiies  called  the  Peace  of 
Cimon.  and  sometime*  the  I'<>ace  of  Callias], 
which  his  victories  had  compelled  the  Tertian 
king  to  conclude  on  terms  most  humiliating  to 
tile  nimarehy  Within  Icrs  Ibnn  a  century  after 
his  .li'iilh  it  was.  If  not  commonlv  lielievcil.  con- 
tidenily  userted.  that  by  this  irealv.  negotiated 
as  it  was  suniHwed.  by  Cnllhis.  son  .if  iiipiHrni- 
ciis.  ilie  I'ersians  had  agreed  to  aluintlon  at  least 
the  niilitsry  oc-eupaiiou  ..f  Asia  .Minor,  to  the 
liistanie  of  three  days  Journey  on  fool,  or  ime  on 
lionelwik,  fn>m  the  const,  or,  aiTonling  to 
snollier  account,  the  whole  peninsula  w .  »t  of  the 
ll.lv-'  an.l  t,>  abstain  frun  passing  tl.j  umtb  of 
tlie  H.i..piioriis  ami  thefh.  li.lonianlslaihls,  on  the 
c,M»l  „r  l.yei.'..  .,r  the  town  of  rims.  lis.  Into  the 
\\e.i.-rn,>*ea  The  mer.sllen.  eof  1  hu.  v.iiileson 
»o  iniporiaiit  a  tmnsaciiou  w.iul.l  Iw  eiiougb  to 
ren.l.  r  the  uhole  account  ejtrein.  h  siispii  ious  " 
--t'  Ihirlwill.  Ilinl.  of  tlr,,^,.  ,h  '\:  {r  a>.  Mr 
J.roi,  i.vepi.  III.-  IVai-e  of  t  iniun  its  an  historical 
fs't.  1  Mf  (urtiiisreji-ctsll.— (i  tir.ile  Ihtt  ,.f 
'•>.--.  ,./  ••,  M  4.1  (e  5).  — K.  Cuititis;  //„/  „,■ 
Ur„.      '.<    :|,  ,t,    .j,^  J, 

1..1  ^  ■•5j:4j*  War  for  Me»ra  with  Cor- 
iBlh  «:..!  itgina.  Victories  of  Myrooi<'e»,- 
|.iege«„,|  c.nqu.stof/egina.  -Colinionwith 
t«*  Spartaat  m  Bootia.  - Dr  ut  at  T«ii«itra.  i 


ic: 


-Oywthrvw  of  tlM  ThtbMa.— Racovtrad  A*- 

Ctadcncy.    t)ee  Oruce:  a  C.  458-456. 

..  °-  S;  449^S.-HoitU«  rtvolution  ia  Boo- 
'*:";9**"'  ■*  Coron«l«.-Rtvolt  of  Enb<M 
•»«  MttmrB  — The  thirty  ytara' trace.— Ter- 
ritorial lotsat.— Spartaa  rtcofirnition  of  the 
DeliM  Cenredency.    SeeORKKcB:  B.  C.  44»- 

B.  C.  445-43'<— Supremacy  of  Perldea  aad 
the  popular  arte  \n  which  he  attained  it.— 
The  eplendor  of  Atheai  and  grandeur  of  tht 
Atheniaa  Empire  under  hit  rule,-   ■The  con- 
clusion of  peate  left  the  Atheui  .in  lo  their  coq. 
fcienicy  anil  their  Internal  polities.  .  .  .  After 
the  d"atli  of  Cimon  ;/ic   ollgnrel,icu;  party   at 
Athens  had  Iieen  h-.l  by  Thucvilid.s,  the  son  of 
.Melesias,  a  man  of  higK  chamcter  ami  a  kinsman 
of  Cimon.  .  .  .  llilherto  the  nieniliers  hud  sat 
[  here  or  there  in  the  assemlilv  as  tliev  pleusid- 
I  now  ihey  were  eombluod  intoa  single "ixxly,  and 
Sit  in  a  s|>e(  iai  pl.-ic.     Such  a  con.solidation  waa 
dou!illes8  n.eilcl  if  the  parlv  was  to  hold  itsown 
a'.'ain.st     I'.iirles.    who   woa    rnphllv    carrying 
nil  iM-f.ire  him.     For  years  past  he  bail  pnn'id.^ 
a  Milisisteme  for  many  of  the  poorer  citliens  by 
means  of  his  niimemus  colonies— no  fewer  than 
•ViHK)  Athenians  must  have  been  sent  out  to  the 
•cleriiehlcB  'in  the  interval  bet  ween -J.lil  B.  C  and 
444  B.  (".     The  new  sysU-ni  of  juries  [.See  Dl(  A- 
STKiin]  had  also  l«en  established  on  the  fall  of  the 
Areo|iagus.  mill  the  jurym.n  were  |i:iiil--a  sicoiid 
source  of  Income  to  the  piKir.     .Siirli  nnusires 
Mvre  Iwyond  any.hlngthat  the  private  lii.inility 
of  '"imon  —  spli  iidid  IS  it  was  — .-ciil,!  ailiiive- 
and  on  Cimon's  iK-atb  no  other  urist.M-rat  i  iroe 
forward  lo  aid  his  partv  with  his  |i:,r-e      IVri- 
cles  did  not  stop  here."  Since  t;,e  cisvitii.n  of 
tlie  war  with  I'ersia  there  Lnd  lie.  n  feu-r  .Ir.ilij 
oti  the  public  purs<-.  and  the  contrilMiiii.ns  ,.f  the 
allies  were  a>Tumulatlng  in  the  public  treusury. 
A  sirupulous    nuui  would    hnv.-   regar.ieil   the 
iuroliia  as  the  money  of  the  alli.s.  .  .      I'l  ri.lca 
to.ik  another  view.     He  plalnlv  lold  the  Allieid- 
ans  that  so  hmg  us  the  cltv  fufflll.  ,1  the  conlni<  t 
made  with  the  allied  cities,  ami    ki|it   I'ersiiin 
vessels  from  their  (.hores,  the  surplus  w  -a  iit  the 
dis|MisMl  of  Aihi'iiv     Ac'ing  on  this  ,-lni  iple  he 
devole.1  a  iwrt  of  It  to  the  emliellisliMi.nl  of  the 
city,     V\  ith  theaid  of  I'hei.lias,  the  >.  ii|pt..r  and 
litmus,   the  ar.hilecl,  a  new  t.ni|.|e  ii.i;an  to 
rise  on  the  AerojHills  In  honour  of  Atluiia  —  the 
ceh'l.rit.<l    I'arthen<m    or    'Viiu'ins    ri,anilHr' 
|is.e  r\tiTIIi:N<.N),   ,   ,   .   i),l„.r  public  |,i,il,iii,M 
were  also  tieirun  alniut  this  time      Ath.n.swas 
In  fact  a  va-t  w,.rksli..p,  in  whiih  employment 
was  found  f„r  a  preit  nuniUr  of  ciii/,  n^ "    Xor 
was  this  all    .      .   Kit  eight  months  of  tlie  year 
00  ships  Were  kept  at  tax  with  crews  on  lioani 
in  or.ler  that  ili.r.-  might  \w  nu  ample  siipplv  of 
practical  H.-aiii<ii       .  .  Thualiy.linrv  ..r  imli'reti 
means  I'.ri.h-.  in.ide  the  stair  ih.'  pivninster  of 
s   va.^t  niinilsT    .  t  i  Iti/.-is.   and   the'  Mate   was 
[iractlially  hiiii>.:t,  .kiili     h.  «e  pui  I  .i!i/,i,H  at 
his  back.     At  ;li.-  vanie  llrue  the  pulli.  f.  Rivals 
of  the  city  were  .  ilar:,'eil  and  nilorii.  .1  witii  i„  iv 
M'!.;n.|..iir    .         That  -.11  mithi  aueiKl  t! ,-  thea- 
tre  in  ulii.  h  the  pluv-    vere  ai;.-.|.  I'eri.  ie.   pro. 
\il.>.l  thai  every    ,    ,    ii  should  rni-ue  ii,  in  the 
Mai.-  n  h'lm  ■u;tU  i.  ^     ii  ;,av  the  .hririre  .1.  i..,o.  u,l 
from  ilie  sp.M-.nl.  r»  I      ihe  l.-v«  ,■  |^, ,-  |ii,,iioi  v| 
».■  may  l-Kik  on  these  nua«iiris  b-.  !!i  •  -iris  of  a 
ilemagugue.   ...  Or  wo  may  saj  i.,,t  1'.   i,le« 


ATUEX3,  B.  C.  44S-43t. 


Age  nf 

PfTieia. 


ATHEX8,  a  c.  ^^^-^s». 


I 


WIU  «bl*  to  (fTWIfy  hit  pMHtrq  fnr  »rt  at  the  FX 
|M!U»'ofthc  VtliFnUnt  tnd  their  klliei.  Ni-ithrr 
of  lli.ae  vlrim  b  iilt«|{ctlier  unteniiMf;  anil  Ixilli 
j»re  far  fiwiii  iocluilfnK  Ibe  whole  iruili.  riritUi 
.  .  .  wiw.  if  we  pleu-at  to  My  |l.  it  ileniiiK' >){"(-• 
ituil  i»  coanoiMeur.  liiii  In-  wim  ■oiiwlhin);  iiiiirt. 
I^xikiiiif  III  •ie  whole  t->ul,ii,v  iK-fore  im  with 
inipurtiHl  It'  -  we  rBnniii  rifu-M- to  »c14imi«1c1i:o 
Hint  Im-  rheriMlu'il  ^wpirittiimii  worthy  of  a  (frent 
•iHltitimn.  He  siiuvrrlr  deninii  that  every 
Atli.  niiux  siioiiM  owe  to  LUcily  the  blewiiii;  of 
•n  eiliH-atiim  in  all  tliiit  wiis  livautiful.  awl  the 
opportunity  of  a  happy  aotl  useful  life.  .  . 
Tlie  oliicanhn  ilelermliir.l  (o  piiil  ilmvn  IVrirle*. 
If  it  wen-  (NisKilile  .  Tliev  pmiMweil,  in  (lie 

winter  of  44.5   B.  ('  ,   tl»t  tliere   hIioiiIiI   I,.    ,m 
iwlrarism  in  tl..-  eity.     The  txople  avriv.!.  .il 
the  usual  am  iijfementa  were  inmle.     But  wip  ■> 
ilie  ilay  ciinie  f.ir  ilerision.  in  tlie  aprini;  of  4+1 
B   t'..  till-  wii'  iiie  fell,  not  on  I'eriolea,  but  o;i 
Thui  v.lnleH.      i  he  M-nlenre  h  ft  no  douht  alMiiit 
the  t'ei'liiiK  of  (lie  Alheniiin  iKiiplc.  ami  it  wiu 
ail .  pieil  at  tlnal.     ThurydiilesiliKappt'anil  from 
Athens,  ami  for  the  next  tlfieen  years  IVri' |i» 
WHU  ni.M.  r-if  tliiiity,  .   .   .    Wliife  Athens  «.i» 
liilive,  oritini/in';  her  ronfislenu'V  and  tui  iirini; 
her  roniinunii  i'i..ii   with  the  mulh,   the   I'elo- 
poiinexiaiiit   hiel    allowed   the  ye:ir»   U>  parn  In 
a|>athy  und  inanention.     At  le'n.ilh  ihey  awoko 
U>  a  Kelts.' 1. 1    ;lir  situation.     It  was  oieiir  that 
Athens  liail  aivoi'loiied  all  iii.-u  of  war  with  Per- 
sia, anil  Lhat  tile  '  .>iifedera<  y  of  Delon  waa  traiia- 
foriiied  into  all  Alhenian  eiii|iin'.  of  wl.oae  fon-ia 
the    irreiit   eily    wa«  alim.liiu  ly    inisiniie      And   ; 
nieanwlii!.-  in  visible  Kreatnesg  A 'In  lis  hiul  In--   I 
ennie  far  the  Hr»t  city  in  (}niie    — K   Alilxilt.    | 
/',  iiW.»,  M.  |l>-ll.  — "A  r»|ild  ulaui'"- will  s.illld. 
to  sliow  the  eiiiineim-  wliieh  Atliena  hiui  .iiinitii-d   | 
over  ilie  olli.r  stales  of  Uiveec.     She  w.is  liie  I 
lieai!  of  the  !   niaii  U'litfuv  — the  niUlress   .f  inu   ! 
(ineliin  (ie;i-:    will)   -<parta,  the  sole  rival  that  I 
eoulil  i-oiK-  Willi  ler  arniiea  and  iirn-si  tier  am- 
bition, slie  had  olii  imeil  a  jK-aee     Corinth  waH  ' 
huiuliled  —  .Kirin.i  ruiinsl  —  Mei  .n  liad  shrunk 
into  her  de|Hiiiiein  V  and  ifarri».in.     The  siati  s 

of  BiiKitia  had  n-eeiveil  their  very  i siitulion   ; 

fniin    tl.e  hands  of  an    .Vtlieniaii  V'"'''^d  — tlr-   I 
deiniHniiiis  plaiitisl  iiy  Athens  wrusl  t,i  make   i 
lilierty  llsilf  sulM<rvient  to  her  will,  and  involv.-d   I 
in  her  safely.     Mlie  had  n-niedi<sl  lin-  stirllily  of  j 
her  own  soil  by  si  lurinjf  the  rieli  |i.,-.iim»  of^^tlw 
nelirhliiiiirihi:  KuIkim.     Slie  had  addisl  the  ifild 
of  Tills..-,  I.,  the  silver  of  l.iurion.  and  estali- 
li.sli.  .1  4  f  •pii.i.:  in  riiessaly  whirli  was  at  muv  a 
fortri -,s  au'ainsl   the  Asiatie  arms  and  a  iiuirt  for 
^»i,:i.    eoniiiiiTie      Tlie    fairest    lands  of    the 
(ippi..!ii  eoasi  —the  most  pioveifiil  islandsof  the 
Oniiaii   s.-as  —  roii:ributisl  lo  li-r  tnasiiry.   or 
Wen-  aliitM.i  I,  irally  sulijivled  to  her  n.veiijte. 

■    I"  ill  <in e.  .Mvrouides  was  perhaps  Ilie 

ablest  LI  iiiTal  -  ri-rieies  .   .   .   was  uiidoiiblislly 

the    ni..st    highly  edu'-atwi.   rauiloiis  und  i i- 

niandink' siHlisiiiai,  .  .  .  lu  aeti;al  pos«  ssion  of 
the  irilmie   .i  hi  r  allii-s.  Alliens  ii<  ipiired  a  new 

riKlii  tl-  ir«  1  .||.-.  ii,.n  and  its  iiiaiii.'.- :i.,  and 

whil  ■  sli,-  div.iiid  some  of  the  Inasiiris  to  the 
nmint.  naiiee  of  her  slrentrth,  she  iK'traii  early  to 
uph  .11  Hie  pnr.i^-ative  of  appnipnaling  a  part 
to  Ilie  I  iilii'iiiiiient  of  her  splendour.  ...  It 
w.^.s  III. IV  I  ilsait  H  C.  4441  reaolvtsi  Ui  make 
Ail.iii.  iK  ,  tile  Slat  ami  .eiitre  of  the  judieial 
sii-l.  riiv  lla-  Mihjeit  allies  wire  eom|Kll.sl. 
V  liut  ub  iniuor,  ul  Ivaki  uu  all  iiii|>orUut  eawa, 


to  tf^im  to  AtbmUn  cnnrta  of  Uw  for  Jiiaiiee. 
And  thuaAtheiu  became,  as  it  were,  Iheinetrop.k 
lis  of  the  allies.  .  .  .  Uefor»«  the  lVr«ian  war 
and  even  searcely  la-fore  the  time  of  fiinim' 
Athens  cannot  be  said  to  have  n-liiMii)  her 
iielKliliours  in  the  arts  and  scienct  Hlw-  Im-- 
eame  the  centn-  anil  capital  of  the  most  polislii  .| 
eoniinuniiies  of  Uni-ce,  and  she  dn-w  intoa  fiMus 
all  tlH- Un-eian  inu-llect;  slie  ohuineii  fMm  her 
de|M-ndenis  the  wraith  to  s<!mini.Hter  the  arts, 
which  uiiivenal  tralHc  and  inleniiiirse  taught 
her  touppneiati-:  and  thus  the  Odism.  and  tlia 
HirtheiiiMi.  and  the  IVipyla-a  arose.  Diiriniftlio 
same  ailministration,  tlie  fortilleations  were  n.u. 
phtisl,  and  a  thini  wall,  parallel  and  near  to  tlmt 
uiiitinit  r>eu«  with  Athens,  consiimmateil  il,,. 
works  of  'i  In-inisbiclc*  and  r'imou,  aiul  i)n.s.rvi  I 
the  eommuniealion  la-twis-n  the  twofold  i  iiv 
even  shoul  I  the  outer  walls  fall  into  the  liaiii'ls 
of  1  eiieiny."— K.  (J.  Bulwerl.ytton,  Al/tfiu- 
riM    i.fttiKi  Hill.  hk.  4,  eh  .1,  U:  H.  r/t.  2. 

.VijKi  IM:    W    \V.  IJoyil.  Tlu  Ane  uf  l\HcUt 
—  I'lulan-li,  I\r,Hf 

B.  C.  445-439— The  Ajfe  of  Pericles:  Art. 
— •'  riie  (}ii  .ks  ,  .  .  wen- iniliistriiiiis.  ciMiimir- 
cial.  seiisiiive  to  physhal  and  moral  Uauly. 
ea^er  for  diseiisaion  and  controversy,  thev  wi'n- 
pniiidof  their  hninanitv,  and  happy  in  tlie  i.,,,,. 
w-^ionof  tiieir  pi«-u.  Ibtir  hisloriaiis.  tliiir  on- 
•.irs  and  artisis.  It  is  sinirular,  in  tin-  hisi.irv  of 
nations,  to  meet  with  a  ptsip.e  dlslinifuisliei  at 
once  by  mercantile  aptitude,  and  by  an  exipii-iie 
fi-(lini;and  sympatiiy  for  works  of  art;  to  s,s- 
the  vanity  of  wealth  compatible  with  a  uin-  ilis- 
(■eminent  for  the  true  principlea  of  taste;  lo  la-, 
hold  a  Dstion,  inconHlaut  in  ideaa,  inionn-ivalily 
dcklc  in  pn-Judiei-a.  worMhippinn..  man  oik-  di'ir 
Mild  pnaa-riliinif  him  the  neJit.  vet  at  the  saiiii 
tillleproBr<•ssill^;  with  uiilieuni  of  rapidity  ;»iiiiin 
tlie  space  of  a  few  years  traversing  all  Hvsti  iiis  of 
phil.Mopby.  all  foniis  of  i{overnineni.  laying'  the 
foiitiilations  of  all  Mieius-s,  niukini;  war  \n\  all  iu 
iiri4;hls.rs,  yit.  in  the  iiii-Ut  of  lliis  i  haos  of 
loeas.  systems,  and  piLssions,  developiiit;  art 
su-adlly  and  with  calm  intelliirenee.  Bivim:  '.>  it 
nov'lly,  oriititialily,  and  ln-auty,  while  pnsi-rv- 
iiiK  it  pun-  fniiii  the  alMrrntions  and  i-aprins  i.f 
wliat  we  now  call  fanhioi..  At  the  time  ul  lln- 
Iirtitleof  SalHmi.s.  4H0  11.  C.  Athens  hail  l»s-n 
iiestniyisl.  Its  .erritory  rava^isl.  and  the  Allmv 
ians  had  iiolliiiii;  left  but  theii  ships:  yet  so 
Knat  was  the  miiviiy  of  this  iHimmeri  iiil  hut 
artistic  people,  that,  'only  twenty  years  after- 
wants,  they  had  built  the  Parthenon.'  —  K  !■;. 
Vi.illet  le-Diic,  lUmiurtt  ..a  Arrhilrfiiin  ;.  W 
B.C.  445-439. -The  Age  of  Pericles;  Do- 
meatic  life.  -The  Athenian  house  -■  Koruiv 
one  comliiu'  fmiii  Asia  it  s<-eiiiiil  as  if  in  eni.  rial; 

Athens  he  was iiinK  into  an  ant's  iiisi      I'm 

m-asiiii;.  lit  Hie  ipiH-h  of  its  iin-atest   powi  r    tlie 
thns- |>ort«  of  Muiiyehia.   riiiilerum  and  II..-  I'i- 
rens.  it  lovensl  adlslrirt  whose  lin  uii;!.  r.  n-i- 
nieiiBiinsI  two  liiiii.lndsiailiadwentv  f..(ir  mil.  -; 
Hut  it  w.isHniuiMi  ;lie  .\eni|.uiis  that  tli  ■  I.  .u- s 
Win.     ,nmii.-d     I......  tliir    1  iid    the     popni  iii.ii 

•tlways  In  111  livlty       I'here  waitons  w.-n-  n.s.int' 
to   and    fni.    tillid    with    inenhainliM    In. 1.1   Hid 

ports  or  ( .ejillii   il    lllilher        I'llr    sl!v,|»    ,11.1 

jiiiblii  pill  IS  ill  whiih  |Msi,.le  piss..!  1.11  ln.-s 
|in-s<-i:te.|  a  busy  and  noisy  sn  iie.  Sir  in  .ii-s, 
who  laiiii-  lo  liiiv  ..r  t.i  s.11.  "w.  n-  loiitimial'i  ii- 
tiriiiir  or  l.avih,- the  slinps  and  pl.i. .  -  ..f  in  mii 
faetuiv,   and  slavi-a  »ea-  carryiuf.'  iiii  .s-i.i(,'es  or 


1G3 


ATIIEXS.  a  C.  44.>-489. 


Af  of 
r»rUu. 


ATHEXS,  a  C.  US-Oi. 


burdeni.    Women  u  well  •*  men  wen  to  be 

Ken  in  the  itreeU,  guiog  to  tlw  nurfcetii.  the  public 
piiii-*  aiul  the  mcttingt  of  corporate  lioilifs. 
Fmm  the  esrliett  lioun  of  the  (lay  larse  nuinlH'n 
of  in-iunnU  inl)(lit  be  Ken bringinit  in  vi^tiiiblm. 


fruit  and  lOTultry.  and  crying  Uiiff  w«rt»  in  tliu 
•tnitt    Iloiuea  of  the  hlfflicr  clau  wcuni,,!  the 
«eo>nil  zone;  they  generally  posMwuvd  a  itaniin 
anil  soniolimi'9  outbutlilinKK  of  coiuiilintblv  vx- 
Unt.     Annind  them  were  to  be  sttn  cliciiu  uud 
iwrasilcs,  waiting  for  the  hour  wh<-n  the  nidau-r 
nhoulil  inakehiaappraraocv;  nnil  whiling  away 
the  time  liiaeuuing  the  news  of  the  day  n-iK'al. 
iug  til.'  rumoura,  true  or  false,  that  Were  current 
hi  lUc  city:  getting  the  alarca  to  ulk.  and  laugh- 
ing  among  themwlv«  at  the  atrangera  that  hap- 
pined  to  be  poaalng,  or  aildreuing  them  with  a 
view   to  make   fun    of    tlnir  aceent,    garb    or 
(Iriiw.     The  house  of  C'hremvlua.  ri'cently  built 
rn  that  fcrond  ion*,  waa  a  aubji-rt  of  renuirk  for 
all  the  iillers.     Chremylua,  who  hiul  laU'ly  be- 
cuiu.'  weuliliy  by  mean*  of  ctMnnii  ni-,  ami  of 
ccruiin  tranaaetions  of  more  or  lusa  cttiiiublu 
cluractcr  in  the  colonies,  waa  an  objcx-t  of  envy 
an.l  (  nticUm  to  moat  people,  and  of  ailniiratioii 
f..r»,.uie  who  did  justice  to  his  iuulligence  and 
iuvDiy       He  eiiioyed  a  certain  de«ife  of  in- 
llij. iHv  in  the  publfc  asaembli.s  —  thanks  to  his 
lilKnlilv,  while  he  took  care  to  ai'cure  the  g(»Hl 
(fruci-s  of  the  nrrlioiis  and  to  enrich  the  temples 


ft  AS  or  ATHKXtAK  BOl'lUL 
*>•  have    fin    ,Mc    acmmpanyini;    flguifl    the 

r<«.l  Tl...  »ii,.  i,  („„nded  on  eithrr  si  I.-  by 
r.nm  ((.  «|,i,.h  I,  ,i,mMiml«l  by  iK.nl.-..H  At 
U..  slay.,,  with  kit.,l,eu  at  C  aa.l  latrli.es  at  a 


Prom  tbia  flnt  court.  In  the  centre  of  which  la  • 
auall  fountain  with  a  baain  which  recclvea  the 

r.uVp'''  ','•'•, !»»?««  ^  ""^  '"«»  "»«  Inner 
tourt  E,  which  is  htrger  and  ia  likewise  sur- 
roundc-d  by  portlo*.  At  O  Uthe  receptl.m  room, 
at  II  the  strong  room  for  valuables,  and  at  8  the 

ng  provUions  and  wine;  and  at  I  the  ainall  din- 
ing  room  (triiliiilum);  the  cooking-room  for  the 
family  being  at  J  with  latrines  at  b.     The  Urire 
triclinium  U  at  K.     The  pansaije  ni  «'mils  U,  the 
gyn«ceum.  couUiinJng  tli.,-  beiln.ims  I'  al.mij  tlio 
portico M,  aoomiiion  room  for  the  women   with 
lU  small  enclosed  garden,  and  chweu  at  e     The 
quarten  for  vUitora  are  entered  by  the  pasMige 
t,  and  consist  of  bedr.K,ins  V,   a  ponicITT    a 
small  garilen  and  el.aeu  f.     At  d  is  an  omuing 
into  tl«!  Une  for  the  servants,   wluii  r,-,  ulrej 
The  gwilens  ext.n.l   i-i  the  dinilicu  Z.      This 
house  UsituaU'<i  ou  the  sixties  of  the  hill  which 
to  the  iouth-nest  looks  UmanU  the  Acropolis- 
thus  it  is  sheltered  from  the  vi,>l,nt  winds  whirl, 
sometimes  blow  frinu  this  >,uari.r.      Krom  the 
largo  dining-hall  and  fp.m  the  t.  rra..-  L.  whi.  U 
ailjoins  it,   tlier<f   is  a  clianiiiu«   pnMiH'cl    for 
alx.vc  the  tr.-.s  of  the  ganlin  is  «-in  tin-  cliy 
I'V/.I"  .'o'l  ""J'  ."'e  Acr,.,H.lis.   „„d  towards  the 
lef   the  hill  of  the  AreoiMgiis.    From  this  terra,  e 
L  there  U  a  descent   to  the  ^.ard.-.i  by  „l»,ut 
twelve  steps.     The  p<iaition  wus  .  liosiii  wi,l,  » 
view  to  prou-ction  against  the  ^ill^s  beat  and  Iha 
troublesome  winds.     From   tlie  iK)rti.  j  of  tlu- 
irynieceum  are  seen  the  liills  ext.iidin-  towar.U 
llie  north,  covered  with  housi-s  siirnmn.l.d  by 
ol  yetrees:  and  In  the  backKroin«|  .M,„„it  iVif. 
I'liius   ...  In  the  dwelling  of  Ch.-i-inylus  the 
various  departmenu  were  arnmeed  at  iho  pri>- 
priitor s  dis.  n-tion,  and  the  arrliii.-et  only  ion- 
formttl  to  his  instructions.     Tims  the  fr  iit  part 
of  tlie  house  is  assigueti  to  the  external  r.  Iali.>u» 
of  the  owner.     In  this  court  O  a.s.s<iiil,lf  the 
agentKor  factors  who  ciiiie  to  give  uu  aic.uui  of 
the  commissions  they  have  ex<.iiti.i.  or  to  re- 
ci'ive  onlers.     If  the  master  wi.sli,s  to  sinak  to 
any  of  them,  he  Uki-s   him  into  liis  re.i|.tiou 
nxim;  his  UiUlminbir  biing  at  U.  hr  can  i',i,ily 
n-iuiir  U)  that  n-oeption-Mom  or  to  ili.-  gynaeium 
rmrvcil  for  the  women  and  youn^.r  cliildriu 
If  he  enteruiiis  frieads.  they  have  tin  ir  s.|mrate 
apartiiiiiits,   which  are  shut  olf.  not    Ik-'uii  in 
tonimiininition    with    the    lirst    court    exnpt 
thrjiugh  (he  passage  t     All  that  part  of  the  l,«l'i- 
tation  which  Is  bvvond  the  wide  entrance  hall  I) 
is  i-onawrote.!  to  domestic  life;  nii<l  only  the  iiiti- 
iiuite  friemis  of  the  family  aiv  admitted  into  the 
wc-  mil  court;  for  example,  if  thvy  are  inviie.1  to 
iilmmiuet.— whiih  is  held  in  the  great  hall  K 
I  he  maiiter  usually  takes  his  finals  with  his  wife 
mid  one  or  two  in.  niU-rs  of  his  family  who  live 
in  tliehmis..   in  the  smaller  r...m  I,  the  .iMulies 
i.t  whi.hwill  hold  six  pirsoiis;  wli.rea,  lifiwu 
jjii.st*  can  Ik'  ii<-comni.i.lated  on  the  eoiuh.s  ot 
'he  v-nat  hall  K.     Chreniylu,  |„i.s  spaml  •i.tliing 
tonnderhis  li.. use  one  of  tlu   ino.'-t  siiii,|,i,i,,ii» 
in  tlie  city.     The  eoluiiiu.s  of  IN  nleli.  ,ui  marble 
siipiHirt    ar-hitraves    of   -.v,..!,    v,„„i.,ui,i, -j    [,„ 
friezes  anil   mniiees  overlaid   Willi   Mue(„  anil 
oniKPient.sl    with     cVlicule    paiiitiiii.'        I  very, 
where   tlie   walls  an-   nwtt.l    «iil,    iji.e  Mii„oth 
planter.  ail..nie,l  «iih  iKiintiu:.-,.  .,:.,|  the  .eiljnea 
r  artist h-aily  1 


ari-  of  liiiilK'i 
— K.   \iollet  li 
11.'/  Ayia.  th.  i'. 


wrouirlii  aim  e.iloim'd. 


I>iii',    T)'4l  UMit.iUfh, 


'J 


l/.l 


169 


m 

w 

[ 


"Is* 


ill  I 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  MS-429. 


Agt  of 
PaieUt. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  445-430. 


B.  C.  445*439.— The  Ase  of  Pericles :  Law 
and  tti  Admiaiitntion.— ContrMt  with  the 
Romans. — "It    is    remarlcsble  .  .  .  iLat    the 
'(•(|tiality'of  laws  on  which  the  Greek  dcraoc- 
racics  prided  themselves — that  equalitv  which, 
ill  the  iM-autiful  drinking  song  of  Coillstnitus, 
Hiirinodius  and  Aristogitou  are  said  to   liavc 
given  to  Athens  — had  little  in  common  witli 
the  'equity' of  the  Romans.     The  first  was  an 
eqiml  administration  of  civil  laws  among  the 
citizens,   however  limited  tlic  class  of  citizens 
ini^'ht  be;  the  last  iinplic<i  the  applicability  of  a 
law,  which  was  not  civil  law,  to  a  class  which 
dill  not  necessarily  consist  of  citizens.    The  first 
exrltided  a  despot;  the  last  included  foreigners, 
and  for  some  purposes  slaves.  .  .  .  There  are 
two  special  dangers  to  which  law,  and  society 
wliich  *»  held  together  l)y  law,  appear  to  be 
liiililc  In  their  infancy.     One  of  thcin  is  that  law 
mtiy  l)e  loo  rapidly  developed.    'This  occurred 
with  the  codes  of  the  more  progressive  Greek 
communities,  which   disembarrassed  themselves 
with  astonishing  facility  from  cumbrous  forms 
of  procedure  and  needless  terms  of  art,  and  soon 
ceased  to  attach  any  superstitious  value  to  rigid 
ruK's  and   prescriptions.      It  was  not  for  the 
ultimate  advantage  of  mankind  tliat  they  did  so, 
though  the  immediate  benefit  conferred  on  their 
citizens  may  have  been  considerable.    One  of 
the  rarest  qualities  of  national  character  Is  the 
capacity  for  applying  and  working  out  the  law, 
as  such,  at  the  cost  of  constant  miscarriages  of 
abstrut  justice,  without  at  the  same  time  losing 
the  ho|>c  or  the  wish  that  law  may  be  conformed 
to  a  higher  ideal.    The  Greek  Intellect,  with  all 
ita  nobility  and  elasticity,  was  quite  unable  to 
confine  itself  within  tlie  strait  waistcoat  of  a 
legal  formula:  and,  if  we  may  judge  them  by 
the  popular  courts  of  Athens,  of  whose  working 
we    possess    accumto     knowledge,    the    Greek 
triliunuls  exhibited  the  stnmgest  tendency    to 
confound  law  and  fact.     The  remains  of  the 
Orators  and   the    forensic    commonplaces    pre- 
served by  Aristotle  in  his  Treatise  on   Hhetoric, 
show  that  quistioiis  of  pure  law  were  constantly 
argued    on    every    eoiisiilcration    which    could 
possibly  influence  the  mind  of  the  judges.     No 
durable  syst^'in  of  jurisprudence  ,\mld   be   pr»)- 
du«'il  In  this  way.     A  coininuiiily  which  never 
hesitated  to  relax  rules  of  written  law  whenever 
they  stood   in   the  way  of  an  Ideally   perfect 
decisiim  on  the  facts  of  particular  cWs,    would 
only.    If  it  bcqueathe<l  any   iMKly    of    judicial 
principles  to  posterity.  1k'i|i"i(m"-  one  consisting 
of  the  ideas  of  right  and  wrong  which  hnpixMicd 
to  be  prevalent  at  the  tiini'.     Such  jurispru- 
dence would  eimtaln  no  frnniewr)rk  to  wliich  the 
more  hiIvhih  eil   eonceptiiui'*  of  siiliHe<|U>'iit  aiies 
could   Ih'   fltli'd.     It  woulil   amount  nt  iNsttua 
philosophy,    marked   with   the  lin|><Tfectlons  of 
the  civilisHtioii  under  wiiiih  It  grew  up.  .  . 
The  otiier  liiiliilily   to  wlilih    the    iiifaiKV    of 
society  U  ixposcd  has  prcvcnteil  or  arrextiHl  tlie 
progress  of   far  the  (rrealer  part  of  iiiiuikliul. 
Tlw  rigidity  of  primitive  law,   sri*ipg  ihietly 
from   Its  cnrllir  assiH'lutlon    ai.d    Identiflcatioii 
wllh  religion,  liax  clialnod  down  the  muss  of  the 
human  raiv  to  tlioKe  views  of  life  and  cop  lucl 
wliii'h  they  entertalnwl  at  the  time  when    their 
iiMii^es  were  first  consolidated  Into  a  By«..'maii<' 
form.     Then- were  one  or  two  racM  exempteil 
hy   a  inarvilious  fite   from   this  (iilamity,  and 
irafu  fruiu  these  stocks  have  fertilbui)  «  fi.w 


modem  aoeletiea;  but  it  Is  still  true  that,  orer  the 
larger  part  of  the  world,  the  perfection  of  U>w 
has  always  been  considered    as   consisting   in 
adherence  to  the  ground  plan  siipposetl  to  Lave 
been  marked  out  by  the  original  legislator.    If 
intellect  has  in  such  cases  been  exercised  on 
jurisprudence,  it  has  uniformly  prided  it8<df  on 
tlie  subtle  perversity  of  the  conclusions  It  could 
I'lild  on   ancient   texts    without   discoverable 
departure  from  their  literal  tenour.    I  know  no 
reason  why  the  law  of  the  Romans  should  be 
superior  to  the  laws  of  the   Hindoos,  unless  the 
theory  of  Natural  Law  had  giveu  It  a  tyiie  of 
excellence  different  from  the  usual  one." — II.  8. 
Maine,    Aneient  fMir,  eh.  3-i. — "But  both  the 
Greek  and  the  English  trial  by  jury  were  at  one 
time  the  great  political  safeguard  against  state 
oppression  and  injustice;    ami,   owing  to  this 
origin,  free  nations  b«>coinc  so  attached  to  it  that 
thev    are    blind  to  its  ilefecis.      And  just  as 
Ireland  wouM   now  U'nefit  licyond  conception 
by  the  alH)lilion  of    tlie  Jury  svstein     so  the 
secured    Athenian    (or    any    other)   ih  luiKTaey 
would  have  thriven  In'tte'r  had   its  laws  lieen 
adminLstered  by  courts  of  skillml  judges.     For 
these  large  bcHliea  of  average  citizens,  who,  by 
the  way,  wir-  not  like  our  iiirymen,  unwilling 
occupants  of  the  jury-lKix,  but  who  made  it  a 
paid  business  ami  an  amusement,  did  not  nganl 
the  letter  of  the  law.     They  allowed    actions 
barred   by   the  reasonable  limits  of  time;  tliey 
allowed  arguments  totally  beside  the  quesliou, 
though  this  too  was  Illegal,  for  there   was  no 
competent  judge  to  draw  the  line;  they  alloweil 
hearsay  evidenci',  though  that  too  was  against 
the  law;  liidetHl  the  evidence  produced   in  most 
of  the  speeches  Is  of  the  hMiscst  and  (HKirest  kind. 
Worse  than   all,   there   were  no  pniper  re<onls 
kept  of  their  decisions,  and  wltni-sses  were  ealle<l 
In  to  swear  what  hail  been  the  past  dicisions  of 
a  jury   sittiug  in  the  same  city,  and  under  the 
same  procedun'.     This  Is  the  more  reniarlialile, 
as    there    were    state    archives.    In    wliicli    tiie 
decrees  of  the  pi>|  iilur  as.semb:y  were  kejit.  .  . 
There  Is  a  most  "tniordlnary  speech  of  Lvviui 
against  a  man  called   NIchomaclius,  who"  was 
appolnteil  to  trauscrilM.*  the  hiws  of  Solon  In  four 
montlis,  but  who  kept  them  In  his  possessiiui  for 
six  years,  and  Is  accused  of  having  so  f.ilsilleil 
tliem  as  to  have  suballlut«<l  himself  for  Solon. 
Hence  there  can  have  Ix'en  no  recognlzeil  dupli- 
cate extant,    or   such    n    thing    ei;uld    not    be 
attempted.     8<i  again.   In  the  ',  nijiezlticin  of 
IsocniU's,  it  is  mentioned  as  a  Well   known   fact, 
that   a  certain   I'ythalorus    was    convlited   of 
tampering    with    stati'-documents,    signed    sud 
sealed  bv  the  magistnites,  and  de|)oslte<l   In   the 
AtroimlU.     All  these  things  meet  us  In  every 
turn  In  the  court  speeches  of  the  .Vttic  oraiirni. 
We  are  ania/.eil  nt  wiliig  relationships  proved  in 
will  (asj's  by  a  man  coming  In  and  swearin;  that 
such  a    niius    liilier    hiwl    told  hliu  tliii   hii 
lirollier  was  inarrietl  to  such  a  w.im.in.  of  ^m  li  a 
house,       \V(.   Olid   the    most    lilM'tlous    (liir.;i'» 
lirou;{ht   aicainsl   oppont'iils  on   mottirs  t'lilly 
Is-side   till'   (piesiion   at   Issoi",  and  even  f.nrnal 
evidence    of    general    bad    characU'r  iidiiidli'ii. 
We  find  some  siM'Bkers  In   omseqiieiKi'   Ihating 
the  Jury  Willi  a  iBirt  of  ininirl-d  defenine  and 
eonieinpl    wlili  li   Is  amusing      'On   the  f.'riiicr 
trial  of  I  his  i.w,' they  say,  '  my  opponent   iiiau- 
ag.il   to   tell    vmu   nianv"  well  "devised   lie.,,   of 
!our«c  you  wepj  deceived,  bo-*  ct);iW  lt!»:  iisfo-r- 


no 


ATHENS.  B.  C.  443-429. 


Agt  of 
Puricla. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  445-439. 


wtee,  knd  you  made  a  false  decision ;'  or  else, 
'  You  were  so  puzzled  tliat  you  got  ut  variance 
witli  oue  anotlier,  you  voted  at  sixes  and  sevens, 
and  by  a  small  majority  you  came  to  an  absunl 
decision.'  'But  I  tliink  you  Itnow  well,' says 
Isocrates,  '  that  the  city  has  often  repented  so 
bitterly  ere  this  for  decisions  made  in  passion 
and  without  evidence,  as  to  desire  after  no  long 
interval  to  punish  those  who  misled  it,  and  to 
wish  those  who  hod  been  calumniated  were  moro 
than  restored  to  their  former  prosperity. 
Keeping  these  faols  before  you,  you  ought  net 
to  be  hasty  in  believing  the  prosecutors,  nor  to 
hear  the  defendants  with  interruption  and  ill 
temper.  For  it  is  a  tliame  to  have  tlie  character 
of  behig  the  gentlest  and  most  humane  of  the 
Or^eks  in  other  respects,  and  yet  to  act  contrary 
to  this  reputation  in  the  trials  which  t.ike  place 
here.  It  is  a  shame  that  in  other  cities,  wbtn  a 
human  life  la  at  stake,  a  considerable  majority 
of  votes  li  required  for  conviction,  but  that 
among  you  those  in  danger  do  not  even  get  an 
equal  chance  with  their  false  accusers.  You 
swear  indeed  once  a  year  that  you  will  attend  to 
both  plaintiff  and  defendant,  but  in  the  interval 
only  keep  your  oath  so  far  as  to  accept  what- 
ever the  accusers  say,  but  you  sometimes  will 
not  let  those  who  are  trying  to  refute  them  utter 
even  a  single  wonl.  You  think  those  cities 
uninhabitable,  in  which  citizens  are  executed 
without  trial,  and  forget  that  those  who  do  not 
give  both  sides  a  fair  hearing  are  doing  the  very 
same  thing.'"— J.  P.  Mahaffy,  Soeial  Lift  in 
Ortm,  eK.  13. 

.  ^;  F;  44t4a9-r'^'>«  Ab«  of  Peridet :  Poli- 
tical life.— The  democrMr.—"  The  real  life  of 
Athens  lasted  at  the  most  for  200  yars:  and  yet 
there  are  moments  in  which  all  that  we  have 
won  by  the  toils  of  so  many  generations  seems  as 
If  It  would  be  felt  to  be  but  a  small  thing  beside 
a  ningle  hour  of  Perikie*.    The  Democracy  of 
Athens  was  in  truth  the  noblest  fruit  of  that  self- 
.ii'vclopjng  power  of  the  Greek    mind    which 
workeii  every  possession  of  the  common  heriUge 
into  some  new  and  more  brilliant  shape,  but 
whieh  leamc<l  nothing,  nothing  of  all  that  formed 
its  real  life  and  iu  real   glory,  from  the  Barba- 
ri rius  of  the  onU>r  worid.    Men  tell  us  that  Qrcc  -o 
liiirned  this  or  that  mechanical  invention  fMm 
rimnlcla  or  Egypt  or  Assyria.     Bo  it  so;  but 
stand  in  the  Pnyx;  lUten  to  the  contending  era- 
torn  i  lliiten  to  the  ambassador*  of  distant  cities; 
li«l«  n  to  each  side  as  it  is  fairly  hearkened  to,  and 
see  the  matter  in  band  decided  by  the  peaceful 
vote  of  thousands— heifl  at  leaat  of  a  truth  is 
sjimething  which  Athens  did  not  learn  from  any 
Awvrlan  despot  or  from  any  Egyptian  priest 
.\nd  we,  children  of  the  common  suVk.  sharers  In 
the  common  heritage,  as  wo  sec  man,  Aryan  man, 
111  llio  full  growth  of  his  noblest  type,  wu  may 
^1  » 'hrill  as  wo  think  that  Klelsihcne*  and 
IVrlklOs  were,  afUT  all,  men  of  our  own  blooil  — 
••  we  think  that  the  Institutions  which  grew  up 
uni  er  their  hands  and  the  Institutions  uiidiT 
whi.  h  wo  ourselves  are  living  are  alike  braueh™ 
sprung  from  one  stock,   (x.rilon*  of  one  inheri- 
tance In  which  Athens  and  Knghind  have  an 
equal  right.     In  the  Athenian  I).m.H  racy  we  »lv 
»  l>opularconitltution  taking  the  form  which  wa< 
natiiriil  for  such  o  constitution  to  take  when  it 
w«»  able  to  run  Iu  natural  course  in  a  common- 
wealth  which  conatNtiMi  only  of  a  sinsfie  rity 
Wherever  the  Ajwml>ly  really  remains.  1u  truth 


171 


aawellMin  name,  an  Aiaembly  of  the  whole 
people  in  their  own  persons,  it  must  in  iU  own 
nature  be  sovereign.    It  must,  in  the  nature  of 
things,  delegate  more  or  leas  of  power  to  magia- 
trates  and  generals;  but  such  power  will  bo  sim- 
ply delegated.    Their  authority  will  be  a  mere 
trust  from  the  sovereign  body,  and  to  that  sov- 
ereign body  they  wiU  be  responsible  for  its  exer- 
ctoe.    That  is  to  say,  one  of  the  original  elementt 
of  the  St'iU',  the  King  or  chief,  now  represented 
by  the  elective  magistracy,  will  lose  ite  indepen- 
dent powers,  and  will  sink  into  a  body  who  have 
only  to  carry  out  the  will  of  the  sovereign  Assem- 
bly.    So  with  another  of  the  original  eleinenU 
the  Council.    This  body  too  loses  its  independent 
being;  it  has  no  ruling  or  checking  power;  it  be- 
comes a  mere  Committee  of  the  Assembly  chosen 
or  appointed  by  lot  to  put  measures  into  shape 
for  more  easy  discussion  in  the  sovereign  body 
As  wwlety  becomes  more  advanced  and  compU- 
cated  the  Judicial  power  can  no  longer  be  exer- 
cised by  the  Assembly  iuelf,  while  It  would  be 
against  every  democratic  Instinct  to  leave  It  In 
the  arbitrary  power  of  Individual  magistrates. 
Other  Committees  of  the  Assembly,  Juries  on  a 
gigantic  scale,  with  a  presiding  magistrate  as 
chairman  rather  than  as  Judge,  are  therefore  set 
apart  to  decide  causes  ami  to  sit  in  Judgment  on 
olfenders.    Such  is  pure  Democracy,  the  govern- 
ment of  the  whole  people  and  not  of  a  part  of  it 
only   as  carried  out  In  iU  full  perfection  in  a 
single  city.     It  is  a  form  of  government  which 
works  up  the  faculties  of  man  to  a  higher  pitch 
'",»"  »uy  other;  it  is  tlie  form  of  government 
which  gives  the  freest  scope  to  the  inborn  genius 
of  the  whole  community  and  of  every  member  of 
it.    Its  weak  point  Is  that  It  works  up  the  facul- 
ties of  man  to  a  pitch  so  high  that  it  can  hardly 
be  lasting,  that  Iu  ordinary  life  needs  an  enthusi- 
asm, a  devotion  too  highly  strung  to  be  likely  to 
live  through  many  generations.     Athens  In  the 
days  of  her  glory,  the  Athens  of  PeriklSs,  was 
truly  '  the  roof  and  crown  of  things; '  her  democ- 
racy raised  a  greater  number  of  human  being*  to 
a  higher  level  than  any  government  before  oy 
since;  it  gave  freer  play  than  any  government 
before  or  since  to  the  personal  gifu  of  the  fore- 
m(»t  of  mankind.     But  against  the  few  years  of 
Athenian  Klr)ry  we  must  set  the  long  ages  of 
Athenian  decline.     Against  the  city  where  Peri- 
kli>8  was  General  wo  must  set  the  city  where 
Hadrian  was  Archon.    On  the  Assemblies  of 
■>lher  Grecian  cities  It  I*  hardly  needful  to  dwell 
()ur  knowledge  of  their  practical   working  I* 
slight.     Wo  have  one  picture  of  a  deliate  In  the 
impular  A**cmbly  of  SparU,  an  Assembly  none 
the  leas  popular  In  Its  internal  conslilutfon  be- 
cause it  was  the  assembly  of  what,  a*  rcgar.led 
the  oxcludod  classi's  of  the  Bute,  was  a  narrow 
oligarchy.    Wo  see  that  there,  as  might  bo  l(M)keil 
for,  the  chiefs  of  the  Sutc,  the  Kings,  and  yet 
more  the  Ejihors,  spuko  with  a  degree  of  olllcial 
as  distinguished  from  personal,  authority  which 
fell  to  the  lot  of  no  man  in  the  Assembly  of 
Athena     Perikl«*  reigned  supreme,  not  birauso 
he  was  one  of  Ten  Generals,  but  because  he  was 
P'-fJ!''''*-  •  ;  ■  In  <he  Ekkl«sla  which  listened  to 
PerlklOsand  Demoathenfi*  we  feel  almost  n»  much 
at  home  as  In  an  Institutlcm  of  our  own  land  and 
our  own  times.     At  least  wo  ought  to  feel  at 
home  there;  for  we  have  the  full  materials  for 
cvWnn  iiji  the  political  iifc  nf  Ath.u*  Iu  all  iU 
fullnej*,  and  within  our  own  time*  oue  of  tlie 


•!  'J: 


\\-   '-in: 


.  i 

iwii 

Mi 

1 

i    "^  ■"  ■"  "'! 

i 

ATHENS,  B.  C.  445-489. 


Age  of 
Pericles. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  445-429. 


pnntrvt  minds  of  our  own  or  of  any  age  has  given 
Its  full  strength  to  clear  away  the  mists  of  error 
iind  culumny  which  so  long  shroiidcU  the  parent 
Rta.p  (if  justice  and  free<lom.     Among  tlic  con- 
tcrnporiiries  and  countrymen  of  Mr  Oroto  it  is 
shame  indeed  if  nici  fail  to  see  in  the  great  De- 
miK-racy  the  first  state  which  taught  manliind 
that  tlio  voice  of  persuasion  could  be  str,.nirer 
than  a  despot's  will,  the  Hrst  which  taught  tiiat 
disputes  could  be  settled  by  a  free  debate  and  a 
free  vote  which  in  other  lands  could  have  been 
decided  only  by  the  banishment  or  massacre  of 
the  weaker  side.   ...    It  must  be  constantly 
borne  in  mind  that  the  true  differenee  between 
an  aristocratic  an<l  a  democratic  government   as 
thoie  words  were  understood  in  the  politics  of  old 
Oreece,  lies  in  this.     In  the  Dcmocracv  all  citi- 
zens, all  who  enjoy  civil  rights,  enjov  also  politi- 
cal  rights.     In  the  aristocmcy  political  rights 
belong  to  only  a  part  of  those  who  enjoy  civil 
ru'hls.     But.  in  cither  case,  the  highest  authority 
of  the  State  is  the  general  Assembly  of  the  whole 
ruling  bo<ly,   whether  that  ruling  body  be  the 
whole  people  or  only  a  part  of  it.  .  .  .  The  slaves 
and  strangers  who  were  shut  out  at  Athens  were 
according  to  Greek  ideas,    no  Athenians;    but 
every  Athenian  had  his  place  in  the  sovereign 
assembly  of  Athens,  while  every  Corinthian  had 
not  his    place    in   the   sovereign   assembly  of 
Corinth.    But  the  aristocratic  and  the  democratic 
commonwealth  both  agreed  in  placing  the  final 
authority  of  the  State  In  the  general  Assembly  of 
all  who  enjoy  the  highest  ifranchise.  .        The 
people,  of  its  own  will,  place<l  at  lu  head  men  of 
the  same  class  as  those  who  in  the  earlier  state  of 
things  had  ruled  it  against  its  will.     PeriklCs 
Nikias,  AlkibiadOs,   were  men  widely  differing 
in  character,  widely  dlllcring  in  their  relations  to 
the   popular   government.     But  all  alike   were 
men  of  ancient  birth,  who.  .ia  men  of  ancient 
birth,  found  their  way,  almost  as  a  matter  of 
cours.'.  to  those  high  places  of  the  Stiite  to  wliieli 
Klcon  found  his  way  only  by  a  strange  freak  of 
fortune.     At  Home  we  find  quite  another  storv. 
There,  no  less  than  at  Athens,  the  moRd  Influence 
of  nobility  survive.1   its  legal  privileges-  but 
more  than  this,  the  htitil  privileges  of  the  el.ler 
nobdity  were  never  wlinllv  swept  away,  and  the 
inherent  feeling  of  re»i>(ct   for  illustrious  birth 
called  into  Ix'ing  a  yonniter  nobility  l)v  ii4  side 
At  Athens  one  stage  of  reform  placeil  a  dislinc 
timi  of  wealth  Instead  of  a  distinction  of  birtli 
iinoiher    stage    swept  awav   the  dlslincti.i:i   of 
wiMlih  als<j.     But   the  reform,   at  each   of   in 
stages,  was  general;  it  alTec'ti-d  all  iiitices  a'ike 
bavo  those  sacred  olllees  whii  li  siill  remained  the 
special  heritage  of  certain  s.ieri-.l  families 
In  an  aristocratic  cominoinvealth  there  is  no  room 
for  I'erikPsi  ther.'  is  no  nniin  for  the  people  tii.l 
hearkened  to  Periklt^s:  but  in  men  of  th,.  si'Cond 
oriler.  skilful  conservative  administrators    tnen 
able  to  work  lb.-  system  which  they  find  i^tab 
llshed,  no  form  of  government  Is  so  fertile 
But  everywher..   wo  learn  the  same  leiun   the 
Inconsistency  of  commonwealths   which    boast 
themselves  of  ibilr  own  freedom  and  exalt  thetn- 
lelves  at  the  co<t  of  the  freeiloro  of  otiiers.'  — 

E.  A.  Freeman.  Cumnmtitt  l\Aitiei,  Uet  .5-fl 

"  D«mo«  was  hims.  If  King,  Minister,  ami  I'arlia 
ment.  He  ha<l  his  smaller  oDIcials  to  carry  out 
the  necewary  d.-taila  of  publjc  businesa,  but  he 
was  most  undoubtedly  his  own  First  Ix>rd  of  the 
Treasury,   his  own  Foreign  Uecreurr.  his  own 


171' 


Secretary  for  the  Colonies.     He  himself  kept  up 
a    personal    correspondence  both  with  foreign 
potentates  and  with  his  own  officers  on  foreign 
service;    the    'despatches'  of    Nikias   and  the 
note's   of  Philip  were  alike  Bfldrcssed  to  no  om 
cer  short  of  the  sovereien  himself;  ho  gave  per 
sonal  nuiliencc  to  the  ambassadors  of  other  states 
and  clothed  his  own  with  just  so  great  or  s<) 
small  a  share  as  he  deemed  good  of  his  own 
Iwnndless  authority.     He  had  no  need  to  entrust 
the  care  of  his  thousand  dependencies  to  the  mys- 
terious working  of  a  Foreign  Ollice;  he  liimHlf 
sat  in  judgment  upon  Mitvlenaian  rebels;  he  him 
self  settled  the  allotment  of  lands  at  Chalkis  or 
Amphipolis :  he  <lecreed  by  his  own  wisdom  what 
duties  should  be  levied  at  the  Sound  of  Bvzan- 
tion;  ho  even  ventured  on  a  task  of  which  "two- 
antl-twenty  ages  have  not  lessened  the  difflcuitv 
and   undertook,  without    the   help  of   a   Loni 
High  Commissioner,  to  adjust  the  relations  ami 
compose  the  seditions  even  of  Korkyra  and  Z.i 
kvnihos     He  was  his  own  Lord  High  Chancellor 
1^1  ■  "/'"■/'"n'  Pri™"'*.  '"is  own  Commander  in- 
thief.    He  listened  to  the  arguments  of  Kleon 
on  behalf  of  a  measure,  and  to  the  arguments  of 
N  klas  against  it,   and  ho   ended    by  'ridding 
?iiki8»  to  go  and  carry  out  the  propos  ,  which 
he  Iiad  denounce<l  as  extravagant  or  unjus*     He 
listenc<l  with  approval  to  his  own  '  explanations  • ' 
he  passed  votes  of  confidence  in  his  own  policy- 
he  advised  himself  to  give  his  own  royal  assent 
to  the  bills  which  he  had  himself  passed    with- 
out tlic  form  of  a  second  or  third  reading  or  the 
vain  ceremony  of  moving  that  tiie  Prytaneia  ilo 
leave  Micir  chairs.    ...   We  suspect  that  the 
averagi;  Athenian  citizen  was,  in  political  Intelli- 
gence, above  the  average  English  Me.nber  of 
1  arliament.     It  wa'*  this  concentration    of  all 
power  in  an  aggri'gate  of  which  every  citi.-en 
foinied  a  pert,  which  Is  the  distinguishing  ciiar 
actenstlc  of  tn-e  Greek  democracy.     Florence 
had  nothing  like  it;  fiicre  has  been  nothing  like 
it  in  the  modem  worid:  the  few  puredemocra 
cies  which  have  lingered  on   to  our  own  day 
have  never  had  such  mighty  questions  laid  iK'for.' 
them,  and  have  never  had  such  statesmen  and 
orators  to  lead  them.     The  great  Democracy  li.n 
had  no  fellow;  but  the  political  lessons  which  it 
tca»hes  are  none  the  !p<i,s  lessons  for  all  time  and 
for  every  land  ami  people,  "_E.    A.    Freeman, 
//M^nnmf  «M,iv»(r.  •»).•  m  Athtnian  Demx-nu-v 
"  The  individual  frceilom  which  was  enjoyeil  at 
Alliens  ami  which  Is  extolled  by  Pericles  was 
plainly  an  exciption  to  the  common  u.sagc  of 
Greece,  and  is  so  regarlerl  in  the  Funeral  Speech 
riie  w.ird  'freedom,' It  should  be  rememlKnd 
iKirc  an  ambiguous  meanmg.     It  denoted  on  the 
one  hand  |)olitical  liidep<ndencc,— the  exeniin 
of  sovereign  power  by  the  State  and  of  poliile  il 
rights  by  the  citizens.     In  this  sense  every  Gni  k 
citizen  could  claim  It  as  his  birthright      Kveii 
the  Spartans  coiil.l  tell  th,.  Persian  Hyilarnes  th  il 
Me  had  not,  like  them,  tasted  of  fret«Iom  auddi  1 
nut  know  whether  it  was  sweet  or  not.     But  tli.. 
wonl  also  denoted  p«T»onal  and  social  lilierlv.  - 
freedom  from  the  excessive  restraints  of  Uw'  Di  ■ 
absence  of  a  tyrannous  public  opinion  and  of  in 
Inleraiire  between  man  and  man.     Pericles clainn 
for  Athens  '  freedom'  in  this  double  sense      Hut 
fretilom  so  far  as  It  Implies  the  absence  of  h^'il 
lnU;rfer<'nco  in  the  private  concerns  of  life  «,n 
but   little  known  except   at  Athens."— S    11 
Butfher,    Aa,    4,^^,   ,y>   5,^    q^„^   „ 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  445-429. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  440-137. 


70-71.— "To  Athens  .  .  .  we  look  ...  for  an 
iinswer  to  the  question,  Wh«t  dofs  history  teach 
ill  regiinJ  to  the  virtue  of  a  purely  democmtic 
{Tovcrainent  T    And  here  we  may  safely  say  tliiit, 
under  favourable  circumstances,  there  is  no  forni 
of  government  which,  while  it  lasts,  has  such  a 
virtue  to  give  scope  to  a  vigorous  growth  and 
lu.xuriant  fruitage  of  various  nunhood  as  a  pure 
ilemocn\cy.  .  .  .  But  it  does  not  follow  that 
though  in  this  regard  It  has  not  been  surpassed 
by  any  otlier  form  of  government.  It  is  therefore 
absolutely  the  best  of  all  forms  of  government 
.  .  .  Neither,  on  the  other  hand,  does  it  follow 
from  the  shortness  of  the  bright  reign  of  Athenian 
democracy  —not  more  than  aoO  years  from  Clis- 
tlienes  to  the  Macedonians  —  that  all  democracies 
are  short-lived,  and  must  pay,  like  dissipate! 
young  gentlemen,  with  premature  decay  for  the 
feverish  abuse  of  their  vital  force.     Possible  no 
doubt  it  is,  that  if  the  power  of  what  we  may 
call  a  sort  of  Athcnif.n  Secon:!  (;iinml)er,  t'.i'e 
Areiopagus,  iu.stead  of  being  weakcne<l  ns  it  was 
by  Aristides  and  Pericles,  li.ul  b<x.'n  built  up  ac- 
cording to  the  idea  of  ^schylusaud  the  intelli- 
gent aristocrats  of  his  day,  such  a  iKxIy,  armi-d. 
like  our  House  of  Lords,  with  an  efleciivo  n"g;i- 
tlvc  on  all  outbursU  of  popular  mshness,  miglit 
have  prevenU'd  the  ambition  of  the  Athenians 
from  launching  on  that  famous  Syracusan  expedi- 
tion wiiicli  exhausu-d  their  force  and  maimed 
their  action  for  the  future.    But  the  lesson  taught 
by  the  shortlived  glory  of  Athens,  and  ifa  sub- 
jugation  under  the  rough  foot  of  the  astute  Mace- 
donian, is  not  that  democracies,  under  the  inHu- 
inre  of  faction,  and,  it  may  be,  not  free  from 
veniility.  will  sell  their  liberties  to  a  strong  neigh- 
twur— for  aristocratic  Poland  did  this  in  a  much 
more  blusliless  way  than  democratic  Greece  — 
but  that  any  loose  ngg,Tgato  of  independent 
•States,  given  more  '.c  quarr/ amongst  themselves 
tliiin  ti)  unite  8g-iln:,t  a  '?omn;on  enemy,  whether 
(lemooratie.    or  ari.U   ratin,    jr  ..lonarchical   in 
their  form  of  govemmi'nt,  cannot  in  tlie  long  rim 
maintain  the.r  ground  against  tlic  I'rra  policy  and 
the   well-massed  force  of  a  strong  monarchy. 
Athens  was  Iilotted  out  from  the  map  of  free 
peoples  at  rhienmea,  not  licoausc  the  Athenian 
piKiple  hail  too  much  frcc<loni,  hut  b<'causc  tlie 
Greek  StJites  had  too  little  unity.     They  were 
used  by  Philip  exactiv  in  the  s,ame  w.iy  thit 
Napoleon  useil  the  German  States  at  the  com- 


menci  inent  of  the  present  century. "—, I  S 
HliRkie.  What  itiiet  Ilintitrn  Tenrh  t  /)■).  2M-:tl  _ 
•  In  Herodotus  you  have 'the  beginning  of  the 
age  of  (li«eus«ion.  .  .  .  Tliedl<rours<sondemr>c- 
r:iey,  aristoeracy,  and  monarchv.  wliieli  be  puts 
into  tile  mouth  of  the  Pirsl.iu  ennspinitors  wluii 
the  monarchy  was  vacant,  h  ive  Justly  licen  r:\]],;\ 
absur.1.  :is  8|>eeclie»  supposed  U)  have  lieen  sp.  .k,n 
by  tliiiv  pereons.  No  Asiatic  ever  thought  of 
siicli  things.  You  might  as  well  Imagine  Saul 
"T  Daviil  speaking  them  as  thos<!  to  whom  lliro 
ilotus  attrlliuU'S  them.  They  an-  Greek  spie.'hes 
lull  of  free  Greek  di  iissions,  and  suggcsK'-l  by 
llie  experience,  alre.idv  considerable,  of  the 
Greeks  In  the  results  of  discussion.  The  age  of 
ilchaU'  is  beginning,  and  even  Herodotus,  the  Uw,. 
of  a  wrangler  of  any  man,  and  the  most  of  a 
swirl  and  simple  narrator,  fi'lt  the  effect  When 
we  come  lo  Thucydldes,  the  results  of  discussion 
ore  as  full  as  tlK-v  have  ever  been;  his  light  U 
■m.  'dry  light.'  free  from  tlie  ■humours'  of 
i3!)!<,  and  purgwi  frum  cuu«icral«a  usagu.     At 

1 


t 


Groto  s  history  often  reads  like  a  report  to  Parlia- 
ment, so  half  Thucydidi-s  rends  like  a  speech   or 
ni  itermls  for  a  spc-ech,  in  the  Athenian  Aa-K-nibly  ■ 
—  w.  Itngihot,  Fhi/Mic  aiut  Piilitict.  pp  170-171 
•1      440-437— Ne  v  settlements  of  Kler- 
oiichoi.-The     founding     of     Amphipolis.— 
Revolt   and    subjueation    of   Samos.— '  The 
great  aim  of   Perikles  was   to  strengthen  the 
powiT  of  Athens  over  the  whole  area  occupied 
by    her   confederacy.      The   establishment    of 
settlers  or  Klerouclioi  [sec  Kt.EnuciisI,  who  re- 
tained   their  riirhts  as  Athenian  ritzens     had 
answered    so  well    in   the    Ix'lnntian    plain  of 
EulKiia  that  it  was  obviously  go(Hl  policy  in  ex. 
tend   the  system.     The  territory  of  Hesliala  in 
the  north  of  Eulioia  and  the  islands  of  I.<>iniios 
Iinbros,  and  Skvros,   were  thus  occupied;    and 
Perikles  himself  led  a  botly  of  settlers  to  Hie 
Thrakian  Chersonesos  where  he  repaired  the  old 
wall  at  the  neck  of  the  penlnsul.i.  ami  even  to 
Siiiope  which  now   became  a  meinlier  of    the 
Atheniiin  alliance.      A  genemtion   had    parsed 
from  the  lime  when  Athens  lost  lO.tKHt  citizens 
in  the  attempt  to  found  a  colony  at  the  mouth  of 
the  SIrvmon.     The  task   was  'now   undertaken 
surcessfully  by  Hagnon,  and  the  city  came  into 
existence  \vlii<-li  was  to  Iw  the  cause  of  disaster 
to  the  historian  Thucydldes  and   to  witness  the 
death  of  Brasidtus  and  of  Kleon   [see  Amphi- 
l-o!,is1    .      .  Two  years  liefore  the  fiHinding  of 
Ampliiimlis.  Samos  a-volted  from  Athens. 
In   this  revolt  of  Samos  the  overt  action  ci.nns 
from  tiio  oligarclis  who  had  seiwd   upon  the 
Ionian  town  of  Priene,  and  defeated  the  Mile- 
sians who  opposed  them.     The  latter  appealed  lo 
the  Athenians,  and  received  not  only  their  aid 
but  that  of  the  Sainian  demos.     The  latter  now 
Iiecame  the  ruling  iKuly  in  the  island,  fifty  men 
and  fifty  boys  iH'ing  taken   from   the  ohgarrliic 
familiesaml  plaeeil  as  hostages  in  Ix'innos.  which 
as  we  have  seen,  \vm  now  wholly  oceiipii?<l  liy 
Athenian   Kleniuehoi.     But  the  Samian  exiles 
(for  many  hail  lie  1   rather    than  live  under  a 
deinocnu'y)   cntereil    into    covenant    with    Pis- 
soutlines,  the   S;inlian  satrap,  en)ssed    over  to 
Samoa  and  si'ired  the  chief  men  of  the  demos, 
then   falling  on  lA-mnos  succeeiled  In  stealing 
away  the  ho-itages:  and.  having  bandnl  over  to 
Pissoutlmes  the   Athenian   garriscm    at  Samos, 
maile  ready  for  an  e<pe<liii,m  against  Mileios 
The  tidings  that   Uyz  mtion  liad  JoinH  in  this 
last  revolt  left  to  the  Atik-nians  no  room  to  doubt 
the  gravity  of  the  crisis,     A  Heet  of  sixty  ships 
was  dispatched   'o  S.imos  under  Perikles    and 
nine  other  generals,  of  whom  Ihe  poet  Sophoklcs 
is  said  to  have  bei-n  one.     Of  these  ships  sixteen 
were  si-nt.  some  to  gnther  tlie  allies,  others  to 
watch  for  the   Phenii  ian   Heet   which  thev  lie- 
Ileved  to  U-  off  the  Kuii:in  coast  ailvsncirig  to 
Ihe  aid  of  the  Saniliiii  oligarchs.     With  the  re- 
m.ilnder  Perikles  <lid  not  hesitate  to  engage  the 
Samian  fleet  of  seventv  ships  which  he  encoun- 
tered on  lis  reiurn  from  .Mlletosoff  the  ItlamI  of 
Tragla.     The  Athenians  gained  the  day   and 
Samos  was  lilnckadeil  by  land  and  sea.     Bn!  no 
sooner  had    Perikles  aslled  with  sixty  shii-.  lo 
ira-et  tlie  Piienician  tieel.  than  Ihe  Samlans,  iiiak- 
liig  a  vlgomiis  sally,  broke  the  lines  of  the  lie- 
sl.'gers  ami  for  fourteen  days  remalm-d  masters 
of  the  sea.     The  return  of  Perikles  changed  the 
face  of  things,     Soou  after  the  resumption  of 
the   sle-je   Ihf  iirrfviil  nf  Bi,i[tV    frerth  sliiiis  fnitn 

I  Atbens  under  dve  btralcgoi  iu  two  duiarliinents, 

73 


i:\l 


ATHENS.  B.  C.  *4(M37. 


Aloponnaian 
War. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  431. 


with  thirty  from  Chlo§  and  LMboa,  damped  the 
energy  of  the  Samian  oligarchs;   and  an  unsuc- 
cessful effort  at  sea  was  followed  by  their  sub- 
mission in  the  ninth  month  after  the  beginning 
of  the  revolt,  the  terms  being  that  they  should 
raze  their  walls,  give  hostages,  surrender  their 
ships,  and  pay  the  expenses  of  the  war.    Follow- 
ing their  example,  the  Byzantines  also  made 
their  peace  with  Athens.    The  Pheniciaa  fleet 
never  came.  .  .  .  The  Athenians  escaped  at  the 
same  time  a  far  greater  danger  neater  home. 
The  Samians,  lilte  the  men  of  Thasos,  hail  ap- 
plied for  tid  to  the  Spartans,  who,  no  longer 
pressed  bv  the  Helot  war,  summoned  a  congress 
of  their  allies  to  discuss  the  question.    For  the 
truce  which  had  still  flve-and-twenty  years  to 
run  Sparta  cared  nothing;  but  she  encountered 
an  opposition  from  the  Corinthians  which  per- 
haps she  now  scarcely  expected.  .  .  .  The  Spar- 
tans were  compelled  to  give  way ;  and  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  when  some  years  later  the 
Corinthians  claimed  the  gratitude  of  the  Athen- 
ians for  this  decision,  they  toolc  credit  for  an  act 
of    good   service   singularly    opportune.     Had 
they  voted  as  Sparta  wUlied,  Athens  might  by 
the  extension  of  revolt  amongst  her  allied  cities 
have  been  reduced  now  to  tiic  condition  to  which, 
in  consequence  perhaps  of  this  respite,  she  was 
not  brought  until  the  lifetime  of  a  generation 
had  been  spent  in  desperate  warfare."— G  \V 
Cox,  Hilt,  of  GrcfM,  bH.  3,  ch.  I  (v.  2). 
,.?■  C.43'-— Beginning  of  the  Pelopoaneuan 
War.— Its  Causes — 'In  B.   C.   431   the  war 
broke  out  between  Athens  and  the  Pcloponncslan 
League,  which,  after  twenty -seven  years,  ended 
'    the  ruin  of  the  Athenian  empire,     It  began 
through  a  quarrel  between  Corinth  and  Kerkyra, 
in  which  Athens  assisted  Kerkyra.    A  congress 
was  held  at  Sparta ;  Corinth   and   other  Suites 
complained  of  the  conduct  of  Athens,  ami  war 
was  decided  on.     The  real  cause  of  the  war  was 
that  Sparta  and  its  allies   were  jealous  of  the 

great    power    that    Athens    had    gained    [see 
RKBCE:   B.   C.    43.'M;!3  and  433-431].     Afar 
greater  number  of  Greek  States  were  cngageil  in 
this  war  than  had  ever  been  engaged  in  a  single 
undertaking  before.    States  that  hud  takra  no 
part  in  the  Persian  war  were  now  lighting  on 
one  side  or  the  otiier.     Sparu  was  an  iillii.irchy 
and    the     friend    of    the    nobles    ovcrywlaru' 
Athens  was  a  democracy,  and  the  frienil  of  the 
common  people ;  so  tliat  the    ,var  was  U)  some 
extent  a  struggle  betweeen  these  classes  all  over 
Greece,  and  often   within   the  same  city  walls 
tlie  nobles  and  the  people  attacked  one  anotlier. 
the  nobles  Iwing  for  Sparta  and  the  people  for 
Athens.     On  the  side  of  .Span.i.  when   the  war 
liegan,  there  was  all  I'elopoimc-i'n  except  Argos 
and  Acliira,  and  also  the  ollgunhlcnl  B-eotlan 
League  under  Thebes  besiile.1   Phokis,  I^jkris 
and  other  States  west  of  thera.     They  were  very 
strong  by  hiud,  l)ut  the  Corlnthians'alone  had  a 
good  fleet.     Later  on  we  shall  see  the  powerful 
Slate  of  Syracuse   with  iu  navy,  adinfc,    with 
Sparta.     On  the  side  of  Athens  there  win-  almost 
all  the   „t,giean    Islands,   and  a   great  uiiinli«T 
of    the   A^.tan  coast  Uiwns    as   well  lis    Ker- 
kyra and  certain  SUtus  In   the    west   of  tireece 
riie   Atlisnlans  had  also    made    alliance    with 
Nlalkes,  the  barbarian  king  of  tiiu  interior  of 
Thrace,     Athens  was  far  stronger  bysealliaii 
bparu,  but  hail  not  such  a  Btr)ng  land  armv 
Oa  ths  otiier  hand  it  bad  a  large  trea»jr>'.  aod'a 


s;rstem  of  taxes,  while  the  Spartan  League  had 
little  or  no   money,"— C.   A.   Pyffe,   Ilitt.    of 
Orttet   (Ilu-tory    Primerii),  p.   84.— The    Ionian 
cities,  called  "allien"  of  Athens,  were  subjects  in 
reality,  and  held  in  subjection  by  tyrannical 
measures  which  made  the  yoke  odious,  as  is 
plainly   explained    by   Xenophon,    who   says  ■ 
"Some  person  might  say,   tliat  it  is  a  great 
support  to  the  Athenians  that  their  allies  should 
be  in  a  condition  to  contribute  money  to  tliem. 
To  the  plebeians,   however,   it  seems  to  l>e  of 
much  greater  advant^ige  th.U  every  individual  of 
the  Atuenians  should  get  some  of  the  property 
of  the  allies,  and  that  the  allies  themselves  should 
have  only  so  much  as  to  enable  them  to  live  and 
to  till  the  ground,  so  that  they  may  not  be  in  a 
condition  to  form  conspiracies.    The  people  of 
Atiiensseemalso  toha'    acted  injudiciously  in 
this  respect,  that  Aey  c      re  their  allies  to  make 
vovages  to  Athens  for  the  decision  of  their  law- 
suits.   But  the  Athenians  consider  only,  on  the 
otiier  hand,  what  beneflts  to  the  state  of  Athens 
are  attendant  on  this  practice;  in  the  first  place 
they  receive  their  dues  throughout  the  year  from 
the  prytaneia;  in  the  next   place,   they  manage 
the  government  of  the  allied  states  while  sitting 
at  home,  and  without  sending  out  ships;    they 
also  support  suitors  of  the  lower  orders,  anj 
ruin  those  of  an  opposite    character    hi    tlieir 
courts  of  law;    but  If  each  sbite  had  its  own 
courts,  they  would,  as  being  hostile  to  the  Athe- 
nians,  be  the  ruin  of   those   who  were  most 
favourable  to  the  people  of  Athens.     In  aildition 
to  these  advantages,  the  Athenian  people  have 
the  following  profits  from  the  courts  of  justice 
for  the  allies  being  at  Alliens;  first  of  all  the 
duty  of  the  hundredth  on  what  is  lauded  at  the 
Peineeus  affords  a  greater  revenue  to  the  city ; 
next,  whoever  has  a  lodging-house  makes  more 
moni'v  by   it,  as  well  as  whoever  has  cattle  or 
Slav     .or  hire ;  and  the  heralils,  too,  arc  b<'uijlltcd 
by  tlie  visits  of  the  allies  to  the  city      I'.^i  les.  if 
the  allies  did  not  come  t,i  Alliens  for  law,  they 
would  honour  only  such  of  the  Athenians  !is 
were  sent  over  the  sea  to  tliciu,  as  geuirals,  aal 
capliiins  of  vcssi'ls,  and  ambassadors;    but  now 
every  indlvi  lual    of    the    allies    is    obli,r,.,l  t. 
liattur  the   people  of  Athens,  knowim;  that  m 
goin:?  to  Athens  he  must  gain  or  lose   his  ra»*> 
nceordiag  to  the  decision,  not  of  other  Julian. 
b»t  of  the  people,  as  is  the  law  of  Athens;   au  i 
he  is  comiK'lled,  too,  to  use  supplication  befun' 
tlie  court,  and,  as  any  one  of  the  people  enters, 
to  take  him  by  tlie  hand.     Uy  these  means  tli" 
allies  lire  in  consequence  rendered  much  in  irf 
the  slaves  of  the  AthenUn  people."— Xenophi^n. 
Oi  tlie  Athenitin   Oomnnunt     (Hiwir    It'.r*. 
tniiui.  hi/  iter.  J.  S.   WatHDn),  p.  J:),").  — The  ro\  a 
of  these  ciK'rce,l  and  hostile  "alHea,"  upon  lii- 
outbreak  of  the  Pelipoaneslan  War,    was  Iuim 
table— ■'"he  prominent  events  of  the  Pelopoiiiu 
slau  war,  in   wlihli   nio.t  of,  the   Grwk  Stati* 
were   involved,    are  pro[HTly  narrated  in   th.ir 
connection    with    Urei'k    history    at  large  iv 
OiiiiKci;:    B.    C.    4;ll-4a9,    and  aftiT).     In  liii, 
place  ii  will  only  be  n-eessary  to  take  accoa:r 
of  the  consequences  of  the  war  as  they  altic!.  I 
ll.i^  rin  irkable  city  and  pi-oplf  whose  sapirinr;  » 
h.i  I  od-asioned  it  liy  challenging  and  S'lmiw  lii'. 
o.rcu,lvi.|y    provoking    the    jealousy    of    tliii 
nel'.;til»ors. 


174 


B.C.    4)1.  — Peloponaesian    invasions    of 
A'";»-  — Siege  of  Athens,  -    WiilLj  tiir  !\: 


ATHBNS,  B.  C.  481. 


Funeral  Oration 
0/  PtricU*. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  430. 


ponncsiana  were   gathering    at    the   Isthmus, 
and  were  still  on  their  way,  but  before  they 
enteiwl  Attica,  Pericles,  the  son  of  Xanthippus, 
who  was  one  of  the  ten  Athenian  generals.  .  .  . 
repeateil  [to  the  Athenians]  his  previous  advice; 
tliey  must  prepare  for  war  and  bring  their  prop- 
ertv  from  the  country  into  the  city;  they  must 
defend  their  walls  but  not  go  out  to  battle;  they 
should  also  equip  for  service  the  fleet  in  which 
lay  their  strength.  .  .  .  Tlie  citizens  were  per- 
suaded, and  brought  into  the  city  their  children 
and  wives,  their  household  goods,  and  even  the 
wood-work  of   their  houses,   which  they  took 
down.    Their  flocks  and  beasts  of  burden  they 
conveyed  to  Euboea  and  the  adjacent  islands. 
The  removal  of  the  inhabitanu  was  painful :  for 
the  Athenians  had  always  been  accusU)med  to 
reside  in  the  country.     Such  a  life  had  been 
chancteristic  of  them  more  than  of  any  other 
Hellenic   people,   from  very  early  times.  .  .  . 
Whin  they  came  to  Athens,  only  a  few  of  them 
had  houses  or  could  find  homes  among  friends 
or  kindred.    The  majority  took  up  their  8bo<le 
in  the  vacant  spaces  of  the  city,  and  in  the  tem- 
ples and  shrines  of  heroes.  .  .  .  Many  also  estab- 
li-shcd  themselves  in  the  turrets  of  the  walls,  or 
iu  any  other  place  which  they  could  find;  for 
the  ciiy  could  n,'t  contain  them  when  they  first 
cami^  in.    But  afterwards  tliey  divide<l  among 
tliem  tlie  Long  Wa'ls  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
I'iricus.     At  the  same  time  the  Athenians  ap- 
plied themselves  vigorously  to  the  war,  summon- 
ing their  allies,  and  preparing  an  expedition  of 
100  ships  against  the  Peloponnese.     While  they 
were  thus  engaged,  the  Pelnponnesian  army  was 
adviinring:  it  arrived  first  of  all  at  Ocnoc."  where 
Arcliidiimus,   the  Spartan  king,    wasted   much 
timi'  in  a  fru'tless  siege  and  assault.     "At  last 
tliey  ni;irche<i  on,  and  about  the  eightieth  day 
after  the  entry  of  the  Thebans  inU)  Plataea,  in 
the  middle  of  the  summer,  when  the  corn  was 
in  full  ear,  invaded  Attica.  .  .  .  They  encamped 
ami  ravaged,  Srst  of  all,  Eleusis  and  the  plain 
ufThria.  .  .  .  At  Achamae  theyencampiM).  and 
remained  there  a  considerable  time,  ravaging  the 
lounlry."    It  was  tlie  expectation  of  Archidamus 
that  tlie  Athenians  would  be  provoked  to  come 
out  and  meet  him  in  the  open  field;  and  that. 
ini|«,i,  they  were  eager  to  do;  but  the  prudence 
of  till ir  great  leader  held  them  back.     "The  peo- 
ple were  furious  with  Perioles,  and,  forgetting 
all  his  iirevious  warnings,  tliev  abused  liiin  for 
nut  leading  them  to  battle."    But  he  was  vlndl- 
nitid  by  the  result.     "The  Puloponneaians  re- 
mained in  Atticji  as  long  as  their  provisiims  lasted, 
an.!  ilicn,  taking  a  new  roiit«,  retired  through 
"."■"tia.  ...  On  their  return  to  Peloponnesus 
the   tnK)ps  disperse.!    to   tlieir  several    cities." 
-Hiiiniiim'  the  Athenian  and  allied  fleets  were 
nivui'inif  the  Pelopounesian  const.     ' '  In  the  same 
sunmur  [B.  C.  431]  the  Athenians  expelled  the 
.Vt'in,  tans  ami  tlieir  families  f  mm  Aegina,  alleg- 
ini:  that  they  had  Ik'en  the  main  ciiuae  of  the 
wsr   .  .  .  The  Lacedai'monians  gave  the  Aegine- 
tan  r\ili..<  tlie  town  of  Tlivrea  to  occupy  and  the 
«"ll"inini:  country  to  cultivate.  ,  .  .  About  the 
fw    of  llie  summer  the  entire  Athenian  force. 
imlurling  the  metica,  inviwled   the  territory  of 
»  fi"^"   ■  ■  •  ■'^'"^''  •"'"""rmg  the  greater  part 
ot  th,.  cnnitry  tiny  retired.     They  repeated  the 
nviiM  ,.,  wunetimcs  wiili  cavalry,  sometimei  with 
iiw  wi,,,|,.  Atiipoi,,,,  „„„y  ,        .  year  during  the 
•w  until  .Nis:«-:;  was  taken  [B.  t.  424]."--l-hucy- 


176 


?o'o^'  ,^*^/  '«>»"•  »y  B.  Jouett,  bk.  a,  net. 
\o-o\  (e.  1). 

B.  C.  430.— The  funetsl  oration  of  Pericle*.— 

IJunng  the  wmterof  the  yewr  B.  C.  431-430  "la 
accordance  with  ao   old  national   custom,    the 
funeral  of  those  who  first  fell  in  this  war  was  cele- 
brated by  the  Athenians  at  the  public  charge 
The  ceremony  is  as  follows:    Three  days  before 
the  celebration  they  erect  a  tent  in  which  the 
bones  of  the  dead  are  laid  out,  and  every  one 
brings  to  his  own  dead  any  offering  which  he 
pleasia.    At  the  time  of  the  funeral  the  liones 
are  placed  in  chests  of  cypress  wood,  which  are 
c<>nveye<l  on  hearses;  there  is  one  chest  for  each 
tnbe.      They  al.so  carry  a  single   empty  li"er 
decked  with  a  pall  for  all  whose  Ixxlies  u-e  mi  j- 
ing,  and  cannot  be  recovered  after  the  battle 
The  procession  is  accompanied  by  any  one  » lio 
chooses,   whether  citizen  or  stranger,  and  the 
female  relatives  of  the  deceased  are  present  at 
the  place  of  interment  and  make  lamentatiou 
The  public  sepulchre  is  situated  in  the  most  bepu- 
tiful  spot  outside  the  walls;  there  they  always 
■""■y  those  who  fall  in  war;  onl^  afU-r  the  battle 
of  Marathon  the  dead,  in  recognition  of  tlieir 
pre-eminent  valour,  were  interred  on  the  field 
\\  hen  the  remains  have  been  laid  iu  tlie  earth 
Boi.ie  man  of  known  abilitv  and  high  reputation 
chosen  by  the  city,  delivera  a  suitable  oration 
over  them ;  after  which  the  jieople  depart.     Such 
is  ttic  manner  of  iuk-rment ;  and  the  ceremony 
was  repeated  from  time  to  time  throughout  tlie 
war.      Over  those    who  were  the   first    buriwl 
PcTicles  was  cliosen  to  speak.      At  the  Httiuij 
Miriinent  he  ailvanced  from  the  sepulchre  to  a 
"fty  stage,  which  liad  ln-en  erected  iu  order  tliat 
he  iiiiglit  lie  heard  as  far  as  pos.sible  bv  tlie  inul- 
litude.  and  spoke  as  follows:— '  Most  of  those 
who  have   spoken    here  before  me    have  tom- 
mended  the  lawgiver  who  added  this  oration    -> 
our  other  funeral  customs;  it  seemed  to  thei     . 
worthy  thin^  that  such  an  honour  should  Ik'  gi>  a 
lit  their  burial  to  the  dead  who  have  fa'',  o  on 
the  field  of  battle.     But  I  shouI<l  liave  preferred 
that,  wlien  men's  deeds  have  Leen  brave,  thev 
should  Ik!  Iionourc<l  in  I'-ed  onlv,  and  with  such 
ail  hcmour  as  this  public  funeral,  which  vou  are 
now  witnessing.     Then  the  reputation  of  many 
would  not  have  been  impiiilled  on  the  ehxiucnce 
or  want  of  elo(iU"nce  ot  one,  and  their  virtues 
lielieved  or  not  as  he  spoke  well  or  ill.     For  it  is 
difficult  to  S.IV  neither  too  little  nor  too  imieh; 
and  even  mcKleration  is  apt  not  to  givr  the  im- 
pression of  truthfulness.     Tiie  friend  .)f  the  de:-d 
who  knows  the  facts  is  .Ikelv  to  think  timt  the 
words  of  th.  spi'aker  full  short  of  his  kn.iwli.lge 
and  of  his  wishes;  another  who  is  not  .s,>  w.-ll  in- 
forine.1.  vhon  he  hears  of  anytiiiiig  wlii.ii  sur- 
passi'S  his  own  powers,  will  tw  envious  anil  will 
suspect  cxaggerati.m.     Mankind  are  tol.rant  of 
the  pralsesof  otlie.sso  long  as  each  hearerthinks 
that  he  can  do  as  will  or  neiirty  as  well  himself, 
but,  wlien  the  speaker  rises  alwve  him.  ji'alnusv 
lsarous<'ilandlieb<'ginstobclncr.  duloiis.     Ilow'- 
ever,  since  our  ancestors  liave  set  ll.e  seal  of  Ihi-ir 
approval  upon  the  praelice,  I  must  obey,  im.l  to 
the  utmost  of   my   power   shall  eii.l.'ai    ..-    to 
satisfy  tlie  wishes  ami  Iwliefj  of  all  «  ho  hear  me. 
I  will  speak  first  of  our  ancestors,  for  it  :s  right 
and  twcoming  that  now.  wlien  we  are  lamiiitlag 
the  deai'   a  tribute  sliouM  lie  paid  to  their  mem- 
ory.    There  has  never  lieen  a  time  when  thev 
aid  Out  iuhabil  this  land,  wli.ch  by  their  vaiour 


),-^ 


m 

lit-     " i'  » 

I;:  1    I 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  480. 


Funtrat  Oratim 
0/  PirieU*. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  430. 


they  have  hnnded  down  from  generation  to  gen- 
eratioD,  and  we  have  receiveil  from  them  a  free 
state.     But  if  tliey  were  wortliv  of  priiise,  still 
more  were  our  fathers  wlio  adilcil  to  thiir  hiheri- 
tancc,  and  after  many  a  struggle  transmitted  to 
us  their  sons  this  great  empire.     And  we  our- 
selves assembled  here  to-day,  wlio  are  still  most 
of  us  in  the  vijjour  of  life,  have  chiefly  done  the 
work  of  improvement,  and  have  richly  endowed 
our  city  with  all  things,  so  that  she  is  sulllcient 
for  herself  botli  in  peace  and  war.     Of  tlie  mili- 
tary exploits  by  which  our  various  possessions 
were  acqiured,  or  of  the  energy  with  which  we 
or  our  fatliers  drove  back  tlic  tiile  of  war,  Hel- 
lenic or  Barbarian,  I  will  not  speak:  for  tlic  tale 
would  be  long  and  is  familiar  to  you.    But  be- 
fore I  praise  the  dead,  I  should  like  to  point  out 
by  what  principles  of  action  we  rose  to  jK)wer, 
and  under  what  institutions  and  througli  wliat 
manner  of  life  our  empire  became  great.     For  I 
conceive,  that  such  thoughts  are  not  unsuitcil  to 
the  occasion,  and  that  tills  numerous  as-iembly 
of  citizens  and  strangers  may  proBt.ibly  lisU.Mi  to 
them.     Our  form  of  eovenifnent  ilnes  not  enter 
into  rivalry  with  the  Institutions  of  others.     We 
do  not  copy  our  neighbours,  but  are  an  example 
to  them.     It  is  true  tliat  we  are  called  a  democ- 
racy, for  the  administration  is  in  tlic  hands  of 
the  many  ami  not  of  the  few.     But  while  the  law 
secures  equal  justice  to  all  alike  in  their  private 
disputes,  the  claim  of  excellon<'o  is  also  recog- 
nlse<l ;  and  when  a  citizen  is  in  anv  w.iy  distin- 
guislied,  he  is  proferri'd  to  the  public  service, 
not  a.s  a  matter  of  privilege,  but  as  the  reward 
of  merit.     Ncitlierii  poverty  a  bar,  tut  a  man 
may  bineflt  his  country  whatever  Iw  the  olMcur- 
ity  fif  his  conilitii>n.     There  is  no  exclusiveness 
In  our  iniblic  life,  and  in  our  private  huercoursc 
we  are  not  suspiciius  of  one  another,  nor  angry 
witli  our  nei.,'bl>oui  if  he  does  wlmt  he  likes;  we 
do  not  put  on  sour  looks  at  him  wliieh,  tliouHi 
harmless,  are  not  pleasant.     Wliile  we  are  thus 
uneonstniiiied  in  our  private  inUTcourse,  a  spirit 
of  n'veniicepervadesourp..;)licaets;  wearepro- 
venled  from  doing  wrong  by  respect  for  autlior- 
ity  and  for  the  laws,  having  an  es|vcial  regard 
to  those  which  arc  ordained  for  tlie  proteiiiiin  of 
the  injured  as  well  as  to  those  unwritten  laws 
which  bring  upon  the  transga'ssor  of  them  ti,, 
reprobation  of  the  general  sentiment.     And  wi' 
have    not  forgotten  to  provide  for   our  wi-arv 
spirits  m.iny  relaxations  from  toil;  w  have  rLg.i- 
lar  games  and  sjicritlces  tliroughout  the  ye.ir- 
at  home  tlic  style  of  our  life  is  rellned ;  and  the 
delight  wliicli  we  daily  feel  la  all  these  thing's 
helps  to    banish    melancholy.      Because  of  tile 
grealmss  of  our  city  the  "fruiu  of   the  whulo 
earlli  ll.nv  in  upon    us;  so  that  we   enj"y  tlie 
giKxis  of  othiT  countries  as  fni'ly  as  of  our  own 
Then,   again,  our  militiirv  training  i.s  in  manv 
rcspci  l».,,iperiorto  that  of  ourailversaries.     ()  fr 
city  is  thrown  open  to  the  worlil,  and  we  never 
expel  a  f.in'inixT  or  prevent  him  from  si.^irii;  or 
learning  anylliing(.f  whhh  the  secret  if  revealed 
to  an  eniiny  uiiglit  proilt  him.    We  relv  not  upon 
luanagementor  trickery,  but  uponourown  liearts 
and  lianils.      .Vnd  in  the  matter  of  Hlucation, 
wliinMH  tliey  fri>m  eariv  youlii  are  always  under- 
going lalioriousexiTei.seswhiehare  tomaketlii.in 
brave,  we  live  at  ease,  and  yet  arc  eipialiv  ready 
to  face  the  l,.iee(|iiemonians  come  into  Atlica  not 
by  ihemsi-lves,  but  with  their  wli.ile  confcleraey 
foUowlQg;wegoa!om;liit^>ane!^'libuur'=futi!ilry: 


176 


and  a'  •  'lough  our  opponent*  are  fighting  for  their 
Uomi  id  we  on  a  foreign  soil  we  liave  sel.loiri 
any  d  .  Ity  In  overcomfiig  them.  Our  encinity 
have  yet  felt  our  unitcil  strengi  li ;  tlie  tare 

of  a  navy  divides  our  attention,  and  cm  Ian  I  we 
are  obliged  to  send  our  own  citizens  every  wlurt 
But  they,  if  they  meet  and  defeat  a  part  of  our 
army,  arc  as  proud  as  if  they  had  routed  us  all 
and  when  defeated  they  pretend  to  have  lueii 
vanquisheil  by  us  all.     If  then  we  prefer  to  iniat 
danger  with  a  light  heart  but  without  lalK)ri„us 
training,  and  with  a  courage  which  is  gairnil  liy 
habit  and  not  enforced  by  law,  are  we  not  envulv 
the  gainers  1    Since  we  do  not  anticipate  tli<'  paJQ 
although,  when  the  hour  comes,  we  can  lie  a^ 
brave  as  those  who  never  allow  themsihis  to 
rest;  and  thus  t(x)  our  city  Is  equally  ailrniriyi! 
in  peace  and  in  war.     For  wc  are  lovers  of  tli. 
Iieautiful,  yet  simple  in  our  tastes,  and  wc  eiil" 
ti  vate  the  mind  without  loss  of  manline.^.  Woaltli 
wc  employ,   not  for  talk  and  o»tentalio:i.  bit 
when  there  is  a  real  use  for  it.     To  avow  pov- 
erty  with  us  is  no  disgrace-;  the  true  lis'niio  |j 
in  doing  nothing  to  a\oid  it.     An  Athetiiiiii  eiti 
zen  does  not  neglect  the  state  Ihwiiuw  Itc  takes 
care  of  his  own  household ;  and  ever  thos,.  of  us 
who  are  engaged  in  business  have  a  v.ry  fair 
idea  of  politics.     Wc  alone  rogarj  a  inari  wlw 
takes  no  interest  In  publii-  affairs,  not  as  a  Innn- 
less,  but  as  a  useless  cliaracter;  and  if  few  of  u, 
are  originators,   we  arc  all  sound  jiidins  of  a 
policy.     The  great  inip<iliment  to  aeiio:,  i,<  in 
our  opinion,  not  disim.ssion,  but  the  want  of  ihu 
knowledge  which  is  gained  bv  ilis<ii<,i,,ii  nn>. 
paraUirv  to  action.    Forwe  haveapiculi  ironivor 
of  thinking  l»'fore  we  act  and  of  a.iiii,'  km 
whereas  other  men  are  courageous  from  i '  i  ranee 
but  hesiuite  upon  roflecticm.     Ami  thm  aiv  ^  iroU 
to  be  esteemed  the  bravest  spirits  who  lining 
the  clearest  sense  both  of  the  pains  ani  pi.  imi^j 
of  life,  ilo  not  on  that  account  slirink  from  ilan- 
ger.     In  doing  g<x)d,  again,  we  are  unlike  oihcrj- 
we  make  our  friends  by  conferring,  not  hy  re- 
ceiving favours.     Now  ho  who  coiiHrs  a  ravour 
is  the  firmer  friend,  becau.se  he  would  f  on  by 
kindness  keep  alive  the  meinorvof  aiiohli    itioo 
but  the  recipient  is  colder  in  his  feelings.  Ivcause 
ho  knows  that  in  requiting  another's  irin.  msity 
he  will  not  lie  winning  gratitude  butoiilv  [nvin- 
adebt.     Weahmedo  good  toour  neiithlilinrs"  m 
mxm  a  calculaticm  of  interest,  hut  in  tln'  oma- 
deneo   of  fn>edoin  an<l  in  a  frank  ami  fcarlew 
spirit.     To  sum  up;  I  say  that  Alliens  is  tbc 
stiKHil  of  Hellas,  ami  that  the  imiividual  .\tbe- 
nian  in  his  own  pi'rson  seems  to  have  the  pow,.r 
of  adapting  himself  to  the  most  varie.1  forms  of 
action  with  the  utmost  versjitiliiv  and    iirace 
This  is  no  piLs.siiig  and  i.lle  wonl,  but  tnitli  and 
f  let:  11,1 1  till'  iiss,.rtioii  is  vi'riliod  !iy  the  p.^itinn 
to  wliieh  tlii'se  cpiiliiies  have  raisV.l  tlir  sate 
For  in  the  lioiir  of  trial  Athens  alone  am  .n-  lier 
ciintemiximri.'s  is  siqierior  to  tlie  n'port,,f  licr 
No  enemy  who  eiimes  ag.iinst  her  i.s  indinn ant  at 
the  reverses  whiili  he  sustains  at  tli'  binds  of 
Huch  acily;  no  sulijcct  coinpiains  that  his  raaa- 
Urs  are   unworthy  ,if   liini.      Ami  we  shall  u- 
s'iredly   not   lie    without    witnesses;    th  ie  are 
nil  'hty  monuinenis  of  our    po.ver  wlii  'i  will 

make  us  the  wornlir  of  ihi)  uml  of  sir ^linij 

ages:weMliall  not  iioed  the  pmis<s  of  II ror 

of  any  olhcr  panegyrist  whose  |)oe|rv  niav  pkiue 
for  tile  iiioineni,  although  his  n-|)ri>sinratMUof 
tju  facu  will  not  boar  the  light  of  day.     For  w« 


\THEKS.  B.  C.  430. 


Fmrral  Oralltm 
of  PtricUt. 


ATHENS,  B.  r 


h»Te  compelled  every  land  and  every  «ea  to  open 
a  path  for  our  valour,  and  have    everywhcru 
planted  eternal  memorials  of  our  friendship  and 
of  our  enmity.     Such  is  the  city  for  whose  sake 
tlic-ie  men  nol)ly  fought  and  died;  they  could  not 
btiir  the  thought  that  she  might  Iw  taken   from 
them;  and  every  one  of  us  who  survive  8houl(l 
ghully  toil  on  her  behalf.     I  have  dwelt  ui)on  the 
griMintss  of  Athens  because  I  want  to  show  you 
that  we  are  contending  for  a  lilgliitr  priic  tiian 
tliii*.'  who  enjoy  none  of  these  privileges,  and  to 
estahlish  by  manifest  proof  the  merit  of  tliose 
men  whom  I  am  now  commemorating.     Thiir 
loftii'st  praise  bag  been  already  spoken.     For  in 
mauMifying  the  city  I  have  magnified  them,  and 
men  like  them  whose  virtues  made  her  glorious. 
An.l  of  how  few  Hellenes  can  it  be  siiirl  as  of 
thim,  that  their  deeds  when  weighed   in  the 
bilince  have  been  found  equal  to  their  fame! 
Mctliinks  that  a  death  such  as  theirs  has  been 
givis  the  true  measure  of  a  man's  worth ;  it  mav 
be  tiie  first  revclaliim  of  his  virtues,  but  is  at  any 
r:iie  their  final  8<-al.     For  even  those  who  come 
sh  .r.  In  other  ways  may  justly  plead  the  valour 
wi;h  which  they  have  fought  for  their  country; 
they  have  blotU'd  out  the  evil  with  the  good,  and 
hive  benefitc.l  the  stjitc  more  by  their  public 
Servicer  than  they  have  injured  her  by  their  pri- 
vate ;i'  tions.     None  of  these  men  were  enervatoil 
by  IV     !th  or  hesitaU- 1  to  resign  the  pleasures  of 
life;  ..  .lie  of  them  put  off  the  evil  day  in  the 
hope,  natural  to  poverty,  that  a  man,  thougli 
poor,  may  one  day  become  rich.     Hut,  deeming 
thai  tlie  punishment  of  theircnemies  was  sweeter 
tli:m  any  of  tliese  things,  and  that  t!iev  could  fall 
in  n  .  nobler  cause,  they  determined  nt'the  hazard 
of  thiir  lives  to  be  honourably  avenge  I,  aril  to 
leave  the  rest.     They  resigned' to  hope  their  un- 
known cha.nee  of  happiness;  but   in  the  faee  of 
(le.iih   they  resolved    to    a'ly   upon    tliemselves 
alone.     And  wlien  the  moment  tame  they  were 
minled  to  resist  and  suffer,  rather  than  to  Hy 
ami  s;ive  their  lives;  they  ran  awav  from  tlie 
w.jnl  of  dishonour,  but  on  the  battle  fliM  their 
feet  si(Hxl  fast,  and  in  an  InsUmt,  it  the  height  of 
tie  ir  fortune,  thcv  pa-.sed  away  from  the  scene, 
not  of  tlieir  fear,  but  of  their  glorv.     Sueli  was 
the  eri.lof  these  men;  f'ley  were  wirthy  of  Athens 
anltlie  living  ne    •       •  .<     re  :o  have  a  more 
h.roic  spirit  alt,     •  v  pray  for  a  less 

futil  is<ue.     Th  'a  spirit  is  not  to 

lie  expressed  in  .,»  can  discourse  to 

vou  for  ever  all  ^^L3of  a  brave  de- 

fyiiee  winch  yo  y.     H„-  instead  of 

listening'  to  him  ..ave  yr.      ..av  by  dav 

fix  yoiir  eyes  iipou  i.ic  givatuesso  .thens.' until 
you  become  filled  with  the  Live  of  ,i,  r;  amlwIeMi 
jou  are  Impressed  by  the  spectacle  of  her  glory 
reflect  that  this  empire  has  iH-en  acquinMl  hV 
men  who  knew  tlieir  dutv  and  had  tlte  couniir",' 
t<)<lo  it;  who  In  the  hour  of  contiict  had  the  fear 
of  dishonour  always  present  to  them,  and  who. 
ir  ever  they  failed  in  an  enterprize,  wouhl  not 
allow  their  virtues  to  be  lost  to  their  count  rv. 
but  freely  gave  their  lives  to  her  as  the  fairest 
ollering  which  they  cull  present  at  her  feast, 
llie  sacrifice  which  ihey  collectively  made  was 
iniiviilually  repal.l  to  them;  for  tliev  received 
ig:iin  each  one  for  himself  a  praise  wldeh  grows 
not  oM.  and  the  noblest  of  all  sepulchres  —  I  siH'ak 

°f  o*  .'"*'  ',"  "''''■''  "'^''''  "'"'«'"••  "re  lal  I.  but 
0.  !.M!  J!)  wlilth  their  glory  siirviv.-.s,  and  l»  pi., 
aaiineU  alwaya  and  ou  every  fitting  otcusiou 

1<  t 


both  in  wOTd  and  deed.    For  i.ie  whole  earth  is 
the  sepulchre  of  famous  men;  not  only  are  they 
coinmemorated  by  columns  and   inscriptions  in 
their  own  country,  but   in  foreign  lands  there 
dwells  also  an  unwritten  memorial  of  them  graven 
not  on  stone  but  in  the  hearts  of  men      Make 
them  your  examples,  and  esteeming  courage  to 
be  freedom  and  freedom  to  Ir.  happiness  do  not 
weigh  too  nicely  the  perils  of    war      The  un- 
fortunate who  has  no  hope  of  a  change  for  the 
better  baa  less  reason  to  throw  away  his  life  than 
the   prosperous  who,  if  he  survive,  is  always 
liable  to  a  change  for  the  worse,  and  to  whom 
any  accidental   fall  makes  the  most  serious  dif- 
ference.    To  a  man  of  spirit,  cowanlicc  and  dis- 
aster coming  together  arc  far  more  bitter  than 
cleath  striking  him  unperccived  at  a  time  when 
lie  is  full  of  courage  and  animated  by  the  gen- 
eral hope.     Wherefore  I  do  not  now  commiserate 
the  parenU  of  the  dead  who  stand  here;  I  wo'iM 
rather  comfort  them.     You  know  that  your  life 
has  been  f.  is.sed  amid  manifold  vicissitudes-  an.l 
that  they  maybe  deemed  fortunate  who  have 
g.-iinwl  most  honour,  whether  au  himourable  death 
like  theirs,  or  an  honourable  sorrow  like  yours 
and  whose  days  have  been  so  onlered  that  the 
term  of  their  happiness  is  likewise  the  term  of 
their  life.     I  know  how  hard  it  is  to  make  vou 
feel  this,  when  the  good  fortune  of  others  will 
t'M)  often  remind  you  of  the  L'ladness  which  once 
lightened  your  hearts.     And  s.  .rrow  is  felt  at  the 
want  of  those  blessings,  not  which  a  maii  never 
knew,  but  which  were  a  part  of  his  life  before 
they  were  taken  from  him.     Some  of  you  are  of 
an  age  at  which  they  may  hope  to  have  othe' 
children,  and  they  ought  t.,  biar  their  sorrow 
better;  not  only  will  the  chil  Ireu  who  may  here- 
after be  bom  make  them  for^'et  their  own  lost' 
oni'3,  but  the  city  will  be  doublv  a  gainer     Shs 
will  not  be  left  desf>late,  ami  she  will  be  safer 
For  a  man's  counsel  cannot  have  equal  weight 
or  worth,  when  he  alone  has  no  children  to  risk 
in  the  general  danger      To  those  of  you  who 
have  passed  their  i..ime  I  say:     "Congratulate 
yourselves  that  you  have  iRvn  happy  during  the 
greater  part  of  your  days;  remember  that  vour 
life  of  sorrow  will  not  last  long,  and  be  comforted 
by  the  glory  of  those  who  are  gone.     For  the 
love  of  honour  alone  is  ever   young,    and  not 
riches,  as  some  Siiy,  but  honour  is  the  delight  of 
men  when  they  an;  old  and  useless. "  To  you  who 
are  the  sons  and  brothers  of  the  departed   I  see 
that  the  struggle  to  emulate  them  will   be  an 
anluous  one.     For  all  men  praise  the  dead,  and, 
however  preeminent  your  virtue  mav  be,  hardly 
will  you  lie  thought,  I  ilo  not  sav  to  equal   but 
even  to  appniach  them.     The  living  have  their 
rivals  and  detractors,  but  nhe-i  i\  man  is  out  of 
the  way.  the  hi>nour  and  gikd  will  which  he  re- 
ceives is  unalloy(.il.     And.  if  I  am  to  speak  of 
womanly  virtues  to  those  of  vou  who  will  hence- 
forth be  widows,   let  me  sum  them  up  in  one 
short  admonitiim:      To  a  woman    not  to  show 
inor..  weiknc'sthanls  natural  to  her  s(..\  is  'igriat 
glory,  and  n.it  to  lie  tjilkerl  al>.Mit  for  giHHl  or  for 
evil  among  men.   1  have  paiil  the  rcquire-l  tribute, 
in  obe.lienee  to  the  law.  making  use  of  such  lit 
ting  words  as  I  had.     The  tribute  of  dewls  has 
been  paid  in  part;  for  the  dear!  have  been  honour 
alilv   iiilerri'l.    and   it   remains  only  tint   their 
eliildreii  should  be  maintjtinwl  at  the  publi,.  elpir^n 
until  liny  are  gn>wnup:   this  is  the  soljil    prize 
with  which,  as  with  a  garland,  Athens  cmwus 


I 


K* 


ii^i. 


ui,. 


ATHENS.  B.  C.  4S0. 


IV  PIlVIM. 


ATIIENS,  B.  C.  439-421. 


her  anna  living  and  dead,  after  a  strugRlc  like 
liifira.  For  where  the  rewards  of  virtue  iiri> 
Itrentost.  there  the  noblest  citizens  are  enliste.l  in 
the  service  of  the  state.  And  now,  wlien  yoti 
have  duly  himented,  every  one  his  own  dead,  von 
miiy  depart.'  Such  was  the  order  of  the  funeral 
oelebratetl  In  this  winter,  with  the  end  of  wliich 
ended  the  first  year  of  the  Pe'oponnesian  War.  " 
— Thucydidea,  Jlulory,  traru.  by  B.  Jowett.  r  I 
Ik.  8,  tet.  84-47. 

B,  C.  430-439.— The  Plague  in  the  city,— 
Death  of  Pericles.— Capture  of  Potidica,— 
•As  soon  as  the  summer  retumetl  [B.  ('.  430) 
liie  Peloponnesians  ,  .  .  Invaded  Attic;i,  where 
they  establi^ihcd    themselves  and  ravaged    tlie 
country.     Tliny  had  not  been  there  m:inv  days 
when  the  plague  broke  out  at  Athens  for  the 
first  time.  .  .  .  The  disease  is  said  to  have  be- 
(Tuti  soutli  of  Egypt  in  .tlthiopia;  tliciice  it  de- 
winded  into  Egypt  and  Libya,  and  after  spnwl- 
iuL'  over  tlif  greater  part  of  the  Persian  Empire, 
sudiienly  fell  upon  Athens      It  first  attaclied  the 
inli.il)itants  of  the  Pirsus,  and  It  was  8uppos«-(l 
that   the  Peloponnesians  had   poisone<l  the  cis- 
terns,   no  conduits    having  as  yet  been  made 
there.     It  afterwards  reached  the  upper  ciiv, 
and  then  the  mortality  became  far  greater.     As 
to  its  probable  origin  or  the  causes  whicli  miglit 
or  could  have  produced  such  a  disturbance  ()■ 
nature,  every  man,  whether  a  phvsician  or  not, 
will  give  his  own  opinion.     But  f  shall  describe 
its  actual  course,  and  the  symptoms  by  whieli 
any  one  who  knows  them  bcforehaml  mav  remg 
nize  the  disorder  should  It  ever  reappear.'     For  » 
was  myself  attacked,  and  witnessed  the  suffer- 
ings of  others.     The  season  was  admitted    to 
have  been  remarkably  free  from  oitllnary  sick- 
ness; and  if  anybody  was  already  ill  of  any  other 
disease.    It  was  absorbed  in  this.     Many   wlif> 
were  in   perfect  health,  all  In  a  moment,   and 
without  any  apparent  reason,  were  seized  with 
violent  heats  in  the  heiul  and  with  redness  anil 
lutiammation  of  the  eyes.     Internally  tlio  tiinwt 
and  tongue  were  quickly  suffused  with  bloocl 
and    the  breat'i  became  unnatund    and    fetid. 
There   followed  sneezing  and   liDarseness;  in  a 
short  time  the  disorder,  accompanied  liy  a  vio- 
lent cougli,  reached  the  chest;   then  fastening 
lower  down,   it  would  move  the  stomiich  and 
bring  on  all  the  vomits  of  bile  to  which  physi- 
cians have  ever  given  names;  and  thev  were 
very  distressing.  .  .  .  Tlie  txxly  extemallv  was 
not  so  very  hot  to  the  touch,  nor  yet  pale ;  it  was 
a  livid  colour  inclining  to  red,  and  breaking  out 
in  pusttdes  and  ulcers.     But  the  internal  fever 
was  lnten.se.  .  .  .  The  disorder  which  had  origi- 
nally   settled    in    the    head    pa,sse<l    grailually 
through  the  whole  body,  and.  if  a  person  got 
over  the  worst,  would  often  seize  the  extremi- 
ties and   leave  Its  mark,   attacking  the   privv 
parts  anil  the  finirers  and  toes;  and  some  escapi'il 
wit'    .he  loss  of  tliese,  some  with  the  loss  of  their 
eyes.  .  .  .  Tiie  crowding  of  the  [leople  out  of 
I  le  country  into  the  city  aggravated  tiie  misery; 
and  the  newly -arrive<l  suffered  most.  .  .  ,  The 
mortalitv  among  them  was  dreailful  and  they 
jierishcl  in  wild  disfmier.     The  dead  lay  as  they 
hail  died,  one  upon  another,  while  others  hardly 
alive  wallowed  in  the  streeta  and  crawled  aljout 
every  fountain  craving  for  water.     The  temples 
In  which  they  lodged  were  full  of  the  corpses  of 
tlinse  who  died  in  them;  for  the  violence  of  the 
calamity  was  such  that  moo,  not  knowing  where 


178 


to  turn,  grew  reckless  of  all  law,  human  and 
divine.  .  .  .  The  pleasure  of  the  moment  aril 
any  sort  of  thing  which  conduoed  to  it  took  the 
place  both  of  honour  and  of  expediency.    Xo 
fear  of  Ooil  or  law  of  man  deterreil  a  crimin.il  ' 
Terrilled  by  the  plague,  when  they  learned  of  it 
the  Pelopoimesians  retreated  from  Attica,  after 
ravaging  it  for  forty  days;  but,  in  the  mein- 
tiine,  their  own  coasts  had  been  ravaged,  as  be- 
fore, by  llie  Athenian  fleet.    And  now,  being  one.' 
more  relieved  from  tiie  presence  of  the  eneniv 
though  still  grievously  alilicted  by  the  plagu'f 
the  Athenians  tume*l  upon  Pericles  with  com- 
plaints and  rep-oaches,  and  imposed  a  fine  upon 
liim      Tliey  also  sent  envoys  to  Sparta,    with 
IH-ace  proposals  which  received  no  encourage 
ment.     But  Pericles  spoke  calmly  and  wisely  to 
the  people,  and  they  acknowledged  their  sense 
of  dependence  upon  him  by  re-electing  him  gen- 
eral and  committing  again  "all  their  affairs  to 
his  cliarge."     But    he  was  stricken  next  year 
with  the  plague,  and,  lingering  for  some  wwks 
In  broken  health,  he  died  in  the  summer  of  429 
B.  C.     By  his  death  the  republic  was  given  over 
to  striving  demagogues  and  factions,  at  just  the 
time  when  a  capable  brain  axa^  han.l  were  neeiled 
in  its  government  most.      The  war   wert  on 
acquiring  more  ferocity  of  temper  with  every 
campaign.     It  was  especially  embittered  in  the 
course  of  the  second  summer  by  the  execution, 
at   Athens,   of  several    Lacedaemonian    envovi 
who  were  captureil  while  on  their  way  to  solicit 
help  from  the  Persian  king.     One  of  tliesi'  un 
fortunate  envoys  was  .Vristcus,  who  had  organ 
izcd  the  defence  of  1'  lidaea.    Tlir   city  was  still 
holding  out  against  tlie  Athenians,  who  1!  hU- 
aded  it  obstinately,  although  their  trooji-;  suf- 
fered  frightfully  from  the  plague.     Bu'  iu  the 
winter  of  430-429  B.  C.  they  succumbed     .  star- 
vation aud  surrendered  their  town,  being  per- 
mitted   to    depart  in  search    of  a  new  li.ime. 
Potidaea  was  tlien  peopled  anew,  with  colonists 
—  Tliucydides,  Ilutory,  tr.  by  Jomett,  bk.  -.'  *•'•( 
8-70. 

Also  in:  E.  Abbott,  Periela  anil  the  GM/n 
Aye  of  At/ient,  eh.  13-1.5.— W.  W.  Lliiyil  T!u 
Age  of  Perides,  eh.  64  (o.  2).— L.  Whiblev,  /'../, Yi  ■ 
(vii  Pnrtie»  in  Athens  durimj  the  Ptloponn^niin 
iKar.— W.  Wiichsmuth,  //«»«.  Antiquities  ■■fthe 
Orr.kn,  neele.  02-64  (c.  2). 

B.  C.  429-421.— After  Peridei,— The  rise  of 
the  Demagoeues,— "When  Pericles  rov  to 
nower  it  woulll  liave  been  possible  to  fniiiie  ,1 
Pan-Hellenic  union,  in  which  Sparta  anil  .Mliens 
would  liave  bein  the  leading  states;  anil  sueli a 
dualism  would  have  Imkii  the  best  guarantee  lur 
the  rights  of  the  smaller  cities.  Wlien  he  liiiHl 
there  was  no  policy  left  but  war  with  Spana. 
and  conquest  in  the  West.  And  not  only  so,  but 
there  was  no  politician  who  could  adjust  the 
relations  of  domestic  war  and  foreign  ccm.iuesl. 
The  Atlienians  pasist'd  from  one  to  the  nlle  r.  as 
they  were  address<'d  by  Cleon  or  AUiliiales. 
We  cannot  wonder  that  the  men  who  live.l  in 
those  days  of  trouble  spoke  bitterlv  of  I'erii  les, 
holding  him  accountable  for  the  miseries  «liiili 
fell  upon  Athens.  Other  statesmen  li.i.l  be 
Queatheil  good  laws,  as  Solon  and  Clistlieiies.  or 
the  memory  of  great  achievements,  as  Tlniui-i.' 
cles  or  Cimon,  but  the  only  changes  wliieh 
Pericles  had  introduceil  were  thought,  nut  wltli- 
oiit  reason,  to  be  changes  for  the  worse:  an.l  In- 
left  his  Country  involved  in  a  ruinous  War.  — li 


t 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  42«-481. 


Rue  nf  the 
UemagoQuee, 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  484-408. 


Abbott.   PerieUt  and  the  Ooldea  Age  of  Athewi 
l,;i.  362-363.— "The  moral  cliaOKe  wliicli   U.i\ 
.  .  befallen  the  Attic   community   \im\    it  U 
true,  even  (luring  tlic  lif,  ime  of  Pericles,  manl- 
fisled  itself  by  means  of  sufflciently  cleiir  pre- 
monitory siffM;  but  Pericles  lia,l.  notwitlistand- 
ill?,  up  to  the  (lays  of  bis  la.st  illness,  remainc.i 
the  centre  of  the  state;  the  people  ha  '  igain  and 
agiin  returned  to  him,   and   by  suboriinatinL' 
tliemaclves  to  the  personal  authority  of  Perick^ 
Imd  succeeded  in  recovering  the  demeanor  wliicb 
liilitted  them.     But  now  the  voice  was  hushed 
wliich  had  l>een  able  to  sway  the  unruly  citizens 
I viii  against  their  will.     So  other  authority  was 
111  cxntence  — no  aristocracy,  no  official  class,  no 
Ij.Kini  of  experienced    8tal.esmen— nothing     in 
f.ii  t.  to  which  the  citizens  might  have  looked  for 
tluiJanee  and  control.      The  multitude  had  re- 
covered absolute  independence,  and  in  propor- 
tion iw.  in  the  interval,  readiness  of  speech  and 
sopiiistic  versatility  had  spread  in  Athens    the 
numlier  had   increased  of  those  who  now'  put 
tlieiiiselves  forward  as  popular   speakers    and 
\m\en.      But  as,   among  all   these,    none    was 
capable  of  leading  the  multitude  after  the  fashion 
of  Pericles,  anoiher  method  of  leading  the  people 
anollier  kind  ot  demagogy,  sprung  iiitoexistenre' 
Pemles  stood  above  the    multitude  His 

successors  were  obliged  to  alopt  other  means- 
inonlcrto  ac(iuire  influence,  they  took  ii.ivi-i. 
taje  not  so  much  of  the  strong  as  of  the  we  ik 
points  In  the  character  of  the  citizens  and 
achieved  popularity  by  flattering  their  iiiclina 
tious,  and  endeavoring  to  satisfy  the  cravin-'s  of 
tlieir  baser  nature.  .  .  .  Now  for  the  first  Time 
men  belon-ing  to  the  lower  class  of  citizens 
tliriist  themselves  forward  to  play  a  part  in 
rolitus.-menof  the  trading  and  artisan  class 
till'  culture  and  wealth  of  which  hi:  i  so  vigor- 
ou>ly  mcreased  at  Athens.  ...  The  office  of 
gciicral  f re<iuently  became  a  post  of  martyrdom  • 
am)  the  bravest  men  felt  that  the  prospect  of 
beini;  called  to  account  as  to  their  campaigns  liv 
coT.inily  demagogues,  before  a  ca  jricious  mi- 
tit'Kle.  disturlied  the  str.iightforwaid  ioyoiisncss 
of  thrir  activity,  and  threw  obstacles  in  the  way 
of  their  successes.  ...  On  the  oratou'  tribune 
t!ie  contmst  was  more  striking,  "ot^  the  first 
immunent  successor  of  Perich  a   certain 

1.  .inites.  a  -ude  and  uneducated  who  was 

r.iniW  on  the  comic  stage  as  ■  'boar'  or 
;  ir  of  .Mehtc  (the  name  of  t,.c  district  to 
«  uili  he  belonged),  a  dealer  in  tow  and  mill- 
owner,  who  only  for  a  short  space  of  time  took 
he  lead  in  the  popular  assembly.  His  place  was 
.■uen  by  Ly.sicles,  who  had  acquired  wealth  by 

.  M.  !,■»  that  the  dem:igogues  attained  to  power 
w  lio  h.1.1  lirst  made  themselves  a  name  by  their  on- 
p  .Miion  a,;uinst  Pcricies.and,  among  thcm,Cl(;on 
« .1  ^  1  le  li  rst  who  was  able  to  maintain  his  authority 
I  .ra  lon-,.r  period  of  time;  so  that  it  is  in  his  pro- 
i(  -lin;;,  liuring  the  ensuing  years  of  the  war 
I.  >  ,e  who  (■  character  of  the  new  demiigogy 
■/,  ,  I,  Tjl'^^'  'n'">'f'-'>"«  itself. "-E.  CurtiiV,. 
.      1  ;  ,;;n     ■"*"•  '•  ■'•  •■'';  '-"The  characters 

"     ii.    military  commander  and    the    political 

'ZZ.TZ  *-':^".''"'"y  ^-P^rated.  The  first 
J.J  MIS  or    his  division  we  find  in  the  davs   of 

iKHii.  but  his  real  genius  cleariv  cillci  |ii,„  ,„ 
.Tl" '"„,*'"'  '\-^^<^n„n.  Periklfls  w,«  ,11 
.hi.  and  «uc(;es8ful  genenU;    but  in   hiiu   the 


military  chaiiicter  wag  quite  auborditiale  to  that 
of  tlie   political    leader.      It  was  a  wise  com 
promise  winch  entrusted  Kiinon  with  the   de 
fen.     of  the  state  abroad  and  PeriklCs  with  its 
ina.iagetnentathome.     AftPi  Pcriklc-alhescpara- 
..n   widencl     We    nowhere    liear  of    DOmos- 
tlieirfj  an(     Phormion  as  political  lea.lers;  and 
even  m  SMaa  the  political  is  subordinate  to  tlic 
military  (;lianicter.     Klefln,  on  the  other  Land 
WIS  a  piihtician  but  not  a  soldier     But  the  old 
notion  of  combining  military  and  political   iiosi 
ion  was  not  quite  lost.     It  was  still  deemed  that 
he  who  proposed  a  wariikc  expedition   should 
hi     it!!,  if  It  v,-ere  needful,  be  able  to  conduct  it 
uJ^f    "'l-r'"   ^""'.w**  tempted  to  take  on 
himself  iiuliliry  functions;    he  was  forced  into 
comiiiiu.d  agamst  SphakUJria;  by   the  able  and 
loyal  help  of  DOmosthenCs  he  acquitted  himself 
with  honour.    But  his  head  w.as  turned  by  suc- 
cess;  he  aspired  to  independent  command-    he 
measured  himself  against  the  miglity  Brasidas 
andthe  fatjil  battle  of  Amphipolis  wMtlie  result 
It  now  iKcame  clear  that  the  Demagogue  and  the 
General  must  commonly  be  two  distinct  persons 
I  he  versatile  genius  oi  AlkibiadCs  again  united 
the  two  cliaracters;    but  he  left  no    successor 
■  .  .  A  Dijinagogue  then  was  simply  an  influ- 
ential speaker  of  popular  politics.  DflmosthenOs  is 
commonly   distinguished    as    an    orator,    wliile 
Ivleon    is  branded  as  a  Demagogue;    but   the 
po.sition  of  the  one  was  the  same  as  the  position 
of  the  other.      Tiio  only  (,ue.stiou  is  as  to  the 
wisilomand  honesty  of  the  aducc  given  either 
liy  Kleon  or  by  OamosthenCs."— E.  A.  Faemau 


lIMariral  Evfiyg,  id  net.,  pp.  laS-UO 

B  C.  429-427— Fate  of  Platia.-Phormios 
V.ctone,.-^evolt  of  Lesbos.-Siege  of  Mity! 

M  'VT^'*""  •,'''°°<''  itcttK  and  its  reversal 
See  Oreeck:    B.  C.  429-427. 

n,°"  C-  42s— Seiiure  of  Pylus  by  Demos- 
theneo,  the  general.— Spartans  entrapped  and 
captured  at  Sphacteria.— Peace  pleaded  for 
and  refused.     S,-e  Gueece:  B.  C.  425. 

B.  C.  424-406.— Socrates  as  soldier  and 
ati*en.-the  trral  of  the  Generals.-"  Socrat.s 
was  hntn  very  shonly  before  the  year  46»  B  (' 
ills  father,  Soplironircus.  was  a  sculptor  his 
mother,  Pluenarete.  a  midwife.  N'olliing  'di-ii. 
nite  IS  known  of  his  moral  and  intelle.tii  .1 
development.     There   is    no   specific   record   of 

*  il"  ..,    .  *-  *  *'"■"  ''"  "■"»  '"■"'•ly  forty 

years  old.  All  that  we  can  siiy  is  tliat  his  voiitii 
and  manhood  were  passed  in  the  most  splendid 

Ceriod  of  Atlienian  or  Greek  history    .         As  a 
»>;  he  received  the  usu-il  Athenian  liberal  edu- 
cation   In  music  and  gymnastic,  an  education 
that  is  to  say,  menUil  and  idiysical.     He  was 
fond  of  (luoting  from  the  existing  Greek  litera 
ture,  and  he  seems  to  have  lieeu  familiar  witli  it 
especially  with  Homer.     lie  is  represented  by 
Aenophon  as  re|K'ating   Pnxlicus'  fable  of  llic 
choicc  of  Heracles  at  leng'h.     He  says  that  he 
was  in  the  habit  of  studyi.ig   with  his  friends 
tJie  treasures  which  the  wise  men  of  old  have 
left  us  in  their  books: '  collections,  tluit  is    of 
the  short  and  pithy  sayings  of  the  seven  sag(  s 
■uch  as  -know  thyself;   a  saying,    it  may  !,,'. 
noticed,    whieli   lay    at   the  root  o'  his   whole 
U-achiiig.      And    l.j   Imd    some    knowledge    of 
malheni;      s,    ahd   of  science,    as   it  ^x,^u•U  .a 
those    di-.ys.       He     understo"d    something    i,f 
aKtroiiomy  and  of  a.lvuuc;.d  geometry;  uml  he 

179 


' 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  424-406. 


uiul  CifOen. 


ATHENS,  B.  C   481. 


wa«  acquainted  with  certain,  nt  anv  rate,  of  tlic 
thvorius  of  liU  predecessors  In  plillowphv.  tlie 
Physical    or    Cosmicul     pliilonophers.    sucli    ii.s 
Ileraclitusund  PurinenidiD,  anil,  espi-ciaily,  witii 
those  of  AnaxaRoms.    But  tiierc  is  no  t  rustWnrt  liy 
evidenre   which  enableii  us  to  go  1-eyonil  tlic 
bare  fact  that  lie  had  such  knowledge.  .  .  .  All 
then  that  we  can  say  of  the  first  forty  years  of 
Socrates' life  consists  of  general  statements  like 
these.     During  Ihcso  years  there  is  no  specitii: 
record  of  him.    Betwct'u  433  B.  C.  anc'.  '29  B.  C. 
he  served  as  a  common  soldier  at  the  siege  of 
Potldsea,  an   Athenian  dependency  which  had 
revolted,  and  surpassed  every  one  in  his  powers 
of  enduring  Imrigcr,  thirst,  and  cold,  and  all  the 
hardships  of  a  severe  Thracian  winter.     At  this 
siege  we  hear  of  him  for  the  first  time  in  con- 
nection with  Alcibiadcs,  whose  life  he  saveil  In  a 
skirmish,  and  io  whom  he  eagerly  relinr(iiished 
thj  prize  of  valour.     In  431  B.  C.  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War  broke  out,  and  In  434  B.  C.  the' 
AthcnUus     were     disastrously     defeated     and 
routed  by  the  Thebans  at  the  battle  of  Uelium. 
Socrates  and  Laches  were  among  the  few  who 
did  not  yield  to  panic.     They  retreiiled  together 
steadily,  and  the  rv.soliite   bearing  of  Socrates 
was  conspicuous  to  friend  and  fiHs  alike.     Had 
all    the    Athenians    behave<l    as    he    did,    says 
Laches,  In  the  dialogue  of  that  name,  the  di'feat 
would  have  been  a  victory.     Socrates  fought 
bravely  a  third  time  at  the  Imttle  of  Anipiiipolis 
[432  B.  C]  against ''  -  Pelo|ionnesian  forces,  in 
which  the  commands      on  both  sides,  Cleon  and 
Brasidas,  were  killeo.      :t  there  is  non-cord  of 
his  specific  services  on  that  occasion.     Aliout  the 
same  time  that  S<wratcs  was   displaying   con- 
spicuous courage    In    tl'.e    cause  of    Alliens  at 
Delium  and  Aniphipolis,  Aristophanes  was  hold- 
ing him  up  to  hatred,  contempt,  and  ridicule  in 
the  cometly  of  tlie  Clouds  [B.  C.  42,"}],  .  .  .  Tlie 
Clouds  la  his  protest  against  the  immorality  of 
free    thought    and    the     Sophists,       He    chose 
Socrates  for  his  central  flgUK-,  chiefly,  no  doubt, 
on  account  of  S(K-rates' well-known  and  strange 
personal  appearance.     The    grotesque  ugliness, 
and  flat  nose,  and  prominent  eyes,  and  Silenus- 
like  face,  and  shabby  dress,  might  be  seen  everv 
day  in  the  streets,  and   were  familiar  to  every 
Athenian.     Aristophanes  cared  little  —  probably 
he  did  not  take  the  trouble  to  find  out  —  that 
Socrates'  whole  life  was  spent  in  fighting  against 
the    SophlsU.     It    was    enough    for    him    that 
Socrates  did  not  accept  the  traditional  beliefs, 
and  was  a  good  centre  piece  for  a  comeily.  .  .  . 
The  Clouds,  it  is  needless  to  sav.  is  a  gross  nn<l 
absurd    libel     from    beginning'   to    end:     l)Mt 
Aristophanes  hit  tlie  popu-ir  conception.     "Tlie 
charges  wlilch  he  made  iu  423  1!.  ('    stuck  to 
Six-rates  to  the  end  of  liis  life.     Tliey  arc  exactly 
tlie  cliarges  made  hy  [i..pular  nrejuiiice.  against 
which  Socrates  defends  liimself  In  the  first  ten 
chapters  of  the  Apolouv.  and  which  he  savs  have 
been  so  long  •  in  tlie  air. '     He  formulate"s  them 
«s  follows:  •  Socrates  is  an  evil  doer  who  busies 
himself  with   investigating   things  beneath     he 
c.irtli  and  in  tlie  sky,  and  who  makes  tlie  worse 
appear  the  better  reason,  and  who  teaches  others 
tlies.!same  things,',  .  .   For  sixteen  vears  after 
tlic  battle  of  Aniphipolis   we   hear  iiothing  of 
Socrates.     The  nv\<  events  in  his  life,  of  which 
there  is  s  specific   econl.  are  tiiose  narrated    liy 
himself  in  the  twi-ntieiji  chapter  of  the  Apolo-^-v 
'luey  illustrate,  as  lie  ine:iut  llicm  to  illustrate. 


180 


his  invincible  moral  courage.  ...  In  406  B  C 
the  Athenian  tied  defeaU<<l  the  Laimliemoni  iin 
at  the  be'tlc  of  Arglnusip,  so  called  from  sciao 
small  islands  off  the  south-east  pt)!nt  of  Th-sUis 
After    the    battle     the    Athenian    conii.iatidera 
omitted  to  recover  the  IkxHcs  of  their  dead  an.' 
to    save    the    living    fniin    olT    their    dl*ihl|.,i 
enemies.     The  Athenians  at  home,  on  hearlne  nf 
this,    were  f;       js.     The  due   p«'rfomianee  of 
funeral  rites   was  a  very  sacred  duty  with  tlie 
Greeks;  and  many  citizens  mourned 'for  frien.Is 
and  relatives  who  had  been  left  to  drown,     Tho 
commamlers  were  immediately  recalled,  ami  s" 
assemlily  was  held  In  wlileh   they  were  aceii»-J 
of  neglect  of  duty.     They  ilefendtKl  themsilves 
by  saying  that  they  had  orilered  certain  infirior 
olficera  (am<mgst  othere,    their  accuser    Tlura- 
menes)  to  perform  the  <luty,  but  that  a  storm 
had  come  on  which  had  rendered  the  perfi.-i. 
ance  impossible.     The  delwte  was  adjourn,  1 
and    It  was  resolved    that  the    Senate  slionKl 
decide  In  what  way  the  commanders  slmuM  lie 
tried.     The  Senate  resolv<>(l  ikit  il,e  Allienun 
people,    having  lieard   the  aecusaiion  and  x'.k 
defence,  should  priK-eed    to   vote   forlliwiih  f  r 
the  14  (|uitlai  or  condemnation  of   the  eiirht  i.-i 
man.lTs    collectively.        Tlie     resolution     «'is 
gnissly   unjust,  and   It  was  illegal.     It  suNti 
tut<(l  a  popular  vole  for  a  fair  and  formal  tri  il 
.  .  ,   SiK -rates  was  at  lliat  time  ameinlierof  ili^ 
Sen,ile,  tlie  only  olHei!  that  he  ever  filled.     I'ii 
Senate  was  ci>nipo.>«-d  of  five  hundred  i  iii/,  as 
clciteil  by  lot,  fifty  from  each  of  the  ten  Irilv-i 
and  holding  olHce  for  oni!  year.     Tlie  iiieuiVr^ 
of  ea<-li   trilH!   held   the  Prvlunv,  tliat  is  wen- 
responsible    for  the    conduct    of    business     .vr 
thirty-five  days  at  a  time,  and  ten  out  ..f  ili,^ 
fifty  were  proedri  or  presidents  every  seven  .!,i\  < 
in  succession.     Every  bill  or  motion  was  e\:im' 
ined  by  the  proedri  In-fore  it  was  submitlol  to 
the  Assemlilv,    to  s<-c  if  it  were  in  acair.Liiuv 
with  law:  if  It  was  not.  it  was  iiuaslied:  ouo  of 
the  proedri  presided  over  the  Si-nate  ami  th,-  .t-- 
sembly  each  d:iy,  and  for  one  ihiy  onlv:  ho  was 
called  the  Epistates:  it  was  his  duty  t"o  jnit  ih 
question   to  tlie   vote.      In  short  he    was   -.h. 
speaker.  .  .  .  (In  the  day  on  -.liich  it  was  pro- 
|)osed  ti>  take  a  collective  vote  on  the  ai  ,|uiiiai 
or    condeinnatiim    of    the    eight    ciinimandiTs 
Socrates  was  Epistates.     The  propoiil  was  as 
we    liave  seen,    illegal:    but    the    people  wire 
furious  against  the  accused,  and  it  w.is  a  verv 
piijiiilar  one-.     Some  of  the  prcn-dri  nupos,-,!  i'; 
before  it  was  submitted  to  the  Assemlilv.  oa  ihe 
.L-ronnd  of  its  illegality ;  but  they  wire'  sK  n.rii 
by  threats  and  sulisided.     Socrates  alone  refuse  i 
to  give   wav.     He  would   not   put   a  ijues!i-n 
which    he    knew    to    be    illegal,    to    the  voie 
Threats  of  suspension  and  arrest,  the  elamoi;:,'; 
an  angry   people,    tlie  fear  of  impri.souiii.nt ,  r 
death,    could    not    move    him.    .   .    .    IkH    h:* 
authority  lasted  only  for  a  (lav ;  the  pm,v,  Ihu-s 
•"   •     idjoumwi,   a  more  plfant  Epishuo*  -.» 
d  hira,  and  the  generals   were  conie;]i:i-! 
aLdcxecuted."—F.  J.  Church,   Intr.:4.  t-  /  ■• 
nid  Death   of    fix-nitea,    pp     9--.';!  _.<e  ■     .  - 
Obeeck:  B,  C,  406, 

B.  C.  421.— End  of  the  first  period  of  the 
Peloponneiiaa  War.— The  Peace  of  Niciss  - 
"The  first  stage  of  the  Peloponnesian  w  ir  ,.n. 
to  an  end  just  ten  years  after  the  liiv  i.;  n  . ' 
Attioi  by  Arch:  iamiis  in  Ml  15,  C,  i;>  r  -u:;., 
had  been  almost  purely  negative,  a  vast  .(i^a 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  421 


ExptdiUtm. 


ATHENS,  n.  C.  4IV 


•itT  of  IjIooiJ   and    treasure   h«/|    Jxwn    wa«t«il 
',a  "-:«;h  8i  1p.  but  to  no  great    purpov-        "li... 
Ath<nian  naval  power  was  unim|>.'iire<l.  aL     tlj<; 
coafoleraof  of   Iklos,  llioiiijli    uliakirn    by   tlie 
sucfMsfiil  revolt  of  Amphipoli*  atl  tlie  Tiirarc- 
w»r'i  towns,   waa  ttill  k-ft  sutmistin?      On  tlw 
lAhtT  hand,  the  attt.npu  of  Allnni  to  iu:ii<m- 
piiiih  anytLin,»  on  land  had  cntiniv  fai;»!<l   uii  I 
the  defensive  policy  of  Periclea  ha(i  befn  no  far 
jxstiSed.     Wtll  would  It  have  be«n  for  Athcni 
if  !i(  r  citizens  had  taken  the  lemon  to  heart,  tud 
<  .[itfn!"i   thi-mselvea  with   having  escaped  «o 
<aaily  from    the    greatest   war  ther    ha/1  tvr 
known.— C.  W.  C    Oman,   llitt.  of  Qrtv^.  p. 
'41  —    The  tn-aty  called  since  ami.mt  times  the 
rv&Tf:  of  Nicias      .  .  put  an  tnd  to  the  wir  }« 
tw'<:a  the  two  Gre.,k  confwlcrations  of  sut/js 
aft/r  it  hoiJ   lasted   for  rather  more    than   tcri 
years,    viz,,  from   the  attack  of    the   IVe^jtians 
up-.n    Plat**.     i)\.     Ixxxvii.     l    'Ije^riunini  of 
April  B    C  431 1  to  Ol,  Uxxix    3  'towards  the 
mi'M!"  of  April   B.  C,  421)      Th.;  war  was  for 
this    r>-:.*.n     known    umler    the    n;>m<>  of    the 
Ten   Years'    War,     while     tlie     P.loponnpsiaui 
call-i   It  the  Atiic    War.     Its  en,!   constitute  1 
a  triumph    for   Atheui;    for   ail    the    plaas   of 
the  enemies  who  hail  attacked  her  had  come  1 1 
nauibt;  Sparta  ha-l  been  unable  to  fulfil  a  sin- 
gle "ne  of  the  promi^s  wi.h  which   she  Iia<l 
enter,  i  upon  the  war,  and  was  ultimatelv  fotred 
to  aeiinowledge  the  dominion  of  Athens  in  its 
w!)fc!e  extent.— notwittstauding  all  the  misukes 
and  inis/ivmes,  n'>twithstandini{  all  the  calami- 
tit-9 attributable,  rr  not,  to  the  Athenians  them- 
selvs:    the    re*jurces  of    off,  nee  and   defence 
■vhii  .i  the  city  owed  to  Pericles  had  therefore 
rrov  1  their  excellence,  and  all  the  fury  of  her 
opp-,:icnis  ha.i  wasted  itself  ai;ainst  her  in  vain 
Spir  4  hers.  If  was  satisfied  with  the  advanu^ej 
whi    1  the  peace  o3ered  to  her  own  citv  and  citi- 
zens, but  great  was  the  discontent  amon?  her 
eoaf.  .erates,  particularly  amonif  the  sec^tndary 
.-•ate.    »jo  had  originallv  occasione.1  the  war 
inl  ,::,az(A  Sparta  to  take  part   in  it.     Even 
after  t,ie  conclusion  of  tlie  pea!.-,  it  was  impos- 
sib.e  to  ,n,iuce  Thebes  and  Corintli  to  accede  to 
It.     1  he  result  of  the  war  to  .Sparta  was  there- 
fore tiie  dis.so!tnion  of  the  confe,leration  at  wb.»e 
hea.1  siie  had  lje?un  the  war;   she  felt  herself 
tlir;r.-()v  place.l  in  s.j  dangenjuslv  Lvjlatcd  a  posi- 
tio.n,   that  slie   was  oblijed  to  fall   back  upon 
.Vtlieni  m  self  k-fence  ariinst  her  own  confeder- 
•ites,     AecorrJinily  the  Peace  of  Xicias  was  in 
the  Course  of  the  same  rear  convencj  into  a  fifty 
ycari  alliance,  under  tli«  terms  of  which  Sparu 
■M'i  Alliens  contracted  tlie  obligation  of  mutual 
■ivsistance  a?uiiist  auv  hostile  att*-k.'— E   Cur- 
tu-.  II..-.  „fiir„^,,  M-.  4  <./,  2  ,.  3,  _see   also 
'■iiEF.i  K:  B.  C,  434-421, 

B,  C,  4J1-418.— New  combinations.— Con- 
axting  alliances  with  Surta  and  the  AreiTe 
Co.niederacy.-Rising  ioflaence  of  Alcibiades. 
-War  in  Ar^os  and  Arcadi*.— Battle  of  Mao- 
t:aea,  .SeOREECE:  B.  C,  4aI-41■' 
B  C  416— Siege  and  conquest  of  Melos.— 
«»s,s  ,-e  of  the  inhabitants.    S   •  iIrefce 


r-,«     J\^\~^^*  expedition  ajainst   Syra- 
cjie.-Mitilation  of  t£e  Herm*  :Hermai). - 

A-rMiTii  having  brolien  out  in  .■9i.  ilv.  iKtue^-n 

,'';  '■'"^  ."/  Seu-e-tta  and  Selinou.,    ■'■the  latt.T 

:■  eii:.-!  aid  frc.,,.  Svracaw    rp.-,a  ti,i^,  S-.-.-.-sla 

'">!--'  vaiuiy  sought  heip  from  Carthage,  »p 


l^i 


pealed  t ,  Athens,  where  the  exile.1  Sicilians  wrr» 
n  irnerou.,.     Alkiblades  ha<l  been  oueof  the  in.«t 
,    urgent  f  ,r  tlie  atfj>ck  upon  Mel«.  and  he  .lid  not 
,   Vm-.  th-  f,r.s..-iit  opiwrtuuity  to  Incite  the  Athen- 
ians t..  ;:,  .■nterpriv:.^  much  jtreator  iiniK.rtance 
I  and  wh.-re  he  hoped  t,.  be  in  cominan'l  All 

,  mens  minds  w.,re  fllle,!  >ith  ambithius  hopes 
Lverywhere.  says  Pli,  .rch.  were  t..  be  w-en 
younif  men  in  the  gymnasia,  ohl  m.n  in  work- 
sho(«i  an  1  publl.;  places  of  m.tetlni',  -Irawine  tlie 
map  of  Sicily,  talking  alxmt  the  s'-a  that  sur- 
rounds  it.  the  ijwluess  of  its  hirljors,  its  pcni- 
tion  opp.jsit«  Airi.^ii.  Est«blisli..d  chere,  It  would 
tK;  ea-.y  to  crf«s  over  and  subjugate  Carthage 
and  extend  their  swav  as  far  as  the  Pillars  0' 
Hercules.  The  rich  did  not  'ipprove  of  this  rash- 
nes.s.  but  feare.|  if  they  opp<«ed  It  hnt  the  op- 
posite  faction  wouM  nccus«  them  .  wishing  to 
avoid  the  service  and  Cf«ts  of  ■  mg  gnllevs. 
Mkias  haii  more  courage;  even  -r  'he  \tlion. 
lans  had  appointed  him  general,  ,1  Alkibiades 
and  I-amachw,  he  spf^ke  pub!  against  the 

enterprise,  showed  the  Imoru.lcnce  of  going  In 
search  of  new  subjecu  when  th<^-  they  alr.ady 
r-u  .T^^?  "  ""^  """nei'  in  «  sUteof  revolt,  as  in 
thalkidike,  or  only  waited  for  a  disaster  to  bre:ik 
the  chain  which  bound  them  to  Athens  He 
ende.1  by  repr-oching  Alklbiades  for  iilunging 
:  .'  republic,  to  gratify  his  personal  ambition 
'■  )  a  foreign  war  of  the  greatt^st  danger,  .  . 
•  ae  of  the  demagogues,  however,  replied  that 
lie  woii.d  put  an  end  to  all  this  hesiution,  and  he 
propw-d  and  secured  the  passage  of  a  decree 
giving  the  genenli  full  power  to  use  nil  the 
re.s<.urc.s  of  the  city  in  pntparing  for  th-  i-\  .edi- 
tion  f.Mar.h  24.  41.",  B,  C)  Nikias  was  vim- 
plete  y  in  tbt!  right.  The  expe<Jition  to  Sicily 
was  Impolitic  and  foolUh.  In  the  .Egaan  Sea 
I  ay  the  empire  of  Athens,  and  there  oalv  it  cnuhl 
lie,  within  reach,  clc«e  at  hand.  Every  acquisition 
westward  of  the  Peloponnes.^  was  a  soure.-  of 
weakness.  .Syracuse,  even  if  coniiucre<l  would 
not  long  remain  subject  Whatever  might  be 
the  result  of  the  expedition,  it  was  sur-  V,  be 
disastrr.us  in  the  end.  ...  An  event  whicli  t.wk 
place  shortly  before  the  departure  of  th.-  fl.et 
'*-»  June;  threw  tftrro-  'tito  the  citv:  on.-  i  'n- 
ing  the  hennai  througi,        the  city' w.re  s  , 

have  been  mutilated.  .  .  .   'Tli.-si-   Her-i. 
half-statues  of  the  god  Herm.'s.  T'rrr>  bl,x        ' 
nwble  about  the  height  of  the  himan  tii    .e 
The  upper  part  was  cut  in*o  »  h.  nd    '  .e   m-'k 
and  bust;    the  lower  part  w.u      ft  s-.  ,.  ..ua.l- 
rangular  pillar,  broad  at  the  ba.v   u-iu,out  arms 
Ixxly,  01  legs,  but  with  the  sir        ..  t   tn.irk  ..f 
the  male  sex  in    .■  •.       Ti, -v  wei.    .:  ,ribut.-d  In 
great  numbers  r     -    -bout  Athrn.,    in.l  always 
m  the  most  cons,    .  .,  .is  situation-:;  >taf!irig  be- 
side the  r.uterdfxirs  of  private  liousts  a-,  ».-ll  as 
of  tempi,  s,  near  the  mo.st  fnt.iuente.1  iM.rti,  .n  at 
the  intersection    of   crjss  ways,  in   the    public 
agor»^  •  \-  The  religious  feelings  of  the  Greeks 
considered  the  gfxl  to  be  planted  or  domicile,l 
Where  his  statue  sto.>l,  so  that  the  (.-.inip-jnion 
ship,   sympathy,  and   guardmnship  ..f   H.rip's 
Ucame  ai.-(.xiate.l  with  m.^t  of  the  manifesta- 
tions   of   conjuuit    life    at    Athens,— i...litical 
s.>cial,    cominerci.ll.  or    gvmnastic,'.  ,  ,  To  all 
pious  minds  the  citv  seemed  menac.-l  witli  i;riat 
misfortunes  uale-is  th,.-  aUL'er  .,f  Heaven  -I1...1I.I 
be  app.-a.vvi   by  a  sulfici.-nt  expi.iti.m.       While 
.\;»i:il.„I.-.  had  inauv  p.ini-ians.  lie  Had  :i!-m  vi.. 
at  enemies.     Not  long  U,-forL-  this  time  llyiK-r 


I    1 


i 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  415. 


Sieillitn 
Expedition. 


AXaESS.  B.  C.  4l5-tl3. 


bolos.  a  contemptible  man.  had  almost  gucceedetl 
in  obt.%lnin);  his  banishment;  ami  he  had  C9capc(l 
tliij  danger  only  by  uniting  his  party  with  that 
of  Nilcias.  and  causing  the  demagogue  himself  to 
suffer  ostracism.    Theaflairof  tlie  hermai  ap- 
peared to  his  adversaries  a  favourable  occasion 
to  repeat  the  attempt  made  bv  Hyperbolos,  and 
we  have  good  reason  to  believe  in  a  political 
machination,  seeing  this  same  populace  applaud, 
a  few  months  later,  the  impioiu  auiiaclty  of 
Aristophanes  in  his  comedy  of  Tlie  Birds.     An 
inciiiiry  was  set  on  foot,  and  certain  metoikoi  ami 
»l:ivcs.  without  making  any  deposition  as  to  the 
hermai,  reralled  to  mind  that  before  this  time 
some  of  these  statues  had  been  broken  by  young 
men  afK'r  a  night  of  carousal  and  intoxication, 
thus  in  lirectly  uttackini;  .\lkiljladoii.      Others  in 
set  tfrmi  accused  him  of  havint;  at  a  banquet 
piroJied  the  Eleusiniaii  Mysteries;  and  men  took 
alvanta!?eof  the  superstitious  terror*  of  the  peo- 
ple to  awake  their  political  anxieties.     It  was  re- 
peated that  the  breakers  of  sacred  statues,  the 
jirofaners  of  mysteries,  would  n-spcct  the  gov- 
ernment even  leas  than  they  had  respected  the 
fro  Is,  and  it  was  whispered  that  not  one  of  tliese 
(Times  liad  been  committed  without  the  partici- 
pation of  Alkihia  les;  and  in  proof  of  this  men 
spoke  of    the  truly  aristocratic    license  of  hi) 
life.     Was   he  in  led  the  author  of  this  sacri- 
legious freak?    To  beli"ve  him  capaMe  of  it 
w.iuld  not  l)e  to  calumniate  him.     O;,  on  the 
other  hand,  was  it  n  sciwnie  pl.anneti  to  do  him 
Injury  ?    Although  proofs  are  lacking.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  among  tlie  rich,  upon  whom  rested  the 
heavy  burden  of  the  naval  expenses,  a  plot  had 
l)e.'n  formed  to  destroy  tlie  power  of  Alkibiades, 
and  perhaps  to  prevent  the  sailing  of  the  tieet. 
The  demagogues,  who  had  inloxir  iu«l  the  peo- 
ple with  hope,  were  for  tlie  expedition;  hut  the 
popularity  of  Alkibiades  was  obnoxious  to  them : 
a  compromise  was  made  between  tlie  two  fac- 
tions, as  is  often  done  in   times   whe.i   public 
morality  is  enfeebled,  ami  Alkibiades  foun  I  liim- 
self  thrratenol  on  all  sides.  .  .  .   Urging  .is  a 
pretext  the  dangers  of  delay  in  sending  olT  the 
expeilition,  they  obtained  a  decree  that  .\lkil)iadi's 
should  embark  «t  once,  ami  that  tlie  (luestion  of 
his  guilt  or  innocence  should  be  postponeil  until 
after  his   return.     It  was  now  tlie   midillo  of 
summer.    The  day  appointed  for  departure,  the 
vvh  lie  city,  eitizens  and  foreigners,  went  out  to 
IMraii'us  at  daybreak.  .  .  .  At  tliat  moment  tlie 
view  was  clearer  as  to  the  doubts  and  d angers, 
and  also  the  distance  of  the  expeditim;  but  nil 
eyes  were  drawn  to  the  imnien*!  pretiiralioin 
tlmt  hod  iK'cn  niadi',  and  ronficlence  ninl    pride 
consoled  tlioHc  wlm  werealxMit  to  pari.'      V   iMi- 
riiv,  ffitt  nfth-  d'lrk  Ml  ,/,•,  .-V  21.  «'<-r  a  {r  3| 
Also  !•«  TIiucv  liles,  Itiilini.  H:  H.ir-.  Jj-js 
— <}.  V  .  Cm,  r/i'  Alhfiiiiii  kn  lir.  r'l   ,1.  — (1 
Orote.  /fitl.  of  tlrrri-,-,  f,t.  i.  cA,  .H  (r  7) 

B.  C.  4'S-4i3<  -Fatal  end  of  the  expcditioa 
aKaintt  Syracuie.— ■Alkllilaili's  w asc  ill.'  I  liark 
to  Athens,  to  lake  his  trial  on  a  eiiarge  of  im. 
piety.  .  .  .  He  did  not  go  bark  to  .Vlluiis  for 
Lis  trial,  but  estaptil  to  IV-loiionnAsoH,  wliire  we 
shall  hear  fmm  him  again.  Meanwhile  the  coin- 
man  I  of  the  .Vtlienian  forec  In  Sicily  was  left 
prariicaijy  In  tl„.  |,aiiils  of  NIklas.  .Vow  Miklas 
coull  always  ait  well  when  he  diil  ai-t;  but  It 
was  very  liar.l  to  m.ike  him  art:  alnivc  all  on  an 
erraiii  wiijrU  he  ii it<-r|.  i»ne  might  say  tliat 
Byraruse  waasavol  through  the  delays  of  Nikias. 


He  now  went  off  to  petty  expedilions  in  the 
west  of  Sicily,  under  coverof  settling  matters  ai 
Segesta.  .  .  .  The  Syracusans  by  this  time  iiuite 
despised  the  invaih  rs.     Their  horsemen  roile  up 
to  tiie  camp  of  the  Athenians  at  Katari<>    and 
asked  them  if  they  had  come  into  Sicily  nuTely 
to  sit  down  there  as  colonists.  .  .  .  Tlie  winter 
(B.  C.  415-414)  waschletly  spent  on  both  sid^s  in 
sending   embassies  to  and    fro  to  gain  allies 
Nikias  also  sent    home  to  Athens,    asking  fm 
horsemen  and  money,  an  1  the  pi^pIc,  without  a 
word  of  rebuke,  voted  him  all  that  he  asked. 
But  the  most  important  embassy  of  all  was  that 
which  the  Syracusans  simt  to  Corinth  and  Sp  in  i 
Corinth  zealously  toik    up    tha   ciuse  of  i„,r 
colony  an  I  plead.<d  for  Svricuse  at  ,Sp  irta    .\n  I 
at  Sparta  Corinth  an  I  Syracuse  found  alnlp.rin 
the  banislie  1  Athenian  Aliibiadfls.  who  was  n  <v 
c;  ling  ail  that  hs  ciuld  against  Atlieiis.  .  .  .  H,. 
tol  1  the  Spartans  to  occupy  a  fortri'ss  in  .Vttica 
which  they  soon  afterwarls  diil,  and  a  great  .Ital 
came  of  it.     But  he  also  told  them  to  give  vigor 
ous  help  to  Syracuse,  an  I  above  all  t\\i.ij;1  to 
send  a  Spartan  co:ii  Hinder     The  m  t<!  ni  n^  nf 
Sparta  went  for  a  great  deal  in  those  days;  Imt 
no  man  could  have  been  better  chosen  than  tlie 
Spartan  who  was  stmt,     lie  was  Oylipjios,  the 
deliverer  of  Syrarus'.     He  was   mire  lil<e  an 
Athenian  than  a  Spartan,  ijuirk  and  ready  nf 
resource,    which  few  Spartans   wen;.  .  .  .  Ami 
now  at  last,  when  tli"  spring  rann  (U4)  XiJsias 
wasdriven  todosom'thing.  .  .  .  The  .\iliiniaas 
.  .  .  occupied  all  that  part  of  the  hill  wliiili  lay 
outslile  the    walls   of    Syracuse.      They    were 
joined  by  their  liorscmen,  Greek  an. I  Siliel,  anj 
after  nearly  a  year,  the  siege  of  Syraous<.  n  ally 
began.     The  obji-ct  of  the  Athenians  now  wu 
to  build  a  wall  acniss  the  hill   and  to  carry  it 
down  to  the  sea  on  both  sides.     Syracuse  would 
thus  be  hemmed  In.     The  object  of  the  Hyr»- 
ciisans  was  to  builil  a  cross-wall  of  their  own 
which  should    hinder  the  Athenian  wall  from 
reaching  the  two  points  it  aimed  at.     Tliis  they 
tried  more  than  once;  but  in  vain.     TliiTe  were 
several  fights  on  the  hill,  and  at  last  there  w  is  s 
fight  of  more  importAnce  on  the  lower  irrnanil 
by  the  (Jreat   Harbour.    .  .  .    The  Syrac.itins 
were  defeated,  as  far  as  fighting  went;  but  tliev 
gained  far  more  tlian  they  lost.     For  l^im i.h.Ji 
was  killed,  and  with  him  all  vigour  passed  iwny 
from  the  .Vthenian  camp.     At  tlie  sam  i  in  munt 
the  Athenhm  Heet  sailed  into  the  On'at  II  irlioiir, 
and  a  Syracusan  attai'k  on  the  Atlienian  w  irks 
on   the  hill  was  defeate.l.     Nikias   n^m  lined  in 
comman  I  of  the  invaders;  but  he  was  iiri  v  r.islv 
sick,  an  I  for  once  In  his  life  his  liead  vr<m  i, 
have  been  luriie  I  by  suocoss.      He  lliiisinil  tlie 
wall   on  the  south  "side;   but  ho  iiegle,i,|  to 
•Inish  It  on  the  north  siilo  also,  so  that  SyMenw 
was  not  ri'ally  hemmed   In.     But  the  In  iru  uf 
the  Syrariisims  sank.   ...   It  was  at  this  d irkist 
moment  of  all   that  lieltventnce  came.  A 

(Virinthian  ship,  under  lU  captain  (Jon.'vlo- 
sailed  into  the  Little  Harbour.  He  bron^-ni  tli' 
news  that  other  ships  were  on  their  wav  fr>in 
i'eloponn^soa  to  the  help  of  Syracuse,  an  I.  vet 
more,  tliat  a  Spartan  gi'iieral  was  aeiuiil'in 
Sicily,  getting  together  a  land  fori'e  for  th.  <am. 
end.  As  soon  as  the  go<Nl  news  was  heani,  ilnh' 
was  no  more  talk  of  sunfnder.  .  .  .Vnd  one 
rl«y  the  Alhenlsn  camp  was  start!«!  hv  tli-  i!^ 
pearaoceofa  l^ciNlsinonian  herald.  olterin<  tliiiu 
» truoo  of  Ave  days,  that  tbcy  might  get  tUeui 


188 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  415-413. 


KxptditUm. 


ATHEN8,  B.  C.  413-418. 


nut  of  Sicily  with  bag  and  bagj^go.    Gylippos 
was  now  on  the  hill.    He  of  course  did  not  ex- 
pect that  the  Athenian  army  would  really  go 
Hway  in  Ave  days.     But  it  was  a  great  thing  to 
show  both  to  the  besiegers  and  to  the  Syracusang 
that  the  deliverer  had  come,  and  that  deliverance 
was  beginning.    Nildas  had  kept  such  bad  watch 
th»t  Oylippos  and  his  troops  hod  come  up  the 
liiM  ami  tlio  ^yracusans  had  come  out  and  met 
tUem.  without  his  luowledge.    The  Spartan,  as 
II  matter  of  course,  took  the  command  of  the 
whole  force;  he  offered  battle  to  the  Athenians, 
which  they  refused;   he  then  entered  tlie  city. 
The  very  next  day  he  began  to  carry  out  his 
scheme.     This  was  t<)  build  a  group  of  forts 
near  the  western  end  of  the  hill,  and  to  join  tliem 
to  tiie  city  by  a  wall  running  east  and   west, 
which  would  binder  the  Athenians  fn)m  ever 
linisliing  their  wall  to  the  north.     Each  side 
went  on  building,  and  some  small  actions  took 
place.  .  .  .  Another  winter  (B.  C.  414-41:1)  now 
(•ami;  on,  and  with  it  much  si-ndiug  of  envoys. 
Oylippos    went    about    Sicily    collecting  fresh 
troops.  .  .  .  Meanwhile  Nikias  wrote  a  letter  to 
the  Athenian  people.  .  .  .  This  hater  came  iit  a 
time  when  the  Lacediemonian  alliance  ba>l  de- 
ternilnt'd   to  renew  the  war   witli  Athens,  au  i 
when  they  were  making  everytliing  reaily  for  an 
invasion  of  Attica.     To  send  out  a  new 'force  to 
Sicily  vna  simple  madness.     We  hear  nothing 
of  the  di'lmuw  in  tlie  .\thenian  asscmWy.  wliellier 
any  one  argued  against  going  on  with  llie  .Sicilian 
war,   and   whether    any    ileiMHitogue    laid   any 
blame  on  Nikias.     But  the  assenililv  voted  that 
a  new  force  eiiual  to  the  llrst  sliould  bt;  sent  out 
imdcr  IMmostlienC.4,  the  b«nit  soldier  in  Athens, 
and  Euryiufdim.  .  .  .   .Meanwhile  the  Syracus- 
ans  wiTestrengtIiened  by  help  both  in  Sicily  and 
from  Pi'lop  irini>sjH.     Tlieir  m:iin  oltject  now  was 
to  strike  a  blow  at  the  fleet  of  Nikias  bi'fore  the 
new  force  came.  ...  It  had  lieen  just  when  tlio 
SymcuHiint  were  most  downcast  that  they  were 
cheere<l  by  the  eorning  of  the  Corintliians  and  of 
0ylip|>o8.      And    just    now    that    tlieir  spirits 
were  higliest,  they  were  d;tslie<l   again  by  the 
the  coming  of  IMmostlienAs  and  Eiirymediln.    A 
flei't  as  gn'at  as  the  first,  sevi'nlytlve  sliipi,  car- 
rying .l.OOO  heavy. armeil  and  a  crowd  of  liglit 
tnxips  of  every  kliifi.  suilnl  into  the  Oreat  Har- 
bour with  all  warlike   pomp.     The  IVloponne- 
jiiiins  were  aintady  in  Attica;  tliey  li:ut  plaiito.l  a 
l'elo|>imneHian    garrisim  there,    which  bwunlit 
.Vthi'iis  to  gn'at  straits;  but  the  flwt  w:w  sent 
out  to Synieuw  all  the  same.    l)Omo<tliemVH  kn.'w 
what  to  do  as  well  as  Lamaclios  liad  known.    He 
saw  that  there  was  notliing  t<»  lie  done  but  to  try 
"lie  gn'St  blow,  and,  if  that  failed.  Ui  lake  llie 
rtict  liome  again.  .  .  .   Die  attack  was  at  tlrst 
xiicTtwfiil,  and  the  Ail    uians  lixik  two  of  the 
.Syniiimn   f  .ru.     Hut   the    Thespian    allies  of 
Syrwiise  Bt'i-id  their  ground,  and  drove  the  as- 
»:iilaiits  baek.     Utter  coufuMon   followiil. 
The  lait  chance  was  now  lost,  and  IWinostlienJs 
was  eager  l«  go  Iwiiie.     But  Nikias  would  stay 
mt  .         When    sickness    grew    In  the    camp, 
when  fn'Hh  lu'l|i  fron  .Sicily  and  the  great  Iwdy 
"f  the  allies  from  I'eloponuAsoa  came  into  Syra- 
<  ii*>.  he  at  iitsi  agreiNl    u>    go.     Just    at  that 
m  iin  'lit    the  iniKm   was  eclipsed.    .  .  ,    Nikias 
c  >.i«iil!e  I  hi.4  siNithsayers,  and  he  gave  out  lliat 
i'r  v  ;ii  i3t  st.iy  iw.i.ty.iiiu,,  d«»s,  auoliier  fuii 
r  i"liitiiii  of  the  mo<m.     This  reaolvu  was  the 
Jesirucikm  of  the  b«*l«|[lng  army.  .  .  .  It  wh 


183 


felt  on  both  sides  that  all  would  turn  on  one  more 
fight  by  sea,  the  Athenians  striving  to  get  out 
of  the  harbour,  and  the  Syracusans  striving  to 
keep  them  in  it.  The  Syracusans  now  blocked 
up  the  mouth  of  the  harbour  by  mooring 
vessels  across  it  The  Athenians  left  their 
position  on  the  hill,  a  sign  tliat  the  siege  was 
over,  and  brought  their  whole  force  down  to  the 
shore.  It  was  no  time  now  for  any  skillful 
m.anoeuvres;  the  chief  thing  was  to  make  the  sea- 
fight  as  much  as  might  be  like  a  land-light  a 
strange  need  for  .Vtbenians.  .  .  .  The  last  tight 
now  began,  110  Athenian  ships  against  80  of  the 
Syracusans  and  their  allies.  Never  before  did 
w>  many  ships  meet  in  so  small  a  space  .  .  . 
The  light  was  long  and  confused;  at  last  the 
Athenians  gave  way  and  fled  to  the  shore.  The 
battle  and  the  invasion  wereover.  Syracuse  was 
not  only  saved ;  she  liad  begun  to  take  vengeance 
oa  her  enemies.  .  .  .  The  Athenians  waited  one 
day,  and  then  set  out,  hoping  U>  in  ikc  their  way 
to  some  safe  place  among  the  friendly  Sikels  in 
the  inlanil  country.  The  sick  hail  to  1m;  left  lie- 
hin  I.  ...  On  the  sixth  diiv,  after  frii?litful  toil, 
tlii'y  deteriiiiiied  to  change  their  course.  .  .  . 
They  set  out  in  two  divisions,  that  of  Nikias 
going  flrxt.  Much  Ik'tter  order  was  kept  in  the 
fn)nt  division  iiinl  by  the  time  Nikias  reached  the 
river,  IWmnstlienLrs  was  six  miles  liiliind.  .  .  . 
Ill  the  morning  a  .Syracusan  fono  cam.'  up  with 
t'.ie  frightful  news  that  the  whole  division  of 
DVn-nthetrfswerepris.mers.  .  .  .  The  Athenians 
tried  in  vain  to  escape  in  the  nii;lit.  The  next 
m  irtiing  thev  set  out.  hara.Hsed  lu  liefon;,  and 
driven  wild  by  intolerable  thirst.  They  at  last 
reached  thi-  river  .VssliiapM,  which  runs  by  the 
present  town  of  Noto.  Tliere  was  the  end.  .  .  . 
Tile  .Vtheniaiis  were  so  maddened  by  thirst  tlmt, 
though  men  wen;  falling  umler  darts  and  the 
water  was  getting  inud.ly  and  bloody,  they 
thought  of  nothing  but  drinking.  ...  No 
furtlier  terms  were  made;  most  of  the  horse- 
men  contrived  to  cut  their  way  out;  the  rest 
were  made  prisoners.  Most  of  them  were 
embeizled  by  Syracusans  as  their  private 
slave*;  but  alnrnt  T.OiJi)  men  out  of  the  two  divi- 
■ioiia  were  led  prisoners  into  Synriise.  Tlii'V 
were  shut  up  in  the  stone-iiuiirrieH,  with  no 
further  lieed  than  to  give  each  min  dally  h  ilf  a 
slave's  allowance  of  f.xKl  imd  drink.  .Mniiv  ili^d , 
many  were  sold;  some  escaped,  or  were  set  fr.c; 
the  rest  wen-  after  a  while  taken  out  of  the  iiuiir 
ries  and  si't  to  work.  The  generils  hail  made  no 
terms  for  theinsi-lves.  HermokntOs  wished  to 
keep  them  as  hostages  against  future  .Vlhcnian 
attempts  against  Sicily,  Ovlippos  wished  to 
lake  tliein  in  triumph  io  Sparta.  The  Corinth- 
laus  were  for  putting  them  Ui  (h'alli;  and  s..  It 

»'a»d .   .  .  So  ended  the  Athenian  invaslcm 

of  Sicily  the  gn'atest  attempt  ever  made  by 
llivek.-.  a.;  liiist  Greeks,  and  tluit  which  came  to 
the  most  iiil<T  failure.  "—E.  A.  Freeman,  /'A* 
4«>.c,V  ./ .s,V,V«,  /)/>.  |17-t;l7. 

AlJ*i>  IN:  Thucyiliiles.  lliitnrti ;  tram,  hi/  n. 
JoifM.  hk.  tt-i  (e.  1).— .See,  also,  Svkaccsb; 
U.  ('  415  4i;j 

B.  C.  4i3-4>'-— CoaMaucdr:et  oftht  Sicilian 
Espedition.— Spartan  aftiaac*  with  the  Per- 
•iani,-Plottiar  of  AlciUadtt.— The  Dectliaa 
War,—"  At  Atliens.  wlK-re.  even  lieforj-  this, 
every  one  liail  la-en  In  the  most  anxious  suapens)-, 
the  news  of  the  lose  of  the  expclliion  pn»liice<i 
a  ooiMleruatiuD,  wUicb  waa  oertaiuly  greaU  r  iliao 


ii 


!, 


l3|: 


i! 


ATHENS,  n.  C.  413-413. 

that  at  nninc  after  the  battle  of  Canoac,  or  timt 
lu  oiir  own  diiys,  after  the  battle  of  Jena.  .  .  . 
'  At  Ifiist  40,000  citizens,  allies  ami  slaves,  had 
perished;  and  among  them  there  may  easily  have 
been  10,000  Athenian  citizens,  most  of  whom  Iie- 
li)n,ite(l  to  the  wealthier  and  higher  cliuscs.     The 
flower  of  the  Athenian  people  was  dcstrovcd,  as 
at  the  time  of  the  plague.    It  is  impossible  to  say 
what  amount  of  public  property  may  have  liocn 
lost;    the    whole   fleet  was  gone.'    The  conse- 
quences of  the  disaster  soon  shewed  themselves. 
It  was  to  be  foreseen  that  Chios,  wliich  hi«l  long 
Iwen  wavering,  and  whose  disposition  could  not 
b"  trustol,  would  avail  itself  of  this  moment  to 
ri'volt;  and  the  cities  in  Asia,  from  which  Athens 
derived  her  large  revenues,  were  expected  to  do 
the  s;ime.     It  was,  in  fact,  to  be  foreseen,  that 
tlie  four  islands  of  Lesbos,  Chios,  Samos,  and 
Rhodes,  would  instantly  revolt.    The  Spartans 
wen-  established  at  Decelea,  in  Attica  Itself,  and 
tlience  ravaged  the  country  far  and  wide:  so  that 
it  was  impossible  to  venture  to  go  to  the  coast 
without  a  strong  escort.     Although  there  were 
many  districts  in  wliich  no  Spartan  was  seen  from 
one  year's  cml  to  the  other,  yet  there  was  no 
safety  anywhere,  exct-pt  in  fortilied  places,  '  and 
tlie  Athenians  were  constantly  obliged  to  guard 
the  walls  of  their  city;  and  this  state  of  tilings 
had  already  been  going  on  f,>r  the  last  twelve 
months.'    In  this  fearful  8itu:ition,  the  Atlienian 
people  showed  tlii^  same  tlrmuess  as  the  Uomans 
after  the  battle  of  Cannae.     Had  they  hut  had 
one  great  man  among  them,  to  whom  the  state 
could  have  been  entrusted,  even  more  mi^lit  per- 
haps have  been  di>ne:  but  it  Is  astoniihing  that. 
lUthough  there  was  no  such  man.  and  although 
the  leading  men  were  only  second  or  third-rate 
persons,  yet  so  many  useful  arranifcinents  were 
ma<le  to  meet  tlie  necessities  of  the  ease.  .  .  .  The 
most  unfortuuaU'  rircumstaiioe  for  the  Athenians 
was,    that    Alcihlades,  now    an    enemy    of    his 
country,  was  living  among  tlie  Spartans;  for  he 
IntriMluceil  inu>  the  undertakings  of  the  Spartans 
the  very  element  which  before  they  li:id  Ix-en 
altogether  deficient  in,  namely  energy  and  elasti- 
city:  he  urged  them  on  to  undertaliings,  and  in- 
duced tliem  now  to  send  »  fleet  to  Ionia. 
Erythrae,  Teos,  and  Miletus,  one  after  anotheri 
revoiu-d  to  the  Pelommneslans,  who  now  con- 
cluded treaties  with  TLssapherncs  in  the  ii:i:ne  of 
the  king  of  Persia  —  Darius  wa*  then  king  —  anil 
in  his  own  name  aa  satrap ;  ami  in  this  manner 
they  aacrifle.Hl  to  him  the  Asiatic  Orwks.  .  .  . 
The  Athenians  were  an  object  of  antipathy  and 
Implacable  hatntd  to  the  Penians ;  they  had  never 
dimbted  that  the  Athenians  were  their  ^■al  oppo- 
nents in  Greece,  and  were  afraid  of  them;  but 
they  did  not  fear  the  Spartans.     They  knew  that 
the  Atlieuians  would  uke  fmm  them  not  only 
the  Islands,  but  the  towns  on  the  main  l;ind,  and 
were  In   great   fear  of   their  maritime    power 
Hence  they  joined  the  Spartans;  and  the  latter 
were  not  luthamed  of  negoiiuting  a  tn-aty  of  sub- 
hidlea  with  the  Persians,  in  which  TIssaphemes 
In  the  king's  name,  pmmised  the  aasisUnre  of  the 
PhiH'nleian  fleet;  and  large  «ulHidli>s.  as  pay  for 
the   anny.  ...  In    return    for   this,    they    re- 
nounced, in  the  name  of  the  Ori'eks,  all  ehifms  to 
liuiiiM'udenee  for  the  Greek  cities  in   .V»la ."— 
II    U.  Niebuhr.  {•fftnnt  nn  \nri>nt  HMnrii   r  a 
tfrt:  53  anJ  M.— See,  also.  Uurkce:  B.  6'.'  41.')- 

.\l^  IM    O.  Orot«,  Ui$t  of  Or:M€,  A.  81  (e  7) 


184 


ATHENS.  B.  C.  415-411. 

B.  C.  413-4"- -Rerolt  of  Chios,  Miletna, 
Leiboi  and  Rhodes  from  Athens.— Rerolu- 
Hon  of  Samos.     Sei-  Grkrce:  B.  C.  418 
.  B- C.  4«3-4«i.— The  Probuli.— Intrigues  of 
Alcibiades.— Conspiracy  against  the  Consti- 
tution.—The  Four    Hundred   and   the    Fire 
Thousand.— Immediately    after    the    lireadful 
calamity  at  Syracuse  became  known,  "extraor- 
dinary measures  were  adopted  by  the  p<«iple ;  a 
number  of  citizens  of  s<lvnnced  age  were  formed 
into  adclibenitlvc  and  exiK-utive  iHidy  under  Die 
name  of  Probuli,  ami  empowereil  to  fit  out  i 
fleet.     Whether  this  laiil  the  foundation  for  oli 
garchlcal  machinations  or  not,  those  aged  men 
were  unable  to  brins  back  men's  minds  to  their 
former  course;  the  prosecution  of  the  Hermo- 
copidte  had  been  most  mischievous  In  its  results; 
various  secret  associations  had  sprung  up  anil 
conspired  to  reap  advantjige  to  themselves  from 
the  distre'ss  and  embarra.s3iiient  of  the  state;  thi' 
indignation  caused  liy  the  infuriateit  exceases  of 
the  people  during  that  trial,  pos  ibiy  here,  as 
frequently   happeneil    in  other  Grecian  st;ites. 
detcrmine<t  the  more  respectable  members  of  the 
community  to  guard  ag:ihist  the  recurrence  of 
similar  scenes  in  future,  by  the  establishment  of 
nit  aristocracy.     I.istly,  the  watchful  malice  of 
Alcihlades,  who  was  the  implacnblo  enemy  of 
that  populace,  to  whose  blind  fury  he  had  been 
sacriflced,  baflled  all  attempts  to  restore  confi- 
dence and  tnuiipiilllty,  and  there  is  nodoubt  that, 
whilst  he  kept  up  a  eorres|H)ndenco  with  liispar- 
tlsiins  at  home,  he  did  everything  in  his  power 
to  increase  the  p.'r|>lexlty  and  distress  of  his 
native  city  fmm  without.  In  order  that  he  might 
Ik-  recalled  to  provide  for  Its  safety  and  defence. 
A   favourable  opportunity  for  tlio  execution  of 
Ills  plans  prescnte<i  Ksi'if  in  the  fifth  year  of  his 
exile,  Ol.  »i.  1;  411.   B.  C. ;  as  ho  had  lneurn-<i 
the  suspicion  of  the  Spartans,  and  tXooi  higli  ii 
the    favour    of    Tissaphernes,     the    Atheniau-i 
thought  that  his  inlen-ession  might  enable  them 
to  obtain  assistance  from  the  Persian  king.     "The 
people  in  Athens  were  headed  by  one  of  his  most 
invetenitc  enemies,  Androcles;  and  he  well  knew 
that  all  attempts  to  effect  his  return  would  W 
fruitless,  until  this  man  and  the  other  dernaito 
jrues  were  removed.     Hence  Alcibiades  ciiWred 
Into  negotiations  with  the  commanders  of  the 
Atlienian  fleet  at  Samoa,  respwling  the  estah 
llahment  of  an  oligarehical  constitution,  not  from 
any  attachment  to  that  form  of  government  in 
itself,  but  solely  with  the  view  of  promoting  \\U 
own    ends.       Phrvnirhus    and    Plsander    wer 
emially  insincere  iu  their  co-opcratiim  with  .Met 
blades.  .  .   .  Their    plan    was    that    the    latter 
should  reconcile  the  people  to  the  change  in  tlie 
c<instituti(m  which  he  wished  to  effect,  by  pr.. 
mising  to  obtain  them  the  as.Hlstenc<j  of  tlj<'  gn-ii 
king;    but   they    alone     resolved    to    reap    \W 
Ixpellt  of  his  exertlrms.      Plsan<ler   took    upon 
himsi'"  to  miina-je  the  Allieniiin  populace      It 
was  in  truth  no  sliglit  underi  ikIng  t<i  attempt  to 
oVl■rtll^lw  n  democraev  of  a  ioindreilami  tweniv 
yeirV  st.indinir.  and  of  InteiiMt  development;  liir 
lunt  of  the  able  biKlied  eltixens  were  absent  wi!:i 
the   rtii-l,   whilst  such  as  were  still  In  the  cil v 
were  confounded  by  the  imminence  of  the  dan^'.r 
from  without ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  pnwpect  of 
succour   from   the   Persian   king  douhtle,*  hi  I 
some  weight  with  them,  anil  thev  piuailiU-  f.  :i 
ikiiMe  symiitoms  of  n'lurnlng  slTerUon  for  tliiir 
former  favourite  Alcibia.ic's.  Nevvrtbuloss  Pl«a;i 


ATHKXS.  B.  C.  418-411. 


PtU)p'jfiHr*ian    War. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  404-403. 


der  and  hU  accomplices  employe)  rraft  r»nd  per- 
fldy  to  accomplish  their  ilestgna;  tjie  pcoplu  wlti; 
not  persuaded  or  convinced,  but  entrapiieil  Into 
compliance  with  their  meaaures.  Pisandcr 
gained  over  to  bis  purpose  the  above  named  el  ubs, 
and  inducrd  the  people  to  lend  him  with  ten 
plenipotertiaries  U,  the  navy  at  Samos.  In  the 
mean  timj  the  rest  of  the  conspirators  pro<iecutp<l 
the  work  of  remodelling  the  constitution." — W, 
Warhsmuth,  Jlitl.  Anttiuitiet  of  the  fJnxkt,  t.  2. 
pp.  2.')i-3.M. — The  people,  or  an  aiK  mbly  cleverly 
made  up  and  raunipulatcd  to  represent  the 
people,  were  Indiiceil   to  vote  all   the  powers  of 

SDVemment  Into  the  hands  of  a  council  of  Four 
[undred,  of  which  council  thecitizens  appointed 
only  five  members.     Those  Ave  chose   ninety- 
five  more,  to  make  one  hundred,  and  each  of  that 
hundred  then  chose  three  colleagues.     The  con- 
spirators thus  easily  mailc  up  the  Frmr  Hun- 
dred to  their  liking,  from  their  own  ranks.    This 
council  was  to  convene  an      jemblv  of   Five 
Thousand  citizens,  whenever  it  saw  fit  to  do  so, 
But   when  news  of  this  constltution,'kl   change  ! 
reached  the  army  at  Samos,  where  the  .Athenian   I 
heaiiijuarters  for  tlie  Ionian  war  were  fi.xe<l.  the 
citizen  soldiers  refused  to  submit  to  it  —  repudi-  ■ 
«te<l  it  altogether — and  organized  thrmselves  as  i 
an  in'it-pendent  state.     Thf  ruling  spirit  among 
them  wus  Thrasvbulus.  and  his inlfucniv  brought 
about  :i  reconciliation  with  Alcibiades.  then  an 
eille  slieltcred  at  the  Persian  court.     Alrlbiailcs 
was  recalled  by  the  army  and  placed  at  its  liivul. 
I'n'8<'ntly  a  reaction  at  Athens  ensued,  after  the 
oligarchical  party  had  given  aigni  of  trea.sonable 
communication   with  SparU,  anj  In  June  the 
people  aiisembled   in  the   Pnyx  and   reasserted 
their  sovereignty.     "  The  Council  was  deposed, 
and    the   supa'me    aovereignty   of    the    state 
restored  to  the  people  —  not,   however,  to  the 
entire  multitude;  for  the  principle  whs  retained 
of  reserving  full  civic  rigbu  to  a  committee  of 
men  of  a  certain  amount  of  property ;  and,  as 
tlie  lisu  of  the  Five  Thoasand  had  never  been 
drawn  up,   it   was  decreed,  in  order  that  the 
ili>nin'cl  end  might  be  speedily  reached,  to  follow 
tlio  prcce<lcnt  of    limilar  institutions  in  other 
8t.itcs  and  to  constitute  all  Athenians  able  to 
furnish  tliem»<Ives   with  a    complete    military 
e'luipment  from  their  own  resources,  fullcitizcnn. 
with  the  righu  of  voting  and  participating  in  the 
government.     Thus  the  name  of  the  Five  Thou 
sand  liail  now  become  a  very  inaccurate  designa 
tion ;    but  it  was  retained,  because  men  had  in 
'hf  iMt  few  months  become  habituattti  to  it.     At 
th.'  same  timf,  the  abolition  of  pay   for  civic 
otflr.4  »nd  functions  waa  decreed,  not  merclv  as 
»  t.'mporary  measure,   but  aa  a    fundamcnt.il 
principle  of  the   new  commonwealth,  which  tlic 
citizens  were  bound  by  a  solemn  oath  to  main- 
tain.    This  reform  was.  upon  the  wln.lc,  a  wise 
combination  of  ari^unracv  and  denvK-racv;  ami, 
acconling  to  the  opinion  of  Thucvdi'ies,  the  Iwst 
constitution  which  the  Athenians  had  hitherto 
prnvwod.    On  the  motion  of  Critias.  the  recall 
■f  Al'lbiades  was  ilpcrecl  alwut  the  same  time. 
»n.l  a  deputation   was  despatched  to  SamcH.  to 
»<compli«h  the  uniim  bctwwn  armv  und  cirv    — 
K.  f  irtius.  Hint.  oftirtfTf.  hk.  4.  rk.  .1  — Mi'«t  of 
till'  1.  idew  of  the  t'lmr  Hundred  fle<l  to  the  Spar- 
tan I  imp  at  Dici'lia.     Two  were  taken,  lri«l 
i::\   '.iiiruwd  —Tiiutnlides.  lliHnty.  hk   S,  trrt. 
4H-«:  —See,  also,  Ukiseie:  B.  U.  4i.'M13 
kiMin:  V.  Uuruy.  Uul.^fUrim,  ck.  'UCr  ;| 


B.  C.  4t  1-407.— Victories  kt  CTnoitema  and 
Abydos.— Exploits  of  Alcibiades.— Hit  tri- 
umphal return.— Hit  appointment  to  com- 
mand.—Hii  aecood  deposition  and  exile. 
SeeOBEECE;  B,  C.  411-407. 

B.  C.  406.— The  Peloponnesian  War: 
Battle  and  Tictory  of  Arginusae. — Condem- 
nation and  execution  of  the  Generals.  See 
GliKECE:  B.  C.  406;  and  above:  B  U.  424-406. 
B.  C.  405.  —  The  Peloponnesian  War  : 
DecisiTe  defeat  at  Aigospotamoi.  See  Oiieece  : 
B.  C.  40.i. 

B.  C.  404.— The  Surrender  to  Lysander. — 
After  the  buttle  of  .CgospoUmi  (August,  B.  C. 
40-5),  which  destroyed  their  navy,  and  cut  off 
nearly  all  supplies  to  the  city  by  sea,  as  the 
Sparuns  at  IXcelea  had  lonir'  cut  off  supplies 
upon  the  land  side,  the  Athenians  had  no  hope. 
They  walteil  in  terror  and  despair  for  their 
enemies  to  close  in  upon  them.  The  latter  were 
In  no  baste,  for  they  were  sure  of  their  prey. 
Lysander,  the  victor  at  .(EgospoUmi,  came 
leisurely  from  the  Hellespont,  receiving  on  his 
way  the  surrender  of  the  cities  subject  or  allieil 
to  Athens,  and  placing  Spartan  bamiosts  and 
garrisons  in  them,  with  the  local  oligarchs 
establisheil  uniformly  In  power.  About  Jik)vem- 
twr  lie  reachcil  the  8aronic  gulf  and  blockaded 
the  .Athenian  harbor  of  Pini'Us,  while  an  over- 
whelming Peloixinnesian  lanrl  force,  under  the 
Liicediemonian  king  Pausanias.  arrived  simul- 
taneously In  Attica  and  encamped  at  the  gates  of 
the  city.  The  Athenians  had  no  longer  any  power 
except  the  power  to  endure,  and  that  they  cxer- 
clsetf  for  more  than  three  months,  mainly  resisting 
the  demand  that  their  Long  Walls- the  walls 
which  protectwl  the  connection  of  the  city  with 
Its  harbors  —  should  lie  thrown  down.  But  when 
famine  hail  thinnol  the  ranks  of  the  citizens  and 
broken  the  spirit  of  the  survivors,  they  gave  up. 
"There  was  still  a  hlgb-splrit*.!!  minority  who 
entere<l  their  protest  and  prcfcrre<l  death  by 
famine  to  such  insupportable  disgrace.  Tlie 
large  majority,  however,  accepted  them  [the 
terms]  and  the  acceptance  was  made  known  to 
LysandeT  It  was  on  the  Iflth  day  of  the  Attic 
month  Munychlon,— aliout  the  middle  or  enrl  of 
March.- that  this  victorious  commander  saileil 
Into  the  Peira-us,  twentyseven  years,  almost 
exactly,  after  the  surprise  of  Platiea  bv  the 
ThelMns,  which  opened  the  Pelop<mnesian"War. 
Along  with  him  came  the  Athenian  exiles, 
seveml  of  whom  app<-ar  to  have  been  WTving 
with  his  armv  and  assistine  him  with  their  coun- 
st'l."- 0.  Orntc,  Jfiil.  of  (ireef*,  pi.  2,  eh.  «!i  (r  «i. 
-The  Long  Walls  ami  the  fortifications  of 
Pineus  Were  demolished,  and  then  followe<l  the 
organization  of  an  oligarchical  government  at 
.\lliens.  resulting  in  the  reign  of  terror  under 
■  The  Tliirly. '  — E.  Curtlus,  Jlitt.  of  Orttet,  bk.  4, 
eK    J, 

.Vi.so  rx:  Xenophon,  IIMtmrt,  t>k.  8,  eh.  3.— 
Plutarch.  Ayoiubr, 

B.  C.  404-401.— The  tfraanj  of  the  Thirty. 
—The  Year  of  Aaarchy.— In  the  summer  of 
B  C.  404.  following  the  siege  and  surrender  of 
.\thcns.  and  the  humiliating  cliwe  of  tlie  long 
Peloponnesian  War,  the  petunwl  Iciiders  of  the 
ollgarciiical  [mrty,  who  had  IxTn  in  exile,  sue- 
cx-edcil  with  the  help  of  their  8|»irt»n  frlemls,  in 
overthrowing  the  democratic  cimstltutlon  of  the 
city  and  establishing  tlieinsilves  in  power  The 
rvvolutiou  wiu  accomplished  ut  a  public  aaseui 


18.j 


ATHEKS,  B.  C.  404-408. 

bly  of  citizens,  in  the  presence  of  Lynunder,  the 
Tlctorioiw  L.ice<licmoniBn  Bdmlral,  whose  fleet 
in  the  Piraiia  lay  ready  to  support  his  demands. 
In  this  assembly,  Orocontidas.  a  scoundrel  upon 
whom  repeited  sentences  had  been  passed 
brought  fDrwarda  motion.  proposinR  the  transfer 
or  the  government  into  the  Immls  of  Thirtv  per- 
•ons;  and  Tliemmenp.^  supported  this  pn^posal 
which  he  declared  to  express  the  wishes  of 
Bparto.  Even  now,  these  speeclics  produced  a 
storm  of  indienation;  after  r!!  the  acU  of  vio- 
lence which  Athens  had  undergone,  she  yet  con- 
tained men  ouUpoken  enough  to  venture  to 
defend  the  constitution,  and  to  appeal  to  the 
fact  that  the  capitulation  sanctioned  by  both 
parties  contained  no  provision  as  to  the  Internal 
affairs  of  Athens.  Hut,  heriMipon,  Lysaiider 
hlms<lf  came  forward  and  spoke  to  the  citizens 
without  reserve,  like  one  who  was  their  absolute 
muster.  ...  By  such  means  the  motion  of  Dni- 
contldas  waspas-sctl;  butoniy  a  small  niimlierof 
unpatriotic  and  cowardly  citizens  raised  their 
han(ls  m  token  of  assent.  All  better  patriou 
contrived  to  avoid  participation  in  this  vote 
Itext.  ten  members  of  the  government  were 
chosj.n  by  Critias  an<i  his  colleagues  [the  Critias 


of  I  lalo 8  Dialogues,  pupil  of  Socrates,  and  now 
the  viol.'nt  nnl  I.I.kxI  thirviv  leader  of  tlieaiiti- 
demmratie  levuliition],  ten  hv  Themmene.^,  the 
conlidentiul  friend  of  Lys.iii<ler.  and  finally  ten 
out  of  tlie  assembled  niiilliluile.  prob.hly  by  a 
free  vote;  and  this  Inianlof  Tliiitv  was  liercumm 
establislie<I  as  the  supreme  government  authority 
bv  a  resolution  of   llie  assembly  presi'nt.     Atost 
of  the  memlurs  <.f  the   new   government  hail 
formerly  l«.en  among  the    Four  Ilumlre.1,  an.i 
hart  therefore  Ion!;  piirsiicnl  a  commcm  course  of 
action.       The  Tliirly  Tyrants  so  plaail  in  power 
were  masters  of  Athens  for  eight  months,  au.i 
executiii  their  will  without  coiistiencc  or  merev 
having  a  garrisim   of   Spartan   soldiers  in  the 
Acropolis  I,,  support  them.  Tliev  were  also  sus- 
taine.1  by  a  [Ueked  Ih«Iv  of  citizens,  "the  Tlinv 
Ihoiisiud,"  who  iHire  arms  while  other  citizens 
were  stripped  of  every  weapon,     fjirife  nuinU'rs 
of  the  more  patriotic  an.i  high-spirile.1  Athenians 
bad  escaped  from  their  uiifortiiniite  eitvaii.l  ha.l 
takeiin-fuge,  chlelly  at  TlielH^s,  the  o'ld  enemy 
..  "Vi    .   ■  '""  "'""  «;i"l""l"ticin  her  distress" 
At   TheK's  these  exiles    ..rganized    tliein»..|v,., 
under  Thrasybulii      ,i,l  Anytus.  and  deieimliie.l 
to  exp«'l  the  tyrants  and  to  nis.ver  their  homes 
They   first  »viu;l  a  sirong   post  at   I'livie    in 
Attica,  where  they  giiiiie<l  In  nunilH'rs  rliiilillv 
•ml  from  which  point  they  wer<' able  in  a  f.'w 
jrj-eks    to    advance    and    ixeupv     Hie    I'irens 
Wlien  the  tr.Hips  of  The   Tl.irly   e:,me  ,„„  ,„ 

rJl**;,,      /'«■    "'••:•.'''•'■"    ''■"■I'  '"  the  «di;icent    '■ 
belt-It  of   .Muhv.hla  and    ih,re  fo.ivlit  a  biitile 
»hleh  .Ivlivend    their  ,  ity    from   the   Tyrants 
Lrm««,  i!„.  must,  r  !.|iirit  of  the  usiirpaliori,  xv.is 
•lain;   t.,e   more  violent  of   his  iMJIeaglleS   Imik 
refucc    at    Kieu-is,    an<l    Alliens,  for    a    ilui,' 
rcma Incil  uij.ler  the  goveriin.enl  of  a  new  olltf-,r- 
chieal  IJoardof  Ten.  while  Thrasybulus  an.l  th.'  i 
dem.«rnllr  lil,enit,.rs  .i.:.i„Iained  t'heir  hea.h,uar.    i 
ter.  at  Munyehla.     All  parlies  waite.1  the  aelion 
of   Sparta.       Ly,,,nd>r,    the   S|wrtan    general.   ! 
iDMched  an   army   Into  Attica    t„    restore   the   | 
lyninny  which  was  of  his  own  creating:  but  one  ' 
of  tb»  two  Sparun  klngi.  I'auaanliui,  Iniervcned     ' 
a»8iji.ir,I  the  ci.iomnmi  in  his  own  p«r*m.  and 
•l.plle,!   his  cfforu  to  the  unagia't  "'  PiHce 

It 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  839-338. 

between  the  Athenian  parties.  The  iwult  was  a 
restoration  of  the  democratic  constitution  of  the 
Attic  state,  with  some  important  reforms.  Sev- 
eral of  The  Thirty  were  put  todeath,— treacher- 
ously it  was  said,— but  an  amnesty  wa«  extended 
.riuV  partisans.  Tlic  year  In  which  they 
ami  The  Ten  <ontrolled  affairs  was  termed  in  the 
olHeial  annals  of  the  city  the  Year  of  Anarchy 
and  its  maifistrates  were  not  recognized.—  e' 
Curtius,  IIi8t.  of  Orefce,  4*.  4,  eh.  5.  an<f  4*.  5^ 

AiM>  IS:  Xenophon,  Ilellenies.  bk.  3,  eh.  3-4  _ 
C.  Saiikey,  Tlie  Hjtartan  and  Theian  Huprema- 
cte*.  eh.  2-3 

^:,9.-  39S-387— Confederacy  ■Minit  Sparta. 

—  Alliance  with  Per»ja.-The  Corinthian 
War.— Conon  i  rebuilding  of  the  Lonr  Walls. 

—  Athenian  independence  reitored.  —  The 
Peace  of  Antalcidas.  See  Qreece:  B,  C.  3»»- 
387. 

B.  C.  378-371.— Brief  alliance  with  Thebes 
Sparta.  Sc^  "  "  ~ 

the  Social  War.— Upon  t'heLihi^ration  oftli  "k^ 


aeainit  Sparta.  Sec  Orbkce:  B.  C.  379^:1" 
BC.  378-157.- The  New  Confederal  and 


-- — --— ..       v|"'*>  iii«.  uiuurnm^uui  llieoeS 

and  the  signs  that  began  to  appear  of  the  tieeline 
of  Spartan  power— during  the  yearof  the  arclion- 
ship  of  Nausinicus,  B.  C.  37H-f,  which  was  m:ule 
memoralile  at  Athens  by  various  movements  of 
political  reger-eralion,-  the  organization  of  a  new 
I  onfederaey  was   undertaken,  analagoua  to  the 
Confederacy  of  Dclos,  form.'d  a  century  before 
Athens  was  w  be,  "  not  the  ruling  Ciipital.  but 
only  the  directing  city  in  possession  of  the  i.ri- 
macy,  the  sent  of  the  fwleral  council.  .  .      Calll- 
straius  was  in  a  sense  the  Aristides  of  the  new 
confisleration  and  doubtless  did  much  to  bring 
alKiiit  an  agreement;  it  was  likewise  his  work 
that,  in  place  of  the  •  trihuies '  of  odious  memory 
tlie  payments  necessary  to  the  existence  of  the 
confederation  were  introduced  under  the  gentler 
name  of  •contributions.'.   .  .  Amicable  n-lation* 
were   r..sume<l  with  the  (^yelmleg,   Klio.les  and 
1  erinthus;  in  other  wonla,  the  ancient  union  of 
navies  was  at  once  renewed  upon  a  large  scale 
and  In  a  wide  extent.     Even  such  staU's  Joined 
t  as  had  hitherto  never  sUskI  in  confwiemte  re- 
lationswith  Athens,  above  all  Thebes."—  E  Cur 
tius   m,l.    nf  r.rtee,.  bk.  6.  eh.    1.  — This  weoiid 
confederacy  n-newol  much  of  the  prosi,  rliv  and 
influence  of  Athens  for  a  ,.rief  p<.riod  of  iil),„ii 
twenty  ye.irs.     But  In  3.-.7  B  ('.,  four  lmp,.ri:int 
nieiii  Hrs  of  tlieConfnIeri.cv,  namely,  Chios,  I'o, 
Ub.Hles,  and  Byzantium  I,  .giied  thems..|ves  i:i 
revolt,  with  the  aid  of  .Maus,.ius,  prince  of  Caria 
and   an   inglorious  war  ensue,|,  known  as   llie 
NK'liil  War.   which  la.slpd  threw  years,     Athens 
was  foreeil  at  last  to  ass,.nt  to  the  si-cc-sslon  of  the 
four  revolted  nlies  and  lo  n^eognize  llieir  irid.' 
IH'iiilem-e.  whji  li  gnmlv  im|iaire<l  her  presti  •■ 
and  power.  Just  al  the  lime  wh.n  she  wasealle  I 
upon    to  resist  tlie  <ricroaeliinenls  of    I'liilii)  of 
.Mii<ed..iila.  -C,  ThlHwall,  //,V  „r  l/mYe.  eh   (.• 
Tk  K    37<^3«»; -Alliance  with  Sparta  against 
T^-'H'rJ!?"'*  •'  Mantinea.    See  (JifiiKn 

B.  C.  359-338.-The  colliijon  with  Philip  <  f 

SL^"'*''?^/''?  '*'"'''  "'  Demoithenei  H.il 
Policy  of  Phocion.-  '  A  n.w  periisloiH-n*  «i:  . 
'.'•ii*-'''".".!''.'!'.""'  -Mawlonian  imwer  1111  i,r 
I'liillij  (:i.-,lt-;|.1«  B  C  )  We  ar..  hc^  chlelly  .  ..,. 
\"'7"'' !''  "'•'"'*■  "«■  ■•fftft  on  the  Cily-Siaic  ...f 
Ailiens),  not  only  of  the  str<'nKth  and  policy  .,f 
this  new  power,  but  alio  of  the  effofti  of'lhe 


ATUEX3.  B.  C.  330-339. 


Demonthfnri 
and  Macedon. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  339-333. 


Orcclu  thenuelves  to  counteract  it.     At  the  time 
of    Philip's    accesiiioD    the    so-calleU    Tlicban 
suprnmacy  had  just  practically  ended  with  the 
death  of  Epaminondas.     There  was  now  a  kind 
of  balaucc  of  power  between  the  three  IcatliuK 
Stiites,  Spartu,  Athens,  and  Thebes,  no  one  of 
which  was  greatly  stronger  than  the  others:  and 
such  a  bahince  could  easily  lie  worked  upon  by 
any  great  power  from    without.     Thus  when 
JIacedon  came  into  the  range  of  Oreek  politics, 
under  a  man  of  great  diplomatic  as  well  as  mili- 
tary capacity,  who,  like  a  Czarof  today,  wished 
to  secure  a  dnn  footing  on  the  sea-lxwrd  of  the 
^gean  [see  QiiKErK:    B.  C.  a59-3,W),  slie  found 
her  work  comparatively  easy.     The  strong  im- 
perial policy  of  Philip  founci  no  real  antagonist 
except   at   Athens.     Weak   as   she    was,    and 
straitened  by  the    break-up  of    her  new  con- 
federacy,  Athens  could  still   produce    men  of 
great  talent  and  energy ;   but  she  was  liampered 
by  divided  counsels.     Two  Athenians  of   this 
periinl  seem  to  represent  the  currents  of  Oreek 
political  thought,  now  running  in  two  dilTerent 
directions.      Demosthenes  represents  the  cause 
of  the  C'itr-State  in  this  age,  of  a  union,  that  is, 
of  iwrfcctly  free  Hellenic  cities  against  tlic  com- 
mon enemy.      Phocion  represenu  tiie  feeling, 
which  seems  to  have  been  long   growing  up 
among  thinking  men  at  Athens,  that  the  Clty- 
State  was  no  longer  what  it  had  been,  and  could 
no  longer  stand  by  itself;   that  what  was  needed 
was  a  general  Hellenic  peace,  and  possibly  even 
an  arbiter  from  without,  an  arbiter  not  wholly 
un-ilclleuic  like  tlie  Persian,  yet  one  who  miglit 
surcevj  in  stilling  the   fatal  Jealousies  of  the 
liailin?  States.  .  .  .  Tlie  efforts  of  Demosthenes 
to  olici:k  Philip  fall  Into  two  peri'xls  divided  by 
tlie  pi-iice  of  Philocratcs  in  316   U.  C.     In  t.  o 
liMt  of  tiiese  ho  is  acting  chiel1%  with  Athens 
alone;  Philip  is  to  him  not  so  moil;  the  eomaioii 
enemy  of    Greece  as  the    dangenyus    rival    of 
Athens  in  the  north.     His  whole  mind  w,.i  giv.  ii 
to   the    internal    reform    of    Atlieus    so    as    to 
strengthen  her  against  Philip.     In  nor  relation 
to  other  Greek  States  he  perhaps  hanlly  saw 
'■"Vond  H  balance  of  power.  .  .  .  After  iJ40  Ids 
Atlieiiian    feeling  seems  to  h  -^ome   more  dis- 
tinclly  Hellenic.     But  what  culd  even  such  a 
minus  Demosthenes  do  with  the  lliilasof  that 
il.iy  1    He  could  not  force  on  the  On.Tks  a  real 
ami  permanent  uniim;  he  could  but  urge  new 
iilli.inccs.     His  stre-ttgth  was  spent  in  embassies 
wuh  tliis  object,  embassies  Um  often  futile.     No 
alluiuce  could  save  Greece  from  liie  Macedonian 
piwcr,   as  iul)8e(|uent  events  plainly  showeil. 
Wiiat  was  needi  .  was  a  real  feiiend  unii...  be- 
iwirn  the  leading  StaU-s,  with  a  stmng  ontral 
eonlrtplling  force;   and  Demosthenes'  iM.liiy  was 
ImiKless  Just  1k-c«us<'  Athens  could  never  iie  tliv 
rcnirf  of  such  a  union,  nor  could  any  otlic-  city. 
i»iMi,isllienes  is  tluK  tlie  last,  and  "in  simie  re- 
j'lKi  is  llie  most  heroic cli.mipion of  the  oii)  Greek 

iiistiiiet  for  uul jii.v.     He  is  'he  true  ciiihl  of 

thi  CltyMtale.  but  too  child  of  its  old  age  an<l 
"lernpiiudo.  He  still  iK-lieves  in  Athens,  awl  it 
sm  Alliens  that  all  h.s  hopes  are  biis.'d.  He 
(■"■k«  on  I'hillp  as  one  who  must  inevitably  lie 
llie  fill'  alike  of  Athens  and  of  Oreeei'  He 
•"■••nistoihinkthal  he  can  be  beaten  off  as  Xeries 
was.  and  to  forget  that  even  Xerxes  almost 
tnumpIiedonTili,-  divisions  of  the  Greek  Slates, 
and  that  Philip  I,  n  nearer,  ■  more  prominent, 
wiUafur  less  barUirimi  {u*.  .  .  .  Phociou  «a« 


167 


the  somewhat  odd  exponent  of  the  practical  side 
of  a  school  of  thougiii,  which  had  been  gaining 
strengtii  In  Greece  for  some  time  past.     ThU 
school  was  now  brought  into  prominence  by  the 
rise  of  Macedon,  and  came  to  have  a  marked  in- 
fluence on    the   history  of   the   Citv-State      It 
began  with  the  philosophers,  and  wfth  the  idea 
that  the  philosoplier  may  belong  to  the  world  as 
well  as  to  a  particutar  city.  .  .  .  Atlieiis  was  far 
more  open  to  criticism  now  than  in  the  days  of 
Pericles;   and  a  cynical  dislike  betrays  itself  in 
the  Itt-public  for  the  politicians  of  the  day  and 
their  tricks,  and  a  longing  for  a  strong  govern- 
ment of  res      ....  Aristotle  took  thi;  facta  of 
city  life  as  ihey  were  and  showed  how  they 
might  be  made  the  most  of.  .  .  .  T)  liiin  Mace- 
don  was  assuredly  not  wholly  b:i:    irian;   and 
war  to  the  death  with  her  kings  coulil  not  have 
been  to  him  lis  natural  or  desinible  as  it  seemed 
to  Demosthenes,     ^nd  though  he  has  nothing  to 
tell  us  of  Macedon,  we  can  hardly  avoid  the  con- 
clusion tliat  his  desire  was  for  [hhcc  and  internal 
refonn,  even  if  it  were  under  the  guarantee  of 
the  northern  power.  ...  Of  this  philosophical 
view  of  Greek  politics  Phocion  was  in  a  manner 
tb    political  cx[)onent.     But  his  policy  was  too 
much  a  negative  one;  it  might  almost  be  called 
one  of  indifferentism,  like  »'     feeling  of  Lessing 
and    Goethe    in    German         most    momentous 
period.    So  far  as  we  kno      Phocion  never  pro- 
posed an  allUnce  of   a  n.rabie    kind,    either 
Athenian  or  Hellenic,  with  Macedon;    he  was 
ctmtent   to   be  a  purely  restraining   influence. 
Athens  ha<?  been  constantly  at  war  since  433; 
her  own  resources  were  of  the  weakest;   there 
was  little  military  skill  to  be  fouml  in  lu  r,  no 
reserve  force,  much  talk,  but  little  solid  courage. 
Atliens  was   vulnerable  at  variou.i  points,  and 
could  not  possibly  ilefend  more  than  one  at  a 
time,  therefore-  Phocion  despaired  of  war,  and 
tlie  event  prove<l  him  right.     The  faithfulnesa 
of  the  Athenians  towards  him  is  a  pniof  that 
they  also  instinctively  felt  that  he  was  right 
But  he  was  wanting  on  the  practiail  and  cre'ative 
side,  and  never  really  dominated  either  Athens, 
Greece,  or  Philip.  ...  A  policy  of  re'sistance 
fouml  the  City-State  too  weak  todefenci  Itself;  a 
policy  of  inaction  would  Und  It  in  a  .Maceilonian 
empire  which  would  still  further  weaken  its  re- 
maining   vitality.      The    flrst    polity,    that    of 
Demostlienes,  did  actually  result  in  disastir  and 
tlie  presence  of  .Macedonian  garrisons  in  Greek 
cities.     Tlie  attcond  policy  then  took  its  place, 
and  initiaUil  a  new  era  for  Greece.     After  the 
fatal    battle  of    Chieronea  (.'ttS   B.  C.)     Philip 
assumi'd  the  jiosition  of   leader  of   the  Gnik 
cilies.'— W.    \V.    Kowler,    T/if   ''it// .'^,i/e  i>r' the 
(Irrrku  n-ul  limoiiui,  cA.  10.— Se<',  al.^o,  GlilECE' 

B.  C.  340.— Alliance  with  Briantium  •'  aintt 
Philip  of  Micer  on.    SceGnKKcK;  li  c  "no 

B.  C-  33(*  jt2.-Eni  of  the  Struggle  with 
the  Mac.doniani.— Fall  of  Democracy.— 
Death  of  Demotthtnee.— Athenian  decline.— 

An  unex|)eetiil  ineidrtit  elianiris  tlie  whole 
aspect  of  things.  Philiji  falls  the  victim  of 
assassination;  ami  a  youth,  who  as  yii  is  but  lit- 
tle known,  is  his  successor.  Imnudlately 
IVmosthenes  institutes  a  seconil  alliani-e  of 
the  ()n.i.k<;  but  Alex.indcr  "udd;  iilv  apja^ira  !»- 
fore  Thelies;  llie  lerrilile  vengeaiire  whicli  be 
here  takcK,  Instantly  ilestroys  the  league;  l>emot- 
thvues,  Lycurgus,  and  several  of  their  support- 


m 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  33ft-32a. 


Mae^Jonian 


ATH£NS.  B.  C.  336-823. 


ill; 


e»,  are  required  to  be  delivered  "in ;  but  Dfnuulci 
ii  at  tbst  time  able  to  lettle  thee'  acuity  aud  to 
appease  tlic  king.    IIU  atrength  was  tbcreforo 
enfeebled  as  Alcxauiler  ileparted  for  Asia;  bo 
begins  to  mise  bis  head  once  mope  wlien  Sparta 
attcmnts  to  tbrow  off  tbe  yoke;  but  under  Anll- 
palcr  lie  is  overpowereil.     Yet  it  was  about  tills 
very  time  tbat  by  the  most  celebratol  of  bis  dis- 
courses lie  gained  tbe  victory  over  tlie  most  elo- 
quent  of  Ids   atlvcrsaries;  and   ^scblnes  was 
fore  ed  to  depart  from  Atbens.    But  tbis  seems 
?;::1;-  >"  have  the  more  cmbittere'l  bis  enemies, 
the  leaders  of  the  Macedonian  puriy;  and  they 
soon   found   au  oniwrtunlty   of  preparing  hfs 
downfall.     When  Harpalus,  a  fugitive  from  the 
army  of  Alexander,  came  with  his  treasures  to 
Athens,  and  the  question  arose,  whether  he  could 
be  iwrmitted  to  remain  there,  Demosthenes  was 
accu8e<l    of    having    been    corrupted    by   his 
money,  at  least  to  be  silent.    This  was  sufficient 
to  pnwure  tbe  imposition  of  aflne;  and  as  this 
was  not  paid,  he  was  thrown  into  prison.    Prom 
thence  he  succeeded  in  escaping;  but  to  the  man 
who  livf^l  only  for  his  country,  exile  was  no  leas 
an  evil  than  imprisonment.     He  resided  for  tbe 
niost  part  in  ^giiiaand  at  Tnrzen,  from  whence 
he  'cmked  with  moist  eyes  toward  the  neigh- 
bouring Attica.    Suddenly  and  unexpectedly  a 
new  ray  of   light   broke   through  the   ciouds. 
T  (lings  were  brought,  that  Alexander  was  dead. 
The  moment  of  deliverance  secineil  at  hand ;  tbe 
excitement  pervaded  every   Orecian  state;   the 
ambassadors  of  the  Athenians  passed  through 
the  cities;   Demosthenes  Joined  himself  to  tJic 
number  and  exerted  all  his  eloquence  and  power 
to  unite  them  against  Macedonia.     In  recjuital 
for  smli  services,  tbe  people  decreed  bis  return • 
and  years  i.f  sufrcrings  were  at  last  followetl  by 
a  day  of  exalted  compeiiaatlon.     A  gal'oy  was 
sent  to  .Eglna  to  bring  back  the  edvocate  of 
lilierly.  ...   It  was  a  momentary  glimpse  of  i 
tbe  sun,  which  still  darker  clouds  were  soon  to 
conceal.     Antipatrr  and  (,'raterus  were  victori- 
ous; and   Willi  (bciii  the  Macedonian  party  In 
Athens;  Dcmcwilicncs  and  his  friends  were  num- 
bered among  tbe  aivusid.  ami  at  the  Instigation 
of   Demades  were  condemiuii  to  die.  .  .  .   De- 
mosthenes hail   esciiiHil  U>  the  Island  Calaiiria 
in  the  vicinitv  of  Tin'zen;  and  took  refuge  In 
the  temple  of  Neptune.     It  was  to  no  purpose 
tbat  Arelilus,  the  satellite  of  Antipatcr,  urged 
bliii  to  nurrender  lilinsclf  under  pnimlsc  of  par- 
don.    He  pretendeil  lie  wislied  to  write  some- 
thing; bit  the  quill,  and  swallowiil  the  |)i)i(um 
contalne<l  in  It."— A.  H.  L.   Ileeren,  Hfflictiiiin 
on  tin  lUilim  of  Aiieient  (Ireie,   trniu    hu  (I 
Bann-ofl,  p,,.  a7H-iW().-8ee.  also.  >m  llic  "  Unilan 
War,    ilic  siipprewiion  of  IX'iiKK'mey  at  Athens 
»ud  tbe expiiLsiim (if  iKHir citizens,  Oi'iKKCK    M  c' 
823-:f,'a.— •Willi  the  decline  of  |)oliiical  .ndc' 
pendenee,  .  .  .  tbe  nitntal  powers  of  the  iialiou 
rect'lved  a  fatal  blow.     No  longer  knit  together 
by  a  jHiwerf  ul  esprit  de  corps,  the  Greeks  lost  tbe 
habit  of  working  for  tbe  common  weal ;  and,  for 
tlie  iiioitt  part,  gave  llieii'    tlvcs  up  to  the  iiclty 
luluri'sts  of  bdiue  life  a       their  own   personal 
tmubli-s.     Kv.n   the  betU-r  dJsiHMed    were    too 
much  Dccupicd  in  opiwring  the   low  tone  and 
corruption  of  the  timei,  u>  lie  able  to  devote 
llieiii«lvcs,  in  Ibeir  momenU  of  relaxation,  to  a 
free  and  8|Hculiitlv«    consideration   of    thing. 
W  ml  coulU  Ik'  cxpectal  In  such  an  age,  but  iliat 
philoDophy    would   take  a  decidedly   practical 


turn,  if  .ideed  It  were  studied  at  all  f    And  yet 
such  were  the  political  sntecedenU  of  the  Stoic 
aud    Epicurean   lyttenu   of    philosophy. 
Stoic   apathy,    Epicurean   self-satisfaction,  ami 
Sceptic   ImperturUbility,    were    the    doctrines 
which  responded  to  tbe  political  helplessness  of 
the  age.    They  were  tbe  doctrines,  too,  wbicb 
met  with   the   most  genenil  acceptance.    The 
same  political  helplessness  produced  the  sinking 
of  national  distinctions  In  tlie  feeling  of  a  com- 
mon humanity,  and  the  separation  of  morals 
from  politics  which  characterise  tbe  pbilosopby 
of  tbe   Alexaiiurian  and   Roi  lau  period.    The 
barriers  between  nations,  toge  her  with  national 
independence,  bad  been  swept  away.    East  and 
West,  Greeks  and  barbarians,  were  united   In 
arge  empires,  being  thus  thrown  Uigcther,  and 
brought  Into   close   contact   o:i  every  possible 
point.     Pbilosopby    might  u-ac!i   that  all  men 
were  of  one  bloo.1.  that  all  w  're  equally  citizens 
of  one  empire,  that  morality  resteil  on  the  rela 
tlon  of  mnn  to  bis  'ellow  men,  independently  of 
nationalUies  and  of  social  ranks;  but  in  so  doing 
she  was  only  explicitly  stating  truths  which  had 
been  already  n  i;'iHed  in  part,  and  which  were  in 
part  corollaries  from  the  existing  state  of  so- 
ciety."—E.  Zoller,   T/ie  .*«•<-,,  Epieureaiu,   and 
Seepliet.  pp.  18-18.— ••  What  we  have  said  con- 
cerning the  evidence  of  comedy  about  the  age  of 
the  tirst  Diadochi  amounts  to  ti:i:    Menauder 
and  his  successors  —  they  lasted    .1  x'ly  two  gen- 
erations—printed in  a  few  stereotypes  a  small 
and  very  worthless   soiiety  at  Athens.     There 
was  no  doubt  a  similar  set  of  people  at  Corinth, 
at  Tbelies,  possiblv  even  in  the  city  of  Lycur- 
gtis.    These  |K-ople,  idle,  for  the  most  part  rich 
and  in  mxKl  society,  spc-nt  their  earlier  years  In 
debauchery,  and  their  laUr  in  sentimental  refl(>c- 
tioiis  and  regrets.    They  bad  no  serious  object 
111  .lie,  aud  regarded  the  complications  of  a  love 
affair  as  more  Interesting  than  the  rise  aud  fall 
of  kiiigd.inis  or  the  gain  and  loss  of  a  nations 
lilK-rty.     Tliey  were  like  tlie  people  of  our  day 
who  spend  all  their  time  reading  novels  from  tlie 
libnines,  aud    who   can   t(>lerate    these   eternal 
variations  in  twaddle  not  only  williout  clisgiist 
but  with  Interest.    They  were  surrounded  with 
slaves,  on  the  whole  more  intelligent  aud  Inter- 
esting, for  in  the  first  place  »l«ves  were  iKiiiud 
Jo  exercise  their  brains,  and  la  tbe  second  tliey 
had  a  great  oblect— liberty —  to  give  ilii-m  a 
keen  pursuit  In  life.     The  relations  of  the  sexes 
In  this  set  or  portion  of  society  were  bad,  owing 
to  the  Want  of  education  In  tbe  women,  ami  the 


want  of  eaniestneas  In  the  men.  As  a  natura 
coiisequenc-e  a  class  was  found,  apart  from 
household  slaves  who  t<K>k  advanUge  of  these 
defects,  and,  bringing  culture  to  fascinate  un- 
principled men,  established  thou  nlatious 
whlrli  brought  eatrangenients.  If  not  ruin.  Into 
the  home  life  of  the  day.  "—J.  P.  Mahaffy,  Greek 
Uftnml  rh„u;,ht.  pp.  123-184.— "The  amount 
of  Persliin  wealth  poured  Into  Greece  by  the 
oceidents  of  the  conquest,  not  by  Its  own  Indus 
tries,  must  have  pro<liiccd  a  revolution  in  priita 
not  sime  equalled  extvpt  by  the  Intlux  >f  the 
gold  of  tbe  Aztecs  and  Incas  into  Spain.  I  hare 
already  poinu-d  out  how  this  change  must  have 
pressed  iiiHin  ixKir  people  in  Greece  who  did  not 
share  In  the  plunder.  The  price  of  even  ne(  i-s- 
i-iry  Mild  :.lmjiit:  things  must  have  oft.n  ri.-,tu 
JH'yiHid  their  means.  Kor  the  adventurirs 
brouglit  home   large  furtuuui.  aud  the  •radirs 

18;> 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  836-823. 


Ex)ian»toH  of 
iittUniam. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  33»-323. 


ant!  •'urreyora  of  the  armies  made  them ;  and  with 
tlieae  Eiutcrn  fortunes  must  liave  come  iu  tlio 
tastu  for  nil  the  superior  comforts  and  luxuries 
wbieli  tlicy  found  among  the  Persiun  cranducs. 
Not  only  the  appointments  of  the  table,  in  the 
way  of  plati!  and  pottery,  hut  the  very  tastes  aud 
flavours  of  Greek  C(H)kery  must  have  profited 
by  comparison  with  the  knowledge  of  the  East. 
So  also  the  furniture,  cspotially  In  carpets  and 
h:\i.gingB,  must  have   copied    Persian    fashion. 
Just  as  we  still  affect  oriental  stuffs  and  designs. 
It  was  not  to  be  expecte<l  'hat  the  example  of  so 
many  regal  courts  and  so  much  royol  ceremony 
should  n"t    HfTect  those  in  omtact  with  them. 
These  iiiMuiuces  were   not   only  shown   iu  the 
vulgar  ■  braggart  <'upuiin,'  who  came  to  show  off 
Ills  suiMen    wealth    in  impudent  extravaj;a   ro 
iiiuoii^'  his  olil  tow-.^pcople,  hut  in  the  ordinary 
life  of  rich  young  men.    So  I  imagine  tlie  personal 
iippolutmcntsof  Alcibiades.  which  were  the  talk 
of  Gieece  in  his  day,  would  have  appeared  poor 
and  mean  beside  those  of  Arams,  or  of  the  gen- 
eration   which    prec-eiled    him.      Pictures   and 
statues  began  to  adorn  private  houses,  and  not 
temples  and  public  buililing*  only  —  a  change 
beginning  to  show  itself  in  Demosthenes's  day, 
but  coming  in  like  a  torrent  with  the  opening  of 
Orccte  to  the  Eastern  woKJ.     It  was  noticed 
tltat  Phwion's  house  at  Athens  was  modest  in 
size  and  furniture,  but  even  this  was  rellevetl 
from  shabbiness  by  the  quaint  wall  decorathm 
of  shining  plates  of  bronze  — a  fashion  dating 
from  prehistoric  times,  but  still  admired  for  its 
very  anllc|uity."-J.  P.  Maliaffy.  (jrnk  Life  and 
Thowilit.  pp.  105-100.— "The  modern  historians 
of  Greece  are  much  dlvidei!   on   the   questum 
where  a  history  of  Hellus  ought  to  end.     C'T- 
tlus  stops  with  the  battle  of  C'iiaeroneia  ana  tjie 
prostration    of    Athens    before    the    a<lfancing 
power  of  Mace<lon.     Grote  narrates  the  cam- 
paigns of  Alexander,  but  stops  short  at  '.h,  con- 
clusion of  the  Lamian  War,  when  Greece  had  in 
vain  tried  to  shake  off  the  supremacy  of  his  gen- 
erals.   Thiriwall   brings  his  narmti.e  down  to 
the  time  of  Hummlus,  the  melancholy  suck  of 
Corinth  and  the  constitution  of   Achaia  as  a 
lionian  province.    Of  these  divergent  views  we 
regard  that  of  the  German  historian  as  the  most 
correct.  .  .  .  The  historic  sense  of  Grote  did  not 
exclude  pretudices,   and  in    this  cjiso  '•-  was 
probably  led  astray  by  political   bias.    Ai  the 
close  of  bis  ninety -sixth  chapter,  after  mention- 
tag  the  emuassii's  sent  by  the  degenerate  Athe- 
nIaiiB  to  King  Ptolemy,  King  I.ysiumcuus,  and 
Antipater,  he  throws  down  his  pen  in  disgust, 
and  witli  sadness  and  humiliation  brings  his  nar- 
rative to  a  close.'  Athens  was  no  longer  free  aud 
no  longer  dignified,  and  so  Mr.  Grote  will  have 
done  with  Greece  at  tiie  very  moment  when  the 
new    Comedy    was   at   iu    height,    when    tlie 
JIusium  was  founded  at  Alexandria,  when  the 
Jilaysof  Kuriphles  were  acted  at  Ujibylon  and 
tabul,  and  every  Greek  solillcr  of  fortune  car- 
ried a  diadem  iu  hU  baggage.     Surely  the  his 
tonau  of  Greece  ought  either  In  have  stopped 
when  the  Iron  hand  of  Philip  of  Mac».iion  put  an 
end  to  the  IH)ertle8  and  the  ix.litlcal  wrangliugs 
of  llillas,  or  else  persevered  to  the  time  wlien 
Itonu'  and  Parthia  crushed  Greek  imwer  lictween 
tlieiti.   like  a  sidn    between   two  icebergs.     No 
Mouirinm  reply  wouhl  U\  that  he  declined   to 
reifard  the  triumph  aliroad  of  Mr'  rlouian  anus 
u  a  cuulinualiuu  of  the  history        ilcllas. 


189 


The  truth  is,  that  the  history  of  Greece  consists 
of  two  parts,  in  every  respect  contrasted  one 
witli  the  other.    The  first  recounU  tl  e  stories  of 
the  Persian  and  Pcloponnesian  wars,  aud  ends 
with  the  destruction  of  Th.U.  i  and  the  subjuga- 
tion of  Athens  and  Sparta.    Ths  Hellus  of  which 
It  speaks  is  a  cluster  of  autonomous  cities  in  the 
Peloponnesus,  the  Islands,  aud  Northeru  Greece, 
together  with  their  colonies  scattered  over  the 
coasu  of  Itoly,  Sicily,  Tliracc,  the  Black  .Sea, 
Ashi  Minor,  and  Africa.    These  cities  care  only 
to  be  independent,  or  at  most  to  lord  it  over  one 
another.    Their  political   institution.s,  their  re- 
ligious ceremonies,  their  customs,  arc  civic  and 
local.      Langimge,  commerce,  a  couunon   Pan- 
theon, and  a  common  art  aud  poetry  are  the  ties 
th.t  bind  them  togcti    r.     In  Its  u!Coiul  phase, 
Greek  history    begijs    with    the  cxiMHiition  of 
Alexander.     It  rcv.als  to  us  t:.e  Greek  as  ev  ry- 
where  lord  of  the  barbarian,  as  fouuding  king- 
doms and  feden.'  systems,  as  the  instruct*  '  of 
all  nutnkind  in  ait  aud  science,  and  the  spicader 
of  civil  niid  civilked  life  over  the  known  world. 
In  the  first  perii«l  of  her  history  Greece  is  form- 
ing herself,  iu  h  .'r  second  she  "is  e<lucating  the 
world.     We  w!''   venture  to  borrow  from  the 
Germans  a  convenient  expression,  and  call  the 
history  of  indeptmdeut  Greece  the   history  of 
Hellas,   that  of   imperial  Greece  the  history  of 
Helleiiisiu.  .  .  .  The    Athens  of    Pericles    was 
dictator  among  the  cities  which  had  joined  her 
alliance.     Corinth,    SparU,    Theln-s.    were  each 
the  political  head  of  a  group  of  towns,  but  none 
of  tlie  three  admitted  these  latter  to  an  e(jual 
share  In  their  ci-  ucils.  or  adopted  their  political 
views.      Even  in  the  Olynthiau    I.eague.   the 
city  of    Olynthiis    occupied    a    iM)sition    quite 
superior  to  that  of  the  other  cities.     But  tlio 
Greek  cities  hail  not  tried  the  exp<  riinent  of  an 
alliance  on  equal    terms.     This    was    now    at- 
tcinpte<l   by  some  of  the  leadinir  ritjes  of  the 
Peloponneae,  aud   the  result  was     ;ie  Achaean 
league,  whose  histoiy  shells  a  lus    e  on  the  last 
I.,  -s  of  independent  Greece,  and  wliosc  generals 
w.,1  licar  comimrison  with  the  statesmen  of  any 
Greek  Kepuhiic  [see  Gkeeck:    B.  (.'.  2B0-146]. 
.  .  On  tiie  field  of  Sellasia  the  glorious  hopes 
of  Cleomcnes  were  wrecked,  and  the  recently 
reformcil  .Siwrta  was  handeil  over  to  a  succesxlon 
of  bhiodthinity  tyrants,  never  again  to  emerge 
fnim  ol)8curily.     But  to  the  Achaeans  themselves 
the  intcrfer.-ncc  of  Maceilou  was  little  '.•ss  fatal. 
Henceforth    a    Maceiloiiian     garrison    occupied 
Coriii'li,  w.iieh  had  l>een  one  of  the  chief  cities 
of  the  League:  and  King  Antlgoiiiis  IX>son  was 
the   recognlitiMl   ari)lter   in  all   disputes  of   the 
K'lo|M>niiesian  Greeks.  ...  In  Nortlieni  Greece 

a  strange  i imst  presente<)  Itself      Tlie  historic 

races  of  the  AtheiilKiis  and  Boeotians  laiiguisiied 
In  iieace,  obscurity,  au,l  luxury.  With  them 
every  day  saw  something  added  to  the  enjoy- 
ments and  elegancies  of  life,  and  every  day 
I)<illtlcs  drifteil  more  and  more  Into  the  back- 
grrmnd.  On  the  other  bawl,  therinleseml  Orn^ks 
of  the  West  Aetollaus.  Acamaiiiaiis,  anil  Kpl- 
rotes,  U>  whose  niauhiKxl  the  repulse  of  the  Gauls 
was  mainly  due.  came  to  the  front  anil  slioweil 
the  lK)ld  spirit  of  Greeks  divortvd  from  the  thier 
faculties  of  the  race.  The  Acamanians  formed 
ft  !e»g:ii.  snmewli-it  on  the  plrtli  of  llie  .\ch;u-au. 
But  they  were  overslmdoweil  by  their  neiglilHirs 
the  Actollans.  whose  union  wiis  of  a  dilTereiit 
character.    It  was  the  Unit  time  that  there  hod 


U  ;■  I 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  83ft-39a. 

been  formed  in  HelUt  a  state  framed  In  order  to 
prey  upon  ita  neighbours.  ...  In  the  course  of 
the  Pcloponneslan  War  Grcelc  ri'llgion  began  to 
lose  iu  hold  on  the  Greelts.    This  was  partly  the 
work  of  the   sophisU   and   philosophere,   who 
sought  more  loftv  and  moral   views  of  Deity 
thun  were  furnished  bv  the  tales  of  popular 
mythology.    Still  more  it  resulted  from  growing 
materialism  among  the  people,  who  saw  more 
and  more  of  their  immediate  and  physical  needs 
and  less  and   less  of  the  underlring  spiritual 
elements  in  life.     But  though  pliilogopliy  and 
materialism  had  made  the  religion  of  Hellas  paler 
and  feebler,  they  had  not  altered  its  nature  or 
expanded    it.      It   still    remained    essentially 
national,  almost  tribal.    When,  therefore.  Greeks 
and    Macedonians   suddenly  found  themselves 
masters  of  the  nations  of  the  East,  and  in  close 
contact  with  a  hundred  forms  of  religion,  an 
extraordinary  and  rapid  change  took  place  in 
their  religious  ideas.    In  religion,  as  In  other 
matters.  Egypt  set  to  the  world  •••e  example  of 
prompt    fusion   of    the    ideas  of   Greeks   and 
natives.  .      .  Into  Greece  proper,  in  return  for 
her  '  opulation  which  flowed  out,  there  flowc<l 
!n  a  c.  owd  of  foreign  deities.    Isis  was  especially 
welcomed  at  Athens,   where  she  found  many 
votaries.    In  every  cult  the  more   mysterious 
Clements  were  made  more  of,  and  the  brighter 
and    more   materialistic   side  passeil  by.     Old 
statues  whicli  had  fallen  somewhat  into  con- 
tempt in  the  (lays  of  Phcidias  and  Praxiteles 
were  restore.!  to  their  places  and  received  ex- 
treme veneration,  not  as  beautiful,  but  as  old 
and    strange.      On    the  coins  of  the  previous 
period  the  representations  of  deities  had  been 
always  the  Iwst  that  the  die-cutter  could  frame 
taking  as  his  minlels  the  finest  contemponirv 
sculpture;    but  henceforth  we  often  find  them 
strange,  unciutli  figures,  remnants  of  a  period 
of  struggling   early  art,   like    the   Apollo   at 
Amyi-lae.  or  tlie  Hera  of  Samos.  ...  In  the  in- 
tellectual   life  of    Athens    there   was  still   left 
Tltalily  enough  to  formulate  the  two  most  com- 
plete expressions  of    the  etliicul   ideas  of    the 
times,  the  diKtrines  of  the  Stoics  and  tlie  Epi- 
cureans, towards  one  or  the  other  of  which  all 
educated  minds  from  that  day  to  this  have  been 
drawn.     No  doubt  our  knowledge  of  these  dix-- 
trines.   being    largely  drawn    from    the    Latin 
writers  and  their  Greek  contemporaries,  is  some- 
what coloured  and  unjust.     With  the  Romans  a 
•y^f™  "f  pliil(«ophy  was  considert'il  mainlv  In 
Its   bearing  upon  conduct,  whence  the  etiiical 
elements  in   Stoicism   and    Epi<un>aiiism  have 
been  by  their  Homau  ailherents  so  thrust  Into 
the  foreground,  that  we  have  almost  lost  sight 
of  the  intellectual  elemenU,  which  can  have  had 
mtle  less  ininortance  in  the  eyes  of  the  Greeks 
Notwithstanding,  the  rise  of  the  two  philosophies 
must  be  held  to  mark  a  new  era  in  the  history 
of  thought,  an  era  when  the  Importance  of  con- 
duct wan  for  the  first  time  recognii.-d  bv  the 
Un'iks.     It  is  often  observed  that  the  ancient 
Uri'eks  were  more  modern  than  our  own  an- 
cestors of    the   .Middle  Ages.     But    it    in    less 
generally  recogniicil  how  far  monMn.Klern  thin 
the  (trceksof  Pericles  were  the  Greeks. )f  Aratus 
In  very  many  respecu  the  age  of  Hellinism  and 
our  own  age  presint  remarkable  similarity.     Id 
both    there   «pp./.ir«   a  sudden   Inrn-aso   (n    the 
power  over  material  nature,  arising  alike  from 
llie  greater  accessibility  of  all  paru  of  the  world 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  900. 

and  from  the  rapid  development  of  the  sciences 
which  act  upon  the  physical  forces  of  the  worid 
In  both  this  spread  of  science  and  power  acts 
upon  religion  with  a  dissolving  and,  if  we  mav 
so  speak,  centrifugal  forra-,  driving  some  men  Ui 
take  refuge  in  the  most  conservative  forms  of 
faith,  some  t«  fly  to  new  creeds  and  superstitions 
some  to  drift  into  unmeasured  scepticism     Iii 
both  the  facility  of  moving  from  place  to  place 
and  finding  a  distant  home,  tends  to  dissolve  the 
closeness  of  civic  and  family  life,  and  to  make 
the  individual  ratlier  than  the  family  or  the  citv 
the  unit  of  social  life.     And  in  the  family  re- 
lations. In  the  character  of  individuals,  in  the 
state  of  morality,  in  the  condition  of  art    we 
find  at  lioth   periods  similar  results  from  the 
similar  causes  we  have  mentioned.  "—P.  Gardner 
Aein  CImplm  in  Oretk  llitUini,  eh.  lH. 

B.  C.  317-316— Siege  by  Polyspercho.1.— 
Democracy  restored.— Execution  of  Phocion 
— Demetriui  of  Phaleron  at  the  head  of  the 
groTemment.    See  Gukkck:  B.  C.  32l-;tl2. 

?C.  307-197 —Under  Demetriui  Poliorcetes 
*™  the  Antigonids.    See  Greece:   B.  C.  307- 

B.  C.  388-363.— Twenty  years  of  Indepen- 
dence.— Siere  and  subjugation  by  Antigonus 
ConaUa.— When  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  lost  tli,. 
Macetlonlan  throne.  B.  C.  2«8.  his  fickle  Athenliu 
subjects  and  late  worshippt^rs  rose  against  his 
authority,  drove  his  garrisons  from  the  Museiiiri 
and  the  Piraeus  and  abolis.'ied  the  prie8tli(K>il 
thev  had  consecrate<l  to  him.  I)emetrius 
gathered  an  army  from  some  quarter  and  l;ii,| 
*."'P  .*"  "'*  "^y^  *""  without  success.  Thi' 
Athenians  went  so  far  as  to  invite  Pvrrhus  the 
warrior  king  of  Epiriis.  to  assist  them  ngiiinst 
"''"•  ,  Pyrrluis  cnine  and  Demetrius  ix-tiicl 
The  dangerous  ally  coutente<i  himself  with  a 
visit  to  the  Acro|K>lis  as  a  worsliip|M'r,  and  left 
Athens  in  possession,  undisturbe;'  of  her  fnslilv 
gained  freedom.     It  was  enj.xed  after  a  fasiiioh 

n'"o"li^^'^.y™"'  *'  "'"  ""''  "f  ^'licb  Perin,!. 
iJ.  C.  Z68,  Antigonus  Oonatas.  the  son  of  l).'nie 
trius.  having  regained  the  Mace<ionian  crown 
reasserted  his  claim  on  Athens,  and  the  citv  wis 
once  more   besieged.     The   Lacediemoniaiis  ami 
Ptolemy  of  Egypt  both  gave  some  inelTeetuul 
aid  to  the  Athenians,  and  the  siege,  interruiitiil 
"n  several  occasions,  was  prolonged  until  li  C 
283,    when   Antigonus  tiH)k    posst'ssion  of    the 
Acropolis,  the  fortified  Mus«-iim  and  the  Pineus 
as  a  master  (see  M.\ckih)NIa,  ifce. :  B.  0  277-244) 
Tills  was  sometimes  callwl   the  (?hn'inoiiiilean 
War,  from  the  name  of  a  patriotic  Athenian  wlio 
took  the  most  prominent  part  in  the  long  liefence 
of  his  city, -C.  Thirlwall,  IIM  of  Ortea;  ch.  Bl 
B.   C.  aaj. -Liberation    by  the   Achaian 
League,     hee  Oukeck:   B.  C.  280-146 
J  °;  C.  ayo.— Vandaliam  of  the  Kcond  Mace- 
donian Philip.— In  the  year  B.  C.  200  the  .Mjkv- 
(lonian  king,  Philip,  ma<le  an  attempt  to  surprise 
Athens  and  failed.     "He  then  encamix-d  in  tlie 
outakiru,  and  proceeded  to  wreak  his  vengeaucv 
on  the    Athenians,    as  he    had    Indulgcl   it  at 
Thermus  and  Pergamus.     He  d<"strovc-<l  ..r  de- 
faced  all  the  monuments  of  religion  "and  of  nrt 
all  the  saco'd  and  pleasant  places  which  adornr.l 
the  suburbs.      I'lie  Aca.lemv,  the  Lv.ruin.  an  I 
Cynosarges,  with  iheir  temples,  scIi.'kiIs  gn.v.s 
an-l  ganltns.  were  .lil    wasted    with   tin-      .N"t 
*.»•'?  "'<' «'P"lclin's  were  spared."- C.  Thiriwall, 
Itut.  of  Urt*n,  fA.  64. 


190 


ATHEIfS,  B.  C.  197-A.  D.  138. 


Ptantinc  of 
ChrUtkmily. 


ATHEXS,  A.  D.  54  (T). 


B.  C.  197-A.  D.  138.— Under  Roman  rule. 

— "Athens  .  .  .  affonjs  the  disheartening  pic- 
ture of  a  commonweftlth  pampered  by  tlie  su- 
preme power,  and  flnaocially  as  well  as  morallv- 
ruine<l.  By  riRhts  it  ought  to  b&vv  found  iLwff 
in  a  flourishing  condition.  .  .  .  So  city  of  an- 
titiuity  elsewhere  possessed  a  domain  of  its  own, 
such  as  was  Attica,  of  about  7(X)  square  miles. 
.  .  .  But  even  U'yond  Attica  they  retained  what 
they  possessed,  as  well  after  the  Mithridatic 
War,  by  favour  of  Sulla,  as  after  the  Pliarsalian 
battle,  m  which  they  had  taken  the  siilc  of  Pom- 
ptius,  by  the  favour  of  C.tsar;— he  asked  them 
onlv  how  often  they  wrmld  still  ruin  themselves 
and  trust  to  be  saved  by  the  renown  of  their  an- 
cestors.    To  the  city  there  still  belonged   not 


ated  In  no  long  time.— W.  Ihne,  Iliil.  of  Rom*. 
**.  7.  cA.  1..— "Athens  was  .  .  .  taken  by 
»«Mult  .  .  .  The  majority  of  the  citizen.--  was 
slain;  the  camaee  was  so  fearfully  great  as  to 
l>ecome  memorable  even  in  that  age  of  bloodshed ; 
the  private  movable  property  wa»  seized  by  the 
so  diery,  and  Sylla  assumed  some  merit  to  him- 
self for  not  committing  the  rifled  houses  to  the 
flames.  .  .  .  The  fate  uf  the  Pineus,  which  he 
utterly  destroyed,  was  more  severe  than  that  of 
Athens.  From  Syllas  campaign  in  Greece  the 
commencement  of  tlie  ruin  anildepopulation  of 
tlic  country  is  to  be  date<l.  The  destruction  of 
property  causc-d  bv  his  ravages  in  Attica  was  so 
great  that  Athens  from  that  time  lost  its  commer- 
cial as  well  as  its  p,)litical  importance.     The 


merely    the    territory,    formeriy"  p^S^  "by   {   ^'^  ol  A"thenir„  chiz^n;'^;"  aSrextirpaSi'' 
Uahartus,   in   B.K'ot.a,   but  «l.v,  on   their  own      and  a  new  population.  composedTa  heterow^' 

OUS  mass  of  Setf  lem    fvr^.ivn^l  thn  ..;.>1.»  ^t  ^i^. 


coast  Sulamis,  the  old  starting-point  of  their 
dominion  of  the  sea,  and  in  the  Thracian  Sea  tlie 
lucnitive  islands  Scvros,  Lemnos,  and  Imbros,  as 
well  as  I)elos  in  tfie  Aegean.  ...  Of  the  fur- 
lli  r  L-ninls,  which  they  had  the  skill  to  draw  by 
liuttiry  from  Antoninus.  Augustus,  against 
«liuin  tliiy  hail  taken  part,  tixik  from  them  cer- 
tiinly  Acgina  and  Eretria  in  EulxH-a,  but  they 
wi-re  allowed  to  retain  the  smaller  islands  of  the 
Thracian  .Sea.  .  .  .  Hadrian,  moreover,  gave  to 
Uii  Ml  ilij  Iwst  part  of  the  great  island  of  C'eplial- 
Icnia  in  the  Ionian  Sea.  It  was  only  by  the 
KiiiiK-rnr  fv'verus.  who  bore  them  no  gc)od"will, 
tliui  a  [tortion  of  these  c.xtran<-ou3  ixMsessioiii 
«;u  withdrawn  from  them.  Il.idrian  further 
grunted  to  the  Athenians  the  delivery  of  a  cer- 
tiin  ijii.intity  of  grain  at  the  e.xpense  of  the  em- 
pire, aud  by  the  extension  of  this  privilege. 
hitiurto  reserved  for  the  capital,  acknowledged 
Athens,  ns  it  were,  as  anotlier  metropolis.  Not 
li>s  was  the  blissful  institute  of  alimentary  en- 
(lowm»  [its,  which  Italv  had  enjoye<l  since  Trajan's 
time,  extended  by  Hadrian  to  Athens,  and  the 
cipit.il  requisite  for  tills  pur|K>se  certainly  pre- 
.sc  iitid  to  the  Athenians  from  his  purse, 
Yi  t  the  community  w,is  in  constant  distress  ' — 
T.  Momuisen.  Ili'l.  nf  Home.  bk.  8,  eh   7 

Also  I. \:  ,1.  P.  .MahafTy,  Ue  Greek  KorUI  under 
U,,i,ii,  .^my.—Sce,  also,  Giieece:  B,  C  146- 
A    I).  1-0. 

B,  C.  87.86,— Siege  and  capture  by  Sulla.— 
Massacre  of  citizens.— Pillage  and  depopula- 
''on-  -Laitine  injuries.- The  earlv  successes  of 
.MKiiriihites  of  Poiitus,  in  his  savage  war  with 
tiif  IJciiians,  included  a  general  rising  in  his 
f  iv,  r  among  the  Greeks  [see  MiTURtD\T  c 
n  Alls],  siipporU'd  by  the  fleets  of  the  Pontic 
Kini;  aud  by  a  strong  invading  army,  Athens 
au'l  tiie  Pineus  were  the  strongholds  of  the 
On-rk  revolt,  and  at  Athens  an  adventurer  named 
An«t.<.n.  bnnging  from  Mithridates a  body-guard 
of  2.IKIO  soldiers,  maile  himself  tyrant  of  the  city 
A  .ve.ir  passed  before  Home,  distracted  by  the 
In  uinmngs  of  civil  war,  could  effectively  inter 
;'  ■■';  J}"-'^  Sulla  came  (B,  C.  87)  and  laid  siege 
I'tlie  Pineus,  where  the  principal  Pontic  force 
WIS  l,>,ls;,-,l,  while  he  shut  up  Athens  by  blockade 
-111  the  t.illowing  March,  Athens  was  starved  to 
^'|>  h  weakness  that  the  Romans  entered  almost 
uiiipp,Bi.,j  and  kille.1  and  plundered  wi;'i  no 
ineny ,  but  the  buildings  of  the  city  suffered 
litile  harm  at  their  handit  The  siege  of  the 
i-iraus  was  carried  on  for  some  weeks  longer 
until  Sulla  had  driven  the  Pontic  forces  from 
every  part  except  Munychia,  and  that  they  evacu- 


191 


ous  mass  of  settlers,  receivc<l  the  right  of  citizen- 
shin.  — G.  Finlay,  fjreeee  under  the  limaiu.  eh  1 
•   ^-  Pa^  (?».-The  Visit  of  St.  Paul.-Plaat- 
ing  of  Christianity.—"  When  the  Jews  of  Tlies- 
salonica  had  knowledge  that  the  word  of  God 
was  proclaimed  of  Paul  at  Bea.a  also,  they  came 
thither  likewise,  stirring  upand  troubling  thcmul- 
titwde      Aud  then  immediatclv  the  brethren  sent 
forth  Paul  to  go  as  far  as  to  the  sea:  and  Silas 
and  Tmiotlieus  alxHie  tlure  still.     But  they  that 
conducted  Paul  brought  him  as  far  as  Athens- 
and  receiving  a  coinmani'ment  unto  Silas  and' 
Timotheus  that  tliev  should  come  to  him  with  all 
s|Hed,  they  departed,     Now  while  Paul  waited 
for  them  at   Athens,    his  spirit  was   provoked 
within  him,  as  lie  lieheld  the  city  full  of  idols 
So  he  reasoned  in  the  synagogue  with  the  Jews 
aud  the  devout  persons,  and  in  the  market  place 
everj;  day  with  them  that  met  with  him.     And 
certain  also  of  the  Epicurean  and  Stoic  philoso- 
phers encountere<l  him.     And  some  said    what 
would  this  babbler  say  ?  other  some.  He  seemeth 
to  be  a  setter  forth  of  strange  gwls:  because  he 
preached  Ji  <us  aud  the  resurrection.     And  they 
t<x)k  hold  of  him,  and  brought  him   unto  tlie 
Areopagus,  saying.  May  we  know  what  this  new 
teaching  is,  which  is  sixikcn  by  thee  ?    For  thou 
bringest  certain  strange  things  to  our  ears:  we 
would  know  therefore  what  these  things  mean. 
(Now  all  the  Athenians  and  the  strangers  sojourn- 
ing there  spent  their  time  in  nothing  else,  but 
either  to  tell  or  to  hear  some  new  thing. )    Auil 
Paul  stixxl  iu  the  midst  of  the  -Vreopagus,  and  said, 
ie  men  of  Atiiens,  in  all  things  I  perceive  tliat 
ye  arc  some-vhat  superstitious.      For  aa  I  passed 
along  and  observed  the  objects  of  your  worship 
I  found  also  an  altar  witli  this  Inscription,  ' To 
an  Unknown  God.'     What  therefore  ye  worship 
in  ignorance,  this  set  I  forth  unto  you.  .  .  .  Now 
when  they  heard  of  the  resurrection  of  the  dead 
some  mocke<l ;  hut  others  said,  We  will  hear  thee 
concerning  this  yet  again.     Thus  Paul  went  out 
from  among  them.     Howbeit  certain  men  clave 
unto  him,  and  believed:  among  whom  also  was 
Dionysiiis  tlie  Arcopagite,  and  a  woman  nanietl 
Damaris,  and  others  with   them."— .lrt»  -/ </i«' 
Al*i»lU;  Iterimd  Vernon,  eh.  17.— "Consider  the 
dillicullics  whicli  must  have  beset  the  planting 
of  the  Church  in  -Vtliens,     If  the  burning  zeal  o? 
the  great  Apostle  ever  pcnnitteii   him  to   feel 
dinideuce  in  addressing  an  assembly,  he  may  well 
have  fcit  ii  when  he  a.idicswd  uu  Mars'  Hill  for 
the  first  time  an  Atlienian  crowd.     No  doubt  the 
Athens  of  bis  time  was  In  her  decay,  inferior  In 
opulence  and  grandeur  tc  many  younger  dti^ 


ATHENS,  A.  D.  64  (TV 

Yet  even  to  a  Jew,  provided  he  hud  n^celved  aome 
educntioiMl   Impressions    Iwyond    the    fanatical 
sliibbiiletlis  of  Pharisaism,  there  was  much  in 
that  wonderriil  centre  of  IntellJKenoc  to  shalte  his 
most  inveterate  prejudices  and  Inspire  him  wi'! 
unwilling  respect.     Shorn  indeed  of  her  political 
sreatni-ss.   deprive<l  even  of  her  pldlosophicid 
supremacy,  she  still  shone  with  a  brilliant  after- 
glow of  esthetic  and  inU'llectual  prestige.    Her 
monuments   Sashed   on    the   visitor   memories 
recent  enough  to  dazzle  his  ImaginHtion.     Her 
scliooU  claimed  and  obtainnl  even  fn)m  Emperors 
the  homage  due  to  her  unique  past.     Recognis- 
ing her  as  the  true  nurse  of  Hellenism  anil  the 
chief  missionary  of  human  refliiement,  the  best 
spirits  of  the  age  held  her  worthy  of  admiring 
love  not  unmixed  with  awe.     As  the  scat  of  the 
most  brilliant  and   popular   university,   young 
men  of  talent  and  position  flocked  to  her  from 
every  quarter,  studletl  for  a  time  within  her  colon- 
nades,  and  carrie<I  thence  the  recollection  of  a 
culture  which  was  not  always  deep,  not  always 
erudite,  but  was  always  .ind  genuinely  Attic 
To  subject  to  the  criticism  •  f  this  people  a 
doctrine  professing  to  come  dii..  t  from  God,  a 
religion  and  not  a  philosophy,  depending  not  on 
argument  but  on  revelation,  was  a  task  of  which 
the  dilficulties  might  seem  insuperable.     When 
we  consider  what  the  Athenian  character  was 
this  language  will  not  seem  exaggerated.     Keen 
subtle,   capricious,   satirical,   sated   with  idoas 
eager    for  novelty,   yet  with  the  ragemcss  of 
amused  frivolity,  not  of  the  truth-seeker:  critical 
by  instinct,  exquisitely  sensitive  to  the  ridiculous 
or  the  absurd,  disputatious,  ready  to  listen,  yet 
impatient  of  all  that  was  not  wit,  satislied  with 
everything  in  life  except  its  shortness,  and  there- 
fore hiding  all  references  to  this  unwelcome  fact 
under  a  veil  of  complacent  euphemism  —  where 
could  a  more  uncongenial  soil  be  found  for  the 
seed  of  the  Gospel  ?  ...  To  an  Athenian  the 
Jew  was  not  so  much  an  object  of  hatred  (as  to 
the  Roman),  nor  even  of  contempt  (as  to  the  rest 
of  mankind),  as  of  absolute  indifference.    He  was 
simply    ignored.     To    the   eclectic    philosophy 
which  now  dominated  the  schools  of  Athens, 
Judaism  alone  among  all  human  opinions  was  as 
If  non-existent.    That  Athenians  should  be  con- 
vmced  b^  the  philosophy  of  a  Jew  would  be  a 
proposition  expressible  in  words  but  wholly  des- 
titute of  meaning.     On  the  other  hand,  the  Jew 
was    not    altoget:u .     uninfluenced    by    Greek 
thought.  Wide  apart  as  the  two  minds  were,  the 
Hebraic  proved  not  insensible  to  the  charm  of  the 
Hellenic;  witness  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
witness  Philo,   witness  the  intrusion  of  Greek 
methods  of  interpretation  even  into  the  text-books 
of  Rabbinlsm.     And  it  was  Athens,  as  the  quin- 
tessence of  Hellas,   Athens  as  represented  by 
SMKratea,    and  still  more  by  Plato,   which  hail 
gained  this  subtle  power.     And  just  as  Juda'a 
alone  among  all  the  Jewish  communities  retained 
IS  cxclusivenes.^  wholly  unimpaired  by  Hellen- 
ism, so  Athens,  more  than  any  Pagan  capital 
was  likely  to  ignore  or  repel  a  faith  coming  iii 
the  garb  of  Judaism.    An.l  yet  within  less  than 
a  century  we  find  this  faith  so  well  established 
there  as  to  yield  to  the  Church  the  gmnl  fruits  of 
martyrdom  in  the  person  of  its  bishop,  and  of 
alile  defences  in  the  person  of  thri'eof  iu  teachers 
The  early  anil  the  later  fortunes  of  the  Athenian 
C:iiiinh  are  buriisl  in  oblivion;  it  comes  but  for 
a  brief  period  beXure  tbc  sceoe  of  history.    But 


ATHENS.  A.  D.  S39. 

the  undying  Interest  of  that  one  dramatic  m  )mrnt 
when  F^ul  proclaimed  a  bmlilv  resurrection  to 
the  author*  of  the  conception  of  a  spiritual  im- 
mortality, will  always  cause  us  to  linger  with  a 
strange  sympathy  over  evenr  relic  of  the  Chris- 
tiiuiity  of  Athens."— C.  T.  Cfruttwell,  A  Litcran- 
tlittary  of  Girly  Chrulianity,  t.  1,  bk.  .3  eh  4 
Also  ts:  W.  J.  Conybeare  and  J.  8.  Hi'.waon' 
Life  and  Utten  of  St.  Fiiut,  v.  t,  eh.  10  —F  V 
Baur,  P>xul.  pi.  .,  eh.  7  (»  1).— On  the  inscriiK 
tion,  see  E.  de  Pressensc.  The  Earlg  Ymrt  ,.f 
Chnitinnity:  The  Apoetolie  Km.  bk.  2.  cA   1 

A.  D.  ia5-i34.--the  works  of  Hadrian.- 
Ihc  Lmperor  Hadrian  intciesteil  himself  greatlv 
in  the  venerable  decaying  capital  of  the  Oreiks 
which  he  visiteil,  or  resided  in,  for  consideraWo 
periods,  several  times,  between  A.  D.  Vili  and 
134.  These  visiu  were  made  important  to  the 
city  by  the  great  works  of  rebuilding  whioli  he 
undertook  and  suiKTvised.  Large  parts  of  the 
city  are  thought  to  have  been  reconstructcii  bv 
him,  "In  theopenand  luxuriousstyleof  Antiiwh 
and  Ephesus.'  One  quarter  came  to  be  nilkl 
"  Hadriauapolis,"  as  though  he  had  created  it 
Several  new  temples  were  ere-cted  at  his  com^ 
mond ;  but  the  greatest  of  the  works  of  Hatiriaa 
at  Athens  was  the  completing  of  the  vast  national 
temple,  the  Olympieura,  the  twginning  of  wliicb 
dated  back  to  the  age  of  Pisistratus,  and  which 
Augustus  had  put  his  hand  to  without  finisliin  ■ 
— C.  Merivalc,  Ilitt.  oj  tlte  Itnrnnm.  ch.  (W  ' 
A.  D.  367.— Capture  of,  bjr  the  Goths.  See 
GoTOS;  A.  D.  2.58-i67. 

A.  D.  39s.—  Surrender  to  Alaric  and  the 
Gothi.— VVTien  the  Goths  under  Alario  inva  iid 
and  ravaged  Greece,  A.  I).  395,  Athens  was  sur- 
rendereii  to  tliem,  on  terms  which  saved  tlie  citv 
from  being  plundered.  "The  fact  that  tha 
depredations  of  Alaric  hardly  exceeded  the  nrli- 
nary  license  of  a  rebellious  general,  is  .  p,  r 
fectly  established.  The  public  buildini;s  an  I 
monuments  of  ancient  splendour  suffir.-d  no 
wanton  destruction  from  his  visit;  but  then-  can 
be  no  doubt  that  Alaric  and  his  troops  Kviol 
lieavjr  contributions  on  the  city  and  its  inhaliit- 
-  .ts.  '— G.  Finlay,  Oretee  under  the  Botnam  ch  2 
tect.  8. 

Also  i»:  E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fill  „f  (V 
Roman  Empire,  eh.  30.— See,  also,  OoTUs:  A  D 
31(5,  AL.\Ric'g  Invasion  op  Greece. 

A.  D.  529.— Suppression  of  the  Schools  by 
Justinian.— "  The  Attic  schools  of  rhet.irio  anj 
philosophy  maintained  their  superior  rej>m;iMoa 
from  the  Peloponnesian  War  to  the  reign  nf  Jus- 
tinian. Athens,  though  situate  in  a  barnn  suil. 
possessed  a  pure  air,  a  free  navigation,  an  i  the 
moncments  of  ancient  art.  That  sacri.l  ntirc- 
ment  was  seldom  disturbed  by  the  b  i>ini><  <A 
trade  or  government;  and  the  last  of  tin'  Athen- 
ians were  di.stinguished  bv  their  livelvwit  tl;e 
purity  of  their  taste  anil  language,  tl'i rir siiil 
manners,  and  some  traces,  at  least  in  di-cuiir»<>. 
of  the  magnanimity  of  their  fathers.  In  the 
suburbs  of  the  city,  the  Academv  of  th"  Ph- 
tonists,  the  Lycwum  of  the  Peripatetics  the 
Portico  of  the  Stoics  and  The  Garden  of  tlic  Epi- 
cureans were  planted  with  trees  and  dtcoriitid 
with  statues;  and  the  philosophers,  instial  if 
being  immured  in  a  cloister,  delivered  tlicir  ia- 
struitions  In  spacious  and  pleasant  walks,  wliiih, 
at  different  hours,  wen-  rnnsecrated  to  tlir  ■  srr- 
cises  of  the  mind  and  body.  Tlie  genius  of  me 
founder*  still  lived  in  tiiose  reneiuble  aeata.  .  .  . 


192 


ATHEXS,  A.  D.  820. 

Tb«  achooli  of  Athena  were  protected  br  the 
wuest  and  most  rtrtuoua  of  the  i^oman  prince*. 
.  .  .  Some  vestige  of  mvsl  bounty  may  be  found 
unJer  the  successors  of  Conttantine.  .  .  .  Tlie 
golien chain,  as  it  was  fondly  atylc<l,  of  the  Pla- 
tonic succewion.  continued  ...  to  the  e<ilct  of 
Justinian  [A  D.  52»]  which  impoMxl  a  per- 
TMturjl  silence  on  the  schools  of  Athens,  and 
excited  the  grief  and  indignation  of  the  few  re- 
iniining  votaries  of  Greek  science  and  aupersti- 
ti  n."— E.  Gihboo,  Dteline  and  Fail  of  the  Soman 
Emrri-f.  eh.  40. 

K.  O.  taos.— The   foonding  of  the  Latia 
Dnkedom.— '■  The  portion  of  Greece  Iving  to  the 
south  of  the  kingiom  of  Haloniki  was  divided  by 
the  Crusaders  [after  their  conquest  of  Tonstan- 
tiaoplc,  A  D.  1*H  —  see  Btiastixe  Empire: 
A  I).  I2fti-12(M]  among  several  great  feudatories 
of  the  Empire  of  Romania.  .  .  .  The  lords  of 
Bojdonitza,  Salona,  Negropont,  and  Athens  are 
alone  mpntioned  as  existing  to  the  north  of  the 
iithmos  of  Corinth,  and  the  history  of  the  petty 
sovereigns  of  Athens  can  alone  be  tracefl  in  any 
detail.  .  .  .  Otho  de   la    Roche,  a   Burgundian 
.iobleman,  who  had  distinguished  himself  during 
the  sicee  of  Constantinople,  march<^  southward 
with  the  army  of  Boniface  the  king  marquis,  and 
g-iiaed  possession  of  Athens  in   120.5,     Thebes 
aad  Athena  had  probably  fallen  to  his  share  In 
\.\';  pirtition of  the  Empire,  but  it  is  possible  that 
th»  king  of  .Saloniki  may  have  found  means  to 
inr  rea«i  his  portion,  in  order  to  induce  him  to  do 
h  jmage  to  the  crown  of  .Sjiloniki  for  this  addi- 
ti  n.     At  all  events,  it  appears  that  Oiho  de  la 
R  a^he  did  homage  to  Boniface,  eith<r  as  his  im- 
m 'iiate  superior,  or  as  viceroy  for  the  Emfieror 
cflt.-unia.  .      .  Though  the' Byzantine  aristoc- 
ricvar.  1  dignified  clergy  were 'severe  sufferers 
b_v  the  transiference  of  tiie  goverament  into  the 
h.ini'i  of  the  Franks,  the  middle  classes  long  en- 
j:.ved  peace  and  security.  .  .  .  The  social  civili- 
m::  a  of  the  inhabitanu.  and  their  ample  com- 
m mi  of  the  ni-cessaries and  many  of  the  luxuries 
of  Hfe.  were  in  those  days  as  much  superior  to 
tbe  condition  of  the  citizens  of  Paris  and  London 
a.«  tiny  are  now  interior.  .  .  .  The  citv  was  large 
an  1  wealthy,  the  country  thickly  co'vered  with 
v;;i.»i;.<,  of  which  the  ruins  mav  still  be  traced 
in  spots  aff.irdine  no  indication?  of  Hellenic  sites. 
.  .  .  The  trade  of  Athens  was  considerable,  and 
the  I'iX!iry  of  the  Athenian  ducal  court  was  celc- 
Iratt  1  ia  all  the  regions  of  the  West  where  chiv- 
alry flourished.  •—  O.  Finlav,  HM.  of  Qntet  from 
iu  c.tq'iijit  Jy  the  Cnmuitri,  cA.  7 

A'*.  L\:  C.  C.  Felton.  Onea,  Aneient  and 
M'^lern:  Vh  Courte,  Itet.  5, 


ATLANTIC  OCEAV. 

I  ,^A.D.  1311-1456.— Uoder  the  CaUUnt  and 
I  the  Florentuet.  See  Catai^ax  Gbaxd  Com- 
;   PA,"fv 

1      A-   J.  1456.— The  Tork*  ia  pouesiion.— 

,   Athtr,.*  was  not  occupied  by  the  Turks   imtil 
three  years  after  the  conquest  of  Constantinople 
(see  CoNsn>m>opLF.:  A.  D.  l-fclS).    In  the  mean- 
time the  nign  of  the  Florentine  dukes  of  the 
house  of  Acciaioli  came  to  a  tragical  close.    The 
last  of  tlie  flukes,  Jlaurice  Acciaioli  died,  leaving 
a  young  son  and  a  young  widow,  the  latter  re- 
nowned for  her  beauty  and  her  talents.     The 
duchess,  whom  the  will  of  her  husband  had  made 
regent,  married  a  comely  Venetian  namtnl  Pal- 
meno,  who  was  said  to  have  poisoned  his  wife  in 
order  to  be  free  to  accept  her  hand.     Thereupon 
a  nephew  of  the  late  duke,  named  Franco,  stirred 
up  insurrections  at  Athens  and  fled  to  Constanti- 
nople to  oomplain  to  the  sulun,  Mahomet  II 
'•The  sultan,  glad  of  all  pretexu  that  coloutwj 
bis  armed  intervention  in  the  affairs  of  these  prin- 
cipaliric^.  ordercl  Omar,  son  of  Tourakhan, chief 
of  thf  permanent  irmy  of  the  Peloponnesus,  to 
take    possession   of   Athens,    to   dethrone   the 
duche^  and  to  confine  her  sons  in  his  prisons 
of   the   citadel   of   Megara."    This  was  done; 
but    Palmerio.   the   duchess's   husband,    made 
his  way  to  the  sultan  ind  icteroeded  in  her  be- 
half.    "  Mahomet,  by  the  advice  of  his  viziers 
feigned  to  listen  equally  to  the  complaints  of 
Palmerio.  and  to  march  to  reestablish  the  legiti- 
mate  sovereignty.      But    alreadv   Franco,    en- 
tering .Megara  under  the  auspices  of  the  Otto- 
mans, had  strangled  both  tho  duchess  and  her 
son.     Mahomet,  advancing  in  turn  to  puni.-h  him 
for  his  vengeance,  cipelled  Franco  from  Athens 
on  entering  it,  and  gave  him,  in  compensation, 
the  inferior  and  dependent  principality  of  Thebes, 
in  Boeotia.     The  sultan,  as  lettered  as  he  wn« 
warlike,  evinced   no  less   pride  and  admiratio  , 
than  Sylla  at  the   sight  of  the   monuments  of 
Athens.     •  What  trratitud'  '  exclaimed  he  bef  re 
the  Parthenon  and  the  tem].  of  Theseus,  'do  not 
religion  and  the  Empire  owe  to  the  son  of  Tour- 
akhan. who  has  made  them  a  present  of  these 
spoils  of  the  genius  of  the  Greeks.  "  —  A.  Lamar- 
Une,  nut.  of  Turkey,  bk.  13.  fft  \(\-Vi 


A.  D,  1466.— Capture  and  plundering  by  the 
itians.     See  Greece;  A.  D.  U."»4-14T9. 


Venetians. 

A.  D,  1687,— Siege,  bombardment  and 
capture  by  the  Venetiaos.— Oestructire  ex- 
plosion in  the  Parthenon.  .See  Tceks:  A.  n 
Ift-H-lflM 

A.  D,  1831-1829.— The  Greek  revolution  and 
war  of  independence.— Capture  by  the  Turks 
See  Greece;  A.  D.  1*21-1529 


,  ATHERTON  GAG.  The.  See  Uxited 
STATES  op  Ajj.  ;  A.  D.  18t , 

ATHLONE,  Siege  of  ,k.  D.  1601).  See 
Ikki.am>    a.  D.  18hi>-1691 

ATHRAV  \S.     See  Maqiaxs, 

ATIMIA— The  penalty  of  Atimia,  under 
SO'  1  :.!  .Vthenian  law,  was  the  loss  of  civic 
rviiu— (j.  F  Schumann,  Antiq.  of  Grtttt:  Tt\t 

ATIMUCA,  The.  See  Ajreaicoi  Abo- 
Bi.iNEs    T'MrcrA. 

ATLANTA :  A.  D,  1864  (May-September,, 
-bnerman  t  advance  to  the  city,— Ita  sieze 
sndcapiure.  See  LsmcDST.tTESorAn. ;  A.  D. 
O^RU  7'  ^^*^^^'  *^  (MaT-aMTMfBHi: 


la 


193 


A.  D.  1864  (Septerrber— November).— Re- 
moval  of  inhabitants. —  Destruction  of  the 
city.  See  United  States  op  .\m  .v  D.  l^iVi 
(Septembbb— October:   Gemroia',,  and  (Xo- 

VEMBER— DecEMHER  :   GeoRoIa). 

♦ . 

ATLANTIC  CABLE,  See  Ei.ErTitirAT, 
Dist DVEKT  AM)  Invention     .V    D    l'-54-I'>6S 

ATLANTIC  OCEAN:  The  name.— The 
Atlantic  Ocean  is  mentioned  bv  that  name  in  a 
single  passage  of  Herodotus,  "but  it  is  clear 
from  the  incidental  wav  in  which  it  [the  name] 
ia  here  intrrii'.wd  that  it  was  -t-ne  wei!  k;:t*a  ia 
hisjay.  ■— E.  H.  Bunbury.  mt  of  AnHtnt  Otog.. 
eh.  '..  Itet.  1,  rutlt.—ToT  a  sketch  of  the  history  of 
the  modem  uieof  the  name,  see  Pacific  Ockax. 


J  ml 


ATREBATSa 

ATREBATES,  The.— Thin  name  was  borne 
by  a  tribe  in  ancient  BelftirOaiil,  wliicli  ocrnpiiil 
nioilcrn  Artois  and  part  of  Frcnoli  Flanders,  nml. 
also,  by  a  tribe  or  group  of  tribes  in  Britniii, 
which  dwelt  In  a  region  between  the  Tlmines 
and  the  Severn.  The  latter  was  probablr  a 
colony  from  the  former.  See  Beixi.*:;  "also 
BniTAiN.  Cei.tio  Tribes. 
_ATROPATENE.- MEDIA  ATROPA- 
TENE.— "  Atropatene.  as  n  namefor  the  Alpine 
land  in  the  northwest  of  Iran  (now  AderlH'ijaii), 
came  into  use  in  the  time  of  the  Greek  Empire' 
[Alexander's];  at  any  rate  we  cannot  trace  it 
eariier  'Athrapaitl'  means  'loni  of  tire;' 
'Athmpata,'  'one  protected  by  Are;'  in  the  re- 
mote mountains  of  this  district  the  old  flro. 
worship  was  preserved  with  peculiar  zeal  under 
the  Sclcueids."— M.  Duncker,  Hint,  of  Anli'iuil//, 
bk.  7,  eh.  4. —Atropatene  "comprises  the  entire 
bain  of  Lake  trumiyeh,  together  with  tlie 
country  Intervening  between  tliat  basin  and  the 
high  mountain  chain  which  curves  pouml  the 
southwestern  come'  of  the  Caspian."- G.  Knw- 
linEon,  f\Te  Orent  Monitre/iiei:  Mtdin,  eh.  1,— 
Atropatene  was  "  named  in  honour  of  the  satrap 
Atropates,  who  had  declared  himself  king  after 
Alexander's  death."— J.  P.  MabaCFy,  Story  of 
AUxdiuler't  Umpire,  eh.  13. 

ATSINAS.     Sec   Americau    AaoRtaiKEs: 
Bl.\<kfket. 
ATT.  3EGS.    See  Atareos. 
ATTAC  APAN  KAMI  LY,  Th«.  See  Ameri- 
can AiionioiNEs;  Attacapan  Pamiit. 

ATTAINDER.— BILL  OF  ATTAIN- 
DER.— ' '.Xn  attainder  Cattinctura')  is  a  degrada- 
tion or  pulillr  dishonouring,  which  draws  after  It 
corruption  of  blood.  It  is  the  consequence  of  any 
condemnation  to  death,  and  induces  the  disheri- 
son of  the  heirs  of  the  condemned  person,  wliirh 
can  only  be  removed  by  means  of  parliament. 
A  bill  of  attainder,  or  of  pains  and  pennlties, 
inHiets  tlie  consequences  of  a  penal  sentenei-  on 
any  state  criminal.  ...  By  the  instrumentality 
of  such  bill  the  penalties  of  higii  treason  are 
eenenilly  impose<l.  Penalties  may,  hi.we^er, 
be  iniposn!  at  pleasure,  either  in"  aeeonlnnce 
with,  (ir  in  contravention  of.  the  common  law. 
No  other  court  of  law  can  protect  a  person  c  .-. 
deninrd  in  siiih  manner  The  first  bill  of  the 
kind   orciirp  I    under    Edward   IV.,  when    the 


ATTICA. 

mend.  Ktij.  Coiut.  flint.,  eh.  10  (id  td..  p.  8»3» 

foot-niit*.  • 

tn^SS^A.?' ^'^■^"■AN.    SecCoasACKs. 

ATTECOTTI,  The.  8ce  Otadeni;  iW, 
Britain,  {?ki,tic  TiiinRs. 
-ATTIC  SALT.— Thyme  was  a  favorite  ,-..n. 
diment  among  the  ancient  Greeks,  "whj.h 
throve  nowhere  else  so  well  as  in  Attica.  Kvin 
Mit  was  seasoned  with  thyme.  Attic  salt  lipw 
ever.  Is  famed  rather  In  the  flguratlvo  tl'ian  in 
the  liteml  sense,  and  did  not  form  an  article  ,,f 
trade."— G.  F  ^\\ttma.nn,  Antiq.  of  Oretee  ■  T„ 
SInte.  pt.  a,  eh.  3. 

ATTIC  TALENT.    See  Talent. 

ATTIC    WAR,    The.    See    Tew    Yeaks' 
War. 

ATTICA.— "It   forms   a   rocky  peninsula 
■enamteil  fnm  the  mainland  by  trackless  nidiin' 
Mm,  anil  Jutting  go  far  out   into  the  Ea-tc  rn 
Sea  that  It  lay  out  of   the   path  of  the  trilnj 
moving    from    north    to    aoutli.      Henee    the 
mlgratorv  pai^sagcs  which  agitatwl  the  «hcile,.f 
Hellas  left  Attica  untouched,  and  for  this  n  ■is.in 
Attic  history  is   not  divided  Into  such  ni,irl>,i| 
epochs  as  that  of  I>eli>p<mnesus;  It  possesses  a 
superior  unity,  and  presents  an    unlnterruntid 
development  of  omditions  of  life  native  in  iluir 
origin    to    the    land,  ...  On    the  other  Imiui 
Attica   was    perfectly    adnpteil    by   nature  f..r 
receiving  immigranU    fnim   the  sea.     Fur  Ilio 
wliole  country,  as  Its  name  Indicates,  consists, .f 
coMtland;  and  the  coast  alH)Uiids  in  ImrlKnirs 
and  on  account  of  the  depth  of  water  in  ilj,> 
roatis  la  everywhere  accessible ;  while  the  best  of 
its  plains  open  towanis  the  const  .  .  .  Int..  ilie 
centre  of  the  entire  plain  advances  from  the  di. 
n'ction  of  Hymettus  a  group  of  rockv  liii-lit« 
among  tlietn   an   entirely  separate  ami  ini.-hn 
lil(jek  which,  with  the  exception  of  a  narrow  •to- 
cess  from  the  west,  offers  on  alt  sides  viiiiiallv 
pn'cipitous  walls,  surmounted  by  a  broa,i  1,  vtl 
gnfflcienlly  roomy  to  alToril  space  for  the  saii.tu- 
aries  of  the  national  gods  and  the  hahitaticns  of 
the  national  rulers.     It  seems  as  if  natiiri'  lud 
designe<l!y  placet!   this  ro<k  in  this  positi„n  r\« 
tlie  ruling  castle  and  the  cjntre  of  the  nati.M-i! 
historv.      This    is    tlie    Acropolis    of    .\tli,ns 
.  .  .  .So  far   from    being    8uia<iently   Iiixuriani 
to  allow  even  the  lillc  to  And   easv   means  of 
sustenance,  the  Attic  soil  was  stonv,  devoid  of 


-  •  V  ■.  """'■  »-■•""■■■  •'■.  "■""  luc  siisienanee,  tne  Attic  soil  was  stonv  dei 
commons  h  to  confirm  the  statute  condemning  «  suffl.ient  supply  of  water,  and  for  th 
Clnri'nee  to  death.     This  conven  ent  meilinH  nf     -..rf  „..!„  ..i ....••'...  .!._.'-,_:.         . 


C'lnri'nee  to  dtntli.  This  convenient  method  o? 
tettiiip  rid  of  disagreeable  oppoiwnts  was  in 
high  favour  during  the  reign  of  Henrj-  VIII. 
.  .  .  What  had  bien  an  instrument  of' kingly 
despotism,  under  Tudnr  sway,  was  converted, 
under  the  StuartR.  into  a  parliamentary  engino 
against  the  crown.  The  points  of  indictment 
against  .>strafTord  were  so  weak  that  the  lords 
were  for  acquittinghim.  Thereupon,  Sir  Arthur 
Ilaselrig  intrc»iuced  a  bill  of  attainder  in  the 
commons.  The  staunch  friends  of  freedom,  such 
aa  Pym  and  Hampden,  did  not  support  this 
mea.sure  A  bill  of  attainder  may  refer  simply 
to  a  conente  ease,  and  contrive  penalties  for  nets 
which  are  not  specially  punishable  by  statute, 
whereas  an  impeachment  applies  to  some  viola- 
tion of  rerosnized  legal  principles,  and  is  a 
solemn  indictment  preferrecl  by  the  commons  to 
the  house  of  lords. '—E.  Fischcl,  The  Enc.  Con- 

ilitutiiin.  ht.  T,  eh    9 "By  the  !«*  S4  Vict  c. 

23,  forfeiture  and  nttalnder'for  treason  or  felony 
have   been   abolished."— T.  P.  Taswell-Lanf- 


194 


part  only  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  Iviricv ; 
everywhere  .  .  .  labour  and  a  regulated  indus- 
try were  needed.  But  this  labour  was  n.t  lin- 
remunerative.  Whatever  orchard  and  irinl.-n 
fruits  prospered  were  pcciillariy  delicuc  and 
airreeahle  to  the  taste;  tlie  mountainlurlis  wire 
nowliere  more  odourous  than  on  Hvraettus :  ,siid 
the  sea  abounded  with  fish.  The  mo\nitains 
not  only  by  the  beauty  of  their  form  i.iv.si  the 
whole  seeniTv  with  a  certain  nobilitv.  but  in  tli.  ir 
depflis  lay  an  abundance  of  the  most  cTiill.nt 
building  stone  and  .sliver  oi«  ;  In  the  lowlands 
was  to  be  found  the  best  kind  of  elav  f  --  pur- 
poses of  mantifacture  The  materials existi-  i  f.^r 
all  arts  and  handicrafts;  and  flnallv  .Vtti'-a 
rejoicc>cI  in  what  the  ancients  were  wisc^  invach 
to  recognize  as  a  special  favour  of  Ilea  von. 
a  dry  and  transparent  atmosphere.  ,  .  .  The 
Immigrants  who  domesticated  themselves  in 
Attica  were  .  .  .  chiefly  fuuillles  of  siifurior 
eminence,  so  that  Attica  gained  not  enlv  in 
numbers  of  population,  but  also  in  maU-riaii  of 


ATTICA. 

eiiltiiTe  of  tvtry  flpwriptlon."— E.  Curtiui,  ITut.   ' 
,f  lirftft.  »*.  2,  i-K.  2. 

Ai>f>  IX:  J  I.  Lockliart.  Attim  and  Alhtm  — 
Stc  !i\*n,  Atiiess:  Tiik  BKniNxixa 

ATTILA'S  CONQUESTS  AND  EM- 
PIRE.    Sp  Hin- 

ATTIOUANDaRONK,  The.    Sec  AnERt 

CAN  AwiKUilXKS;    Hi  ROSS.  4r. 

ATTYADiE,  The.— The  first  <lyn««ty  of  the 

kian  of  LyiliH,  claimed  to  tx;  unninif  from 
At.tv'i.  son  of  thu  (fo*!  Manen.— M.  I.luDCker, 
m»t  '/  AntimiU)!.  hk.  4.  rh.  17. 

AU3AINE,  The  right  of.— ".\  prer<-)ff»tive 
bv  wliirh  the  Kiti?s  of  Franee  rlajmcd  the  prop- 
erty of  f'in;i?Dcrs  who  flip<l  in  their  kinirilom 
witlKiut  Ijoinir  n.itTiriliz(.-<l."  It  wm  nuppresscil 
by  (.v.lliert.  in  the  reii»n  of  Louis  XIV— .J.  A. 
B'lan.iui,    UM.  of  P>A.    Eeonomg  in  Europe,  p. 

AUCH:  Oriapnof  thenune.    See  AQcrr.nsE:  I 
The  .\\rrENT  TmiiEit.  ■ 

AUCKLAND,  Lord,  The  Indian  Adminis- 
tration of.     See  IsDI.4:  A.  [>.  19:11^.11*4.5 

AUOENARDE.     S.e  OifuXARDE. 

AUDIENCIAS.— "For  more  than  two  ren- 
turies  ami  a  half  the  whole  nf  ."^oiith  .Vmirir.i. 
e.tcipt  Brazil.  sfttle<l  down  untjir  the  roloni.ii 
irivfmm<nt  of  Spain,  and  durini;  the  irnatcr 
part  of  th.1t  time  this  va.st  territory  wa«  under 
the  rule  of  the  Viceroys  of  Peru'  residing  at 
Lima.  The  impfs-sibiliiy  of  cunduetiii^'  an'effl- 
citnt  ,\dmini.str,ition  from  sncli  a  centre  ,  .  at 
onci- 11-.  ime  apparent.  Courts  of  justice  called 
AudietK  i.s  werf.  therefon-.  established  in  the 
di^unt  provinces,  and  their  presidents.  s<imetiinis 
■ivith  the  title  of  cipl.-^ins-cenenl.  had  charire  of  ■. 
tt.i?  QXf.  .tire  under  tlie  orders  of  the  Vicerovs. 
The  .Vii  lienci.i  of  t'hareft,s  (the  mrxlem  Bolivia)  ■ 
WW  istal)li,hed  in  1.'>.J9.  Chile  was  rule<l  by 
ciltains-ieneral.  and  an  Audiencia  w,-is  estab- 
li.^bi  d  at  -Santi  120  in  l-WS.  In  Xew  Grenada  the 
pre,!  !■  at  of  the  .Vudiencia.  ereateil  in  l.VU.  wis 
alv,  faptaiu  eeneral.  The  Audiencia  of  yuito. 
h'M,  with  its  pn-sident  as  captain-general,  datwi 
fnra  1V12:  and  Venoiuela  was  under  a  eaptain- 
eintril. "  — C.  R  Markham.  C-hr,i.U  JIM,  nf 
.■•    Am.  iXirratiee  and  Critieal  UM  oi'  Aii\     r 

8,  p.  e'.f,..  •'        '  •  ! 

AUERSTADT,  Bittle  ot    See  GEim.AST:  i 

.V   I)    l-»Ml<ToBF,RI. 

AUGEREAU,  Hanhal,  Campciens  of.   rU>e 

FU'.  K:  .\.  I).  179;  I  SEPTEMBER):  GeR\(ANV: 
A  1'  1X1)6  ((kTOBERI:  SPAIX:  .\  U  IxllO 
'pF.niir.-.RT — IiNEi;  and  Ri.-»ia  .A  1)  lsl2 
i.IixE  — SF.rxEMBER):  '.Sl.-J  (AcofaTi,  iOcTo- 
BEp,     nrTonKii  — December*. 

AUGHRIM,  OR  ACHRIM.  Battle  of  (A.  O. 

1691.     >••  I,iF.i.'..>r>:  A    U.  Iwy-lUUi. 

AUGSBURG:  Oripn.  See  Aiolsta  Vis- 
riKn-oinM. 

A.,  p.  95S.-Great  defeat  of  the  Hunpuiana. 
N-HiNnRrvNs    A    D.  6.U-9.-).5 

A.  D.  iS30.-Sitting;  of  t  -,e  Diet.-Sirnine 
and  reading  of  the  Protestant  Confeiiion  o' 
^alth.— The  Imperil  Decree  condemning  the 
rrotestants.     .S-.- ^Ap^cY    A    I)    l.".;io-I.*>;Jl 

A  D-  '555— The  Religious  Peace  con- 
cii'ded.    .N,  Germany:  a    I).  l-'.-jJ-IWI 

AD.  1646.— Unsuccessful  siege  by  Swedes 
and  F.-ench      s,...  Oermiw;  A     V>    \>w~\-'A* 

A.  D  1686.1697.-The  League  and  the 
war  of  the  League.  See  C.ekmast:  A.  D 
lu-M),  and  Fuses :  A.  D,  16i>»-169o,  and  after. 


AUGURS. 

A.  D.  1703.— Taken  bj  the  French.  See 
Gerj«ast:  a.  I).  170:i. 

A.  D.  1S01-1803.— One  of  six  free  cities 
which  surriTcd  the  Peace  of  Luneville.    See 

t.ERMANV:    A.   I).   I'Kd-l'K),'}. 

A.  D.  1806.— Lost  of  municipal  freedom.— 
Absorption  in  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria.  See 
Gerj«.\.st;  A   D.  l'Mi.*)-l>*)fl. 

I  t^  °  "t?*  s.  -  PONTIFICES.  -  fetia. 
LES.— '•  There  was  .  .      enouijh  of  pricsthfx«l 
anti  of  priests  in  Home.    Thfwe.  however,  who  had 
business  with  a  g'»\  resfirted  to  the  ftiA.  and  not 
to  the  priest.     Every  suppliant  and  inquirer  ad- 
dressed  him.self  directly  to  the  divinity  .  .  .    ; 
tio  intervention  of  a  priest  was  allowetl  to  con- 
ceal or  to  olrtcure  this  original  and  simple  rela- 
tion.     But  it  was  no  (^sy  matter  to  hold  con- 
verse with  a  jrorl.     The  irf«i  had  his  own  wav  of 
speakin?,   which  was  ihtellliible  only  to  those 
acrjuaintcl  with  it;    but   one  who  liid  riiihtly 
understand   it  knew  not  o  ly  how  to  a.scertaln 
but  also  how  to  manage,  the  will  of  the  cod.  and 
even  in  case  of  nee<l  to  overreach  or  to  con-train 
him.     It  was  natural,  therefore,  that  the  wor- 
shipper of  the  grul  should  re?iilarlv  consult  such 
men  of  skill  and    .isten    to   their  advice;   and 
thence  arose  the  corpontions  or  collefres  of  men 
specially  skillefl  in  rirligious  lore,  a  thorow:;hlv 
nati  mal  Italian   instituliDn,   which    had    a    far 
more  important  intluenee  on  politital  develop- 
ment than  the  individual  priests  or  priesthofids. 
These  colleer.s  have  tan  often,  but  erroneously, 
conf'pundtil  with   tlie   priesthof«!s      The  priest- 
IkkkIs  were  charirod  with  the  worship  of  a  sp<>cific 
divinity.  .  .  .   I'nd'r    the    Roman    constitution 
and  that  of  the  Ijitin  communities  in  gi  nend 
there   were  originally   but  t-o  such  collr/es: 
that  of   the  augurs  and  that  of  the  pontitires. 
The  six  augurs  were  skilled  in  interpreting  th'; 
language  of   the  giyls  from  the  flight  of  birds; 
an  art  which  was  p..>4ecut.-.1  -vith  great  earnest- 
ness ami  reduced  to  a  qiiaM-sci.ntitic   sv^t.-m. 
The  live   'bridge    builders'  (pontifices)  derived 
their  name  from  their  function,  its  sjicred  as  it 
was   politically   impurtant.    of    conducting    tlie 
building  ami  demolition  ot  the  bril.'e  over  the 
Tiber.     They  were  the  Roman  engineers,   who 
understood  the  mystery  of  measures  unrl  nuni- 
hers:  whence  there  devolved  upon  thi      also  the 
duties  of  managing  the  calendar  of  t'        tate   of 
proclaiming  to  the  pf-..p|,.  the  time  01    new  and 
full  mcKjn  and  the  da^  s  of  fesiiv:ils,  and  of  see- 
inL'  that  every  reliL'ious  and  every  judicial  act 
t'lok  phice  cm  the  riirht  day.  .  .      Thus  tliey  ac- 
•  juireil  'although  not  protwbly  to  the  full  extent 
till  after  the  abolition  of  the  monarchvi  the  iren- 
enil  oversight  of  I{oman  worship  anil  of  what- 
ever -«  n  connecte-l  wit',  it.     [Tlie  presi.lent  of 
their  (.1      re  was  callerl  the  Pontifex  .\Ia.<imus  ) 
.  .  They  theni.s/'lves  descrilied  the  sumof  tlieir 
kr.owle<lge  as  'tlie  science  of  things  divine  and 
human.'  .  .  ,   By  the  sirle  of    these  two  ol.lest 
and  most  eminent  corporations  of  men  vers.  .1  in 
spiriiiial  lore  m.iy  be  to  some  extent  ranked  the 
Col!.  .»,.  of  the  twenty  stateheralds  (fi.ti:de.,,  01 
uncertain  derivati.>ni  destined  as  a  living  rei.'.si- 
tory  to  pres<>rve  traditionally  the  n'lni.mliraiire 
of  the  tnaties  concluded  with  neiglil^irini;  e.Mi- 
muuiik-s,  t- prtinotiiK.f  an  auth..ritatit.'  opuo-u 
on   allegiil    infrjcti.ms  of  treatvright-i.  an  I   in 
case  of  neol   to  demand  satisfaction  ami  .b.  hire 
war.'— T.  Muuimsea,  llM.  of  Uun^,  tik.  1,  cU  12. 


195 


'*=!' 


I'  d-  i 

4     ]"f»  i  i 


ACGCRS. 

Also  in:  E.  Guhl  and  W.  Koner,  life  of  tht 
Oreeka  and  Uomtint,  leet.  103. — See,  also,  Acs- 
picks,  iinil  Fktiales. 

AUGUSTA  TREVIRORUM.  See  TatviM, 
Orioin  Ol'. 

AUGUSTA  VEROMANDUORUM.-Mod- 

ern  St.  Quentin.     !<«,>  Bklo.«. 
AUGUSTA    VINDELICORUM.  -  "  Au- 

Busia  Vindeliconim  is  the  mndera  Aiigsburjf 
fouiidwl.  it  may  lie  suppoaed.  aliout  tlic  year  740 
[B.  C.  14]  after  tlio  c<)n(|iie8t  of  Hhietia  by  Drusuii. 
...  Tlie  Itin  •Ti\r.v%  represent  It  as  the  ci-ntru  of 
tlie  roads  from  ViToiia,  Sinnium,  and  Tri'viri." 
— C.  Morivale,  Uitt.  of  tite  Homant,  ch.  86 
notf. 

AUGUSTODUNUM.-Thc  Emperor  Au- 
gustus chanKed  the  name  of  Bibracte  in  (Jaul  to 
Au^iist.Kluuum,  which  time  has  corrupted,  since 
to  Autuii. 

AUGUSTONEMETUM.   See  Geroovia or 

Tin;  .\KVKIINI. 

AUGUSTUS.- AUGUSTA:  The  Title.- 
'•Urtavius  [see  Romk:  ».  C.  31-J4]  lind  warily 
d<<limd  any  of  the  rpcognlze<l  desiifuations  of 
BoviTiiitn  rule.  AnUwius  had  alKilished  the  dic- 
tatorship; his  Buceessor  respected  the  arclania- 
tious  with  whirl!  the  people  had  greeted  this  <ie- 
cree.  The  voices  wliich  had  sniutnl  Ca-sar  with 
the  title  of  king  wire  peremptorily  commanded 
to  be  dumb.  V.t  (Ictaviuswas  fully  awan^  of 
the  intluenee  whirh  attiiclied  to  distinctive  titles 

of  honour.      Wliile  ho    wrupulouslv  renou ■d 

the  uiuiies  upon  whirh  tlie  breath  of'humau  Jr.il 
ousy  had  blown,  be  coneeived  tlie  subtler  polii  y 
of  erialinit  anothrT  for  himself,  which  Imrrowiiil,' 
Its  uriL'inal  splendour  from  bis  own  cliaractir, 
•liouhl  ntleet  upon  him  an  untarnished  lustre. 
.  .  .  The  epithet  .\iiiruslus  .  .  .  Iitwl  never  been 
iMinii'  by  any  man  liefore.  .  .  .  But  the  adjunct, 
tboii^'h  neviT  given  to  a  man,  had  been  applied 
to  Iliiriits  most  nolile.  most  venc-nible  and  most 
divin.v  The  riti'sof  the  gods  wen'  called  august, 
till-  tunplfs  wen,'  august :  tile  word  itself  was  de' 
rivi-d  fn;  1  thi'  holy  auguries  by  which  theiliviiK! 
will  was  revealiHl;  it  was  ciinneetiil  with  the 
favour  and  authority  of  Jove  himsj'if.  .  .  .  Tlie 
IllMslrious  title  wa.-,  In'.slowed  upon  the  heir  of 
the  C'a'sarian  Empire  in  the  nii(hlle  of  the  month 
of  January,  727  U.  C.  27),  and  tlieticeforth  it  Is 
by  the  iiHiiicof  .\iigustus  that  he  is  recogni/ed 
In  Uoiiian  liistor>  '— I'.  Merivale,  Hint.' of  th4 
Itni.n,,.,  i-li.  ;)0.—  ■  When  Octavlanus  had  timdv 
^■^lalllisllel|  his  iwiwcr  anil  was  now  li  fi  without 
•  rival,  the  .S'liale.  Iieing  ilesinmsof  disliiutiiish- 
Inif  liim  liv  some  pimliar  and  eiiipiialir  till,.,  de- 
creed, in  ft.  (•  1>7.  that  he  should  Ih'  .stylwl  Au- 
giisliis.  an  epilhel  pni|>eHy  applicable  lo  some 

ubjei  I  (hiiiaiidiiig  nspecl  anil  veiiinilion  liev I 

wiial  is  bisiiiwisl  upon  human  things.  .  .  .'This 
lieiiur  an  honorary  appell'ilon  ...  It  would,  as 
■  matlir  of  course,  ha»e  Imn  Iransmilleil  by  in- 
hchliitice  to  his  Imiiii'diHli'  drsei'iidaiits.  . 
Clnuiliiis,  altliiiugh  he  could  not  ln'  n'ganlcd  as 
a  di'Mi  iidant  of  Oelavlanus.  asMuiied  on  his  ne 
cisslon  the  liilo  of  AuL'ii.ius,  and  his  eiami.le 
WHS  (..||.,w,,|  bv  :,11  suen.aiMit   rillrrs  .    .   .    hI„, 

coiiimuiilrnliil  till' tiili' of  Augusta  to  liiilri 

sorts"  -W.  Hamsav.  M-imi.il  „f  H„nvtn   Aiilut 
fh.  .%-_S'.'.  also    HmiK    II.  (•   ,H|-A.  I)    14 
AULA  RECIA,  The.    .Sc  Clhi.i  Ukuib  ok 

THK  \oini(>   KiM.s. 

AULDEARN,  BattU  uf  (A.  O.  1643).    B«i' 
HcuTLAAU:  A.   I)    1044-1043. 


AUSPICES. 

AULERCI,  The.— The  Aulercl  were  an  rjc- 
tensive  nation  In  ancient  Oaul  which  occupiid 
the  country  from  the  lower  course  of  the  Seine  to 
tlie  Mayennc.  It  was  subdivided  into  tlin'e 
great  tribes  — the  Aulerri  Cenomannl.  Aulerci 
I)iahliiitc8  and  Aulerci  Eburovices.— Naix)leon 
III.,  Ilitl.  of  Cinnr,  bk.  8,  eh.  3. 

A.^D"V4'»1P5?9"''^"-  ■"•■'•    ^  ''■""'-^ 

A^""»UK;93°'"''  "'"SPa).    See  France 

A  A?^!?^V^1^'"''  *'  <'587)-    See  Fha.>ck; 

A.  I/.   li>H4— loHil. 

AURANGZEB,  Moghnl  Emperor,  or  Padii- 
ch«h  of  India,  A.  D.  1858-1707. 

»  *,H?.Ay'.  ?'"'•  »'  <'3«S).    See  BRiTT.i.Nv: 
A.  1).  i:i4i-l:<0.v 

AURELIAN,  Roman  Emperor.  A.  D  270. 
27.5. 

AURELIAN  ROAD,  The.— One  of  the  gn.,it 

Uoman  roads  of  antiquity,  which  ran  from  Home 
to  Pisa  and  Luna.— T.  Mommsen,  Hut.  of  ll„iue 
bk.  4,  rh.  11.  ■ 

AURELIO,  King:  of  Leon  and  theAtturias 

or  Otriedo,  A   I).  708-774.  ' 

AURUNCANS,  The.    See  Auso.mans;  also 

OSCANS 

AUSCI,  The.  See  AqniTAisK,  tiik  ancie.nt 
TniiiK.s. 

,„^,"^9'-^'C"'  The.     See  Austria:  X.  7). 

AUSONIANS,  OR  AURUNCANS,  The.- 
A  tnlie  of  tlie  ancient  Volsiians,  who  lUnU  jn 
the  lower  valley  of  the  I.iris,  and  who  ari.  said 

•"  "«ve  b I  exterminatiil  by  tlu'  Komaiis  It  (' 

.HI4.  — \V.  Ihne,  Jlul.  of  lime,  bk.  3,  ch.' M -i 
Si't .  also,  <  >s<-ANs. 

AUSPICES,  Taking  the.-" The  lionmns, 
In  the  eariier  ages  of  their  historv,  never  eiitind 
upon  any  liiijiortnnt  business  wliatsisvir 
whillier  public  or  private,  w  itiiout  eiuliavouriiu;' 
by  means  of  divination,  to  ascertain  llie  will  „f 
llie  giKis  in  n  fen'Hce  to  the  uiiderlakiiig.  .  .  . 
I  his  openilioii  was  termed  'suiiiirc  »ii>|.iii,i  ' 
and  if  tlie  omens  pniveil  unfavoumble  llu'  husi- 
ness  was  aliamloned  or  defem'd.  .  .  .  N,,  miii. 
Ing  of  the  Comilia  Curiata  nor  of  the  (  omiiia 
Cinturiala  could  be  lield  unless  tlie  auspi,,,  lui.| 
Ucn  previously  Uken,  .  ,  .  As  far  as  piililic 
priKci'dings  were  iimcemed,  no  privai.  in- 
ili.idual,  even  among  the  patricians,  hail  the 
right  of  taking  -iispin-s.  this  duty  de\..|nil 
upon  the  siipn. me  magistrate  alom.,  .  .  .  |i,  an 
niiny  tliis  power  belonged  eKilusivelv  1,.  the 
commander  iiichief;  hmiI  hence  all  aeliiivum  iiH 
«en'  said  lo  k'  performed  under  his  aii-|ii.t». 
even  ahhouitli  he  wen'  imt  pnsenl.  .  .  .  TIm 
olviects  observed  ill  taking  these  auspices  inre 
biriN  ihe  class  of  Hnlnials  from  whieli  ihr  H,,ri| 
is  ilcnved  (•  Auspleluin  ab  ave  spieieiiilai     (If 

these,  soine  wen'  IhIIcvisI  to  give  imlicii s  l.y 

"" "■  "inlit IhiTs  liv  ilieir  Holes  .,r  iri.i 

.  .  .  while  a  thinl  class  consisted  of  elii.  kins 
Cpiilli  )  kept  in  cages.  When  it  was  d,s  1,  d  10 
oblaiii  an  iHiien  from  lliene  hist,  fissl  wiis  (.l;ii«l 
bi  Ion.  Ilieiii.  and  tlie  niaiiiii  r  in  wliich  tlir\  i.«ii- 
poitiilllicmselvea  wasclos.lv  walcliisi,  .  .  ,  Tlw 
maimer  of  takinif  tla.  auspices  pnviims  M  liie 

CoMiilia  was  as  follows:  — Th aitislrilc    »ii(. 

was  III  iin'side  at  the  hsmiiiIiIv  anise  imim  liihly 
after  miilnlirhi  on  (|ii.  ihn  f..f  «h!..!i  It  li::-.!  Ine!! 
siimmoiHsl,  and  called  uihhi  an  augiir  1..  uvisl 
hiiu.  ,  ,  ,  Wilii  111*  aid  a  rvgluu  u(  the  sky  AUii 


106 


AUSPICBa 


AUSTRALIA.  1601-1800. 


»  space  of  ground,  withtn  wblcli  the  auspices 
were  olnerTetl,  were  marked  out  bv  the  divining 
staff  ('lituus')  of  the  augur.  .  .  .  iTIiis  opcrutiun 
was  perfornie<l  with  the  greatest  care.  ...  In 
making  the  necessary  observations,  the  president 
was  guided  entirely  by  tlic  augur,  who  reported 
to  him  the  result." — W.  Ramsay,  Manual  of 
Bom.  Antiq.,  eh.  4. 

Also  is:  W.  Ihne,Zri«<.  of  Borne,  Mr.  6,  eh.  13. 
— See.  al»i>.  Ai'orK. 

AUSTERLITZ,  Battle  of.     See  Fkance: 
A.  I).  IHO.!  (.M.tucii— Dkckmbeh). 

AUSTIN,  Stephen  F.,  and  the  settlement 
of  Texas.     Sc-e  Tkxah:  A.  I).  IHlll-lsa'i. 

AUSTIN  CANONS,  OR  CANONS  OF 
ST.  AUGUSTINE.- "AlxMit  tlie  middle  of 
the  lltli  century  an  attempt  liad  l)een  nnule  to 
redn'ss  tlie  balance  between  the  ri-gular  and 
secul:  r  clergy,  and  restore  in  the  latter  the  Influ- 
ence anc!  considenitinn  In  spiritual  matters  which 
they  had,  partly  by  their  own  fault,  already  to  a 
great  extent  lost.  Some  earnest  and  thoughtful 
spirits,  distressed  at  once  by  the  abuse  of  numastic 
privileges  and  by  the  general  decay  of  eeclesiasti- 
caionler.  sought  toelTi-ct a  reform  hv  the estid)lish- 
nient  "f  a  stricter  ami  lictter  organized  discipline 
in  lliiiw  cathedral  and  other  churches  wliich 
were  serveil  by  coUeges  of  wcuhir  priests.  .  .  . 
Towards  the  I'legliwiiiig  of  the  twelfth  century 
tlie  atlempia  at  canonical  nform  issued  in  the 
fi)rin  of  wliat  wius  virtually  a  new  ri'liglous 
onkr,  that  of  the  Auguxlinians,  or  Canons 
Hegul.ir  o'  the  orciiT  of  S.  Augustine.  Like  tlie 
monks  and  unlike  tlie  secular  canons,  fmm  wlunn 
tliey  weri>  can'fully  liistinguished,  they  had  not 
Hilly  their  table  and  dnelling  but  all  things  in 
ciimiiicai.  and  were  bound  by  a  vow  to  the  olwer- 
value  "f  llieir  rule,  groiiiided  upon  a  piwsage  in 
ciiie  iif  the  letters  of  that  gri'iit  fatlni  of  the  Latin 
Cliunh  from  whom  they  tiK)ktlieir  name.  Their 
Mheiiie  was  a  coinpniinise  In'tween  the  old- 
fushioneil  system  of  canons  and  that  of  tlie  mon- 
H'^lic  confnilernities;  but  a  compromise  leaning 
strcjML'ly  lowiirds  the  nioiiustic  aide.  .  .  .  Tlie 
Au»liii  canons,  as  they  were  c<imiiionly  called, 
iiiiiile  their  way  ai'niss  the  chanm  I  in  Henry's 
niitii  "-K.  Norgate,  EngUml  iinil.r  tU  AiiiKciii 
KtiKjt.  r.  1,  rt.  1. 

Also  in:  K.  L.  Cutta,  Seenaand  Chamcttnof 
Iht  Mi.hllf  .\,,,,,  eh.  3. 

AUSTRALIA:  A.  D.  i6oi-i8oo.  — Dis- 
covery and  early  exploration.— The  founding 
of  the  penal  colonies  at  Sydney  and  Norfolk 
lilanij.— •■  .\iisiralla  has  iuiil  no  t'obiinbiis.  It 
is  (Veil  ilouliiful  if  the  ilrxt  naviiriitora  who 
riiiche.l  hiT  shores  set  out  withanv  hha  of  dis 
i"Vi  riii^'  II  jrreiit  south  lanil.  At  all  events,  it 
Hciulil  seeiii,  their  aeliieveiiients  were  so  little 
eslienicil  by  themselves  and  their  countrvmen 
tliiit  no  iiieiins  were  taki'u  to  pnwrve  "their 
iiiiiu-  In  roiini'xioii  with  their  dls<Hivciies. 
Ili>ll,iii,|  Inint  hml  the  cn^dit  of  bringing  to  light 
tle(  MMeiiienr  tliul  islmiii  Continent,  wiilch  until 
ri  (Tilt  yi'uis  wu.t  best  known  by  her  name.  In 
I'^'H.  honivrr,    .Mr.    .Major,   to    whom    we  are 

uiilt litid  for re  n'lvnt  resiarch  iipim  the  sub- 

J'll.  priMluiiil  evhh'iire  which  appeared  to 
iliiuoiiMinlellial  tlie  I'ortiiguese  hud  reached  the 
slmn.of  Aiislniliii  In  liloi.  the  years  lafon'  the 
IMit.li  yaihl  Ibiyphiii.  or  hove.  —  llie  earliest 
1  M,  »!„,„  iiiiMM'  has  been  iianded  down, — 
►urhtid,  ahout  Man h,  lOlKt,  what  U  U'liuved  to 
Uuvc  Utu  the  coast  near  Cape  Vurk.  Jlr.  Major, 


In  a  learned  paper  read  before  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries  In  1872,   indicated   the  probability 
that  the  first  discovery  wag  made  'In  or  before 
the  year  1581,'     The  dates  of  two  of  the  six 
maps  from  which  Mr.  Ma^or  derives  his  Infor- 
mation are  1531   and  1.543.     The  latter  clearly 
indicates  Australia,  wliich  Iscalled  Jave  la  Grande. 
New  Zealand  is  also  marked."— P.  P.  Ijibilllcre, 
Birlg  Hint,  of  the  0,tn„ii  of  Vietoria,  eh.  1.— In 
1006,  De  Quiros,  a  Spanish  navigator,  sailing  from 
Peru,  across  the  Pacitie,  reached  a  shore  which 
strc'tched  so  far  that  he  took  it  to  be  a  continent. 
"He   called   llie    place    'Tierra    Australis   de 
Espiritu  Santo,'  that  is  'Southern  Land  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.'     It  Is  now  known  that  this  was 
not  really  a  continent,    but  merely  one  of  the 
New  Hebrides  Islands,  and  more  than  a  thousand 
miles  away  from  the    mainland.  ...  In  after 
years,  tlic  name  he  had  invented  was  divided 
into  two  parts;   the  Island   he  had  n-ailv  dis- 
covered being  called  Espiritu  Santo,  wliife  the 
continent  lie  thought  he   had    di.scovered    was 
callwl  Terra    Australis.      This    last    name   was 
shortened  by  another  discoverer — Flinders  —  to 
the  present  term  Australia."    After  the  visit  to 
the  Australian  coast  of  the  small  Dutch  ship,  the 
"  Dove,"  it  was  touched,  during  the  next  twenty 
years,  by  a   number  of   vessels  of   the   same 
nationality,      "In     1622    a     Dutch    ship,    tlio 
'Leeuwin,' or 'Lioness,' sailed  along  the  south- 
ern eimst,  and  its  name  was  given  to  the  south- 
west cape   of  Australia,  ...  In   1628  General 
Cariienter  siiikil    completely    round    the    large 
Oiilf  to  the  north,   whicii  lias    taken    its  name 
from  this  circumstance.     Thus,  by  degrees,  all 
the  northern  and  western,  together  with  part  of 
the  southern  shores,  came  to  lie  roughly  explored, 
and  the  Dutch  even  had  some  idea  of  colonizing 
this  continent.  .  .  .   During  the    next  fourU-en 
years  we  hear  no  more  of  voyages  to  Australia; 
but  in  1643  Antony  Van  Diemen,  the  Governor 
of  the  Dutch  posscssiims  In  the  East  Indies,  sent 
out  his  frienil  Aliel  .laiisen  Tasman,  with  two 
ships,  to  make  discoveries  In  the  South  Seas" 
Tasman  discovered  the  island  which  he  called 
Van  Diemen  s  Land,   but  which  lias  since  been 
named  In  his  own    honor  —  Tasmania.     "This 
he  did  not  know  to  be  an  Island;  he  drew  it  on 
his  maps  as  if  it  wen- a  peiiiiisnla  beloiiKlnnto  the 
mainland  of  Ausiialia."     In  Wmil.  thi'  famous 
buccaneer,  William  Danipler,  was  j;iveii  the  com- 
mand of  a  vessil  sint  out  to  the  soulheni  seas, 
anil  he  cxplori'd  alKnit  INK)  miles  of  the  norlh- 
ttcsteru  cimst  of  Auslnilia:  but  the  diseiiptlon 
which  be  gave  of  the  country  did  not  eneoimiu'e 
tlieadventimmstoBeek  fortune  In  It.     "  We  hear 
of  no   further  exploiallons  in  this  part  of  the 
world  until  nearly    a  ceiilurv  after;  iiiiil,   even 
then,   no    one    tlioiiirlit    of    wnilbi!;    out    ships 
«|M'chilly  for  the  purp.ise.     Hut  In  the  vearlT.i) 
a  series  of  iinportant  iliscoverh'S  "i  le  iiidiri'iliy 
brought  alMjut.     The  liuyal  Sinlety  of  l.on.lon. 
calculating  that  the  planet  Venus"  would  cross 
the   disc   of    tlH!    sun    in    17(111,    |H>rMuadiil   llie 
Kugllsh  -foveninient  lo  send  out  an  expedllion  to 
the  I'acillc    Ocean    for  the  piir|i<>si<  of   making 
oliservatlons  on  this  event  which  woulil  enable 
astronomers  to  cahulate  the  distance  of  the  earth 
fiiiin  the  sun.     A  small  vessel,  the  '  Endeavour.' 
\\'as  elioMeii ;  mitronoiiierw  w{i|}  their  Inuir'imt'Uts 
cnibaiked,  and  the  whole  placed  under  the ihari'e 
of"  llie  n-iiownid  sailor,  Caiitaln  .lanns  (  isik. 
The  astiuuomical    |)ur|H>««4  of   the  vxiiedltiun 


1 


197 


lli 

if 


AUSTRALIA,  1801-1800. 

wcrcBfttisfartorily  aoTOtnpIisliol  nl  OtiUidtc  nnrl 
I  nptiiin  ('(Mik  then  pnKccIrd  to  nil  explomlinri 
of  ilR"  slions  (if   New  Zciiliind  iiiul   Austnilin. 
Hiiviiig  vntiTiHl  a  liin'  biiv  <in  the  soiitliciisturii 
const  of  Ausiniliii,   'lie  exiimined  tliu  coiiniry 
for  a  few  mil.H  Inland,  nnd  two  of  his  solentlllc 
frk'tidH  — Sir  Joseph  Hunks  and  Dr.  SoI.uidtT— 
niiidc'splcndi.l  lolloctions  of  lioljiniciil  spcclnicna 
From   this  cirnimstnnif   the   pliite    was  chIIihI 
Botany  Hay.  and  its  two  hcad-hinda  rcoelved  the 
nanus  of  Cape  Banks  nnd  Capo  Solnndor.     It 
was  here  that  Captain  ("ook  .  .  .  took  iioswsslon 
of    the    ooiintry    on    Inhalf    of    His    BritJinnic 
Majestj-,    giving    It    the    name    'New    South 
Wales,    on  iiiiount  of   the    resemlilancc  of  its 
masts  to  the  southern  slmresof  Wales.     Shortly 
after  they  h.iil  set  sail  from  Holany  ttiy  they 
<>liserviHl  a  small  opening'  in  the  land,  but  Cix.k 
del  not  slay  to  examine  It.  merely  marking  it  on 
Iisehart  as  I'ort  .faekson,  in  honour  of  his  frienil 
Sir  Oi'orgi!  .Jackson,  .  .  .  The  reports  linin!.'ht 
lioinehy  Captain  Cook  completely  clmnge.1  the 
beliefs  current    In  those    days   with  regard  to 
Australia.  ...  It    so    hap|H'ni-d    that,    sliorlly 
after  C(Kik  a  return,  the  Knglisli  nation  hail  to 
(leal    with  n  gn-at    dillleiiltv    In  regard    to  lis 
criminal  populaliim.     In  1776  the  United  Stales 
dwlared  Iheir  Indeix'iideiice,   nnd    the    Knglisli 
then  found  thi'y  c-oulil  no  hmger  senil  their  c.mi 
yicts  over  to  Virginia     s  they  had  formerly  done 
In  a   short    time   the    uaols   of   England    were 
cn)wdiKl  with    felons.      It  liecinie  neei'ssary  to 
select  a  new  place  of  tninsportiition ;  and.  Just  as 
this   dittlculiy    an>si..   Capi.iin    Cooks    voyages 
called  allenlion  to  a  land  in  every  way  suiteil  for 
such  a  purp..«|.,  Ii,iih  bv  n'asim  of  lis  fertility 
ami  of  Its  ureal  distance.    Viscount  Sydney,  there- 
fore, (lelcrmined  to  send  out  a  party  to' H<ilanv 
Hay.  Ill  order  to  fcmiid  a  convict  witlement  then' • 
and  III   May.   17H7.  a  licet  was   ready  u>  sail  ■' 
After  a  voyaire  of  eight  moiilhs  the  Hl'cl  arriv.'fl 
at  Holany  lliy.  in  .lanuary,  J7MH.     The  waters 
of  the  Hay  were  found  i„"l«>  Iim  shallow  for  a 
proper    liailsiur.     and     Captain      I'hillip      the 
a|i|Hiiiile.l  (J.iycrnor  of  the  settlement,  set  out 
with  time  Isiats,  to  search  for  soniclhing  In'tter' 
"As  he  passed   along   iju.   coast    he  tiiineil  to 
cxaiiiine  the  opening  whic  h  Capuiln  CiKik  had 
called  Port  Jai'kson.  and  siKm  found  himself  In  a 
winding    chaunid    of    water,    with    great  clilfs 
fMwniiig  overhead.     All  at  ontv  a  inagnllleent 
j)ro«p<-ci  o|»neil  on  his  eyes.     A  harUiiir,  wlil,  h 
Is.  iM-rhaps,  the  most  iHaiilifiil  ami  perfect  In  the 
world.  SI  niche,!  b.'fore  him  far  to  the  west  till 
It  was  lost  on  the  distant  hori/.on.     It  seemed  a 
vast  maze  of  winding  waters,  dotbHl  here  ami 
then'   with  lovely   isl.l,.    .    ,    .    c,,,,,,,!,,    I.|,i||j,, 
K'U'cled.  as  the  i.l.Mv  most  luituble  to  Ihu  sitll,' 
meni.  a  small    Inlet,  whic  li.    In   honour  of   the 
Mlnlsler  of  Slale,   he  called  Svdm'y  Cove       It 
was  so  ,1,,'p  as   to  allow    veswds  to    appr-wch 
wi    .III   a  yard    or    two    of    the  shore."     Onat 
dlltlciilticsaiid  suirerings  nltendisl  the  founding 
or  the  iiiMial  Hiiileiiicnt.  atiit  many  dicil  of  ncliiil 
►tarvallonaswcllasofdUe.,,,.;  but  In  twelve  years 
llie|.opulali„u  bad   risen  ,o  l„.twcen  6,IKN1  ami 
..iHtil  iHisoris.      .Meaniirne  a  brincli  coh.ny  h.id 
"■en  .  stal.ll»h,.d    on    Norfolk    Island.     In    171li 
tJovernor  I'hillii,,  bn.keii  in  heallh.  ha.|  n'signcd     I 
jnd    n  l..t.1hel„„|  iHcn  suce.sslc.1  by  Ooyeriior   ^ 
Mnnter.     •When  »)overn..r  Hunter  nrrlvisl.  In   , 

.i!     .»  I.      '"f"   "'■''  ^'•'"'  ""  '■-"''••'  l'i«»l.i|-, 
tUf     Ifc'lliiuce,    a  young  surguuD,  Oforifu  Uuw 


AUSTRALIA,  1800-1840. 


ami  a  midshipman  callc<l  Matthew  Flinders 
1  hey  wens  young  men  of  the  most  adinimlile 
chameter.  .  .  .  Within  a  numlli  after  ihcir 
arrival  they  purelia.se<l  a  small  lioat  nlK.ut  ci-ht 
f<'et  In  length,  which  tli<'y  clirisl4-ne<I  the  'Ton, 
1  humb.  Its  cn-w  conslsKil  of  themselves  and  i 
iMiy  to  assist."  In  this  Kinall  craft  they  Ivgiin  a 
survey  of  the  c<„st,  Hs..f,illy  charting  many 
miles  of  it.  Sisin  sflerwanis,  fteorge  Bass  in  uii 
open  whale  III >at,  piirsiuil  his  explorations  south 
>yanl8,  to  the  n-gion  now  nillisl  Victoria  and 
through  the  straits  which  bear  his  name 'thus 
discovering  the  fact  that  Van  Diemens  I.iiid  or 

JiSI'"!."'*'  '"  ""  '"'"'"'•  """  »  IM-ninsula.  '  In 
1.1)8,  Bass  and  Flind.rs,  again  ns.sociated  and 
furnished  with  a  small  shsip,  miIIikI  round  and 
surveytsl  tlie  eiitin^  coast  of  Van  Dlemeus  Ijin.l 
Hass  now  went  Ui  South  America  ami  there  .lis- 
appeared.  Flimlers  was  commissionetl  by  the 
British  Oovernment  in  1H(H)  to  make  anexi,.nsive 
survey  of  tile  Aiislnilian  coiists,  ami  <lid  so 
IMimiinp  to  England  with  his  maps,  he  wis 
taken  pns<iner  on  the  way  by  the  French  and 
held  In  aiptivity  for  six  vi^ars,  while  the  fruits 
of  his  labor  were  st.ilen.  He  diisl  a  few  yiirs 
.ifter  b,.|,  ,.|,.as..,l.-.V  and  U.  Sutherland, 
Iliiit.  of  Aimtrnlin.  ch.  1-3. 

.\i.s<)  IN:  O.  W.  Uusilen,  //,..(,  of  AuMmlia.  eh 
l-'l  ('•  1). 

/    i).i8oo-i840.— Beginning  of  the  Pros- 
'•  "'  "—  '=-"1  Wiles. -Introduction  of 


198 


peiuy  of  New  South  ..  _ ^,.„„  „, 

ihcep-farminor.-The  founding  of  Victoria  and 
South  Auttralia.— "For  lwcnlyy,.ars  an.l  nmre 
m.  one  at  li.niie  gave  a  thought  to  N..»  South 
Hales,   or   'Hotany  Bay,'  as  It  was  still  einm- 
eously  calleil,  unless  in  vague  liomir  an.l  cm 
passion  f,,r  thi'  pisir  cri-atui-es  who  livi'il  tlien"  ia 
cMie  ami  sl.arvati.m.     The  inily  civili/.in  -  ,1,. 
iiiint  In  the  plaiv  was  the  pn-seiice  .if  a  .l.'v..i,  ,| 
■  l.rgyman  iiaiu.'.|  .Iohns.m,  wh..  h.ul  v..luiiui.ily 
a.i-.inipanii'.l  liie   llrst   liatch  of   onvi.ts 
C'.lonel  Lichlau  M.ic.iuarie  .•nl.'rr.l  on  llieolll.e 
of  governor  In  IWIO,  an.l  rule.1  the  selthni.nl  r,.r 
iwelve  years.     His  adminislnitlon  was  ih..  liivt 
turning  imint  in  lb.  hisbiry.  .  .  .  Mae.,iiaiics:..v 
that  llic  liest  ami  cliea|H>st  w.ay  of  ruliii'  the 
c..nvl.t8  was  to  make  tliein  fnvmen  as  ».;„i  m 
|...sslble.      B.f..re  his  time,  the  goverii...N   In,) 
,   lo..k.sI  on  the  omvhts  as  slavi-s,  to  Ik^'  ttork.d 
tor  Ih..  pr..tlt  ..f  the  g..yernm,-iit  and  of  th.'  fi.r 
sctth'i-s.     .Maciuari.-  .11.1  all  he  coidd  |..  d.v.t,. 
the  class  of  emancipists,  anil  u>  incoura -e  ili,. 
convicts  1.1  pemevi.ri'  In  solwr  Imlustrv  la  l!.e 
liopt.  of  one  .lay  acpiiring  a  n>s|H'cbil.ie|KKitiMi, 
II.'  Isgan  to.lise.inlinue  the  govcrnm.aii   fmin 
ami  to  eiupl..y  llie  cmvlils  In  nia.l  makin'  s,.  ,i 
to  .'Xliml  th.'  c..|.iny  in  all  din',  lions.     Wli.n  in' 
caiiU'  t.i  Sy.lmy.  the  country  more  than  a  .la\  s 
rule  from  the  i.iwn  was  .jiiite  unknown     Th.' 
growth  of  the  s.'ith.m,.ni  was  si.>pi»v|  ,„,  ti,,' 

";••;'''/»  "ing..  ,.a||,..|   the   H M..u„i:,i„.. 

whl.li  iH'f.in'  his  tiin.'  n.i  .me  lia.l  su.n.d.  d  ii 
cr..s«iiig  But  In  \Hy.y  th.r..  .am,'  a  .|...,i.-ii- 
up.,ii  t h..n.h.ny:  Ih.'.allle.  ..ii  wlii.  hcv.'.viliuu- 
.I.IHii.l.-.l.  wer..  uiiaiil.-  i.i  timl  f,»kl  M.i.'.|iiaH,' 
si.nii  Is..!  (hat  ih.r,'  must  Im'  ph'ntv  of  pasiiiiv  ,.ii 
till' plains  alM.ve  the  Blue  Mountains:  he  s,,,!  ,:, 
>vpl;|ring  imrty,  t.'lliug  th.'m  (hat  a  pis,  ,„  ,.t 
"•  dls<'.,v.'r,..l.  In  a  f.'w  iii.>ntlis.  m.t  ..iilv  «  u 
this  task  a<<-omplish..,|,  ami  the  vast  ami  f.ri'e 
niHlun's  .if  ILiihiirst  r!'a,!i.',l  h:,t  a  t..;.\  :  M 
Miil.s  long  wasiiiaile.  e.Hiii...l|iig  iheiu  with  S(  1 
'"■y.     ihe  U>'hlan  an.l  .Ma.'.|uarle  rivers  «  r» 


ACSTTULIA,  1800-1840. 


AUSTOALU,  1800-1840. 


traw'l  out  to  tlic  west  of  the  Blue  Moiintnlng. 
Bt-siiles  tills,  cfml  was  found  at  tlio  month  of  the 
Hiintir  river,  and  the  wtllcment  at  Newoa«tlc 
foriiiiil.  .  .  .  When  it  Ijeraine  known  tliat  the 
IKHul  settlement  w!i.s  irradu.illy  Ixroir.in'f  a  free 
rolnny,  anil  that  Sydn' y  and  its  po|Mi!ation  wen: 
rapidly  ehanging  their  rhameter,  Enelisli   and 
fic'itch    people    iw)on    Ix'tlioiizht   them  of   cmi- 
t'nitina  to  the  neweountry.    Macijuarie  returned 
home  in  1«22,  liavini,'  New  South    Wales   four 
limes  as  populous,  and  twenty  times  as  lar^e  as 
when  he  went  out,  and  many  years  in  advance  of 
what  it  miiht  have  Ixin  under  a  less  able  and 
eniTL'>'tie  poverror.     The  discovery  of  the  line 
pastures  U'vonil  the  Ulue  Mountains  settled  the 
destiny  of  tlic    eolonv.     The  settlers  came   up 
thither  with  their  tlorits  long  iH'fore  Maojuarie's 
rt«d  was  tinished;  and  it  turned  out   that  the 
downs  of  .\usfr,ilia  wen'  the  liest  sheep  walks  In 
the  world.     The  shi><p  thrives  better  there,  and 
pn«liues  finer  and  iiiirc  abundant  wool,  thananv- 
wliire  els.'.     .Fohn  .Maiaithur,  a  lieutenant  in  the 
XdvSiuiii  Wales  crir|H,  liiul  sp<'nt  si.'vcral  vears 
in  studyine  the  elTirt  of  the  Austmlinn  clfmatc 
iiIK.n  the  shitp;  and  he  riuhtly  surmised  that 
tlie  staple  of  the  colony  woulil'lic  its  fine  wool. 
In  l-io:).  he  went  to  Kiu'laud  and  procured  s.>me 
pure  .><p;iriisli  menno  shop   from   the  ticK-k   of 
iJ.orL'e  III    .  .       riicrrivy  Council  listened  to 
his  wimpI  proje'-    ,  and  he  ri'ceived  a  larce  grant 
of  land.     .Mauiriliur  had  found  out  the  true  way 
T<i  .\u-traliau   prospi-rity.     When  the  irreat  up- 
Imd  p'lMures  wen?  dis<overed.  the  merino  hn-ed 
WIS  Will  esUblisheil    in    the  eolonv;    and   the 
sljisp  ovtnirs.  without  waiting  for  L'r'ants,  spread 
witli  tie  ir  tl'if  ksover  immense  tracts  of  country. 
This  w  IS  tile  tx'L'inninv'  of  what  is  calle<l  squa't- 
tiiij.     Till  8.|uatiers  afterivarils  paid  a  ijiiit  rent 
t'l  the  L'ovcrnment  and   thus  got   their  runs,  as 
till  y  calli-d  the  unat  clistricts  where  tliev  rias- 
tun.l  their  ll'K-ks.  to  a  certain  extent  secure*!  to 
llii-m    .  .       Iluiidnds  uinm  hunilreds  of  square 
niili-s  of  the  urn-at  .Vusiralian  downs  were  now 
explorid  and  stocked  with  sheep  for  the  Knglish 
w,K,l  ni.irket.  ...   It  w!is  iu  the  time  of  Mac- 
(luarii-  s  sueisssor,  Sir  Thomas  llrisliane,  that  the 
nrns|»..  Is  of  New  South  Wales  iH-caine  peni'mlly 
known  ill  England,     t'nv  eniigmnts,  each  brinir 
ItiiT  niori'  or  less  caiiital  withhiin,  now  jiounsl 
in .  1111 1  the  demand  for  lalMiiir  liecauic  enormou-S. 
.\t  tir^i  ih-  ixnal  settlements  were  n^newefl  as 
di-ii-its  for  l!if  supplv  of  lalx.ur,  and  It  was  even 
pr.,|>.~-.|  liiat  the  convicts  should  bes.ild  bv  auc- 
tion oi.  111,  ir  arrival ;  but  in  the  end  the  intfux  of 
free  l.iboiuvrsent"  '.  alterwl  the  question.     In 
jlri.lianes  iline,  it  of    his  sui-ceiwir.  Sir 

Kiilpli  KirliiiK.  «  !-•  s  fell  and  work  Ix-camc 
virr.'  Ill  En.'land,  and  Enelish  working  men 
no«i„ii„.,|t||,.jrii,i,.,|ii,,„,„Xusi™iU.  Hitherto 
t he  |i.ri|i|,.  iimi  |„.,.|,  ..jii,,.,  convicts  or  free  si't- 
l.Tsof  111,, re  ir  hss  Wealth,  and  Ix'tween  these 
ri.iss,-,  ihiri.  »•„,  ^,r,.„  liiiiernessof  feeling,  each 
iiiiliirilly  .■iioiiirli.  ihiiikiug  that  the  col.iny  ex! 
l-!ed  f..r  their  own  exclusive  l»ne«t.  The  free 
ili..ur,  rs  u iio  „,,w  |,.,,,r,.,i  i„  grj.,.„]y  rontribute,! 
ill  t"";-  of  lime  to  lushii,  the  |).,i„ilation  into 
one  III  llrisliane  «  tim,.,  trial  bv  Jurvand  a  free 
|iirs,  w.re  lntr..|,ie,sl.  The  finest  'iiasiuns  In 
.^M^lrllll.  the  Darliiiif  Downs  near  Mon-ton  IJhv 
».«•  .Iwoverisl  uu,|«itliKl  [is-.M).     The  rivers 

" "   !'■  ■"■  '"■"   M..1.I..I1    tiav   weni  expion-<i 

en.  uf  tliein  was  named  the  Hrislwne,  and  a  few 
UiUn  troiii  lis  mouth  the  luwu  of  the  luoc  imme 


was  founded.     Brisbane  Is  now  the  capit.al  of  the 
colony  of  Queensland :    and  other  explonitions  in 
Ins  time  led  to  the  foundation  of  a  s<;cond  inde- 
iwndeiit  colony.     The  Macqiiarie  was  traced  lie- 
vond  the  marshes.  In  whieh  It  was  supposed  to 
I'ise  Itself,  luid  named  the  Uarling:  and  the  .Mur- 
ray river  was  dis<-ovend  [IS'JD].     The  tracing 
out  of  the  Murray  river   bv  the   nrlventiimus 
traveller  Stiirt,  led  to  a  eolonv  on  the  site  which 
he  named  South  Australia.    "In  Dariing's  time, 
the  Swan   Hivcr  Colonv,    now  calk-d    Western 
Australia,     was     cominence<l.        Darling 
was    the    first    to    Mil    the    land    at    a    small 
fixed  price,  on  the  system  adopted  in  America 
-  .   .   Dariing    returned    to    Enitland    in    lH:il; 
and    the    six  years    ailministration  of    his  sue 
c-ssor.    Sir    Hichanl    Boiirke,    marks    a    fresh 
turning-point    in    Australian    hi.story.      In    his 
time  the  colony  threw  olf  two  great  offsluKits. 
lort  I'liillip,  on  which  now  stands  the  great  citv 
of  Mellmume,  luui  U-en  discovere<l  in  1W».  niid 
iu  the  next  year  ii,.-  government  sent  hither  a 
convict  colony.     This  did  not  prosper,  and  this 
fine  site  was  neglected  for  tliirf  v  vears      When 
the  sudden  ri.se  of  Xew  South  \Va"ies  iK-gan    the 
squatters  liegan  'o  settle  to  the  west  and  north  of 
I'ort  Iliilllp;  and  .he   government  at  once  sent 
an  exploring  party,  who  reporttsi  most   favour- 
ably of  the  country  aroiiml.     In  Ih;i«,  Governor 
U'liirke  I'oundesl  a  settlement  In  this  new  land, 
which   had  lieen  calleil.  fmin  its  rich   promisi' 
.\ustralia    Felix:    and   under  his  din-ctions  the 
site  of  a  capital  was  laid  out.  to  lie  callisl  Mel- 
bjmrne,  in  houoiirof  the  Eiclisli  Prime  .Minister 
This  was  In  1*17.  so  that  the  N^ginning  of  the 
toloiiy  corresponds  neariy  with   that  of  gm-en 
\  ictorias  niiin;   a  elreinnsiaiiee   which    afler- 

wanls  led  to  its  being  n  i I  Viciori.i.     Further 

west  still,  a  se'cond  new  eolonv  aros<;  alxuit  this 
time  on  the  site  discovere.i  In-  Sliirt  In  \xnt 
This  was  called  South  .\iislnilia,  ami  the  first 
t'ovenior  arrivisl  there  at  tlie  end  of  the  vear 
l><ifl.  The  Inteniled  capital  was  naineil  .\de- 
laide.  In  honour  of  the  Queen  of  William  IV' 
IJ<illi  the  newci.lonles  were  commenced  on  a  new 
system,  called  from  its  inventor  the  Wakeliel  | 
system,  but  the  fnuu.lers  of  South  Australi.i 
were  able  to  carry  It  out  iii.ist  elTectuallv  N- 
aiisi.  they  were  quite  in.|i|i.  mlent  of  the  experl- 
and  the  prejiidiies  of  tin    •     ' 


em 

mint      .Mr.    \Vakefield  was 

and  a  clever  writer.   ...   II 

the  new  colonies  ouzht  to  I 


ii'l  the  pr 
-Mr     \V. 


199 


ney  coNern- 

iiioiis  man 

is  I        in  was  that 

_ -"'   •■■  ■"•    made   'fairlv  to 

represent  English  s<Kieiv.'  His  pl.in  was  to  ar- 
nst  the  strong  dem<icratic  tendencies  of  the  new 
community,  and  to  repr.«luee  in  Australia  the 
strong  distlneiinn  of  .  lassis  whieli  was  found  In 
Englaml.  He  wanieil  the  Lmd  sold  asileara- 
pMsibie,  so  that  lalniiirers  mii;lil  not  beiome 
laiel  owners:  ami  the  pr«lueeof  ih,- laml  was 
to  iw<  appliisl  In  tempting  hili<iiirers  to  emigrate 
with  the  pMs|H-ct  of  l.ii.r  ivaife,  than  thev  got 
at  hoiiin.  A  Company  was  lasilv  formiil  loiarry 
out  these  ideii»  in  Smtli  .\ii«irilia  .  .  I.lkc 
the  ».  iilement  of  Carolin:i  as  frimisl  by  !,,«  ke 
and  .-soiners.  It  was  n-allv  a  plan  for  ireiting  the 
advanlaires  of  the  colony  inio  ihi>  hands  of  the 
non  lalKiiiring  classes  and  bv  the  natural  laws 
.if    imlitinil    economy,     it     f.iih-.l    evervwbere 

-Vdelal.ll!     I>eci«me    the    •(..n.j    ,,f     2~     ^..'.....11,^ 

•  bubble  ■     Tli..  lan.l  J.ibliers  ami  m.inev  l.n.lers 
ni.a.l.'  f.inuii.-s     but  the  p...pl..  who  i  mli:nii..| 
in.«tly   bil.inglug    to    the    middle    and    upiKt 


;t| 


AUSTRALIA,  1800-1840. 

classes,  found  the  scheme  to  be  a  delusion. 
Land  rapidly  rose  in  vulue.  and  as  rapidly  sank; 
and  loU  for  which  the  omigranu  had  paid  high 
pric-cs  became  almost  worthless.  The  labourers 
emigrated  elsewhere,  nn<l  so  did  those  of  the 
capitalists  wlio  had  anything  left.  .  .  .  Tlie  de- 
pression of  South  Australia,  however,  was  but 
tcmrxirary.  It  contains  the  best  corn  land  In  the 
whole  island :  and  hence  it  of  course  8<Kin  be- 
came the  chief  source  of  the  food  supply  of  the 
nelghlmuring  cnlonies,  iK-sides  exporting  large 
cmaiitities  of  corn  to  Knghind.  It  conUiins  rich 
minis  of  copi  r.  and  produces  larirc  quantities 
or  w.Hil.  — E  J.  I'ayne,  Jliit.  of  b'uroimn  Colo- 
met,  eh.  v;.     See  SocTii  Walks,  Victoria,  and 

BOITH    Als-.  IIAI.IA, 

Also  in:  O.  W.  Rusden,  Hitt.  ofAnrtralia. 
A.p.  1830-1855.— Propesi  of  the  Port  Phillip 
District.— Its  Separation  from  New  Sojth 
\Vales  and  erection  into  the  colony  of  Victoria 
—Discovery  of  Gold.— Conititutional  organ  iz«. 
Ji""  °/  "If;  colony-— "  lu  1«J»  the  population  of 
1  ort  I'liilllp  amounted  to  nearly  6,000,  and  was 
being  rapidly  augmented  from  without  The 
sheep  in  the  ilistriet  exceeded  half  a  million,  and 
of  cattle  and  horses  tlie  numbers  were  in  pro- 
portion eiiually  large.  The  place  was  daily 
growing  in  Importame.  The  Home  Government 
tlierefore <lecidiil  to  8<nd  an  offlcjr,  with  the  title 
of  Superintendent,  to  lake  charge  of  the  district, 
but  to  act  under  the  O.ivemor  of  New  ikmlii 
Wales.  Cliarles  .loscpli  Jm  Tn)be,  Ksi\  was  ap- 
pointed to  this  otlice.  ...  He  arrived  at  Mel- 
Imurne  on  the  30tli  Siptemlier,  ISHl).  Soon  after 
this  all  classes  of  tlic>  new  comiiiuiiltv  appear  to 
have  lieioine  alTecliHl  Iiy  a  mania  for  s'lH'culation. 
.  .  As  is  nhvays  the  eas,'  wjen  speculation 
takes  the  jilire  ,if  sliudv  industry,  the  neces- 
saries   of     life     I aiiic     fabulously    dear       Of 

money  there  wiis  but  little,  in  consldeRition  of 
the  amount  of  bu.iriess  done,  and  large  tninsac- 
ticms  wi      ciricted  by  mcansof  paper  and  erwiit. 
St  to  lowist.  all  lived  extnivagiuitly 
I.  a  stale  of  things  could  not  last  for- 
lf<4j.  by  which  time  the  population 
■asi'd  to  24.IH)(),   rhe  crash  came.  . 
hr    ,.  iliisdepressiontheeolonyslowlvrecovered 
and  a  soiindir  l)u<iness  sy.stem  took  the  place  of 
thcspeculativcMimv  .  .  .   All  this  time,  however 
the  colony   was  a  d.pendeney  of   .\cw  .South 
Wales,  and  a  strong  filling  had  gained  ground 
that  it  suffered  in  eonseiiuenee.  ...  A  ( rv  was 
raised   for  separaliun      The  demand   was  "  as  a 
matter  of  course,  resisted  bv  New  South  Wales 
but  as  the  agilalimi  was  eariied  on  with  ineniisi.i'l 
aetlvity.  it  was  at  last  yieldisl  to  bv  the  Ibune 
aulli.irili.s       The  vessi  1  U-aring  llielnielligiiiee 
arrived  nn  tlie  llih  .Nnvi  inUr,  IS."ii).     The  news 
SjKin  spread,  ami  gniit  was  the  satisfaetii.n  ef 
the  eMlunl^ls.     Hi  |..ii  iiiirs  were  kept  ii-  In  Mi  1 
bourne  fur  live  <  iinseeutive  davs.   .   .       Hi  f.uv 
however   the  »,  parallon  could  la.  :,.g„llv  ai  eoni' 
pllsheil.  ii  was  iiiiissary  that  an  Ai  t  Miiuild  Ih' 
passed  in  NVwSmiiUi  Wales  to  settle  del, ils. 
The  nijuisile  luriiis  »■  rr  at  length  givin  eifeei 
to,  :inil.  on  tin-  Im  .July.  IS.'.l.  a  day  wiiirii  has 
ever  since  hei. MM  riipiil.Mi.lvobserveil  as  a  pulilie 
hnlnlay,  it  «:i«  pmi  luinii-.rthat  the  I'.irt  I'liiliip 
disliiit  of  .Niw  SuiMli   \V;i|r,  had  iHTU  eo'cled 
.uto  a  »<'|.arile  ,  i,l,,ov  to  \,v  ,„1|imI  Vietoria,  aflir 
tlie  iiaiiie  i.f  Her   .Nliwf  Urailous  Malesty      Ai 
the   wiiii.    liiiK'    Ii,,'    S.i|iiriiitendent,   Mr' (•    ,J 
L»  Trolw.  was  raised  to  the  rauk  of  Lieuteuaut- 


From  lii^ 
,  .  .  Sui 
ever      t 
had 


AC8TBALIA,  1839-1858. 

Governor.     At  the  commencement  of  the  year  of 
separation  the  population  of  Port  Phillio  num. 
b«red  76,000,    the    sheep    O.(K)O,0O0.    tl/catlle 
»»o,UUO    .  .      In  a  little  more  than  a  mouth  aftir 
the  esUbhshmeiit  of  Victoria  as  an  independent 
colony,   it   became  generally    known   that  ri.h 
deposits  of  gold  existed  within  its  borders 
The    discovery    of    gold  .  .  .  |„    Srv,    s'.iitl, 
Wales,  by  Hargreaves,  in  February,  18.'.l.caiis.d 
numbers  to  emigrate  to  that  colony.     This  bein- 
coiisidere<l    detrimental     to    the     Interests    n? 
Victoria,  a  public  meeting  was  held  in  .Melbourne 
on  the  9th  of  June,  at  which  a  '  gold  diseoverv 
committee '  wasappoliite.1.  wliiih  was  aiilliorizill 
to  offer  rewards  to  any  that  should  diiwover  goM 
In   remiinenitivc  quantities  within   the  colony 
The  colonists  were  already  on  the  alert      Al  the 
time  tills  meeting  was  held,  sevenil  parties  w,  ,0 
out  searching  for,  and  some  had  already  f„m,i| 
gold.     The  precious  metal  was  tirst  dislvivenil 
at  Cluncs,  then  in  the  Varra  ranges  at  Anderson's 
Creek,  smm  after  at  lluiiinvong  ami  Ballanit 
shortly  afterwnnls   at    Mount   Alexandir    an,i 
eventually  at  BeiKllgo.     Tlii'deposits  were  found 
to  bo  richer  and  to  extend  over  a  wider  ana  ih  in 
any  which  had  been  disei.v.rtHl  in  New  Son;li 
Wales.     Their  fame  soon  K|.n'ail  to  the  adiannt 
colonies,  and  thousands  h.istened   to  the  spot. 
.  .  .  When  the  news  n-aelinl  home    cruwils  of 
emigrants  from  tlic  United  Kimrdom  huiried  lo 
our    shores.      Inhabitants    of    other    Knrupoan 


Anii-ri.  ;ins 


.'ounirlesquicklv  joined  in  liierush. 
from  the  Atlantic  .States  were  not  long  m  loii.nv 
'"K-     Stalwart  Califoriiiaiis  l.fi  their  own  i:nl,l. 
yielding  rocks  and  placers  to  try  their  furlnni's 
at  tlie  Simlhern  Eldorado.     Lnst"  of  nil,  sw^unn 
of  thliiese  arrival,  eager  to  unite  In  th,-  g.niml 
scramble  for  wealth.  .  .  .    The  iinporiani  imm- 
liou  which  the  Au.stralian  clonics  lia.l  olit.iin,-,l 
n  cons<-inienee  of  the  diseuviiy  of  gol,|,  and  ila- 
Intlux  of  population  cousi-iiucnl  iheriMm  w.is  liie 
(K-casionof  the  Im|)erial  tiovcrnment  del,  nnia- 
ing  ill  the  latter  end  of  Is.V,'  il„,t  each  e.ilnnv 
should  be  invited  to  frame  such  a  Consiitmioii 
for  Its  government  as  Its  representatives  mi'lit 
deem   best  suited  to   its  own   iM-eiiliir  eireuni- 
stances.     The  Constitution  fninied  in  Viiti.r 
and  afte    .-anls  approved  by  ih,.  Ilriiish  I'mHii: 
ment,   WIS  avoweilly   basi'd   upon   ili.it  ,,|    tlie 
LnitiHl  Kingdom.     It  pnoiilid  for  the  i-imIiMnIi 
mentof  twol.msesof  L.gislalim.,  wiili  p,,«,r 
to  make  laws,  sii  ijeet  to  Hie  absent  of  ih,.  i  r,,H.i 
as  repre!«-nled  generally  by  tli,.  ((,,vi.rn..r  of  ilie 
colony;  tlieI,e„'iHlatiye('oiiieil.orrpiK.rl|,.iiv 
to  consist  of  :v>,  and  the  l.i  iiislalive  A-s.nil.iv' 
or    Lower   House,    to  conM-i    uf    «i)   iii,inl.,i> 
.Memtx'rsof  iKith  Houses  to  Is-  .liciivr  an  I  t,) 
tiiHsess  property  qualitli  ali.iiH.      El.i  l..!-...!  I.  .i!i 
Houses  to  possess  either  i>rop.irly  or  pr..lisvi..n,il 
qualilleati.iiis  (the  properly  ,|iialilliaii..n..t  ni.  ni- 
iM.rsand  el|.iiors  of  the  l,.ov.r  II.him.  ha,  ,,■.,>•• 
Nrn  al.,.lisli«l|.  .  .  .  The  Ippir  ll.niv  n..i  |.. 
la'  ill«s..|ved.  but  five  iiietiii..rs  to  niir.'  ,v.rv 
two  years,  and  to  in-  eligible  l.ir  re  eleeii..n     TliV 
I.«iwer  House  to  bi?  dissulvi.l  every  tiv.'  v.  trs 
[since  nsluced  to  three|,  ..r  urieiier'  at  111.:  .Ii, 
creilon  of  the  (Jovernor.     c.  rtaiii  oili,,  rs  .1"  ih.' 

(Joverninent.    four    at    least    of    wl 1    s:„,.i:  i 

have    seals  In    I'ariiament,   I..  Im'  dii'innl     Ii. 
sponsllde  Ministers  •  .  .       This  (•iiiisliiiiii,.n  «  is 
prorlaimi-.l  la   V!.-iaria  <■»  it,,-  i.ui  N,,,  •::■.:■;  r. 
m\  —II.  H.  llaylcr,  Auf<a  an  M«  tWcit  ./ 
Vtcturta,  cA.  I. 


200 


AUSTRALIA,  1830-1855. 


AdtraHm. 


APSTRAUA,  1890. 


Atso  in:  F.  P.  LBWlllcre,  Rirty  JBtt.  ef  tht 
Colony  of  Vietoria,  t.  2.— W.  Wcstgarth,  I\rtt 
l\e€nlu  Yean  of  the  Colony  of  Victoria. 

A.  D.  1859.— Separation  of  the  Moreton  Bar 
District  from  New  South  Wales.— lu  erection 
into  the  colony  of  Queentland.— "  Until  Uvcem- 
ber,  1M9,  the  nortU-west  purtion  of  the  Fifth 
Continent  waa  known  n.s  the  \f iireton  Buy  ilislrirt, 
anil  belonged  to  the  rolony  of  New  South  Wales- 
but  at  that  date  it  had  grown  so  large  that  it  was 
erected  into  a  sepnmte  and  independent  colony, 
under  the  name  of  Queensland.  It  lies  iK-twecn 
lat.  \<P  43'  S.  and  2i»^S..  and  long.  138' ami  l.W 
E. ,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Torres  Straits ;  on  the 
nortlieast  by  the  Coral  Sea;  on  the  east  bv  the 
South  Pacific:  on  the  south  by  N'ew  South  vVales 
and  South  Australia;  on  the  west  by  South 
Australia  and  tlic  Northern  Territory;  and  on  the 
northwest  by  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria.  It 
covers  an  area  .  .  .  twenty  times  as  large  as 
Ireland,  twenty-three  limes  as  larire  as  Scotland, 
and  eleven  times  the  extent  of  Kiigland. 
NuniircMis  ginid  liartKiurs  an-  f  md.  many  of 
which  form  theoutletsof  navigalili  rivers.  "The 
principal  of  tliesc  lis]  Moreton  Bay,  at  the  head 
of  which  stuniis  Hrlsbane.  the  capital  of  the 
colony.  ,  .  .  Tiie  mineral  wealth  of  Queensland 
i3  very  great,  and  eviTy  year  sees  it  more  fullv 
develoiml.  ,  .  .  Until  the  year  18«7.  when  tlie 
Gympie  liild  was  di.scoverol,  gold  mining  as  an 
inl  isirv  wa.s  iiardlv  known."— C.  H.  Eden  The 
/r".  Cnnliuent.  <•/(.' 10. 

A    D.  1885-1892.— Proposed  Federation  of 

the  Colonies. — "It   has  lieen  a  commrn  saving 

ill  Au^iraliii  that  our  fellow  countrvmen  in  that 

part  nf  the   world  did  not   recoirnise  the  term 

•  Au-itraluii;'    e.-.i  h    ri-(-i>gnis<'d    onlv    his    own 

colony  and  the  empire      But  the  advocates  of 

combin^ition     for     ciTtain     common     purjioses 

achievi-d  a  sreat  step  forward  in  the  formation  of 

a  •  Fediwl  Council'  in  iss.v     It  waa  to  lie  only  a 

■  Coum  il.'  its  decisiims  having  no  force  over  anv 

col.itiy  unless  a(-ro|)t(d  afterwards  by  the  colonial 

I,i-L'i>!itiin'.      Vi<tori:i,    Queinsland.    Tasmania 

and  W.-vt  Austnilia  joined.  New  South  Wales 

Siiith  Australia,  and  New  Zealand  standing  out. 

and.  S-.  ( onsiiiuted.  it  met  twice.     Tlie  results  of 

the  ilelilxratjont  Wert'  not  unsatisfactory,  and  the 

oiinim  that  the  move  was  in  the  right  dlrvction 

r     ;.ily  grew.     In  Febru.-irv  of  \<m)  a  Federation 

'     .f.Tince.  not  private  but  representative  of  the 

•  Uli-rcnt  Gi.vernmi-nts.  wa«calleil  at  .Mell)o.irne 

It  ii  Lifted  111,  address  to  the  Queen  declaring  the 

";>iiii  '11  i.f  the  confenucf   to   be  that  tlie  best 

irit.r.-«isi,f  the   Australian  colonies  require  the 

CHily  r.rmalinn  of  a  union  under  the  Crown  into 

0111-  (...vcrnm,  nt.  Inith  legislative  and  executive 

tvints  pnHvcd  ipiickly  in  Colonial  History.     In 

111-  course  of  isy.)  ||„.  hesitation  of  New  "South 

Hui.s  was  Ilnally  overcome;    ixiwerful  factors   i 

lielii,:  the  weakening  of  the  Free  Traile  position   i 

a!   the  eUelion   of    IsiH).  the  report  of  (^.neml   I 

tdwiirds  on   the    Defences,    ami  the  dllHculties  ' 

«"oiit     (  liim-se     iiiimiiiralion.       A    Convention   i 

ai-i.,riliiii:l>  ;,ssi.mliled  al  Svdncvin  .March.  IWl     I 

wlmli  a.-reed  upon  a  (•on;titiition  to  bo  recom-    \ 

iii-ri.|.-.|  to  the  s.-veral  Colonies.-— A.  Caldeisitt.    ' 

A.v,  ,«,(■,,/„,, ;„f,„„  ,,,„/  l-:ii,i,ir,   f/,    ■;   ,„i   .1  _   . 

"11    M"ji.:.-iy.    March   ;.'ml,   ls«i.  tlic    National   I 

.Vi-'riliislan   Convention  met  at  the  |»srliain"">   i 

H".-     .Sidney.    .Sew    Saith    VValwi.    ami    »as   ! 

aucMl.il   hy   Kven    n'pre«ntallvi-«    from    each   1 

tviuuy.  except  New  Zealand,  which  only  sent 


three.     Sir  Henry  Pa.kcs  (New  South  Wales) 
WHS  electc<l  Prcsiden   of  tiie  Convention,  and  Sir 
Samuel  Griffith  (Quee.islaml),  Vice  President      A 
st.nes  of  resolutions,  moved  bv  Sir  Henry  Parkes 
occupied  the  attention  of  the  Conventitm  for 
several  days.     These   restdutions  set   forth  the 
principles  upon  which  tlie  Fedem!  Government 
should  be  esublishejl.  which  were  to   the  effect 
tliHt  tlic  powers  sod  privilegesof  existing  Colonies 
should    be  kept  Intact,    except   in   cavs  where 
siirrender  would  lie  necessary  in  order  to  form  a 
Fc(leral   Government;    that   intercolonial    trade 
and  intercourK-  slioul<I   lie  free ;    that  power  to 
impo.se  Customs  duties  should  rest  with  the  Feil- 
eral   Government  ami    Pariiameu.;  and  that  the 
naval   and   military  defence-  of  Australia  sliould 
be  eutrustc<:  to  the  Feileral  Forces  under  one 
command.     The    resolutions    then   went  on    to 
approve  of  a  Federal  Constitution  which  should 
cstiililish  a  Federal   P;irliam<nt  to  consist  of  a 
Senate  and  a  House  of   Kepriwutatives;  tliat  a 
Judiciary,  to  consist  of  a  Federal  Supreme  Court, 
to  be  a   High  Court  of   Appeal  for  Australia, 
should  be  estsblisheil ;   and  that  a  Federal  E.xe- 
ciitive.   amsisting  of  u  Governor  General,  with 
rt-sponsible    advisers,     should     be    constituted. 
These  resolutions  were  disi-ussed  nt  great  length 
and  eventually  were  adopted.     The  resolutions 
wen-  then   referred  to  three  •'oinniltlies  chosen 
from  the  delegaU'S,  one  to  considir  Constitutional 
Mailiinery  and   the  distrihulion  of  powers  and 
fiinctions;    one  to  deal  with  nmitcis  relating  to 
Finance,  Taxation,  and  Trade  licLMilatioiis;  and 
the  other  to  consider  the  i|iieslion  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  Federal  Jiidii  iarv.    A  dmft  Hill,  to 
constitute  the  'Commonwealth  of  .\ti-inilia  '  was 
tmiiight  up  by  the  first  meiitioneil  ni  these  Com- 
mitti-es,  and  after  full  coiisideriition  was  adopted 
j'y,""'  t'onvention,  and   it  was  airreeil  that  tlie 
Bill  should  Ik    presented  to  each  of  the  Austra- 
lian Parliament.s  for  approval  and  adoption      Oa 
Thursday,   April  Otii,   the  Coiivi  iiii,,i;  closeil  its 
I>ro((  edings.     The  Bill  to  provide  f.  .•  the  Keiler- 
ation  of  the  Australasian  mlonies  entitled  •  A  Bill 
to  constitute  a    Comnionwealth  of    Australia' 
which  wasdnifttsl  by  the  National  .Vustr:ila.sia'n 
Convention,  has  Urn  iuti-odiict-d  into  the  Parlia- 
ments of  most  of  till- (oloiiies  ot   ihc  L^riiiip   and 
Is  still  (OiIoIbt.  lHi|-,'i,  under  I  onsi, brill  ion.'     In 
\ictoiia   it    his   piis.si-d    the   I.o>vi  r  llou-..  with 
some      amemlin.uts.  —  .**.i(,»«,     '«      Yi.irlf>„k 
\'*'M.  />.  ;ios. 

A.  D.  1890.- New  South  Wales  and  Vic- 
toria.—"New         til  Wiiies  heirs  toVicloriaa 
Ttain  statistic.-,       scmbliiiice.     The  twocol,iiiies 
'he   same  population,   and, 
-It  tlic  suine  revenues,  ex- 
"le.    Iniiich.  a  irr-.'at capital 
irhooil  more  than  a  third  I  I 
■  ■  But  consiilera'jle 

I  an,l  an-  lik.-ly  to  develop  in 


have   [l!(901 
roughly  spei, 
Iiiiidifire,  d( 
Collects  in  oue 
the  total  popiil 
dilTei-encvs  lie  Im  I 


the  liiiure.  New  .Siulli  Wide-,  in'the  opinion  of 
her  enemies.  Is  less  eiiterpri-iiig  iliaii  Vietoria 
and  tins  less  of  the  go  liiead  spirit  whi.  h  disHn 
giiishi-s  the  .Melliouriie  |m.o|.|,..  On  the  other 
h.iiid  she  poKsi-SM's  a  lurirer  t.rriiorv.  abundant 
supplies  of  coal,  and  will  liave  pr.ihihh.  in  «on 
N-i|iicnce.  a  greater  liiiiiie.  Althotigh  New 
Soiiiii  Wales  is  time  aiei  a  half  tiim  s  as  l.irge  as 

V'1.'1..i-Im      I    I .,..      -r  f   1'        f  ,.    ^     . 

and  Italv  conihiiiiil.  she  is  of  i-oiiis<.  much 
smaller  than  th,  three  other  but  as  vit  le».  Im- 
portant coIonicD  of  the  Auslraliin  loiitinent  [see 


201 


I 


1 1  *.'■■■ 


AUSTRALIA,  1890. 

QVSBNSLAND,  South  Acstbama  and  WE«TEni» 
Australia].    As  the  country  was  in  a  large 
degree  settled  by  assisted  emigrants,  of  whom 
simicthing  like  half  altogether  have  been  Irish, 
while  the  English  section  was  largely  composed 
of  Chartists,  ...  the  legislation  of  "New  South 
Wales  has  naturally  shown  signs  of  its  origin. 
Map'KKxl  sulTrago  was  carried  tn  laW;  the  abo- 
lition of  j)rimogcniture  In  1888;  safe  and  easy 
transfer  of  land  through  the  macliinery  of  the 
Torrens  Act  in  the  same  year;    and  nlso  the 
abolition  of  statu  aid  to  religion.     A  public  sys- 
tem of  education   was  introduced,   with  oilier 
measures  of  democralic  legislation.  .  .  .  Public 
education,  which  in  Victoria  is  free,  is  still  paid 
for  by  fees  in  New  South  Wales,  though  cliildnn 
going  to  or  returning  from  school  arc  allowed  to 
tnn  I'l  free  by  railway.     In  gencnd  it  may  be  said 
that  ^ew  South  Wales  legisTatinu  in  recent  times 
has  not  iKTii  so  bold  as  the  legislation  of  Victoria. 
.  .  .  Tlie  land  of  New   South  Wales  has  to  a 
large  e.vtent  come  Into  the  liaiids  of  wealthy  per- 
sons who  are  becoming  a  territorial  aristocracy. 
This  has  lieen  the  effect  flrstlj  of  granU  and  of 
Bipialting  legislation,  then  of  the  perversion  of 
the   Act  of   1861    (for   -Fri^    Selection    before 
Sur%-ey ']  to  the  use  of  those  against  whom  it  had 
been  aimed,  and  timilly  of  natural  causes  — soil, 
climate  anil  the  lack  of  water.  .  .  ,  The  traces  of 
the  convict  element  in  New  South  Wales  have 
liecome  very  sliglit  in   the  national  cliaracler. 
The  prevailing  cheerfulness,  running  into  fickle- 
ness   and    frivolity,    with    a    great   deal    more 
vivacity  than  exists  in   England,  does  not  sug- 
gest   in  the  least  tlie    inlermi.xlure   of  convict 
IiIimhI.     It  is  a  natural  creation  of  the  climate, 
and  of  the  full  and  varied  lift  led  by  colonists 
in  a  youiii  cmih-i-y.  ...  A  population   of  an 
excellent  ty|>e  has  swallowed  up  not  only   the 
convict    elemfiil.    but    also    the    unstable    and 
thriftless  eleiiient    shipped  by  friends  in    Brit- 
ain to  ISyilney   or  to  .MellKmme.       The    ne'er- 
do-wi^els  were  either  sonii'what  almve  the  aver- 
age in  brains,  as  was  often  the  case  with  tlnw 
who    reiovereil     themselves    and     started      lU- 
afresh,    or    i«'ople    who    drank   themselves    i,i 
death  anil  ilis<ip|M'ar(il  and  left  no  descendants. 
The  coiivicl.s  were  also  of  various  classi's;  some 
of  tliini  wire   men   in    whom   crime    was    the 
outcome  of  restli'ss  energy,  a.s,  for  instance,  in 
many  of  those  tiansportnl   for  treason  and  for 
manslaiighter;    while     some     were     people    of 
avemge   mnrility   ruined  through   companions, 
wives,  or  suihlin  tem|)talion.  and  some  persons 
of  an   ess<.ntiall.    depmved   and    criminal   life. 
1  lie  liiitiT  elassii  of  convicts,  in  a  new  country, 
away  from  tin  ir  ohi  conipanions  and  old  tempta- 
tions, tiirneil  over  a  new  leaf,  and  tluii  abilities 
and  llieir  strong  vitality,   which  in  some  cases 
hml  wroiiL'ht  their  ruin  in  the  ohl  world,  found 
healthful  sio|k'  in  sulKliiing  to  man  a  new  one. 
Criiiie  in  tlair  easi's  was  an  aecideut.  and  would 
not  Ik'  transmitted  to  the  children  they  left  be- 
hind  them.     On   the  other  liaml.   the  genuine 
criminals,  and  also  the  drunken  De'cr-do-wifls. 
left  no  clill.ireii.      Drink   and   vice  among  the 
'assigned  servants'  el.iss  of  convicts,   and   an 
absence  of   all   facilities  for  marriaire,  worke<l 
them  off  the  faceof  the  earth,  and  those  who  nad 
not  l)-en  killed  Is'fore  I  he  gold  discovery  generally 

dran.<  tliems4'lves  to  death  nnon  the  dlairiiiL'u  " 

Sir  C    W    Iliike,  truOienu' of  UnaUr' Jiritaiii, 
fi.  8,  ch.  8. 


AUSTIUSIA. 

^  AUSTRASIA    AND    NEUSTRIA.   OR 
NEUSTRASIA.— ■-  It  is  conjectured  by  Lude  , 
with  great  probability,  that  the  Rlpuarians      .c 
originally  adled  the  •  Eastern  '  people  to  d     in- 
guish  them  from  the  Salian  Franks  who  lived  to 
the  West.     But  when  the  old  home  of  the  con 
cpierors  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine  was 
united  with  their  new  settlements  in  Gaul,  the 
latUT,  as  it  would  seem,  were  calle<l  Neiistriaor 
Neiistrasia  (New  Limds);  while  the  term  Aus- 
trasia  came  to  denote  the  original  seats  of  the 
Franks,  on  what  we  now  call  the  German  bank 
of   the  Rhine.    The  most  im|>ortant  differenie 
between  them  (a  differe-nce  so  gnat  as  to  leiul  to 
tlieir  |)crmanent  separation  into         kingdoms  of 
France  and  Germany  by  the  li       v  .)f  Verdun) 
was  this:  that  in  Neustna  the  Fraiiliish  element 
was  quickly  absorlied  by  the  mass  of  Oallu 
Romanism  by  which  it  was  surrounded ;  while 
in  Aiistrasia,  which  Included  the  ancient  seals  of 
the  Prankish  compierors,  the  German  clement 
was  wholly  preilominant.     The  Import  of  the 
word  Aiistmsla  (Austria,  Austrifnuicia)  is  very 
fluctuating.     In  its  widest  sense  it  was  used  to 
denote  all  the  countries  ineor|M>rated  into  tlie 
Frankish  Empire,  or  even  held  in  sul  jection  to 
it,  in  which  the  German  language  and  population 
prcvailcil;  in  this  actvptati.m  It  include.1  there- 
fore the  territory  of  the  Alemanni,  Bavarians 
Thuringians,  ami  even  that  of  the  Saxons  uiiii 
Fnses.     In  its  more  common  and  pro|)er  seiisi,'  it 
meant  that  part  of  the  territory  of  tlie  Franks 
tliemselv,^«  which  was  not  indudeil  in  Neiistria 
It  was  siilMlivided  into  L'p|)er  Austrasia  on  tlie 
Moselle,  and  Lower  Austrasia  on  the  Rhine  ami 
Meuse.      Neustria  (or.    in    the    fulness  of    the 
monkish  Latinity.  Neustrasia)  was  boiiinlid  i>ii 
the  north  by  the  ocean,  on  the  south  by  the  Lnin-, 
and  >^ _i  the  southwest  [simtheast?]  tiiwaiiN  liiii' 
gundy  by  a  line  which,  lieiriniiing  IkIow  (Jiin  ..ii 
the  Loire,  ran  through  the  rivei-s  Loing  and  Voniir, 
not  far  from  their  sources,  and  passing  noiili 
of  Auxerre  and   south   of   Troyes,    joined  the 
river  Aube  above  Arcis.'  —  W.  f    I'errv     77„ 
Franhi.    eh.    8. —  "The    northeastern   part    ,.f 
Gaul,  along  the  Rhine,  together  with  a  .slice  i.f 
ancient  Germany,  was  already  distinguished   as 
we  have  8<"en,  by  the  name  of  the  Eastern  Kiiit' 
dom,  or  Ostcr-rike,  Ijitiiiized  into  Austrasia     It 
embraced  the  region  fli-st  oc-cupied  by  the  Hi 
puarinn  Pranks,  and  where-  they  stiiriived  the 
most  compnctiv  and  In  the  greatest  numlKr 
This  was,  in  the  cslinmliou  of  the  Franks,  the 
kingdom   by  cminenee,   while  tlie  rest  of    ilir 
north  of  Gaul  was  simply  not    it  -    ■  ne  nsti  r 
rike,     or  Neustria.      A   line  drawn    from  ilie 
mouth  of  the  Scheldt  to  Cambrai.  and  iliemr 
acnws  llie    Marne  at    Chateau-Thieriv    to  \W 
Aulic  of  Bar  sur-Aulie,  would  have  sipanilcl 
the  one  from  the  other,  Neustria  eomprisiii' iiil 
the  northwest  of  Gaul,  lH'twe<>n  the  Loire  mid 
tlie    ocean,    with    tlic    exception   of     llijit,iiiv 
This  had  been  the  first j.ossi'ssion  of  the  .s.ili m 
Jranks  in  Gaul.  ...  To  such  an   exlint   had 
they  been  absorlied  anil  infiuenciKl  bv  tin.  |t«niiii 
elements  of  the  |«ipulath>n,  that  Ihe'Auslrasiaiis 
scarcely  consideriKl  them  Franks,  wli'le  tin  v   in 
their  turn,    regarded    the    Austrasians   as"  tlio 
merest  untutoretlbarlinrlans."— I'.  (l.Hlwin,  //i.r 
0/  fV«n«.-  Aneieiit  Ihiiil,  bit.  3.  eh.  13,  iri7A  «.f.. 
Alsoih:  K  ,A   Pr.w™an.  //r.-f,  (,V-v.  ''fH-tr:;:r. 
eh.  8,  teet.  «— ."ice,  nlso.  FuA.NKs  (.M't:iiuviKut.v.N 
Lmpire):  a.  I).  5I1-7S8. 


202 


if 


i 


^.'  '«!* 


~  i^Sn 

^j: 

t'rWlf 

1*. 

*3, 

It- 

1  'WMSi 

1 

Houa 


kauiiiF 


m 

Ir" 

I 


u\  -i\ 


AUSTIUA. 


ACSTRU. 


J^  ^fS^-r'"^"  ?»™  "'  Au«tria,  Oe.ter. 
relcli  — Ostrich  as  our  forefathers  wrote  It— Is 
naturally  enough,  a  common  name  for  the  east- 
SIl'!?f''li,°'«''y  kingdom  The  Franlclsh  king- 
dom of  the  Merwlngs  had  Its  Austria;  the  Italiw 
kingdom  of  the  Lombards  ha<l  iu  Austria  also. 
We  are  half  inclined  to  wonder  that  the  name  was 
never  given  in  our  own  island  cither  to  Essex  or 
to  EastAnglia.  But,  while  the  other  Austrias 
have  passed  awav,  the  Oestcrreich.  the  Austria 
the  Eastern  mark,  of  the  German  kingdom  Jts 
defence  against  the  Mapvar  invader,  has  lived 
on  to  our  own  times.     "  not  onlr  lived  on. 

but  it  has  become  o,  ,e  chief  European 

^JTu  Ami  it  Ims  K-cme  so  by  a  proceSto 
S  .  ''woi'l'l  be  hanl  to  find  a  parallel  "— 
E.  A.  Freeman,  Tht  Uutorieal  Otooravhu  of 
burope,  V.  \,  eh.  8,  p.  305.  '~n    f »   "j 

The  birthplace.-' 'On  the  disputed  frontier. 
In  flie  zone  of  perpetual  conflict,  were  formed 
ami  dev.  ,ope<l  the  two  states  which.  In  turn 
were  to  dominate  over  Germany,  namely.  Aus- 
tria and  Prussia.  Both  were  born  In  the  midst 
of  the  enemy  The  cradle  of  Austria  was  the 
Eastern  arch,  established  by  Charlemagcc  on 
the  Da    .m    bevond  Bavaria,  at  the  veiy  gate 

from  the  Orient  .  .  .  The  cnulle  of  ftussia  was 
the  march  of  lirnndenburg,  bctwecs  the  Elbe 
and  the  Oder  In  the  region  o."  the  exterminated 
Muvs.  —  i,.  Lavissc,  Oeiieml  VieiDoftlte  PolUi- 
calllutory  of  Europe,  eh.  3,  wet.  13 

The  Smgfularity  of  Austrian  hiitory.— A 
power  which  is  not  a  national  power.— 'it  Is 
liy  no  means  an  ™sy  task  to  till  the  story  of  the 
vanous  lands  which  have  at  different  times 
ronie  under  the  dominion  of  Austrian  princes 
he  story  of  each  land  by  itself,  and  the  story  of 
tliem  all  in  relation  to  the  common  power  A 
cmtinuous  narrative  Is  Impossible.  Sfuch 

mischief  has  been  done  by  one  small  fashion  of 
mcxlcrn  speech.  It  has  withiu  my  memory  be- 
fome  usual  to  personily  nations  and  powers  on 
llie  snmllest  occasions  in  a  way  which  was  for- 
merly .lone  only  in  language  ;norc  or  less  solemn, 
rhetonral  or  poetical.  We  now  talk  every  mo- 
ment of  England,  France, Germany,  I{u.ssia  Italy 

f^K.p  7  VS  '^'^"'-  A"''  •"  '""8  «9  ills 
onl)  England.  France.  Germany,  Kussia,  or  Italy 

Is  done;  the  thing  is  a  mere  question  of  stvle 
t  r  those  are   all    national    powers  But 

wl.™  we  go  on  to  talk  in  this  way  of  'Austria,' 
>il  lurkey,  direct  harm  is  done;  thought  is 
(•infused,  and  facts  are  misrepresented  I 

mvn  seen  the  wonis  'Austrian  uatlonal  honour  ' 
i  l.ayo  romc  across  people  who  believed  that 


AUSTRIA. 


Austiia  was  one  land  Inhabited  by  'Austrians,' 
and  that  Aastnaus'  spoke  the  'Austrian'  lan- 
guage.   All  such  phrases  are  misapplied.     It  Is 

o  lK3  presumed  d.at  In  all  of  thim  'Austria' 
means  something  nore  than  the  true  Austria 

10  arcliduchy:  wl  at  Is  commonly  meant  bv 
thm  is  the  whole  d(  minions  of  the  sovereign  of 

;;"!';''  F'i'"^K  '"'"'?  """  »•>«  Inl'abltanu  of 
I imse  dominions  have  a  common  being  a  com- 
mnn  interest  like  that  of  the  people  ofEngland 

Jrinee.   or  Italy There    if  DO    AtStrian 

longuage,  no  Austrian  nation;  therefore  there 
can  be  no  such  thing  as  'Austrian  national  hon 
f  jr.     Nor  can  there  be  an  '  Austrian  policy '  in 


203 


FSllf.h  ^"§^-  '^'  "'  »  P""<=y  '"  ""Ich  the 
wnf  ,  .K  '/"«'^^  government  carries  out  the 
wllfof  the  EnglUh  or  French  nation.  .  .  .  Such 
r„,wr  ".  A"«'^»'>  intereste.'  'Austrian  policy.' 
ami  the  like,  do  not  mean  the  Interests  or  tLe 
policy  of  any  land  or  nation  at  all.  Tliey  simply 
mean  the  Interests  and  policy  of  a  particular  ruf^ 
ng  family,  which  may  often  be  the  same  as  the 
Interesta  and  wishes  of  particular  parta  of  their 
dominions,  but  which  can  never  represent  any 
common  interest  or  common  wish  on  the  part 
?K  f'?  '^'"''"'-  •  •  •  We  must  ever  remeiXr 
that  he  dominions  of  the  House  of  a"  "r^^ 

hm.'?i![.,*.~".?^"°°K  »'  ■''ngd'""'.  duchies,  etc.. 
brought  together  by  various  acci.Iental  causey 
but  which  liave  nothing  really  in  common,  no 
wTiIT?  T*^'"'  "^  common  feeling,  no  common 
merest.  In  one  case  only,  that  of  the  Magyars 
In  Hungary,  docs  the  House  of  Austria  nile  over 
a  whole  nation ;  the  other  kingdoms,  duchies,  etc., 
?n!..?°^  parts  of  nations,  having  no  tie  to  one 
f^^2J  ;.,"?'  ''"''"?  ""«  '^''«e't  ties  to  other 
fifilKl'*'r.'*'J*™'^  nations  which  He  close  to 

ThT'  1  '.!!:''i^''  ■"*  ""^<'''  °"'"  governments. 
The  only  bond  among  them  all  is  tliat  a  series  of 
■larriagcs,  wars,  treaties,  and  so  forth,  have 
gl^eI.  them  a  comm.  n  sovereign.  The  same 
person  Is  king  of  Hungary,  ArehSuke  of  Austria 
Countof  Tyrol  Lord  of  Trieste,  aud  a  hundnx^ 

other  things     That  is  all The  growth  a^ 

the  abiding  dominion  of  the  House  of  Austria  is 
one  of  he  most  remarkable  phenomena  in  Euro- 
rw".^''.'".'"'^;  /"*■'="  °f  ""e  same  kind  have 
arisen  twice  before;  but  in  both  cases  tlicy  were 

ofTfi;^^"''"  '  '■''.";""'  P°«-"  "'  tl'e^Hous^ 
or  Austna  has  lastctl  for  several  centuries  The 
power  of  the  House  of  Anjou  in  the  twelfth  cen- 

ll!7«rl  IT*'"'  "f  "■*  """'*  "f  Burgundy  la 
the  fifteenth  century,  wen;  powers  of  exactly  the 
same  kiud.  They  too  were  collections  of  scraps 
with  no  natural  connexion,  brought  together  by 
lluj  accidents  of  warfare,  marriage,  or  diplomacy 
Now  why  H  It  that  both  these  iK)were  broke  In 
pieces  almost  at  once,  after  the  reigns  of  two 
princes  hi  each  case  while  the  power  of  the  Hoiiss 
of  Austria  has  lasted  so  long?  Two  causes  suggest 
themselves.    One  is  the  long  connexion  Ix'tween 

in?i  l'^"'*^''''*i"J!,'''*  «"''  "«'  «"■""'■  Empire 
and  kingdom  of  Germany.     So  many  Austrian 
pnnccs  were  electcl  Emtwrors  as  to  make  the 
Austrian  House  seem  something  great  and  im- 
periil  in  itself.     I   believe  that  this  caus^  i,Ts 
lone  a  good  deal  townnls  the  result;  but  I  be- 
lieve that  another  cause  has  ilone  yet  more.  This 
is  that    though  the  Austrian  [lowcr  is  not  a 
national  power,  there  is,  as  has  been  alrca<lv  no- 
ticed, a  nation  within  it.     While  it  contains  only 
scraps  of  other  nations,  it  cimtalns  the  whole  of 
the  Magyar  nation.     It  thus  gets  s.imething  of 
tiie  strength  of  a  national   power.    .    .       The 
kingdom  of  Hungary  Is  an  ancient    kinmlom. 
with  innwn  boundaries  which  have  changal  sin- 
gularly httle  for  several  centuries;  and  ita  con- 
nexion with  the  archduchy  of  Austria  ami  the 
kingdom  of  Bohemia  is  now  of  long  standing 
Anything  beyond  this  is  mo<lcm  and  shifting. 
Ihe  so-called     empire  of  Austria'  dates  onfy 
from  the  year  1804     This  Is  one  of  the  simplest 
matters  In  the  worid.  but  one  which  is  constantly 
forgotten.  ...  A  smaller  point  on  which  con- 


M 


. 


!■ 


W 


I 


AUSTRIA. 

fiiiJon  aln  preT»lI«  ta  this.  All  the  memben  of 
the  House  of  Aiistrin  are  commonly  spoken  of 
OS  nrehdukes  and  arrhduchessea.  I  tee]  sure  Hint 
many  people.  If  asked  the  meaning  of  the  wonl 
archduke,  would  say  that  It  was  the  title  of  the 
children  of  the  'Emperor  of  Austria,' as  grand- 
duke  Is  used  iu  Russia,  and  prince  In  most 
countries.  In  truth,  archduke  Is  the  title  of  the 
sovereign  of  Austria.  He  has  not  given  it  up; 
for  he  cills  himsilf  Archduke  of  Austria  still, 
though  he  calls  himself  'Emperor  of  Austria'  as 
well.  But  by  Geniinn  custom,  the  children  of  a 
duke  or  count  arc  all  called  dukes  and  counts 
for  ever  and  ever.  In  this  way  the  Prince  of 
Wales  lscalle<l  'Duke  of  Saxony,'  and  In  the 
same  way  all  the  children  of  an  Archduke  of 
Austria  arc  archdukes  and  archduchesses.  For- 
ninlly  and  historically  Ithen,  the  taking  of  an 
hereditary  Imperial  title  by  the  Archduke  of 
Austria  Id  1804,  nrv\  the  keeping  of  It  after  the 


AUSTRIA,  A.  D.  80S-13M. 

gmwth,  age*  in  which  the  Idea  of  right,  as  em- 
b4i<lled  Id  law,  was  the  leading  Idea  of  states- 
mcD,  and  the  idea  of  righu  Justlllcd  or  justiflnble 
by  the  letter  of  law,  was  a  profound  influence 
with  politlcbui*.  .  .  .  The  house  of  Austria  . 
lays  thus  the  foundation  of  that  empire  which  is 
to  be  one  of  the  great  forces  of  the  next  age :  not 
by  fraud,  not  by  violence,  but  here  by  a  politic 
marriage,  here  by  a  well  advocated  Inheritance 
here  by  a  claim  on  an  Imperial  fief  forfeited  or 
escheated:  honestly  where  the  letter  of  tlic  law 
Is  In  her  favour,  by  chicanery  it  may  Iw  here 
and  there,  but  that  a  chicaiic.y  that  wtars  a  spe- 
clous  mrb  of  right.  The  Imperial  idea  was  but 
a  small  influence  compared  with  the  super- 
structure of  right,  inheritance,  and  suzerainty 
that  legal  instincU  and  a  general  acquiescence  In 
legal  forms  had  raised  U|)<)u  It."—  W.  Stubbs 
Snentten  Uetun*  on  the  Study  of  Jtedieml  and 
Modem  Uutorf.pp.  209-215. 


prince  who  t 
of  Qerinu' 
sheer  aud  . 
posture   wbi 
ends."— E.  A.  i 
of  Aimtrnl/iin'j,!.^ 
history  of  rights  am. 


•""d  ceased  In  180«  to  be  King 

"  Emperor-elect,  was  a 

ure.    But  it  is  an  Im- 

'ily  well  served   its 

•  to  Lcger't  IlUtury 

1   History    is   a 

modern  History 


as  coutnisted  with  medieval  divides  itself  into 
two  portions;  tlic  first  a  history  of  powers,  forces 
and  dynasties;  tlie  second,  a  history  In  which 
Ideas  take  the  place  of  both  rights  and  forces. 
.  .  .  Austria  may  lie  regarded  as  representing 
the  more  ancient  form  of  right.  .  .  .  'Tlie  middle 
ages  proper,  the  centuries  from  the  vear  tOOO  to 
the  year  15U0,  from  the  Emperor  tlenry  II.  to 
the   Emperor  Maximilian,  weie  ages  of  legal 


201 


.*  ?*«•»•— "The  ethnical  elements  of  the 
population  are  as  follows  (1S90  for  Austria  ar'l 
1880  for  Hungary)  on  the  basis  of  lanitiiai'c  — 
Austria  (1890);  German  8.461,580;  lioLeinian. 
Moravian  and  Slovak  5,472,871;  Poli.sh  :|  TIM  - 
232;  Ruthenlan  3,iai221:  Slovene  l.lTtifiTJ- 
Servian  and  Croatian  644, 9-26;  Italian  and  Latin 
875.30o;  Roumanian  209,110;  Magyar  S  lliu. 
Hungary  (1880):  German  1,972,115;  Bohemian, 
Moravian  and  Slovak  1,892,806;  Rutlieiiiai) 
8«0,0,51;  Slovene  88,401;  Servian  and  Cnwitiiin 
2,359,  i08;  Roumanian  2,423.387;  .Magyar 
M78,7il;  Gipsies  82.2.T0;  Olliers  83,94li."— 
Stiitftman's  Tmr  Bxik.  1S93  ,•  at  buJ.  .v  ii,llU. 
A.  D.  80S-1346.— The  Rite  of  the  Margrav- 
i«te,  and  the  crMtioa  of  the  Duchy,  under  the 


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AUSTRIA,  A.  D.  805-1246. 


Babenberg 


AU8TRU,  A.  D.  805-1848. 


Babcnbergft.— Changing  relations  to  BaTkrU. 
—  End  of  the  Babenberg  Dynasty.— "  Austria, 
as  is  well  known,  is  hut  tlie  Latin  form  of  the 
(icrman  Oesterreich,  the  kingdom  of  tlie  cast  [see 
iilH)ve;  AustkasiaI.  This  celebrated  liistoHnal 
name  appears  for  the  first  time  in  990.  in  a  doca- 
mont signed  by  tlieemnenir  Uto  III.  ('  in  regione 
viilgari  nomine  Osterrichi '  The  land  to  which 
it  is  tlicrc  applied  was  crealcil  h  march  after  the 
destruction  of  tlie  Avar  empire  [SOU],  and  was 

foverned  like  all  the  other  German  marches, 
ditically  it  was  divided  Into  two  margnivlates; 
that  of  Friull,  including  Friull  properly  so  culled, 
Lower  Pannon'a  to  the  south  of  the  Drave,  Car- 
intliia.  Istria,  anil  the  interior  of  Dulmatia  —  the 
Beacoast  having  been  cedetl  to  the  Eastern  em- 
peror ;  —  the  eastern  margraviate  coniprisinir 
Lower  Pannonia  to  the  north  of  the  Drave', 
I'pper  Pannonia,  ami  the  Ostmark  properly  so 
eallcil.  The  (tetmark  included  tlie  Traungau  to 
tlie  east  of  the  Enns.  which  was  com)iletely  Oer- 
limn,  and  the  Oruiizvittigau.  .  .  .  The  early  his- 
tory of  these  countries  lacks  the  unity  of  interest 
which  the  fate  of  a  dynasty  or  a  nation  gives  to 
those  of  the  Slagyar  and  the  Chckh.  They  form 
hutaportionof  the  German  kingdom,  and  have  no 
stroiiply  marked  life  of  their  own.  Tlie  march, 
with  Its  varying  frontier,  had  not  even  a  geograph- 
ical unity.  In  876.  It  was  enlarged  by  the  ad- 
illticm  of "iJavaria ;  in  80<),  it  lost  Pannonia,  which 
was  given  to  Ilriieislav.  the  t'roat  prince,  in  re- 
turn for  his  help  against  the  Magyars,  and  In 
9;!T.  it  was  dcstniyed  and  absorlietl  by  the  Mag- 
yars, who  exlei»h(l  their  frontier  to  the  river 
Enns.  Aftertlie  liaiileof  liCilifeld  or  Augsburg 
(!)V>1,  Ocrmaiiy  and  Italy  iM'Ing  no  longer  cX|H)8cd 
to  Hungarian  Invasions,  the  niHreh  was  re  con- 
stituted and  granted  to  the  margrave  Burkhanl. 
the  liritlier  in  lawof  Henry  of  Havarla.  Leo|Hihl 
ct  lialK'nlwrg  Bucceedcfl  hfin  (OTilj.  and  witli  him 
liij-'iMS  tlie  ilvnasty  of  Iljilienlierg,  which  ruled 
the  iiiiintrv  (furing  the  time  of  the  Premyslides 
[in  Doheiiila]  and  the  house  of  Arpad  [in  Hun- 
gary ),  The  HalienlK-rgs  derived  their  name  from 
tlie  easlle  of  Balienlier^',  built  by  Heii,-y,  mar- 
gmve  of  Nonlgau.  in  lionor  of  '  I  e,  Babn. 

sister  of  Henry  I  lie  Fowler.     It  In  the 

iiiiiue  of  the  town  of  Itainlierg    •  .  forms 

putt  of  tlic  kingdom  of  llavari  'ougli 

not  of  right  an  hereditary  olflee,  tl  j.„'.iivlulo 
BiKin  iHTiime  so,  and  retnained  In  ilic  family  of 
tin.  Dalieiiliergs;  the  march  wai  so  importjinl  a 
|';irt  of  tlie  empire  tliai  hi  dimht  the  em|KTor 
was  j'lad  to  make  the  defence  of  this  exposed 
distrlit  the  eiju'eial  inlen'st  of  one  family.  .  .  , 
The  marriages  of  the  UalicniK'rgs  were  fortunate ; 
in  nasilie  lirollierof  Leonohr  (Fourth  of  that 
iiauii'  ill  ilie  Margravlnle]  Conrad  of  Holieu- 
staufen.  Duke  of  Iraneonla,  was  made  cmiicnir. 
It  Was  now  that  the  struggle  U'gan  Iwtwwii  the 
liiMw  (it  llolieiist4iiiren  and  the  great  house  of 
\Vilf  (or  (liielf:  Hee  Ol'Kl.n  AND  OnniKLlNRs] 
«li.i«c  n  presentalive  wiu  Henry  ihc  I'roiul,  Uuko 
of  .>*axoiiy  and  Havarla.  Henry  wim  I'.efeated  lu 
llie  iiiii'i|iial  strife,  and  was  plaeetl  under  the  l«n 
I'f  ilii-  Kiiipin'.  while  the  ilucliy  of  Haxony  wii» 
uwanlid  'o  Alln'rt  tlic  Hear  of  Hraudenburg,  and 
till'  (hu  liy  of  Itavnria  fell  to  the  share  of  Uh>|h>M 
IV  (IliiN)  Henry  the  Proud  died  In  the  follow- 
I'H'uar,  leaving  iK'hind  him  a  son  under  age, 
« 111!  was  known  later  on  u  ileory  Uio  Lion,  flla 
iinv  ic  tt  (It  woulil  not  iiilimit  to  tliB  forfeiture  by 
hu  liuuMi  uf  tiiulr  old  duiuluknis,  owl  tuafdted 


against  Lenpold  to  reconquer  Bavaria,  but  be  was 
defeated  by  Conrad  at  the  battle  of  Welnsberg 
(1140).  Leopold  died  shortly  after  this  victory, 
and  was  succeeded  both  in  the  duchy  of  Bavaria 
and  in  the  margraviate  of  Austria  by  his  brother, 
Henry  II."  Henry  II.  endeavored  to  strengthen 
himself  in  Bavaria  by  marrying  the  widow  of 
Henry  the  Proud,  and  by  extorting  from  her  son, 
Henry  the  Lion,  a  renunciation  of  the  latter's 
rights.  But  Henry  the  Lion  afterwanls  repudi- 
ated his  renunciation,  and  in  1150  the  German 
diet  decided  that  Bavaria  should  be  restored  to 
him.  Henry  of  Austria  was  wisely  persuaded 
to  yield  to  the  decision,  and  Bavaria  was  given 
up.  "  He  lost  nothing  by  tliis  unwilling  act  of 
disinterestedness,  for  he  secured  from  the  emperor 
tonsidcrable  compensation.  From  this  time  for- 
ward, Austria,  wliicb  had  been  largely  increasc<l 
hy  the  addition  of  the  greater  part  of  the  lands 
lying  between  the  Enns  and  the  Inn,  was  re- 
moved from  Its  almost  nominal  subjection  to 
Bavaria  and  became  a  separate  duchy  [Henry  II. 
being  tlie  first  hereditary  Duke  of  Austria].  An 
lm|>erial  edict,  daU-d  tlic  2l8t  of  Septcmlier,  1156. 
declares  the  new  duchy  hereditary  even  in  the 
female  line,  and  authorizes  the  dukea  to  absent 
themselves  from  all  diets  except  thot,' which  wci« 
held  in  Bavarian  territory.  It  also  |K>rinits  them, 
in  case  of  a  threatened  extinction  of  theirdynasty, 
to  pro|>o8c  a  successor.  .  .  .  Henry  II.  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  Vienna.  He  constructed  a 
fortress  there,  and.  In  order  to  civlli/.c  tlie  sur 
rounding  country,  sent  for  some  Scotch  monks, 
of  whom  there  were  many  at  tliis  time  in  Ger- 
many."  In  1177  Hcnrv  II.  was  succeeded  by 
Leopold  v.,  called  the  Virtuous.  "  In  his  reign 
the  (Idcliy  of  Austria  gained  Styria,  an  important 
addition  to  it«  territory.  Tliis  province  was  In- 
haliited  by  Slovenes  and  Germans,  and  took  Its 
name  from  the  castle  of  Sleycr,  built  in  9W)  liy 
Otokar  III.,  count  of  tlie  Trungau.  In  10.56.  it 
was  created  a  margraviate,  and  in  1150  It  was 
enlarifed  by  the  addition  of  tlie  counties  of  Mari- 
bor  (Marlmrg)  and  filly.  In  11«».  Otokar  VI. 
of  Styria  (llM-119'2) obtained  the  lienilltary  title 
of  duke  from  the  Enimror  in  return  for  his  help 
against  Henry  the  Lion."  Dying  without  ehll 
(lieu.  Otokar  mode  Leopold  of  Austria  his  heir. 
"  Styria  was  annexed  to  Austriain  1193,  and  has 
remained  s<>  ever  since  .  .  .  Leopold  V.  is  the 
first  of  the  Austrian  princes  whose  name  is  known 
lu  Western  EuroiH'.  He  (oined  thetliiiilcrusaile." 
and  tpiarrelled  with  Uieliard  t'oeur  de  Lion  at 
the  slegi' of  St.  Jcand' Aeri'.  Afterwards,  when 
liichard,  returning  home  hy  the  Adriatic,  at- 
tempted to  past  through  Austrian  territory  in- 
cognito, Leopold  revenged  liituself  liy  sel/.ing 
and  imprisoning  tlie  English  king,  tinal'ly  selling 
his  royal  captive  to  a  still  meaner  Kinperor  for 
SO.IKXt  marks.  Leopohl  VI  who  sueeceded  to 
the  Austrian  duchy  in  119M.  did  mucli  for  the 
ommerce  of  his  country.  "He  made  Vienna  the 
staple  town,  and  lent  a  sum  of  BU.tKW  marks  of 
silver  to  the  city  to  enable  It  to  Increase  Its  trade. 
He  adonieil  It  with  manv  new  liuililings.  among 
them  the  Neue  Burg."  lllsson.  called  Kn'derirk 
the  FiiiliU'r  (l'J3U-U46)  was  the  last  of  the  BalH'ii- 
lierg  dynasty.  His  hand  was  against  all  hit 
ueighlsirs,  including  the  Emperor  rre(leri(k  II., 
and  their  liands  v.ere  tu'ainst  him.  He  periahud 
In  June.  1246.  on  the  banks  of  the  UHUa.  while 
at  war  with  the  Huugariuui  —  L.  Lcger,  Uut.  uf 


206 


hi^^ 


^J 


AUSTRIA.  134ft-i283. 


Rodolph  of 
Hafmmiy. 


AUSTRIA,  1240-1282. 


AiJW)  IN :  E.  F.  Ilendcrson,  Select  IIM.  Doet.  of 
the  MidiUe  Age».  bk.  2,  «/<.  7. 

A.   D.    1346-1282.— Rodolph   of  Hansburr 
and  the  acquisition   of  the    Duchy   for  his 
family.— "  The  Hoiiae  of  Austria  owes  its  origin 
anil  power  to  KlxHiolpli  of  Hnpsburgh,  soa    .f 
AllK-rt  IV.  fotiiit  of  Ilupslnirgli.     Tlio  .\u8t''ian 
jfeiie:ilo,i{ist8,  wlio  li;ivf  taken  indcfntlgahic  but 
luetTeetual  pains  to  trace  his  illustrious  il'-aeent 
from  the  Honians,  carry  it  with  great  prolmliility 
to  Ethico,  duke  of  Alsiu-e.  in  the  seventii  century, 
and  uui|uestlonal)ly  to  Uuntnim  the  llich,  count 
of  Alsace  and   Hrisgau,   who  flourislied  in  the 
tentli."    A  grandson  of  Ountrain.    Werner  by 
Biinie.  "  became  bishop  of  Strosburgh,  and  on  an 
eruincuce  alnive  Win<lis<'li,   built  tlie  castle  of 
Ilapsburgh  (' llabiclitsburg'  'the  castle  of  vul- 
tures' ),  widch  became  the  residence  of  the  future 
counis,  and  gave  a  new  title  to  the  descendants 
of  Ountr:iin.  .  .  .  The  successors  of  Werner  in- 
creased their  family  inheritance  by  marriages, 
donations  from  tlu  Enipcn)rs,  and  by  becoming 
prefects,   advocates,   or   administrators   of   the 
neiglilxiuring  alibeys,  towns,  or  districts,  anil  his 
greiil  grandson,  Alliert  III.,  was  possessor  of  no 
Inconsiderable  territories  in  Suabia,  Alsace,  and 
that  part  of  Switzerland  which  is  now  cjtlleil  tlie 
Argau,   and   held   the    landgraviate   of    Upper 
Alsjiie.     His  son.  lihixlolph.  received  from  the 
Eni|KTiir,  in  addition  to  his  paternal  inlieritancp, 
tlie  town  and  distriit  of  l-aullenbiirgh,  an  iiu'- 
periul  city  on  the  Ulilne      He  acquired  also  a 
ciiiisidirable  aicis.siou  of  territory  by  obtaining 
tlie   advocacy   of    Uri,    Schweitz,   and    Undir- 
wnlihn,  whosi'  natives  laid  the  founilalion  of  the 
Ilelvitii.  Confedenicy.  by  their  union  against  the 
oppns,sions of  feudal  tyranny."— W.  Coxe,  I[i.-<l 
uflht  ll„iiv  of  AiiHlriii.  eh.  1.— '-On  the  death 
of   Kmliilph   hi   1232  his  estates  were    divided 
bctwi-eii  his  sons  Albirt  IV.  and  '    tlolph  U 
the  former  receiving  the  laiidgra  ■.   3  of  L'p|Hr 
Alsaie.  and  the  county  of  Hapsburg,  together 
with  the  patriiniiiiial  castle:  the  latter,  the  coun- 
ties  Kheinfeldeu   and    LaiilTenburg,   and   some 
olhir    territories.     AlU-rt    csiHiused    Hedwige 
daughter  of  Llrie,  count  of  Kyburg;  and  froiii 
this  union  sprang  the  great  UiHlolph,  who  was 
born   on   the   1st  of   May   1218,   and   was  pre- 
sentcti  at  the  baptismal  font   by   the  Emperor 
Fred(i,c  n.     On  llie  death  of  his  father  Albirt 
in  l:i4il,  Hmhilph   sucu'etled  i.  his  estates-  b 
the  gnali  r  portion  of  these  were  in  lli>  hands  of 
his   paternal   uncle,    HiKlolpli    of    I  ..ufTenlmri: 
and  all  he  could  call  liis  own  lay  within  sight  of 
the  gnat  hull  of  his  castle.  .  .  .   His  disposilinn 
was   wavwnnl  and  restless,  and  drew  him  into 
niMiiied  contests  with  his  neighlkmrs  and  n.-\n 

51"","  .,■  ;  '"  "  '1"»''"'  »'ll'  till!  Bishop  of 
Basle,  Itodolph  IimI  his  troops  against  that  city 
and  burnt  n  convent  in  the  suburbs,  for  whii'll 
he  WHS  exroinmunitatcil  by  I'ope  Innocent  IV 
He  then  cnlercd  the  service  of  OtIiK-ar  H.  Iving 
of  Uoiii'inla,  under  whom  he  servwl.  In  compniiy 
with  the  Tiiilonic  Knights,  in  Ills  wars  ngainst 
till-  I'russijin  pagans;  and  afterwanls  against 
Bela  I\  Mng  of  Hungiry."  The  surprising 
c  eeli.in.  In  Viti.  of  this  little  known  iimnt  of 
Hapsburg,  to  lie  King  of  the  Ifcimans,  with  'lie 
sutwtaiue  if  not  the  title  of  the  Imperial  dlgnltv 
which  that  eleetiou  earrhsl  with  it,  wiudue  lok 
Mngiilar  rricndshli)  which  he  had  uc(|iiirc?tl  sonio 
fouftcyu  j-rart  before.  WheO  AlcIiI.i.Uop  VVer 
■•r,  Elector  of  Hsau,  wu  ua  bis  way  tu  Howe 


la  1239,  to  receive  the  pallium,  he  "  was  escorted 
across  the  Alps  by  Rislolpli  of  Hapsburg,  and 
under  his  prelection  secured  from  the  robhirs 
who  beset  the  passes.     Charmed  with  the  alT  i 
bility  and  frankness  of  his  pnitector,  the  An  li 
bishop  conceived  a  strong  reganl  for  IliHlolpl,    ■ 
and  when,  in  1272.  after  the  Great  Inti'rri  -nn'm 
IseoOKKM.KNV:  A.  I).  i:.-.<t-t272],  the  Oerimni,. 
Electors  foiiml  ditllcultv   in  choosing  an  Kin 
penir,  the  Elirtor  of  .\lent/.  recommended  liij 
friend    of    Hapsburg    as    a  camlidalc.      "The 
Electors  arc  descrilied   bv  a  contemporary  .is 
desiring  an  EmiK>ror  but  detesting  his  imwir 
The    comparative    hiwlhiess   of   the  Count   ..f 
Hapsburg  recommec  i.  '.  him  as  one  from  whmn 
their  authority  stiKMi  1.1  little  jeopanly;  but  ilie 
claims  of  the  King  of  Bohemia  were  vigoron^ly 
urged ;  and  it  was  at  length  agreed  to  deride  the 
election  by  the  voire  of  the  Duke  of  Bavarii 
Lewis  without   hesitaticm   nominated   Rih1o1]iIi 
.  .  .  The  curly  days  of  Rmlolph's  reign  wire 
disturbed  by  the  contiunacy  of  Ottocar  KhiMif 
Bohemia.    That  I'riiice  .  .  .   persisteil  in  r,  ?iis 
ing  to  acknowleilge  the  Count  of  Hnpsbiir.'  ih 
his    sovereign.     Possessed   of    the  ihitelii.H'  nf 
Austria,  Styrin.  Carniola  and  Carinthia.  he  mi  -lit 
rely  upon  his  own  resources;  and  ho  was  f.,rii. 
Heil  In  his  resistance  by  the  alliance  of  Ilcnrv 
Duke  of  Lower  Bavaria.     But  the  very  p. «>,"<' 
sion  of  these  four  great  flefs  was  siililcicut  I.) 
draw  down  the  envy  and  distrust  of  the  cilur 
German    Prinees.     To  all    these  territories    in 
deed,  the  title  of  (Htmar  was  siiftleienily' ,lii. 
putable.     On  the  dcilli  of    Kiederic   II.    liUli 
duke  of    Austria   [ami   last  of  the    ll.ilienli.  r - 
dynasty]  in   124B,   Ihut   duUliy,   togethir  ttiifi 
IStyria  and  Carniol.i,    was  ilained  by  liis  nii .  ■ 
Gertrude  and  his  sister  .Margaret,     liy  a  inir 
riagc  with  the  latter,  and  a  viilmy  over  I!i  la  IV 
King  of  Hungary,    wliosi'   uncle  married  (in 
trudc,  OtliK-ar  obiuindl  jiosscsslon  of    Au^un 
and  Styria;  and  in  virtue  of  n  purrhase  fmin 
Ulrlc.  Duke  of  Carintliia  and  Canii.ihi.  he  p.n. 
sessed  himself  of  Ihose  diilrhies  on  I'lric 's  (|(  ;ith 
in    1269,   in  delianee  of    the  claims  of  I'liiiin 
brother  of  the  late  Duke.     Against  so  pmv,  rfni 
a   rival    the    Priiires    assembl.d    at    Aii'simr' 
readily  voleil  surroiirs  to  |{i»l.)lph;  and  OHn.,ir 
having  refused  to  sunvudir  tlie  Austrian  d.iniiii. 
ions,  and  even  hanged  the  lurilds  wlio    wnc 
sent  to  pronounce  tlie  consi.,jueiit  scntemv    .f 
proscription,     HiMlolph     .  iili     his    aceiistoni,,! 
promplitude    tiK.k    the    field   [IJTO).   and  i..n 
founded    his  enemy   by   a   rapid   man  li    up  .n 
Austria.     In    his   wav"lie  surprised    and   v:iii 
quisheil   the   lelxd   Duke  of  Bavaria,  wh.ini  lie 
eomiH'lled  to  Join  his  forces;    he  besliircd  and 
reiluciil  to  the  last  extremity  the  rin    if  Viinmi 
and  hull  already  prepand  n  bridge  of  li.,:tN  in 
cross  the    Oanulw  and  invade   Bohenii.i.    wlmi 
Oltocnr  arrested  his  pnigress  by  n  iie-isa:;.-  ,if 
siiliiiiisslon.       The    terms    agnrd     U|>oii    Hvrc 
sevenly  bumiliniing  to  the  pniud  soul  ..f  ilii.i 
ear,"  and  he  was  wkm,  in  revolt  again,  witliilm 
•iipix.rt   of    the    Diike    of    Bavaria.     K.^LIpli 
iii.iiihed  aiainst  him.  and  a  ilesiierate  liiiti,'  w  is 
fought  at  Marsihfeld,  August  2<J,  12TH.  in  whi.  '1 
Ottocar,  deserted  at  a  critical  iiioiiiiiit  by   lliu 
Moravian  troops,  wasdefeatiil  and  shiln.     "'■|lii) 
total   lost  of  the  Bolieiuians  on  thai    falnl  iliy 
amoiinteil   to   inon!   (Iijiii    14.000  men.     In    !!:c 
drit  moments  of  his  triumph.  Kmloiph  design.il 
to  approprlal.    the  duuiiuious  of  hU  ditnuia 


206 


AUSTRIA,  l.'M<-1283. 

enemy.  But  his  avidity  was  rcstraloed  by  tlic 
Princes  of  (  o  Empire,  who  iiiturpoacd  on  behalf 
of  the  son  o;  Ottooar;  and  Wenceslaus  was  pcr- 
niiiud  to  retain  BobemiA  nml  Moravia.  The 
projected  union  of  the  two  fiimilics  was  now 
renewed:  Judith  of  Hapsburi;  was  anianced  to 
the  younji;  King  of  Doliemia:  whose  sister  Agnes 
WHS  married  to  liodolpli,  youngest  son  of  tlie 
Kin?  of  the  Romans."  In  1283,  R<Kl<)lph, 
"afler  satisfying  tlic  several  olaimants  to  fli!)se 
territories  by  various  cessions  of  lands  .  .  oli- 
taioed  tlie  consent  of  a  Diet  held  at  Augsburg  to 
the  settlement  of  Austria,  Styria,  and  Carniola, 
upon  his  two  surviving  sons;  who  were  accord- 
iQgly  jointly  invested  with  those  dutcbies  with 
great  pomp  and  solemnity;  and  they  are  at  this 
hour  enjoyed  bv  the  descfendanU  of  Rodolph  of 
lapsliurg.  "—Sir  R  Comyn,  UM.  of  the  Wettern 
.  Miiire,  eh.  14. 

Also  in:  J.  PlanU,  Hut.  of  the  Hdtttic  Confed- 
erivg,  bk.  1,  ell.  5(1).  1). 

A.  D.  I383-I3IS.— Relations  of  the  House  of 
Hapsburg  to  the  Swiss  Forest  Cantons.— 
The  Tell  Legend.— The  Battle  of  Morrarten. 
Se  Switzkkla.nd:  The  Tiikeb  Fouest  Can- 
tos!. 

A.  D.  1390.— Beginning  of  Hapsburr  designs 
upon  the  crown  of  Hunnrr.  See  IIunoauy- 
A.  I).  1114-1301. 

A.  D.  1291-1349.— Loss  and  recoTery  of  the 
imperial  crown.— Liberation  of  Switzerland. 
—Conflict  between  Frederick  and   Lewis  of 
Bavaria.- The  imperial  crow.i  lost  once  more. 
—  Kii  l.ilf  of  llapsburg  ilesinil  the  title  of  King 
of  llic  Uomatis  for  his  son.     "But  the  electors 
iilii:i.ly  found  that  the  new  house  of  Austria  was 
liic .iminit  too  |  cjwerful.  and  tiiey  refused.     On 
his  (li  Mill,  in  fact,  in  1291,  a  prince  from  aiiotlier 
family,  piKir  and  olpscure.  Adolf  of  Nassau,  w:is 
eh'i  i<d  after  an  iiiterreirntini  of  ten  mouth;. '  llij 
rtiirii  of  six  years  is  marked  by  two  events-  ho 
Bold  hiinsilf  to  Edwanl  I.  in  1294,  against  I'li'ilip 
the  Fair,  for  KW.OilO  pounds  sterling,  and  used 
llie  money  in  an  iitlempt  to  obtain  in  Thiirini;ia 
a  priiulpality  for  his  family  us  Huihilf  had  ihme 
iu  Austria.     The  electors  were  displea-sed  :iiiil 
chosi.  AllKTt  of  Austrii  to  succeed   him    who 
ii'iir|iiiii(|  and  killel  his  adversary  at  GiUilieim 
mar  \V.,rtus  (I29H).     The  ten  years  reign  of  the 
n>w   kirm  of  the  Uomaiis  showed  that  he  was 
viTV  amhiii.uis  for  his  family,  wliich  hi'  wished 
to  esiahlish  on  the  thnne  of  ■Uohenila,  wlure  the 
Mivoiiic  (lyii,i.,ty  had  lately  died  out.  and  iilsoin 
.  liuriiiL'i*  and  .Meissen,  where  he  lost  a  liattle 
He  w;is  also  iH-nt  upon  extending  hl.s  rights  even 
un|iisily— in  Alsace  and  Switzerlanii  — and  it 
priivid  an  iiuforluimU^  ventuie  for  him      For 
on  the  one  hand,  he  roused  the  three  Swiss  can' 
loiw  .if    Iri.    Sehweilz,   and     Untcrwaliien    to 
revolt,  on  the  other  liaml,  \v  roused  the  wrath 
of   his    11,  phiw    ,?olin   of   .Swiibia,   whom    he 
lie  rmuili.l  of  his  iiiheritaiieedl, .mains InSwitzer- 
laii.l   Swal.ia  and  Alsiue)      As  he  was  crossing 
ilie   It.uss,  .lolin   thrust  hlin  through  witli   his 
swoni    (|:t0M,        The  assn.ssin  escaiK^I.     One  of 
j\ll«  ri  s  daiii!hter».   Agnes,  dowager  queen  of 

f  7  ■>,!"'  '"""'  "''"'  "  "lousand  innocent 
'■'•"ple  killed  to  avenge  the  death  of  her  father 
li.'  griHiir  part  of  the  priwiit  Switzcrlaml  had 
Ism  oriirlimlly  includi-.I  In  tlir  Klti"-d.Ti  ,.f  !5.,r 
piiiHl.v  aii.l  was  eeiliMl  to  the  empire,  together 
with  ihat  klnirdom,  in  10;i;l,  A  feudal  nobility, 
lay  and  ii'cl«i«stlc,  '-d  gained  a  Ann  footing 


¥, 


AUSTRIA,  1291-134a. 

there.    Nevertheless,  by  the   12th  century  the 
cities  had  risen  to  some  importance.     Zurich, 
Basel,  Bern,  and  Freiburg  had  an  extensive  com- 
merce and  obtained  municipal  privileges.    Three 
little  cantons,  far  in  the  heart  of  the  Swiss  moun- 
^ins,  preserved  more  tlian  all  the  others  their  in- 
domitable spirit  of  independence,     Wlien  Albert 
of  Austria   became  Emperor   [KingV]   he  arro- 
gantly tried  to  encroach  upon  their  independence. 
J  hree  heroic  mountaineers,  Werner  Stauiracher, 
Arnold  of  Slelchllia!,    and   Waller   Fttrst,  each 
with  ten  chosen  friends,  conspired  together  at 
RiUli,  to  throw  off  tiie  yoke.     The  tyranny  of 
the  Austrian  bailiflf  Oessler,  and  William  Tells 
well-aimed  arrow,  if  tradition  is  to  be  believed 
gave  the  signal  for  the  insurreC  on  [see  Swit- 
zerland:   The    TauEE    Fouest    Ca.nto.ns] 
Albert's  violent  death  left  to  Leopold,  !iis  suc- 
cessor in   the  duchy  of  Austria,    the    care    ot 
repressing  the  rebillion.      He  failivl  and  waa 
completely  defeated  at  Mortgarten  (1315).     That 
was  Switzerland's  deld  of  Marathon.  .  .  .  Whea 
Rudolf  of  Hapsburg  waa  chosen  by  the  electors, 
it  was  because  ot  his  poverty  and  weakness.     At 
his  death  accordingly  they  did  not  give  tluir 
votes  for  his  son  Alljert.  .  .  .  Allie.t,  however 
succeeded  in  overthrowing  his  riv.i.     But  on  hi* 
death  they   were   firm  in  their  decision  not  to 
give  the  crown  for  a  third  time  to  the  new  and 
ambitious  house  of  Hapsburg.     They  likewise 
refused,  for  similar  reasons,  to  accept  Charles  of 
Valois,  brother  of  Philip  the   Fair,  wli,.in  the 
latter  tried  to  place  on  the  iinpiii,d  throne, in 
onler  that  he  might  indireetlv  rule  over  Ger- 
many.    They  supported  the  Count  of  Liixem. 
burg,  who  iK'caine  Ileiirv  VII.     Bv  choosing  .m. 
perors  [kings?!  who  were  poor,  tlie'eleetnrs  placed 
them  under  the  temptation  of  enridiiiig  them 
selves  at   the   cxiK'iise  of   the  empire,       Adolf 
failed,    it   is    true,    in    Thuriiici:;,    hut   Rudolf 
gained  Austria  by  victory;  Henry  succeeded  In 
Bohemia  by  means  of  marriage,    and   Bohemia 
was  worth  more  than    Austria    at    that    time 
iH'caiise,  besides  .\Ioravi;i,  ii  was  made  to  cover 
Silesia    and    a    part    of    Liisatia    (Ulieriausitz). 
Henry's  son,  uoiiii  of  Luxemburg,  ma  Tied  tlie 
heiress  to  that  royal  crown.     As  fi  r  Heiiiy  him- 
self ho  remained  as  |)(H)r  as  before.     He  bail  a 
vigorous,  restless  spirit,  ami  went  to  try  his  for- 
tunes on  Ills  own  acei-iint  lievond  the  Alps, 
He  was  seriously  threatening  Naples,   when  ho 
died  either  from  some  sickness  or  Iroiu  being  (wii- 
soned  by  a  Dominican  in  partaking  of  the  host 
(1313),     .Vyearsintirngii'.ini  follow. d;  ihentwo 
emiK'n.rs  [kings  vl  at  once :  L.wis  of  Bavaria  and 
Frederick  the  Fair,  son  of  tlie  Enipii.ir  AllK'rt. 
After  eight  yearsof  war.  Lewis  gain.,!  bis  p.ilnt 
by  the  victory  of  .Mnhhloif  (13221,  which  d.liv- 
crcil  Freiierick  Into  his  lian.ls.     He  kept  liiin  in 
captivity  for  tliree  years,  nn.l  at  the  eii.l  of  that 
time  became  recuiciled  with  him,  ami  thev  were 
on  such  giKul  terms  that  both  iKire  the  title  of 
King   and    governed    in    comin.m,       Tlie    fear 
lnspln.Kl  in  Lewis  bv  France  and  the  IL.lv  Sea 
dictal(.il  this  singular  agreement,     Henrv'  VII 
hail  revived  the  p.ilicv  of  interfinnce  liy   tho 
German  einiwrors  in  the  allairs  of  Italv,  null  had 
kindksl    again    the    quarrel    with   tlie    Papacy 
which  had  long  n|i|>eared  extingulshe.l,     l^'wis 
I\,    did   !lii    t.,uiu,   ,   ,   .    Uiiiie    Hotiiface  Vlll, 
was   making   war  on   Philip   the   Fair,    Albert 
allleil  himself   with   him;    when,  on  the  other 
'land,  thL'  Papacy  was  reduced  to  the  state  of  a 


207 


i  11 

i  II. 


>.'  "i  ( 


t^ ;: 


AUSTRIA,  1291-1849. 


Tyrol. 


AUSTRIA,  133&-13«4. 


ierrile  auxiliary  to  France,  the  Emperor  returned 
to  his  former  liostility.     Wlienex-communicatcd 
by  Popo  John  XXII. ,  who  wished  to  give  the 
empire  to  the    king   of   France,   Charles  IV., 
Lewis  IV.  made  use  of  the  same  weapons.  .  .  . 
Tired  of  a  crown  loaded  with  anxieties,  lewis 
of  Raviiriii  wiis  finally  aliout  to  submit  to  the 
I  iipi-  iiiiil  abdicate,  when  the  electors  perceived 
tlie  luivssity  of  supporting  their  Kmperor  and  of 
foriiiiilly    releasing    tiie    supreme    power    from 
foreign  depeudcucy   which  brought  the  whole 
natMn  t,)  shame.     Tliat  was  the  object  of  the 
I'rugniatie  .Saiiclion  of  Franlifort,  pronounced  in 
ll}   ""'  '"''''  ""  *'"-'  "'port  of  the  electors. 
.  .  .  Tlie  king  of  France  and  Pope  Clement  VI., 
whose  claims  were   directly    affected    by    this 
declarati.m,  set  up  against  Lewis  IV.  Charles  of 
Lu.xenilmrg.  son  of  John  the  Blind,  who  became 
King  of  Uoheiiiia  in  laiO,  when  his  father  had 
JK-en  Isillcd  ligliting  on  the  French  side  at  the 
battle  of  freiy.     Lewis  died  the  following  year. 
He  liad  giiiued  possession  of  Brandenburg  and 
the  Tyrol  for  his  liouse,  but  it  was  unable  to 
retain   possession  of  them.     The  latter  county 
reverted  to  tlie  house  of  Austria  in  1363.     The 
electors  most  hostile  to  the  French  party  tried  to 
put  lip,  as  a  rival  candidate  to  Charles  of  Lux- 
emliurir.  K<iwar.l   III.,  king  ,.f  England,  who 
refuseil    the   empire:  then  they  offered   it  to  a 
lipive   kniglit,    (Junther  of  Schwarzburg,    who 
dieii,  perliaps  poisoned,  after  a  few  months  (1349). 
r.ie  kinir  of  lioh.-mia  then  became  Empcmr  as 
(liarUs  l\.   Ijy  a  second  election. "—V.  Duruy 
y/"'  /lixlon/  ,/  the  .\fiil,l/e  A>/e»,  bk.  0,  eh.  30  — 
Sir.  also,  {Jkkm.vnv:  A.  D.  1314-1347. 
nV.  ?/  '330-i364.-Forged  charters  of  Duke 
Kadolf.— The    Privilegium  Majut.— His  as- 
sumption of  the  Archducal  title.— Acquisition 
of  Tyrol.— Treaties  of  inheritance  with  Bohe- 
mia and  Hungary.— Kill;:  .lohn,  of  Bohemia,  had 

iieirri,'.!  Ihssk 1  son,  ,/,,hn  Henry,  at  the  ago 

of  M^rht.  to  the  aflirwarils   notable   Margaret 
.Vajillas<  ill'  (I'iiiiehnioiiili),  daughter  of  the  duke 
of    l.vrol  ami  Carintliiii,  who  was  then  twelve 
years  old.     He  liopeii  by  this  means  to  reunite 
tlii..se   provm.es  to  Boh,  nila.     To  thwart  this 
seliinie,  the  Kinpenir,  Louis  of  Bavaria,  and  the 
two  Aiistri:iri  princes,  Albert  the  Wise  Bn(>  Otto 
the  (Jay,  eaiiie  to  an  understanding.     "By  the 
tnaty  of  llag.iiau  (1330),  it  was  arranged  that 
on  the  (le.itli  of  duke  Henry,  who  had  no  male 
li'irs,  (  annthi.i  shouM  lavome  the  properly  of 
Au.-lria,    Tyrol   that   of  the  Emperor.      Henrv 
(lieil  in  133...  wlun-upon  the  Emperor,  Louis  ilf 
Bav.,na   dr,  hired  that  .Margaret  Maultaschc  had 
lorti  Mill  all  rights  of  iiihi'riljiucc.  and  proo'cdid 
to  a.ssiirn    the  two    provina'S  to  the   Austrian 
I|rliie(s,  with  the  exception  of  «<mie  portion  of 
the    Ijrol  uhieh  devolved  on  the  house  of  Wl- 
telsliiii  h      (  iirlnlhia  alone,  however,  olxved  the 
Liiipiror;  the  Tyrolese  nobles  declared  for  Mar- 
garei,  Mild,  villi  the  help  of  John  of  Bohemia 
tins  iirineess  was  able  to  keep  possession  of  this 
part  of  her  inherll.iiK'e.  .  .  .  Carinlhia  also  did 
not  loiiL'  nniain  in  the  undisputed  pos«e««l.>n  of 
Austria.     .Margaret  was  sikhi  dlvorcid  from  her 
very  youthful  husband  (1342),  ami  shortly  after 
Iiiarned  the  son  of  the  Eiiii«  ror  I^ailsof  Bavaria 
who  hoped  to  Ik;  able  to  Invest  his  son,  not  only 
with  lyn.l,  but    Iso  with  Carinthia,  ami  once 
mnr<.  we  !>:i:!  !i,r  h=-..i=»s  r.f  Hap^burgand  Lux- 
emburg unltol  by  a  comimai  Interest.  .  .      When 
.  .  .  Charles  IV.  of  Bohemia  was  ctosen  em- 


peror, he  consented  to  leave  Carinthia  lo  the 
possession  of  Austria.    Albert  did  homage  for  it 
.  .  .  According  to  the  wish  of  their  father  the 
four  sons  of  Albert  reigned  after  him ;  but  the 
eldest,  Rudolf  IV.,  exercised  executive  authority 
in  the  name  of  the  others  [1358-1365].  .  .      If,, 
was  only  19  when  he  came  to  the  throne,  but  ho 
had  already  married  one  of  the  daughters  of  the 
Emperor    Charles    IV.      Notwithstanding    this 
family  alliance,  Charies  had  not  given  Austri  i 
such  a  place  in  the  Golden  Bull  [see  Germany 
A.  D.    1347-1492]    as  seemed    likely    to  secure 
either  her   territorial    importance    or  a  proper 
position  for  her  princes.     They  had  not  Ihtu 
admitted  into  the  electoral  ccllege  of  the  Eiiipin 
and  yet  their  scattereti  possessions  stretche.l  froiil 
tlie  banks  of  the  Leitha  To  the  libine.  .  .  .  These 
gnevances  were  enhanced  by   their  feeling  of 
envy  towards  Bohemia,  which  had  attained  great 
prosperity  under  Cliaries  IV.     It  was  at  this 
time  that,  in  order  to  liierca.se  the  importance  of 
his  house,  Rudolf,  or  his  offlcers  of  state,  had 
I   recourse  to  a  measure  which  was  often  employi  i| 
in  that  age  bv   princes,   religious  IkxHcs,  ami 
j  even  by  the  Holy  Sec.     It  was  pretended  that 
I   there  were  In  existence  a  whole  series  of  charters 
!   which  had  been  granted  to  the  house  of  Austria 
<  by    various    kings    and    emperors,   and    which 
j  sicurcd  to  tlicir  princes  a  position  entirely  inde 
i   pendent  of  both  empire  ami  Emperor.     Aieord- 
I   iiig  to  these  dcHUmenls,  and  more  especially  the 
one  calle<l  the  'privilegium  majiis,' the  duke  of 
Austria  owed  no  kind  of  serviie  to  the  empire 
«  hlch  was.  however,  bound  to  protect  him ;  .  . 
he  was  to  appear  at  the  diets  with  the  litie  if 
arehdukc.  and  was  lo  have  the  first  place  among 
the  electors.  .  .   .   Itudolf   pretended  that  tlaso 
iLwumentshad  Ju.iteome  to  llijht,  and  demauiUd 
their  eontlrmaliim  from  Cliarhs  IV.,  wlion  fused 
it.     Xevertheless  on  the  strength  of  these  h  iiig 
charters,  he  took  the  title  of  palatine  an  hd'ukr 
without  waiting  to  ask  the  leave  of  Charles,  and 
used  the  royal  iii.signia.     Charles  IV.,  who  eoiild 
not  fail  to  be  irritated  by  these'  pretensions  in  his 
tuni  revived  the  claims  which  he  had  inliiriied 
from  Pn'mysl  Otokar  II.  to  the  lands  of  Au!-lria 
t^tyria,  Carinthia,  and  Carniola.     These  i  laims[ 
however,  were  simply  theoretiial.  ami  no  attempt 
was  made  to  enforce  them,  and  the  niediuiior.  of 
Louis  the  Gnat,  King  of  Hungary,  lliially  h'ci  to 
a  treaty  between  tlic  two  prinees,"wlii(h  KitislUd 
the  ambition  of  the  Habsliurgs  (13Uli.     Kv  this 
treaty,  the  houses  of  llahsburg  in  Austria  ami  of 
Luxemburg  In  liohemla  each  guaranteed  the  In 
heritanec  of  their  lands  to  the  other.  In  ease  of 
the  extinction  of  either  of  the  two  families,  and 
the  estates  of  Bohemia  and  Austria  ralilied  this 
iigreement.     A  similar  eompaet  was  eoia  luded 
between   Austria  and    Ilunnarv,   and   thus  the 
Isiuuilaries  of  the  future  Au»tr{an  state  wi  re  for 
the   'Irst    time    marked    out.      Bmlolf    himself 
gained  little  by  these  hmg  and  liitrleatn  neitotl. 
alions,  Tyrol  being  all  he  ailded  to  his  territory. 
.Marirant  Maullam  he  had  marrhil  her  son  .M.  lii- 
Imr.l  to  the  daughter  of  Allsrt  the  Wis,,  at  the 
siinie  time  deilaring  that,  in  default  of  h<  irs  ni:de 
lo  her  son,  Tvnd  should  once  more  beiniue  the 
possession  of   Austria,  and   it  did   so  hi  i;W3 
Kiidolf  Immislialely  set  out  for  Bolzen,  an<l  tin  r« 
ri'ccived  the  homatrii  of  the  Tyrolese  nobles.  .  .  . 
1  lie  iM.<|uuilion  of  Tynil  was  most  Important  to 
Austria.     It  united  Austria  Pro|H'r  with  the  ..Id 
pijasvssiuDS  of  the  Uabsburgs  tu  Wcjtcm  tier- 


203 


ACSTRIA,  1330-1364. 


The  Hungarian 
Crown. 


AUSTRIA,  1438-1493. 


many,  snd  opened  th3  way  to  Italy.  Margaret 
MniiltAgrbc  died  at  Vienna  in  1309.  The  ineniory 
(if  tills  nstless  and  dissolute  princess  still  survive! 
among  tlie  Tyrolese."— L.  Leger,  UM.afAuHro- 
Uitnijary.  pp.  143-148. 

A.  D.  1386-1388.— Defeats  by  the  Swiss  at 
Sempach  and  Naefels.  See  SwrrzEKLAKo; 
A.  U.  13S6-1388. 

A.  D.  1437-1516.— Contests  for  Hunraryand 
Bohemia.— The  right  of  Succession  to  the  Hun- 
earian  Crown  secured.— "Euroiie  would  Imve 
li.iil  iiotliiu),'  ti)  fear  from  the  Burliarian.s.  if  Hun- 
gary Imd  l»fn  pemianentiv  united  to  liolienila, 
and  littd  held  them  in  clicc1<.     Hut  Hungary  in'- 
terforcd  botli  with  the  independence  and  the  re- 
ligion of  Bolicmia.     In  this  way  they  weakened 
eiich  other,  and  in  the  15th  century  waveri'd  be- 
tween the  two  Sclavonic  and  Oo-nan  powers  on 
tlicirhonlers (Poland  and  Austria)  [sivHcNOAnv 
A.  I).  1301-1442,  and  1442-14.W].     United  undei 
aOermnn  prince  from  14.M  to  1458,  separate ' 
for  a  lime  under  national  sovereigns  (liohemis 
until  1471,  Hungary  until  1490),  they  were  onre 
more  united  un(l('r  Polish  princes  until  1526  at 
wljicli  period  they  iiassed  definitively  into  the 
hands  of  Austria.     After  the  reign  of  Ijidislas  of 
Austria,  wlio  won  so  much  glory  by  the  exploits 
of.lohn  Hunniades,  George  P<Hliebrad  obtained 
the  crown  of  ISolienda,  and  Matthias  Corvlnus, 
Xiw  sun  of  Hunniades,  was  elcctiMl  King  of  Hun- 
pnry  (14.W).      These  two  princrs  opposed  sue- 
ccssfullv  the  chimerical  pretensions  of  the  Em- 
peror frciierick  HI.      I'.xliebmd  protected  the 
Hussites  iirid  incurred  the  eiunity  of  the  Poih-s 
Jl:itihi!is  victoriously  encountered  the  Turks  and 
iililamcil  tlie  favour  of  I'aul  11.,  wlio  offered  him 
llie  crown  of  P(Klielirad,  his  fatherin-law.     The 
liitlir  opiM)sed  to  the  hostility  of   Matthias  the 
allhnie  of  the  King  of  Poland,  whose  eldest  son, 
Liilisliis.  he  designated  as  Ids  successor.     At  tlie 
fumii'limc.  Casiiuir,  the  brother  of  Ijidislas.  en- 
ilnivoiircd  to  U»kc  fnim  JIaitliias  the  cniwi;  of 
llinii,Mry.     .Matthias,  thus  [iressed  on  all  sides, 
w:i,,,l,li.^oil(on'iiouiiccthecoii(Hiestof  Uohemia] 
and  iiintcnt  himself  with  the  provinces  of  Mom- 
via,  .^il.sia,  and  Lusatia,  which  were  to  return 
li'  i.idisliis  if   Mattliios  died  first  (I4T.5-1478). 
Tlie  King  of  Hungary  cominnsated  himself  at 
llii'  expense  of  Austria.      On  tlie    pretext  lliat 
lrcil<Ti.k  III.    had   refusi'd    to  give    him    his 
iliiifiitir.   he  twice   invaded  his  states  and  re- 
tiiiiiid  them  in  his   possessicm  [see    Hinoary- 
A.  II.  14Tl-;487).     ^\  Itli  this  gn-at  prince  Cliris- 
tiniloiii  lost  lis  chief  defender,  Hungary  hereon- 
-imsis  nnd  her  political  prenoiideraiice   (14U0) 
lliucivill/Hilon  which  heliad  tried  to  Intnnluce 
into  liia  kingdom  w.j  deferred  for  manv  cen- 
Innes.  .      .  bulislas  (of  Poland),  King  of"Bolie- 
inia.  Iiaving  been  elected  King  of  Hungary,  wiu 
atliKked  liy  Ids  brother  John  AIUtI,  and    by 
.>r.xiinilian  of  Austria,  who  Ixith  imlended  to 
tliut(  rown.     He  appeased  lilslin.lher  bv  tlieces- 
si.in  of  Silesia  (I4U1),  and  Maximilian  b>  vesting 
in  the  House  of  Austria  tlie  right  of  succession 
I"  il.f  Ihione  of  Hungary,  In  case  he  himself 
Bhoiild  (lie  witliimt   male    Issue.       Under    Ud- 
Mas,  1111,1  under  his  s.m  Ixmis  11,  who  succw-ded 
liini  wlidc  still  a  eliild.  in  15l«  Hungary  was 
ravaged  wiih  Impunity  by  the  Turks. "-J.  Jliclie- 
).t.  .1  s-,,,,,,,„.„^  ,j(.,.^,,  „.,,        ^^   ^      ..^ 

al«o,  Hoiikmia:  A.  I).  14.W-I471. 

A  D.  i438-i49r_The  Imperial  Crown  last- 
ingly regauw<J.-Tli«  aboit  rciga  of  Albert  II., 


and  the  long  rei^^n  of  Frederick  III.-"  After 

the  death  of  Sigismund,  the  princes,  in  1438 
elected  an  emperor  [kingVJ  from  tlie  house  of  Ausl 
tna,  which,  with  scarcely  any  intermission,  has 
ever  since  occupied  the  ancient  throne  of  G' 
many.  Albert  II.  of  Austria,  who,  as  soninla 
of  the  late  Emperor  Sigismund,  had  liecome  at 
the  same  time  Kin.jof  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  was 
a  well-meaning,  distinguished  prince,  and  would, 
witliout  (Joubt,  have  proved  of  great  benefit  to  the 
cnipire;  but  he  died  ...  in  the  second  year  of 
his  reign,  after  his  return  from  an  expedition 
against  tilt- Turks.  .  .  .  In  the  year  1431,  during 
the  reign  of  Sigismund,  a  new  council  was  as.sem- 
bled  at  Basle,  in  order  to  carry  on  the  work  of  re- 
forming the  church  as  alreadv  commenced  at  Con- 
Jtance.  But  this  council  scxjn  became  engaged 
in  many  perplexing  controversies  with  Pope  Eu- 
gene IV.  .  .  .  The  Germans,  for  a  time,  took  no 
part  in  the  dlspuu-;  at  length,  however,  under 
the  Emperor  [King?]  AUkti  II.,  they  formally 
adopted  the  chief  decreesof  the  council  of  Basle 
at  a  diet  held  at  Mentz  in  tlie  year  1439 
Amongst  the  resolutions  then  ad<"ipted  weri  such 
as  materially  circumscribed  the  existing  privi- 

legesof  the  |)ope These  and  other  deiisions. 

cii  culated  to  give  Important  privileges  and  con- 
sideralile  independence  to  the  German  churcli 
were  in  a  great  measure,  annulled  by  Allierfs 
cousin  and  successor,  Duke  Frederick  of  Austria 
who  was  elected  by  the  iirinces  after  him  iu  the 
year  1440,  as  Frederick  III.  .  .  .  Frederii  k  the 
empcMr,  was  a  prince  who  meant  well  but  at 
the  same  time,  was  of  too  (jiiiet  and  easv  a  nature  • 
lis  long  reign  presents  but  little  that  was  calcu- 
lated to  (lisiiuguish  Germany  or  add  to  lis  re- 
nown. Fnim  the  east  tlie  empire  was  endangered 
by  the  appniacli  of  an  enemy  —  the  Turks,  a-iiinst 
wliom  no  precautionary  measures  were  adopted 
They,  on  the  29th  of  .May,  1453,  cou(iuered  Con- 
stantinople. .  .  .  They  tlieu  made  their  way  to- 
w-ards  the  Dannl*,  and  very  nearly  succeeded 
"'";•">  .•■'king  Hungary  [see  Hl-.noary:  A.  D. 
144',-14.K'<J,  .  .  .  The  Hunirarians,  on  the  death 
i>f  the  s<m  of  the  Em|)eror"'AllKTt  II.,  Wladislas 
Poslliumus,  in  tlie  year  1457,  witliout  leaviii"  nu 
lie  r  to  the  tlmme.  chose  Matthias,  the  son  of 
Jolin  Corvlnus,  as  king,  being  resolved  not  to 
elect  ()iie  fnim  amongst  the  Austrian  princes. 
1  he  Bohemians  likewise  selected  a  private  nolilc- 
man  for  their  king.  George  Pudriabnid  (ir  P,Hlie- 
bradj.  and  thus  the  Austrian  house  found  itself 


-       J'  .  : .......iii».i  iiv'ita^- iiiiuiii  iiseir 

for  a  time  rejected  from  holding  jklsscssIoh  „f 
'     '■■'  ■       ""se   cc.imries.  ...    In   Geriinny, 


eilher  of 

meantime.  Ih.  re  existed  numberless  contests  and 
feuds;  each  party  cimsldered  only  his  own  per- 
s.«ial  (piarrtls.  .  .  .  The  emperor  could  not  give 
any  weiglit  to  public  measures;  scarcely  could 
lie  maintain  Ids  dignity  amongst  his  own  sub- 
jects. The  Austrian  nobilily  were  even  Iwild 
enough  to  st'nd  challenges  to  their  sovereign' 
whilst  the  city  of  Vienna  revolted,  and  his  brother 
Alliert,  taking  pleasure  in  this  disorder,  was  not 
backward  in  aiding  to  it.  Thinns  even  went  to 
such  nn  extremity,  that.  In  14(1:.',  Ilic  Emperor 
Jrisleriek.  t.igcllier  with  his  consort  and  son 
Maximilian,  then  four  years  of  age,  was  besiegd 
by  his  sulij,  ( ts  in  his  own  castle  of  Vienna  A 
plelK-ian  burgher,  nanunl  llolzer.  had  phuci!  !.;i.i. 
«lf  III  the  head  of  Ihe  insurgents,  and  was  made 
burgomaster,  whilst  Duke  AUwrt  cninelo  Vienna 
perwaially  to  sii|M'rintend  the  siege  of  the  ca.slle 
whkli  was  lutrei'  '..cdaud  bumUrilea.  .  .  .  Tbe 


201) 


!i 


AUSTRIA.  1488-1488. 


TS4  BuTgundian 
Marriagt. 


ACSTRIA,  1477-1495. 


Oprmar.  princes,  however,  could  not  witness  with 
l^udifftrcncc  such  disgraceful  trentment  of  their 

"'" ■""   '        liberate  him. 

was  the  first 

lire,  set  the 

ciliation  be- 

iperor,  how- 

■  n.  for  ciplit 

AllMTt  dic(i 

lie  Gi  rniaiiic 

:   was  lu  little 

ids.  .    .  .  The 

rick's  ri'ijfn  to 


emperor,  and  thev  assembled 
Geor-(/  Padriabrad,  Kin);  of  Boli 
who  Imstened  to  the  spot  with 
enipororat  libcrt.v,  and  effected 
twicn  him  and  liis  brother, 
ever,  was  obliged  to  resig! 
rears.  Lower  Austria  and  \ 
in  tlie  followinji^  year.  . 
empire,  the  voice  of  the  ci 
heeded  as  in  his  heredita 
■  feudal  system  raifol  undiT  j  „..,..,  .,-,„„  ,„ 
such  ane.\teut,  that  it  was  purMud  even  by  the 
lower  classics.  Thus,  in  1471,  the  shoeblacks  in 
Ljipsic  sent  a  challenge  to  the  university  of  that 
piaie;  and  the  lakers  of  the  Count  "Palatine 
l-ew  is,  and  those  of  the  Margrave  of  Baden  defied 
sevenl  imiwrial  c.  s  in  Swabia.  The  most  im- 
portant transaction  in  the  reign  of  Frederick,  was 
tlie  union  which  he  formwi  with  the  liouse  of 
Murgundy.  au<l  which  laid  the  foundation  for  the 
griatuess  of  Austria.  ...  In  the  vear  1486,  the 
wliol,.  of  the  assembled  prineis,  intiuenccd  es- 
pechilly  by  the  represt'ntations  of  the  faithful 
and  now  v.nerable  AIIhtI,  called  the  Achilles  of 
Urandcniiuri;,  electc<l  .Maximilian,  the  emperor's 
son.  king  of  Kome.     Indeed,  about  this  period 

II  c hanged  and  improved  spirit  began  to  show 
Itself  in  a  niiiarkable  degr^  in  the  minds  of 
many  tlirougliout  the  emi.ir. .  so  that  the  pro- 
toiiii.lcontemplatorofcommgcventsniighteasily 
Sic  the  dawn  of  a  new  era.  .  .  .  These  last  yeaii 
were  111.'  best  in  tlie  whole  life  of  the  emperor 
iiiid  yii  Ided  to  him  in  return  for  his  nianv  sufTer- 

ngs  ih.il  tran.iuillity  which  was  so  well' merited 
by  Ills  faiiliful  g.  nerous  disiiosiiion.  He  died 
on  the  lllili  of  August.  149;),  after  a  reign  of  ,54 
vcars.     1  he  einiKTor  lived  long  eiioiiirh  to  obtain 

III  111.'  year  UIHI.  the  restoniti.m  of  his  hiTcilitary 
e.<jt.il.s  by  the  .1,  atli  of  King  .Matthias,  by  means 
of  a  e..nipai  t  mail.-  with  Wla.lislas,  his  su<'ces.sor  " 
~t.  Kohlrausch.  IIUt„iji  of  Gennany,  eh.  14  _ 
SeerjKinnNv:  A.  1).  I:i47-1493. 

A.  D.  i.<68.--In»asion  by  George  Podiebrad 
or  Bohemia.— The  crusade  against  him.  See 
lioiiKMn:  A.  I»    14.V-I47I 

A.  D.  1471-149'— Hungarian  invasion  and 
capture  of  Vienna.— Treaty  of  Presburir 
—Succession  to  the  throne  of  Hungan 
•ecured.-"lJeorge,  King  of  Uoh.niia,  expind 
''.'.  "•>;  "lid  the  claiiii.H  of  the  Knipiror  ami 
Km;  .,f  Hungary  lieing  ciually  <lisr.%'.'ird,'.l,  the 
"""".   ",','?    "■""f''''".l    <m    Uladi.slau9,    s.mi    of 

a'm""."',/^  V"^'",",  "f  ^"'""'''  ""J  Knin,l.,„n  of 
AllHTt  II.     To  this  eleciicm  Kre.leric  long  p.r. 
Msle.      ill     wiil,h,,l,ling     his    a.ssent;     but     at 
^ngtli   h.'  .l.t.iiulne.l   to  crush    the  claim    of 
Slat  Unas  by  tormally  investing  riu.lislaus  with 
1 1-  king.lorn  and  el.itorate  <if  IJolicmia,  an.l  the 
oltl..'  of  iiTiprnul  eiip.|».anT.     In  ri'vengc   f,.r 
tins  .ilTront.  Malihia.i  marcli.'.!  into  Austria-  t.K.k 
poss.  s.,,„„  „f  ,iie  forlnsMsof  the  Uanuln';  an.l 
omiKll.M  th<.  hmpernr  t..  purchase  a  cessation 
of  li.«tiliii,  ,    ,y  uml.  rtaking  to  pay  an  huiidri',1 
thoii^in,!  gul.lin  ll.*rii„  i.h.-lialf  of  which  was 
disbursed  by  the  Aii«tr.,f,  stal.s  at  the  appointe.l 
time      Hut  as  the  Kinir  o'  ilungary  still  .lelav,.l   , 
to  yield   up   ,1,,.  <„,,i„r,,l    fortresses,    Frederic 
refused  all  further  payment;  and  the  war  was  I 
•gain  reneweil.     Matthias  invade.l  ami  ravs">'d  ' 
Auttru,  1.11,1  liKMiifli  iie  exiierieneed  forml.ia~ble  i 
retUtiuio!  Irom  ievcral  towns,  bli  anus  were 


210 


crowned  with  success,  and  he  became  master  of 
Vienna  and  Neustadt.     Driven  from  his  capital 
tlie  terrified  Lmpenir  was  reduced  to  the  utmost 
distress,  and  wan.lered  from  town  to  town  and 
froin  convent  to  convent,  endeavouring  to  aMuse 
the  German  States  against  the  Hungarians     Yet 
even  in  this  exigency  his  goo<l  fortune  did  not 
wholly  fiirsake  him ;  and  he  availed  himself  ..f  a 
Diet  at  Frankfort  to  procure  the  election  of  Ins 
son  Maximilian  as  King  of  the  Ilomans.     To  this 
Diet,  however,  the  King  of  Bohemia  received  no 
summons,  ami   then'fore  protested  against  the 
validity  of  the  election.     A  full  npoloiry  ,,nj 
admission  of  his  right  easily  satisfie.1  I  L.dislaus 
and  he  consented  to  remit  the  fine  which  the 
Golden  Bull   had  fixed  as  the  penalty  of  the 
??^f ',"!)•    .'^'"'  ''™">  "f  Mi'tthias  Corvinus  in 
14WU,  left  the  throne  of  Hungary  vacant,  an.l  the 
Hungarians,  inlluenced  by  their  widowed  ..lur,, 
conferre.i  the  <  rown  upon  the  King  of  B.)li<iiii,i' 
without  listening  to  the  pretensions  of  Mnvi! 
nullan      That  valorous  pnnce,  however,  s\v„r,l 
nhand   recoven.l  his  Austrian  dominions:  and 
tlic  rival  kings  concluded  a  severe  contest  by  the 
treaty  of  Presburg,  by  which  Ilungary  was  f„r 
the  pn-sent  secured  to  Uladislaus;   but  on  his 
death  without  heirs  was  to  vest  in  the  d.sr.  n- 
dants  of  the   Kmix-ror."- Sir  K.   Comvn     The 
Ihttory  of  the  Wmtern  Empire    eh    28 '(c    "^  _ 
8»'0  Ilt:NG.\nv:  A.  I).  1471-1487,  ami  14.s7-r-,:.'i) 
A.  a  i477-i49S--Marriage  of  Maximilian 
with  Mary  of  Burgundy.— His  splendid  do- 
minion.- His  joyous  character.— His  vigorous 
powers.— His  ambitions  and  aims.-"  Miixi 
mi  lan,  who  w  is  as  active  an.l  enterprising  as  his 
father  was  in.i.)l,.nt  an.l  timi.l,  marrie.l  at .  ith- 
ton  years  of  age,  the  only  dauifhter  of  Ch.irl,., 
tlic  Bol.l  duke  of  Burgiinily  [st'c  Nkthkkhm.. 
A.  u.     14,,J.  _    She     bmuglit     him     Flarjd.r^ 
tranche^Comte,    ami    all    the    Low    t'ountri.s 
Louis  M.,  who  disputed   some  of  tli.s.'  t,  rri^ 
tories  and  who,  on  the  d.'ath  of  the  .hike  had 
sclze.1  Burgun.ly,  1'icar.ly,  Ponthieu,  an.l  .\r;..i. 
as  llefa  of  !•  ran.T.  whi.h  c.mld  mit  K' p.is^  .,^.1 
by  a  w.mian,  was  .iefeated  by  Maximilian  at 
Ouinega.stc;  and  Charles  VIII.,  who  r.Tieued  ih,. 
same  claims,  was  obligi.l  to  cmclu.le  a  .lisa.l- 
vantageoiis  peace."      Maximilian  sii.-.r.-,l.,i  i„ 
V.'L"'','I"'V. ""'"'"-'  "»  •''«  "leath  of  his  fahi,  r  in 
1.1      T^-  "'"«'■".  "'»!■  "fM"<lenL  K'ir.,i,   l.ti  r 
4«  (r.  1).— "  Bi'twwn  the  Alpsan.l  tin-  l{.,li.nii,n 
tronlier,   the    mark  Austria    was  first   foiuM,,! 
r<)und  and  about  the  c    tl.s  of  Kr.ms  and  .M,  Ik 
Since  then,  N'lfinning  first  in  the  vall.'v  to«;,rla 
iJavanaamI  Hungary,  an.l  coming  to  the  llnii^e 
of  llabshurg,  it  ha.l  extend..!  across  th,'  «l„.l,. 
of  the  northern  sl.,|)e  of  the  Alps  until  wli,  r.'  th« 
Slavish,  Italian,  an.l  Oeriimu  tongu.'s  part  ai].l 
.>v.r  t.i  Alsace;   thus  becoming  an  arih.lii.liv 
fioina  mark.     On  all  si.les  the  Ar.h.liikes  hail 
claims;  on  the  German  side  to  Switz.Thii.d.  ..a 
t  le  Italian  to  the  Venetian  ixissessions,  and  ..ii 
the  Slavish  to  B..liemla  ami  Hungary.     Tosinli 
a  pilch  of  greatness  ha.1  Maximillan'by  his  mar- 
riagc  with  .Maria  of  Durgundv  brought  th.-  h.  rii- 
iiL'..  recelv.-.i  from  Charles  the  Bol.l.     Tni,.  1,. 
the  .NetheriaiKlcrs'  gn'eting,  in  the  inscripticu 
.ivcr  their  gates,  'Thou  art  our  Duke.  Iluht  .mr 
battle  f.ir  us,   war  was  from  the  first  his  haii.li- 
craft.     He  silopteil   Charles  the  Bol.l's  ho,iilu 
a'tifu.ir  f.wRrrls  Francx;  hr  sav.d  ti..-  v'r...i.f 
part  of  his  inhcriUnce    from    the    8<li.ni.s  ..f 
Louis  XL     Day  and  night  it  was  his  wliol* 


AU8TRU.  U77-1498. 


Jr<u<ma<a». 


AUSTMA,  1477-1496. 


thought,  to  conquer  It  entirely.     But  after  Maria 
of  B-jrgundy's  premature  death,  revolution  fol- 
lowed revolution,  and  hla  father  Frederick  being 
too  old  to  protect  himself.  It  came  about  that  In 
the  year  1488  he  waa  ousted  from  Austria  by  the 
Hungarians,  whilst  Ills  son  was  kept  a  prisoner  in 
Bruges  by  the  citizens,  and  they  had  even  to  fear 
the  estrangement  of  the   Tyrol.     Yet  they  did 
not  lose  courage.     At  this  very  time  the  father 
demited  with  the  vowels,  A.  E.  I.  O.  U.  ('AUes 
Erilreich    ist    Oestcrreich    unterthan '— All   the 
fnrtli  is  subject  to  Austria),  the  extent  of  his 
hopes.     In  the  same  year,  his  son  negotiated  for 
a  Spanish  alliance.     Their  real  strength  lay  in 
the  imperial  dignity  of  Maximilian,  which  they 
hud  from  the  German  Empire.     As  soon  as  it  be- 
g;m  to  bestir  itself,  Maximilian  was  set  at  liberty ; 
us  .sdon  lus  it  supported  him  in  the  persons  of  only 
a  few  princes  of  the  Empire,  he  became  lord  in 
his  Xetheiiands.  .  .  .  Since  then  his  plans  were 
directed  against  Hungary  and   Bur-;un'v.     In 
ilungiiry  he  could  gain  nothing  jxccpt  atouring 
the  succession  to  liis  house.     But   never,    frt° 
(luently  as  he  concluded  yniHcc,  did  he  give  up 
liis  intentions  upon  Burgundy.  .  .  .  Xow  that 
he  ha<l  allied  himself  with  a  SforEa,  and  had 
j"ined  the  Liga,  now  that  his  futlier  was  dead 
and  the  Empire  was  pledged  to  follow  him  across 
the  mountains,  and  now,  too,  that  the  Italian 
(dniplication.s  were  threatening  Charles,  he  took 
fresh  liope,  and  in  this  hope  he  summoned  a  Diet 
nt  W  ornis.     .Maximilian  was  a  prince  of  whom 
although  manv  portraiU  have  been  drawn,  vet 
there  is  scarcely  one  that  resembles  another  "so 
cisilv  and  entirely  diil  h(!  suit  himself  to  circum- 
st:in(  es.  .  .  .  His  soul  is  full  of  motion,  of  joy 
111  tl]inj.'s,  and  of  plans.     There  is  scarcely  any- 
thiiii;  that  he  is  not  capable  of  doing.     In  liis 
mines  lie  is  a  good  sceener,  in  his  armoury  the 
best  plater,  capable  of  instructing  others  in  new 
in\  eutious.     \S  ith  musket  in  hand,  he  defeats  his 
l»>t  marksman,  George  I'urkhard;  with  heavy 
eiinncra,  wlueh  he  has  shown  how  to  cast,  and 
liiis  plaeed  on  wheels,  he  comes  as  a  rule  nearest 
tlie  mark.     He  commands  seven  captains  in  their 
seven  several  tongues;  he  himself  chooses  and 
mixes  Ins  food  and   mediein.s,      la  the  open 
cumiiri,  he  feels  himself  happiest.  What 

really  distinguishes  his  public  life  is  that  pre- 
sentiment of  iho  future  greatness  of  his  dyna-stv 
which  lie  lias  inherited  of  his  father,  and  the 
restless  stnving  to  attain  all  that  devolved  upon 
him   from  the  House  of   Burgun  '        Ai.    his 
I'llu y  ami  all  his  schemes  were  cncentrated 
ii"t  ii|«.n  Ins  Empire,  for  the  real  neeilsof  which 
lie  n  meed  little  real  care,  and  not  immwliatelv 
1111.111  the  w.  [fare  of  his  liereditary  lands,  but 
upon  tlie  realization  of  tiiat  sole  idea.     Of  it  all 
"?''"',"'."».' .spwclies  are  full.  .  .  .  In  Mareh, 
14Jj,  Maximilian  cjimc  to  th('  Diet  at  Worms 
■  •  .  At  this   Ueichstag  the  King  gained  two 
ni-mientous  prospccu.      In  Wurtemberg  there 
lad  sprung  of  two  lines  two  counts  of  ouiie 
"l'l'"site  cliuracters.  .  .  .  With  the  elder,  Slaxi 
mlian  now  enU^red  Into  a  comp,ict.     Wurtcm- 
l«rg  was  to  \k  raised  to  s  dikedom  — an  eieva- 
ion  wlueh  excluded  the  female  line  from  the 
fueeession-and,  in  the  event  of  the  stock  fail- 
uig  was  to  be  a  '  widow's  portion '  of  the  realm 
to  the  Ka,  .-.f  the  Imjn.ri.ii  Chamber.     Now  as  tile 
sole  hopes  of  thU  family  centred  In  a  weakling 
Of  a  b,,v.  this  arrangement  held  out  to  MaxImiluS 
Md  bin  iuccetwn  the  proipect  of  acquiriog  a 


splendid  country.    Yet  thl»  was  the  smaller  of 
his  two  successes      The  greater  was  the  espousal 
of  his  children    Philip  and  Margaret,  with  the 
two  cliildren  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  Juana 
and  Juan,  winch  was  here  settled.     This  opened 
to   his    house    still    greater    expectations,  —  i' 
Drouglit  him  at  once  into  the  most  intimate  alli- 
ance With  the  Kings  of  Spain.     These  nutters 
might  possibly,   however,   have  been  arianged 
elsewhere.     W'hat  Maximilian  really  wanted  in 
the  Iteichstag  at  Worms  was  the  assistance  of 
the  Empire  against  the  French  with  its  world- 
renowned  and  inuch-envicd  .soldiery.     For  at  this 
time  m  ail  the  wars  of  Europe,  German  auxilia- 
nes    were    decisive.    ...    If    Maximilian    had 
unitt'd  tlic  whole  of  this  power  in  his  hand 
neither  Europe  nor  Asia  would  have  been  able  to 
withsUind  him.     But  God  disposed  tliat  it  should 
rather  be  employed  in  the  cause  of  freedom  liian 
oppression.     What  an  Emjiirc  was  that  which 
in  spite  of  Its  vast  strength  allowed  its  Emperor 
to  be  expelled  from  his  heritage,  and  did  not  for 
a  long  time  take  steps  to  bring  him  back  again  ? 
tf  we  examine  the  constitution  of  tiie  Empire 
not  as  we  sliould  picture  it  toours<;lves  in  Henry 
111.  s  time,  but  as  it  had  at  length  become  — the 
legal  independence  of  the  several  estates    tlie 
emptiness  of  the  imperial  dignity,  the  cleetive- 
ness  of  a  head,  tliat  afterwards  exercised  certain 
rights  over  the  electors,— we  are  led  toiiKiiiire 
not  80  much  into  llie  causes  of  its  disintegration 
for  t  us  concerns  us  little,  as  into  the  wav  in 
whieli  It  was  luld  figether.     Wliat  weldwl  it 
together,  and  preserved  if,  would  (leaving  tra 
dition  and  the  Pope  out  of  the  question)  appear 


1    i  ,:    V        ■!■'  ■"<.  "■  lilt  iiuesiKini  appear, 

Ix'fore  all  else,   to  have  been  the  rights  of  in- 
dividuals,   the   unions  of  nciglibours,    and   the 
Kicial   regulations  which  universally  obtained 
Sucli  were  those  rigiits  and  privileges  tliat  not 
only   protected   the  citizen,  his  guild,  and   his 
quarter  of  the  town  against  his  neighbours  and 
more  powerful  men  than  himself,   but  wliich 
also  endowed  him  with  an  inner  independence 
.  .  .  >ext,  the   unions    of    neighbours      Tliese 
were  not  only  leagues  of  cities  ami  pea.santries 
expanded   from    ancient    fraternities  — for  who 
can  tell  the  origin  of  tlie  Han.sa,  or  the  earliest 
tre-aty  between  L'ri  and  Schwyz?  — into  lar'c  as- 
sociations, or  of  knights,  who  strengthened  a  really 
nsignilicant  power  by  confederations  of  iieigli- 
bours,  but  also  of  the  princes,  who  were  bound 
together  by  joint  iuhentaiices,  mutual  expectan- 
cies, and  the  ties  of  blood,  wliicii  in  some  cases 
were  very  chise.     This  ramitlcation,  depindent 
upon  a  supreme  power  and  coulirined  by  it  l«nind 
neighbour  to  ueii;hbour;  and,  whilst  securing  to 
each  his  privilege  and  his  libertv,  '  .iided  together 
all  countries  of  Germany  in  leg      .ondsof  union 
But  It  is  only  in  the  siKial  re-       atioiis  that  tlie 
unity  was  really  pereeivable      ,  Inly  as  long  as 
the  Empire  was  an  actual  n     .ly,  could  the  su- 
pre-me  power  of  the  Electors,  each  with  his  own 
siiecial  rights,  lie  maintained;  only  so  long  could 
dukes  and  princes,  bishops  and  abliots  hold  their 
neighbours  In  due  re'spect,  and  through  court 
offices  or  here<litarj-  services,  tlmmgli  liefs  and 
the  dignity  of  their  independent  position  give 
their  vassals  a  peculiar  position  to  the  whole 
Only  so  long  could  the  cities  enjoying  inimeiiiate- 
uess  under  the  Empire,  carefully  divided  into 
free  and  imperial  cities,  be  not  merely  protected, 
but  also  assured  of  a  participation  to  tlie  govem- 
meut  of  the  whole.    Coder  tlili  MuctlAed  and 


2U 


iJSi^m 


AUSTRIA,  1477-1495. 


Thrift. 


AUSTRI.'    1.119-1565. 


tradlMnnal  system  of  suzerainty  and  vassalage 
all  were  happv  and  contented,  and  bore  a  love  to 
It  such  as  is  cucrislied  towards  a  native  town  or 
a  father's  house.  For  some  time  past,  the  House 
of  Austria  \\m\  enjoyed  the  foremost  position. 
It  also  liail  a  union,  and,  moreover,  a  great  fac- 
tion on  its  side.  The  union  was  the  8ual)ian 
Lcaguu.  Old  Suabia  was  divided  into  three 
leagues  —  the  league  of  the  peasantry  (tlic  origin 
of  8wii/'  rli\nd);  the  league  of  th-  knights  in  the 
Black  I  St,  on  the  Kocher,  tlK  Xeckar.  and  the 
Danu,  and  the  league  of  the  cities.  The  peas- 
antry w .re from  the  first  hostile  to  .\ustria.  The 
Emperor  Fredirick  brought  it  to  pass  that  the 
cities  and  kniglits,  that  had  from  time  out  of 
mind  lived  in  feud,  bound  themselves  together 
with  several  princes,  and  formed,  under  his  pro- 
tection, the  league  of  the  land  of  Suabia.  But 
the  party  was  scattered  throughout  the  whole 
Empire. '  —  L.  von  Ranke,  History  of  the  Latin 
and  Teittonir  Jfationt,  bk.  I,  ch.  3. 

A.  D.  1493-1519.— The  Imperial  reign  of 
Maximilian.—  Formation  of  the  Circle  of 
Austria.— The  Aulic  Council,  gke  Geumanv  : 
A.  I).  1493-1.519. 

A.  D.  1496-1499.— The  Swabian  War  with 
the  Swiss  Confederacy  and  the  Graubunden, 
or  Grey  Leagues  (Gnaons).- Practical  inde- 
pendence of  both  acquired.  See  Switzerland  : 
A.  U.  1396-1489. 

A.  D.  1496-1526.- Extraordinary  aggran- 
dizement of  the  House  of  Austria  by  its 
marriages.— The  Heritage  of  ':harles  V.— 
His  cession  of  the  German  inheritance  to 
Ferdinand.— The  division  of  the  House  into 
Spanish  and  German  branches.— Acquisition 
of  Hungary  and  Bohemia.— In  149ti,  Philip  ilic 
iiiir.  soil  (if  Maximilian,  Archduke  and  Emper- 
or, by  his  marriage  with  Ma-v  of  Burgundy, 
"espoused  tJie   Infanta  of  C-i  daughter  of 

Fenliniiml  [of  Aragon]  and  L  ,  of  Castile. 

They  liad  two  )ns,  Char.ca  a-  ,  .^rdinaiul,  the 
former  of  whom,  known  in  history  by  the  name 
of  Clmrles  V.,  inherited  the  Low  Countries  in 
right  of  his  father,  Philip  (1506).  On  the  death 
of  Ferdlnuml,  his  maternal  grandfather  (1.518),  he 
became  heir  to  the  whole  Spanish  succeasion, 
which  coiiipiehended  the  kingdoms  of  Spain, 
Aaples,  Sieily,  and  Sardinia,  together  with 
Spanisli  America.  To  these  vast  possessions 
were;i(l(l(d  his  patrimonial  dominions  in  Austria, 
wliicli  were  tmn.sniittcd  to  him  by  his  paternal 
gruiidfather,  tlie  Emperor  Maximilian  I.  About 
tl-  same  time  (1.519).  the  Imperial  dignity  was 


.erriil   on   this   prince  by  the  electors   [see 
A.    1).    1519];  so  that  Europe  had 


Gbkm.^ny 

not  seen,  since  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  a 
monarchy  wi  powerful  as  that  of  Charles  V 
This  Emperor  concluded  a  treaty  with  his 
brother  Ferdinand;  by  which  he  ceded  to  him 
all  his  hi  reiiiiary  posses-iions  in  Qermanv.  The 
,two  lirolhers  tl.us  Iwcame  the  founders  of  the 
itwo  princ  i|iiil  lirnnclies  of  the  House  of  Austria, 
viz.,  that  c»f  Spain,  which  iM'gan  with  Charles 
;V.  (cuIIhI  Cliaries  I.  of  Spain),  and  ended  with 
Charies  II.  (17()0);  and  that  of  Germany,  of 
which  Fenliiiand  I.  was  the  ancestor,  and  which 
became  extinct  in  the  male  Hue  in  the  Empen)r 
Charles  VI.  (1740).  Tliese  two  branches,  closely 
allied  to  each  other,  acted  In  concert  for  the 
advanceiuei.1  of  their  reciprocal  interests;  more- 
over they  gained  each  their  own  separate  advan- 
tage! bjr  the  msnisge  oonnexions  wtUcb  tbey 


formed.  Ferdinand  I.  of  the  German  line  marri»d 
Anne  (1521).  sister  of  Louis  King  of  Hungarv 
and  Bohemia,  who  having  lieen  slain  by  the 
Turks  at  the  battle  of  Mohscs  (1526).  thesV  two 
kingdoms  devolved  to  Ferdinand  of  the  House  .if 
Austria.  Finally',  the  marriage  which  Clmrles 
V.  contractwl  with  the  Infant  Isabella,  (lau);lii,r 
of  Emmanuel,  King  of  Portugal.  procure<l  l'|,ilip 
II.  of  Spain,  the  son  of  that  marriage,  the  wliuie 
Portuguese  monarchy,  to  which  he  succei'deil  mi 
the  death  of  Henry,  called  the  Canlinal  (I.5.S111 
80  vast  an  aggranilisemcnt  of  power  alamieil  tlie 
Sovereigns  of  Europe."— C.  W.  Koch,  The  l!,r„. 
lutionx  of  Europe,  prriml  6. 

Also  in  :  W.  Coxe,  llitt.  of  the  JJome  of  A  utlrin 
eh.  25  an,/ 27  (r.  1).— W.  Roliertson,  l)iM.  ofih 
ReignofaharU»V.,bk.  1.— See,  also,  Sp.\in:  A.  1). 

A.  D.  1510.— Death  of  Maximilian.-Elec- 
tion  of  Charles  V.,  "  Emperor  of  the  Romans  " 
8eeGERM.\Nv:  A.  D.  1.519. 
^.^•,°- .',519-1555— The    imperial    reign   of 
Charles  V.— The  objects  of  his  policy.-His 
conflict    with    the    Reformation    and    with 
France.— "  Charles  V.  did  not  receive  from  iiiiture 
all  the  gifu  nor  all  the  charms  she  can  bestow,  imr 
did  experience  give  him  every  talent ;  but  lie  \\  :is 
equal  to  the  part  he  bad  to  plav  in  the  wmlil 
He  was  sufficiently  great  to    keep   his  maiiv- 
jewelled  diadem.  .  .  .  His  ambition   was  ,Mi,l 
and  wise.     The  scope  of  his  ideas,  which  are  m.t 
quite  easy  to  divine,  was  vast  enough  to  enninl 
a  state  composed  of  divers  ami  distjint  portimis 
so  as  to  make  it  always  very  difflcult  to  anial;:u- 
mate  his  amdcs,  and  to  supply  them  willi  f.iuil 
or  to  procure  money.     Indecd'its  very  e.xisiini 0 
would  have  lieen  exposed  to  permanent  il.ui'tr 
from  powerful  coalitions,  had  Francis  1.  kiicwn 
how  to  place  its  most  vulner.ible  points  uu.i.r  a 
united  pressure  from  the  armies  of  France   ,  f 
England,  of  Venice,  and  of  the  Ottoman  Enipin 
Charles  V.  attained  his  first  obie<-t  when  he  ire- 
venU'd   the  French  monarch   from  taking'  lies 
session  of  the  inheriluuce  of  the  house  of  .Anj.m 
at  Naples,  and  of  lliat  (,f  the  Viseontis  at  .Milnp' 
He  was  more  8iic<'essful  in  stopping  the  manh  ,1 
Solyman  into  AusI .  ia  than  in  checking  the  spn  .ul 
of  the   Reformation  in  Oerinanv.  .  .  .  Churlis 
V.  had   four  objei-ts   very   much  at  liiart:  he 
wished  to  be  the  master  in  Italy,  to  clii(  k  the 
progress  of  the  OtU)iiian  power"  In  tlie  wi^i  ,,f 
Europe,  to  concpier  the  King  of  Fninee.  and  t,) 
govern  the  Germanic  body  by  dividing  it.  and  In- 
making  the  Hi^formation  a  religious  pretext  for 
oppres.sing  the  political  ('.efenders  of  that  lulief. 
In  three  out  of  fourof  these  objects  lie.siurei.lerl. 
Germany  alone  was  not  conquere<i:  if  sli,.  w,u 
beaten  in  battle,  neither  any  political  triinepli 
nor  any  ndigioiis  results  cnsue<i.     In  Ciirnmiiv. 
Clmrles  V.  Ingan  his  work  t(X)  late,  and  aiieii  ;.«) 
slowly;  he  undertook  to  subdue  it  at  a  lime  win  n 
the  abettors   of    the    Uef.irmation    had    irmwii 
strong,  when  he  himself  was  growing  waiiir 
.   .  .   Like    many    other    brilliant    caners,    ihu 
career  of  Charh'S  V.  was  more  8uc(f»,st   '  ami 
more  striking  at  the    ciimmenctment  niai  llie 
miildle    than    at   the  end.   of    Its  course,      .\t 
Madri<I,  at  Cambrai,  at  Nice,  he  made  his  rival 
bow  down  his  head.     At  Crespy  he  again  f.irie<i 
him  to  obey  his  will,  but  as  he  had  cornel'jtflv 
made  up  his  mind  to  have  peace,  Charles  ilic- 
tated  it,  in  some  manner,  to  his  own  detriment. 
At  I'lHau  he  had  to  yield  to  tbe  terms  of  his  enemy 


212 


AUSTRIA,  1519-15M. 


Charin  M« 
Fiflk. 


ArSTRIA,  152»-15a7. 


—  of  an  rncmy  whom  diarlos  V.  encountered 
in  liU  old  age.  and  when  liis  iMiwers  liad  decayed 
AltliDtigh  it  may  Iw  said  tliat  the  extent  ami  the 
power  iif  tiie  sovereignty  wliich  Charles  V.  left  to 
his  successor  at  his  death  were  not  diminishe<l 
still  his  armies  were  weakened,  his  finances  were 
exhnusted,  anil  the  country  was  weary  of  the 
tyranny    of    liic    imperial    lieutenants.      The 
Buprerniiey  of  the  empire  in  Germany,  for  which 
he  had  struggled  so  much,  was  as  little  estab- 
llslie<l  at  the  cud  as  at  the  Ix'ginning  of  his  reign  ■ 
religious  unity  was  solemnly  destroyed  by  the 
•Recess 'of  Augsburg.     !    •  that  which  marki 
the  position  of  Charles  V.  .is  the  representative 
man  of  his   epoch,  and  as  the  founder  of  the 
IKihcy  of  miKlern  times,  is  that,  wherever  he  was 
Tirt4)rlous,  the  effect  of  his  succesE  was  to  crush 
the  last  efforts  of  the  spirit  of  the  middle  ages 
ami  of  the  imiependenee  of  nations.     In  luviv  lii 
Siwin.  in  Germany,  and  in  the  Low  Countries 
Ills  Irimnphs  were  so  much  gain  t(j  the  cause  of 
a'lSdlule  monarchy   and    so   mii<h  loss  to  tlie 
liUrty  ileriveil  fnim  the  old  state  of   s.icicty 
H  li.itever  wag  the  character  of   lilierty  in  the 
miilille   ages  — whether   it    were   contested  or 
inconiplite,  or  a  mockery  — it  pl.iyed  a  greater 
part   llian    in    the    four   succeeding  centuries 
Cliiirles  V.  was  aisurcdly  one  of  those  who  con- 
tnluitiil  the  most  to  found  and  consolidate  the 
jiolitiiil  system  of  modern  govcmmenu.     Ilis 
hislnry    has    an    as|)ect    of    grandeur.       Had 
hrjuiiisl.  U'enas  sagacious  in  the  closet  as  he 
was  h,il,l  in  the  field,  by  a  vigorous  alliance  with 
hii!.'!iiii(l,   with  Pnitestant   Germany,  and  with 
s..me  of  the  republics  of  Italv,  he  might  perhaps 
have   balimced    and    controlled    the   power  of 
Charles  \.     Hut  the  French  monarch  ilid  not 
I»is.sc¥S  the  foa'sightand  the  solid  understandiug 
mcissary  to  pursue  Mich  a  iiolicy  with  success 
Ills  riv:il.  therefore,  mcupics  the  fi-st  place  in 
tlie  liw.irical  pictua'  r'  the  epoch.     Charles  V. 
had  il,e  se^ntiment  of    his  position  and  of  the 
pun  he  had  to  play.  "-J,  Van  Praot,  £«,,«,  o,i 
the  luhtiail  lUttwy  of  tlu  \T,th,  Wth.  and  I'th 
icHlurua.    pp.    liK)-194._See,  also,   Germ.\.nv 
;-„P,.';V®  "'  '""S-lWl,  and  FiiANCE:  A.  D. 
li;'(Hi-,'.'J,  to  l.WT-I.Wa. 

A,  D.   1525-15*7 -Successful  Contest  for 
the  Hungarian  and   Bohemian   Crowns— In 

lliiiigiiry,  "under  Kbig  .Matthias  the  house  of 
^;ip..|.va,  so  called  from  a  tihivonic  village  near 
i  .isoluga,  whence  it  '.riginatcd,  rose  to  peculiar 
emmcnee.  To  this  iious^-,  in  particular.  King 
^^lKllslas  had  owe<l  his  accession  to  the  throne- 
"liince.  Iiowcver,  it  thought  itself  entitled  to 
•  IniMi  a  ..hare  in  the  sovereign  power,  and  even  a 
j-.rl  of  |.rosp..etivc  right  to  the  throne.  Its  mem- 
l"rs  were  the  wealthiest  of  all  the  magnates ;  thev 
Ms^ssed  seventytwo  castles.  ...  It  is  said 
tlwi  a  pnjphecy  early  promised  the  crown  to  the 
).  iim-  ,I„lin  Zapoly.i.  I'ossessed  of  all  the  power 
cunrerred  by  hi.s^rieh  inlieritance.  Count  of  Zips, 
aiut  \\„mode  of  Transylvania,  he  soon  collected 
a  strong  party  arounil  him.  It  was  he  who 
:iminl.y  persuaded  the  Hungarians,  in  the  year 
>0.,.  to  exc  u,  e  all  foreigners  from  "  -  Oirone 
'.»  a  formal  deeae;  which,  tlioug  -y  wea; 
i.y  ahvavs  able  to  maintain  in  forct-,  tney  could 

.uar  l.,!4  the  WoIw.Ib  micociUiI   in  putting 
J  own  an  exceedingly  formidable  insun-ection  o? 

the  lesser  nobility  priced  tlie  more  highly,  because 


213 


It  enabled  them  to  reduce  tlic  peasantry  to  a 
sill  harder  state  of  servitude.  Ills  wish  was,  ou 
the  death  of  Wladislas,  to  become  Gul«mutS  of 
the  kingdom,  to  marry  the  deceaaed  king's 
daughter  Anne,  and  then  to  await  the  courae  of 
events.  But  he  was  hea-  encountered  by  the 
policv  of  M.jxinili«n  Anne  was  married  L  tlio 
^n,i  .'J,  '  J''"l!n»"d:  Zttiwlya  was  excluded 
from  the  administration  of  the  kingdom;  even 
the  vacant  Pa  atinatc  was  refuse.!  him  ami  given 
to  his  old  rival  Stephen  Bathory.     He  was  liTghlv 

I?**."!"'-  ,•  •  ■  ^"'  "  '■"'  "f*  ««1  'I'c  year  l.WS 
that  Zapolya  got  the  U|)per  hand  at  thelJakosch 
.  .  .>o  one  entertained  a  doubt  Uiat  he  aime.1 
at   the    hrone.  .  .  .  But  before  anything  was 
accomplished— on  the  contrary,  JiJat  as  these 
party  conflicts  had  thrown  the  country  into  the 
utniiKt  confusion,  the  mighty  enemy,  Soliman 
appeared  on  the  frontiers  of  Hungary,  deU-rmined 
to  nut  an  end  to  tlie  anarchy.  ,  .  .  In  his  prison  • 
at  Madrid,  Francis  I.  had  found  means  to  entreat 
the  assistance  of  Soliman;  urging  that  it  well 
beseemed  a  great  emiieror  to  succour  the  op. 
preascd.     Plans  were   laid   at   Constantinople, 
accordmg  o  which  the  two  sovereigns  were  to 
attack  Spain  with  a  comblne.1  tieet,  and  to  send 
armies  to  in-  ade  Hungary  ami  the  uonh  of  luilv 
tollman,  ^  ithout  any  formal  treaty,  was  by  liia 
position     J  ally  of  the  Ligue,  as  the  kitlg  (,f 
Hungarj  wa.s,  of  the  "mpea)r.     On  the  2*1  of 
April,  lo28,  .Soliman,  after  visiting  tl,  .■  gi^ves  of 
his  forefathers  ami  of  the  old  Moslem  martyrs 
niarchctl  out  of  Constantinople  with  a  niig"l,tv 
host,  consisting  of  about  a  humlred  thousiiud 
men,  and  incessantly  strengthened  by  fresh  re- 
cruits on  its  road.  .  .  .  ^Vhat  power  ha<l  Hun. 
gary,  in  the  condition  we  have  just  described 
of  resisting  such  an  attack  ?  ,  .  .  Tiie   youiiiJ 
kmg  tiH.k  the  field  with  a  following  of  not  mot? 
than  three  thous.-md  men.  .  .  ,  He  procewle.l  to 
the  fatal  plain  of  Mohaez,   fully  resolved   with 
his  small  band  to  await  in  the  open  field  the 
overwhelming  force  of  the  enemy    .  .      Personal 
valour   could    avail  nothing.     The  Hungarians 
were  Immejliately   thrown   into   di.sorder    their 
best  men   fell,  the  others  took   to  Uight     The 
young  king  was  compelled  to  Heo.     It  was  not 
even  granted  him  to  die  in  the  field  of  battle-  a 
far  niore  ui.siTable  end  aw-.-iiled  him.     Mourt'id 
iK-liind  a  bilesian  soMier,  who  served  him  as  a 
guide,   he  had  already  lieeti  carried  nrnws  the 
dark  waters  that  divide   the   plain;  his   horvu 
was  alaady  climbing  the  bani;,  wli,-„  he  slipped, 
fell  back,  and  buned  himself  and  his  rider  in  the 
moniss.     This  rendered  the  defeat  dc-isive 
N>lim.an  had  gained  one  of  those  victories  wiiicli 
decide  the  fate  of  nations  during  long  ep,«.-hs 
.  .  .  That  two  thrones,  the  succession  to  which 
was  not  entirely  free  from  doubt,  hivl  thus  been 
lelt  vaiant,  wiu  an  event  tli!,t  necessjirilv  c:iusi-il 
a  great  agitation   thn.ughout  Christendom      It 
was  still  a  .pieslicin  whether  su(-h  a  EuMpean 
power  as  Austria  would  continue  to  exi.st—  . 
question  which  it  is  only   iieces,sarv  to  -tat'e    ■ 
onler  to  be  aware  of  its  vast  i'nixrrlanee  to  the 
fate  of  mankind  al  larin-,  and  of  Gennnny  in  ii;ir- 
ticular.  .  .  .  The  claims  of  Ferdinand" to  IxMh 
.-owns,   unquestionable  as  tliey   might    bo    in 
reference  to  tlie  ta'aties  with  the'reigning  h."i«e» 
«tTui,p|Mwi.,l  iu  tile  nations  thems'elvi's,  by  tho 
r  ghtof  elect  ion  and  theauthority  of  considerablo 
rivals.     In  Hungary,  as  soon  as  the  Turks  had 
retired,  John  Zapolya  apiwaieU  with  the  duo 


■i    fe 


AUSTRIA,  1525-1587. 


Skngarn  and 
auhtmla. 


AUSTniA,  1564-1618. 


Sr}^.iT^f  .^  ''1^'' '"''''  ^'^  'f"""  "'«  inflict: 
of  Ills  0  Ivrrsarii'S.  .  .  .  Even  in  Tokiiv    liow- 

wl.  Ic  tlKMli,k.-»..f  Bavari,.  cmciv..!  il.c  .l.-sil 
of  getting  i...»«.88l„n  of  tlio  throne  of  UohcmRi. 

n;  ;  .1   "■   *'"  '',  '"  •'"'  'W"  kimtiioms  alone 
U  at  t  K.SC  pretenders  ha.1  a  consi,le,,.bIe  part" 
The  sta  e  of  politu,  |„  Europe  was  such  as  to 

.jsur..   hem  powerful  support'ers  ahrcvul      I^tl^ 
whh'y  t^/"'T'''  ^J"^  fntimaU'ly  conne<.te,I 

he  pope  was  al  his  sicU'.  ami  the  Germans  In 

on  of'X  "u'T"  V""  ri'""^"'  "»'*'""'  "'«  fac 
tion  of  the  \\  oiw.Mle  with  money.     Zaiiolva  sent 

n  lmitte.1  a  uiemher  of  the  LIgue  of  cl.^nae     In 

plrtS  *""•  ";{:,*""'"'■"  '""f  l""g  "a.T  .levote.l 
piirtiaiins,  .  .  Th«  conse(|ucnces  that  must 
■ave  resulted,  had  this  scheme  sueee.-dt"l  are  « 
Inoaloulahle.  that  it  is  not  t.H.  m.uh  t.,  8,,y  1111^ 
hi',l!;.if'p"  compU^ely  chanjred  the  pJIli  ie.d 
history  of  Europe.  The  power  of  Rivaria  would 
have  o„tw,.|j:he,l  that  of  Austria  In  both  oZan 
iind  hiavonian  countries,  and  Zapolva.  thus  su,, 

Sm  Th""  ""'*  T-^  awe  to-main,.!"'  s 
station;  the  Ligue.  and  with  it  hiffh  ultm-mon- 
tanc  opmums  would  have  held  the  ascendency 
^c.istem  Europe  Never  was  there  a  pm  ?t 
more  pn.snant  with  danirer  to  the  crowing  p,>wer 

with  all  the  prudence  and  enerjry  which  that 
house  h,u,  so  often  displayed  in  .liSfcultemerKc'n 
cies.  tor  the  pn'sent.  the  all  important  obieet 
was  the  cn)wn  of  Bohemia.  .  .  .  All  his  meas 
ures  were  taken  with  s,.ch  skill  and  prudence 
that  on  the  .lay  of  election,  thou^-h  the  Bavarian 

dH ;?,  'f  •> "'' '"  *"" '""'  "-'""It.  not  the  slightest 
doubt  of  the  success  of  his  ne^r,„ia,|ong.  an  over- 
whelming  majority  in  the  three  estates  electe<l 
Fenlinaml  to  tli..  throne  of  Bohemia.  This  t.K.k 
Place  on  the  2;W  OcIoIkt.  1.5J.t.  .  .  ()„  Jds 
brothers  birth-day.  the  24th  of  February  "v'7 
Ferdinand  was  crownwl  at  I'rairue.  .  The 
affairs  of  Hungary  were  not  so  e.isilv  or  so  peaee- 

fo^ani'"';,  1.-  •  •  A'  "^^'^  «"™  ^■'I.olya'^^ame 
forwani,   full   armed  and   powerful  out  of  the 
general    .iesolalion.     he    lm,l    the    uncontesU^ 
supenontjv     The  capital  of  the  kingdom  s,«rgl 
his  pn.,ection.  after  which  he  march,,!  to  StuI 
weissi^nburg,  where  his  partisans.  b,.re  d,>wn  all 
attempts   at   opposition:    he    was    electe.1    an.I 
cTowncI  (llth  ,,f  NovemV-r.  1,W8);  in  Croat  a 
AM  :.I   nn''',"h    '"■''""» le'lged   king  at  a  diet;  he 
fllle  1  all   the  numerous  places.    temp,.ral    anil 
spiri„i|,l.  Ic,  vacant  by  the  dis,ister  of  Moh,u7 

a  In. 'l?u /■,',""''.'■••.  ■  •  n'>"J  "'e  Germans 
tt.liancci  Mthou  interruption;  ami  as  s.«.n  as 
it  nppeariKl  iwissible  that  Fenlinaml  might  lie 
succes.sful,  Za,K.lya-8  follower  In'gan  to  . Im'rt 
him.  .  -Never  .11.!  the  Oennan,r,H,psdS,y 
more  bnivery  and  constancy.  Thev  had  ofu'n 
iKi.her  nuM,  nor  brca.l.  an.i  were  obliged  o  iv" 
on  »u<h  fruits  as  th,.y  f.mn.l  In  the  ganlens:  he 
1  ihabi Ian  s  were  wavering  ami  uncertain  -  th..v 
sul.in,l„.,|.  an,l  ilu^n  revoltul  again  t,.  the  emmv  ■ 
Z,ip,.lyas  troops,   ai,l.,l  by  their  knowlclg,.  ?,f 

bv"  nk'h!  •  .m;'''-;r "n "  '"^  ("'"^^.M^ at^cks 
b>  iiiirht;  but  the  Germans  evince,!,  in  the 
moment  of  ,l«uger  the  skill  an,!  ,!eterm  nation  of 
a  H.,man  hgi.ai:  iln.y  sh.,w«|.  t,«,  a  noble  con- 
sUimy  umrcr  .lllll.nltira  and  privations.  At 
Tokay  they  .IcfcateU  Zupolyu  and  comp..!?.^  him 


214 


1).7,  Feitlinand  was  crowne.     n  Mtuhlwii*,,.,, 

pl  le,     Ferdinan.1,  however,  distinctly  fell  ,|   , 
this  appearance  was  .Musivc.  .  .  .  In  Boh,,    , 
too    IS, „,wer  was  far  fr..m  secure.    Ilis  Bav„      1 
.^r  vll.".?    ""'    "."'   "■'Inquish.Kl  the  hop,. 
Irning  him  from  the  thnme  at  the  first  g,.n,r. 
urnoFaflrairs.     The  Oltomims,  mcanwhll,  ".  t 
ng  upon  the  persuasi.m  tliatev..ry  lam!  in  wl,i,  l, 
Uie    lea.    of  their  elii..f  ha.l  Mtid  belo.iw, 
„f; .    '.JL"'""'  *T  P"T''ring  to  ri'tum  to  Um 
gary ;  cl  her  to  take  pos.*.ssi,m  of  it  thenis,""" 
or  at  lirst  as  was  th.'ir  c.ist.mi,  to  licstow  it  „„  ,; 
nativj.  ruler -Zapolya,  who  now  eageriy  .s,„i  "l 
an  a  iance  with  them -as  their  vas^i'!: 

ITJ  H^".  "i'^  "/  ""^  formation  iVi  dr. 
many,  bk.  4,  ch.  4  (r,  2) 

dolph  and  Ferdinand  II.- Prelude  to  th, 
Th'rty  Year.  War.-"  Then,  is  no  peri',!  c  J,' 
nec,e.I  with  these  r,.||gious  wars  thiit  ,|,.«,.rv  s 
m,)retobe8tudi«!  than  tliese  reigns  .  Kirili 
nan,l  I.,  Maximilian  [the  8..coml],\ml  th.t:  ,,f 
his  8um^,rs  who  preceded  the  tliirtv  v.ars' 
,^.  ;.i  ".  '""I  ""  ""^•^"■iSn  who  exhibit,  ,1  th,,t 
exercisoof  m,xlerati,m  ami  rikkI  si-nse  wl,i,  |,  „ 
pl  ilos,.phcr  w.iuM  re,,ulre,  but  Maximili,.,,;  a 

■  was  lmn.e.liately  followe.1  by  prin.vs  ,f  a 
different  complexion.  .  .  .  Nothing  c.uM  1... 
m,  re  compl..te  than  the  .lilflculty  .,?  t„l,.r,„i.n 
«  he  time  when  Maximilian  nigne.!;  «n,l  |,  ' 
ndl,l  policy  could  be  attended  with  favoun.l.I,' 
eff,.ctsinhisageam!  nation,  there  can  l)e  li,i|. 
fear  of  the  experiment  at  any  oiIi.t  peri,>,l  \„ 
riTX,!!";  •'r'!^""  .'"."'"  *""«  w»»  then  disp.K,.,| 
,w  i^V  '"l'i'''>;'"'"ur  from  anv  sens,.  „f  u„. 
justice  of  such  forbearance,  but  from  moliv,, „f 
leini«,r.,l  pohcy  alon...  The  Lutherans,  it  uill  1„. 
seen,  could  not  bear  tliat  the  Calvinisis  ^h^uM 

«.|ve,Tf"'y? ,'■'■''>'''"•'*  privileges  with  tl„m. 
8.  his.  The  Calvinisis  were  c,,ually  opinion:it,.,l 
ami  unjust; and  Maximilian  himself  wai  prnl,„|,|v 
U.lerant  and  wise,  chiefly  bt^cause  he  w...  i„  l.u 
real  opini.ms  a  Lutheran,  and  in  outward  pro- 

r,  ,i  1  ^"'  '"'S'''*'  y™"'  «''e  whole  of  his 
reign,  he  prcscrvinl  the  reliirlous  peace  ,)f  tlje 
eommimity.  without  destroying  the  r.Ii'i. '  1 
free,l,.m  of  the  human  min.l/  He  supp."„:i  u" 

allTl^l,  'l*'!'!'"'^'  "'  "«'  l"-"l»minanl  p,„.v.  in 
all  their  rights,  possessions,  am!  privil,'-, ,;"  l,„t 
c  pro„.c„.,l  the  I'rot,.s,ants  in  ev'-ry  ..vTr.  isi'  !1 
their  religion  which  was  then  pra;n,„bl,..  I„ 
.therw.)r,ls,  he  was  as  tolenmt  an,l  just  as  tl„. 
emper  of  8,Kuty  Ih.'n  a.lmittol.  ami  mure  „, 
than  the  state  ,.f  thinirs  woul.l  have  su2L',st,d 

...  Ihcm.'rit  of  Maximilian  was  butt,H,a ,r. 

em  the  m„m.;nt  that  his  8,>n  R,Molpli  was  ,  ,  l,,l 
UH,n,. supply  his  ph.ce.  .  .  .  He  lull  alu.vshft 
the  (Mliuiatum  of  his  son  ami  successor  |o,,„„i,h 
;i,'.i„. '  ;'  «'^"™  "f  Ilis  bigot.H!  con8,irt  Ho 
dolph.  his  son,  was  ther..f,.re  as  igimnui!  an,l 
f  nous  .m  his  part  as  were  the  Pr,.,estants  „n 
theirs;  !,r  l,ad  imimillate  recourse  t,.  th,.  usum! 
(xpedi,,,., —  force,  and  the  exwuti,in  .f  the 
e'r  '''•''« /I'O'  "'■"'•r.  .  .  .  After  K.«l„l|:h 
(oiries  Matthias,  ami,  unhappily  for  all  Eim.|».. 
:""■"■'•'  '*"''  'he  empire  felt  afli-rwanls  ,i„.i,r 
the  management  ..f  Ferdinand  II.  Of  the  ,liir,.r 
ent  Austrian  princes,  it  is  tbc  t«lgn  of  Feniinsna 


AUSTRU,  IMl  1818. 


TUrhiTian 
Iror. 


AUSTRIA,  Ut8-1M8. 


n.  that  b  more  pnrttcularly  to  be  cnnildcrctl. 
Siidi  WM  the  iirbllrary  nature  of  his  gdvem- 
nwnt  over  liin  siiliji-rta  In  Bnhcniiit,  tlmt  tlicy 
n'vcilicd,  Tliiy  ilfctcfl  for  tliiir  king  the 
jouiig  EliTtnr  Paliiline,  hoping  thus  to  extricate 
tluniselvcs  from  the  higotry  and  tyranny  of 
Ftriiiuiind.  TIds  crown  8i>  offered  was  ucconted  ■ 
and,  in  tlie  event,  the  cau9<;  of  tlic  Bolicmlana 
Ix'Oimc  the  cause  of  the  Reformufion  In  Gor- 
miiny,  and  the  Elertor  Palatine  the  hero  of  that 
cause.  It  Is  this  which  gives  the  great  Intert-st 
tnthlsrol^'n  of  Fenlinand  II.,  to  thise  concerns 
f)f  hiHsuliJects  in  Rohemia,  and  to  the  character 
of  tliis  Elector  Palatine.  For  all  these  evenu 
and  circumstances  led  to  the  thirty  years'  war." 
— W.  t<myth,  l^rliim  on  Moilern  flinhrry  t  I 
Ifrl.  13.  — See  B<iiiEMi.\:  A.  D.  16U-16lk  and 
GER.M.VNT:  A.  I).  1B1»-Ifi20 

A.  D.  is67-i66o.-Stnig:Blet  of  the  Hapt- 
burg  House  in  Hungary  and  TransTlvania  to 
establish  rights  of  sovereigntj,— Wars  with 
the  Turks.     Sec  IIlmhuy:    A.  D,  1567-1604 
and  lOotUBflO.  • 

A.  D.  i6i8-i648.-The  Thirty  Years  War. 
-The  Peace  of  Westphalia.— 'The  thirty 
vinrs  war  made  Germany  tlie  centre  point  o"f 
Lun.peun  politiea.  .  .  .  Nn  one  at  il.s  eommcnci 


d  iratlon  and 

—IS  L-verywhen; 

let  it  goinjr; 

,  and  sw.il- 

.y  truth,  tliat 

..iirlydiipluyed. 

first   broke  "out 


(>p( 
mint   could    luive    foreseen    the 
exiint.     But  the  train  of  r-  -  ^ 
laid,  and  required  only  the  • 
mere  than  (.iie  war  was  jo 
lowed  up  in  it ;  and  the  n 
war  feeds  itself,  wasnever  t        ^„ 

.  .  .  Thiiugli   tin-    war,  wii.vli   „^   „„ 

in  B<iliemia,  concerned  only  the  hoii.sc  of  Austria 
vitljy  its  originating  inVeliirious  disputes  by 
Its  i»  culiur  character  as  a  nligious  war  and  I>v- 
t he  miiisures  adoptwl  iK.tli  by  the  Insurgeiilsand 
ti.e  eijiperor,  it  acquired  such  an  extent  that 
even  thequellins  of  the  in-urrcction  was'lnsuf- 
tioi,  nt  to  put  a  stop  to  it.  .  ,  .  Thoueh  the 
lJ..hemian  war  was  apparently  terminated,  V( t 
the  name  had  communicated  to  Gernuinv  lind 
Hunirary,  and  new  fuel  was  added  by  the  act  of 
proscription  promulcated  a^-ainst  the  elector 
^r,-,l,ric  ami  his  adherents.  From  this  the  w  ,r 
itcrived  that  revolutionary  character,  which  was 
hem tfnrwani  peculiar  to  it;  it  was  a  step  that 
couldnutbut  lead  to  further  results,  forllieques- 
ii.rinf  the  relations  betw,-.  n  the  emp.mr  ami 
his  states  was  in  a  fair  w,.  of  being  practically 

formed  in  \ieuna  and  Madrid,  where  it  w.is 
r« lived  to  renew  the  war  with  the  Netherlands. 
Lnder  the  present  circumstances,  the  suppn^s- 
sion  of  the  Protestant  redigion  ami  the  overthrow 
of(,ermanand  Dutch  liberty  app«ired  insepar- 
a!.-,  uhle  the  success  of  the  lm|Krial  arms, 
>  "Ir!,'  "*''"'}•  *i-"^,  hy  the  league  and  the 
f  'r  '  M  u*  *;f"'"""->l8.  gave  just  grounds 

I .  «  '.r  i.v  •  •  ^?'  "'':  '•■"."■Jing  of  the  war  into 
t^mnlf^  "'■•  v."'  P^"'iP»' seat  of  the  Protes- 
tant religion  in  Germany  (the  states  of  which 
had  a,,p.,i,„«  chtistian  IV.  of  IX.nmark  »^ 
n  J,  ""'■""-■'''•  ?«>''  "t  their  confwieracy), 
the-  i^onhem  s-  .tes  had  already,  though  with.iu 
anv  benehcial  result.  iKK-n  inv^lvcl  ln*'the  ^ri  e 
"Id  the  Danish  war  had  broken  out.     But  the 

r'/.\:':.""';'f/."T,"  i  ^V""^"*'^-!"  to  the  di"ni,v 
.,  .,.,„,..,[  j.„    jj.j,j|j  ^^^^  ini|K;rial  gencmloye'r 

m  r,^-  niportance.  as  it  affi-cted  the  whok-  couri 
»fldcUa«eltro/UK.  war.    From  this  time  tU^ 


215 


M.  iL  J        ".'°  '■"'  ?■';,"  ■»  ""■  m'iiutenauce  of 
his  army  coul<    noi  fail  to  make  It  such    . 
The  <lhitlnguh,h«l  success  of  the  ImpcTiul  arms 

^l,em..Tu","'"r"J',""'^''"'«'  «'■<-■  ''"ring 
schemes  of  W  allensteln.  He  did  m.t  come  for- 
ward  as  conqueror  alone,  but.  by  the  investiture  of 
Mecklenburg  as  a  stale  of  the  empire,  as  a  ruMne 

this  noTus  homo,  exasperated  and  annoye<l  the 

,H.'ll"'n   I?    ','•'"    "'""    "'«    Pr"testant\tati.s 
i-spicially  the  league  and  iu  chief:  all  implored 

rMi','",1,^^'"™'"'''"'«  discharge.     Tl 'u  ?^ 
the  diet  of  the  elwtors  f.t  Augsburg,  the  emperor 
was  r«luced  to  the  alternative  of  resigni  g  him 
or  Ids  allies     He   chose   the  former.*'  Wallen- 
ste  n  was  .llsmissecl,  the  majority  of  his  army 
disbandt,  ,  an,l  Tilly  m.miuaW  commander  lu^ 
chief  of  the  forces  of  the  en.|)eror  m,1  the  l.ague 
w;.tlif     '?  '"''■,"'  "•«  <^'»Peror  sufflcient  care 
r.^.^  "i^  '"  ?"''""»  ""^  *»■■•     The  refus,il  to 
restore  the  unfortunate  Frederic,  and  even  the 
bide  of  his  up|)er  Palatine  to  Bavaria,  must  with 
justice  have  excited  the    apprehensions  of  the 
other   princes.     But    when   the    Jesuits  finally 
suceewlwl,  not  only  In    extorting    the   edict  ,]l 
restitution,  but  also  in  cimsinc  iff.  Im.  enforce; 
n  the  m(«t  .hIIous  manner,  the  Catholic  st.ites 
themselves  saw  with  reg.-t  that  peace  cuuld  no 
longer  exist.      .  .  The  grea>  r  tile  suce...,s  that 
attended  the  house  of  Austria,  the  more  actively 
foreign  p(dicy  lal)oure<l  to  counteract  it.     Knl 
land  had  taken  an  interest  in  the  fate  of  Frtnl- 
eric  V.  from  the  first,  though  this  interest  was 
evinced  by  little  Iwyond  fruitless    negotiations. 
Denmark  became  engagifl  in  the  ,,uarnl  mostly 
through  the  inHuemx.  of  this  iKiwerand  Holland 
Richelieu,    fn.m    the    time    he    l)eeame    prime 
numster   of   France,    had   exerted    him.sdf   in 
opi»»,ing  Austria  and  Spain.     He  found  employ, 
ment    for    Spain    In    the    contests    respecting 

of  Mantua.     W  lliugly  would  he  have  detachi-,1 
the    German     league     from     the     interest     of 
he  emperor:   amf  though    he   failed    in  this 
he    procured    the    fall    of    Wallenstein 
Much    niore    imiwirtant,    however,   was    Hiche^ 
l!»"J  /"""'■"C';    on    the  war,   by   the  essential 
share  he  had  In   gaining  Oustavus    Adolphus' 
active    partieipatum    In    it.  .  .  .  The    nineteen 
yeareof  his  ^Gustavus  Adolphus'l  reign  which 
8lri-«'ly  elapsetl,  together  wi'th  the  Polish 
war,  which  lastiHl  nearly  that  time,  had  taught 
the  world  but  little  of  the  real  worth  of  this 
great  and  Uilented  hero.     The  decisive  superi- 
ority of  Protestantism  in  Germany,   under  his 
guidance,  soon  created  a  more  just  knowledge  and 
nt  the  same  time  showed  the  advantages' which 
must  result  to  a  victorious  supporter  of  that 
cause.  .      .  The  Imttle  at  Uipzig  w»s  decisive 
for  Oustavus  Adolphus  and  his  party,  almost 
U-yond  exiiectation.     The  league  feirasun<lcr 
arid  in  a  short  time  he  was  master  of  the  ( oun- 
irics  fMm  the  Baltic  to  Bavaria,  and  from  the 
Rhne  to    Boheniia.  ...  But    the    misforiunes 
and  death  <.f  Tilly  bn.ught  Wallenstein  again 
on  the  stage  as  absolute  commander  in  chief 
bent  on  plans  n„t  .,   whit    K-^  extensive  than 
those  he  had  iK-fore  formctl.  N.)pt'rio.lof  the  w,-ir 
gave  prtmiise  of  such  great  aiul  rapid  successes 
or  reverses  as  the  present,  for  both  leaders  wen^ 
Uctcrmined  to  effect  tbem;  but  tbe  vlctor>-  of 


AUSTRIA,  1018-1648. 


Peactcf 
tpkaha. 


Wttt, 


AUSTRIA,  167»-1714. 


1„  H 


LOtzen  while  It  cost  Gustnvus  his  life,  prepared 
the  full  of  \V  a  :ensteln.  Though  the  fall  of 

Uustavus  Adolphus  frusiratnl  his  own  private 
views,  It  did  not  those  of  liis  party.  .  .      The 
school  of  OustHVHs  produced  a  number  of  men 
peat  In  the  n'Mwt  and  In  the  field:  yet  it  was 
hard,  even  for  an  Oxensteim,  to  preserve  the 
Importance  of  Sweden  unimpaired;  and  It  was 
but  partially  done  by  the  alliance  of  Hcllbronn. 
...  If  the  forces  of   Sweden  overrun    almost 
every    part    of    Germany    in    the    following 
months,  under  the  guidance  of  the  pupils  of  the 
King,  Bemant  of  Weimar  and  Oustavus  Horn 
we  must  apparently  attribute  it  to  AV.illonstein's 
Intentional  Inaotivitv  in  Bohemia.     The  distrust 
of  him  Incnas,.,!  In  Vienna  the  more,  as  he  took 
but  little  trouble  to  diminish  It;  and  thougli  his 
fall  was  not  sufficient  to  atone  for  treachery,  If 
proved  it  was  for  his  equivocal  character  and 
Imprudence.     Ills  death    probably   saved  Oer- 
iimny  from  a  calastronbe.  ...  A  great  change 
UH)k  place  upon  tlie  ileath  of  Wallenstein;  as  a 
prince  of  the  bloo<l.  Fenllnand.  king  of  Hungary 
and  Bohemia,  obtained  the  command.    Thus  an 
end  was  put  to  plans  of  revolutions  from  this 
quarter.     But    in  the  same  year  the  battle  of 
Honllmgcn  gave  U)  the  imperial  arms  a  sudden 
preponilcrance,    such   as   it   had   never  before 
acquired.     The  separate  peace  of  Saxony  with 
the  emperor  at  Prague,  and  soon  after  an  alli- 
ance, were  its  consequences;  Sweden  driven  back 
to  Pomemnia,  st'cmcd  unable  of  herself,  during 
the  two  following  years,  to  maintain  her  ground 
In  Germany:  the   victory  of    WItUtock  turned 
the  scale  In  her  favour.  .  .  .  The  war  was  pro- 
longinl  and  gri'allv  extended  by  the  active  share 


--.„...  ..„..^.v,.,,,  ^^vcuuvu  uj  lue  Hciive snare 
taken  In  it  by   trance:  first  against  Spain,  and 
soon  against   Austriii    .  .  .  flic   German   war 
after  the  treaty  with  Bemhard  of  Welmnr  was 
mainly  carried  on  by  France,  by  the  arming  of 
Oemmns  against  Germans.      But  the  pupil  of 
Oustavus  Adolphus  preferred  to  fight  for  him- 
self rather  than  utliers,  and  his  early  deatli  was 
almost  as  much  mvetnl  by  France  as  by  Austria 
The  succi'ss  of  the  Swe<ilsh  arms  revive<l  under 
Bauir.  ...  At  the  general  diet,  which  was  at 
last  convened,  the  empemr  yielded  to  a  general 
amnesty,  or  at   least   what   was  so  designated 
But  wh.'n  at  the  mwling  of  the  ambassii.iiirs  of 
the  leading  jKiwcrs  at  llaml.urg,  the  pnlimin- 
Bries  Were  Rlgnul,  and  the  time  and  place  of  the 
ci)ngrcss  of  p,ac..  fixed,   it  was  de/crred  after 
Klchelicu  »  d.iitli,  (who  was  succee<led  by  M«/.a- 
rin).  by  tlie  war.  which  both  parties  conlinuwl 
III  the  hoiK'  of    s.-.uring    Oetter  coniiltions  by 
victi.ry       A   new   war  broke  out  In  the  north 
b<twc(n  Swcihn  and    Denmark,  ami    when  at 

'»"•  " tigress  of  peace  was  oiwucd  at  MunMcr 

■nd  OHHiiliruck.  the  negotiations  draggcl  on 
for  llinc  vcurs.  .  Tlie  German  p<'ace  was 
neg„tlai,.,l  „i  .Muiister  between  the  emperor  and 
f  ranci',  and  at  IKnaliruck  lietwiTn  the  emperor 
■nd  Cwclin;  hut  iH.lh  treaties,  according  to 
express  auncmcnt.  Oct.  24,  1648,  were  to  tic 
conslderifl  MS  cue.  under  the  title  of  (lie  West- 
phallan  '-A  H  I,  llecrcn.  A  »v,;.,l  ,.f  tht 
tl„l;ry  nf  the  IU,I,^.,I  si„l„n  of  Knrmr  „H,iif 
("<.:„.>.  ,>,,.  91-(tH  -Tlie  Peace  of  Wc.ili>hall» 
littj.  riicl  manifold  hostile  conimenu,  not  only  ln 
carlLr.  hut  also  In  later,  llni.»  Oi'rnmn  patriots 
romplnuiiil  that  'iv  It  the  unity  of  the  Empire 
ws-i  f,.;,;.  an,!  in.f.i^j  tiic  c..uiwtli.iu  of  the 
Bute.,  which  even  Uforc  was  kKMc,  was  relued 


t°^,*e  extreme.  This  was,  however,  an  evil 
which  could  not  be  avoided,  and  It  had  to  iv. 
accepted  In  order  to  prevent  the  French  ami 
Swedes  from  using  tiielr  opportunity  for  tlie 
further   enslavement   of    the    land  Tlie 

religious  parties  also   made   objections'  to  the 
peace.    The  strict  Catholics  condemned  it  as  a 
work  of   Inexcusable   and   arbitrary   injiistiit. 
v.  •-"*.  dissatisfaction  of  the  Protestants  wa., 
chiefly  with  the  recognition  of  the  Ecclesiastical 
Keservatlon.     Tliey  complained  also  that  their 
brethren  In  the  faith  were  not  allowed  the  frie 
exercise  of  their  religion  in  Austria.    Their  h,.,. 
tiiity    was   limited   to   theoretical   discussions 
which  soon  ceased  when  Louis  XIV.  took  udv  in' 
tage  of  the  prt^pondcmnce  which  he  liiul  won 
to  make  outrageous   assaults  upon   C«miauv 
and  even  the    Protcstanu   were   compdUd  i,; 
acknowledge  the  Emperor  as  the  real  dcfcmler 
°I  .    i2'"'''"'*P<""''^'«;«"— A.  OIndely,  UiHon 
of  the  Thirty  Tenrt'  War.  e.  8,  ch.  10,  tect.  4  -Sw 
also,    Germant:    A.    D.    1618-1620,    to    1«4)*' 
f627S'i*'   "■   *^^^''^-   """l  It*'-*:  a.  D,' 
A.  D.  i6ai.-Form«l  eitablisbment  of  the 
rtght    of   primogeniture    in    the    Archducal 

*    X*    ^^eO^-XMAXv:  A.  D.  1636-l«:tT 
D-  u  o    '''i.-'*^;— Hoitile  combinations  of 
Richelieo.-tbe  Valtelline  war  in  Northern 

lUly.     8ceFRA.NCE:  A.  D.  1624-1620 
A.  D.  1637.1631.-War  with  France  over 

the  iueceiijon  to  the  Duchy  of  Mantua.    8c. 

Italy  :  A.  D.  1627-1031 
A.D.  i648-l7is.-Relationa  with  O-rmanT 

and  France.    See  Okrm.vnt  :  A.  I).  lii|s-i;i.i 
A.  D.  i66»-i6tf4.— Renewed  war  with  the 

Turks.    PeeHiNdAKv:  A.  I),  laoo-loill 
A.  D.  1668-1683.— Increased  oppression  and 

relimoua  persecution  in  Hungary.    Revolt  of 

Tekeli.— The  Turks  again  called  in.    Mus- 

tapha  a  great  invasion  and  tiege  of  Vienna  - 

DeliTtrance  of  the  city  by  John  Sobieski.    Sw 

HtNOAKT:   A.  I).  160H-1(W;I. 

»t1f  ?/  ir'*""'7'Ar''"'V  ."■"  'rith  Louis 
XIV.  of  France:  War  of  the  Grand  Alliance. 
-Peace  of  Rjrswick.— "  The  Ica.liiig  prindnle 
of  the  reign  [fn  France]  of  Ixiuis  xfv  is 

the  principle  of  war  with  the  dynasty  of  (  harl.s 
V  —the  elder  branch  of  which  reignnl  in  .•^iMiri 
while  the  desccmlania  of   the   younger  hramli 
occurile<l  the  Imperial  throne  of'Gcrniaiiv 
At  the  death  of    Maiarin,    or  to  si.cit   tn.*. 
correctly.  Immediately  after  the  death  of  I'hilip 
IV..      .  .  the    early    ambilion  of   Louis  .\1\' 
sought  to  prevent    the    junior  branch  of  the 
Austrian    dynasty   from  succeeding  to  Iho  in- 
heritance of  the  elder  branch,     lie  had  no disiro 
to  see  reconstilutwl  under  the  Impirlai  s<  1  pirr  of 
Ocrmanv  the  monarchy  which  Cliarlrs  V.  h:ul 
at  one  time  wishni  to  transmit  enlln  to  liis  »..n. 
but  which.  Worn  out  and   weakened,   he  »iil) 
seqiiently  allowed  without  ri'grct  to  lh>  ,livi,|,d 
iK'tween  his  son  ami  his  brother.     Bifon'  iii.ikinit      > 
war  upon  Au.stria,   Louis   XIV.   last  his  vut 
upon  a  portion  of    the  territory   bi'loniriiiir'to 
Spain^nd  the  exiHiilt ion  against  llollaitil  U-zm 

I'i..    'l.l"*    NF-TIIKni.ANIW   (HOLLAXIM      X    0 

1672-1674,  ami  IH74-I07M1,  for  tlie  purixw  of 
absorbing  the  Spanish  provinces  bv  overwhelm 

Ing  them,  opened  the  series  of  hi»  vast  e r 

prises.  Ilia  rtrst  irreat  war  w:ts  !:!i!.:Hrf;!!r 
speaking,  his  first  great  fault.  iTe  faiii  .1  In  hit 
object:  (or  at  the  end  u(  six  campalgus,  duruif 


216 


AUSTRIA,  167a-1714. 


Wan  tcith 
ItmU  XIV. 


AU8TRU.  1673-1714. 


which  the  French  armies  obtained   creat  and 
deserved    «ueceM,    Holland    remained    uncon- 
qucred.    Thus  was  Europe  warned  that  the  lust 
of  con(|iicst  of  ft  young  monarch,   who  did  not 
liinisk'lf  possess  militiiry  (tenlus.  but  who  found 
in  his  Rcncrals  the  resources  and  ability  In  which 
he  was  himself  deficient,  would  soon  threaten  her 
Independence.    Conde  and  Turenne,  after  having 
been   relK-llious   subjects   under  the  Regency, 
were  about  to  become  the  first  and  the  most 
illustrious  lieutenants  of  Louis  XIV.     Europe, 
however,  though  wametl,  was  not  Immediately 
ready  to  defend  herself.     It  was  from  Austria, 
more  directly  exposed  to  the  dangers  of  the 
great  war  now  commencing,  that  the  first  sts- 
tematic  resistance  ought    to  have  come.     But 
Austria  was  not  prepared  to  play  such  a  part; 
and  the  Emperor  Leopold  possessed  neither  the 
genius  nor  the  wish  for  it.     He  was.  in  fact, 
nothing  more  than  the  nominal  head  of  Germany. 
.  .  .  Such  was  the  state  of  affairs  in  Europe 
when  William  of  Orange  first  made  his  appear- 
ance  on  the  stage.  .  .  .  The  old  question  of 
suprrniiicy,  which  Louis  XIV.  wished  to  fight 
out  as  a  duel  with  the  House  of  Austria,  was 
now  alMMit  to  change  its  aspect,  and,  owing  to 
the  presence  of  an  unexpected  genius,  to  bring 
into  the  qu.irrel  other  powers  besides  the  two 
original  competitors.  The  foe  of  Louis  XIV.  ought 
by  rights  to  have  been  bom  on  the  banks  of  the 
Danube,  and  not  on  the  shores  of  the  North  Sea. 
In  fact.  It  was  Austria  that  at  that  moment  most 
neciled  a  man  of  genius,  either  on  the  throne  or 
at  the  lii'iicl  of  alTain.     The  events  of  thecenturr 
woulii.  In  this  case,  doubtless  have  followed  a 
dllTiTi'iil  course:  the  war  would  have  been  lesH 
gcnenil,  and  the  maritime  nations  would  not 
have  Ixen  Involved  in  it  to  the  same  degree. 
The  treaties  of  peace  would  have  been  signed  in 
winie  small  place  in  France  or  Oermanr,  and  not 
in  two  towns  and  a  village  In  Holland,  such  as 
Ximeguen,  Kyswick,  and  Utrecht.  .  .  .  William 
of  Orange  found  himself  In  a  position  soon  to 
form  the  Triple  Alliance  which  the  very  policy 
of  l,.>uis  XIV.  sugKesUHi.     For  Fmnce  to  attack 
H.illiin.l,   when   her    object  was    eventually  to 
n-adi  .\intria.  and  keep  her  out  of  the  Spanish 
»U(W*.i,in,  was  to  make  eiirmies  at  one  and  the 
sjinic  lime  of  «paln,  of  Austria,  and  of  Holland. 
iJui  if  It  aftcrwanls  rcquirrd  considerable  efforts 
rn  the  part  of  Wlljlam  of  Orange  to  maintain 
tills  allmncc.  It  denunded  still  mor«  cnergv  to 
ixtenil  It     It  fonmii  part  of  the  StadthoMers 
iillerlnr  Plans  to  combine  the  union  between  him- 
self  and    the    two   branches    of    the  Austrian 
.,'11  ■*'■    "'"'    "'"    "'"'    Anglo-Swedish    Triple 
Alliance,  which  had   lust  Inrn  dissolved  under 
the  strong  pressure  brought  to  bear  on  It  by 
Louis  XIV.  .  .      I^ul,   Jciv..  whose  finances 
wetv  exhauste<J.  was  very  soon  anxious  to  make 
peace  even  on  the  morrow  of  hit  most  brilliant 
vidories;  whilst  William  of  Orange,  beaten  and 
relrealiiig,  anienlly  desired  the  continuance  of 
'he  »,.r      .  .  The  I'race  of  Nimeguen  was  at 
iMl  Mi-neil.  and  by  It  wen'  secured  to  lA>ula  XIV 
rraiielie  romte,  and  some  important  places  In 
till-  Hpan  sh   Low  t'oimtries   on    bis    northern 
fnmtler    (we    NlMKoiKN,    Prac-    or].      This 
was  the  nilminating  point  of  the  reign  of  Louis 
A!\       Alil.mjgh  the  ttaUthm   haxf  prpvpntrfi 

ag.ln.|  the  House  of  Austria,  which  bad  been 
w  ausorb  by  ooaqucst  so  mucb  of  tba  territory 

217 


belonging  to  Spain  as  would  secure  him  against 
the  effect  of  a  will  preserving  the  whole  In- 
heritance Intact  In  the  family,  yet  his  armies  had 
been  constantly  successful,  and  many  of  his  op- 
pomaw  were  evidently  tired  of  the  struggle. 
.  .  .  Some  Tears  passed  thus,  with  the  appear- 
ance of   calm.    Europe    was   conquered;    and 
when  peace  was  broken,  because,  as  was  said, 
the  Treaty  of  Nimeguen  was  not  duly  executed, 
the  eventaof  the  war  were  for  some  time  neither 
brilliant  or  Important,   for   several  campaigns 
Iwgan  and  ended  without  any  considerable  re- 
sult. At  length  Louis  XIV.  entered  on  the 
second  half  of  his  reign,  which  differed  widely 
from  the  first.  .  .  .  During  this  second  period  of 
more  than  thirty  years,  which  begins  after  the 
Treaty  of  Nimeguen  and  lasts  till  the  Peace  of 
Utrecht,  evcnta  succeed  each  other  in  complete 
logical  sequence,  so  that  the  reign  prescnta  Itself 
as  one  continuous  whole,  with  a  regular  move- 
ment of  ascension  and  decline.  .  .  .  The  leading 
principle  of  the  reign  remained  the  same;  it  was 
always  the  desire  to  weaken  the  House  of  Aus- 
tria, or   to   secure  an  advantageous   pariltion 
of  the  Spanish  succession.     But  the  Emperor  of 
Ocrmanv  was  protected  by  the  coalition,  and  the 
King  of   Spain,   whose  death   was   considered 
Imminent,  would  not  make  up  his  mind  to  die. 
.  .  .  During  the  first  League,  when  the  Prince 
of  Orange  was  contending  against  Louis  XIV. 
with  the  cooperation  of  tiic  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, of  the  King  of  Spain,  and  of  the  Elector! 
on  the  Rhine,  the  religious  clement  played  only 
a  secondary  part  In  the  war.     But  we  shall  see 
this  element  make  ita  presence  more  inauifest. 
.  .  .  Tims  the  influence  of  Protestant  England 
made  Itself  more  and  more  felt  In  the  affairs  of 
Europe,  In  proportion  as  the  government  of  the 
Stuarts,  from  its  violence,  its  unpopularity,  and 
from  the  opposition  offered  to  it,  was  approach- 
ing   its   end.      .  .  The   seomd    coalition    wai 
neither  more  united  nor  more  firm  than  the  first 
had  U-en :  but,  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Stuarta, 
the  germs  of  dissolution  no  longer  threatened 
the  same  dangers.  .  .  .  The  British  nation  now 
made  Itself  felt  in  the  balance  of  Eunipe,  and 
William  of  Orange  was  for  the  first  time  In  his 
life  successful  In  war  at  the  head  of  his  English 
triMips.  .  .  ,  This  was  tlic  most  brilliiiut  epoch 
of  the  life  of  William  III.  ...  He  was  now  at 
the  height  of  his  glory,  afU'r  a  [M-rio-l  of  twenty 
years  fn>m  his  start  In  life,  and  his  .!■  ^tiny  was 
acn>mpllshed;   so  that  until  the  Treii;     ..f  Rys- 
wick,  which  In  1698  put  an  eml  to  his  hiwtiiitles 
with  Fmnce,  and  brought  about  his  nTognitlon 
as  King  of  England  by  Louis  XIV.,  not  much 
more  was  left  for  him  to  gain;  and  he  had  th« 
skill  to  lose  nothing.  .  .  .  The  negotiations  for 
the  Treaty  of  Ryswick  were  omduited  with  less 
ability  and    b>ildnesa.    and    ronclmliil    on    less 
advantageous  terms,  than  the  Triii-e  of  Ratlslmn 
or  the  Peace  of  Nimeguen.     Nevcriheless,  this 
treaty,  which  secured  to  l,<iiii«  the  possession  of 
Strasbourg,  might,  particuliirly  as  ttfte  was  now 
crxH'ping  on  him,  have  dosiil  I'lls  military  career 
without  disgrace.  If  the  eternal  quistlon.  for  the 
solution  of  which  he  had  mniie  so  many  sacri- 
fices, and  which  had  always  held  the  foremost 
place  ill  his  thoni^hts,  had  not  remalne<t  as  uo- 
Srillrt!  oil!  03  fu:l  nf  diiEcuity  as  or,  the  a^j 
when  he  had  mounted  thethi^one     Charles  It. 
of  Spain  was  not  dead,  and  the  question  of  th« 
Spanish    luccMtioa,    whkh    bad    so    MtlTtljr 


1r 


AUSTRIA,  l«7a-1714. 


o/VtneU. 


AUSTOIA,  1718-1738. 


employed  the  Brmletof  Loult  XIV..  and  taxed 
his  dlplomncy,  wns  aa  utiilwidcd  aa  at  the  bc- 
ginnlngofhis  wlgn.  Lo.,|,xiV.  sawtwoalter- 
natlvcs  before  Uim:  a  partition  of  the  aucceaaion 
between  the  tmpomr  mid  lilmw-lf  (a  aolution 
proposcil  thirty  yearn  before  as  a  meant  to  avoid 
war),  or  else  a  will  In  fuvoiirof  Fmnce.  followwl 
C    .m!'.""    ^  \  UToninicnecment  of    general 

hostilities Loul,   XIV.   pr<.|K»ed  fn  si"' 

cewion  two  schemes,  not.  as  thirty  y.^ra  befon-, 
to  the  Emperor,  but  to  the  King  of  England 

«,i"f  iR"''",  "?.''  ,'*'"'*  Seniua  rendeit5  him 
the  arbiter  of  all  the  great  afTalre  of  Eurow. 

«;  i        V'!.  "'?'  "'   ""'  "i'"«''«  "'  Pirtili-n, 
Spain  and  tlie  I»w  Countries  wef«  to  be  given 
U.  the  I'rince  of  Bavaria;  in  the  second,  U,  the 
Archduke  CImr les.     In  both.  France  obtainwl 
Naples  and  Sicily  for  the  Dauphin.  .  .      Both 
tlii-se  arrangements  .  .  .  suile.!  both  Prance  and 
tngland  as  a  paclflc  solution  of  the  question 
.  .  .  Hut  events  as  we  know,  deranged  all  theae 
calculations,  and  C'lmrl."8  II.,  who,  by  continuing 
tol  ve  had  dimppointed  so  much  impatient  ex- 
pectation, by  his  Inst  will  prt)voked  a  general 
war.    to    be   carrii'd    on    apainst    France    by 
the  union  of  England  with  t|„.  Empire  and  with 
Ho  land  —  a  union  which  was  much  strengthcnwl 
under  the  new  dynasty,  and  which  afterwnnis 
embraced  the  northern  stales  of  Germany.  .  .  . 
>V  illiam  III.  dicl  at  the  age  of  flftytwo,  on  the 
91  h  of   March,    17(«,  „t   the  iKginnlng  of  the 
H  ar  of  Succession.     After  him,  the  part  he  was 
to  have  played  was  dividol.     Prince  Eugene 
Marllx.n)ugli    and    Il.iiwius  (the  tirand  Pen- 
sionary)  had    the    conduct   of    political    and 
especlallv  of  miliwry  alTttlrs,  and  aca-<l  in  con- 
«rt.     The  disastnius  onwijuences  to  Prance  of 
that  war,  in  which  A\illliiii,  i,a,l  no  part    arti 
notorious.     The  battles  of  Uleuheim.  of  /lamilies, 
and  of  Oudraanle  brouirht  the  allie<l  armies  on 
f  le  soil  of  Prancv.  ami  plact^l  l^.ulg  XIV  on 
t  ,e  verge  of  ruin.  ••^.    Van  Praef,   Eu,,),,  on 

lentiine:  pp.  afl(>-414  im.lUl-tVi 
Also  in:   H.  Martin.  //m«.  „/  fh,nft:  Aofof 

.i.^ii°-  '*;3-«M7-Mercileia  tuppretiion  of 
the  HuBjarian  re»olt.-The  crown  of  Hungary 
made  h.rediUry  in  the  House  of  HapabuT? 
Ne  llis.nHV:    A.  1).  I()*l-lrtS7  ' 

A.  D.  i683-i6M.-E>pultioB  of  tha  Turka 
from  HunjarT.-the  Peace  of  Cwlowits.   B.e 

A.  D.  1690-171  j.-Suppreaaion  of  the  Re- 
volt under  Rakocay  in  Huneary.     See  11^^ 
uamt:  a  i>  imw-i;m         *^ 
i-^h?"  ■7<»<>-''>';""  of  the  Imperial  House 


rr...i»_        n<v     (iKHmNV:     A.     I).    |fl«,    |u 


A.  i»: 

A   I). 


'-ceaaion. 

lTAi,r:    A    I)    1MI-171S:  Si'ain 

««ii^'  'V.'.^'^'"  ^     "'  "••  SP"'*"  Sac 
ceaaion.— Ita  Circumi  ancea  chanced —"Tlu. 

UA.  wh.jlech^,er'of''u„.'W«r.,7he  hSI 
Bucceaaion.     Ai  J«.ph  kft  u«  male  belS!  the 


218 


hereditary  dominions  of  the  House  of  Austria 
devo  v,Kl  U,bU  brother,  the  Archduke  Cl.ark? 
and  tliough  that  prince  had  not  In-en  elec,«| 
King  of  the  I{<,maiis,  nn<l  had  li.trefore  tol*. 
c.)mc  a  candi<late  for  the  lm,K-rial  c^.wn  vet 
there  could  be  l.t lie  doubt  that  he  would  a  Uin 
that  dignity,  ll.nee.  If  t'liark-s  should  »|!i  |J! 
n.nie  aovcrelgn  of  Simln  an.l  the  In.lles,  the  v,^t 

,  emp.re  of  Charles  ^.  would  U-  again  imilclTn 
one  pcraon;  and  that  very  evil  of  ,n  i.lm.«t  unl 
versnl  monarchy  would  be  established,  the  nn^ 
ventionof  which  had  iKrn  the  chief  cause  f,.r 

I  taking  up  arma  against  Philip  V.  .  .  After  «n 
intern-gnum  of  half  a  year,  during  which  th2 
affaira of  the  Empire  ha<t  Nen  conductal  liv  the 
Eh^-tflr  Palatine  ami  the  Ekn-torof  Saxony  „ 

the  Archduke  Charies  waa  unanimously  na.n.d 
Empejmr  by  the  Electoral  College  (Oct  I'th) 
:^  ,.  ^-  ■  "Wef'^i'd  the  imperial  (Mwn 
^j^.r"}^'"';^J^  8*.<.  *itl'  the  tlt/e  of  CLarl," 
\' ,,-T- U-  Dyer,  Hut.  o/M.Mlern  Europ,,  hk  5 

c/l.  O  (9.  o).  «  ■     , 

«t.^n!ifc'Z'^'^'1~^°^i"8^  °'*''«  War  of  the 
^•^.^  Succeaaion.-The  Peace  of  Utrecht 
i^d  the  Treat,  of  Raat^lt.-Acqui.ition  of 
«^e  Spuiah  rfetherlanda.  N.plea  and  Milan. 
See  Utukciit:  A.  D.  I7I3-17I4. 
-4^1;  ?•  ,'7«3:;7l9--Continued  differcncei 
with  Spain.- Tie  Triple  Alliance.- The 
(Quadruple  Alliance.    S<*  Spain:   A,  1)  1T13! 

A.  D.  1714.— peDeaertionof  the  Catsians. 
SecSpAi.N:    A.  D.  I7i:»-i:u 

A.  D.  l7i4-;7«8.-RecoTery  of  Belgrade 
and  final  expulaion  of  the  Turka  fromliuD- 
*'!'•«'*  '"■""*'«*:    A.  I).  161HJ-171H 

e,«i«-  'VJ:'2"~'^?*  l"«»ti««>  Of  the  Sue. 
VI  .^iu*  P"Pn"»":  Sanction  of  Charles 
VI.,  audita  narantec  by  the  Powera-  im 
he  death  [A.  U.  1711]  of  J.«.ph,  the  l,o|«,  „f 
the  house  of  Austria  ami  the  future  d.  stinv  of 

of  Spain,  Charles  III.,  Iiiehcctuallv  cnu.siini 

Ml,  ■'v"'*'',. "'"'"'".  *'"'  "">  '*•'"""'"  •"■!* 
I  lillp  V. ;  afterwards,  as  Empt^ror,  Cliarl.s  VI  1 
who  was  the  only  surviving  male  of  lii»  III,,,! 
trii.us  family.  Bv  that  event  the  houxs  of  Aus- 
tria, Uermany  and  Euroiie  were  placiil  in  a  mw 
and  critical  situation,  t'n.m  a  principl,.  „f  n,l,. 
taken  pollcv  the  succeaslon  lo  the  hinilitan  ilo- 
minions  mil  never  lKTne8U.l.li»h,.,|arii.nli„i;l,„„ 
Invariable  rule;  for  It  was  not  clearlv  as.,  rtaiiiid 
whether  mslis  of  llio  collHiiral  lirHmlHs  sliouij 
U-  pri.femil  to  females  In  lineal  dew-iil.  an  un 
eirlalnty  which  hiul  fri'iiuenllv  ,Hr»»i..,ie,|  nnuv 
vehement  disputes.       To  obvlale   this  .vil    if 

7.    \  **  J",  r"'**"'    'I't'ire    di»|iiii.s.    I i«.|,| 

Ifalher  of  Joseph  and  Chnrles)  had  arninu.  J  ilio 
■.nlrrofsuecession:  to  .l,H..ph  he  awl^-n..!  Una 
garyand  Bohemia,  and  the  olh.  r  liinillMn  ,|... 
Ill  iilous;  and  to  Charles  the  cnnvn  of  Snm{  .irhl 
Hi  the  territories  which  Ulonge.1  lo  llic  S|.nin,li 
inherilanw.  Shoukl  J.wph  die  wlil„,ui  K..,,- 
mall'  the  whole  aui>ceM<i<>n  was  to  il.-M,ti,l  1,1 
t  harles,  and  In  case  of  his  death,  iiiuler  -iinll.v 
elniinisijinees,  the  Austrian  ilomlnions  h.o  10 
ilevolveon  tlie  daughters  of  J,.w'|>|i  h,  ,,rif,r 
.•nee  to  those  of  Charles.  This  family  i,i,n,,»ot 
was  signed  by  the  two  brother*  In  ilii<  (.n-.j.. 
r.r  U-MHiM.  .I,«,.pu  ,i,„i  without  nislr  Iwiie: 
but  left  two  daughtera."  He  was  suiiiidiil  liy 
CbnrhM  in  accunlaoce  with  the  touipMi.    "On 


AU8TRU,  J718-1738. 


PragmaHe 
auieticm. 


AUSTRIA.  1740. 


the  Sod  of  Augtiit,  1718,  iood  after  the  ilgnature 
nf  tlie  Quadruple  Alliance.  Ckarlei  promulgate*] 
a  new  law  of  lucccasion  for  the  Inhcritaace  of 
the  hnuM)  nf  Austria,  under  the  name  of  tlie 
Pratrnmtic  Sanction.  According  to  tlie  family 
compBot  formwl  liy  Tvcopolil,  and  conflnncd  by 
.loscpli  and  Charles,  the  guccesilon  wa»  entailed 
on  tlip  dnuehtcm  of  Joseph  la  '.reference  tii 
the  il»U)rhters  of  Charles,  shoiii  they  both 
(lie  witliout  issue  male.  Charles,  ImweTer,  had 
sromly  awcnded  the  throne,  though  at  that 
lime  without  chihlrcn.  than  he  reversed  this 
cnmpae  I  and  setllwl  the  right  of  succession,  in 
diruult  i>(  his  male  Issue,  flrst  on  his  daughters, 
then  on  the  daughters  of  Joseph,  and  afterwanis 


"" —    ..-..-. u.  w.m^pu,  «uii  oiujrwHnil 

on  the  nupen  of  I'ortugal  and  the  other  daugh- 
ters of  I,c<ip<,I(l.    Since  the  promulgation  of  that 
(iecree.  the  Empress  had  borne  a  son  who  dir<l  in 
his  infiinrv.  and  three  daughtera,  Maria  Theresa, 
Maria  .\ime  and  Maria  Amelia.     With  a  view  to 
insiirp  the  succession  of  these  daughters,  and  to 
oliviftii'  tlie  dangers  which  might  arise  from  the 
claims  of  the  Josephine  archduchesses,  he  puh- 
llsheii  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,   and  comptlled 
his  nieces  to  renounci-  tlicir  pretensions  on  their 
marrinpes  with  the  electors  of  Saxony  and  Ba- 
varia.    Aware,  however,  that  the  strongest  re- 
nunciations  are  diareganled,   he  obtained  fmin 
llic  (lifTcn'nt  states  of  his  extensive  dominions 
tlie  ac  kriowliiltemeiit  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction 
anil  m.iilc  it  the  great  object  of  his  reign,   to 
Willi  li  he  sucrillreil  every  other  consideration,  to 
rriieiin>  tlie  guaranty  lit  the  European  powers" 
This  k'uaranty  was  nbtained  In  treaties  wiiu  llie 
si'venil  powers,  as  folldws:   Spain  in  ITS.'S-    Rus- 
sia. i:.'«.  n  hewed  in  1T;W:   Prussia,  1728;   Eng- 
land ami  Holland.  1781 ;  France,  1738:  tlieEmpiri' 
17;K.     Tlie  inheriunee  which  Charles  thus  eii- 
lieavim'd  to  secure  to  his  daughter  was  vast  and 
imp<«inL'.      "He  was  bv  election  Emperor    of 
(Jernianv,  by  herpilii...v  right  sovereign  of  Hun- 
gary, •irans.vlvania.   IJoliemia,  Austria.  Stvria 
(armlhiaanil  Caniiola,  the  Tyrol,  and  the  bris- 
pau.  and  he  had  nrentlv  obtained  Naples  and 
.•»i(ily.  the  Milan<se  and  the  Netlierlands."—  \V 
(•"Xc.  UiKt.  „fihe  IhiiM!  nf  Auitria,  eh.  80.  Hi-ail 
'■"  ,   ~,.'  ' '"'  •'fi'K'">'>"c  Sancthm,  though  framed 
in  i.  rilize  the  aeotaion  nf  Maria  TlieniMi,  ex- 
(luiliHtlie  priM-nt  EmiHwr's  daughters  and  his 
gri.iuj,  liihl    by    nostrHinliig    the    sueossion    of 
limahs  to  that  of  mahs  In  the  family  of  Cimrlis 
;,     7     •    ".    ""•"■cliier.    The    IhriUqt    of    tht 
aipi,l';r,;,i/;.rl„i(,/,l!D  !{,»..  Murfh.  l»89t 

Aix.  IN :  II.  Tiittle.  /li,l.  o/Pruma.  1740-174.5 

t'  w '^    'I""'"""-    ""'■  <^  "^   Uermani'f 

A.  D.1719.- Sardinia  ceded  to  the  Duke  of 

kV  I",  ■.'?'?,"«•    f".  S'^llr-     S«^«   Sl'AI.N: 

i7:n      '''•^''-'^'    »""'   Italt:    A.   D.    171,V 

-A:  ?■  'T^'-."''"''?  aecond  Treaty  of  Vienna 
KJ^kT         '"'' """"*'•     S*'"**'"^  A  1) 

A    M    lT:IMr?r*  P'"*"**-     Si-o    PuI.A.M>: 

A.  D.  i733-i735.-The  war  of  the  Polish 

Spain,  and  Lorraine  and  Bar  to  Fraace.    s.* 

Iti.v'iTiM  i'-'i-It:K.  «id  Um.x:    A.  1». 

I  urki,  in  alliaoc*  with  RoMia,— HuaUiatiac 


219 


S?£*QfL°*''T?'*-^?1«""'«'  «'  Belgrade, 
A.  D.^m^75S    "**"  "^    '^  livmu.: 

n.\-°'  '7?"*  <Oe»o<>«f)-Treachery  amoiw 

..  rif ""t"*""  of  M«rie  Theresa  disputed. 

^.h     f  ^^IP^"""  S'i'I'''-"*  ^'^ died  on  the 

20th  of   October,    1740.     Hi»   daughter   Maria 
llicresa,  the  hcire&s  of  hU  dominions  with  the 
title  of  Queen  of  Hungary,   was  but  twenty- 
three  years  of  age.  without  experience  or  knowl- 
e;ge  of  business;  and  her  husband  Francis,  the 
titular  Duke  of  Lorraine  and  reigning  Orand 
.u^»,?^  Tuscany,  deservwl  the  praise  of  amiable 
qualities   rather  than  of  commanding  taleuta 
Her    Ministers  were    timorous,    irrescilutc,   and 
useless:    'I  saw  them  in  despair,'  writes  Mr. 
Itobinson,    the  British    envoy,    'but  that  very 
despa  r    was   not    capable  of    rendering    them 
bravely  desperate. '   The  treasury  was  exlTausteil. 
the  army  dispersed,  and  no  General  risen  to  re- 
place Eugene.     The  succession  of  JIaria  Theresa 
was.  Indeed,   cheerfully  acknowledged  by  her 
subjects,   and  seemed  to  be  secured  amongst 
fore  gn  powers  by  their  guanmtee  of  the  I»rag- 
matic  Sanction;   but  it  soon  apiiearcd  that  sut-h 
guarantee*    are    mere    wortiilesa    parclimenU 
» licre  there  U  stnmg  temptation  to  break  and 
only  a    feeble    army    to    support    them.     The 
principal    claimant   to  the  succ-ession  was  the 
t-lrttiir  of    Ilavaria,   wlm  maintiuned  that    the 
will  of  the  Emperor  F.idinand  tlie  First  devisiKl 
he  Austrian  stales  to  his  .laughter,  from  wlioni 
the  Elettor  descended,  on  fai'   re. of  male  liiieaire 
It  anpearcfl  that  the  origiiiu:  ..ill  In  the  archives 
at   Vienna  referred  to  the  failure,    not  of  the 
male  but  of  the  legitimate  Issue  of   his  sons: 
but  this  document,   tliou-h  ostentatiously  dis- 
plave.1  to  all  the  Ministers  of  state  and  forelim 
amliassadors,   was  very  far  from  Inducing  the 
hli^cUir  to  desist  from  Ids  pretensions.     As  to  the 
t.reat  Powers-Ihe  Court  of  France,   the  old 
nily  of  the  Bavarian  family,  and  mindful  of  its 
iijuries  from  the  Hous.'  of  Austria,  was  eager 
to  e.xalt  the  Urst  by  the  depression  of  the  latter. 
1  he  UourUms  In  >|iain  followed  the  dirtKlion  of 
the  BciurUms  in  France.     Tlie  King  of  Poland 
and  the  Empn-ssof  Hussia  »er<.  more  friemlly 
In  their  cxprtwiions  tlmn  in  tli.ir  designs      Au 
oi.p.«itc  ..pirit  |i.  rvail.Ml  Enitiaiid  am!  HollamI 
Where  motives  of  honour  and  of  policy  combineti 
to  support  the  rii:lils  of    Maria   Theresa.     In 
(.ermany  itself    ||„.    Elector    of    Coh.gn...    the 
llavarians  brother,  warmly  csimiusjiI  hia  cause - 
and -the  remaining  El.cton..' says  I  In .tertleld," 
like  elwtors  with  ii»,  lhoughl"it  a  proiier  op- 
p<irtun  ty  of  making  llie  most  of  their  votes  — 
*[!     ?"   ".'..""'    '■■<J'<''»<'  of    the    helph'ss    and 
abandoned  House  of  Austria!'    The  lirst  bhiw 
however    came   from  Prussia,  where  the  King 
JreMlerick  William  liad  dieii  a  few  months  l». 
fore,  ami  lM.en  siiece.iliil  by  lila  son  Frwierick 
the  Second;   a  Prince  siirnsmiil  the  Onat  by 
■.lets.  — I^mi  Mahon  (Earl  StanhoiK.).  //„«   ,;/ 
ft"?..   171»-I7Hil,  M   SHir.  »)-  -The  elector  ,.f 
itavariaacUnl  in  a  prompt,  hon^t.  and  consistent 
manner.     He  at  on.e  l.><lg|.<|  »  ,,rot,i,t  against 
any  d  sposltlim  of  llie  h.nsliiarv  estates  to  the 
prejuilliw  nf  his  jwn  riehU;  ln>ik!<^<t  .-.„  (1;;.  win 
of  Ferdinand  I  ;  and  demanded  the  pitidui  lion 
of  the  original  tt'xt      It  was  iiromptly  prislureil. 
Hut  It  was  found  U.  lonvey  tlie  sin  ii.«.i»n  to  ihe 
iieii*  of   liM  (laughter,   the  auutttvos  of   Um 


AUSTRIA.  1740. 


War  0/  M« 


AUSTRIA.  1'40-I741. 


ill' 


elector,  not,  u  he  contended,  on  the  failure  of 
male  heirs,  but  In  the  al>«ence  of  more  direct 
heirs  bom  in  wedlock.  Mitria  Theresa  could  how- 
ever, trace  her  descent  through  nearer  male  heirs 
and  ha<i,  therefore,  a  superior  title.  Charici 
Albert  was  in  any  event  only  one  of  several 
claimants.  The  Kma;  of  Spain,  a  Bourbon,  pre- 
sented himaelf  as  the  heir  of  the  Hapsburir 
emperor  Charles  V.  The  King  of  Sardinia 
alleged  an  ancient  marriage  contract,  from  which 
he  denved  a  right  to  the  duchy  of  Milan.  Even 
August  of  Saxony  claimed  territory  by  virtue  of 
an  anti(|unted  title,  which.  It  was  pretended,  the 
renunciation  of  his  wife  could  not  affect.  All 
these  were,  however,  more  vultures  compare<l  to 
the  eagle  f  Frclcrick  of  Prussia]  which  was  men 
to  descend  \\\Min  iu  prev."— li  Tuttlc,  llitt.  of 
Prnma,  174(»-1745,  eh.  3. 

A-  D- «74«>(Octob«r—  Norember).— The  War 
of  the  Succetsion.  — Conduct  of  Frederick  the 
Great  ■■  explained  by  himaelf.— "This  Priig- 
matic  Sanction  had  been  guarantied  by  France 
England,    Holland,  Sardinia.    Saxony,  and    the 
Roman  emi)ire;  nay  bv  the  late  King  Frederic 
« illiam  fof  Prussia)  also,  on  condition  that  the 
court  of  Vienna  would  secure  to  him  the  succes- 
sion of  Juliers  and  Berg.     The  emperor  promised 
him  the  eventual  suc<'ession,  and  did  not  fulfil 
his  engagemcnta;  by  which  the  King  of  Prussia 
his  successor,  was  freed  from  this  guarantee   to 
which  his  father,  the  late  king,  hail  pledged  him- 
aelf,   conditionally.  .  .  .    Frederic  I.,  when   lie 
erected  Prussia  iiilo  a  kingdom,  had,  by  that  vnin 
gramleur,   plantiil  the  wion  of  ambition  in  llio 
bosom  of  his  posterity;  which,  soon  or  late,  must 
fruclify.     The  moiiarchv  he  had  left  to  liis  des- 
cendant.* was.  if  1  may  Ik-  permitted  the  cxpres- 
sion,  a  I  i-"l  of  iHTmapliriKlite,  which  was  rather 
morenr  ..rtonite  than  a  kingdom.     Fame  was 
to  be  Ok  ,  iireil  liy  determining  the  nature  of  this 
lieine-     i„i  ihis  ««'nsation  crruinly  was  one  o' 
those  which  strengthened  so  many  motives,  con- 
spiring to  enuMgc  llie  king  in  gmnd  enterprises 
If  the  ar.pii.Miii.n  of  the  dutcliy  of  Ikrg  had  nnt 
even  met  Willi  almost  iiisunnountablo  impiili- 
ment«  it  wiis  in  iijK.lf  so  small  that  the  posNssiou 
would  add  Imle  gninchMir  to  the  house  of  llnn- 
dcnliouri;      'Ihesc  retleitioiis  occasioned  the  king 
to  turn  his  views  towanl  the  house  of  Austria 
thesuec'ssii.n  of  which  wouUI  Ucome  matter  of 
litigaiiiin.  at  the  death  of  the  emfwror,  when  the 
throne  <if  the  Osars  should  be  vacant      Tlin* 
event  must  !»•  favourable  to  the  distinguish. d 
partwhidi  th.'  king  had  to  act  in  Uemianv   bv 
the  various  .  laims  of  the  houses  of  Saxonv  and 
Bavaria  to  tlii-^'  states;  bv  the  number  of  candi- 
dates whii  h  iniirht  canvass  for  the  imperialcrown' 
and  by  the  pn.J.cts  of  the  court  of  Versaillea" 
which,  on  such  an  iKcaslim.  must  naturally  pn.tli 
by  the  Iroiililes  that  the  death  of  Cliarles  VI 
could  n..l  fiil  to  excite      This  accident  did  n.it 
long  kci  11  the  world  in  expectation.     The  cm 
pcri.r  cii.jii!  hi*  (lavs  at  the  palace  U  Favorite 
onthc'Jllil,|.>(MI,],|«y,,f((ci„Wr.  1740.    The  news 
urriv<i|  at  Kb.  in^ls  rir  « li.ii  ibe  king  was  ill  of  a 
IZ^":.     :     ,"'   '"'""''iai- ly  rt-solved  to  r. claim 
lhoprinci|aliii,s,.f  Sllc,i;l;llH!righUorhishllUlll• 
towhllh  lloiitf  d.imiaiil.  the  claim  dating  back 
to   a  orlaiii  covcnuiil  of    heriUgebrolherhiKKl 
with  the  duke  i.f  Llegnin,  In    lS87,  which  the 

TT'^^'fuT'  t^  '"'*-^'  ^'  ^  s^uiliKi  by  ii.« 
(tiatcN  nf  lt..bcnila|  *.  re  Inconteiublc :  and  he 
prt'lMutil,  at  the  aanut  time,  to  lupport  ttietc  pro- 


tenalon^  If  neooMry ,  by  arms.    Thta  project  ac- 
compUahed  all  his  political  view*;  it  affonled  the 
tneana  of  acquiring  reputation,  of  augmentiuir 
the  power  of  the  atatc,  and  of  Urminating  what 
related  to  the  litigious  succession  of  the  dutchv 
of  Berg.  ...  The  state  of  the  court  of  Vienna 
after  the  death  of  the  emperor,  waa  deplorable' 
The  finances  were  in  disonler;  the    army  was 
ruined  and  discouraged  by  ill  success  in  its  wars 
with  the  Turks;  the  ministry  <li8unite<l,  and  a 
youthful  unexperienced  princ'ss  at  the  h.ad  of 
the  government,  who  was  to  ilefend  the  sucies- 
sion  from  all  claimants.     The  result  was  that  the 
government  could  not  appear   formidable      It 
was  besides  impossible  that  the  king  slioiiid  he 
destitute  of  alliea.  .  .  .  Thewarwhii-h  he  migh^ 
undertake  In  Silesia  was  the  only  offensive  war 
that  could  be  favoured  by  the  situation  of  hu 
stotci.  for  It  would  be  carried  on  upon  his  front- 
iers, and  the  Oder  would  always  furnish  him 
with  a  sure  communication.  .  .  .  Add  to  these 
reasons,  an  anny  fit  to  mareh,  a  treasurv  ready 
prepared,  and,  periiaps,  the  ambition  of  ■acquir- 
ing renown.     Such  were  the  causes  of  the  war 
which  the  king  declared  against  Maria  1  liensa 
'i  *."»'"»•  a"'"*""  "'  Hungary  and  Bohemia  "- 
Frederick  U.  (Frederick  the  Great),  llitt  „f  Vu 
Oitin  nmet:  FbHhumoiu  Wvrki  (traiu.  bu    111 
(Tr>fl),  e.  1,  eh.  1-3.  * 

^-  D.  »740-i74i— The  War  of  the  Succei- 
"^J    Faithlaaaneaa  of  the  King:  of  Prussia. 
--The  M»c«ul«yTerdict.— "From  no  iiiiartir 
did  the  young  queen  of  Hungary  receive  stron,-,  r 
aaaurances    of    friemiship   and     siipp,,rt     ilmn 
from  the   King  of    Prussia.     Vet  the  Kim;  cf 
Irussia,  the  'Antl-Machiavel,' had  already  fully 
determined    to    commit    the    great    criiue    of 
violating    hia   pllghUil    faith,    of    n.bbinf   the 
ally   whom    he  waa  bound    to  defeml    and  A 
plunging  all   EuMpe  into  a  long,    bl,«Kh    ,ud 
desolating  war,  and  all  this  for  no  end  « luitevtr 
except  that  he  might  extend  his  dominimis  and 
^•e  his  name  in  the  gaxettes.     He  ,hteriiiiii,d  to 
assemble  a  great  anny  with  swk'.I  and  s.rr.  ■  v 
to  invaile  Silesln  iK-fore  .Maria  Theresa  slioulj  \^ 
npprixed  of  hia  dcaiirn,   and  to  arid  thut  riih 
province  to  hta  kingdom.    .   .   .    Without   auy 
declaration  of   war,    without  anv  demand  f.r 
reparation.  In  the  very  act  of  pourimr  fort  li.oni 
plimenU  and  assurances  of  gissl  win.  Krclenc 
commenced  hostililies.     .Many  thous.iiid»  of  his 
lr>M)ns  were  actually  In  Silesia  b<'for.)  the  Uu.ca 
of  Hungary  knew  that  he  hud  s.-t  U|)  anv  claim 
to  any  part  of  her  territories.    At  Icnirthhe  sent 
licr  a  message  which  could  Iw  regarded  .  nly  ,j 
an  Insult.     If  ahc  woul.l  but  let  him  have  .Xiici.i 
he  would,   he  aaid.  stand   bv  her  aL'ain>t  anv 
power  which  chould  try  to  deprive  hir.f  her 
other  dom'  '..ns:  aa  if  he  was  not  nlrca<lv  UninJ 
to  stand  by  ner,  or  as  if  his  new  prmiiii'  nmia 
tic  of  more  value  than  the  ohl  one.     It  wi.  tlic 
depth  of  winu-r.     The  cold  was  sivere  and  tlie 
ri«i.ls  deep  In  mire.     But  the  l'ru,s,»iain  proM-d 
on.     Resistance  was  imposKible.     The  .Vii>irl.-in 
army   was    thru    Ueilli.  r    nuiiwrous    ii.ir    e:!l 
I  lent      The  small   portion  of  that  ariiiv  whi>h 
lav  In    Silesia  was    impre|>anKi   for  liM,iil,t.ts. 
Oogauwasblockaile.!;  Br,.»lsiiotHnedii>  .'«i,,, 
lihlaii  was  evaciiatisl,     A  few  siBtlercd  irsrri 
sons  still  hchl  out;  but  the  wlii.|n  ..[-.n  ."iin'rv 
""••"''JV**'"*:  no  enemy  ventured  to  cm.  initrr 


the  klnf  In  tbo  ileid ;  ami,"  before  the  end  ,.f  .lin 
uary,  1741,  ha 


220 


I  returned  to  rec*lv«  the  cougraluU- 


AUSTRIA,  1740-1741. 


Omduel  of 

I  Onat. 


IVwitrfckM*  I 


AC8TMA,  1741. 


tions  of  hi§  aubjecU  at  Borlin.    Had  the  Sile«!an 
question  been  merely  a  question  betnreea  Frederic 
aad  .Maria  Theresa  it  would    be  imp.M«ible  'o 
acijuit  the  PruMlan  king  of  ijroM  perfidy.     But 
whin  we  conifidcr  the  elTecta  which  his  poliry 
Iiwlureii,  and  could  not  fail  to  prwluce,  on  the 
whi.le  community  of  civilized  nations,  we  arc 
coniiitilcd  to  pronounce  a    con  '•■•nnation    still 
more  severe.  .  .  .  The  8<.'lflsh   rapacity  of    the 
kinf  of  I*rassia  gave  the  Kignal  to  bis  neigh- 
hours,  .  .  .  The  evils  prixiuced  by  this  wicked- 
ness were  felt  in  lands  where  the  name  of  Prussia 
was  unknown ;  and,  in  order  that  he  might  rob  a 
noigliliour  whom  he  ha<l  promised    to  defend, 
blat  k  men  fought  on  the  coast  of  Coromandel, 
SD'I  r.il  men  scalped  each  other  by  the  great 
lak.s  of  North  America.     Silesia  had  Ixjen  occu- 
piLii  without  a  battle;  but  the  Austrian  troops 
w(re  advancing  to  the  relief  of  the  fortresses 
whiih  still  held  out.     In  the  spring  Frederic  re- 
joined his  army.     He  had  seen  little  of  war,  end 
hail  never  comman<led  any  great  bf»iy  of  men  in 
thefiild.  .  .  .  FnKlerics'Hrst  battle  was  fought 
St  .Milivitz  [April  10,  1741],  and  mver did  the 
curii  r  of  a  gnat  commander  open  iu  >  more  in- 
aii-imiou»  mauner.     His  army  was  vicUirious. 
^'  it  only,  however,  did  he  not  establish  his  title 
to  the  <  imricter  of  an  able  general,  but  he  was 
so  unfirtunateas  to  make  it  doubtful  whether  he 
pos.«sMd  tlie  vul(jar  counige  of  a  soldier.     The 
cuvulry.    wliich  !     commanded  in  person,  was 
P'lt  to  lliiht.     i'.i...  cu.ttomed  to  the  tumult  and 
camaie  of  a  field  of  battle,  he  lost  bis  »eif-pos- 
siwioii,   and  listened  t.io  readily  to  those  who 
urt-'d  liini  to  s.ive  himself.     His  English  gmy 
rarri.-.l  liim  m.inr   miles  from  the  field,  while 
Sih'.v.  nil,  though  wounded  in  two  places,  man- 
Tilly    ufhilf!   the  day.     The    skill  of   the  old 
Kiell  M irslial  and  the  steadiness  of  the  Prussian 
iMttalions  i.nvailed.  ami  the  Austrian  armv  was 
driven  fr.m  the  field  with  the  li«sof  8.<J0<)men 
Tlie  n'  « s  was  carrie<l  laic  at  night  to  a  mill  in 
wlie  h  ihe  king  hud  taken  shelter.     It  gave  him 
■t  hitter  pang,     lie  was  successful;  but  he  owe<l 
his  «ii<e,»s  to  dispositions    which    others  had 
tni  le,  and  to  the  valour  of  men  who  had  fouglit 
whili-  lie  was  flying      So  unpromising  w.is  the 
fir-t  api.e.irinc-..  of  tlie  greatest  warrior  of  that 
«-•     --  l,onl  .M.iniulay,  Frtderic  tkt  (Jrtat  (/i- 

A.  D.  1741  (April-M»y).— The  War  of  the 
Succession :       French    respontibility.  —  The 

Ctrlyle  verdict.— "The  battle  „f  .Mollwiti  w.nt 
otlhk.  a  sunal  shot  among  the  Nations;  Inll- 
m.i!iri„'  tliat  tlnv  were,  one  and  all,  to  go  battling 
Will,  h  i!iey  dil.  with  a  witness;  mAking  ■  tcr- 
nt)le  tliiiiit  of  It,  over  all  the  world,  for  above 
sev..r,  vears  t.  come.  ...  Not  that  Mollwiti 
kiullid  huMi«.;  .Kuropc  was  already  kindled 
I..r»..inetw.,  yeurs  past ;— especially  since  the 
lite  haw  r, lied,  and  bis  Pragmatic  Sanction  was 
JUP"M  lied  to  the  other  troubles  afoot  Dut 
•inie  that  Image  of  Jenkins's  Ear  had  at 
"I  up  in  the  slow  English  brain,  like  a 
nry,,,„.|,.|UtionorSign  in  the  Heavens,  syi 
'••iK-r  v,e(,  injustha,  and  unendurabllities.  a 
ha,l  li^.l,!.,  ||„,  Spanish. English  War  [see  E!«a- 
'~^y<  \  I>  17;»-17411,  Eumpe  was  slowly  but 
pr. , ly  surelv  taking  fir,.,  France  ' could  not  aeo 
-,i:..  i;i.,.r,...,|  „i,e  Mi.i:  England  (In  lu  own 
■111  1  fetlmg,  and  als.,  In  the  fart  of  things),  could 

H,'lu     "i.  ""   *'""'l'*    ""»''l'l<T»l'ly  humbling 
SjNiln      fraoce,    endlessly    totcretled    in   tUt 


la.!  U< 


and 


Spanish  English  matter,  was  already  sending  out 
Beets  firing  shoU,— almost,  or  altogether,  put- 
ting her  hand  in  it.  'In  wnich  case,  will  not, 
must  not,  Austria  help  us?'  thought  England  — 
jindwa.sasking,d"ly,  at  Vienna  .  .  .  when  the 
late  Kai-ser  died.  ...  But  if  not  as  cause,  then 
as  signal,  or  as  signal  and  cause  together  (which 
it  pr.)|KTly  was;,  the  Battle  of  .Mollwitz  gave  the 
finishing  stroke  and  set  all  in  motion.  .  For 
directly  on  the  back  of  Mollwitz,  there  ensued, 
first,  an  explfwion  of  Diplomatic  activity  such 
as  was  nrver  seen  before;  E,\cellenci(S  from  the 
four  winds  taking  wing  towanis  Friedrich;  and 
talking  and  insinuating,  and  fencing  and  fug- 
ling, after  their  sort,  in  that  Silesiau  camp  ot 
his  the  centre  being  there.  A  universal  rookery 
of  Diplomatists,  whose  loud  cackle  is  now  as  if 
gone  mail  to  us;  their  work  wholly  fallen  putres- 
cent and  a<  oldable,  dead  to  all  cn'atures  And 
scconrlly,  in  the  train  of  that,  tli.re  ensued  a 
universal  European  War,  the  French  and  the 
English  being  chief  parties  in  it ;  which  almiinda 
In  battles  and  feats  <,(  arms,  spirited  but  delir- 
ious, and  cannot  be  got  stilled  for  seven  or  eight 
years  to  come;  and  in  which  Friclrich  and  hi« 
War  swim  only  as  an  intennittent  Epi.siKle  hence- 
foilh.  .  .  .  The  first  point  to  lie  noted  is.  Where 
did  It  originate  T  To  which  the  answer  mainly 
is  .  .  .  with  Monseieneur,  the  Mar.'ehal<le  Helle- 
isle  principally;  with  the  ambitious  cupiilities 
and  baseless  vanities  of  the  Fniich  Court  and 
Nation,    as  repn^sented   bv   U<lleisle  The 

English -Siianish  War  had  a  I)a-,is  to  stand  on  in 
thislniverse.     The  like  had  the  Prussian- Aus- 
trian one;  so  all  men  now  admit.      If  Friiilrich 
had  not  lnLsiness  there,  what  man  ever  had  in  an 
enterpris<'    he   ventured  on?      Frinlrirh     after 
such  trial  ami  pr.mfashas  ».l.iom  Ihcm,  got  hli 
claims  on  Seldesien  allowiil  In-  the    Kestiuies. 
■  •  Friedridi  had  business  in  this  War;    and 
Maria  Tlien-sa   versus  Friedridi    had    likewise 
cause  to  appear  in  Court,  and   do  her   utmost 
Pleading  against  him.     But   if  we  u>k.    What 
Bellcisle  or  F'ance  and   Louis  XV.    Ii.ad   to  do 
tiK'reT  the  answer  is  rigoroiisiv  Niithiiii;.     Their 
own  winly  vanities,  amliiiiiuis,  sanctioned    not 
by  fact  and  the  Almightv  Powers,  but  bv  Phan- 
taMn  and  the  babble  of  Versailles;  transcendent 
silf  conceit,  intrinsically  in^une;  pretensions  over 
their  fellow-creatures  whii  li  were  ivithoiit  basis 
any  whin'  In  Nature,  excejit  in  the  Fn'iiili  brain 
it  was  this  that  broiiirht   ll.llei,le  and    France 
into  a  (ierninn  War,     And  Helleisle  ami  France 
having  gi.ije  into  an    Anti  I'rairiiiatic  War    the 
unluckv  (k-or-e  anil  his  Enirland  were  dnm-ged 
Into  a  Pragmatic  one.—  ijuitiing  their  own  busi- 
ness, on  tlie  Spanish  Main,  and  liurrving  to  (Jer 
many.— in  terror  as  at  iKuimsiiav.'aud  zeal  to 
save  the  Kevstone  of  Nalim>  tliep-'      That  is  the 
notable    p<iint    in  regard   to  this   War       That 
Prance  is  to  In-  called  the  aiillior  of   It.   who 
alone  of  all  liic  parties,  h.t<l  no  business  there 
wh'ttever  ■•— T.  Carlyle,  //i«f  .,f  AViVrfnV*  ir   It 
la,  eA.  11  ir  41— See.  als/i   FrwiK:  A    I>   1733 
A.  D.  1741  iMay— June  .—Mission  of  Bell*. 
'«'••— The  thickening  of  the  Plot. -■  The  ilefcat 
of  Maria  Theresas  onlv-  army  (at  .Mollwitz]  swept 
away  all  the  doubu  and  scruples  of  Fraiin-      Ths 
flerv    Bellei-le   h.tl  a!r»-a.!y   =..»    ..:,;    ;ijj^.=,    |,i, 
mission  to  the   various  tierman  courts,  an  ii-d 
with  powers  which  were  nliictanllv  LTaiitisI  .  y 
the  canlinal  [Fhury,  thi'  Fn'iieh  iiiinisierj.  anii 

oador  to 


y  enlargnl  by  the  ambaasaJ 


21 


•)') 


■  i 


lit      r 

1^' 


|';f 

iii 


AUSTRIA,  1741. 


wit  hig  own  more  ambitlnui  views  of  the  dtua 
tlon.     He  travelled  in  oriental  state  The 

almost  royal  pomp  with  which  he  strode  into  the 
presi-nce  of  princes  of  the  bUxxl,  the  copious 
eloquence  with  which  he  pleaded  his  cause 
were  .mly  the  outward  decorations  of  one  of"  the 
most  iniquitous  schemes  ever  devised  by  an  un- 
scrupulous   .liplomacy.      The    scheme'    when 
stripped  of  all  its  details,  did  not  indeed  at  first 
appear  alwoluuly  revolting.     It  proposed  simply 
to  secure  the  election  of  Charles  Albert  of  Bavaria 
M  emperor,  an  honor  to  which  he  had  a  perfect 
right  to  aspire.     But  it  was  difflcult  to  obtain 
the  votes  of  certaii  electors  without  offering 
them  the  prospect  o.  territorial  gains,  and  impos- 
sible for  t  haries  Albert  to  support  the  imperial 
dignity  without  greater  revenues  than  those  of 
Jiivana.     It  was  proposed,  therefore,  that  pro- 
vinces should  be  taken  from  Maria  Theresa  Ler- 
■elf    first  to  purchase  votes  against   her  own 
husband,  and   then  to  swell  the  Income  of  the 
successful  rival  candidate.     The  three  episcopal 
electors  were  first  visited,  and  subjected  to  vari- 
ous forms  of  persuasion,— bribes,  flalterv,  threats 
—  until  the  eflecu  of  the  treatment  "began  to 
appear;  the  count  palatine  wasdevoted  to  Prance 
and  these  four  with  Bavaria  made  a  majority  of 
one.     But  that  was  too  small  a  margin  for  Belle 
Isle  s  aspimtions,  or  even  for  the  safety  of  his 
project.     The  four  remaining  votes  belonged  to 
the  most  powerful  of  the  German  states.  Prussia 
Hanover,  hujcony  an<l  Bohemia.  .  .  .  Bohemia! 
If  it  voted  at  all,  would  of  course  vote  for  the 
gr8n.|..luke  Francis  [liuslwnd  of  Maria  Theresa! 
Baxoiiy  and    Hanover  were  already  negotiating 
with  .Jluria  Therrsa;  and  it  was  well  understooa 
that  Austria  coul.i  have  Fredericks  support  bv 

DaVlllif    his    nrici*  "       Aiiatrtn    *«>r.,.....i    ..,..-..-.'' 


MariaTStrtm 
inHmtgcuTi. 


ACSTRIA,  1741. 


h.:-  ■?> 


paving  his  i.rice."  Austria  refused  to  pay  the 
pnci-,  and  Irrd.rick  signed  a  treaty  with  the 
,ll^  t?'""  "'  "'*•''''»"  on  the  4tli  of  June 
1741.  The  tss;  lice  of  it  was  continued  in  four 
secret  urticU'S.  In  these  the  king  of  Prussia  re- 
noun<f(l  hl.s  claim  to  JUlich-Berg  in  l>ehulf  of  the 
hou«|of  t.ul«buph,  an<l  agreed  to  give  his  vote  to 
tUe  ilidor  of  Bavaria  for  eminror.  The  king 
of  I- roue  eiiKag,-.!  to  guarantee  Prussia  in  the 
possession  of  lAiwer  .Silesia,  to  sen<l  wlllilu  two 
months  iin  anny  to  the  support  of  lluvaria.  and 
to  provoke  an  immediate  rupture  beiwein  Swe- 

Ii40-li4.i,  e/i  4. 

M^uaT/'a'  ^^'  *'"'"'' "'"'  "f  """'»'*' "f'^^"^. 

A.  D,  1741  (June— September),— Maria 
Theresa  and  the  Hungariani.-"  During  these 
anxious  summer  months  Maria  Tli.r.™  and  the 
AUKirian  court  had  re«l.|e<l  mainly  at  Presburff 
In  lluiiKarv.  Here  she  had  b.in  .«<upied  in  tiie 
solution  of  dimiestle  as  well  as  IntiTiiatlonal 
pmhl.MMs.  I  he  Magyars,  as  a  m.-.nly  and 
chivalmus  race  had  Nrn  touched  by  U..|.irilous 
■itiHton    of     the     young     quw-n;     but,     while 

?"''■"">  I"' «'i»K  their  loyally.  Insisted  not  the 

Kss  on  the  n.oL-nilion  of  tliWr  own  iiiall.'iial.lo 
rights.     Th.M.  had  iMcn  iniwleiiualelv  observed 

in  ren  nt  v.  ars,  ai,,|  j, se.iuence  no  little  dls 

affe.  ti..n  ,,n.,ail,.d  ii.  Hungary.  The  magnates 
res.lv,.,|.  then  for-,  as  th.y  had  re».,lve.l  at  the 
b..gii,,i.,g  of  pn-vlmis  nignii.  to  dcmami  the 
n^  oral  on  „f  all  thHr  rigl.U  ui.l  privileges. 
But  t!  .!,».,  „„.  :,,,i„.^r  Il:r:l   th.y  wiii'.HJ  U,  Uk,> 

any  u  ig.ii..r..us  advantage  of  the  s<'X  or  the 
necessities  of  Maria  Ther?.,.    They  were  ar^u 


mentatlve  and  stubborn,  yet  not  In  a  bargamlnir 
mercenary   spirit.    They   accepu-d    in   .luue  a 
qualified  compliance  with  their  demaiiils;  and 
when  on  the   25th   of   that   month   the  q„,."a 
appeared  before-  the  diet  to  receive  the  crown  of 
»t.  Stephen,  and,  according  to  custom    waved 
the  gre'at  sword    of   the   klng.loin    toward  the 
four  pointa  of  the  compass,  toward  the  irorlh  aiij 
the  s<>uth,  the  east  and  the  west.  challin-inL-  all 
enemies  to  dispute  her  right,  the  asseinhlv  was 
carriei  away  by  entliusiasm,  and  it  wcini  ,1  ,„  if 
an  end  ha»l  forever  been  put  to  coiistitiiii,.nal 
technicalities.     Such  was.  however,  not  lie  case 
After  the  excitement  causi'd   by  the    dramatic 
coronation  had  in  a  measure  siibsideil    tin.  olJ 
contentions  revived,  as  bitter  and  vi.xalimis  as 
before      These  concerned  especially  the  ii,,.iiii,  r 
n  which  the  administration  of  lIu'iiKary  should 
be  adjusted  to  meet  tlio   new  state  of  ilii,,,.. 
Should  the  chief    political   ollUes   be   (ill,,!  hv 
native  Hungarians,  as  the  diet  diinanded  ?  (  \»m 
the  co-regency  of   the  grand-duke,   whic  li  wis 
ardently  desire-d  by  the  quwn,  l)e  a<<(  |,i,,|  i.r 
the  Magyars?    For  two  months  the  di^iiui,.  „v,r 
these  pmblems  raged  at  Preshurg,  uiiiil  ijniillv 
Maria  There-sa  herself  found  a  ImiM,  iio'.  nious 
and  patriotic  solutii.n.     The  news  of  tli.'  Kniicp' 
Bavarian  alliance  and  the  fall  of  Pa^siiu  ,1.  i.r. 
mined  her  to  throw  hersi'lf  eoinplctelv  u;>..iiilie 
gallantry  and  devotion  of  the  .>lagvars.     U  |,a,i 
long  lieen  the  nolicy  of  the  court  of  Vi.iuia  ri„t 
to  entrust  the  Hungarians  with  arms.  Hut 

Maria  Theresa  had  not  Iwen  rol.l>,.,|   |„  Hpii,,  „f 
her  experience  with  France  and  I'rus-ia  of  all 
her  faith  In  human  nature-.     She  look  Hi,  r,  si„,ii- 
sibility  of  her  decision,  ami  the  result  pn'vid 
that  her  insiglit   was  correct.     t)n  tin-  nUi  ,.f 
St'ptember  she  summoned  the  meml«rs  .f  the 
diet    before    her,   and,   s.'ate(l    on    tli,>    ihn.n,. 
explained  to  them  the  peril.uis  situaii,.ri  ,.f  1,,t 
dominions.      Tlie  danger,  she   said,   thn.u,  „c,l 
herself,  andall  that  was  deart,>h.r      Aliiii,|,ii„.,| 
by  all  her  allies,  she  took  refiiKc  in  the  li.Miiv 
and  the   ancient    valor  of    the    Huiil  iri.iiH    i"„ 
whom  she  entrusted  herself,   her  chilli,  1,  iiu.l 
her  empire.     Hire   she    broke    iiii,,    LursaiiJ 
covere-d  her  face  witli  her  hanilker<lii,  I    '  The 
diet  respondeil  to  this  apju-al  bv  prm  laimiiiL'  ilio 
'  insurre'ction  '  or  the  equipment  of  a  lai  •.  i„,|i. 
ular  forec  for  the   defence  of  the  ,|ii,>ii      iSo 
great  was  the  enthusiasm  that  it  inarK  s»,  pt 
away  even  the   original   aversion  of  th,.  Una. 
gariansto  the  grand-duke  Krancis,  wh..  i„  the 
queens  delight,  was  filially,  thoii^l,  ii,>i  wiihout 
Willie    murmurs,    accepted     as    eon  i;,  nt 
rhls  uprising  was   organired    ii,,t  nii  liMur  t.H) 
early,  for  dangi-rs  were  pressing  iinoii  ih.  ,|u,.,a 

['■i'^  .^.*','w'"y  '''''^•■"-"    tuttle,  //„(.  ..f  h-,ma. 
1740-1.45,  ek,  4. 

AlJHtiN:  Due  do  Broglie.  f^titfiirk  t>„  (,r„i( 
anil  Maria  7T*.c<«.i,  rh.  4  (r.  2| 

i,^'   ?•-''*'    (Aujutt  —  November!.   -  Tht 

French-Bavarian  onaet •■France  11.. »  I,,  v.u 

to  act  with  eneriry.  In  the  ni..ntli  "f  .\iitii»t 
II44I]  two  French  armiescnw.siil  the  Khii,,  ,aih 
about 40,000 strong.  Tlieflrsl  inanhe.li  ,\V,st- 
phalia,  and  frightened  f},.orge  II  liuo  ...i  lii.l 
ng  a  treaty  of  neutrality  for  llaiioM  r.  an.]  nnm- 
Ising  his  vote  lo  the  Kiwlor  of  Havana  The 
Si'coml  advanii,(t  thr<>iii;h  South  <tt-r:!:::;;v  ::n 
Paasau,  the  fn>iitier  city  of  Bavaria  an,l  .\ii,iris 
As  soon  as  It  arrived  on  Oennan  soil,  the  Kr,i.ili 
officers  aiiuoied  the  blue  and  white  OHk^de  of 


822 


AUSTRIA.  1741. 


SOtla  to 
JVrdcr»r<r. 


AUSTRIA,  1743. 


BtTUia,  for  U  wu  the  cue  of  France  to  tppear 
onW  u  an  auziliarr,  and  the  nominal  command 
of  her  army  waa  vested  In  the  Elector.    From 
Pauau  the  French  and  Bavariaua  paned  Into 
Upper  Austria,  and  on  Sept.  11  entered  iU  capi- 
ul  Linz,  where  the  Elector  aaaumed  the  title  of 
Archduke.    Five  days  later  Saxony  joined  the 
alliei.    Sweden  had  aiready  declared  war  on  Kus- 
sia.     Spain  trumped  up  an  old  claim  and  at- 
tacked the  Austrian  dominioas  in  Italy.  Itseemetl 
as  If  Belleisle's  schemes  were  about  to  be  crowne<l 
with  complete  success.    Had  the  allies  piishud 
forward,  \  ienna  must  have  fallen  into  tlieir  iiands. 
But  the  French  did  not  wish  to  be  toe  victorious, 
lest  they  should  make  the  Elector  too  powerful, 
uDd  so  independent  of  them.     Therefore,  after 
six  weeks'  deUy,  they  tumeil  aside  to  the  con- 
aucst  of  Bohemia."—  F.  W.  Longman,  Frederick 
th*  Grait  and  the  Seven  Teare  VTar,  eh.  4,  tet.  4. 
— '■  While  ...  a  portion  of  the  French  troops, 
under  the  command  of  the  Count  de  Segur,  was 
left  in  I'pper^ustria,  the  remainder  of  the  allied 
army  turned  towards  Bohemia ;  where  they  were 
joined  by  a  body  of  Saxons,  under  the  command 
of  Count  Rutowsky.    Tlu-y  took  Prajrue  by  as- 
sault, on  the  night  of  the  Mtli  of  November 
while  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  the  husband 
of  Maria  Theresa,  was  marching  to  his  relief.    In 
Prague,  8,000  prisoners  were  taken.    The  elector 
of  Biivaria  hastened  tliere,  upon  hearing  of  the 
success  of  his  arms,  was  crowned  King  of  Bo- 
homU,  during  the  month  of  Decemlwr,  anil  re- 
ceived the  ooth  of  fidelity  from  the  constituted 
authorities.     But  while  he  was  tfc:-.8  employed 
t>ir  Austrian  general,  Khevenhuller,  had  driven 
the  Count  de  Segur  out  of  Austria,  and  had  him- 
self entered  Bavaria;  which  obliged  the  Bavarian 
army  to  abandon  Bohemia  and  hasten  to  the  de- 
(tnce  of  their  own  country."—  Lord  Dover.  Life 
0/  Fi-fdtrick  11,  bk.  8,  eh.  8  (e.  1).  " 

Also  in:  Frederick  II.,  /Art  of  Mv  v  i  limei 
(Potthumoue  Work;  ».  1,  ek.  B), 
^*\  P-  '74;  (October).— Swret  Tr««ty  with 
Fredenck.— Lower  Silcaia  conceded  to  him. 
-Austrian  success.— ■' By  October,  1741.  the 
fortunes  of  Maria  Theresa  had  aunx  to  the  low- 
Mt  ebb,  but  a  great  revulsion  speedily  set  In. 
The  mnrtlHl  enthusiasm  of  the  Hungarians,  the 
siilAKly  from  England,  and  the  brilliant  mUitary 
talents  of  Oenenil  Khevenhuller,  restored  her 
armies.  Vienna  was  put  In  a  state  of  defence, 
•nd  at  the  same  time  Jealousies  and  suspicion 
niwle  their  way  among  the  confederates.  The 
tlpiKiri  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony  were  already  In 
Mnir.legree divided;  and  the  Gcrmana,  and  es- 
(x-eial  J-  Jrcderick,  were  alarmed  by  the  growing 
a.s,e,„iency,  and  irritated  by  the  haughty  do- 
mtanoui  of  the  French.  In  the  moment  of  her 
cxtnnie  depresaion,  the  Queen  consented  to  a 
ronn  ssion  which  England  had  vainly  urged  upon 
litr  Ik  fore,  and  wliidi  laid  the  foundation  of  lier 
future  succrsa.  In  October  1741  she  entered 
iiio  a  secret  convention  with  Frederick  [caUed 


"•  convention  of  Obcr-Schnellendorfl.  by  which 
lliHi  IU.IUU.  sovereign  agreed  to  desert  his  allies, 
nn.l  I  c«n,i  from  li.wiilitT,.,,  „n  condition  of  ultl- 
m«l(  ly  obtaining  Ix.wer  SilesU,  witli  Breslail  and 
•M !»«.•.  tvery  precaution  waa  Uktn  to  ensure 
•ecrecy.     It  waa  arranged  that  Frc<lerick  ah.iuld 

.,..., n.,-t„ besiege  Smsse,  Uial  liie  luwn  should 
illuimie  y  he  surrendered  to  him.  and  that  his 
'r;.M|»  should  then  reUre  Into  winter  qusrUrs, 
»nd  lake  no  furUier  p«t  In  Ui«  war.    As  the 


sacriace  of  a  few  more  lives  waa  perfectly  In- 
dllTerent  to  the  contracting  parties,  and  in  order 
that  no  one  shouhl  suspect  the  treachery  that 
was  contemplated,  Neiase,  after  the  arrangement 
had  been  made  for  Its  surrender,  was  subjected 
for  four  .lays  and  four  nights  to  the  horrora  of 
bombardment.    Frederick,    at   the   same   time 
talked   wiili  his  usual  cynical  frankness,  to  the 
English  aiiil>aasador  about  the  best  way  of  at- 
tacking his  allies  the  French;  and  observed,  that 
If  the  Queen  of  Hungary  prospered,  he  would 
perhapssupporther,lfuot— everyone  must  look 
lor  himself,     lie  only  assentetl  verbally  to  this 
convention,  and,  no  doubt,  resolved  to  a'wiiit  the 
course  of  events.  In  order  to  decide  which  Power 
it  was  his  interest  anally  to  betray;   but  In  the 
meantime    the    Austrians   obtained    a   respite 
wiiich  enabled  them  to  throw  their  whole  forees 
upon  their  other  enemies.    Two  brilliant  cam- 
paigns followed.     The  greater  part  of  Bohemia 
was  recovered  by  an  army  under  the  Duke  of 
Lorraine,  and  the  French  were  hemmed  In  at 
Prague;    while  another  army,  under    General 
Khevenhuller,   Invaded    Upper   Austria    drove 
10,000  French  soldiera  within  the  walls  of  Linz 
blockaded  them,  defeated  a  body  of  Bohemiana 
who  w-ere   sent  to   the   rescue,  compelled   the 
wliole  Frencii  army  to  surrender,  and  then,  cross- 
lug  the  frontier,  poured  in  a  resistless  torrent 
over  Bavaria.     The  fairest  pkins  of  that  Imiuti- 
ful  land  were  desolated   by  hosU  of    irregular 
triMips  from  Hungary,  Croatia,  and  the  Tyrol; 
and  on   the    12th   of   February  tlic  Austrians 
marched  in  triumph  into  Munich.    On  that  very 
day  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  was  crowned  Emperor 
of  Germany,  at  Frankfort,  under  the  title  of 
t  harles  V II.,  and  the  Imperial  crown  waa  thus 
for  the  first  time,  for  many  generations,  separ- 
ated from   the   House  of    Austria  "—W  EH 


Letky.  Uiet.  of  Eng.,  18<A  Century,  eh.  3  (p  1) 
_  Also  in:  P.  Von  Raumer,    ContHhutione 


Iliet.;    Fredk  II.  and  hi*    Tinue, 


to 

ch. 


See 


MiHUrn 
13-14. 

A.  D.  I74i-I743--Successcs  io  Italy. 
iT.tLv;    A.  I).  1741-1743. 

A,    D.    174a   a«nu«rT  — May).— Frederick 
!^"f ''•^  '""'  •«««« -Battle  of  Chotusiti.- 

I  he  Queen  of  Hungary  had  assembleil  in  the 
beginning  of  the  vear  two  considerable  armies  in 
Moravia  and  Bohemia,    the  one   under    Prince 
Lobkowit?   to  defend  the  former  province  and 
the  other  commanded  by  Prince  Charles  of  Lor- 
raine, her  brother-in-law.      This  young  Prince 
possessed   as    much    bravery   and   activity   as 
Frederick,  and  had  equally  with  him  the  Ulent 
of   insi)lnng   attachment   and  confidence.  . 
Jrederick,  alarmed  at  these  preparations  and  the 
progress  of  the  Austrians  In  liavaria,  abruptly 
broke  off  the  convention  of  Ober-Schnellendorf 
and  reciimiiieuced  hostilities.  .  .  .  The  King  of 
Prussia  became  apprehensive  that  the  Queen  of 
Hungary  would  again  turn  her  arms  to  recover 
Silesia.      He     therefore     dispatched     Marshal 
tkhwerin  to  seize  Oiniiitx  ami  lav  siege  to  Glatx 
whiil'  surrendered  after  a  di's|'>eratc  resistance 
on  tl..-  9th  of  January.     Soon  after  this  event 
the  King  rejoinwl  his  army,  and  eiideavouri'd  to 
drive  the    Austrians  from  their   advanUgeous 
I   position  in  the  siu|t||«m  parts  of  Bohrtni^   tthii-h 
would  have  dellvereil  the  French  tr.xips  In  the 
neighlKmrhood  and    checked    the    progn-ss   of 
Khevenhuller  In  Bavaria.      The  klug  advanced 
to  IgUu,  on  the  frontiers  uf  Boheoda,  and,  oo- 


223 


AUSTBIA,  1749. 


&$ 


i  i:  ■ 

ill 


Baity  of 
ChottitiU. 


AUSTRIA.  1748. 


cupylng  the  banks  of  the  Taya.  made  Irruptioni 
into  Lpper  Austria,  liia  hussars  stm'ading  tern>r 
even  to  the  gates  of  Vienna.     The   Austrians 
drew  from  Bavaria  a  corps  of  10,0()()  men  to 
eover  the  capiul,  while  Prince  Charles  of  Lor- 
raine, at  the  head  of  S0,000  men,  threatenetl  the 
Pru8Bian  magazines  In  Upper  Silesia,  and  bv  this 
movement  compelled  Frederick  to  detach  a  con- 
siderable  force   for   their    protection,    and    to 
evacuate   Moravia,    which    he    had    invaded. 
Broghe,  who  commanded  the  French  forces  in 
that  country,  must  now  have  fallen  a  sacriflcp, 
had  not  the  ever-active  King  of  Prussia  brought 
up  80,000  men,    which,    under   the    Prince    of 
Anhalt-Dessau,  entering  Bohemia,  came  up  with 
Prince  Charles  at  Czaslau,  about  thlrty-flve  miles 
from  Prague,  before  he  could  form  a  Junction 
with  Prince  Lobkowitz.     Upon  this  cnsutil  [ .May 
1 ..  1742)  what  is  known  In  hiatorv  as  the  Iwltlc 
of  Czaslau  [also,  and  more  commonly,  called  the 
battle  of  Chotusltz],  .  .  .  The  numbers  In  the 
two  armies  were  nearly  equal,  and  the  action 
was  warmly  contested  on  both  sides.  .  .  .  The 
Prussians  remained  masters  of  the  field,  with  18 
cannon,  two  pairs  of  colours  and  1.200  prisoners; 
but  they  Indeed  paid  dearlv  for  the  honour,  for 
it  was  computed  that  their  loss  waseq'al  to  that 
of  their  enemy,  which  amounted  to  7,W0  men  on 
either  side;    while  the  Pnissian  cavalry,  under 
Field-Marshal  Buddenbrocb,  was  nearly  nilne<l 
.  .  .  Although  in  this  battle  the  victory  was 
without  doubt,  on  the  slile  of  the  P.-ussians,  yet 
the  imme<iiate  consequences  were  highlv  favour- 
able to  th<^  Queen  of  Hungary.    The  Riug  was 
disappointed  of   his  expected  advantages,  and 
conceived  a  disgust  to  the  war.     He  now  lowerwl 
his  demands  and  made  overtures  of  accommixla- 
tion,  which,  on  the  11th  of  ,Iune,  resulted  in  a 
treaty  of  peace  between  the  two  crowns,  which 
Was  signed  at  Breslau  under  the  mediation  of  the 
British  Ambassador."— Sir  E.  Cust,  AnruiU  of 
the  Wanoftht  iSth  Ctntnry.  r.  2  p  1» 

Also  is;  T.  Carlyle,  Ilitt.  of  Priedrich  U.  of 
Prumin,  hk.  18.  <•».  18  (r,  »). 
A.  p.  1742  (June).— Treaty  of  Breslau  with 

Ql   DmaaiA   •'  ft...     #..11 t ., 


the  Kmgof  Pruiiia.— "The  following  are  the 
preliminary  articles  which  were  signed  at 
Breslau:  1.  The  queen  of  Hungarv  ceded  to 
the  kirg  of  Prussia  Upper  and  Lower  Silesia 
with  the  principalitv  of  Olutz;  except  the  towns 
of  Troppau,  JaegendorlT  and  the  high  mountains 
slttiale<i  beyond  the  Onpa.  2.  The  Prmwians 
underUmk  to  repay  the  English  1,700,000  cn>wns 
which  sum  was  a  mortgage  loan  ou  Silesia.  The 
remaining  articles  related  to  a  suspension  of 
arms,  an  exchange  of  prisoners,  ami  the  free<lom 
of  religion  and  trade.  Thus  was  Silesia  uniteii 
U>  the  Prussian  States.  Two  years  were  suf 
ficlent  for  the  conquest  of  lliat"lmporlant  prov- 
ince. The  treasures  which  the  Inle  king  had  left 
were  almost  extieniled;  but  pnivim-i's  that  d.. 
not  cost  more  than  seven  or  eight  millions  are 
dieaply  piirehasetl."— Frederic  U..  //iW  ,.f  Mil 
(hfn  l\nui  (Ihitthummf  ^^^ork^,  r.  1)  cA   8 

#Aw  "»''*'..  'Jnne-Decemberl-ExpuUion 
of  the  French  from  Bohemia.— Belleisle'a  re- 
treat fri>m  Prague.--  The  Austrian  arms  Ugan 
now  to  lie  sueci'ssf  ul  In  all  quarters.  Just  Mnn 
the  signature  of  the  preliminaries.  Prince  I/>b. 
cowltz,  who  was  stationed  at  Budweiss  with 
iO.noO  mc n,  madi-  hh  i.tiafk  on  Frauenlierg :  Hrf)g- 
lio  and  Bcllelsic  advanced  from  Ilseck  t<7  relieve 
tlie  town,  and  a  combat  took  place  at  Sofaay,  in 


224 


which  the  Austrians  were  repulsed  with  the  low 
of  300  men.     This  trifling  affair  was  magnllicl 
into  a  decisive  victory.  .  .  .    Marslml  Brogii,, 
elated  with  this  advantege,  and  ndylng  on  11,^ 
immedUte  junction  of  the  King  of  Pro-  m  re 
mained  at  FrauenbiTg  In  perfect  secui'ty.     But 
his  expectations  were  disappointed ;  Fr<  .ieric  ha,) 
already  commenced  his  secret  negotiations,  ami 
Prince  Charles  was  enabled  to  turn  his  f.irrcs 
against  the  French.    Being  joined  by  Prince  l/>b 
cowltz,  they  attacked  Brogllo,  and  compelled  iiim 
to  quit  Fraucniwrg  with  such  precipitation  that 
his  baggage  fell  inU)  the  hands  of  the  light  troop, 
and  the  French  retreated  towards  Bnmau  har- 
as-sed  by  the  Croats  and  other  Irregulara.'. 
The  Austrians,   pursuing  their  success  a»!ninM 
the  French,  drove  Broglio  from  Branau,  ami  fol 
h>we<i  him  to  the  walls  of  Prague,  where  he  found 
Belleisle.  .  .  .     After  several  consulbttions  tlip 
two  generals  called  In  their  posts,  and  sciiiml 
tlieir  army  partly  within  the  walls  and  luriK- 
within  a  peninsula  of  the  Moldav.  .s,]„"u 

afterwards  the  duke  of  Lorraine  Joincil  tlic  armv 
r<>f  Prince  Charles],  which  now  amounted  to  Td". 
000  men,  and  the  arrival  of  the  heavy  anillprv 
enabled  the  Austrians  to  commence  the  sieiro  "— 
W.  Coxe,  llitt.  of  the  Iloute  ofAutlri,,.  eh  'w 
(e.  3).—"  To  relieve  the  French  at  Prague,  .Mar 
shal  Mailleliois  was  directed  to  advance  with  his 
army  from  Westphalia.     At  these  tidings  Prince 
Charles  changed  the  siege  of  Prague  to  a  M.xk- 
ade,  and  marching  against  his  new  opihuienls 
checked  their  progress  on  the  Bohemian  frontier' 
the  French,  however,  still  occupvi;"r  tlie  town 
?/  1?*?™'     ^'  "'"'  "'"'''''  ""^'  firciimsUuu cs  that 
Belleisle  made  his  masterly  and  renownwl  retreat 
from  Prague.     In  the  nigh"t  of  the  18tli  of  Dcrem- 
ber,  he  secretly  left  the  city  at  the  hciul  of  1 1  (KKl 
foot  and  8,000  horse,  having  deceived  the  .Vus- 
trians'  vigilance  by  the  feint  Oi  a  general  fora^rt 
in  the  opposite  (juarter;  and  pushe<l  for  Kcm 
through  a  hostile  country,  destitute  of  nsoun-cs 
and  surrounded  by  superior  enemies.     His  ml 
diers.  with  no  other  food  than  frozen  hreuil  and 
compelled    to    sli-ep   without  covering   on  the 
snow  and  Ice  ;        '  -\  in  great  numbei^i;  Imtthp 
gallant  spirit  oi  ^.      ,e  triumpheii  over  cv,  rv 
obstacle;  he  struck    tnrough    morasats    alrm^t 
I   untrodi'-n  lieforc,  offered  battle  to  Princi'  Lobko 
I   witz,  who,  however,  declined  engaging,  and  at 
length  Bucceede<l  in  reaching  the  oiIkt  I'nnrh 
;  army  with  the  flower  of  hl«  own.    The  r.  iiijiiint 
i   left  at  Prague,  and  amounting  only  to  A  (Km  mm 
I  seemed  an  easy  prey;  vet  their  threat' of  Urine 
I   the  city,  and  peri.shing  lM>ncath  Its  ruins,  mil  ilie 
I   recent  proof  of  what  despair  can  do,  ol.i.iine.l 
I   for  them  honourable  terms,  and  the  pernii.vsi.in 
I  of  rejoining  their  comrades   at  Egra.      Iliii  in 
i  spite  cf  all  this  skill  and  cr>unige  in  llio  Fnnili 
Invaders,  the  final  result  to  them  was  f.iilim  . 
nor  hail  they  attained  a  single  permanent  adv  in 
tage  lieyond  their  own  safety  in  n'treal      Maille 
hills  and  IX'  Broglie  took  up  winter  quarierv  in 
Bavaria,   while  Belleisle   led  bock  his   division 
acrosa  the  Ithine;  and  it  was  computeil  ilmt,  of 
the  85.000  men  whom  he  had  first  conduei.d  into 
(Jermany,  not  more  than  8,000  returned  lKiie;iih 
his  tianner. "—  Lord  Mahon  (Eari  Stanhoih  >  ll„t 
of  hng..  1713-1783,  th.  24  (r.  8).—  •'  Thus  at  the 
termination  of  the  c.impais-n  »!!  IVilw  n-,:^  ■=•:■,- 
regained,  except  Egra;  and'on  the  Uth  of  M«v. 
'^^Ol^fla  Theresa  wassooii  afterwards  crowned 
»t  Prague,  to  the  recoTery  of  which,  aayi  her 


AUSTRIA,  1743. 


BatlU  af 


AUSTRIA,  174»-1744. 


great  rlTtl,  her  flnnnew  had  more  contributed 
I  linn  the  force  of  her  amw.  The  onlf  reverie 
which  the  Aiutriani  experienced  in  the  midst  of 
tlieir  succesaes  waa  the  temporary  loga  of  Ba- 
v.iria,  which,  on  the  retreat  of  Kevenhuller,  waa 
occupied  by  maraba]  Seclcendorf;  and  the' Em- 
pf  ror  made  hia  entry  into  Munich  on  the  %\  of 
October."— W.  Coxe,  Bi*t.  cfthtHouteofAuUria 
ch.  103  (r.  8). 


A.  D.  1743.— England  drawn  into  the  con- 
;.— The  Prajnnatic  ArmT.— The  Battle  of 


diet.     ._.  __„„„. 

Dettingcn.— "  The  cauae  of  Maria  Theresa  liml 
begun  to  excite  a  remarkable  enthusiasm  in 
England.  .  .  .  The  convention  of  neutmlity  cn- 
tenni  into  by  George  II.  in  September  1741,  and 
till-  extortion  of  his  vote  for  the  Elector  of  Ba- 
varia, properly  conceme<l  that  prince  only  as 
Elector  of  Hanover;  yet,  as  he  was  also  King  of 
England,  tliey  were  felt  as  a  disgrace  by  the 
English  people.  The  elections  of  that  year  went 
apinst  WalpDlc,  and  in  Febr  ;:iry  1742' he  found 
himself  compelled  to  resign.  He  waa  succeeded 
in  the  administration  by  Pulteney,  Earl  of  Batli 
though  Lord  Carteret  was  virtually  prime  min- 
ister. Carteret  waa  an  ardent  supporter  of  the 
cause  of  Maria  Theresa.  His  accession  to  olflcc 
was  immediately  followed  bv  a  large  increase  of 
thearmy  and  navy;  five  millions  were  voted  for 
carrying'  on  the  war,  and  a  subsidy  of  £500  000 
for  the  (^ueen  of  Hungary.  The  Earl  of  Stair,  with 
an  army  of  16,000  men,  afterwards  reinforced  by 
a  large  body  of  Hanoverians  and  Hessians  in 
British  pay,  was  dcspatche<l  into  the  Netherlands 
to  cooperate  with  tl.c  Dutch.  But  though  the 
StaU's-OeneraV  at  the  instance  of  the  British 
Cabinet,  voted  Maria  Theresa  a  subsidy,  they 
were  not  yet  prepared  to  take  an  active  part  in  a 
war  which  might  ultiinat<<ly  involve  them  in 
hostilities  with  France.  The  exertions  of  the 
English  ministry  in  favour  of  the  Queen  of  Hun- 
gary had  therefore  been  confined  during  the  year 
1742  to  diplomacy,  and  they  had  helped  to  bring 
about  ...  the  Peace  of  Brestau.  In  1743  they 
wire  able  to  do  more."  In  April,  1743,  the  Em- 
ptror,  Charles  VII.,  regained  posieMion  of  Ba- 
varia and  returned   to  Munich,  but  only  to  be 


(Inven  out  again  by  the  Austrians  in  June.  The 
Bavarians  were  badly  beaten  at  Simpach  (May  0) 
jnd  Munich  was  Uken  (June  12)  after  a  short 
bombardment.  "Charles  VII.  was  now  again 
cMiiied  to  fly,  and  took  refuge  at  Augsburg. 
At  his  command,  Seckendorf  [his  general!  made 
a  I  onvention  with  the  Austrians  at  the  village  of 
NieihrscliOnfeld.  by  which  be  agreed  to  abandon 
to  them  Bavaria,  on  condition  that  Charles's 
tnxips  should  be  allowed  to  occupy  unmoli'Sted 
quarters  between  Franconla  and  Suabla.  Maria 
I  hen'sa  8eeme<l  at  first  indisposed  to  ratify  even 
terms  so  humiliating  to  the  Emperor.  She  hod 
iHionie  perhaps  a  little  too  much  exalted  by  the 
f.i\M  turn  of  fortune.  She  had  causol  herself 
to  l»  crowned  in  Prague.  She  had  received  the 
l.oinage  of  the  Austrians,  and  entered  Vienna  In 
a  virt  of  triumph.  She  now  dreamt  of  nothing 
I' s..  t  lan  conqHering  I^rralne  for  hen!.lf,  Alsace 
for  the  Kmphx.;  of  hurting  Charies  VII.  from 
till-  Imperial  throne,  and  placing  on  it  her  own 
lonwrt.  She  was  persuaile<l,  however,  to  con- 
sent at  length  to  the  terms  of  tli..  Nii..|er~-l!nnfeld 
ir"V "!'"",  'Meanwhile  the  allie<i  army  of 
tiigish  and  Germans,  under  the  Earl  of  Stair, 
nearly  40  (WO  ,trc«ig,  which,  from  Its  destlne.1 
object,  had  awumed  tfa<  oame  of  the   Pr.igmatic 

22G 


Army,  had  croand  the  Meuae  and  the  Rhine  in 
March  and  April,  with  a  view  to  cut  off  the 
army  of  Bavaria  from  France.     George  II    had 
not  concealed  his  intention  of  breaking  the  Treaty 
of  Hanover  of  1741,  alleging  as  a  ground  that 
the  duration  of  the  neutrality  stipulated  in  it 
had  not  been  determined;  and  on  Jfiiue  19th  he 
had  joined  the  army  in  person,     He  found  it  in  a 
most  critical   position.     Lord    Stair,  who  had 
never  distingufaheii  himself  a.s  a  general    anil 
waa  nov.   falling  into  dotage,  had   led   it   into 
a  narrow   valley  near  Aschaffenburg.  between 
Mount   Sneaaart   and    the    river    Main:    while 
Marshal    Noaillet    [commanding    the    Frenehl 
..  no  had  crossed  the  Rhine  towards  the  end  of 
April,  by  seizing  the  principal  fords  of  the  Main 
both  above  and  below  the  British  position  had 
cut  him  off  both  from  his  magazines  at  Honau 
.  'is"  ""PP"e»  which  he  had  expected  to 
procure  In  Franconla.     Nothing  remained  but  for 
SiT..'°  M"  '*'»  *•?  '»<=''  to  Hanau  •    In  the 
batOe  of  Uettingen,  which  followe<l  (June  27), 
all  the  advantages  of  the  French  in   position 
T^  thrown  away  by  the  ignorant  impetuosity 
of  the  king  8  nephew,  the  Duke  of  Orammont, 
who  comtnanded  one  division,  and  thev  suffered 
?,if?12«'**'''"'    /'The  French  are  said  to  have 
loat  6,(»0  mer  and  the  BriUah  half  that  number 
u  \a  uie  last  .viiou  lu  wiiicli  a  King  of  Kntrland 
has  fought  in  person.     But  Gwirge  II.,  or  rather 
I<ord  Stair,  did  not  know  how  to  profit  by  his 
victory.      Although  the  Pragmatic  Army  waa 
joined  after  the  battle  of  Dettingen  bv  "l5  000 
Dutch  troops,  under  Prince  Maurice  of"  Nassau 
nothing  of  importance  was  done  during  the  re- 
niainder  of  the  campaign."— T.  H.  Dyer,  Biit. 
of  Modern  Europe,  bk.  6,  eh.  4  (r.  3>. 

Also  in:  W.  Coxe.  Hiit.  of  the  IJouu  of  Am- 
tria,  eh.  104  (c  8).  — Sir  E.  Cust,  Annaii  of  the 
nartofthe  mh  Century,  v.  2  pp.  30-36— Lord 
Mahon  (Eari  Stanhope),  Hilt.  ofEng..  1713-1TS3 
eh.  2.5  (5.  3).  ./       »  , 

^.A.  D.  1743.— Treaty  of  Wormi  with  Sar- 
dinia  and  England.    Sec  Itai.v:  A.  D   174;! 
^  A-  P-  '743  (October).- The  Second  Bourbon 
Family  Compact.     See  France:   A.  D.   1743 

(OCTOBKB). 

A.  D.  1743-17^.  —  The  Pruttian  Kinr 
rtnket  in  aKain.-The  Union  of  Frankfort.— 
Siege  and  capture  of  Prague.— ■  Everywhere 
Austria  was  successful,  and  l^'rederick  had  reason 
to  fear  for  himself  unless  the  tide  of  conouest 
could  be  stayed.  He  explains  In  the  •  Histoire 
de  Mon  Temps '  that  he  feared  lest  France  should 
abandon  the  clause  of  the  Emperor,  which  would 
mean  that  the  Austrians,  who  now  boldly  spoke 
of  conipensulion  for  the  war.  would  turn  their 
arms  against  himself.  .  .  .  France  was  trem- 
bling, not  for  her  conquests,  but  for  her  owu  ter- 
ritory. After  th(-  battle  of  Ih'ttingcii,  the 
victorious  Anglo-Hanoverian  force  was  to  crosi 
the  lUiine  alxive  .Mavenco  and  march  into 
Alsace,  while  I'rinee  Charles  of  Lorraine,  with  a 
stnmg  Austrian  army,  was  to  pass  near  Basle 
and  oc-cupy  Lorraine,  taking  up  his  winter  quar- 
tera  in  Burgundy  and  Champagne.  The  English 
crosseii  without  any  cheek  and  moved  on  to 
Worms,  but  the  Austrians  failed  in  their  at- 
tempt Worms  l»'r»me  a  r-.'titrt;  of  intrigue 
which  Frederick  afterwanls  called  '  Cette  abyme 
lie  mauvalse  f..i.'    The  Dutch  were  persuaded 


by  Uinl  Carterti  to  join  the  English,  and  they 
did  at  ioat  wad  U,U(W  men,  who  we>«  oever  of 


i  I 


u 


AUSTRIA,  1748-1744. 


Capture  o/ 
rragut. 


AUSTRIA.  1744-1749. 


Uw  le«it  u«e.     tOTd   Carteret  ilao  deUxhcil 
Charles  Emanuel,  King  of  Sardinia,   from  his 
rri-nch  leanings,  and   persuaded  him  to  enter 
Into  the  Austro-Engllsh  alliance  [by  the  trriitv 
of  Worms    Sept.   iS,  1748,   which  conceile.1  to 
the  King  of  Sardinia  Finale,  the  city  of  Plarcn- 
tia,  with  soma  other  small  districu  and  cave 
him  command  of  the  allied  forces  In  Italy]     It 
was  clear  that  action  could  not  be  long  post- 
poned   and  Frederick  began  to  recognize  the 
necessity  of  a  new  war.     His  first  anxiety  was 
to  guard  himself  against  interference  from  his 
northern  and  eastern  neighbours.    He  secured 
as  he  hoped,  the  neutralfty  of  Russia  by  mar- 
rying   the   young    princess   of   Anhalt-Zerbst, 
afterwards  the    notorious   Empress   Catherine, 
with  the  Qrand-Duke  Peter  of  RussU.  nephew 
and  heir  to  the  reigning  Empress   Elizabeth. 
.  .  Thus  strengthened,  as  he  hope<I,  in  his  rear 
and  flanik,  and  ha-  Ing  made  the  commencement 
of  a  Oerman  league  called  the  Union  of  Frank- 
furt, by  which  Hesse  and  the  Palatinate  agreed 
to  join  Frederick  and  the  Kaiser,  he  concluded 
on  the  .'Sth  of  .June,  1  ?44.  a  treaty  which  brought 
France  also  Into  this  alliance.     It  was  secretly 
agreed  tlint  Frederick  was  to  Invade  Bohemia 
conquer  it  for  the  Kaiser,  and  have  the  districts 
of  KOniggrStz,  Bunzlau,  and  Ix;ltnieritz  to  repay 
him  for  his  trouble  and  cosU;    while   Prance 
which  was  all  this  time  at  war  with  Austria  and 
England,  should  send  an  army  against  Prince 
Charles  and  the  English.  .  .  .  The  first  stroke  of 
«ie  coming  war  was  delivered  by  France.     Louis 
AV .  sent  a  large  army  into  the  Netheriands  under 
two  good  leaders.  Noaillcs  and  Maurice  de  8sxe 
l/rgcd  by  his  mistress,  the  Duchesse  de  ChSteau 
roux    he  joined  it  himself  early,  and  took  the 
nominal   command    early    in    June.  .  .      The 
towns  [Menin,   Ypres,   Fort  Kno<iue.    Fiirnp^l 
rapidly  fell  before  him.  and  Marshal  Wade,  witli 
the  Anglo-Dutch-Hanoverian  army,  sat  still  and 
lookeii  at  the  success  of  the  French.     But  on 
the  night  of  the  30th  June  — 1st  Julv,   Prince 
Charles  crossed  the  Rhine  bv  an  operatfon  which 
Is  worth  the  study  of  mflitary  students    and 
invaded  Alsace,  the  French  army  of  observation 
falling  back  before  him,     Louis  XV.   hurried 
back  to  Internosc  between  the  Austrians  and 
Paris.      .      Maurice  de  Saxe  was  left  in    the 
Netheriands  with  45.000  men.    Thus  the  French 
army  was  paralysed,  and  the  Austrian  army  in 
Its  turn  was  actually  invading  France.     At  this 
time  Frederick  struck  in.     He  sent  wortl  to  the 
King  that,  though  all  the  terms  of  their  arrange- 
ment had  not  yet  been  fulfilled,  he  woul.lat 
once    invade   Bohemia,    and   deliver   a   stmkc  I 
ag'iinst  Prague  which  would  certainly  cause  tiic 
retreat  of  Prince  Charles  with  his  70,0(K)  men 
If  the  French  army  would  follow  Prince  Charles 
in  his  retreat,  Frederick  would  attack  him  and 
between  France  and  Prussia  the  Austrian  army 
would  certainly  be  crushed,  and  Viedna  be  at 
their  merey.    This  was  no  doubt  an  excellent 
plan  of  campaign,  but.  like  the  previous  opera- 
tions concerted   with   Broglio,  it  depen.lH  for 
succPM  upon  the  goo.1  faith  of  the  French,  ami 
tills  turned  out  to  lie  a  broken  reed.    On  the  7th 
of  .\ugu8t  the  Prussian  am'    ssador  at  Vienna 
esve  notice  of  the  Union  of       nkfurt  and  with- 
drew from  the  court  of  Austi ..,    and  on  Uie  15th 
Uie  Prussian  army  was    put   in    march    upon 
lii^liS  te'-S-""".'.'.  »."««    "»   8eco^nd 


three  columns  tte  toUI  ittcngth  being  ove- 
80,000  .  .  Maria  Theresa  was  now  a|ain  in 
great  danger,  but  ai  usual  retained  her  Utb 
courage,  and  once  more  called  forth  the  enthu. 
slasm  of  her  Hungarian  subjecta,  who  sen* 
(wanns  of  wild  troops,  hone  and  foot,  to  the 
seat  of  war.  .  .  .  On  the  1st  of  September  th, 
three  columns  met  before  Prague,  which  had 
better  defences  than  in  the  last  campalen  and  i 
garris.  of  some  18,000  men,  .  .  .  Duri'ne  the 
night  of  the  IKh  the  bombardment  commenced 
.  .  .  and  on  the  16th  the  garrison  surrendered 
1  nus,  one  month  after  the  commencement  of  tlie 
mareh  Piaiue  WM  captured,  and  the  campaira 
opened  with  a  brilliant  feat  of  arms.  "-Col  C  ¥ 
Brackenbury,  Frtderiek  the  Ortat  «A  7 

Also  IN:  W.  Russell,  Hitt.  of  Modern  Enrmt 
K  8,  Wtor  28._F.  Von  Raumer,  Contrihutionit:, 
|^«*g-»  Bit  ■■   fredk.   II.  and  hit  Tima   X 

,  \  Hi  '744-i74S--Frederick'»  retreat  and 
freab  triumph.— Anitria  recovers  the  imperial 
crown.- Saxonr    »nbdned.-The    Peaie  of 

Si;!r!!°,:~^'?'".  "•*  "'d"«l'">  of  I-ragu., 
Frederick,  -in  deference  to  the  opinion  of  .MarshM 
Bellelsle,  but  against  his  own  judgment,  advanced 
into  the  south  of  Bohemia  with  the  view  of 
threatening  Vienna.  He  thus  exposed  himself  to 
the  risk  of  twing  cut  off  from  Prague.  Yet  even 
so  he  would  probablv  have  been  able  to  main- 
tain  himself  if  the  French  had  fullilleii  Hioir 
engagements.  But  while  he  was  conquerinc  ihe 
.llstricts  of  the  Upper  Moldau,  the  Austri,in 
army  returiie<i  unlmpaire<l  from  Alsace  The 
French  had  allowed  ft  to  cross  the  Rhine  unmo- 
lested,  and  had  not  made  the  slightest  attempt  to 
Harass  its  retreat  [but  applied  tlicmselves  lo  the 
siege  and  capture  of  Freiburg],  Thev  were 
only  too  glad  to  get  rid  of  it  themselves.  "  In  Ihe 
env.--'-;  operations  Frederick  was  completelv 
outmanoeuvred.     Trauii  [the  Austrian  genenlj, 

liaok  tonaras 


»].     Frederick's   foroM  moved   io 


-• ••  ...■«..    |nn      ^\I4BIIUII1    1 

without  ri.sklng  a  battle,  forced  him  bark 
the  Silesian  frontier.     He  had  to  choose'  lietween 
abandoning   Prague  ami    almndoning  his  rom- 
munications  with  Hilcsia,  and  as  the  Saxons  hail 
cut  off  his  retreat  through  the  Electorate,  there 
was  really  no  choice  in  the  matter,     So  he  fell 
back  on   Slleshi,  abandoning    Prague    ami   liij 
heavy  artillery.    The  retreat  was  uttendeil  with 
considerable  loss,     Frederick  wa    ,    icli  stniek 
with  the  skill  displayed  by  Tra  ^'     ad  savs.  in 
his  'Histoire  demon  Tcmpa,'  •'       .e  reglinled 
''"» /^'npa'gn  as  his  school  in  t'        t  of  war  and 
SI,  de  Traun  as  his  teacher,     T       ampalirn  may 
have  be«'n  an  excellent  lesson  .     the  art  of  war 
but  In  other  respects  It  was  very  disastrous  to 
tredenck.     He  had   drawn    upon   himself  t^ie 
whole  power  of    Austria,  and    had  hiirnt  liov 
little  the  French  were  to  be  dependisl  ii|~.n    His 
prestige  was  dimmed  by  failure,  and  ev,  n  in  his 
own  army  doubu  were  entertained  of  his  i  apa- 
city.     But,  bad  as  his  position  alreadv  «  ,~  i; 
became  far  worse  when  the  unhappy  "Kmi.  r 
dle<l  [Jan,  80,  174.1],  worn  out  with  diseas,   ,,■; ! 
calamltv.     This  event  put  an  end  to  the  Ini.™ 
of  Frankfort.     Frederick  could  no  lonp  r  <  laim 
to  be  acting  in  defence  of  his  opprrssdl  soven  icn. 
the  ground  was  cut  from  under  his  feet.    Nor 
was  there  any  longer  much  hope  of  pnventing 
thp  Im(*rial  Crown  from  reverting  i..  Ai.,tfU, 
The  new  Elector  of  Bavaria  was  a  mere  hov    In 
this  altered  state  of  affairs  be  sought  to  mske 
peace.    But  Maria  Theresa  would  not  let  him 


226 


ACSTraA,  1744-174S. 


ffinur  o/  Hap*- 
burg-Lorraint. 


AU8TRIA,  1765-1790, 


off  loeuilv.    In  order  that  she  might  use  all  her 
forces  againit  him,  ihe  gnuite<l  pearc  to  Bavuria, 
lad  (fave  bacli  to  the  young  el«'U)r  liig  liere<li- 
tarv  (luminioDii,  oo  coodition  of  liia  n-signing  all 
claim  to  hera  and  promising  to  vote  for  her  Tiug- 
biiiul  as  Emperor.     While  Fredericic  thus  lost  a 
fricn<i  in   Bavaria,  Saxony   threw  herself  com- 
phtclv  into  the  arras  of  his  enemv,  and  united 
with  Austria  in  a  treaty  [May  18]  whicli  Irnil  for 
its  ()l)jiTt,  not  the  reconquest  of  Silesia  merely, 
l)iit  tlic  partition  of  Prussia  and  the  miuetioii  of 
till'  king  to  his  ancient   limits  as  Mnrgmve  of 
Bnwlcnburg.     Saxony    was  tlicn   muc'h  lurgir 
tlmn  it  is  now,  but  it  was  not  only  the  nuiuhir 
u'  triMips  it  could  send  into  the  fluid  that  made 
its  hostility  dangerous.     It  was  partly  the  geii- 
graphioal  position  of  the  country,  which  niaiTe  it 
an  I'xcellent  base  for  operations  against  Prussia, 
but  slill  more  the  alliance  that  was  known  to 
subsist  iM'tween  the  Elector  (King  Augustus  III. 
of  Poland)  and  the  Russian  Court.     It  was  prob- 
able that  a  Prussian  invasion  of  Saxony  would 
he  followed  by  a  Russian  invasion  of  Prussia. 
Towanis  the  end  of    May,    the    Austrian  and 
Sa.xiin  army,   75,000  strong,    crosse<l  the  Giant 
Mountains   and  descended   upon    Silesia.     Tlie 
Austriaus  were    again  commande<l    by    Prince 
( liarlts,  but  the  wise  head  of  Traun   was  no 
lonsir  there  to  guide  him.  .  .  .  The  encounter 
took   place  at    Holienfriedbcrg    [June   5],    and 
n'Siilliil  iu  a  complete  victory  for  Prussia.     The 
Austrians    and    Saxons    lost    0,000    killed    and 
woundid,  and  7,000  prisoners,  besides  00 cannons 
and  T;1  Hags  and  standards.     Four  days  after  the 
batt'c    tbcy    wer,     back    again    in    Bohemia. 
Fnilcrick  followed,   not    with   the  intention  of 
sti.uking  them  again,  but  in  order  to  eat  the 
coiijiiry  bare,  so  that  it  might  ndord  uo  susten- 
anil-  to  the  enenjy  during  the  winter.     For  his 
own  part  he  was  really  anxious  for  peace.     Hi 
nsoiiri  t »  wore  all  but  exhausted,  while  Aust 
was  fed  by  a  constant  stream  of  English  su 
Biiliis.     As  in  the  former  war,  England  iuterposed 
with  bcr  good  ofliccs,  but  without  efleit:  Maria 
Till nsa  was  by  no  means  dishearteneil   by  her 
dil'iul,  and  refusiKi  to  hear  of  peace  till  she  had 
trinl  the  chances  of  battle  once  more.     On  S»'pt. 
la  lur  liiisband  was  electeil  Emperor  by  seven 
voti<oiit  of  nine,  the  dissentients  lieing  the  King 
of  Prussia  and  the  Elector  Palatine.     This  event 
niiMil  the  spirits  of  the  Empress  Queen,  as  Maria 
Tlicrisa  was  heiicefurward  called,  and  opened  a 
wiilcrticldforherambition.    Shesent  peremptory 
onlirs  to  Prince  Charles   to    attack   Frederick 
before  be  retireil  from  Bohemia.     A  battle  was 
aiconlingly  fought  at  Sohr  (Si'pt.  30],  and  again 
victory  rested  with  tlie  I'russians.     The  season 
was  now  far  advanced,  and  Frederick  returned 
home  expecting  that  there  would  be  no  more 
fighting  till  after  the   winter.     Such  however, 
was  far  from  being  the  intention  of  his  enemies  ' 
A  plan  for  the  invasiim  of  Braudcnluirg  by  tlin* 
Austrian  and  Saxon  armies,  simiiltaneoiisfv   was 
neeri'tly  concerted;    but  Fn'dcrick   had   timely 
warning  of   it    and    it    was  fni.stnited   by   his 
activity  and  energy.     On  the  2*1  of  November 
he  surprised  and    defeated    Prince    Charles  at 
1  I iiiiirsdorf,      "Some  three   weeks  afterwards 
tl>«i .  15)  the  Prince  of  I>e9sai!  defi  .it.'ti  a e  :~-.n.-I 
Baxon  and  Austrian  army  at  Kesu-lsdorf.  u  few 
miles  from  Dresdi-n.    This  victorv  compleUd  the 
iulijugation  of  Saxonv  ami   put  nn  end  to  the 
war.    Three  day*  afur  Kesstladorf,  t>«derick 


entered  Dresden,  and  astonished  erery  one  by 
the  graciousness  of  his  behaviour  and  by  the 
moderotion  of    his   u-rms.      From    Saxony    he 
exacted  no  cession  of  territory,  but  merely  a  con- 
tribution of  1,000,000  thaiers  (£150,000)  towanla 
the  expenses  of   the    war.     From    Austria  l>j 
demande*!  a  guarantee  of  the  treaty  of  Breslau 
in    return  for    which   he  agreed  to   recognize 
trancis   as    Emperor.     Peace    was   signed  [at 
Dresden]  on  Christmas  Day.  "— F.  W.  Longman 
Ftederiek  the  Great  and  the  Hecen  Team    War 
ell.  3.  ' 

Ai*o  in:  T.  Carlyle,  ni»t.  of  Frtdtriek  11.,  bk. 
15,  ek.  8-15  (r.  4).— Lord  Dover,  Life  of  Frederick 
II. .bk-  a,  «A.  a-.5(r.  1). 

,A-  **•„  '745-— Orerwhelming    ditaatcri   in 
Italy.    See  Italy:    A.  D.  174.",. 

A,  D.  1745  (Ma/).— Rereraei  in  the  Nether- 
lands.—Battle  of  Fontenoy.  See  Netiieb- 
LAN08:    A.  D.  1745. 

A.  D.  1745  (September— October).— Tht 
Consort  of  Maria  Thereta  elected  and  crowned 
Emperor.— Rise  of  the  new  House  of  Hans- 
burg-Lorraine.— Francis  of  Lorraine,  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany  and  husbaml  of  Maria  Theresa, 
»;as  elected  Emperor,  at  Frankfort,  Sept.  13, 
1745,  and  crowmnl  Oct.  1,  with  the  title  of  Fran- 
cis I.  "  Thus  the  Empire  ntunied  to  the  New 
House  of  Austria,  that  of  Hapsburg-Lorruine, 
and  France  had  missed  the  principal  object  for 
which  she  had  gone  to  w.ir."  By  the  treaties 
signed  at  Dresden,  Dec.  25,  lietween  Prussia, 
.\ustria  and  Saxony,  Frc(leri<k.  at  Elector  of 
Brandenburg,  assented  to  and  recogniz-etl  the 
election  of  Francis,  against  which  he  and  the 
Elector  Palatine  had  previously  protested.— T 
H.  Dyer,  llitt.  of  Modern  Eu'roix,  bk.  6  eh.  4 
(f.  3). 

A.  D.  1746-1747.— Further  French  con- 
quests  m  the  Netherlands.— Lombai.-'^  recov- 
ered.—Genoa  won  and  lost.  .See  .  -ieb- 
I.A.NOS:  A.  D.  1746-1747;  and  Italy:  .1  D 
174B-1747. 

A.  D.  1748  (October).— Termination  and  re-    • 
suits  of  the  War  of  the  Succession.    See  Aix- 
laChapklle,  The  Conqrkss  of. 


A.  p.  i75S-»763-The  Seven  Years  War.— 
Qerma.ny:  a.  D.  1753-1:56,  to  1763;  ahio. 


See  Qerm ^ 

Seven  Yeabs  Wau. 
_  A;  D-  '765-I790.— Joseph  II.,  the  enthroned 
Pbilosopner. — "The  prince  who  best  sums  up 
the  spirit  of  the  cen'ury  is  not  Frederic  [the 
Great,  of  Prussia],  it  is  Josiph  11.  [the  emperor]. 
Frederic  was  bom  s  master,  Joseph  II.  a  dis- 
ciple, and  it  is  by  disciples  that  we  j-idge 
schoola  The  king  of  Prussia  dammed  up  the 
waters,  directed  their  flow,  made  use  of  tlie 
current ;  the  emperor  cast  himself  upon  ti,  m 
and  permitted  himself  to  be  carried.  With 
Frederic  the  statesman  always  dominates,  it  is 
he  who  proposes  and  Snail v' derides;  the  phil- 
osopher is  sulHinilnate.  .  .'.  With  Joseidi  II. 
rational  conception  precedes  political  calculation 
and  governs  [t.  He  had  breadth  of  mind  but 
his  mind  was  superflcial :  Idi-as  slipped  from  it. 
He  had  a  taste  for  generosity,  a  passion  for 
granileur;  but  there  was  notliliig  profound  in 
hiin  but  ambition,  and  it  was  all  counter  stroke 
ami  rtrflretitiu.  He  wished  t.i  Sllrp«^»  I'reii.  lic: 
his  entire  conduct  was  but  an  awkwani,  Impru- 
dent and  ill-advised  imitation  of  this  prince 
whom  he  had  made  his  liero.  whom  bislorv  made 
his  rival  and  whom  he  copied   while  detesting 


227 


AUSTRIA,  1765-1790. 


JoMI*  II. 


AUSTRIA,  1790-1797. 


him.  The  political  genius  of  Fiederic  was  born 
of  ({i)od  »enae  »nd  nnxlenitio  i :  there  was  uothing 
In  Joseph  II.  but  the  imm.Hli  rii'e.  lie  was  a 
nun  of  systems:  he  had  ciilv  .t,Teat  Telleitiea. 
Hia  education  wai  mediocre,  a'ad,  as  U>  methods, 
entirely  Jesuitical.  Into  this  contracted  mould 
he  cast  confusedly  notions  h»tilj  !>  arrowed  from 
the  philosophers  of  Friiiire,  In.  n  .;ie  economists 
cs|K'ciaUy.  He  thus  formed  ii  •  ory  vague  ideal 
of  political  aspirations  and  en  exiggersted 
sense  of  the  power  at  his  dis|"Mi>;  .1  o  realize 
fliem,  'Since  I  as<'ended  the  tliron  md  have 
woru  the  tintt  crown  of  the  worb'  '  .  .ite  he  in 
Uil,  'Ihiive  mail"' Philosoph'  '',1  ,  naker  of 
my  empire.  Ht-r  logical  an-l,  -lUous  i,!«?  going 
to  trunaform  Austria.'  Heu.  '  ruike  rc.irmsin 
every  direction  at  once.  K;,~i>  •  n  M  i  <rhim, 
tnulitious  do  not  count,  uof  n  ts  ••     uired. 

There  is  no  race,  nor  perif  ',  .1  r  ■     roui.   ingclr- 
cumstances ;  there  is  the  .^  ,   c  w  i;rl:  i?  every- 
thing and  can   do    everytl  \c  j.      F     wr    es  In 
1782,  to  the  bishop  of  Htra>l)  iir    ■       ■  t   i»ing- 
dom  governed  conformabl<     1  .   tu-   ;   j;  iplea, 
prejiKlice,    fanaticism,    borlu.n    jf  -xnr ',   nuist 
disappear,    and  each   of  r  v     >:i';eci,.   ibj>i,   •. 
reinstated    in    tlie    posses')!,) :     <>,     Ms    r,s'"ni 
rights.'     He   must  have  v.wX-',    \nd,    i'    .  icji 
condition,    the  rejection  '       .;i    ip  vi;*!!'  , '  r 
Chance  malies  him  operat.'  n  ,    \  .«,il   ■  .1",    m,->x 
heterogeneous,   the    most    int^   iirent,   t!ii'  ni.,  i 
cut  up,  parccleri  out  and  trav'    led  by    ,irr  .,^. 
that  there  is  in  Kunjpe.      X(, ning  in  <Mir,'.„ii, 
among  his  subjnis.  neither  Ian?  lage.  nor  ira- 
ditioiiH,  nor  intensts.     It  is  frum  this,  acconiiii^- 
to  him.  that  thedefi'ct  of  moimr'  hy  arises.     '  The 
German  language  is  tlie  universal   language  of 
my  empire.     I  am  llie  empcnr  of  Germany,  the 
"tates  which  I  possess  are  pniviuces  which  form 
luit  oni'  b(Hiy  with  the  State  of  which  I  am  the 
licad.     If  the  kingdom  of    Ilunirary   were   the 
most  Important  of  my  possessions,  f  should  not 
liesilale   to    impose     its    tongue    on     the   otiier 
(o'lniries  '     So  hi'  iiniioscs  the  tierman  language 
on  the  Hungarians,   the  Croats,   the  Tchfijues, 
tlie  I'dles,  iin   all  tlic  Slavs,     lie  suppresses  tire 
ancient  tirritorial  divisions  .  thev  recall  the  suc- 
cessive  agglomerations,  tlie   irregular  alluvions 
which  hail  formed  the  monarchy;  he  establishes 
tliirtet'n  governments  and  divides  them  into  cir- 
cles.      The   diets  di8ap|«-ar;    the    government 
pa.ssea  into  the  hands  of  intendants  according  to 
the  French  formula.     In  the  cities  tlie  imrgonias- 
ter  appointed  by  the  government  becomes  a  func- 
tionary.   The  nobles  lose  the  part,  already  much 
curtailed,  that  they  still  had.  here  and  there,  in 
the  government      He  taxes  thini,  he  ta.\es  the 
ecclesiastics:    he    meditates   establishing  8  tax 
["•oportional  to  Incomes  and  reaching  all  classes. 
He   prote(;ts  the    peasants,   alleviates    serfdom, 
diminislies  the  corvi'-cs,   huilds  hospitals,  schools 
aliove  all,  in  which  the  state  will  form  pupils  to 
olii  y  her.     His  iil«-al  would  be  tlieeoiiality  of  his 
sulpjccts  under  the  uniform  sway  of  his  govern- 
ment.    He  unifies  the  laws;  he  institutes  courts 
of  appeal  with  a  supreme  court  for  the  entire 
empin-.     He    makes    regulations    for  manufac- 
tures,   binds  commerce  to    the    most    rigorous 
proU'Ctive  ^ystr-m.     Finally  he  puts  a  high  hand 
on  the  church  and  d.srees  tolerance.    .    .    .   This 
immen^i  revolution  was  sceompHshnd  hy  means 
of  decr»>es.  in  less  than  Hve  yi-ars.     If  we  com- 
pare the  state  of  cohesion  which  the  Bourbon 
govemmmt  had  brought  about  in  France  in  1789, 


228 


with  the  Incoherence  of  the  Austrian  monarthv 
on  the  death  of  Maria  Theresa  In  17(W,  It  wiii 
be  seen  that  tlie  revolution  which  caused  thi' 
Constituent  Assembly  was  a  small  matter  coni^ 
pared  with  that  which  Joseph  II  Intended  to 
effect."— A.  Horel.  L'£un>pe  tt  la  Hetolutinn 
{m"*"*"  ('""^/"^  '^  J^yeneA),  pt.  1,  pp.  uu- 

_A.  D.  I77»;l773.-The  Firtt  Partition  of 
Poland.    See  Polakd;    A.  D.  1763-1773 

A.  D.  1777-1779.— The  quettionof  the  Bava- 
nan  Succesaion.  See  Bavahu:  A.  D.  1777- 
1779. 

A.  D.  I78a-i8ti.— AlMlitioa  of  Serfdom 
See  Slavirt.  Msdijeval:    Obrmant. 

A.  D.  I787^t79i<— War  with  the  Turlts.- 
Treaty  of  SiatoTa.— Slight  Acquisitions  of 
Territory.  See  Turks;  A.  D.  177»-179i 
.  A.  D.  1790-1797.— Death  of  Joseph  II.  and 
Leopold  II.— Accession  of  Francis  II.-The 
Coalition  acainst  and  war  with  revolutionary 
France,  to  the  Peace  of  Campo  Formio.- 
''It  is  a  mistake  to  imagine  that  the  European 
"rw  attacked  tlie  Revolution  in  France.  It 
Revolution  which  attacked  them.  The 
.natisU  of  the  18th  century  viewed  at  lirst 
with  cynical  indi^erencc  the  laeeting  of  the 
States  -  General  at  Versailles.  .  .  ,  The  two 
miiuls  which  occupied  the  attention  of  Europe 
in  1789  were  the  condition  of  Poland  ami  the 
troubles  in  the  East.  The  ambitious  designs  of 
■'atherine  and  the  assistance  lent  to  them  by 
Joseph  threatenol  the  existence  of  the  Tul■l(i^ll 
Empire,  irritated  the  Prussian  Court,  and  awak 
iiied  English  apprehensions,  ulwuvs  sensiiiv 
iiliont  the  safety  of  Stamboul.  I'olanil,  thi,' 
I'tittle-fleld  of  cynical  diplomaty,  torn  by  lnui; 
dissensions  and  ruined  by  a  miserable  constitu- 

'i was  vainly  endeavouring,  umler  the  jenlnus 

eyes  of  her  great  neighliours,  to  avert  the  doom 
impending,  and  to  reassert  her  ancient  claim  to 
a  place  among  the  nations  of  the  world.  Hut 
ltus.sin  had  long  since  determined  tli.it  I'ohin  1 
nmst  lie  a  vassal  State  to  her  or  cea.se  to  u 
^^tnte  at  all,  while  Prussia,  driven  to  face  a  iMn) 
necessity,  realised  that  a  strong  Poland  iiml ., 
strong  Prussia  could  not  exist  together,  and  that 
if  Poland  ever  ro8»!  again  to  power,  Prussia  must 
bid  good-bye  to  unity  ami  greatness.  These 
two  questions  to  the  States  Involved  seemed  to 
lie  of  far  more  moment  than  any  political  reform 
in  France,  and  engrosseil  the  diplomutisn  of 
E_unipe  until  the  summer  of  1791,  In  I'lliriMrv. 
1790,  a  new  inllucnce  was  inlrodiiceil  imo 
European  polities  liv  the  death  of  the  Kin|ierot 
Joseph  and  the  ai  icssion  of  his  brothi  r  ljo|h,l,; 
II.  IxMipohl  was  a  man  of  remarkalib-  shiliiv 
no  enthusiast  Rii.i  no  dreamer,  thorout'lilv  \- 
In  the  selfish  truiliiions  of  Austrian  policy  ai 
some  of  tlic  subtleties  of  Italian  statccmft. 
cerning,  tempemU\  resolute  and  clearln :. 
quietly  determinetl  to  have  liis  own  wav 
genemtly  skilful  enouj^h  to  secure  it.  \.<  • 
lonnd  his  new  dommions  in  a  slate  .f  liw 
utmost  confusion,  with  warandnUllion  li  r,:ii,n 
Ing  him  on  every  side.  He  8|H-eilily  ■-.  i  nl«.;it 
restoring  order.  He  rcpealeil  the  uniH,[iiiliir  .1. 
crees  of  Joseph.  He  conciliatc<l  or  n  |ires.se,i  l,.s 
discontented  subjects.  He  gradually  re  1M..I1- 
"=Ih?<!  ti,e  aMllioritv  of  the  Cniwn.  .  .  .  Xiv.  7 i 
Ingly,  the  first  efgliteen  months  of  Uo|h  i 
reign  were  ocrupie<l  with  his  own  imiiH-lKii 
interests,  and  at  the  cod  of  that  time  his  succom 


1 

i-i  la 

•iis- 

,^.,i 

.A 


AUSTRIA,  17«ft-17»7.  Wan  with 

Rt  wUittionarl/ 
Fmner. 
«u  marked.    Catherine'i  vaat  sclienes  iu  Tur- 
key had  been  checked.     War  had  been  averted. 
l'<ilaD<l    had   been    itrengthened    by    intenutl 
cliaDKC'S.     Pruvta  bad  been  conciliated  anil  out- 
nunieurred,  and  lier  influence  had  been  imiwirvd. 
At  last,  at  tlie  end  of  August,  1791,  the  Emperor 
was  free  to  face  the  French  problem,  and  he  set 
nut  for  the  Castle  of  Pillnitz  to  meet  the  King  of 
Prussia  and  the  Emigrant  leaders  at  the  Saxon 
Elector's  Court     For  some  time  past  the  restless- 
ness of  tiie  French  Emigrants  had  been  causing 
great  pcriilexity  in  Europe.     Received  with  open 
arms  l<y  tlie  ecclesiastical  princes  of  the  Khue, 
by  the  Electors  of  Maircnce  and  TrJves,  they 
proceeded  to  agitate  busily  for  their  own  restora- 
tion. .  .  .  The  object  of  the  Emigrants  was  to 
bring  pressure  to  bear  at  the  European  Courts, 
with  tlie  view  of  Inducing  the  Powers  to  inter- 
vene actively  In   their   belulf.  .  .  .  After   bis 
escape  from  Fiance,  In  June,  1790,  tlie  Comte  de 
Provence   established    his   Court   at  Cobleutz, 
wlien'  he  was  joined  by  his  brother  tiie  Comte 
il'ArUjis,  and  where,  on  the  plea  that  Louis  was 
a  prisoner,  he  claimed  the  title  of  Regent,  and 
iissumed  the  authority  of  King.     The  Court  of 
ttic  t«(i  French  princes  at  CoLilentz  rvi.resenteil 
faithfullv  tlie  faults  an<l  follies  of  the  Kuiignii:: 
party.     But  a  more  satisfactory  sjiectacle  was 
offered  by  tlic  camp  at  Worms,  where  Cond£  was 
bravely  trying  i..  organise  an   army   t.-.  fight 
iigaiiist  the  Rcvol  ^tion  in  France.    To  Condi's 
stamliml  tlfickcd  ihe  more  patriotic  Emitrrants. 
.  .  But  the  German  Princes  in  the  nelgl.liour- 
hood  lookeil   Willi  disfavour  on  the  Emigrant 
army.     It  caused  i'i>afusion  in  ilieir  dominions, 
ami  it  drew  .Uiwii  .m  them  the    lostility  of  tlie 
French  Govt-rnnieii!      The  Emperor  joined  tliem 
\h    protesting  airai.st  It.     In    February,    1792, 
(  oiiile's  army  wiut  i  niiipelled  to  abandon  its  camp 
;4  Worms,  and  to  n  'ire  fiirtlier  into  Gtrmiiny. 
Die  Emiwnjr  whs        U  aware  of  the  nckless 
seltisliMessof  the  Emigrant  princes.     He  Iiud  as 
little  sympatliy  with  tliem  as  his  sister.    He  did 
not  intenil  to  listen  to  their  demands.     If  he  in- 
terfered ill  France  at  all,  it  would  only  be  in  a 
tautiousaiid  Unttitive  manner,  and  in  onler  to 
save  Miiriu  AnUiinettc  iiml  her  husband.     Cer- 
liiiiilylr  would  not  umlertiike  a  war  for  the  restor- 
ation .  ;  tile  Ancien  liegime.  .  .  .  Acconlingly 
Mie  inlervii  ws  at  Pillnitz  came  to  nothing.  . 
i..irlv  in  .Mureh,  IT92,  Lwnolil  suddenly  died.    I'l; , 
liiir  Fnincis,  unrestrained  by  his  father's  tact  and 
mixlcmtion,  assiinii  d  a  different  tone  and  showed 
less  pMience.     Tlie  chances  of  any  elTectivc  prcs- 
Min;  from  the  Powers  declined,  as  the  pnwpect 
nf  w;ir  rose  on  the  Iiorizon.     Friiiiris'  language 
«ii8  Mifflciently  sliari.  to  give  the  A->    uibW  tli<' 
pntixt  which  it  longed  for,  and  c     the  Siitj 
.\pril,    Louis,   amid   >:eneml    cntliusiasm,  (,une 
■  lowii  to  the  Assimlily  and  d«-lured  war  aitainst 
Austria      The  elfects  of  thiit  inomenUjiis  step  no 
uimmciit  lari  exagircrate.     1 1    riiinwl   the  liest 
^   ixsuf  !h,.  Hcvojuiion,  aii.l  preimml  tlie  way 
.  r  u  miliLiiy  des|).ilisni  in  11^.  futiir.     —C.  K 
.Mullet.     J  he     Fnnd,     /;,„^„l„„i.  7  —  St- 

l-K*.\eE:  .V.  D.  1790-17,  ■.  171.    ,.l,  .  ,  -Decem-    I 
UKK);    1T91-K92;     17tn!    (Apku.-.J,  ,  v),     and 
iSEPTEsiiiEii-DKcKMnEii).    17U-.'-179;i     Decem- 

llEIl-l'KUlllAHV);      IT*!     (FeUHIAHV^     Ah|(I(.,      I 

'i-u<  ",.,!:'~'"'-"-'""'"      'IW  (.MARrii— Jui.Y)     i 
liW-l.Kj  (IXTOUKK     M.»Y);    17!)5  (Jine— De- 

1797  lUtToBtn— Apbu.). 


AUSTRIA,    1798-1806. 


A.  D.  i794-i;96.— The  Third  petition  oi 
Poland.— Auatnan  share  of  the  apoil*.  See 
Poland:  A.  I).  1793-1796. 

A.  p.  i7OT(Octob«r),-TreatT  of  Campo- 
Formto  with  France.— CcMioo  of  the  Nether- 
land*  and  Lombard  proTincei.— Acquisition 
of  Venice  and  Venetian  territories.  See 
Fbance:  a.  D.  1797  (.Mat— October) 

A.  D.  i798-x8o<.— Congreas  of  Raitadt.— 
Second  Coalition  asainit  France.— Peace  of 
Luneville.— Third   Coalition.— Ulm  and  Aui- 
'f''.*.*-."?*"*   <*f  Preiburg.— Extinction   of 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire.— Birth  of  the  Empire 
of  Auitria.- •■  When  Bonaparte  sailed  for  Egypt 
he  had  left   _  congress  at   Rastadt   discu-Mng 
means  for  the  execution  of  certain  ariir  les  in  the 
treaty  of  Cainpo  Fonnio  which  were  to  establish 
peace   between  Franco   and  the   Empire.  .  .  . 
Though  openly  undertaking  to  invite  the  Ger- 
mans to  a  congress  In  order  to  settle  a  general 
peace  on  the  basis  of  the  Integrity  of  the  Empire 
tlie  Emperor  agreed  In  secret   ..licles  to  use  his 
iniluence  to  procure  for  tlie  Ucpiiblic  the   left 
liunk  of  the  Rliiuc  witli  the  exception  of  the 
Prussian  provinces,  to  join  with  France  in  obtain- 
ing comiH'nsatiiin  in  Germany  for  thof";  injured 
by  this  change,  and  tocontnbute  no  more  than 
Ills  necessary  contingent  if  the  war  w.re  pro- 
longed.    The  ratification  of    the.s.'  awni    pro- 
visions had  lieen  extorted  from  till      muc.-is  by 
threats  before  H.  iiapwrte  liiul  left,  !■    i    ih.-  ques- 
'■  nof  indeniiiiiH;iiion  hiid  progres.s.  i  mi  farther 
lu  a  decisiou  to  secuhirlse  the  •      '.  ^ill.^tical 
s.,  !cs  for  tht    puriiose,   when    extnivii^,'iiut  de- 
m.-.'idsfrom  ti     French  deputies  broiiirht   nego- 
tiation toa  dea.  i  ck.     Meanwliile,  another  en.ili- 
tion  war  hud  Ui      brewing.     Paul  I.  of  I{iis.siii 
had  regarded  wit  i  little   plen.siire  the  di  insrs  of 
the  Ilevolntiun,  and  when  his  pnjteges.tl-  kniirliis 
of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  had  been  di ;  rived  of 
Malta  by  Bonaparte  on  his  w:,v  to  Egypt,  when 
the  Directory  established  bv  'force  Vt    iiriiis  a 
nclvetic  republic  in  Switzerland,  when  it  fniinj 
occasion  to  carry  off  the  Pope  iutoexile  uihI  .  rrct 
a  Roman  republic,  he  aliandoiieil  the  (iiuinus 
and  self-seeking  i>oli(v  of  Catlien  . .  m„i  ,  ,,rJi. 
ally  responded  to  Pin  -  lulvaiicis        nii  alli^iiicc. 
At  the  same  time  Turkey  was  lied  by  the 

invitation  of  1    vpt  to  iiily  itself         mce  with 
Russia.     Austi       conviiKr.l  that  !,i    i  rtiuli  did 
not  intend  to  pay  a  fair 
Campo  Formlo,  also  de! 
ties;  and  Naples,  cxaspi 
a  republic  at  Koine,  and 
-'ressiveness,  enrolled  il»i 
Xeapolitau  king,   iinleeil. 
some  8ucces.s,  Ix'fore   he  < 
from  his  al'ies;  but  hi-  wh 
the  French    und  his 

Into  a  Pan.    impean  .blic.     An    tia,   on 

contrary,    iiv>  .iied   ti        mval  of    iho    Ru-.  .m 

forces;  ami  lb    ceni       ( anipaign  began  early  in 

1799.     Th    Fr wh.       'iting  against  such  iriner- 

bIs  a>  the  Ar    al«k      iharlefl  and  the  liu^.-ian 

Suvarwff,  wir      iit  •    ,■  sup.    lision  of  Carnut  or 

;.')       ■■!       iiler|)ri»«     of     noiiMparte, 

vet     r,M  rses  and   great  priyaiinua. 

lie  111.!    the   Russian  amiv    endured 

ishin       a    "n-mnt     of    (\ts-    s  Iflsli- 

.Vus!?  .Ill      ibinet;   and  this  caused 

light  ii.  had  other  riasoiw  for 

.iidniw  iiis  tr  ...ps  from  the  field. 


rice  for  the  i 
mined  to  reiie 
lied  by  the  siic 

I  rilled  by  ¥: 
'  in  •  vj  leag 

ipti:  the  V 
<■<  -ilil  receive 
Kin  vamiuih... 

'lions  we^     conv 


V  of 
4ili- 
eof 

Hg- 

The 
«ith 

■port 

1  liy 

rted 

he 


tiie    atrat 
suffered    - 
Town 
muc 

ncK^    ■!   ti 
the  1  sar. 
disci    ;eni 


.   Whe 

229 


Uotiaparu'    was   made    First  Consul  the 


ACSrraA.  I78S-180*. 


Van  trilk 
Xapoimm, 


AUSTRIA.  1796-1808. 


milit«r7  pndtioD  of  France  wm,  ncvertlu'loM 
very  precarious.  .  .  .  Tlw  Roman  nii<l  Cisalpine 
republics  linJ  fslien.     Tlic  very  conirn-sn  iit  Ras- 
tadt  hail  been  illsperseil  :.y  the  iippnuuli  of  llic 
Austrians;  and  the  French  emissiiries  had  lieen 
sahreil  by  Austrian  tro..[ier8,  tlinugh  how  their 
insolence  came  to  be  thus  foully  punialieil  has 
never  been    clearly  expluinwl.      At  this  crisU 
France    was    rescued    from    forel^jn    fin's    and 
domestic  disonlera  by  Its  most  siici-essful  gen- 
eml.  ...  In    tlio   aimpuign    whi.h    followed, 
France    obuineil    signal    satlsfneiion    for    lu 
chagrin.     Ix-aving  Morenu  to  carry  the  war  into 
Oermanv,  BooaiNirte  sud<lcnly  cmssed  the  Alps 
and  defeated    the    Auslriikns   on  the    plain  of 
Marengo.      The  Austrhius,    though  eompletply 
ci)we<i.    refrained    from    concluiling    a    <Ieflnll« 
XH'MV  out  of  respect  for  their  enumgenienU  with 
Englanil;   and  armistices,  ex|>lring   into  desul- 
torv  warfare,  prolonged  the  conU-st  till  Moreau 
laid  the  w-ay  open  to  Vienna,  by  winning  a 
splendid  triumph  at  Hohenlinden.     .\  treaty  of 
grace  was  Anally  concluded  at  Lunevjllc.  when 
Francis  II.  pledgetl  the  Empire  to  ila  provisions 
on  the  ground  of  the  consenu  already  given  at 
K«Bta<ll.      In    conformity    willi    the  treaty    of 
Canino  Formio,  Austria  retained  tliel>oundary  of 
Ihc  Adigc  In  luly;    France  kept  Belgium  and 
the  left  liank  of  the  Rhine;  and  the  princes,  dis- 
poaaesHCfl  by  the  cessions,   were  pmnilseil  com- 
IK-nsation    in    Uermknv:    white    Tuscany    was 
given  to  France  to  sill  Ui  Spain  at  the  price  of 
Parma,  Louisiana,  six  ships  of  the  line  and  a 
sum  of  money.     Shonly  afterwanls  peace  was 
cTtended  to    Naples  on   easy  ti'mia  .  .  .  Tlie 
time  was  now  come  for  the  Itevdhilion  In  Com 
P'ete    tlie    niin  of    the   Holy    Komau   Empire 
Pursuant  to  the  treaty  of  Luneville,  the  German 
Diet  mi't  at  Kegenxliurg  to  iIIm-iiu  a  scheme  of 
coni|>eiiiuit|iin  fur  the  ili!i|MMsi'x.vil  rulers.     Vlr- 
tunlly  the  Hurting  was  a  renewal  i.f  the  ningnw 
of   Uiwluilt.   ...  At    Itastadt    llie    IniiMiennee 
anil  ilisinti-KrHlinn  of  tlie  venerable  Empire  lijul 
beciimc  painfully  a|<i>an'nl.  .  .  .   When  it  was 
known  th:it  the  hiwl  of  the  nalLin,   who  had 
giiaranlceil  Ilie  inl.grily  of  the  Eniiiirv  in  the 
pnliuiiniiries  of   I/ei>U-n,  aiwl  had  renewiil  the 
awuranee  when  he  eonvoked  the  awtemblv    liml 
In  truth  iKtrayeii  to  the  stranger  nearly  all  the 
left    iHiiik  of  the   Rhine,— the    (»ennaii    riilen. 
tntilil)    hasteneil  to  siture  every  iNissible  Irille 
In  till-  M-nonlile  nf  nHlistriliutiiin      The  slow  ami 
wiariii.me     ilelmtes     were     supplenieiiteil      by 
intritfun  I.f  ilie  nuisl  degradetl  nature.      Cm; 

«■ "   'hat   the    French   Consul  eiiulil    give    a 

cieiiiiiif  v.ite  i.n  any  dlKputeil  i|Ui-«ti<>n  the 
priniiH  f.HiMil  no  liiillgnilv  tiio  shameful  no 
trirk  till  Ins.-,  to  nbtnin  his  faviiur  .  .  Tbe 
Hr«t    C.iiMil,    (,n   hia  side,    pniweuliil    with 


-  -•■  •'  —  "••■' .  I'K-Ki  HU1I  Willi  a 
iliipliiily  nixl  mldn'ss,  herelofure  iineiMmllnl 
the  tniililiMiial  (Milliy  nf  France  In  Oennaii 
,  "'"*  r'iK'il'itf  In  Uke  Into  ii'miMinvIa 

the  MuiiiB  r^r,  whiM-  cnnvenient  rrieiii|»hlp 
wa.i  liiiix  iiwlly  iilitaiiiiilnn  luiiHinl  nf  hi<  family 
mniiii  tit.im  with  Hie  (tiniiaii  e<«in«,  hi  driw 
upa  Mhiiiienf  )iiilrinnih<alii.M  and  pnwntitl  It 
to  the  l))i  I  f..r  I  ii<l.,n«niint.  In  due  lime  a  mr 
vile  nsm-M  h.u>  glvin  In  every  (Milnt  whieh  enn 
nrniil  iIh  two  aulixnits.  fty  this  wltleminl 
AiiMtria  and  I'niwia  were  miin-  eiiiially  lialniinii 

nrinniieme  in  Wiiiieni  (l.nnanv.  ami  Hie  hiHer 
BuUIng   In   mure  cuavtulint   situations  •   rich 


li30 


recompense  for  Ito  oosionson  the  Rhine;  «|ii|r 
the  middle  stales,  Bavaria,  Baden,  and  Wanmi 
berg,    n^-eived   very   considerable  acceasiniiH  of 
territory.     But  if  Bnna|iarte  dislocatetl  yei  fur 
ther  tlie  (lolitical  structure  of  (^jrmiiny   lie  was 
at  least  instruinenUl  in  removing  llio  wnrsi  of 
the  ana.^hrouisms  which  stlflcil  the  develniiirieut 
of  iinpn    111  institutions  among  a  large  di\i<ion 
of  its  [K-nple.     The  same  measure  which  bmiielit 
Oemian  8i-|>arali8in  toacliiiiax.alsoextinifiiislicii 
the  ecclesiastical  sovereignties  anil  nearly  all  ilie 
free  cities.     That  these  slninghnliis  of  prii-,tly 
obscurantism  and  Imurgeois  apathy  wiiulil  «.ia",. 
day  be  invaihil  by   their  more  ainbitinus  ami 
active  neighlmura,  hiul  long  liecn  ap|>an'iil 
And    war    was    declare<l    when    Uiouxamls    „f 
British  subjecu  visiting    France    hail  alrniily 
lieen  ensnared   and   imprisonetl.  .  .  .  I'iit  |,ai'| 
taken  tlic  conduct  of  the  war  out  of  the  liamlsof 
Addingtons    feeble    ministry.      Posaessiinf  il,t. 
confldence  of  the  powers,  he  rapidly  com  liidiii 
offensive  allhnces  with    Ruask,   Sweilen    sml 
Austria,    though   PrussU   olistinaUly  reiuaiiml 
neutrJ.    Thus,  by  1H05,  Napoleon  had  put  u. 
baxjnl  all  hia  Utely  won  power  In  a  emitliet 
with  the  greater  part  of  Europe.     The  lialtle  of 
L^pe  Trafalgar  crushed  for  good  hU  maritime 
power,  tad  rendenxl  England  safe  from  ,Unit 
attack.    The  campaign  on  land,  however,  mailc 
bim  master  of  central  Euroiio.     BringiiiK  tlie 
Austrian  army  in   Oemuiuy  to  an  inglnrious 
capitukttioo     at     Uien,    lie     marehcil    UinaiKli 
Vienna,  aiHl,  with  inferior  forra-s  won  In  hii  beiit 
stTte  the  battle  of  Austeriiti  against  the  ir.«,|), 
of  Francis  and   Alexander.      The    aelinn    was 
decUivc.     The  allies  thought  not  of  niiiwini! 
the  war  with  Uie  nlays  of  trta.ps  whirl,  were 
hiirrying  up  fmm  Nortli  and  South.     I<ii«>i»n 
ami  Austrian  alike  wislml  to  be  rid  of  thiir  ill 
fatiil    connection.       The    Emperor    Alixamirr 
sllenlly  retiirneil  home,  pursued  only  bv  Naiai 
Jeons  Haltering  tokens  ofi-sUem:  the   tiniiiror 
Francis  aeei'pted  the  peace  of  I  .vsliurg   h  hli  h 
deprived  ills  house  of  the  ill  gotten   Viinllaii 
HIales,   Tyrol,    and    iu   more   disUnt    |Hwie« 
slons    in    Weatem    Uermany;     the    Kiinr   nf 
Prussia,  who  hail  been  <m  tlie  point  of  joininn 
ll«-  coalllion  with  a  large  army  (I  his  m.'liation 
were  unHuccessfiil,  was  commllteil  to  an  allianei' 
with  the  eoiiiiuerur  by  bis  Urritliil  muni    u.r 
Anil   well  dill    Napoleon  appear  Ui  nialte  the 
friiils  of  victory  ci>in|ietiaat«  France  for  iin  m  r 
lions.     The  empire  was  not  made  more  iiii»{,ih' 
n  bulk,  but  its  de|MndenU.  Bavaria.  Wnm™ 
l>erg,  and   Uailen,   niTlveil  conniderable  a,  n-» 
slons  of  territory.  sihI  the  two  flrst  wen-  ml«M 
to  the  rank  of  kingdoiiui;  while  the  EmiKnu. 
Italian    |.riiicipiillty,    which     he    liml    slnaily 
lumeil  Into  a  kingilom  of  luly  In  the  gre.il  ilit 
gust  of  Ailalria.  was  inereaan'l  by  the  aiLliilnii 
of  the  eeiliil  Ven.tian  lamls     Uul  the  full  il,-|ith 
of  t,iini|H<  a  hiMiiilialion  was  niH  exid-riemiii  till 
the  two  fntlnwing  yeani.     In    I**  an   ,\.|  ..f 
Fiileijlion  was.igne.1  by  the  kiiiin  nf  llnaria 
and    W  llrtiiiilNrg,  iIh-   Kleelor  nf    Hail.n    ami 
Ihlrtwn  minor  princes,  whii-h  iinititl  thrni  itilna 
li-agiie    iiniler    the    nniteclion    of    the    K  .mil 
hni|>en.r       The    oliJi..ia    of   this    iiMifnii  raiy. 
known  ii-<  the  lUieinliuml  were  defenre  ac^iiist 
fiin-Ign  nggn-BSHHi  bikI  the  exen-iae  nf  e..iiii.N-ir 
niii..i...in>     Hi    ii.iiiie.       .       AInwIy    Hie    i.-nne 
iiiMii. .-M  of  Hie  I'lure  of  l.unevllle  hs.|  in.|iiii.| 
the  ruliug  Ua|Mburg  to  assure  bis  cqualil}  wilk 


AUSTRIA,  17a»-1808. 


the  lOTercigiu  of  France  ami  nunia  by  taking 
tbe  imperial  title  in  Ilia  own  right;  ami  Ix'furetlie 
('uiifc<leratioa  uf  tlic  Kliinc  wtu  iiuxli'  public  Iiu 
fiiniiully  renouiicol  liisofticT  of  cli-clive  KnijH'ror 
■if  the  Holy  Koniiin  Empire  ami  relcoaetl  from 
uliiyiuncv  t<>  hint  all  the  stnteaaml  princetof  tlie 
IMch.  Tlie  triumph  of  tlio  German  policy  of 
the  Conaulate  was  complete.  "—A.  Weir,  The 
tlulorinU  Hutu  uf  Modern  Europe,  eh.  4, — See 
iilso,  Khanck:  a.  I).  170H-ITW,  to  1805,  and 
Okhmany:  a.  I).  1801-lWW,  U)  18aVl»06. 

A.  D.  1809-1814.— The  aecood  atmnle  with 
Ntpoieoo  and  the  tccond  defeat.— The  M»r- 
riacc  alliance.- The  Cernutnic  War  of  Liber- 
ation.—The  final  alliance  and  the  overthrow 
oftheCoraican.— "On  the  12tUof  July,  1806, 
fourteen  princea  of  the  south  and  west  of  Oer- 
inany  uniu-d  themselves  Into  the  confederation 
of  the  lUiine,  and  re<'ngnised  Napoleon  as  their 
pr>itM'lor.    On  the  Ut  of  August,  they  signifletl 
to  the  diet  of  Ratisbon  their  separation  from  the 
(J«-nimiiic   body.      The    Empire    of   Oemianv 
ecaacd  to  exist,  and  Frnncis  II.  abdicated  the 
title  by  prorlsmation.     By  a  convention  slgneil 
ut  Vienna,  on  the    15tb  of  I>ecemlK-r,   Pniasia 
exeliuiigiil  the  U'rriUiries  of  AnHpaeh,  fleves  and 
NeufcJmU'l  for  tlie  electorate  of  ilunover.    Na|ni- 
leon  had  uil  tlie  west  under  liis  |M>wer.    Absolute 
master  of  France  and  Italy,  ns  empemr  and  king, 
lie  Kiis  also  master  of  Hpain,  by  the  ilependenee 
of  that  court;  of  Naples  and   lloilaiid,  by  his 
two  lirKthers;  of  Hwitzerhtnd,  bv    the    act   of 
niedlHlion;  and  in  Oermany  he  had  at  hisdiH- 
ixwiil  the  kings  of  Bavaria  and  WurU'nilierg,  ami 
(lie  idiifeih'nition  of  tlie  Hhine  against  Austria 
1111(1 1'riifsla.  .  .  .  Thhiencp<aching  progress  gave 
riiie  to  tlie   fourth   coalit'.m     Prussia,  neutral 
Kinii'llieiM'aivof  Bile,  liar,  ir  the  last  cam|iaign, 
Uin  on  tlie  point  of  loiniu,-  the  Austro-Ruiainii 
niaiilion      Tlw  rapidity  of  the  emperor's  ' 
tiiric«  had  alone  restminiil  her;  but  now,  alarm.  'I 
lit  llw  iiiigramlizement  of  the  empire,  and  enoour- 
tiitiil  liv  llie  line  comlitioii  <if   Iwr  troops,  she 
liKKUtcl  with  Uiiasia  to  drive  the  French  from 
(nriiuiiiy.  .  .  .  The  cain|iaign  o|N'iieil  early  in 
<Hl..liir.     NaiNileon,  as  usiia',  everwhcliiRil  the 
iimlilloii  by  tlie  iiromptltude  of  his  iiiunhes  aiul 
the  vigour  of    his    measures.     t)n    the  Utii  of 
thlolK-r,    he    deslroynl    at    Jena    the    military 
monHfiliy  of  I'mssia.  by  a  dn-ixive  vlct4try. 
liii' < uiii|Niign  in  Poland  was  lew  rapid,  but  as 
Inilliiint  lis  iliat  of  Priiisia.    KiiisU,  for  tlw  thini 
lliiic.  nil  HsiintI  its  strength   with  Fnnce.     Con- 
'jiiend  at  Zurich    and    Auslerlits,   it  was  almi 
ili-reHtiil  at  K>  lau  and  Frietllaml.     After  Ihiiie 
num. .milk' Imiiles,  the emiM-n.rAlexiinderentenil 
into  s  ni'golistioii.  and  coiicliidiil  at  Tilsit    on 
ihf.'M  of  June,  1H07,  an  armisiiiv  whicli  waa 
t,.ll..»ii|  bys  detlnitive  treaty  on  the  Tib  of  July 
I  111  |H  aif  of  Tilsit  exleudiilthe  Friiich  ilonilna 

[' ""  '«•  "Hitinent.     Prussia  was  reiluoal  Ui 

Imlf  lU  extent.  In  tlie  south  of  (iemiany 
>ii|>oliiin  hml  liiiililiil<i|  the  two  kliigihiins  of 
Ifcivnris  aiHl  Wiirtemhrrg  against  Austria 
(irihi  r  to  the  north,  he  created  tlie  two  feudatory 
l>iinr.|..ms  of  Saxony  awl  Wotphalia  against 
•  "i«m.  luonler  to  obtain  universal  himI 

111". nil  still  supniiMMy.  he  niaile  use  of  arms 
«)!«iii»i  llienmiinent,  and  the  it«Mli<in  of  ••om 

111'  lonlliMuUl  states  all  oanmuiiicatioii  with 
f.iiitlHiiil.  he  ttu  pn  lutriug  mw  dintcultitv  for 
uumll,  auU  mwu  atUed   to   Uw  oaliBuaity  of 


Ifura  Wfk 
JVmwiMm. 


AUSTRIA,  1809-1814. 


opinion  excited  by  hit  detpotiim,  and  Uie  hatred 
of  BUtes  produced  by  his  conquering  doinl-     '  u, 
the  exaspenUon  of  private  interesU  and  com- 
mercial  sulTeriug  occasioned   by  the  blockade. 
.  .  .  Theexpetiitionof  Portugal  in  1807,  and  the 
mrasion  of  Spain  In  1808,  began  for  him  and  for 
Euroiie  a  new  Older  of  events.  .  .  .  The  reaction 
iiisiilfitit.-d    Itself   in    three    countries,   hitherto 
allies  of   France,  and    it    brought  on  the  fifth 
coalition.     The  court  of  Rome  «  as  dl»aiuisll«l ; 
the  peninsula  was  woundi-d  in  its  nullonul  pride 
by  having  imposed  upon  it  a  foreign  king;  In  its 
usages,  by  the  suppression  of  convents,  of  llic 
Imiiilsition,    and    of    the     gmmU-es;     Holland 
suffered  in  its  commerce  fmin  the  blockade,  and 
Austria  supported    ini|>atleiillv    its    liauea  am) 
sulionlinate  condition.      Eughiml,  watching  for 
an  opiNirtunity  to  revive   tlie  stniggle  on  the 
continent,  excited  the  resisUince  of    Home,  the 
|M■llinsull^    ami    the    cabinet    of    Vienna. 
AuslrU  .  .  .  made  a  |Niwerfui  eHort,  and  raised 
.M0,000    men,  comprising    the    Laudwehr,   and 
tisik  the  field  in  the  spring  of  1800.     The  Tynil 
rose,  and    King    Jenmie    was    driven  from  Ills 
capital  liy  the  Weslplialians;  luly  wavenil;  and 
IViiiwia  only  wailtil   till   Napoleon  met  with  a 
reverse,  to  take  arms ;  but  tlie  em|HTiir  was  still 
at  tlie  lieight  of  hb  iMiwer  and  pnw|H'rity.     He 
hiistened  from  Madrid  In  the  la-ginning  of  Feb- 
ruary, ami (lirvcteil  the nicmtM'rsof  the confiibra- 
lion  to    kirp    their    contingents    in  reailineBs. 
t)ii  the  lilh  of  April  he  left  Paris,  piuweii  lla- 
Kliiiie,     plunged     into     U<>rinaiiv,    gaineil     the 
viiuiri«   of    Kckmahl    and    Es.Hiiug.  iMiiiplud 
Vienna  a  second  time  on  tlie  l.tlli  of  .May,  and 
overthn-w  Ibis  new    coalition    by  the  bii'ltle  of 
Wagram,  aftir  a  campaign  of  four  nioniliH.  .  .  . 
Tlie|H-aceof  Vienna,  of  the  IlthoftKlolHT.  1809, 
depnvetl  tlie  house  of  Austria  of  several  more 
pnivinces,  and  compelled  it  again  to  adopt  tla! 
conlim'ntid  system.  .  .  .   Nnp'Ii-on.  who  m^eiiuil 
to  folhiw  a  rash  but  inltexihi     policy,  deviatiil 
from    his  course    about   tills  lime  by   a  second 
marriage.     He  di'  'reed  Joaepliiiie  that  he  might 
give  an  heir  to  tla    empire,  and  marriinl,  on  tlic 
Isl  of  April,  IHIO,  .Marie  touiM-,  arch  diiclu-ss  of 
Austria.     This  was  a  deciiletl  error.     He  iiuiiiitl 
his  iMsiilion  and  his  [»m\  as  a  parvenu  and  nvo- 
lulionary    monarch,    op|Hising    in    Kranir    the 
ancient  couns  as  the  reniililii'  liad  op|MMed  tlie 
.;ncient  governments.     He  placiil  liiniMlf  in  a 
false  situation  with  M<|ie«t  to  .Viistria,  which  he 
ought  eillier  to  have  rriiaheil  atler  the  victory  of 
Wagmni.  or  to  have  reinslulitl  In  its  |HMScssion8 
after  Ills  marriage  with  the  arch  duchrsa.  .  .  . 
The  birth,  lai  the  StHU  of  Manh,  l.sil,  of  a  sim, 
wlm  n-irlvwl  the  title  of  klug  of  Rome,  seemwl 
to  ■tinaoliiliite  the  |Miwer  of  .NaiHileon.  by  nciur 
Ing  Ui  hliii  11  suciisaor.     The  war  In  Spain  was 
iiniwTUted  Willi  vigour  during  tlie  years  INIilsnd 
1811.  .  .  .    While  the  war  was  pni<<ee<ling  in  ttw 
(s-niiMula    Willi    lulvantagc.    but    without    any 
del  idi'd  siiii-esi,  a  new  campaign  waa  pfe|iariu|r 
III  tlie  north.     Kuwla  |H'ni'ivi.<l  the  empire  ol 
Napoleon  appMaihiug  its  terrilories.  .  .  .   .Msiut 
the  rliwe  of  1810,  II  liH-n-aae<l  its  armies.  rcniwiHl 
lu  conimenial  n'lations  wilh  tin-at  Britain,  aial 
dhl  iHit  si^eiii  imlis|Hwil  to  a  rupture.     The  year 
IMll  was  spent    in    m-gotlalions    which  leil  to 
toolbibii.  oihI  |m|>aniiiiHw  U<t  war  wen-  maaie  on 
laithshle*.   .  .  .  Oiillu'Vlhof  Manh,  NsfMileon 
k-fl  Paris.   .   .      Ituring  si'Veral  inontiis  he'll xeil 
hli  GUim  at  DivMku,  wtan   thu   ein|H.'iur   iil 


231 


Tm 


lir-' 

i!  •, 


i-. 


AUSTRIA.  1800-1814. 


Austria,  the  king  of  PnmU,  ROfl  hII  the 
•ovcrcfgM  of  Oermiiny.  crnne  to  bow  before  liis 
high  fortune.  On  the  Mud  of  June,  wnr  wm 
<ktl»r«l  against  KiimIh.  .  .  .  N«|)olet)n.  who, 
•ccinling  to  his  ciut.mi,  wlglicil  to  ttnish  all  in 
one  cnnipaign,  advanet-d  at  onre  Into  the  heart 
of  Hiwsla,  nutead  of  prudently  organiiing  the 
1""'!' '!?;f''„i:  »«•'•'«"  "•  III'  «nny  amount.-.!  to 
alwut  .VI«).(HK»  men.  He  piuwe.!  the  Niemenon  the 
J-«tli  of  June ;  Uh.Ic  Wilna.  ami  Witcptk,  .lefeate,! 
the  RuMiau.  at  Astrowno,  Poh.tak,  Mohilow 
Nnolensko,  at  the  M.wkowa.  and  on  the  Uth  of 
Jj'pU-mber,  maile  his  entry  Into  M.weow. 
M.W.-..W  was  bumtil  by  its  governor.  The 

emiMTor  ought  to  liave  seen  that  thin  war  wouhl 
not  terminate  as  the  others  luul  ilone;  yet  eon- 
■luiror  of  tile  foe,  and  nuwter  of  bis  oipltal  he 
.•om-eiye.1  hopes  of  iwaee  which  the  /tuminns 
ski  fully  eneourag.'.l.  Winter  was  nppr.»uhlng. 
ami  Naiwleon  ProlonKe.1  his  stay  at  Moacow  for 
six  w.rks  He  .lelayed  his  movements  .>n 
•ecount  of  the  d.-ceptlvc  n.  ,-otlatl.ins  of  the 
Russians:  ami  .11.1  n.it  decl.lc  on  a  nlrt-at  till  the 
tl>th  of  t)rtober.  This  retreat  wiu  .llwsttui.s.  and 
began    the  (h>wnfall  of   tlio    empire  The 

caliitiel  of  Berlin  Iwgiin  the  defections.  ()n  the 
Isl  of  .Marih.  IS13,  it  Joined  Russia  ami  EnglamI 
whir  1 1  ero  fonning  the  sixth  coalition.  Sw.Hlm 
acc.-.li-.l  to  it  so<m  afu-r,  yet  the  empemr,  whom 
the  .-..nfeilenite  power  thought  pnMlrate.1  l.y 
the  la>t  diwwier,  o|)ened  the  camiiaiifn  with  new 
vletorieii.  The  Imttle  ot  Lutx.n,  wm  liv  eon 
script*,  on  the  Jml  .if  May,  the  .atupalion  of 
l)ns.l.n;the  victory  of  Uaiiixen,  and  the  war 
.■iirri.-.!  to  the  Kllie.  astonishe.1  the  eixiliilon 
Austriii,  whl.li,  »ln.e  IHIO,  Iwd  bti-n  on  a  f.K.t- 
ing  of  (H-aiv,  was  resuming  arma,  aii.l  alreadv 
meditating  a  elmnge  of  allian.-e.  She  m.w  pni. 
IXW-.I  li.rsclf  lis  11  nii-.liatrix  la-tween  llieeiniH-Kir 
ami  the  .Miif.d.niles.  Her  ine<li<ilioii  w,,, 
aovpu-d:  an  iiriiiisti.e  was  eoneludcd  at  Pless- 
wit/.,  on  the  4lh  of  June,  and  a  eongnss 
ask'inlil.'tl  at  I'nigiie  to  negotiate  |M.-aee.  It  wiw 
lni|KM.sili|,.    i„    ,.,„„i,    t,,    „.„„,  Austria 

Jtilii.-.l  theeuililinn.  and  war,  tl niv  means  of 

M'ttling  this  >;niit  lontest,  was  .esiiiiieil  The 
emiMror  luul  only  ixil.im  men  against  .■>«()  INM 
\iiiory  w.in..i|.  at  flmt,  l.i  M<<<iml  him 
At  llri'Mliii  he  dtri-ut.il  the  eomliiiml  fonis- 
but  the  defeats  of  hi,  lieutenants  d.rangid  his 
plans.  Tlie  priii.vsof  the  eonfedemtion  of 

tin-  Khiiie  .liose  this  moment  to  d..s.'rl  tlir  i  uis.- 
of  Ihrenipir,'  A  ni.t  eniragi-ment  haviii,:  lakin 
pla..  nt  l,.iiisi<-  iH'tween  the  two  armies  ih,. 
S»».>iis  and  ft  iirtcmla-rgers  pa«M<<l  over  to  (he 
enemy  on  (|„.  »,  Id  of  battle.  This  d.  f.vli.m  to 
the  sIreiiKtIi  ,.f  iIm-  oakvecl  jxiw.  r»,  who  ha.l 
leariie.^1  nior.'  I'onitHK't  ami  sklffnl  tmsleof  war 
far>.  oblitfid  .\ii|M,).iin  to  n-in-at.  after  astriig 
gle  of  ihn-.-  day  .,  The  empire  was  lnv,ul,,| 

in  all  ilin-.'tioiis  The  Aiistriaiis  ei.i.  r.-d  Italy 
lie  Knglisli,  Imving  mwle  tlM>ma<>lv.<s  mnslemof 
the  (HMiiKiila  during  the  lost  Iw..  n:ir.  hiul 
IMvwsl  II,..  Hi.|.is.s.w,  iimler  r-neral  W.  Ilinirton 
ami  «ma,in,l  on  the  J'yn-mvs.  Thnv  armi-i 
pres-d  oil   Y ran.i-  Ui  the  ea«t  and  north 

SaiK.lc-on   was  .dillge,l    to    mit   |.>  the 

♦•.MLlllona  of  il„.  ttllLsl   (a.wers;  their  pretensions 
Inere.uasl  with  Hair  |N.wer    .   .   .   On  the  1 1th  of 
.'.',.  '*■    '"■    ""'""Mwl     for    himaiir    ami 

'  '''"/♦"'J  ,''*'•  !!!r.nn  nf  FriJi.,,  «„,;  iuiv.  ami 
l»selv.sl  in  eneliange  for  his  vast  si.v.rigniv.  the 
Uiiiiis  of  wbkb  IuhI  Mteodul  tfvm  ladls  °tu  tiie 


Ot^ertkrom  of 
\ttpoltim. 


AUSTRU,  181»-18&.. 


naltic  Sea,  the  little  Island  of  Elba."— P  \. 
Mignet.  Uittorgof  lit*  f<nueh  HnolntioH,  ch  iV 
-becOjtrtJiAMT:  A.  U.  18»)» (January— June),  i„ 
1813;  Russia:  A.  D.  1813;  and  Fhamck:  A  II 
lSlO-1818  U>  1814. 

i.^  °L  '••♦•-"•^"'**  ™l«  In  Northern 
lt«ljr.    See  Italy:  A.  D.  1814-181.'5. 

^  °-  '«'4-«»«5--Trt«tie«  of  Paris  and  Con- 

Esaa  of  Viciiii«.~R«adjuatinciit  of  French 
undanca.—  Recovary  of  tha  TTrol  from  Ba- 
varia and  Lombardjr  in  Italy.— Acquiaition  of 
tha  Vtnatian  aUtaa.  See  Fhamce:  A.  I)  ihu 
(Aprii.— JuN«),  and  ISI.'J  (Jitly— N.)veiibkhi 
also  ViKNNA,  TitK  CoNoRnw  or. 

A.  D.  ili4.iBao.— Formatioa  of  the  C^-. 
maoic  Conftdaration.  Sec  Qermany'  '  1) 
1814-18-JO. 

A.  D.  Ili5.-The  Holy  Alliance.    Sec  Hoi.v 

Al.I.tAXCE. 

^P-  '8'5-— Return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba. 
—  The  Quadruple  Alliance.— The  Waterloo 
181?-'wS'  *"**  "*  **"""•■    ''^'^'  ••'"*'«"'   -V  1) 

••^.?;-fi'**''i5.-.T5"l*""  P'«Kli.  Prinet 
?!?"V^'^,  ""     'I"*  ■y'teni."— 'After  tli< 


232 


treaty  of   \ieuiia  In  IWW,  ami  still  more  ...n 
sptetiously  p.'lcr  the  paeiaeati.in  of  Eiin.|».   the 
|H>litlcal   wis,h)m  of  the  nihrs  of   Austria  in 
cllne«l  them  ever  more  ami  more  to  the  iimin 
teoance  of  that  state  of  things  wMeh  was  km.»n 
to  frfcmla  and  fi*s  as  the  System.     Iliit  wlmt 
was  the  SysUm  T    If  was  the  orgnuisation  of  d.. 
nothing.     It  cannot  even  la.  said  to  have  h.Tn 
reacthmary:    It    waa    slin|.ly   Inaetionarv 
Mark  time  in  pla<w'  was  the  WonI  of  ...mmaii.i 
In  every  goumment  offlee.     The  biirea-ii  nu  v 
was  enn  .,-„|  from  morning  to  night  in  iiiaiiiiiK 
work,  but  notliing  ever  came  of  It.      Not  .v.n 
were  the   hla-rwl  lnm)vatlons  which  ha.l   lii«i„| 
t  .tough  the  reign  of  l^.pold  p,t  rid  of     Kvirv 
liiiig  went  on  In  the  eonfuse.1,  unrtnlsh.M.  and 
lmfT.-.tivo  .late   In  which   the  great  war  ha.l 
fouml  It.     hneh  was  the  famous  System  nhiili 
was  viiieralisl  by  the  ultra- Tori«-«  of  ev.rv  I.111.I 
ami  ni,»t  vencrat.-.I  where  It  was  least  iiiKler' 
st.Msl       Two    men    dominate    the    history    of 
.\ustria  during  this  unlwnpy  time  — m.  11  who 
though  utterly  unlike  In  ehar* t.r  ami  Inl.lle. i 
were  nevertheless  ailmirablr  lllle.1  to  wi.rii  1.. 
gellKT,  and  whom  nnniea  w(ll  h..  hiiig  iinite.i  in 
an     uiienvlnlile     notoriety.      Tins,.    «,.re    tl.,- 
Kinjanir  KramU  an.l  l'rin.-e  Meii..rni.h      TIh- 
tlrst  was  the  evil  genius  of  lnt.-riml  i».|||i.<s    i|,a 
s.-eond  eii,  r.  Is.sl  a  hanlly  1.-M  lianefiil  inH.i.m-o 
ov.r  foreign  affair..   .   .   .   For  the  e»t.rm.l  polk  y 
of  PriiHi.  Meiierni.h.  tin-  first  ami  ni.«i  iie.--i. 
sary  omdition  was,  that  Austria  should  tflve  to 
t.uro|a-  the  linnnsslon  of  nxn\  adhen me  to  ilw 
most  extreme     onsi-rvsli-  e  vh-ws.     So  (or  ni.iiiy 
jears  tli.y  w       h|  together,  Prim-e  Meti,  rnl.li 
always  .).-.  laring  that  he  was  a  mere  l.«,|  h,  the 

ham  Is  of  his  master,   but  In   n-aliiv  far  re 

nlwolute  In  the  dinethm  of  his  own  d.  iwrli t 

.,"'1     .""'"'""■*"•''''''•  Prime  M,  II.  r 

m.h  ha.l  the  power  »f  making  th.-  m.-t  of  ull 
lie  knew,  and  constantly  h-ft  U|>..n  |»r~.ii»  .f 
real  merit  the  Impn-saiou  tlwt  he  »as  >i  imhh  .  f 
Miy  aspiratl..iis  ami  liberal  views.  »ho  f.r.i.l 
hlniaeir  ui  repn-sa  such  temlfiii  i.-*  In  oih.  r«  !«• 
cause  lie  thought  that  ilu.ir  repr-.-^i-.-!!  «=s  a  ='"r 
ijui  lion  lor  Aiulrlo.  Tlie  nu-u  of  ahiliiv  «li  ■ 
liiM-w  him  Intlnwiely,  thought  h-ss  well  .If  |,ii., 
To  them  h«  appeared  vain  and  supertlilal.  »iiii 


AUSTRIA.,  181&-18S3. 


Frtmtm  IMUmtek  mod 
•■UuSttUm." 


AUSTRIA,  181S-18M. 


moeh  that  raotUed  the  French  nobleeee  of  the 
old  regime  in  hie  wkjr  of  kmklnc  at  thinn,  and 
empbatioUly  wutiog  in  erery  elemeot  of  giest- 
nea.     With  the  outbreak  of  the  Qreek  in^unec- 
tlon  in  1881.  began  a  period  of  dllHculty  and 
romplicatlona   for   the   itateemen   of    Austria. 
There   were   two  thinn  of  which  they  were 
ninrullr  afraid  —  Ruaaia   and   the   revolution. 
Now,  If  they  aaieted  the  Oroeki,  they  would  he 
plKriag  into  the  liamU  of  tlie  eerond;  ami  If 
thf'v  oppneed  the  Orceki,  they  would  be  likely 
to  I'lubmil  theniwlvet  with  the  flr*t.    The  wliole 
art  nf  Prince  Mettemlch  waa  tiierefore  ex«rt£<l 
to  keep  things  quiet  iu  the  Eaalem  Peninsula, 
sihI    to    postpone    the     intiilerabla     ■  question 
il'Orlent.'    Many  were  the  shifts  lie  friwl,  and 
Homi'times.  asjustaftcrtheaccesfciniiof  Meliolas, 
U»  hopes  rose  »ery  hlih.     All  wiw,  howevt-r,  in 
Tsin.    England  and  Russia  settled  matters  be- 
hind bis  back :  ami  altluiugh  the  tone  which  the 
nulillciats  In  his  pay  ailoptwl  townnis  tlie  Greeks 
be(»me  more  favourable  in  1820-7.  the  battle  of 
Navarino  was  a  sail  surprise  and  mortification  to 
the  wily  duucellor.     Nut  less  annoying  was  the 
commeaceroeut  of  hostilities  on  tlH-'  l>anube  be- 
tween Kuasis  and  the  Porte.     The  reverses  with 
which  the  (rrest  neighbour  met  Iu  bla  first  cam- 
palyn  cannot  have  been  otherwise  than  pleasing 
St  Vienna.    But  the  unfortunate  success  which 
aitiniknl  his  arms  in  the  second  campaign  soon 
tunie<l    III'dlssembkKl     Joy    inU>    ill  ciinceuk-d 
aorn>w.  and  the  treaty  of  Adrianople  at  once 
hiweml  Austria's  prestige  in  tlie  Kast  and  de- 
pose.1  Metternlch  from  the  comnmniling  p<Mltion 
which  he  l»d  oicupiiHl  in  the  coiincila  of  the 
Holy  .lilies.     It  liecame,  indeed,  ever  more  ami 
mure    evident   in   the   nest    few    years    tliat 
tile  age  of  Congress  politics,  during  which  be 
hail  lieen  the  observeil  of  all  obaervrn.  was  past 
ani  gone,  that  the  diplomatic  period  bail  van- 
UIhiI  away,  ami  tliat  tlie  military  i>vriial  bati  be- 
gun    The  very  form  In  whh-h  the  hl<rlieat  in- 
ternational iiuesllons  were  delmted  was  utterly 
cbangei]       At  Vienna,  in  1814.  tli«  dlpbunaliau 
had  l»fn  reKlly  the  primarv.  Ilie  sovereigns  onlv 
•nnndary  personages;   while  at  the  interview  of 
Mniirhengrati,  between  Nicholas  ami  the  Em- 
IxTtir  Prancis,  in  1883,  the  great       tocrat  ap- 
("•anii  to  look  up<m  Prince  MetU-n.    h  as  hanlly 
iiinri'    than    a   confidential     clerk.    The    dull 
m..ri.iii,ny  of  servitude  which  oppresaeil  nearlv 
ih«-  whole  of  the  empiie  waa  vartetl  by  tlie  agita- 
tions „f  one  of  lis  component  parts      Wlien  the 
lluriK«riai.I»letwa«dissolved  In  INU.ilw emperor 
ha.1  ookmnly  pnmiiaeil  tliat  It  sbouhi  be  called 
i.'ir.  iImt  sgaia  within  three  years.     I'p  to  1HI5 
aiiiTillngly,   the    nation   went    on    giving    ei- 
irHMrlliiary  levies  and   supplies  without  much 
'•pl"»liiiMi.      When,    however,    the    ap|M.lut«<t 
ilmi'  was  fulflllwl.  It  lagan  to  murmur 
^mr  iiv  year  the  agluilon  went  on  incn-aoing. 
111!  il  la.t  the  hn-akliig  out  of  the  On^ek  revi.lu- 
II  11  :.iid  llic  threatening  ap|icarsiH«  of  Eoalem 
!►  h!,.«,  IihIikimI  l-rintw  Metlemiih  to  Joiu  bis 
«iiir.,iiie«  to  tliiKie  of  many  irtlier  i ounacllors, 
wh.  I  ,HiW  not  !«•  suspect«<l  of  the  sllglit«»i  lean 
111.'    (o   conatltMtlonal    views      At    length    tiie 
<  iit«  r..r  yiehlwl,  ami  In  lHa.%  Preaburg  was  once 
iiir.   lillnl  with  the  best  bhaal  an.1  nioM  «,.ii.» 
•i".u  ,.r    iIh,   u,HJ,  oaaemhleii   in   psrlinment. 
—Mi:  ami  iinnny  were  llw  debates  which  enaiied 
mill  t  waa.  from  Um«  u.  time,  the  veiatlon  nf 
tit.    >'iti|ieiw.   and    great   was    the   exdtettwat 


throughout  Hungary.  In  the  end,  howeTer,  the 
court  of  Vienna  triumphed.  Hardly  any  griev- 
ances were  redressed,  while  iU  demands  were 
fully  conceded.  The  Diet  of  1843  was,  however 
not  witliout  fruit.  The  discussion  wbicb  took 
place  advanced  the  political  education  of  the 
people,  who  were  brought  back  to  the  point 
where  they  stooii  at  the  death  of  Joseph  IL— 
that  is,  before  the  long  wars  with  France  bad 
come  to  distract  their  attention  fmm  their  own 
affairs.  .  .  ,  The  slumbers  of  Austria  were  nor. 
yet  over.  The  System  dragged  its  slow  length 
along.  Little  or  nothing  was  done  for  the  Im- 
provement of  the  country,  KlebcUberg  ad- 
ministered the  finances  In  an  cosy  ami  cureieas 
manner.  Conspiracies  and  rising:)  in  Italy  were 
easily  checked,  and  batches  of  priaonera  ac^nt  off 
from  time  to  time  to  Hsntuu  or  hpiellxTg, 
Austrian  influence  rose  ever  iiiKher  and  higher 
in  all  the  petty  cnuru  of  the  Peninsula,  ...  In 
other  regions  Russia  or  England  might  lie  will- 
ing to  tliwart  him,  but  iu  luly  Prince  Meiu-r- 
nich  might  proudly  reflect  that  Austria  was  In- 
dce<l  a  great  power."  The  Fnnch  Revolution 
of  IKW  waa  at  first  alarming;  but  when  it  re- 
siillej  In  the  enthronement  of  a  ilynaaty  which 
called  to  lu  aid  a  ■cabinet  of  re|iri-«»iiin.'  all 
fears  were  stilled.  The  EmiH-ror  Francis  con- 
tinued to  say,  when  any  cbaiivv  waa  pn.|>o<itil, 
'  We  must  sleep  upon  it,'  anil  dlid  lu  Ift-Ti  in 
'  the  abundance  of  peace.'"— M.  E.  (Jrant  Duff. 
MtMifM*  I*  Sun^iutn  hililia,  pp  14U-14U.— See 
also,  Okrmant:  A.  D.  141I«-1H47. 

A.  D.  t8i5-i846.-<!aia8  of  the  HansburK 
monarchr.  —  Its  agfressiT*  absolutism.  — 
Daath  of  Francis  I — Accession  ol  Ferdinand 

I.— Sappreaaioa  of  rt*olt  in  Galicia Extinc- 

tiooaadaaatxatiooof  the  Republic  of  Cracow. 
—"In  the  new  partition  of  Eump*-,  arraugeil  iu 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  [see  Vik.nna.  Tiik  (  ox- 
nHMS  or).  Austria  recelve<l  l.,oihlHir<ly  and 
Venice  uniler  the  title  of  a  l.,onilninli>  Venetian 
kingdom,  the  Illyrian  provlncei  also  oa  a  king- 
dom. Venetian  Dalnuitia,  the  Tinil,  Vonirllarg, 
Haltburg,  the  Iniivlertel  and  ilauKrnckavicrti'l 
ami  tlie  part  of  Uallcia  ceiled  bv  her  at  an  earlier 
period.  Thus,  after  three  and  tweniv  years  of 
war,  the  monanby  boil  gnlneil  a  cons'iilemlilc 
acceaion  of  stn-ngtb,  having  olitiiineil,  in  lieu 
of  iu  remote  ami  iinpnillialilc  {MweiviMna  in  the 
Netherlands,  territoriea  which  iHinaolidated  lu 
power  In  ttalv,  and  nuule  it  oa  gr»at  ii  extent  as 
It  hod  been  In  the  days  of  Charlea  VI  ,  ami  far 
more  oomnact  and  defcnuiMe.  The  gmud 
duchies  of  Miah'na.  I>amia,  ami  Plan  ntla,  were 
moreover  niiloreil  to  the  colhilcral  bramhca  of 
the  boiiae  of  llapaliiirg,  .  .  .  After  tlie  luai  fall 
of  NajHiletio  .  .  the  grvat  iwiweia  of  the  cim- 
tinent  .  .  .  conatltiilt'illheinai'lve^thei  ham|i(i>ns 
of  the  principh'  of  al>»i>lul«  monanhv.  Tho 
malntenanei'  of  that  primlple  iillinmiclv"Uiaiiie 
the  chief  object  of  the  wi  calliil  Holy  Alliance 
eatnhllshtKl  in  |x|fl  beiwr<>n  Kuwia.  Aualriu  and 
Pniasia.  and  was  pursiieil  with  remarkaliii'  mead, 
faaltiess  by  the  Km|Mriir  Francis  and  hia  niin- 
latJ-r,  Prim-e  .Metternieb  (see  lloi.v  Ai.i.unckJ. 
.  Tliencef.irth  It  lieeame  the  iivoweil  iM.licy 
of  tin-  chh-f  Miveri'igns  of  (.)<'niuiny  Ui  inalnlain 
•he  riehts  :<!  -.lysuaUrx  |r  ■-.;  H,|-,>f.^  „-;.„.  .„ 
tliiMC  of  tlnlr  aubjnta.  The  pciple,  on  the 
other  ham  I,  deeply  resinlnl  tin'  lin'ii.  Ii  nf  Ihian 
pn>miaes  which  hail  la-en  ■>  lavUbli  inaili  lo 
tbe:n  uo  the  general  summons  to  Ike   war  uf 


883 


IIH 

4 

i^^H 

ifl^^^^^^B 

-  " 

1 

'^^^B 

'^Hl 

^Ji! 

•g^^^H 

ik 

S^^^^EO" 

'i 

ACBTRIA,  1815- !84S. 


libentiaa.    DiMffectloD  took  the  place  of  that 
enthiMUitlc  loyiltT  with  which  they  hwl  bled 
and  (ufferad  for  their  natiTe  princea;  the  lecret 
•ocleties.  funned  with  the  concurrence  of  Uicir 
rtilcra,  for  the  purpowi  of  throwing  off  the  yolie 
of  the  foreigniT.  became  ready  instrumcnu  of 
■edition.  ...  In  ihe  winter  of  1818,  a  German 
r«lfraU»e  ominuB  aawmbled    at  Vienna.     In 
May  of  the  f.  il..wlni  year  it  publlsheii  an  act 
eimlalnlnR  oloaer  didnltioni  of  the  PedcraUve 
Act    hai-,n;f    i.r  ilMjlr  enential  objecu  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  vurloi!»  piorincial  Dleu  fi«m  all 
poaltive    iiu-frrtnce  in  the  general  affaln  of 
Uirmany,  ami  an  Incrr^iie  of  the  power  of  the 
pnrM'ea  o  ur  their  respective  DieU,  by  a  ffuaian- 
tee  of  aid  00  the  part  of  the  confederate*"  (see 
Oermany:    a.  n.  1814-1820).     During  the  next 
UiTvf  yean,  the  powers  of  the  Holy  Alliance 
under  the  leail  of  Austria,  and  acting  under  a 
conoert  established  at  the  successive  congresses 
of  Tn.ppau.  Uvlwnh  and  Ven)na  (see  Vkrona 
C  ON0REH8  or),  Interfered  to  put  down  popular 
risings  sgainat  the  tyranny  of  goremment  in 
Italy  and  Spain,  whlli-  il„  v  discouraged  the  re- 
To  t  of  the  Orael(s  («,•   Italy:    A.   D.   1880- 
1821 ;  and  Spaik:  A.  I).  1814-1827).     "Thccom- 
motlons  that  pervaded  Europe  after  the  Fr<>ncb 
Rej-olutlon  of  1830  affected  Austria  only  In  her 
lUltan  dominions,  and  there  but  indirectly  for 
tjie  Imperial  aulhority  remalocd  undisputed  in 
tlie    I^nilwnlo- Venetian     lilng.lom.       but    the 
duke  of  Modena  and  the  archduke  of  Parma 
Kcri'     lillgwi  to  quit  tlioee  sUtes.  and  a  formid- 
able Insurrecllon  broke  out  In  the  territor-  '.f  the 
i  lum-h.      An    Austrian    army    of    18,0i  .>    men 
quickly    put   down    Oie  Insurgents,   who  nise 
ajTHin.  however,  as  s.Nm  as  It  was  withilrawn. 
Tlie  poiH-  again  invok«'<l  the  aid  of   Austria 
wlidse  triMips  entere<i  Bologna  In  January   I88a' 
and  r*UI>lished  themselves  then-   in    garrison' 
I  pon  this,  ttie  French  lmnie<liately  sent  a  force 
to  occupy  Ancona.  and  for  a  while  a  r»'newal  of 
the  oftnp<ated  conflict   Ulwctn  Austria  ami 
France  on  Italian  ground  se<me<l  inevitable;  but 
It  siNin  appeared  that  France  was  not  pnpaied 
U> supnort  the  nvolullonary  party  in  tl«-  popes 
dominions,  ami  that  d-nger  pai>ae<l  awiiy.     The 
Fnnrh  rrmained  foramne  years  in  Aonma.  and 
Uie  Austnans  in  Holoirna  and  .itlier  towns  of 
Itomagna     This  was  tlie  last  Important  Im-ident 
In  llie  foreign  affairs  of  Austria  pnvious  to  Iho 
di-alh  of  tlie  Emperor  Francis  I.  on  the  2n<l  of 
Msrch,  18)H.  after  a  reign  of  44  veaia.  .         The 
Emperor  Francis    was    suceenl'ed   by   his  son 
Fe^lllland   I  ,    whnae  accesHlon   occasioned    no 
change  in  the  political  or  ailnilnlstrative  svsh-m 
of  th.   emnlnv     IncapaclUtwl,  by  physical  and 
mental  liiflmilty.   fnwn  labouring  as  his  fallier 
ha<i  done  In  the  business  of  the  stale,  the  new 
monarch  left  u>  I'rim-e  Mettemlch  a  much  inon> 
unrestricted     power    than    that    minisl4'r    had 
wlehieil  in  the  pre<v<llng  reign.  .  .  .  The  pmy- 
Joce  <if  (>ali(  ia  began  eariy  in  the  new  rvlgn  to 
o«»»ii>n   uneaalnesa  t4>    the    govemnient.     The 
(.'oogrvsa  of  Vienna  hail  oinstTtuU-d  the  cllr  of 
<  r»«i.w    an    intiepemlent     republic— a    fiitlle 
representative  of  tlut  l^illsh  nathmality  which 
flad  utuv  rtumlnl  from  the  Haltic  to  the  Black 
.■^.>..*"''';  »'"•'•"'"»"'  the  Polish  iDaum>clion 
of  1881  against  HusaU.  <;rac..w  U-came  the  focu* 
or  rn-sli  eoiiKoirariio  i<j  niit  ,u>  ,.[,.i  t,,  tchirfc  the 
nty  was  ihi  unlwl  by  a  mixed  force  of  Kuariaoa. 
PruMtMM,  a.id  AuitriuMi  Um  twa  (ofner  waie 


AUSTRIA,  1815-1849. 

SSS  *W^T?-  ""'i  '^t  >•'««' """^ned  until 
1840.    When  they  alao  bad  letired,  the  Polish 
propaganda   waa   renewed    with    conshlerable 
TSJ^   u*°  InsBrrecUon  broke  out  in  Ualicia  in 
184«,  when  the  acantioess  of  the  Austrian  uiili 
tary  force  in  the  prorince  seemed  to  promise  it 
success.     It   faihxl.  however,    aa   all    previmis 
effort*  of  the  Poliah  patriote  had  failed,  bccaus.- 
It  rested  on  no  baala  of  popubr  sympathy.    Tlie 
nationality  for  which  they  cont^nd^  had  ev,r 
been  of  aii  oligarchical  pattern.  hoaUle  to  llie 
freedom  of  the  middle  aoil  lower  classes.    The 
Oallciaii  peavinu  had  no  mind  to  excliange  the 
yoke  of   Austria,   which   pressed   lightly   uik.u 
them,  for  the  feudal  oppression  of  the   Polisl, 
nobles.     They  turoeil  upon  Uie  insurgents  au.l 
•lew  or  t<K>k  them  prisoners,  tlie  iHilioe  iniitiiiL. 
them  to  the  work  by  publicly  offering  a  rew.inl 
pi  nve  florin,,   for  every  suspeittd  pcnum  ili 
Uvered  up  by  them,  alive  or  dead.     Tims  ilie 
agenw  of  a  cIviilzMl   government  becamu    tlie 
avowed  Instigators  of  an  Inhuman  '  ju.<,uerie  ■ 
The  houses  of  the  Umleil  pn.(.riet-)r8weieHi..k,,l 
by  Uie  |>easanta.  their  luinal.  -  were  U.rture,l  ..i.l 
muni  riHl.  and  bloody  anarl,.,  raged  tlirougii„iit 
the  land  in   the   pnwtitutnl   name  of   lovallv 
The  Au.striiiii  trcwps  at  hist  n-ston-d  onier" ;  liiit 
Ba-ia  Uie  iemler  of  the  sanguinary  murHuil,  rs 
was  thanke.1  aud  highly  rewaideif  in  the  name 
of  hb  sovenlgn.     In  the  same  year  the  timr 
protecting  powem,  Austria.  KussU.  and  l'ru»>iii 
took   possi.sslon  of  Craci.w.  and.    Ignorinir  ii,e 
right  of  ihe  other  parties  to  the  treaty  of  \  i, mm 
Blves  alHiut  the  fate  of  tin- 


234 


to  concern  themsel „.  .„„  ..„  „,  i,„.  „. 

public,  tliey  announced  Uiat  ita  indeiHii.l, n,,.. 
was  annulled,  and  that  the  city  and  teriiinn  of 
Cracow  were  annexed  to.  ami  forever  iii.oi|«, 
raUHl  with,  the  Austrian  monanliy.  Knuii  tliit 
time  forth  the  iMilitlcal  alinosp  lerv  of  Euroiie 
tscaine  more  and  more  loailiHl  wlUi  the  pr.  nil-.h 
of  the  storm  Uiat  burst  in  1848  "—W.  K  Kelly 
(i»>t,i„iali,m  of  Cut,;  IM.  „f  the  ll.mv  'uf 
AuMna.  ch.  .V8. 
..  ^  D-  «««5-««49.— ArraBtements  io  Italy  of 

»•.?""*'•!?  «V'*"»^ -"••»'«>•«»  o'«l>« 
Austrian  yokt.-Tht   Italian   riainrs.-     lly 
the  treaty  of  \lenua(181,^),  Uie  .  .  .  emir,  king 
dom  of  \ enetlau  Lombardy  waa  handed  m,  r  u. 
the  Austrians;  Uie  duchies  of  Modena.  XU^-^m. 
«-llh    Maasa   and    Carrara,   given  Ui   AuMriiui 
Drinii*;    Parma.    Hacenaa.    and    auaat>ill;t   u> 
>a|H.le,ins  queen.  Maria  Luisa.  because  slu  ks< 
an  Austrian  princess;  the  grami  duehy  of  Tui 
cany  to  Ferdinand  UI.  of  Austria,  the  dm  hv  ..f 
Lucca  to  a  Bourbon.     Rome  and   the   Ifc.iimL 
Stalin  were  restored  Ui  the  new  Pope,  llus  Ml 
Mlciiy  was  united  Ui  Naples  under  the  B.iiirlK,iis. 
and  Uler  deprived  of  l.er  wiostltuthin    <l.  >iiii« 
llie  pnmiisetl  protei-Uon  of  England,  the  (  «iii„a 
Tlclno,  though  atricUy  Italian,  aiineietl  to  ilie 
Hwls*  <  i*ili-.leral!mi :    the  little  republic  of  .•«i 
Marino  left  Intact,  even  us  the  primipslitv  uf 
Monani      KnglamI  reUiine.1  Malta;  forsiiuHss 
left  to  fraiice      Italy,  so  MelU-nikh  «'«i  Euniie 
fonllv  ho|M..|.  was  iwlunil  Ui a  gi-og uphi. «1  ex 
prrasion      I'njusl,    brutal,   and  tn-a.  l«•^Ml.    ss 
w»s  thttt  parlliion,  at  hast  It  taught  ilic  li      .lu 
that    who  wouki  he  free  himself  muststrik    ih« 
blow.      It  uniteil  them  Into  one  Gumiiton  h.iind 
of  Austriaand  Austrian  satelliiea     By  •uIh.iiiui 
ifig  impai,  .\j«rt»n,  an.i  itourtiuu  desis>ii.<.ii.  I'.t 
the  free  Instltutluos,  c.«h'S,  and  constlliilion,  ,,| 
tie  Maiwiauiih:  era,  it  taught  Uwm  Uie  .liflir,  u.  t 


AUSTRIA.  181S-184>. 


The  Fmtikforl 
Amgmm}/. 


AUSTRIA.  1848-1849. 


between  rule  and  mi-^nile.  Hence  tlic  ilcmnnil 
of  the  Nciipolltans  duriug  their  flnit  revolution 
(1830)  was  for  a  conatitutfon;  tliat  of  the  Pieil- 
mnntese  and  Lombards  (1831)  for  a  ninstltiition 
and  war  against  Austria.  The  Bourbon  swnru 
and  foreswore,  and  the  Austrians  '  restored  onler ' 
In  Niipli-s.  The  Pledmnnteae,  who  liiul  not  con- 
rcrtcil  tlicir  moreinent  until  Naples  was  cruslied 
—after  tlie  abdication  of  Victor  Emmanuel  I. ,  the 
frranting  of  the  constitution  by  tlie  regent  Charles 
.Mliert,  and  its  abrogation  by  tlie  new  king 
Charles  Felix— saw  the  Austrians  enter  Pie<r 
mont,  while  the  leaders  of  the  revolution  went 
nut  into  exile  [see  Italy:  A.  D.  lW?i)-lftJlj. 
Uut  those  revolutions  and  tliose  fiiilurcs  were  the 
boffinning  of  the  end.  The  will  to  be  lnde|i<'nilrnt 
of  hII  foreipcrs,  the  thirst  for  freedom,  whs 
universal;  the  very  name  of  empire  or  of  em- 
pemr.  was  rendere<l  ridiculous,  reducol  to  a 
parody  — in  ihe  (lorson  of  Penlinand  of  Austria. 
But  one  illusion  remained  — in  the  lilMrating 
virtues  of  France  and  the  Freneli;  this  had  to  lie 
dispelled  by  bitter  experience,  and  for  it  siilistl- 
tiitetl  the  new  idea  of  one  Italy  for  tlie  Italians. 
a  nation  united,  inde|>endent,  free,  governed  bv 
a  pri'sident  or  by  a  itiii  j  chosen  by  the  sovereign 
people.  The  apostle  of  this  iilca,  to  which  for 
lifty  years  victims  and  martyrs  were  siierifloil 
liyiliousinds,  was  Joseph  .Mnzzini;  its  champion, 
Jiiw'pli  (inrilHihll.  By  the  genius  of  the  former. 
Ilie  prowess  of  the  latter,  the  abnegation.  Ihe 
eonslaniy,  the  tenacity,  the  iron  will  of  Inith,  all 
tile  inipnlations  of  Iwly  were  siibjugatol  by  that 
Ide.i:  pliilosopliers  deriionstrntetl  it,  poets  sung 
it.  pious  Christian  priests  priKlaimed  it.  states- 
men foiinil  it  confMnting  their  negotiHtions. 
Iiaffllnir  their  half-measures." — J.  W.  \'.  Mario. 
I itrifhirtinn  t>t  Autiihififfr'tphtf  tif  frttrifmUfi  — 
See  Itai.v:  A.  D.  I**)-!***!,  and  IH4«-1M0. 

A.  D.  1835.— Acccuioo  of  the  Emperor 
Ferdinand  I. 

A.  D.  iS3O-il40.— The  Tnrko-Ecntian 
'(uestion  and  Its  Mttlcmcnt.— QoftdrnpTe  Alli- 
•  nce.     StTi'HKS;  A.  I).  IKJl-KWI. 

A.  D.  184*-— Th«  Ctnaaaic  rcvolntioiury 
risinj. -National  AaMmbly  "t  Frankfort.— 
Archduke  lahn  elected  Admiatetrator  of  Ger- 
many.—' When  the  thiril  Frr-nch  Kevoliition 
lir  keoiil.  Its  influence  was  Inuiieiliatelv  felt  in 
Ce  rinnny  Tlic  popular  movement  this  time  was 
Very  dilTennt  from  any  the  <l-'Wmincnt»  hail 
hliicrtn  had  l«  contend  with.  The  people  wen- 
evil,  iiily  ill  earnest,  anil  rcsolviil  to  obtain,  at 
Willi!  ver  cost,  Ihelr  clilef  ilemanda.  .  .  .  The 
I{ev.,liiilon  was  inont  •erioua  in  the  two  great 
flirni.in  Slates,  I'russiii  and  Aiutriii.  .  .  It 
«H  i.',ner:illy  liopisl  that  iinlim  as  well  as  fn-e- 
'!  rn  »:i»  now  Ui  !«•  iwhleved  by  Germany:  but, 
i<  I'russia  ami  Austria  wene  fn  t<»>  much  dis- 
'  I. T  to  do  anything  about  .MDtlleniians  from  the 
» in. IMS  States  mil  at  Fmnkfurt,  and  on  .March 
II  I'lMstitiileil  Ihemsi'lviMi  n  pnivlstonal  I'arlla- 
"I'lit  An  PxtnMiie  party  wislieil  the  assembly 
ti'li-.liire  Its,|f  perm.inent;  but  In  this  the  inii 
Wiiy  would  not  agn-e.  It  was  1leeld.1l  llial  a 
>ili"iial  Aswinblv  should  h<-  rlwHil  forthwith 
hy  ih.-  fkrmaii  tnnple.  The  Conf.  derate  i>iel 
l<n"wliig  that  till-  iinivlslonal  Parliament  w.ia 
ij'pniv.-d  by  the  nation,  recngnlntl  itaautliorily. 
T.'.rr-.-.ij.-!-,  tj^p  f)4jij  (1,^  y^^„„j  Qj,j.^^jjj..j,jj|  jj.,i,.p 

'  'itiinunimled  with,  ami  all  of  theiu  ngn.t-\  to 
mike  arruigemniu  for  tlie  elections.  .  .  TIh- 
^•itonal  AaemMy  was  upeonl  la  Fmnkfurt  on 


»Iay  18,  1848.  It  elected  the  Archduke  John  of 
Austria  as  the  head  of  a  new  provisional  central 
Oovcminent.  The  choice  was  a  happy  one. 
The  Archduke  was  at  once  acknowledged  by  the 
diflerent  governments,  and  on  July  12  the  Preil- 
dent  of  the  Confe<lemte  Diet  formally  made  over 
to  him  the  authority  wlilch  hod  hitherto  belonged 
to  tlie  Diet.  The  Diet  then  ceased  to  exist.  The 
Arclidiike  chose  from  the  Assembly  seven  mem- 
liers,  who  formed  a  responsible  ministry.  Tlie 
Assembly  was  divided  into  two  panics,  tlie 
Kiglit  and  the  U-ft.  These  again  were  limken 
up  into  various  sections.  Much  time  was  lost  in 
uai'less  discussions,  and  It  was  soon  suspected 
that  the  Assembly  would  not  in  the  end  prove 
tMlunl  to  the  great  task  It  had  undertaken."- 
J.  Siine,  History  of  Otrmnni/.  eh.  19,  «r(«.  14-11. 
— SeeOKRMANT:  A.  D.  1848  (.March— Seitem- 
BEII). 

A.  D.  it4t  (December).- Acceation  of  the 
Emperor  Francia  Joaeph  I. 

A.  D.  I84S-IS40.— RerolntionaiT  riainn.— 
Bombardment  of  Prane  and  Vienna.— Abdica- 
tion of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand.- Accetaion  of 
Francis  loacph.— The  Hung^arian  ttrunle  'or 
independence.— "  The  rise  of  national  feeling 
among  the  Hungarian,  Slavonic,  ami  Italian 
KUliJectsof  the  House  of  Hapshiirg  was  not  the 
only  difflcully  of  the  Empenir  Fenllnaiid  I. 
Vienna  was  then  the  g.iyestand  thedeari'st  ci-ntre 
of  fashion  and  linury  in  Kunipc,  but  side  by  side 
with  wealth  there  aei-llied  a  mass  of  wretchcil 
povirty;  and  the  prolcctive  trade  system  of 
Austria  so  incieiuied  the  price  of  the  necessaries 
of  life  that  lireail-riols  were  frequent.  .  .  .  Tlio 
university  stiiihiits  were  fon>mo«t  In  the  demand 
for  a  cimstitiition  and  for  the  n-moval  of  the 
rigid  censorship  of  tlie  pn-sa  ami  of  all  IxHiks. 
S<i.  when  the  news  came  of  Ihe  rtli;lit  of  I^iiils 
I'hillpiie  fmm  Paris  [sec  Fkance:  A.  0.  1H41- 
1S4M.  and  I^SJ  the  stiidenu  as  well  as  the 
artiaiins  of  Vienna  rose  in  revolt  (.Man-li  13, 
1H4S).  the  lattiT  breaking  machinery  and  ntlnek- 
Ing  the  iHiiiaes  of  unpopular  employe™.  A 
deputation  of  cltizeoK  elaimiiireil  for  the  resigna- 
llim  of  the  haled  Metlemlch:  his  house  was 
burnt  down,  and  he  tli-d  to  England.  .\  scconil 
oullin'ak  of  the  excited  |><ipuhiii'(Mav  1.1.  lK4i<», 
siiit  the  Em|N'nir  Fenlinanil  in  lielple-ui  llieht  U) 
Innsprnek  In  Tyrol;  but  he  retiimeil  when  they 
Bvoweil  tiM'lr  loyalty  1«  his  pcnton,  though  they 
detesteil  tlie  idd  hurcaui  ratic  sysU'm.  Far  more 
compllcale<!.  however,  wen'  the  race  Jealiiiisles 
of  the  Em(>ire.  The  Slavs  of  llohcmia  .  .  .  hiul 
demanded  of  Fcrillnand  the  union  of  liohemla. 
Moravia,  and  Austrian  Silesia  in  Estates  for  those 
provinces,  and  that  thi-  Slavs  should  enjoy  e<|ual 
iiHvllev*  with  the  Oerinans.  After  an  unsotls- 
factory  answir  hail  la-<'n  n'(vlve>l,  they  convokeil 
a  Slavonic »  .Mii^n-sa  at  Prague.  .  .  .  lint  while 
this  Babel  of  tongu<>«  was  sit-king  for  a  means  of 
fusion.  Prince  Winiliscligrftti:  was  aswinlillng 
Austrian  troo|M  around  the  Roliemiiui  capital. 
Fights  in  the  slnfls  lc<I  to  a  iKimbanlmentof  the 
(Ity.  which  Windisehgrfttl  soon  enlereil  In 
triumph.  This  has  hft  a  bitterness  hrtwei-n  the 
Tsechs  or  Bohemians  and  the  (Jermans  which 
still  divides  Ihiliemia  socially  and  (lolltleally. 
.  .  .  The  exciting  news  of  the  spring  of  1H48 
hw)  mit<i<  tin-  tiol  Ai^Hlte  titoal  of  IIh-  Mngynrs 
boll;  yet  even  Kossuth  and  the  ilenuKrits  at 
(Irst  only  ih-inandcsl  the  atmlltlon  of  Metter- 
nlch's  system  In  favour  of  a  tvprcsentntivo  gov- 


i 


236 


AU8TRU,  1848-1849. 


HungariaH  Stngglt 
for  htdtpndntxt. 


AUSTRIA.  1848-1849. 


ft 


that  the  Magynr  laws  and  languaf^e  must  now 

also  in  tiK.  Humrariim  'crown  lands'  ofT)alm«. 
Ha,  Croatia,   and  Slavonia,  and  Uie  enthusiastic 

„J?'^^""i..*'*J"^'   *'""   '"   •'*"■''   »'«   ancient 
princ  palily  of  Transylvania;  but  this  apiiu  wm 
Momly  resisted  by  the  Roumanians.  81avs.  and 
Saxons  of  that  little  known  comer  of  Europe 
and  their  discontent  wai  fanned  by  the  court  of 
\lenna.    Jellachlch.   the  Ban   or   Governor  of 
I  roiilla,  iKwlcd  this  movement,  which  aimed  at 
malii»K  A»rram  the  capital  of  the  southern  Slavs. 
Their  revolt  apiinst  the  Htinjrarian  ministry  of 
Battliyanyi  was  at  flrst  disavowed  in  June   I84S 
but  in  (VtobiT  wasencourageil,  by  theperfldioua 
eoycromcnt  of  \ienna.     A  confennce  between 
Rilthyanyi  and  Jellachlch  ended  with  words  of 
deflance:       Then  we  must  meet  on  the  Drave.' 
sahl  the  Hungarian.     'No.  on  the  Danub.-.'  re 
,    •      J™'  '••"'n'P'on  of  the  Slavs.    The  vacil- 
lalmg  Fenlinand  annulled  hU  acceptance  of  the 
new     Hiinmrian     constitution     and     declared 
Jellachlch  dictator  of  Hungary.     His  tool  was 
unfortunate.      After   crossing   the   Drave.   the 
Slavs   were  defeated  by  the  brave  Hungarian 
honveds    (defenders);  and  as  many  as  » ()()(» 
were     made     prisoners.       Unable     to     subcliie 
Ilungary,     Jellachlch     turned     aside    towanis 
\  ienna  to  crush  the  popular  party  thetv.     For 
the  demwrats,    exasperated   by  the    ptrtldious 
po  icy  of  the  government,    hail,  on  October  6 
1»4M,    risen    a    third    time:     the    war  minister 
Ijatoiir.  hait  lw>n  hanged  on  a  lamp  post,  ami 
the  emperor  again  fled  from  his  turbulent  c«t>ilal 
to  the  "•<"■■  faithful  Tyrolese.     But  now  Jella- 
rhl(  h  and  W  indischgrStz  bombarded  the  rebel 
lious  cnpit.1 .  It  was  on  the  point  of  sum-ndering 
when  the  Hungarians  appeared  to  aid  the  city ; 
but  the  levies  raised  by  the  exertions  of  Kossuth 
wen.  this  time  outmanieuvred  [and  defeated!  by 
the  lm|Hri«li(,is  at  Scliwcchat  (<)<-tob<T  ao   imni 
and  on  the  next  day  Vienna  surrendenii.    Blum' 
«  <le  egHte  frr)m  Saxony  llo  the  German  Parlhi'- 

of  mediation  to  Vienna,  but  who  had  taken  a 
part  in  the  flghting).  and  some  other democnits 
were  stmt.  By  this  clever  but  unscrupulous  uw 
of  race  Jealousy  the  Vienn.^  Government 
•e<-mcd  to  have  overcome  B<)hemlan.H.  Italians 
Hunganans  and  the  citizens  oflts  own  capital 
in  tiiro;  while  it  had  diverted  the  «,utWrn 
Slavonians  from  hoslillty  to  actual  service  ou  its 
InW.nf  ifl'iT  *"^  health  and  va,-ill„lng 
spirit  of  Fenlinand  did  not  satisfy  the  knot  of 
courtiem  of  \  ienna,  who  now,  Hushed  by  siiceesa 

r«hfn.',""u'"'^'"""*J'"  ?"""••■  'n«he  Viennese 
tabmet.     Worn  out  by  the  excilemenis  of  tlie 
} ear  and  bv  the  demands  of  these  men,  Fenll 
Hand,    on    l>.cymb.-r    2.    1H4N.  yieldd    up  the 
crown,  not  t»  his  rightful  suci^-s^.r,  his  brother 
but  to  lis  nephew.  Francis  Jo«-ph.    He.  a  vouil 
of    eighteen.    ««,ude,l    the    throne    m    t^ide  y 
shaken,  and  st  II    n  spite  of  almost  uniform  .lii 
usier  in  war.  Iml.l,  sway  over  an  empir,-  larger 
and  rmire  (xmerful  than  he  found  It   In   IMH 
The  lliingahnns  nfused  to  recognise  the  voiini 
sovenign  ,h„.  ,..^x  ^^  ^^    ^  ,^    '^8 

that  he  was  not  cir.wnej  at  Pirsburg  with  the 
Mcre.1  iron  crown  of  St.  Stephen  show.<l  that  Iw 
dW  n,|^  Intend  „,  r»,.^s^  ,fe.  n,,„^^^\*^_ 

.„l,^?i.  ^"£1''V  !"«?•"'»»"  Windiscl.grit, 
intered  Buiia-fMU.,  but  the  Uunfartun  pauiuu 


withdrew   from   their    capital   to  organize  a 
national  resistance;  and  when  the  Austrian  Gov 
ernmeut  pro<laimed  the  Hungarian  ainstituiiori 
alK.li»l,«f»„,|the  complete  atieorption  of    1,, 
Kary  in  the  Austrian  fempire,  K.«uth  and  1, 
colleagues  retorted  by  a  IX-clamtion  of  I,„|, 
pen,lence  (Apri  24.  1^49).     The  House  of  1  , , , 
burg    was    .lecUretl    Uuiishcl    fn)m   HunA   v 
which  was  to  be  a  republic.     Kossuth,  the  ll«i 
governor  of  the  new  rvpubllc.  and  (jorgei    ™ 
general,  raisejl  armies  wfilch  soon  showt5  I'li,  ir 
rowess.  •    The  fli,.t  Important  battle  of  the  w« 
had  Iwen  fought  at  Kapolua.  ou  the  right  bank 
of  the  Thel™    on  the  8«Ui  of  February.     H49 
Onrgel  and  I)<mbinski  eoinnianding  tlic  Hun- 
pmans  an.l  Win.lis.l.gratz  lea.llr.gV  Aulir  - 
ans.      The    latur    won    the    victory,    and    il,,. 
Hungarians  retreated  toward  Uie  Theias.    Al».ut 
the. niddle  of  March,  QOrgel  resumed  the  off" 

f.A'^rjl"'"'"* ,'"*""'  P™*^'  •»<»  e>>count,'r,"| 
the  Austrians«tl8as/.eg,  when-  he  defeated  ili,i,i 
n  a  harv -fought  battle. -or  rather  in  twl,  t"' 
ties   which  are  sometimes  called    by    dilTennt 
names:  viz.,  thatof  Tapio  BIscke  fough    Apr" 
4tli,  and  that  of  (Jodolo,  fouglit  on  Uic  .'StI       I 
was  now  the  tura  of  the  Austrians  to  fall  l,„ck 
and  they    .-onci'iitrateil   b»>hiud    the   Rakcn    1,; 
cover  I'esth.     The    Hungarian    general    inj, 
round    their  left.   carrieS    Walton  by    1  .Tn 
^jrocd  them  to  evacuate  Pcsth  and  to  felnai  in 
I^sburg,    abandoning   the  whole  of  Huiii:,,ry 

they  IkI  I      The  most  lmport«it  of  these  f.iri 
n.««js,    that  of  Buda,  the  "twin-city,  " ™p,MU. 
Pestli    on    the    Diuiiilie,    was  besieged  U    ih, 
Hungarians  aiid  carrie.1  by  storm  on  the  iU  „f 
Mav.      'In  Transylvauia.  too.  the   Hunmrians 
umlcr  tne  talenied  Polish  general  Bem.  ove,-,-    ,e 
n^.^'Kio*^"'  S'"*""!*^  »n<l  Roumani,.,,,  i,, 
miuiy  brilliant  encounter*.      But  the  pnHl.uiu 
Hon  of  a  r.-|nibllc  bail  alienaud  those  llniira 
riaus  who  hwl  only  striven  for  their  old  con-iii„ 
tloiml  rights,  so  (juant'ls  anae  U'tw.-eu  (;„r,..i 
and  the  anient  dem.«r.it  Kossuth.     Wors..  ..till 
the  (zar  Nicholas,  drea<ling  the  format i,m  of  a 
np  hlic    near    his   Polisli    provini^es    wn.    the 
11  iliuuy  aid  which  Francis  Joseph  in  May  IS4II  ini 
plored      8o™>t«»,0()(H<u«|M,8  under  P«ki,witrl, 
poured  over  the  north.m  Carpathians  to  heli. 
the  bea  en  Austrian.,  while  olher»overp.i«>r,,l 
i^'i^/i*'*?'  '^'™  '"    Transylvania.     Jellaehi,  h 
with  his  t  ronis  again  iuvadetl  South  Huiicrv 
and  Haynau,  the  s.t>urge  of  I.<.inlmr.lv.  manhnl 
on  the  «lron^,t  Hungarian  fortrtsa.  |{,>m,„n.  ,.„ 
he  Ihiuiibe.      The  Hungarians,  overpower,,!  I,v 
the     combination    of    Austrians    and    H.is,iuti« 
again.l  them,  were  defrntcd  at  Pcnil    Juii,    M 

■infVfA     '.'V   '*'.'^""?"r""'"'y  "•««  Wail/,,,.' 
July  l«.«t^Ioml«r,  July  30;  atS,ge,var.  .lulv 
.11,  at  IMinciln,  August  2;  atSzegedln.  Atiir,,:! 
V    »'    Teinesvar,     August    10.       "In    ,|,.|,,ir 
Kossuth  handed  over  liu  dlcUtorahipto  hi>  rual 
Grtrgei    who  soon   surrendered  at  V!lag,««iih 
all  bis  force*  to  the  Russians  (August  lit    I -I!) 
About  5.000  men  with  K,>ssuth.  fc-m.  ami  ,.ih,r 
leaders.  («cape,|  to  Turkey.     Even  th<  rf  Ituvi;, 
and  Austria  soujtht  to  drive  them  forth,  bir  .-„ 
Porte    upheld  V.y   the    WesU-ra   Powers.  ..uii. 
Hilled  its  right  ui  give  sanctuary  ac-onlii,.;  i„ 
tlu-   Koran.     Koasuiii  iitHi  many  of  his  fi  ]l-» 
ixiL-s  nnully  salle.1  u.  England  [and  sfurwar.l. 
to    America),    where    his     majestic    el.«iu.n,e 
aroused  d«vp  syniNtUiy  for  Uie  •flUcttd  euuniiy 

236 


AUSTRIA.  18«a-1849. 


Otrmnn 
Burtaucruen. 


AUSTRIA,  184»-18M. 


Mmit  Hunifiirfan  putiints  luffnrpfl  rlonth.  All 
rrbels  had  their  pmpvity  noaHiicatH.  and  the 
(fluntry  wu  for  yean  ruled  by  armed  force, 
iind  iu  old  righu  were  nbolislied. "— J.  H.  Roac, 
A  Cthtury  mr  OanlinmM  llutory,   eh.  81. 

Also  in:  Sir  A.  Aliaon,  IIM.  nf  Europe,  181.V 
18.K,  <■*.  M.—A.  Oflrgcl.  Mg  Life  and  AeU  in 
U'lHqnry. — General  KInpka,  Menniin  of  the  War 
•■f  Indtptndtntt  in  Hnngarj/. — Count  ilartie, 
llfneMt  nf  tht  Berolutim  in  Au4tria. —  W.  H. 
Stileo.  Auilriain  1H4H-49. 

A.  O.  1848-1849.— Rerolt  in  Lombardj  and 
Venetia.— war  with  Sardinia.— Victories  of 
Radetskr. — Italy  vanquished  arain.  See 
Italy:  A.  D.  184»-184». 

A.  D.  i848-i85o.— Faiinrc  of  the  morement 
for  Germanic  national  onitr. — End  of  the 
Frankfort  Assembly. — "  FraiiMort  had  iM'co'iie 
Ih.-tentrcof  themoTcment.  Thclielplcsa  Diet  had 
iirknowledged  the  necessity  of  a  Oerninn  parlia- 
ment, and  had  summoned  twelve  men  of  conH- 
ilcnn-  charged  with  drawing  up  a  new  imperial 
((institution.  But  it  was  unable  to  supply  what 
was  most  want(!d  —  a  strong  eierutive.  .  , 
lnatea(i  of  establishing  before  all  a  nimng  pxerti- 
tive  able  to  control  and  to  n-aliac  its  reaolulionsi, 
ilie  Araembly  lost  months  iu  diwuMing  the 
fundiinientiil  rights  of  tlie  Gorman  people,  and 


given,  and  even  at  the  time  of  failure  it  was 
certain,  as  Htoeltmar  said,  that  the  necessity  of 
circuinstunces  would  bring  forward  the  nmn  who, 
prcUting  by  the  experiences  of  1848.  wouhl  fulfil 
the  national  aspirationa. "— F.  II.  Oeffclten, 
The  Unitfiof  Germitiin  (Englith  ni'turiml  Het., 
il/'nV.  1891). —See  Germany:  A.  D.  1848-1850. 
A.  D.  1849-1859.— The  Return  to  pure  Ab- 
solutism. —  Bureaucracy  triumphant.  —  " '  The 
two  great  giiins  which  the  moral  earthquake  of 
1848  brought  to  Austria  werv,  that  througli  wide 
pmvinces  of  the  Empite.  aud  more  cspecUlly  iu 
Hungary,  it  »n-ept  away  the  sort  of  semi- 
vassMlage  in  which  the  peaanntry  hod  been  left 
liy  the  Crbnrium  of  M:iria  Theresa  [an  edict 
whicli  gave  to  the  peasauu  the  right  of  moving 
from  fdace  to  place,  and  the  riirlit  of  bringing 
up  their  children  us  they  wi.shed,"  while  it  estnb- 
lisbed  in  n-rlain  ojurts  the  tri:il  of  all  suits  to 
which  they  were  parties],  and  other  reforms  iikin 
to  or  founded  uiion  it,  and  introduced  modem  in 
the  place  of  miitttle-age  relations  between  the 
two  extremes  of  society.  Secondly,  it  overthrew 
the  poliry  of  do-nothing  — a  surer  guarant'e  for 
tile  c(mlinuanre  of  abuses  (hau  even  the  deter- 
uiination.  which  soon  mauifesu-d  itself  at  head 
quarters,  to  make  the  head  of  the  state  more 
almildte  than  ever.     After  the  takiug  of  Vienna 


hiis  was  overliaulcd  by  the  events.  In  June,  \  by  \Vlndis<hgratz.  the  National  A^-mbly  had 
Priiice  Windischgraets  crushed  the  insurrection  1  on  tlie  l.'Sth  of  Novemlter  1848,  bi^n  removed 
at  Prague;  and  In  Novemlicr  the  anarchy  which   I  from  the  capital  to  the  small  tiiwn  of  Kremsier 


had  prevailed  during  the  whole  summer  at 
Berlin  was  put  down,  when  Count  Brandenburg 
became  llrst  minister.  .  .  .  Scliwar/.enlHTg  [at 
Vienna)  declared  sa  soon  as  lie  had  taken  the 
reins,  that  his  programme  was  to  nutiutain  the 
iinily  of  the  Austrian  empire,  and  denuimled 
Hint  the  whole  of  it  should  enter  into  tlie  U<-r- 
m.inic  confederation.  This  was  incompatible 
Willi  the  fe<leral  state  as  contemplated  by  the 
Xutioiial  .\aaemlily,  and  therefore  Uagem,  who 
hail  U-eome  president  of  the  imperial  ministry 
[it  Frankfort],  answered  Schwanenbcrg's  pro- 
(.'ramme  by  declaring  tlwt  the  entcriug  of  tlie 
Austrian  inonarcliy  with  a  majoritv  of  non-Oer- 
insu  imtionalities  into  the  German  °  federal  state 
»ii«  an  im|K)s»ibility.  Thus  nothing  was  left 
but  1(1  place  the  king  of  Prus-iia  at  tlic  head  of 
the  German  state.  But  In  order  to  win  a 
iiisjorlly  for  this  plan  Gagem  found  it  neces 
wry  to  make  large  concession.'!  to  the  democratle 


in  .Moravia.  Here  it  proUjngiHl  an  Ineffeitivc 
existence  till  March  184»,  when  the  court 
camarilla  felt  itself  strong  enough  to  put  an  end 
to  an  inconvenient  censor,  and  in  March  1840 
it  ceased  to  exist.  A  C(msiitution  was  at  the 
same  time  pnimulgated  whicli  contained  many 
gO(«l  pnivistons.  but  which  was  never  heartily 
appnived  by  the  ruling  powers,  or  vigorously 
carried  intoefft'ct  —  the  proclamation  of  a  sute 
of  siege  in  many  cities,  and  otiier  expedients  of 
authority  in  a  revolutionary  period,  easily  enab- 
ling it  to  be  set  at  naught.  The  successes  of  the 
reaction  in  other  parts  of  Eunipe.  and,  above  all, 
tlie  coup  d'etat  in  Paris,  emltoldened  Schwartz- 
euberg  to  throw  off  the  mask:  aud  on  thi'  last 
day  of  IMl  Austria  liecanic  once  more  a  pure 
despotism.  The  young  emperor  had  taken 
'  VIribus  unitis'  for  Ids  motto;  and  his  advisers 
interpreted  those  words  to  mean  that  Austriit 
was  henerf(irw!ird  to  be  a  aUtle  as  iiighlv  ci'n- 
trslisrd  as  France  —  a  state  iu  wliich  the  minister 


party,  sinoncst  otiiers  universal  aiiffrage.     This 
WHS   not  calculated  to   make    the  offer  of  the 

iniiH-rial  cmwn  acceptable  to  Frederic  William      ..-..,..,.,...  „,  i.„  ,,,,„  „„„-      ,„ 

I\.  but  lii«  principal  niwra  for  declining  it  was,    1   aulhorilv   haif   been    Mverely    f(  It  in   the   pit- 


at  Vienna  was  absolulelv  to  govern  eveiylhing 
from   Salzburg  to  tli6  Inm  Gate.     The  hand  of 


iriu  frtmi  (k-rmany.  After  the  refusal  ol  the 
(T'.wn  by  the  king,  the  National  Aaaemblr  was 
iliKinicd;  it  had  tvrtainly  cominltU'd  great  I'nults. 
but  the  (IccUive  resMm  of  its  failure  was  the  lack 
cf  n  rli-ar  and  resolute  will  in  !*russi».  History, 
however,  teaches  that  great  enterprises,  such  as 
It  was  to  iialfy  an  empire  dismembered  for  ceu 
turies,  niivly  succ«e<l  at  the  first  attempt.  The 
iapi'sl  importance  of  the  events  of  1848  was 
ilwl  they  had  made  tlie  (ierman  unionist  move- 
"     V.  nil  hijtoricai  iiu.\ .  il  Oiuld  never  be eiraivd 


more  trouble.  The  old  pcjliical  'llviBi(m  into 
counties  was  swept  away ,  the  whole  land  was 
divided  into  five  provinces:  and  the  courtiers 
might  imagine  tliat  fnim  henrefortli  the  Magyars 
would  be  us  easily'  led  as  the  inliubitauls  of 
l'pp<'r  .\iistria.  Tliese  delusions  80')n  became 
general,  but  they  owed  their  origin  partlv  to  the 
enlliusiaslic  ignorance  of  those  who  wen>  at  the 
head  of  the  army,  aud  partly  to  two  men  "— 
Frinci-  Schwsrtrenberg  and  Alexander  Bacb- 
Or  the  latter,   the      two  leading  Ideas  were  to 


ii"i,i  iiie  snnsis  tliat  all  the  G<<rman  gorem-  i  cover  the  whole  empire  with  a  tJennan  biiivau- 
iii.m.  had  publicly  scknuwioigrd  that  temlency  :  craey.  aud  to  draw  ckwr  the  ties  which  con 
••  (egtumau;,  tlM  dirrctioa  for  the  future  wu  |  nccted  the  court  of  Vienna  wliJj  that  of  IlunM. 

237 


AUSTRIA.  1849-1830. 


TV  War 
<•  Ualf. 


AUSTRIA,  1869-1886. 


...  If  kbKlutitm  In  Austriit  liad  a  fair  trial 
from  llif  8Ut  of  DecemUr  1851  to  the  lulliin 
war.  itUto  Bach  tliat  It  waa  owlns;  and  If  It 
utterly  and  luilicmiisly  fallwl,  It  la  he  more  than 
any  other  man  wlio  must  U-nr  the  bliimc. 
Already,  In  1840.  the  bureaurniry  had  be<n 
reorKani«c<l.  but  in  18S8  new  and  stricter  rreuln- 
lions  were  Intrnducnl.  Everything  waa  <ktcr- 
mlmil  by  precise  rules— even  the  exact  amount 
of  hair  which  the  employ^  waa  permittixl  to 
wear  upon  hia  face.  Hanlly  any  question  was 
thought  suffldentlr  insignlllcant  to  be  deciiled 
upon  the  spot.  The  smallest  maturs  bad  to  be 
n-firn^l  to  Vienna.  ...  We  ctm  hardly  be  sur- 
priw-d  tliat  the  mat  ruin  of  the  Italian  war 
bmught  down  witli  a  crash  the  whole  ediflee  of 
file  reaction."— M.  E.  O.  Duff,  Slurlif  in  A'uro- 
jinni  Pititiet,  cA.  8. 
Aijo  in:  L.  Lcger,  Hut.  of  Atutm-ffungnry, 

A.  D.  1853.— Commerciml  Treaty  with  the 
German  ZoilTereia.    See  TARirr  Leoislation 


(Ukkmv.vy):  a.  n.  18.53-1893. 
-/ 
A.   D.   1H.VJ-I8.VI.  to  1854- 


A.  D.  1851-1856.— Attitude  in  the  Crimeaa 

•.      S'C    HIT '       "^      -■  -    - 


War. 

18.56. 


I'WIA : 


A.  D.  i856-i859.-The  war  in  Italr  with 
Sardinia  and  France.— Rercrtea  at  Maccnta 
and  Solferino.— Peace  ofVtllafranca.- Surren- 
der of  Lombardy.— "Prnm  the  wars  of  1848-0 
the  Kinif  of  .Sanlinia  was  looked  iipcm  by  tho 
moderate  pnrty  as  tlic  champion  of  Italian  fri'C- 
dom.     Clitirics   Albert  luid   failed:  yet  his  sim 
Would  not,   and  indeed   coulil    not,    go  bacit 
though,  when  lie  In-gan  his  reign,  there  were 
nmiiy  Uiings   agaimit    him.  .  .  .  On-nt    effort* 
were  made  to  win  him  over  to  tlie   .\ustriMn 
iwny.  but  tlie  King  was  neither  cast  down  by 
defeat  ami  distnist  nor  won  over  Iiv  soft  wonlil 
He  soon  showcil  tliat,  thouich  he  hiid  Xmn  forred 
to  make  a  treaty  with  Austria,  vet  lie  would  not 
ca^t  in  his  lot  witli  the  oppn-mlim  of  Italy      llu 
made  Masalmo  dA/.eglio  \i\*  chief  Minister  and 
fiiinlllo  Benso  di  Cavour  his  Mlnlnti  r  of  Com- 
meree.     With   the  help  of  iIh.sc  two  men  he 
honestly  carriwl  out  the  reforms  which  had  iK'cn 
granted  liy  his  father,  and  set  new  ones  on  finit 
.  .  The  quick  prr>gres»  of  n  form  frigliKiici 
lount    .Massimo  d'Axrirllo.      He    retired    fmm 
office  in  18.18.  ami  his  place  was  tnki  11  by  Coiint 
Cnvour,  who  made  a  cimlition  wiih  the  di'inii- 
cralic  imrly  In  Pte<lmont  hendi-d  by  L'rlnno  Itit- 
tim«i     Tho  new  chief  Minister  bigan  U)  work 
not  only  for  the  good  of  Piedmont  but  for  If^ily 
Ht   large       The    Milanese  slill   listened   to  tlm 
hoim  which  Mai!i:ini  held  out.  and  couM  not 
i|iilrtly   hj-ar  their  subjection.     Ci.iint   Cavoiir 
Imliuiiiantly  remoii»trate<l  with  Railetcky  for  his 
hiirsh  government,  .  .  .  The  division  and  shivery 
of  Italy  had  shut  her  out  fr.m  EiirtiiNnii  ixilitirs 
Civour  hel.l  tlia;.  if  she  was  once  lookinl  upon 
as  an  useful  iillv,  then   her  dellvenuiee  iniicht 
\»-  lasteneil  liy  foniun  interference.     The  .S,ir- 
diiilan  army  had  Ucn  bmught  into  goo.1  onler 
by  Alf<HiBo  della  Mamiom:  and  wn»  n-udy  for 
Bcthin      In  lavi,    Sanlinia  made  alliance   with 
hnicluirl  anil    Krance,    who   were  at   war  with 
KiiMla ;  for  Cavour  looknl  on  tliat  power  as  the 
1tre.1i  sup|K>rt  of  Hie  system  of  despotism  on  the 
tomlitftit,  aiHl  hehl  tliat   it   was  ner.-s«iry  for 
IlHlinn  fti-e.h>m  llwt  K.iwl,  Mi.'tl,!  lie  humbhd. 
The  .Sardliiiitn  army  was  t!..     fore  sent  Ui  the 
t  rtmea,  under  La  Mamiom.  whcro  it  did  gowl 


service  in  the  baUle  of  Tchemaya.  .  .  The 
next  year  tiie  Cnngreaa  of  Parli  was  held  to 
arrange  terms  of  peace  between  tho  allies  and 
Itussia.  and  Cavour  took  the  opportunity  of  l.iy. 
ing  before  the  repreKnUtivea  of  the  Euronian 
poweni  the  unliappy  state  of  his  countrymen 
...  In  December,  1851.  Louis  Napole<in  Buo- 
naparte, the  PreeMent  of  the  French  Republic 
seized  tlie  government,  and  the  next  year  took 
the  title  of  Emperor  of  the  French.  He  was 
anxious  to  weaken  the  power  of  Austria,  and  at 
tlie  beginning  of  1850  it  became  evident  that  w,ir 
would  soon  break  out.  As  a  sign  of  the  friendly 
feeling  of  the  French  Emperor  towanU  the 
Italian  cause,  his  cousin.  Namdecm  Joseph,  mar- 
ried Clotilda,  the  daughter  of  Victor  Eniiiuinuil 
Count  Cavour  now  declared  Uiat  SardinU  would 
innke  war  on  Austria,  unless  a  separate  and  na 
tional  government  waa  granted  to  Lomlumlv 
ami  Venetia,  and  uniesa  Austria  pr0mls.1l  to 
me<ldle  no  more  with  the  rest  of  Italy.    On  the 

other  hand.  Austria  demanded  the  disannu iit 

of  Sardinia.     The  King  would  not  iUteii  to  this 
deinaiul,  and  France  and  Sanlinia  declarvd  w  ir 
against  Austria.     The  Einpemr  NniK,l(.,n  ,K.. 
dared  that  he  would  free  Italy  from  Hie  Alps  to 
the  Adriatic.  .  .  .  The  Austrian  army  cn«,s..,l 
the  Tieino,  but  was  dcfeaUsI  by  the  Kiii'  un.l 
General  Claldini.    Tlie  Fitncli  victory  .1?  M,. 
genla.  on  June  4th  forecd  the  Aiistrians  to  n- 
tmit  from  Uimlmnly.  ...  On  June  24lli  tlic 
Aiistrians,  who  had  crosseil  the   .Mincio    wire 
defeatwi  at  Solferino  by   the  allied  armies  of 
trnnvv  and  Sunlinia.     It  seeim-d  as  tliouitli  the 
Fremli  EiniH-nir  would  keep  bis  wonl.     Hut  lir 
foiinil   that  If  he  went  further.  Prussia  wimlil 
take  up  the  cause  of  Austria,  and  that  he  would 
»"*e  «o  "(fl't  on  the  Kliiuo  as  well  as  on  the 
Adige.      Wlicn.    therefore,    the    Frcnili    nniiv 
Clime  licfore  Verona,    a  meeting  was  armnv'id 
iK-tween  the  two  Emperors.    Tills  UM.k  plare  ut 
Villafmnca.  and  tliero  Buonaparte,  without  roii 
suiting  his  ally,  agree<l  wiUi  Francis  Josepli  to 
favour  the  estalillsliment  of  nn  Italian  (oiif,n|,r 
iilion.  .  .  .  Austria  gave  up  to  the  Kins  of  Siir 
fliiila  I.omlianly  to  the  west  of  Mincio.     lint  Hie 
(Jniiid  Ibike  of  Tuscany  and  the  Duke  of  M> 
dina  were  to  return  U>  their  States.     The  pn>. 
IKDHsl  Confeilenitlon  waa  never  iimih',    fnr  ilu' 
IMsiple  of  Tiiscuny,    Molemi.  Pnnn;i.  aii.l  li,i 
niaitn.i  sent  to  tlie  King  to  pray  that  llicv  nilnlit 
be  made  |>iirt  of  his  Kingdom,  and  Viii.ir  Km 
rnaniiel  refused  to  enter  on  the  sclaiue  nf  Hi,. 
Jrench  £m|>eror.     In  return   for  allnvinit  iln' 
Italians  of  Central  Italy  to  shake  off  Ha-  yoke, 
Buonaparte  aaknl   for  Savoy  mid    .Vi/./.a.  . 
The  King.  .  .  c.msente.1  to  give  up  the    u'lorlnus 
cradle  of  his  Monareliy '  in  excliaiico  for  I'ltitril 
Italy,"— W.  A.  Hunt,  IliMtoi-g,,/ ft.iljt.i-k.  II. 

AI.SO  in:  J.  W,  Pndivn.  Iliitg  f].m  1h|.1  i,> 
lWt<».  M.  »-10._C.  de  Manwle.  Z,/,-  ./  <:...,.t 
(,ir,f»r.  »  2-7._Hoe,  also.  It.*i.V:  A.  I»  1.S.W- 
18.59.  an  ;  1  OB-IHfli. 

A.  p.  l86a-ilM.-The  Schletwir-Holsteia 
quettion.— Quarrel  with  Prussia.— The  humili- 
atinf  Seven  Weeki  War.-Contllet  » ith  I'm, 
sia  grew  out  of  the  coinplieausl  Sclilcsu        •  ,: 
stein  mieation.  reopenisl  In  186-Jaiid  proi  '. 

settleil  by  a  delusive  amingenieiit  b'twin  n  1. 
sla  and  Austria,  InlowhichllK' latter  wiisai  ;  '»• 
drawn  iiy  I'rince  iiiainnrek.  S<s' [scanihs  n  \ 
HTATMlDltNIIAHK):  A  D.  1848-lH6i.  and  i.tK 
"ANY:  A.  D.  1881-1860.     NosuMKr  wa-lhe  wur 


as8 


AUSTRIA,  186»-18W. 


War. 


AUSTRIA.  1866-1867. 


with  Denmark  over,  Uutn  "  Pninia  sliowiil  that 
it  wan  her  intentinn  to  annex  the  newly  ai'i|uin.tl 
liiiriiic*  to  herself.  This  Austria  could  not  en- 
dure, and  accordingly.  In  1866,  war  limkc  out 
IrtwiH-n  Austria  and  Prussia.  Hrus.sia  sought 
alliAiH-u  with  Italy,  which  slie  stirred  uptonttacli 
Austria  in  her  Italian  p<i«acssions.  The  Austrian 
armv  defeated  tlic  Italian  at  Eustnzza  [or  Cua- 
Wi«a  (we  Italy:  A.  D.  1863-1866)];  hut  tlic 
fortunes  of  war  were  against  them  in  Germany. 
Allied  with  the  Ausitrians  were  the  Haxons,  the 
Bsviirians,  the  WOrtemlierKers.  Ba<len  and 
Hesse,  and  Hanover.  The  Prussians  advanc<^l 
with  their  chief  army  into  Bohemia  with  the 
utmi«t  nipidity,  dreading  lest  the  Southern  allies 
sliould  march  nortli  to  Hanover,  and  rut  the 
liinii'lnm  in  half,  and  push  on  to  Berlin.  The 
[•ruwians  had  three  armies,  which  were  to  enter 
Bolieniia  and  effect  a  Junction.  The  Elbe  army 
uiidor  the  King,  the  flrst  army  umier  Prince 
Frtilerick  Charles,  and  the  second  army  under 
the  Crtiwn  I*rince.  The  EIIh-  army  ailvancetl 
acnws  Saxony  by  Dresden.  The  Urst  army  was 
in  LuKilia.  at  Keichenberg.  and  the  seomd  army 
In  Silesia  at  Heisae.  They  were  all  to  meet  a"t 
(ilt.scliin.  The  Austrian  army  under  Uenend 
Ilemdc  k  was  at  KOniggrilti.  iu'Easteru  H<)Iien<i:i. 
.  .  .U  in  the  wars  with  Napoleon,  so  was  it 
now;  the  Austrian  genends  .  .  .  never  did  the 
riL'l4t  tliin!;at  the  right  moment,  llenetiek  ,iid 
inili'i'il  manh  against  tlic  lirstarmy,  but  too  late, 
and  when  lie  found  it  was  alrr'udy  thrtiiigh  the 
moiiiilain  iliHir  lie  retrealetl.  and  so  gave  time  for 
llio  thn*  arii.ies  to  ronrentrate  up<m  him.  The 
Ell<e  army  and  the  first  met  at  MUnchengratz, 
and  dcfeatnl  an  Austrian  army  there,  pusliiil  on. 
and  drove  tliem  b.tck  out  of  Uilsrliin  on  KOnig- 
L'rillz.  .  .  .  Tlio  Prussians  puslied  on.  and  now 
tlie  Kllie  army  went  to  Siuidar.  and  ttie  first  army 
to  lliirrilz.  whilst  the  si-coiul  army,  under  the 
('n>«n  Prinee.  was  pu.Hliing  on.  and  had  got  to 
(inidliti.  The  little  river  Blstritz  is  crossed  by 
ilii' hidi  riHui  to  Knniggrlltz.  It  runs  through 
swttiiipy  ground,  and  forms  little  marshy  piNds 
or  lakes.  To  the  north  of  Kftniggnllz  a  little 
stream  o!  much  the  same  character  dribbles 
lhrou.i;h  iiogs  into  the  Eilie.  .  .  .  Hut  «ls>ut 
I'liluMi.  Neilelist  and  Lippa  is  ternced  high 
irniiind.  and  tlierc  Ik-neilek  planteil  his  cannon. 
Till'  I'nisxians  ailvancetl  from  Smidjir  iijainst 
llie  lift  wing  of  tlie  Austrians.  from  il.irzitz 
ai.'aill^t  I  lie  eentre.  and  the  (  nnvn  Prinee  was  to 
att.irk  li.e  right  wing.  The  Imltle  iH'gan  on  the 
:i.l  i.f  .I'lly,  at  7  oi!iMk  In  the  morning,  bv  the 
■.iniu];aii«iu  i  advam  e  of  llie  Elbe  and  the  flrst 
uriiiv  iijion  the  Hi'iiiitz.  At  .Sudnwa  is  a  wool, 
atid  ilhie  the  lialile  mgiil  iiiosi  lienidy.  .  .  . 
Two  ihinga  were  against  the  .\iistrians;  first, 
lia  ill  i.iMih.uiiei'  'f  tlu'ir  gemril.  and,  setcmdly, 
(ill'  li.fi  riori'v  of  ti<oir  guns.  The  Prussians  hiid 
wlial  re  nilled  twUe  guns,  breath  hwders, 
whu  li  i.n-  Hred  by  ilie  p-iek  of  n  niKillc,  and  for 
1'^"  M|iiiiily  with  wliieli  IIm\  nin  In'  firiil  far 
•u',.a>«i|  llie  old  fa'thioned  inii/.zl  loidirs  usiil 
by  till  A  islrians  .Vfler  tlii<.  vreat  luiti:e,  .viiiili 
iHcalii'.l  liy  ilie  Knnrli  and  Ent'li-h  the  bmtl.'  -if 
ShdowaiSailrtwa.  not  Sndflwa.  im  it  is  emweously 
i>rMiMunr(Hii.  but  whieh  Ilie  Cermans  call  tlie 
liaiil.  cif  KdniggrHtn,  the  Pni««ians  maniieil  on 
Vl-r-ia.  ami  narfaed  tin-  M.tr.  lit.  id  Infori-  Ilie 
Kni|>.nir  Krancis,Io«epli  would  come  to  tenns. 
At  hut,  on  the  33il  of  August,  a  ixw-e  whieh 
gave  a  erishiiig  prcponderaiice  ta  Ut-nuau;  to 


Pntssla,  was  concluded  at  Prague.  '—S.  Barlng- 
Oould,  Tlie  Nttiiy  of  Otrmany,  pp.  aV0-)iW4.— 
SeeOEii.ii.vNY:  A.  D.  1866. 

A.  D.  i866.-The  War  in  Italy.— Lott  of 
Vcnetia.     See  It.u.v:  A.  D.  1862-1)166. 

A.  O.  1866-1867.— ConccHion  of  nationality 
to  Hung^ary.—  Formation  of  the  dual  Austro- 
Hunganan  Empire. —"For  twelve  years  the 
name  of  Hungary,  as  a  State,  was  enuie<l  from 
tile  map  of  Europe.  Buienurratic  Absolutism 
ruled  supreme  in  Austria,  and  did  its  Iwst  to  ob- 
liU-rate  all  Hungarian  institutions.  Uermanisa- 
tion  was  the  order  of  the  day,  the  Qennan  tongue 
lieing  dwianil  tlie  exclusive  language  of  ofiieial 
life  as  Well  iisof  the  higher  schools.  Ooveniniint 
was  carried  on  by  means  of  foreign,  Oerman.  and 
Czech  o;il<'ials.  No  vestige  was  left,  not  only  of 
the  national  independence,  but  cither  of  Home 
Rule  or  of  self-government  of  any  sort;  the 
country  wiw  diviiled  into  provinces  without  re- 
gard for  historical  traditions;  in  slum,  an  at- 
tempt was  made  to  wipe  out  every  truce  denoting 
tlie  existence  of  a  separate  Hungary.  All  ranks 
and  clossi-s  opposed  a  sullen  passive  resistance  to 
tliese  attacks  against  the  existence  of  tlie  nation ; 
even  the  sirlions  of  the  natiimaiities  whicli  linil 
rclsdUil  against  the  enactments  of  IH^x.  at  tlie 
instigation  of  the  reactionary  Camarilla,  were 
e<|ually  disaffecli'd  in  consi-quenci-  of  the  sliort- 
sigiiUil  poliry  of  despotical  centralisiition.  .  .  . 
Finally,  after  the  collapse  of  the  systiin  of  Ab- 
solutism in  consei|iience  of  flnaniialdiwiMers  ami 
of  the  misfortunes  of  the  luilian  War  of  lx.">!t. 
tlie  Hungarian  Parliament  was  again  convoked: 
anil  after  protracted  negotiations.  Imikenolf  ami 
resumed  again,  tlie  impracticability  of  a  Kvslini 
of  pnivineial  Federalism  liaving  Ixru  pmviii  in 
Ilie  miiinlime.  and  the  defeat  iunirnHl  in  the 
Pnisshin  War  of  1866  having  d<'inoiistnittil  tlie 
fiitilllv  of  any  reconstruction  of  the  Empire  of 
Austria  in  which  tlie  national  aspirations  of 
Hungary  were  not  taken  Into  due  omsideratiim- 
an  arrangement  was  concludeil  under  the  aiis- 
pices  of  Francis  Deik,  Count  AiidnUsv,  anil 
Count  Delist,  on  the  basis  of  the  full  iicknowl. 
eilgnient  of  the  separate  national  cxisieiiii'  of 
Hiingiiry.  and  of  the  continuity  of  it.s  legal 
rights.  Theidenof  acentraliseii  Aii.striiui  Em- 
pire had  to  give  way  to  the  dual  Austnilluii- 
gariiin  monnnliy.  which  is  in  fact  an  inili.>«oliible 
fe<lemtion  of  two  ei|ual  Slates.  undiT  the  com 
mon  rule  of  a  single  sovereign,  tlie  Eni|K'ror  of 
Austria  and  King  of  Hungary,  each  of  the 
States  having  a  eonstltiiiion,  giiveniinint.  anil 

fiarliament  of  its  own.  Hungary  esixcially  retain- 
ng,  with  fliL'ht  niiNliflc<itions,'ilsaiieii'nt  iiiHtitii- 
liims  remiHli'lled  in  1848.  The  ailminisintion  of 
the  fondun  ixilicy,  the  management  of  ihe  army, 
and  the  ilisliiirsement  of  the  expentlitim-  ni-ci-s- 
sary  for  tlirsi-  purposes,  were  settieii  u|ion  as 
common  nlfairs  of  the  entire  monanhy.  for  the 
mnnagi'mi'iit  of  wliicii  common  ministers  were 
inslitulinl.  rfHponsible  to  the  two  deieuntions, 
cini|iial  (ommitteesof  the  pariiaments  of  Hun 
gary  and  of  ilie  I'islelthanlan  (.\ii«lrian)  pn.v- 
Inn*  Elalmrale  provisions  were  rraiiud  fur  ilie 
smiKiih  working  of  these  common  insiilntions, 
for  givin','  W(  iiiht  to  the  eonstitiilional  inllncniT, 
ever  in  iiiHtlersuf  common  policy,  of  tlir  Kipa- 
rule  ('i>lrilliaiiiiiii  and  Hungarian  ininixirii-H.  and 
for  nnilering  their  rvsimnsibility  to  the  ri's|H et- 
ive  i'lirilamenlH  an  earnest  ami  solid  nalilv. 
The  financial  queitiuiii  |K-uding  in  the  two  iuiia- 


239 


AUSTRIA,  18e«-18«7. 


w 

l-i. 
m\ :. 


■■'3.-' 


penilcnt  uil  equal  Suttaa  were  wttird  by  n  com- 
promlw:  mcanircs  were  Ukeo  for  the  ™iilulilo 
•rraiiKtTOint  of  all  matters  which  nil"lit  «rl«- In 
ifliition  to  Intorreta  toiirhinif  In>i1i  Suii,.,  g,„.|, 
as  <liitk.g.  commerce,  nml  In.llnrt  t.ixation,  hII 
legislation  on  these   siilijocu    l,lkln^'   plnrc  by 
memis  of  Identical  laws   scpamuly  cnaoteil  by 
the    Parliament  of   ea»h    State.  .  .  .  Simiilta- 
nooiisly  Willi  these  arranp-ments  the  political 
(llffercnciii  between  Hungary  ami  C'nmlla  were 
compromlsecl  by  gmnting  pn.vinri,.!  Home  Kiilc 
to  the  latter.      .  .  Tims  llic  organisation  of  the 
AustroHungarian    monarrliy  on    the  luutis  of 
nualtsm,  anil  tlie  compromise  etitereil   Into  lie- 
tween  the  two  halves  comp<wiii!;  it,  whilst  iinitinit 
for  the  nurposi's  of  tiefence  the  forirs  of  two 
States  of  a  mnilemte  size  ami  extent  Into  those  of 
a  great  empiri',  al)Ie  to  cope  with  the  exigencies 
of  an  a.l.^,|iate  ixwitlon  amongst  (he  Hrslelass 
nmeniof  i,uro|>e.  restomi  also  to  lliinsrary  lis 
lii<lep<n.lence  ami  its  unfetteif<l  sovetxigtiev  In 
nil   Internal   matters."  — A.    Puls/.kv,    Il„„L,u 
(.yitiiiiuil    Life  and  Thowjht.   Uct  '  .•!)  —••The 
Aiis^leieb,  or    agreement    with   llnngarv    was 
arri.nse.l    by  a  committee  of  87   meml'iera  of 
the  Hiingarian  <llet,  at  the  liea.l  r.f  whom  was 
the   tranklin  of    Himgarv,  Fmneis   I>eak    the 
true    patriot    and  inexomble  legist,    who    lud 
taken    no    part    In    the    ri'volntions,    hut   who 
■ml   never    given    up  one  of    the    smallest  of 
.'  "¥  «,%?'^    ■'*  '""'""O--  ...  On  the  nth  of 
June  [ISrt,]    the  empetDr   Fninels  Joseph    waa 
crowniKl  with  great  pompat  l>..»ih.     Onihe  2Sth 
of  llic  following  June-,  he  appn.v.,1  the  decisions 
of  the  diet,  which  settled  the  iXKiii.in  of  Itun- 
pry  with  regani  to  the  otiier  cuntrin  U'long- 
ing  to  his  majesty,  and  mo.liti<d  «,„,e  portions 

of  th..  laws  of  \>m Sin™  ,he  Ausgleleh 

the  einpin-  lias  consisted  of  two  parts  For 

the  s^ike.if  clearness,  political  language  has  U>cn 
mcria.s4d  by  the  Invention  of  two  new  terms 
tisliiihania  and  Tmnslelthania,  to  dcserils.  the 
two  gnmps.  s..,wnit«l  a  little  Nlow  Vienna  by  a 
small  atHuent  of  the  I>anul».,  callcl  the  I^itiia— 
a  stnani  wliicU  never  expecli.,1  to  iH-eomo  so 
"^t^T^a  ''*"'•  "^    '/''«""'■//««• 

Also  in:  Francis  Dmk.  A  Mfttfir,  rh  Sfl-Jtl  _ 
( <»iiit  vi.n  Ik^ust,  Mrnwirt.  r.  •,•  M  ;w  _i 
»ellKrm.inn,  l/<i„o„rg  and  if  I\„:,U  rh  .-,  " 
v^AiJ?-  '?*«-'887.-Th.  Auatro-Hun«rian 
Empire  -Its  new  national  life.-Its  difficul- 
ties and  proraiMs—Ita  ambitions  and  aims  in 
Southeaatern  Europe.-"  l.,.»..e  ,M,IilirianHn,av 
►.u    that   a  war  always  do,-,  niori.   harm   tliaii 

alw.ivs  ,!,».,  at  any  rate,  niomlly  siH-aking.    „ 
the    vM,.rs:    but  that  it  d.HMi  not  ll,  the  van 

Filially  exel.id«l  from  Italy  and  (l.rmanv  liv 
th..  ,.a,i,,u,g„  of  ,NM,  sh<.  has  cast  asl.!.'  h.T 
dreams  of  foreign  domination,  ami  lias  „|  her 
self  ma.ilullv  t..  the  task  of  making  a  i,«,i„„  ,„u 
of  tlie  vinous  .tinllicliug  nationalities  „ver 
which  s.„  pt,.shi,i..  It  ,loes  not  n-quire  niiicl, 
n.u-h.  to  ,».nvive  that  as  long  a,  ^r  ,,. 1,1  her 
pmi.io,,  n,  (^niiany  this  f,„i*n  was  bo|„.|..„ 
■  lie  oycrwh.lmi.ig  pn-pomlerauo.  „f  the  (>,.r. 
man  .leni.  m  n„Mle  any  ap|,r<«t.h  'to  a  r,., (pro. 

MIL'  .mli..n:,l,i„;„s;„i;jw.U:'|V  was"  forth™"".. 
co,..„,au.l,  for  thuK,.  to  ol«.y.     1„  |ik,.  mtt,„„.r  u 


V>rua  Jhiiiirt. 


AUSTRU,  18M-1887. 


?^.  .?'?**■"''*'  '"'  """  Austrian  Oovcmment  to 
establish  a  mutual  undenlan.liiig  with  a  i^im 
lUion  which  felt  itsi'lf  attn.ct.,1?- „iike  hi  'the 
tics  of  rai:e,  language,  an.l  ^'eogranhi,al  i),;,iii,„i 
-to  another  |Hilitlcal   union.      .Vay   m'or,     a* 
long  as  the  oceu|Mtlon  of  the  Itjilian  pn.viluvs 
romaluejl  as  a  blot  on  the  Iin|NTial  e«ulcl.„,„ 
It  was  iintaissible  for  tlie  Uoveriiim-nt  to.,.,n! 
mijnd  any  genuine  8ym()alliy  from  any  .,f  ju 
suhjecU.     fiut  with  the  cloi  of  the  war  with 
Prussia    these    two    .lilHcullies-tho    relation, 
with  Oeniiany  and  the  relati..ns  witli  liilv_ 
were  swept  away.      From  this  lime    f..r«.r.l 
Austria    n.ul,|    «p,M.nr    U'fore    the  w.irl.l  o^,  . 
Power  bimling  together  for  the  interest,  oi  all 
a  number  of  la'tty  nationalities,  ea.h  ..f  which 
was  loo  feel.le  to  maintain  a  separate  e.\i.si,  „,.. 
In  short     from  the  year  1886  Austria    li;„l  ^ 
mison  diHri-,  whereas  before  she  lia.l  no..,- 
Itanin  Ik-iisl,  mi  tlie  7th  of  February.  |.><o;  t.„k 
offlix.   umler  Fran/.    J,.,t.ph.      His    pro,.r.niii,c 
inay  lie  st|.le<l  as  f..l|ows.     H.'  s<iw  that  H..  Z 
of  ct^ntralism  and  imperial  unity  was  gon,    ,^i 
reaUl.  ajidtliatthe  most  lilR-ml  Cinstituiinii  iu 
the  worid  would  never  recmeile  the  natioiuliUes 
U)  their  present  p<«ition.  as  pn.vimxu  uii.kr  llio 
always  detested  uii.l  now  despia*..!  Eiiipin'     But 
then  came  the  questl<m-Oranu.d  tli.it  a  cnain 
disintegration  is  ineriuhle,  how  far  is  this  dig. 
Integration   to  go?    Beiist  pr.>po.«.si  i,.  .lisariu 
the  opposition  of  the  hading  natioiialiiv  hv  the 
gift  of  an  a  most  complete  iii.h.iHii.lcn'.,..  ami 
resting  on  the  supix.rt  thus  obtaiiie.1.  t..  gai,i 
inie  for  conciliating  the  n-muining  pn.vii,, , ,  |,v 
building  un  a  new  system  of  free  govern,.,..,,! 
It  wouhl   be  out  of   place  u.   give   a  .i,,aili,i 
account  of  the  well-kn..wn  me.isur.-  whi.  h  eon 
verteil  the  "Austrian  empire'  into  tl...      Vustm 
Hiingnnau  rnonarchy.'      It   will    Ik.  ,„,,,sirv 
howeiM.r  to  Ie8cr...e  tlie  s<lditioiis  iii*!,- 1„  it  liy 
the  ixihiical  nwchinery.     The  Hungarian  1{,  ieh/ 
tag  wasoaistrucUHl  on  the  same  principle  ,is  the 
Austrian  liel.hsrath.     It  was  to  iiiwt  in  l',.»il, 
as  the  I{eicli.s,..th  f  '•icnna.  anil  was  to  hue  Iti 
own  re»p..iisihle  ministers.     From  the  m,  lal^r, 
of  the  Itichsrath   and    Ileichstag    r..s|Mrtivelv 
were  to  be  ehiwen  annually  sixty  deh'gat.s  to 
ri;iiresent  Cisleitliauhui  ancf  sixty   t.j  n  pr.scnt 
Hungarian   interesu  -  twenty   Uing    t.ik.n    iu 
eacli  case  from  the  Upwr,  forty  from  the  Umu 
House.     Thi-setwo  ■  rv-legations, ■  wh,«,.  vote, 
were  to  Iw  taken,  when  neei«8«ry,  .nil.,  ijv.li 
though  each  IK.legation  satinailiatim  1 1  l,;,i„litV' 
owing   to   the    diirer..n<x^   of    langimge,  lor,i,„i 
the  .Supreme  Imp'rial  A»«.mblv,  an.l  m.  t  all.  r 
nate  years  at    \  ieniia  and    Pwih.     Tli.y   wire 


'  ui|H.i..ut  in  matters  of  foreign  is.liiv.  'i,,  „,||i 
'""  -'■••' —'•-     — ■    in  TmiHrial    liaau... 


lary  adniinistraiion.   and 

.U  their  h.ad  nt.sKl  three  Impi.ri'al  iiiini,hrs  — 
he  l{eicli«k.iii/.ler,  who  presUhsl  al  th.'  ForeiKu 
•  •III  •e,  aii.l  was  ex  officio  Prime  .Minister,  the 
Mi.i,si,r  of  War,  .,,,1  the  .Miiiist..r  of  Fiaau.v 
1  hi-s..  thn.e  niinisi.rs  w.re  iui||.|.  iiileni  „f  tl,e 
HeiclisMth  an.l  |{,  idwtag.  anil  i...,il,l  oiiiv  be 
ilismiM..!  by  a  vol.-  ..f  want  of  e.«ill,leii.v  ...l  the 
|>art  .,f  th,.  l»,|./.,ti,„„.  Tiie  •  Aus.'hi.h  ■  .,r 
Mhenicf  f.slcmiion  wiih  Hungary  is.  ii.Mloiibt. 
miieh  open  to  i  riti,  Imii.  both  as  »  'whole  ,„i,|  in 
its  several  iwris.  li  must  always  Ih'  b.me  io 
niiml  thai  aitniinislralively  aiul  iHiljtii.iHv  h  u-a^ 
u  r.  (rogn.sHioii  .\,  „  time  i„  which  all  ..ih.r 
hiir.i|Man  nations —  iiotahly  Nortli  O.-niioiv- 
werc  simplifying  and  unifying  their  poUtkal 


AUSTniA.  186C-1H8T. 


Aiutro-Hun- 
faruM  Kmpirt. 


AIX.   -U.  186e-1887. 


Ijiteim,    Austria   wu    found   dnln;;  Um  Tvry 
re/i-nc.  .  .  .  The  truo  answer  to  thcie  objec- 
tions  U,   that  the  n<"iwiirc  of   ttM7  wu  ««■ 
■tnii'tcd  to  mwt  a  practinil  ililBrult- .     Itat-nd 
wiw  not  the  furmatiiiii  of  n  aymmvtrio.     •fitcm  of 
gDvtninirnt,   but  the  pucinnitlon  uf    li;in<;iiry. 
.  .  The  intcrnni  history  of  llio  two  halves  oif 
the   empire    flows    in    two    dilTert'nt  cluinneU 
linif  .Viulntssy,  the  llungarlun  Pre.nicr,  Ivid  a 
Kiriipiimlively    easy    task   before  hlin.      There 
were  sevtril  rtasons  for  thin.     lu  the  Brst  pliiee. 
the  pRNloininance  of  the  Magyars  in  Hunif.iry 
wu*  more  assured  than  that  of  the  (lennniu  in 
C'i<l'  ilimnia.     It  is  tnie  tliat  tliey  nuinliereilonly 
5,1)111), (dW  out  of  the  16.000,0(10  inluibibinU;   but 
In  tliese  .V(KIO.00O  were  inrlmlctl  alinost  all  iho 
ranlt,  wealth,  and  intclll^'nrc  of  the  country. 
HeiKf  they  formed  In  the  Reicli»tag  »  c  uuipact 
ami    liomogentHms  majority,   under  whieli  tlie 
reinaiaing  Slivaka  and  Cnntians  sn>m  learnt  to 
mnite  themwivcs.     In   the  second  [ilaee,    Hun- 
gary liad  tlie  great  adrniitai^e  of  suirtlni,'  in  a 
certiiin  ilegree  afresh.     Her  govenuneut  was  not 
IkhuuI    by    thi^    traditional     p-iliry    of    former 
Viciuiam'inistiies,  ami  ,  ,  ,  it   iiwl  inanniieil  to 
Icivp  its  Hnancial  einilit  unimpairetl,    lu  tlio  third 
place,  as  tliose  who  are  u<-<|uainted  witli  Hun- 
garian liistory  well  know.  Parliamenurv  institu 
tioiis  had  for  a  loni;  time  tlourislicf I  in  llungnry. 
Indeiil  the  Maeyars.    wlio  among  tlieir   many 
virtues  eau  lianlly  lie  crediteil  with  the  virtue  (if 
humility,  assert  tliat  the  world  is  inisuken  in 
ascribing    to    England    the    glory    of    having 
invetitiif  tvpresentulive  government,  anil  claim 
this  glory  for  themselves.      Hence  oni;   of  tlie 
main  ililHcultieii  with   which  the  C'isb'itli.inian 
Oiiv.'rrunciit  had  to  deal  was  already  solved  for 
Gr.if  .\ndm.s.sy   and    Ids    colleagues." — .Imtri,) 
$iiirf  Siihmi  {^mirlfHi/  Hivift.  r,  131.  pp.  «"»- 
IH).  — "It  is  ditDcull  fiT  any  imo    except    an 
Aii^iro Hungarian  stau-sman  to  nali<e  tliu  dilll- 
ciiliiis  of  goveridng  the  Dual  .Mon,ir<-liv.     Cis 
I/'illiani.'i  has,  as  is  well  known,  a   Itetchsral  b 
an'l    wvenlcs'n     Pnivincia!     DieU.       Tbi;    two 
Auslri.-w,  !<tvria.  Curinthia.   and  SaUliurg  pre- 
seiii    ii.i  difricultivs,    but  causes  of  tniul>le  are 
almnl^int  in  tlie  other  districts.     The  Em|H-nir 
will  prolMbly  end  by  gettin.^  himself  crowneil 
Kill,'  of  ll<iliemi:i.  although  it  will  be  ditneult 
for  liimtolcn.l  liliiiself  to  a  proscription  of  the 
<!-nnaii  lan^'oage  by  the  Tsechs.  as  be  has  been 
fnriT.|  by  tin:  Magyars  to  lend  himself   >  .  the 
pnncTiption  in  parts  of  Hungary  of  IdMiman  and 
of  v:irious  Slavonic  languagi-a.     But  how  far  is 
this  priHvss  toomtinue  Y    Tlie  German  Austriaiis 
ire  as   un|iopular   in   Istria    ami    Dulinatia  as 
in  Bohemia:   arid  Dalmatia  is  also  an  andi-nt 
kingilom.      These    terribiries    were    originallv 
o  taine<l  by  the  electhm  of  the  King  of  lluii 
r^y  to  the  crown  of  the  tripartite  kint'doin  of 
Croatia,  Slavonia,  and  Dalmatia,     Is  '  F-  n-nc/. 
Jotsef  ■  to  bo  crowntsl   King  of  Dalmatia?    And 
It  Dalmatia  to  have  Its  wparate  .Ministrv  and  its 
separate  officia'   language,    and   its  co'mplctelv 
separate  lawsT    And  what  then  of  Kliime.  the 
so-called  Hungarian  \mn  r    Then,  again,  Oalici , 
Is  also  an  ancient  kingilom.  although  it  liiu  at 
other  times  funneil   part  of   I'oland:    and   the 
Empiror  U  King  of  Qalida,   „  he  is  Kin-,-  of 
Bohemia  and  l>.dmati:L     Is  he  to  !»■  cniwniil 
King  of  Qaliciat    And   if  so.    is  the  s.-panile 
eJiMtence  of  Ualicia  to  be  a  Polish  or  a  Uutlaiiiau 
Muienoe,  or,   iotleeil,  a  JewUhT    for  the  Jews 
1« 

241 


are   oot   only    extraordinarily    powerful    and 
numeroui  there,  but  arc  gaining  ground  day  by 
dar.     The  Rutbenians  cmiplaiu  as  bitterly   of 
being  bullied   by   tlio   Poles  in   Oalicia  as  the 
Croats  complain  of  the  Magyars.     Even  here  the 
difflcultica  arc  not  emk-d.     Tlie  Margraviate  of 
Moravia  contains  a  large  Taech  popuUtlon,  and 
will  have  ti>  lie  iuhle<l  to  tlic  lloheiniaa  kingdom. 
Biikowlna  may  go  with  Galicia  or  Transylvania. 
Austrian  Silesia  may   be  diviiled   between  tlie 
Tsechs  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia  on  the  one  part 
and  the  Poles  or  Itutliiniaus  or  Jews  of  Oaliciii 
on  the  other.     But  what  is  to  become  of  tlint 
which,   with  the  moat  obstinate   disregard   of 
pcdanta,  1  Intend  to  omtinue  to  call  the  Tyrol  ? 
Trieste  must  gi>  with  Austria  and  Salzburg  ami 
the  Northern  Tyrol  and  Slyria  iiud  Carinlhin  no 
doubt;    but   it  U    not    dilltciilt    to    show    that 
Austria    would    actually    be    slrengtlienetl    by 
giving  up  the  Southern  Tvrol.  wliere  the  Italian 
people,  or  at  least  the  Italian  language,  is  gain 
Ing  ground  day  by  day.      There  really  seems 
very  little  left  of  the  integrity  <if  the  Austrijin 
Empire  at  the  couclusion  of  our  surrey  of  Ita 
constituent  parts.     Matters  do  not  look  much 
better  If  we  turn  to  Trans  Uiiliauia.     Hungary 
has  its  Reichstng  (which  ia  alao  known  by  si  me 
terrible  Magyar  name),  iu  House  of  Reprcaenta- 
tivea,  and  its  House  of  Magnates,  and,  althoiigli 
there  are  not  so  many   Pn>vincial  Diets  as  in 
Austria,    SUvonia  and    the    Baunt    of   Croatia 
poasess  a  Common  Diet  with  which  the  Magyars 
are  far  from   popular;    and  the  Principality  of 
Transylvania  also  pos8<»se<l  s»-paniti'  local  righu, 
for   trying    completely   U>  Kiippress  which  tlie 
Magyars  are  at  present  highly  untKipular.     The 
Principality,    although  umler  Magyar  rule,    ia 
dividfil   between    'Saxons'  and  Koiimans,  who 
ei|ually  iletest  the  Magyam.  anl  tlie  Cruau  and 
Slovenes  who  people  the  lianai  are  Slavs  who 
also  execrate  their  I'grian  rulers,  inscriptions  iu 
wiiose  language  are    defaced    whenever    seen. 
Croatia  is  under-representisl  at   Pest,   and  says 
that  slie  (fix's  unheard,   and  tlie  Croats,    who 
have  partial  Home  Hule  without  an  executive, 
ask  for  a  local  executive  as  well,  and  liemauil 
Fiiiiiie  and  Dalmatia.     If  we  hmk  Ui  tlie  nuinla-rs 
of  the  various  racx-s,  there  are  in  Austria  of  (Jer- 
mans    ail    Jews    alaiiit    U.INIO.IIOO    to    about 
lil.lWKI.IHKI  Slavs  and  a  few  Italians  and   i{ciu 
mans.     There  are  in  the  lamisof  the  Crown  of 
Hungary   3.000.000  of  OiTiuans  and  Jews,    of 
Idiuinans  nearly  a.(HW.(HXl.   alllioii^h  tlie  Mag- 
yars only  acknowleilge  J,."!!!*).!!!)**,   and  of  Mag- 
yars and   Slavs  la'tween    live  and  six  millions 
apiece.     In  the  whole  of  the  territories  of  tlie 
Dual  Monarchv  it  will  lie  «■■  pi  that  tliere  are 
1-i.lKW.noO  of  Slavs  and  only    IT.OOO.OtK)  of  tl.a 
ruling  ra-es —Oeniiaus,  Jew<.   and   Magyan  — 
while  iMlwcen  three  and   four  millions  of  IJou- 
toans  and  Italians  count  akaig   with   the  Slav 
malorltv    as    being    hostile    to    the    doniiimnt 
natlonallllcs.      It  is  dilHcult  Ui  exaggerate  ilio 
gniviiy  for  .Vustria  of  the  stau- of  things  which 
tliesi-   rtgun-s  ri'veal,'— r**'  I'rtttit  Pmlioii  ,4 
Kui-'Httiin     l\Mia  {Fltrtniiihlli/    Heriiir,     l/iril, 
ISSTi  —  '  III  piwt  times,  wliin   Austria  lial  held 
Kriuui-  light  iMiuiid  betwei<u  .Spain.  tJinuany. 
;ind    the    Nvi|-,i.r!«ri'ls,     s'tr    liad    a.it'ilTnl    to 'a 
dominant  piMition  in  Weal^-rn  Kuni|H-;    ami.  so 
long  as  her  eyi«  were  tunit-d  in  tliat  direction, 
she  naturally  bail  every   iiilerest  in  pn-serviiig 
the  Otiuinan  Empirv  iutjict.   for  slie  was  thus 


V  ■] 


il  « 

i  f 


AUSTRIA.  18««-18R7 

iimrantpoil  Heninnt  %»  atuclu  from  tlip  Boiith. 
Wm,   iifi<  r  till-  liiM  of  lnT  Itnlkiii  iwwsi.ssi.ius  in 
1*»>.   itml  of  puit  of  Cniatio  in  mm.  «fnr  llii' 
tllwuiK™  of  1H4».  lt»»  aoil   ltM6.  iilir  rliouclit 
more,  noil  moit-  wrioiuljr  of  ImlimnifyliK  hir 
Mif  Ht  the  cxiKMe  of  Turkey.    It  waa  mom.v.r 
ivlilrot  that,  in  order  to  iwnilyae  the  <lamiiL'liiir 
powir  nf  HunifHry.  It  was  Mwntial  for  Iwr  to 
Hs<imil«l<-  the  primitive  and  scattered  peoples  of 
I  lirkcy,  arciistomed  to  centuries  of  complete 
siilmusslon  nnd  obedience,  and  form  thus  »  kind 
of  irc.n  band  wlilch  should  encircle  Hunmiry  ami 
cffictually  prevent  her  from  rising.     If,  in  fact 
we  glanot    hark  at  the   podtioo  of  Austria  in 
ItMl,  and  take  the  trouble  carefully  to  study  the 
change  of  Idem  and  InteresU  wh'ch  had   then 
Uken    plati    in    the  poiicy  of   France  and  of 
Ki'.ssia.  the  U-ndcncles  of  the  strongly  consti- 
tuted   nations    who    were    repugnant   to   the 
authority  and  Influence  of  Aujtria.  the  basis  of 
tbs    power   of    that    empire,    and,  duallv,  the 
internal  ruin  with  which  she  was  then  thteat- 
cn«l,  we  cannot  but  arrive  at  the  conclusion 
that    Austria,    by   the    very   ln<itinct   of   self- 
preservrtion.  was  forced  to  turn  eastwards  and 
to  consider  how  best  she  might  devour  some,  at 
least,  of  the  European   provinces  of    Turkey 
Austrian  statesmen  have  been  thoroughly  con- 
vinced of  this  fact,  and,  Imtjelled  by  the  instinct 
iibovi-mentioned,  have  not  ceased  earefully  ami 
consistently  to  prepi.re  and  follow  out  the  policy 
here  indicated.     Their  objects  have  already  been 
Mrtially  attained  by  the  practical  annexation  of 
Bosnia  and   Heriegovina  ib    1878  |se«  Tdr«s: 
A.  D.  1878) ;  and  it  wn  striking  to  observe  with 
what  bitter  feeling  and  resentment  this  measure 
w,-«  looked  upou  at  the  time  by  the  Hungarian   ; 
section  of  thd  empire.  .  .  .   Kussia  has  never  ! 
made  any  secret  of  her  designs  upon  Turkey;  I 
she   has,    indeed,  more  than  once  openly  made  I 
war  in  order  to  ci^rr)-  them  out.     But  Austria  ' 

AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  EMPIRE.     si7~ 
Austria:  A.  I».  18«a-l>«7. 

AUTERI,  The.  Sec  Irkijino.  Tribes  oj' 
EARLY  Celtic  (MiAnrrANTs. 

AUTUN  :  Origin.    See  Oalls. 

A.  D.  387.— Sacked  by  the  BsKaads.  See 
Baoauim. 

♦ 

AUVERCNE,  Ancient.  The  country  of  the 
Arveroi.     See  iEoci ;  also  Oal'Ui. 

AUVERGNE.  The  Great  Dan  ot  See 
FhaSCR:   a    I)    !««.-,  7        i.       ore 

AUXILIUM.    See  Tallage 

*VA.     Si-e  I.VDIA :  A.  I).  1823-1833. 
..J^  .-*"*•      **    NEwrotrNiiLASiJ:    A.    D. 
iaiU-16.Vi:  iitid  .Mahtxamd:  A.  D.  iKti. 

^VARICUM.    See  BoriuiBs,  OHioLf  op. 

AVARS,    The.— The  true  Avars  an.-  repre- 
sented to  have  Uh-u  a  powerful  Turanian  p<-ople 
who    exercise,!    (n    the    sixth  century  a    wid,. 
dominion   in  Central  Asia.     Among  'the   IriN-s 
subject  to  them   was  one  called  the  Ognrs   or 
Oiilgours,  or  Ouiars,  or  Oiiar  Khounl.  or  Varch 
onites  (thi-ae  diverae  names  have  beirn  given  to 
llie  nation)  which  is  supposed  to  have  Nlongcl 
to  the  national  family  of  the  Iluns.    Some  tPme 
In  the  early  ha./  of  the  sixth  century,  the  Turks 
tlien  a  people  who  dwelt  in  the  vety  center  of 
Asiii.  ,it  tlit-  f,n,t  of  the  Ait.il  moiiutaina,  making 
tiieir  flnt  apnearance  In  history  at  conquerors 
cruahed  and  almuM  annihilated  tlM  ATaii^  theie^ 


AVARS 

remains  a  fata]  obstacle  In  her  pnlli      Kven  ai 
tiling*  at  present  stand.   Austria,  bv   Iut  l-mi- 
grapliical  p<wltion,  so  commands  and'  dominates 
the    Kussian    lino  of  operations  that,  once  the 
DaniilH!   uasscd.    the    Russians   are    omstamlv 
■"'"""C"*  >'/  Austria  on  the  dank  and  n-ar 
And  if  this  be  true  now,  how  much  more  tme 
would  it  be  were  Austria  to  continue  her  march 
eastwaids  towanls  Salonica.     That  necessarily 
at  some  time  or  other,  that  march  must  lie  eon' 
linued  may  be  Uken  for  almost  certain ;  but  that 
Austria  has  It  in  her  power  to  commence  it  for 
the  present,  cannot,  I  think,  be  admitted     She 
must  further  consolidate  and    make  certain  cif 
what  she  has.      Movement   now   would  tirinif 
upon  her  a  struggle  for  life  .rt-  death  —  a  slrutvle 
whose  issue  may  fairiy  be  said,  in  no  unfriemllv 
spirit  to  Austria,  to  be  doubtful.     With  at  home 
a   bittcrty  di«t«ntcnte<i    Croatia,    strong    Pan 
slaylstic  tendencies  in  Bosnia.  Herzegovina    ami 
Ualmatla,   a  Greek  popu'  Mon  Lhoroughlv  dis 
affectetl,  and  a  Hungary  .     •>    f 

ful,  she  would  have  to  d  ... 
with  the  not  contemp'  ,:■,' 
bined,  of  ServU.  Bii  >ri, 
aspirations  she  wo-' 


with  a  bitterly  hnsti. 
with  the  whole  arine 
the  gigantic  militar 
is  not  fantastic  to  aii 


^  loyalty  to  dfoubt- 

■VOU.I  her  frontiers 

mios.  when  cim 

id      reece.  wbuse 

lilting  for  ever. 

.>n  in  Hacnionia, 

..<  Turkey,  and  with 

of  Russia;  whilst  it 

that  Oermany  would 


be  holering  near,  ready  t..  pounce  on  ler  0,r 
man  provinces  when  the  moment  psyeholi.iri 
Q'le  should  occur.  With  suoli  a  nnwivot 
before  her,  it  would  be  worse  than  madnew  for 
Austria  to  move  until  the  eanla  fell  mim- 
favourably  for  her."— V.  Caiilard.  The  liul 
!f<man  ImbrogUo  {PWtRigkUy  Renew.  iMeemWr. 

I  WW). 

A.  D.  i|78.--Th«  Treaty  of  Beriin.-Acqui- 
•J*'»»  J^^"*"^  ■"*•  HenejOTina.    See  Turks 


242 


bv  bi-coming  the  lords  of  the  Ouigoura.  or  ()u«r 
Khouni.     But  tb«  latter  found  an  opportunity  |.> 
escapje    from  the  Turki!*  yoke.      ••Oath.-rin< 
together  their  wives  and   their  children,  ih.ir 
flocks  and  their  herds,  they  tume,!  their  wwer-n^ 
towards  the  Setting  Sun.    This  immense  exxl :, 
comprised  upwards  of   SOO.'JOO  persons      The 
terror  which  inspired  their  flight  rendcre,!  ib.ni 
resistless  in   the  onset;    for  the  avenirliii;  Turk 
was  behind  their  track.     They  overtum.'.l .  i.rv 
thing  before  them,  even   the   Ilunnie  irit»-t  „f 
kindred  origin,   who  had   long  hovenii  ,.n  xh,- 
north  east  frontiers  of  the  Empire,  nnd  .Irivini- 
out  or   enslaving    the    inhahitiims.   estaWisi*! 
themselvM    In    the  wi.le   plains  which   »tr.trh 
betwwn  the  Volga  and  th<^  Don.     In  that  at,-  ..f 
imperfect  information  they  were  naturally  emmeh 
confounded   with  the  greatest  and  most  f.. mill 
ab.e  tribe  of  the  Turanian  stock  know:i  u>  the 
nations  of  the  West.     The  report  that  the  .Vvari 
had  broken  loose  from  Asia,  nnd  wen-  eomimr  In 
Irresistible  force  to  overrun  Europe,  spreail  lls.lf 
all  along  both  banks  of  the  IMnuN"  and  pemimutl 
to  the  Byzantine  court.     With  true  Iwrbarie  ( un 
ning,  the  Ouar  Khounl  availed  themselvei  c.f  iho 
mistake  and  by  calling  themselves  Avars  Ijirfilv 
Increaied   the  terrors  of  their  name  and  Iliiir 
chancea  of    nonnuest."     The   nreter..!.- i    A -.art 
were  taken  into  the  pay  of  the  Empire  hv  ,liiv 
tlnlan  and  employed  against  the  Hun  tribe^  north 
and  eart  of  the  Black  Sea.     They  piesently 


\ 


AVAia. 

afqiilwd  «flrm  footiotr  on  both  banks  of  tlic 
liiuiiitw,  and    turned    their   amu   H.-»lnM   the 
Euipire.     The  lmport«ui  i  Ity  of  Sinnlum  wnii 
tukin  by  them  after  ao  >'i>stltiHt«  siij^e  aa<l  iu 
inhiiliitants  put  to  »li«  »worrt.     Their  niv  ijfeacx 
Icr.lfd  over  centrnl  EiinijH    to  the  Ellif.  whrrv 
iImy  were  beaU-n   bocli   My  the  warlik     >ank8 
»n(l.  aouthwarUs,  thniugli  Moeaia,  Illyrii.    '  irace' 
Miimlonia  and  On*oe,  even  to  the  Peloptianuiua! 
Coiisijuillnoplc  iMelf  was  threatened  mon;  than 
rmi''.  and  in  the  summer  if  62^   it  wasdespcr- 
BU-ly  attacked  by  Avars  and  i'ersians  In  con- 
junction (see  RoMB:    A.  D.  j6.,-«28),  with  dls- 
iistrous  results  to  the  assailants.     But  the  seat  of 
tlitir  Empire  was  the  Dacian  country  —  modtrn 
Ruumania.  Transylvania  and  |>«rt  of  Hungary  — 
in  whirh  the  Avars  had  helped  the  Lombonb  to 
rrusU  and  extinguish  the  OepidiC.     The  Slavic 
tribes  whl.  h,  by  this  time,  had  moved  In  grea' 
numbers  Into  rvntral  and  south-ei4.t«m  Eumpt 
were  lareely  in  subjertion  to  the  Avari!  and  did 
their  bidding  In  war  and  peace.     "These  uiifor 
tunale  creatures,  of    apparently   an   Imperfect 
or,  at  any  rate,   imperfectly  cultlvate<i    intelli- 
gence, endured  such  frightful  tyranny  fn.m  their 
Aviir  i-nnquerors,  that  their  very  name  has  passed 
Inu.  u.  aynonyme  for  the  moat  degraded  servitude  " 
-^I  (t.  Hbeppard,  Fall  of  Borne,  Itet.  4 

Also  tH:  E.  Gibbon,  Dteliat  and  MtV  ,.f  the 
limtan  Empire,  ch.  48. 

7th  Century,— The  SUvic  Revolt.— T!..  Km 
rire  of  the  Avars  was  Omhnn  and  much  >!hiiin 
i!il)e<l  in  the  Seventh  (  .Di'-ry  by  an  vx'i-i,^\:-.. 
rising  of  their  opnresaeu  .■;*vlc  subjecir  r  ',i,.-,| 
:inil  IcI,  It  is  said,  by  a  Frank  merchant,  ..r  ,-.d 
venturer,  named  Samo.  who  became  their  M.g 
I  iir  first  U>  throw  off  the  yoke  were  a  tril*  cai;,.,i 
ti.e  V.ndes,  or  Wendes,  or  Venedl,  In  Bohemia 
^!io  were  n-putc<l  to  be  half  castes,  n-sultini 
fr.m  intercourse  between  the  Av«r  warriors  and 
the  women  of  their  .Slavic  vassals.  Under  th.> 
M  of  S,mo,  the  Wendes  and  Slovenes  or 
Miv,.fi(ans  drove  the  Avars  to  the  east  ami 
■1.  »nd  it  seems  to  have  been  In  conneotioii 

«iili  il.n  nvolutlon  that  the  Emperor  Heraclim 
iiiduceil    the  Serbs  or  Servians  and   Croiti^ 
•>l«vie  trihi-9  of  the  same  rac.   and  region— i. 

" in  depopulated   Dalmatia.     "■Pmm  tlie 

jei;  '.W  A  »■  writes  M.  Thierry,  'the  Avar 
pj'oi .  an  no  longer  mentioned  In  the  annals  of 
of  th.  tiisti  the  succeisora  of  Attila  no  longer 
Bsun  t.-side  the  successors  of  <  .instantinc  It 
r.-ili]m-.l  new  wars  In  the  West  to  bring  upon 
the  siaire  of  hi.«ory  the  khan  and  hU  people  ' 
In  the*  wai^  [of  Pepin  and  Charlemagne] 
they  weri.  finnlly  swept  off  from  the  roll  of  Euro- 
pwi  nations. "-J.  O.  -Sheppanl,  F„U  of  Ii„nt 

AD.  79i-8os.-Conqne«t  by  Charlemacne, 
-  Ilun^rarv,  now  »o  ealU^I,  wai  possesdTj  by 
he  Avars  who  ioming  with  thcmacrves  a  multl 
tu<le  of  llimnlsh  triU*,  accumulaU"d  the  Im 
raen«.  sp.„la  whieh  l„th  they  tlK-msclves  and 
tlielr  eciually  l«r!):jrou8  pn-deetasors  had  torn 
tn>m  the  other  nations  of   Kurope  Thev 

extended   their  limits  towanis   iTmhanly,  and 

vT"  ,  '  ""  ''"  "■'y  '■"?'-■  "'  ft'varia  .  .  . 
«uru  ot  ,1  e.i  eastern  fmnlier  was  now  lost,  al- 
m.»t  wi;  ,,it  a  »"ugglc  on  their  part,  liv  ti.e 
f 't  1 .   .     .  r  U.    ..r».u8  natJODK.  especially  the 

ETil^JL"^.*""*  "  ""■  ""•«"'  t-harle- 
n»«i>e.  whom  they  proTokeU  by  forming  an  al- 


AVIONOX, 

Ik  e  with  --^  nmbii  .,us  Duiu'  of  aivnris.  Ta»- 
t'  7  If'.*'  ■"«*"'""  of  all  Kle.  resJMled  the 
^'  <  kiUKs  1  .("ni.us  uuil  imiMrial  r.,ie  In 
a  "«"»  vig'"  lis  campaisnu.  Iietweeu  791  !,d 
Charlemagi!'  lushed  the  power  'lieAvars 
•••"I  took  poss-  JM  of  their  co,..,irv  The 
r.'ral  "  ring  "  or  fonghold  —  In-lieved  'to  have 
!»•■  Miluated  In  ti^e  ne1ghl»>rh<»Ml  of  Tiit^ir  !«.•- 
tw,  a  the  Danube  and  the  Tin  iiw— was  im  w- 
tmuil,  and  the  vast  treasure  >,tor(il  theie  was 
siized.  Charlemagne  distriliw -d  it  wiili  ,v  ..e„. 
en.us  hand  churches,  to  m  uaMi  ri.-s  and  to 
the  poor  as  well  as  to  his  o«  -.  nobles.  >er.anis 
ui.l  soldiers,  who  are  said  to  liave  W-vn  made 
inrli.  There  were  subsequent  risings  of  the 
Avars  and  wars,  until  805,  when  lb.-  ninnant  of 
that  almost  annihilated  people  obt  iine<l  p«  rmis 
Mon  to  settle  on  a  tract  of  land  between  .Nirvar 
ind  Haimburg,  on  the  right  bank  .f  the  I>;ii»be 
wb, ,,.  tlK^y  would  be  prolectoi  from  their 
.•^l.i>  ...ian  enemies.  This  was  the  end  of  the 
Av:ir  nation  -a.  P.  R.  ..'ames,  Uut.  vf  VharU 

'■■■"l:^.  IA.1.  \)  ,l,ul  11. 

•  "^f  .."'i,  '    '•  -^"mbert,  nUt.  of  Charia  thi 

AVARS,  The  Rings  of  the. -The  fortiflca 
ti.ais  of  the  Avars  were  of  a  peculiar  and  effec- 
tive construction  and  were  calWd  Brings,  or 
Khjgs,  'They  seem  i  l.av.  ,n*n  a  series  of 
eight  or  nine  gigantic  .npans,  constructed  in 
concentric  cinlei.  tb.  ;  .er  one  of  all  being 
cjMvd  the  riyxl  circle  or  camp,  when-  was  de- 
I*  :-nca  all  'i- valuable  r.Iunder  which  the  war- 
rii  M  bad  ,  -.1,  -ted  in  il=,-ir  expe<litions.      The 

nuiuKl    of    CM.;Mnicth:K    Ui nimparis    was 

R..niewuat  siiiiriilHr.  Two  parai'el  rows  of  gigan- 
tic (>;;.-3  were  drivci.  into  the  ground,  some 
iw-in,  feet  span  Tlie  Inn  rveninur  space  was 
nil'. I  with  9UWCS  or  a  species  <f  chalk,  so  ct.in 
pnei.-il  as  to  become  a  solid  n.nss.  The  (id.  s 
and  summit  were  covered  with  soil,  upon  wbu  h 
were  planied  trees  and  shrubs,  whost-  ink-rlaciug 
brnnchei.  firmed  sin  impeuetrable  hedge.  "—J  0 
Sheppanl    /•'.i-V  ,,;  /4,iB«,  ^^(  9. 

AVEBURY.    .See  Aburt. 

AVEIN,    Battle   of  (1635).    See    Xf.ther 
lands:    a    I».  18*5-1938. 

AVENTINE.  The.    See  Sevk.n   Hills  or 

Ri'HE. 

AVERNUS.  Lake  and  Cavem.-A  gl,«,m) 
i.»ke  calhsl  Avenius,  which  fllli-<l  the  crater  of  an 
extinct  volcano.  situate<l  a  little  to  tlie  north  of 
the  Bay  <if  Naples,  was  the  object  of  many  siip;r- 
stitious  imaginations  among  the  ancients. 
'■Then-  was  a  placr  near  Lake  Avemus  called 
the  prophetic  cavern  Persons  were  In  attend- 
ance tlK're  who  ca!i<d  up  ghosta.  Any  one 
desiring  11  came  ibiiber.  mid.  having  killed  a 
victim  and  ismriil  oiu  lilsitiims.  summonetl  vluit- 
ever  ghost  b.'  wanted.  Tlie  ghost  came,  very  inint 
ami  doubtful  t^i  the  sirfit.  — .Mii.timii»  tvrius 
aiiotedbyC  i '.  Feltoti  in  (irttr,,  Aufienr  .,,„t 
.V.W-rn.  c.  i,  l,rt  »._!<,.e.  :iIk,i.  Ci  M.K  and  BAi.li. 

AVERYSBORO,  Battle  of,  .Se  I  sitfd 
Statbs  of  Am.  a.  1).  1>*(M  iKfcUBLAKV— .Mahi  H: 
Thk  Carolina-). 

AVICENNA.  SeeMEDK  ALStlENCB:  7-llTH 

CESTITH!;    ; 

AVIC.MOM:  loth  Ceotury.-In  the  Kini- 

dPraef  Aries      -leeBiiniiNDV     .\    1).  W)-i'.S. 
" "^     "  SeeAL- 


A,  O  JSJi  -Si-jeby  Louie  villV 


2Ai 


il 


AVIONON. 

A.  O.  tsao-i34t.— Ilatii  the  Mat  of  the  P«- 

pacT-PurchaM  of  the  :itjr  by  Clement  V. 
bee  Fapacv:  A.  I).  ia94-l»W. 

A.  p.  1367-13^— Temporanr  return  of  Ur- 
ban V.  to  Rome.    Sec  PAi-Arv;  A.  0.  IllVi  I:i7s 

A.  D.  I377-I4I7-— Return  of  Pope  GreirorT 
XI.  to  Rome.— Reaideisce  ef  the  anti-popei  of 
thecreatSchiam.   8<f  I'apaoy:  A.  I).  1:177-1417 

A.  D.  iMo-iTvi.-Rerolatioa  aad  Anarchy. 
— Atrociticacommitted.-Renaiea  with  Fraace 
decreed.    Hce  Franck:  A.  r>  ITW-tTei. 

A.  D.  1797-— Surrendered  to  France  by  the 
Pope.  Hev  Fkamck:  A.  D.  17i«-1797  (Uctobkr 
— April). 

-  A.  D.  1815.— Poaeeaalon  by  Prance  con- 
armed.    Sec  V  lEs.yA,  The  Cunukcm  or. 

AVIONES,  The.  — "The  Arionra  wrn>  a 
Bui'vlc  clan.  Tlicy  urr  mpnti(>nal  liy  Tnritiis  in 
connexion  with  the  Ucii.liKnl,  Angll.  Viirinl, 
fcudowji.  Simr<lc>ncs  niiil  Niiithoo.-..  nil  Smvic 
clauii.  Tb<wtrtlH-8  miiat  have  iici'iiplol  Mrok 
Icnliurg;  Jkhwiriu.  M.oklinbiirit  8m-lltz  nnd 
Wtiwick  HoUti-ln,  I  III!  Kllw  \».iug  tlielr  Ea»tem 
hHimUry.  It  1«,  Ik.wivit.  ImpomihU;  to  dfllne 
tlielr  pn-clw  loc«liili»."_A.  J  {Uiiirhiinil  W  J 
BriMlrilib.  Minor  Wuria  of  T^ieitii;  Ihnn.  \ota  tu 
th*  Oertmnig. 

,J5^}h.^^*  Houae  of.    jcc  Poutuoal:  A.  D. 
X9(»~lSHa. 

AVIS,   Knifhta  o'.— Thl«  U  a   Portumieee 

?1  J,  .''^"■"'5'""*  "'""''■  *''''■''  oriKln«to<l  nbniit 
1147  iliirlni;  the  wnni  witli  tin-  Muiini.  iin<l  which 
lormerlv  odecrvHl  thr  in«nastir  nilw  of  Hi  Bine- 
diet,  it  IxTiimp  .t.im<Ttii|  with  the  onler  of 
Lalatrava  in  .H|mln  uml  itTi'lvnl  from  llie  Utter 
iu  prniM-ily  in  fimiiCHl  I'oiie  P.H1I  III  iinluil 
the  Uruiil  MnufniliJi)  to  tin-  Oniwo  of  I'ortiiKul. 
—P.  C  WoimIIiiiiim'.  MiliUrg  Itelir/i.iut  Onlm. 
Pt*^—>*n\  iiImi.  I'oRTroAi.:  A.  I>  lOH.Vlsa.'S 
AtK.}7^^'  *»"•"  Emperor  (Weitemi,  A  D 

AWIli,  The.  —  The  (iriiflnnl  inlinliiiniii*  nf 
the  ■oiith  we*t  iiimer  of   Cwjuui.   fmiii    wliidi 
they  were.lrlveii  l.y  the  l'lim.llni*-ll    Ewnl.l 
/«•/    of  hniet.  hk    I .  trrt    4 

AYACUCHO,  Battle  of  (ila4).    s.-<   Prrc 

A.   I»    IM.tl-lK-.tl  ^ 

AYLESBURY  ELEnTION  CASE.  S.,. 
Emii.anii    .\    I)   |70:| 

AYLESFORD.  Battle  of  (A  D.  4SS>.  -Tl«. 
flnt  Imltle  roii«:lit  i>n.|  won  l>y  the  Inviwlini. 
Jut™  after  llieir  Inii.tln^  In  Hriuin  iio<ler  Hen 

fr«iin.l   llonit      It   wiM  fougbt  itt   the    lowe«t 
ml  of  the  river  .Meilwny.     Sec  Exoi.AKii    .\  |» 

AyMARAS,The.    See  Peri-.  Tiik  .\iioi.iot 

RAl.  iMItniTANTII 

AYOUBITE  OR  AIVUBITE  DYNASTY 

OK'  Sm.adin.  Tiirc  Kmpimk  or 

AZINCOUR  (ACINCOURT),  Battle  of. 
Bee  Fkan<r     a    I»    141.1 

AZOF  OR  AZOV:  A.  D.  l69ft.-Tak.B  by 
thcRuaaiant.    s.  Thiki.    A   II   1«h4-|(H»(I 

A.  D.  i7ii.-Reiloratlon  to  the  Turka.    See 

S<  4.N01KAVIA.V  SIATKH   ISWEUBN)      A      l>      1707- 

^'*i2'?"*lW  :Caotured  by  the  Ruetiaai. 
-Secured  to  them  b*  tbe  Treaty  of  Bclrrada. 
few  Ki  IMA .  A   I>   1 7M  1 789 


IMJ-liWll,  alao.  Amkricam  AuuRianw:  NAiAa 


244 


AZTEC  AND  MATA  PICTURE -WRITINQ 

i*^?^?^*''?  '•A^A  PICTURE-WRIT- 
INO.—  No  nation  cTcr  rviliicnl  It  [pIctoeMnhvl 
niojv  to  a  iy»tcm.  It  was  in  conuant  uk  in  i|,e 
•Inlly  tntniiaclioos  of  life.  Tliey  [tlio  An.-.-,) 
mnnuforturwl  for  writing  purpoaes  a  tliiek 
coane  paper  from  the  leavea  of  the  agnvc  pkut 
by  a  procees  of  maceration  and  pnswm-  An 
Altec  iNwk  cloaely  rewmbhia  one  of  our  oiwrtn 
rolunirt.  It  is  maile  of  a  tinrle  alieet,  18  to  15 
inrlie»  wWe.  and  often  80  or  TO  feet  lonir  nml  ii 
not  rolled,  but  folded  either  in  wiuans  or  titmn 
111  inch  a  manner  that  on  opening  theiB  aiv  two 
page*  expnaed  to  »lew.  Thin  wooden  biMnli 
are  fMtened  to  each  of  the  outer  learea,  no  tint 
the  wlioh!  preaenti  a«  neat  an  «pp.«mnc..  remark. 

^■^;^*!'^yI:  s  'f "  '*"'' """" '"»" "« ■••"p  of 

a  akllfiil  book  bhxler.  1  .>y  alao  coTereil  builil 
Ingii.  tapeatriea  and  trrolU  of  parchment  with 
til.*,  devices.  What  is  still  more  «»toni,h 

ii»r.  there  Is  reason  to  liellere.  In  some  huunr..^ 
tiKir   rtg.tres    w<re    not    palnu-d.   but  «rt..«ny 
printed  with  movable  blocks  of  wnoii  on  whi.li 
tlie  symbols  were  carveii  in  relk-f,  tlmuuli  tl,|, 
was  probably  conDncd   to  those    Intendiil    f,.r 
omanu-nt    only.      In  these  reconis  we  iliHcni 
something  higher  than  a  mere  BymU.lle  nnt,iiii,n 
rhey  ponuin  the  germ  of  a  phonelli-  Hlplialx  t 
ami  represent  sounds  of  spoken  liuigimKi'     Tliii 
symUil  is  often  not  cnnnecuil  with  the  Mm  hut 
with  the  wonl.     The  inixlc  in  wliirli  ml,  u  '.l.,nr 
oiirn-sixwU  prrclsily  u>  thiit  of  the  nliiH      It  i, 
a  slniiie  methol.  renilily  suggesting  Its. If     |n 
the  middle  agi-s  it  was  much  In  vogue  In  Kiininc 
for  the  same  purpose  for  which  Ft  w,w  .  hi.  i\. 
einnloy,.,!   |q    Me»i.ii  at  the    sain<-    tim,>      ih' 
writ  ng  of    prnpir  name*.     F..r    "jiiinpl.v    il,.' 
fcngllsh  fam.iy  liolt.m  was  kn.>wn  In  li. nl.lrv 
by  a 'ttin'tmnstlxnt  by  alH.lt.'     Pr..i«<lv*. 
the  Mexican  Kmpenir  IxcontI  i>i  mention. I  inthu 
AiUT  maniiM-riiiu  iimier  the  flgure  of  »  wr.H nt 
c.»itl,   plenitl  l.v  olMhllan  kniven,    I, til  ' 
Ashsyllalileroiild   Ir-  expn-^'te.l  l.v  iiiiv  iil.j, ,  t 
wh.Mc  nam.'  ■■..imneneed   with  It.  n",  f.w  »,.n|i 
can  lie  given  tin-  f..rm  ..f  n  n  bus  wiih.mi  »i,i,„. 
Umngj-,  as  the  Itgiin's  sometimes  r. pnseni  ih. ir 
iiill  phom-tle  value,  soiiietlmes  only  tlmt  ..f  ih,  Ir 
inillsl  sm;'.,l.  aii.l  as  uniTeiaally  tli<-  sti.  nii.n  „f 

the  nrtlst  «iw  .MnTU-d  l.«  t<i  the  s. I  ih  in  i<, 

llieldi.a.  the  ilhlactle  piilnting  .)f  the  M.\i.  .ii. 
»lii«tever  It  might  have  Ixtu  u.  them,  l»  >i  «.  ,,l,,i 
l«".kl..  us.  and  must  nmaln  so  in   gr.;.i  p,n 
Immi'nM-  masses  of  aiirh  iI.m  iiiiiimh,  «,  .,• 
•I'.ml  in  tin-  ImiM'rial  nrehlvt^sof  am  hiii  .M.  »i. .. 
Ti.r.|tieinii.ln  nax'rts  that  live  cities  ahin.'  \  i.  M.  .i 
t"  the  .S|iiinli>li   g.ivenii<r  ..n  one  n'i.wl»iii..ii  n., 
Irsnthan  Ifl.iNHi  v.iliinies  or  senilis'     Kv.rv  I.  af 
»  li  i|,.Hln>ye<l      In.leetl.  so  llii>n>iii,'h  lui'i  who!.' 
sale  was  tli.'  ilestrmtiiHi  of  ilii'v  m.-MmiliiK  ii'iw 
s<i  precious  In    .iiir  eyes,    that   huhilv  .li'm-h 
remain  to  wliet  llie  wfu  of  aiilt.itmii.;     In  ilic 
libraries    of    Paris.     I>n«len,    P.Mli,    .in.l    tlw 
Vatican  are.   however,    a  suffleleiii    n.iii.U  r  lo 
make  us  despair  of  ih-elphering   iIi.mi   h:..|  wo 
for  comparisiHi    all   which  the   S|i,iiiUr.l,  ,1,'s. 
iroyeil.     Ilevon.1  all  oihera  the  .M ivw.  ^-.i.h .it 
on   the   peninsula  of   YiicaUn,  wonM  w..!.  in 
have  sppnmch.         art-st  a  true  pli.m.li.'  kvhi,  m 
They  ha-l  a  re»  ....r  ami  will  un.h'r<t.»l  nl|.hH 
bet  of  SJ7  elemcnury  soiiikU.  tlie  liltert  ..f  »  In.  Ii 
are  totally   different   fnnn    tl«i«'  ..f  «iiy  "thir 
nation,  ami  evidently  origluaU'.l  with  lli.  lii'"  I.. . 
But  lieshles  these  they  iiiH'.t  a  larg.'  Hiiiiil..r  nf 
purely   eoDrenlloaal    syiubuls,    and    ui..n^>vi.r 


AZTEC  AND  MAYA  PICTCRE  -WRrTINO. 

wrrc  •eciutomcd  ccatUntlr  to  employ  the 
iiiiik-nt  pictugmpliic  metboU  In  uldltlon  as  > 
«irt  »f  commvDtary  on  the  louml  repmcntMi 
.  With  tlie  M  at  thU  alpbalwt,  which  hw 
firtunately  b«en  preeerved,  we  mn  ennblcd  to 
^|H■II  out  a  few  wonis  on  the  YucHtvcan  manu- 
scripu  and  fnfade*,  but  tlius  hr  with  uu  pusitive 


BABYLOmA. 

reaulta.  The  loaa  of  the  ancient  praaundation 
U  CTiH-cittlly  Id  the  way  of  such  itudiiii  In 
duuth  Aiiii-rica.  aho.  there  b  aaU  to  huv«  lieeo 
a   nation    who   cultivated    the  art  of  picture 

D    O.  Brinton,    Tlu  MftU  of  (A«  W  WarU. 


BAB,  Tht.-This  title,  iliniirTlnK  "gmte" 
or  •door."  w«  Kjren  to  a  young  reriglout  n- 
fnnner,  namml  MIrxa  All  Mohammed,  who  ap- 
ncareil  In  I'crela  about  1K44.  claiming  to  bring  « 
dlrinp  meaaage  laU^r  and  bifrhcr  than  tlioac  for 
which  Jesua  and  Mohammnl  were  icnt.  Ilia 
Irachinir  forbade  polygamy  and  divorce,  anil  hU 
own  life  waa  pure.  lie  won  a  large  body  of 
ill«  Ipira,  and  the  aert  be  founded  is  wid  to  be 
.till  •.t-n-lly  tpreading,  notwitbatandfng  con 
tinuni  iieraeriitlon.  The  lUb  waa  himacif  out 
to  d.-«th  in  1H8I.  -M.  F.  Wilaon.  7»«  «»«,'- 
iSf  IlilUCoHtrmiMirarfi  Htr..  Ittf.,  1H«8). 

BABAR,  KUk  of^Fcrrhau,  A.  D.  14M 

King  of  kabnl    A.  I>    lT,.>4-;  Ile|hnl  Em- 
peror or  Padiachab  of  India,  A.  D  T.va6-l»su 

BABENBERCS,  Tht.    Hee  AtaTRiA:  A.  d! 

BABYLON :  The  Clty.-"Thc  city  «tand»  on 
«  hroad  plain,  and  la  an  rXBCt  ii<|uarp.  a  hundred 
«ncl  iwenry  fiirlonpi  In  li  iicth  wirb  war.  •<>  that 

'I nlin'  linuli  is  four  humln.'d  and  ifithf  fur- 

l.iriir«     Wliilr  Ruch  la  it*  «i«-,  In  magnilJcenctf 
ihiTp  i»  nil  oihi-r  citv  that  approacbra  it      It  la 
virrounded.  in  the  lin.1  place,  by  a  linad  and  cl.cp 
ni-wl.  full  of  water,  behind  which  riaena  wall  flfty 
r.valrubiu  In  wi.lih  and  two  hundnn!  In  height 
On  the  ton,  along  tlH- edges  of  tliewall.  ther 
ciiniilrurud  buildings  of  a  single  chamber  fadug 
one  anotlicr,  k«vlng  lictwecn  tlicni  nxiiu  for  a 
(iiiir  horw-  chariot  to  turn.     In  the  circuit  of  (lie 
w»ll  Ktv  a  liuiidrcd   gatea,   all  of   bniaa.   with 
tirij.n  llnt.U  and  aiilc  iKwts.     The  bitumen  Uit><l 
ill  Ihi-  worit  was  Imiugiit  to  Babylon  from  the  Is 
mnmll  tin-nm  which  Hows  into  tlw  Euphretes 
HI  till-  iK.int  wlicri'  llir  city  of  the  aanir  name  sUnds 
•  lUlit  . inn'  Journey  from  lialiyion.     Lumps  of 
hiHiiKiiitrf  found  in gn'iit  abunilanc*- in  this rircr 
The  niy  it  lilvideil   into  two  portions  by  tlie 
riri r  Khlih  ninn  llimiigh  the  mhlst  of  It.     Tills 
r  vir  li  the   Kuplirs:!-..   ...  The  city  wall   U 
lir.m»ht  down  on  Ixiili  sidca  to  the  itlgc  of  the 
«renin.   tlHiice,   froin    llie  comers  of  the  wall 
Mien-  l>  rarrir.1  uionic  eaili  hiuili  of  the  rirer  a 
(in,e  i.f  Immt  briiks      Tlio  nouses  are  mnstly 
Mmv  mill  four  stories  lilgb    t  :e  stni-is  all  run  In 
•iniifht   llni-«.    not  only   tliiw  pnndlel   to  the 
nver     hut  ai»i  |t„-    cross    stnvli.    which    leail 
'I'wn  to  the  water  shie.     At  the  river  cml  of 

'hai  ^l»mi  the  slre„m.  which  are,  llli.  the  great 
CH.  H  In  the  outer  wall,  «f  brass,  and  own  on 
II"  «nier  Tlie  outer  wall  la  tlie  nuiin  defence 
Hf  the ,  iiv  TlH-re  K  however,  a  «..oihI  Inner 
«iil.  ..f  \,«  thiekm^ss  timn  tlic  flrst,  but  very 
I'"  '•  Infer. ,r  to  It  In  strength  The  mm-  of 
•ell  11^11^.41  of  the  town  waa  0.1  uitktl  l,v  a 
»"ni«  In  llM-  iMie  aloo.)  the  |w|«r-  of  tlie 
kmc,    .urMiiiKle,!  by   „   w,||  „,  ^„,„   ^1, 

r  V  iJv ""' """'  *•• ""' •*"^'  pfwiwi "1 

•^I'ller  IWlii,  a  «|„ar,.  emhwir.'.  two  furlong, 
•*h  way.  wlib  gates  of  solid  braaa.  wbkh  wm 


B. 


also  remaining  In  my  time.  In  the  middle  0/ 
the  pre,  iiict  tliero  was  a  tower  of  solid  masonry 
a  furlong  In  k-ngthaiid  breBdtli,  upon  which  waa 
ndswl  a  aecoml  tower,  and  on  that  a  thini  and 
sji  on  up  to  eight.  The  ascent  to  the  U>p  Is  oo 
be  outside,  by  a  path  which  winds  round  all 
iiie  towers.  ...  On  the  topninsl  t<iwer  there  is 
a  spnrimis  temple. "-Hciwlotus.  Hut.,  tmiu. 
A*  0   /i<,<if.«»«.  Mr,  I,  M,  n8-l8i,_Acc,mllng 

^..1  ."'J,''*.  "^""  "'J'"  *»"»  "'  IJabyloS 
was  but  9S0  furlongs.  The  historians  of  Alex- 
ander agreed  nearly  with  this  As  regaida  I  lie 
beiglitof  thewa^la.  "Strabo  and  the  "liatoriuns 
of  Alexawler  substitute  50  for  the  »»  cnl.its  of 
Hero,  otua,  rnA  It  may  Uierefore  be  su»|Mite<l 
lliat  the  Utter  author  referred  to  liands.  four  of 
which  were  eoual  to  the  cubit.  The  measure. 
liHlcwi.  of  SO  rathoma  or  300  royal  cubits  for  the 
walUof  a  city  In  a  plain  b  ijulto  prep.«.ten>ua. 
.  .  Mv  own  belief  b  that  the  height  of  tlie 
walls  of  Bnbvlcm  did  not  eice«i  «0  lir  TO  Eng- 
llah  f,vt.  -II.  C.  liawlinson.  n<>U  t„  aiocr  —See 
also.  IUbtuima:  B.  C  6XV-.l:i9 

BABYLON  OP  THE  CRUSADERS.  Tht. 
fleeCiifSAtiBs:  A  D.  lilM-liM 

BABYLONIA,    Primltl»..-(Ho  much   new 
knowbdge  of  th,  ancient  peoph-a  In  the  Knu  has 
been  8U.I   Im  Mi  g  brought  to  li^ht   liy  r,,-,nt 
jeareii  aiid  study.  «n<l  the  acwuntof  It  inEniriinb 
htatorleal  llterali-re  las;)  im>agreas  vet.  that  llure 
srenis  to  be  gcv:d  reason  for  deferring  llie  In  at 
ment  of  ti.;-.-  subjecu.  for  tlie  moat  part    lo  a 
Inter  volume  of  tUs  work.    T1k>  reailer  b  refemM 
tJierefore,  to  llie  article  "Semlleii,"  In  th,'  lio-m 
that,  Ufore   iu  publiiation   la  reached,  in   tU 
fourth  or  flfUi  volume,  tlM-re  will  lie  later  nn,l 
lielter  woriia  to  ijuote  from  on  all  tla-  miI.Ji  ,  is 
emlinuK-d      Terrfcn  de  Ijur,.uperie-»  int.  r,  Ming 
tlMxiry,  which  b  Uitrnduc,",l  ImIow,  in  ilii«  iilu,," 
Is  qucstione,!  by  many  biIkiUfs.  and  I'mf.Mof 
Niyre.  w      e  writings  have  don,:  niuili  to  |«ipu. 
ariie  the  new  orienul  atmlU-i.  aeenia  Ui  Kohoine. 
Ilm,«  in  advance  of    the  aure    gr,uii»l>_Tho 
Nmilriana,  inliahlianu  of  tb    Hhlnar  of  iIh-  Ohl 
TeatMiienl   narrative,    ami    AixadUna,    Hiio  dl- 
vUtil  prin.ltive  llabyloniu  latwcen  lti,ni     •  were 
overrun  and   coni|iier,il    hv  tlie  .Vndll,'   llaby 
loutanaof  later  hl«tnry,  Ai,ail  UIng  apiwn  ntly 
the  llmt  half  of  th,-  country  to  fall    iiihhr  tin- 
•way  of   tlie   new  cowers      »»   b  |Hjaailil,<   that 
I  asillm,  tin-  ll.lin'W  woni  translaliil  Clmldeeanr 
('hiihleann  in  the  Hiilhiiri<ii|  venioii.  is  tin'  llidiy- 
Ionian  ■  caxldi '  or  ciwiijiMrora.  a  title  wlii,  h  i-on- 
linueil  U)  I  ling  to  tin m  in  niii«-<|ueiiei>  i.f  i|„ir 
coni|iiest.     Tlie  Aermliuna  bad  lieeu  tile  ii;ven- 
toraof  the  plctoriid  hiinigivphica  wlii<  ii  nfier- 
wanis  iievelo|ie<l  into  the  1 1'lni  iform  or  wi-lue 
aliiiiMii  writing.  Iln-v  bail  foiiiHleil  tlM'griiii  i'li|,-s 
III  (  liidilea,  and  Inwl  attaiiieil  to  a  bigb  degn-e  of 
< iilturi'  and  civili/Htion      Tlwlr  citiis  p<N«>a«^| 
lllir»rl<>s.  stocked  with  books,  written  pHrtly  on 
IMipyrus,  partly  on  clay,  which  was.  whib  stUl 


iV> 


iifl 


BABYLONIA. 

•oft.  hnprpwrd  with  chnnrtm  by  menat  of  it 
inrtiil  ilyliis.     Tlir  iMmki  were  nuinfn>iw.  hihI 
n'lattil  to  n  vRrit-ty  of  niblrrts.  ...  In  miirM- 
of  time,  howcvrr,  Uh-  two  ilUlcrla  of  Wiiniir  luiil 
Acnul  n-nifl  to  be  apokt-n ;  but  Dm-  i»-<twity  for 
Inirninjc  tiM-in  Mill  n-mnlnol,  nml  we  Anil,  Hr- 
ttinllnKly.  Ibiitilowntotln-laiiiitiUyiiof  Ixali  Aa- 
ayrin  anil  IlMliylonU,  th*-  eiliicHltil  rliisaca  were 
tttiiKlit  tlH-  iilil  rxlinrt  Amulinn,  luat  lu  in  mivl- 
rraKiimpftliryHntUUtflit  Ijitlu.  — .V  II.  Sayiv, 
FriMk  U,iht  from  the  AiH-iinl  MonHiiirnlt,  eh.  2. 
—'■Since  Siimir.  tlie  Shinnr  of  the  Bible,  wiu 
tlH-  flrst  pun  of  the  eountry  ornipiiil  i>v  tlie  In- 
THilin)!  Similea,  while  Amiil  Iihik  mntlniiol  to 
lie  rcitimli'd  aa  the  teat  of  nn  alien  race,  the  lan- 
ifiiaiti  ami  nopulalbm  of  primitive  Cliiililea  have 
l«Tn  namcH   Arrailian  by  tlie  niajorilv  of  Aa- 
ayrian  aelHilar*.     Tlie  part   plavi-d  liv  iliiite  Ae- 
f  aillana  in  tb»'  Intellrrtiml  hiitlnrv  of  inankiiKl  la 
lii/flily  iinpiirtant.     Tliiy  were  llie  enrlii-sl  livili- 
7.era  of  Weitem  Aala,  and  it  la  to  tlieiii  that  we 
/«ve  to  Irare  the  arta  ami  ■rlvneFa.  the  n'Mxioiia 
tnulitkioa  anil  tlie  philoaophv  not  only  of  ilie  Aa- 
ayrlana,  but  also  i.f   the  I'lHvnirlana.   the  Am- 
nuiiina.  anil  even  the  llebrewt  themavlrea.     It 
waa.  Um.  fitim  I'lialdea  lliat  the  verma  of  Onvk 
art  anil  of  miioh  of  the  On-ek  pantheon  anil  myth- 
oliicv  orliilnally  eaine.     ('oiumoar  arrhiteeture 
reai'luil  ita    (lr»t  anil  hiKheat  development   in 
Uiiliy Ionia;  the  liooa  that  atill  guant  the  main  en- 
trance of  My  ken*  aiv  diatinrtly  Aaarriao  in  char- 
arteriand  the  Om-k  llenUtle*  with  hia  twelve 
laboun  llnda  hia  nnttotyne  In  the  hem  of  the 
irnvt  Chaldean  epic.     It  la  diinrult  u>  aay  how 
much  of  our  piMent  culture  ia  not  owed  to  the 
•tiinted.  oblique-eynt  people  of  ancient  Baby- 
lonia. JeruiMlem  and  Athena  an-  the  aacnil  citiet 
ofourtmaieni  life;aadlHiih  Jeniaaleninml  Athena 
wen-  pn>founilly  influenced  by  tlie  iileaa  whiih 
liail  their  Arat  alarting  point  in  Drlmieval  Ai-cnil. 
TIk-  Heralle  liaa  ever  been  a  tradi  r  and  an  Inler- 
niiiiiary.  ami  hiai-arlleat  work  waathi-  pn<riiiiia 
tnule  in  aplritual  ami  mental  warea     Knlivlnnla 
waa  iIh'  iHiine  ami  miilher  of  Semitic  ciillun-  and 
Hemiliclnapiration:  the  Pbirniciana  never  foritot 
tiMl  tlM-y  were  a  oilony  from  the  IV-nlan  (Julf. 
widle  tlie   lantelile  rmiunteil   Hint    hU   fmln-r 
Aliniham  had  lui-n  bom  in  I'r  of  the  Clinldet-H 
AIniiwt  llie  wlwOe  of  the  A»vrlBn  litenitiin'  wie* 
ihriviil  from  Aiiiui.Hiid  Iranaiatitl  fnmi  thi'deinl 
laiiiiiiatre  of  primitive  Ciwliiea."— A    II    (<«vii- 
/liAjA.oina     lAlrnilMrt.    ;ip.    *-7  —  Tlie     aa'nie] 
AtteirHl  fCnptntnfthr  KimI.  tt/tp.  2  —••Tli,.  plaii. 
of  China  in  tla-  imat  and  future  i«  md  that  which 
It  w:ia  lonir  •upiKiwil  |o  1».      lii-renl   n-o-an-he* 
have  iiiM'li«)-<l  llinl  tin  liviliintion.  like  oiim  war 
varloiialv  deriveil  fnmi  lh>>aameokl  fiMiixof  ciil 
tun-of  aiiutb  weateni  Aula.   .   .   .   It  wax  my  |ri»l 
fortum- III  lie  ahli- III  irliim,  in  an  uninierrupliil 
»<  rim  of  a  «<iir«  or  hi  iif  |iii|i<  ra  in  |H<ri<>licHia  of 
eomniimicatlona  lo  the  Uoyal  Aaiatic  S.i,-iety  and 
elaiwhere.  piitiliahetl  and   unpublialMil.  ami  of 
coniriliiitlona  to  aeveml  wiirka  alner  April   Itmt 
downwiinla.  Hint  the  wrilinit  iml  mmw  kmiwl' 
edtfe (if  ana.  mIi  nee  and  iroveniineni  ..f  iIh'  early 
Chlneae.  niori'  nr  Um  eniimeraliil  Nhiw.  wen- 
di-riveii  fmm  tin    nki  civiliutlon  of  llthyhmia 
lliniuuh  IIh-  m  iimilary  fiK  ua  of  Miiatana.  ami  that 
thia  ih-rivallou  «iia  a  walal  faii.  n-aultlUK  w>t 
from  aeh-nlirte  li-uiiiiiif  but  fMm  pracilral  In 
unimrw  of  aonM-  k-nvlh  la  twii-n  lh<-  .Hiiaian  iihi 
fiih'ruliHi  ami  the  future  i-lvilUert  of  llie  C.iiiH-ar 
tbi    Bak  i.lbea,   who,  ffma  ifadr  nviybbouftoi 


246 


BABYLOKIA. 

■Pttlemenu  in  the  N..  moved  eaatwan^aat  ihi- 
time  of  the  (freat  riainif  of  the  XXIII.  iinliirv 
n.  C.     Coming  a/rain  iu  the  Held.  I>r  ,1    K.lkin, 
lia«  Joine<l  roe  on  the  tame  line. "— Terriin  il, 
I.«coujperie.    AiiyfeniVi   ami    ChtM    {Aouhmi/ 
Ann.  7,   1880).— '■  We  could  enumerate  a  Imli; 
aerlea  of  afflnitica  between  Chaldean  ciiitim   ami 
ChlD-JH!  civilization,  allluiuxh  the  liiat  win  ii.,i 
iKimiwed  diivrtly.     From  what  evklence  we  h.n , 
It  aeema  highly  6mbHble  ilint  a  certain  niinilHr.  t 
famiiiea  or  of  trlla-a,  wiiiimit  any  apparent  urn 
eric  name,  but  among  which  the  Kiiiu  fliliil  an 
imporunt  pualtkio,  came  U>  China  aUiiit  tin-  vi-ir 
MtW  B.  C.     Theae  tribea.  which  came  fn.ni  ii„ 
Weat,  were  obliged  to  quit  tlie  nei){htHnirhiii»l 
probably  north  of  tin-  Suaiana.  and  wen-  loni 
priaeil  in  the  feudal  agKloineralion  of  that  n-einn 
wlH're  tlii-v  muat  have  been  intluemitl  hy  ilii- 
Akka.lo('haldeMn  culture."— Terrien  ile  Ijicnu 
|a-rie.  Knrlif  Hul  „f  Chii^mi  CiriluaUon.  /.  H.' 

—  **«•.  alao.  China    Thk  <  Ikiuin  or  tiik  l^: i 

Th«    early   (ChaMeaai    moaarchy.  -   iiur 
eariieat  glimpw  of    tlie  pi  .itical    comliliim  „f 
Chaidea    aliowa    ua    the    country  dlvidnl   im,, 
numeniua  amall  atatea.  each  hemled  by  a  t-nai 
city,  maile  fannHiaand  powerful  by  tlieaannunrv 
or  temple  of  aome  nartlcular  deity,  and  nili-d  h'v 
a  jwleai.  a  title  whh-h  ii  now  thought  to  mean 
prieat  king.  I.  e  ,  prieat  aad  king  In  one     Tliin' 
can  be  little  doubt  that  the  beginning  of  ihi- 1  itv 
waa  every  where  the  temple,  with  iU  nilliife  .If 
mioktering   prieala,    and   that  the  aumiiiii.lini; 
aeltlement  waa  gnilually  formeii   by   piUhnu 
and  worahlppen.    That  myalty  diveloixMl  „iit 
of   the  prieathiKal  ia  ala<i  more  than  pniti.ihle 
.  .  .  Tht-nr  comet  a  lime  when  for  the  title  nf 
pateti  la  lulaMltuted   that  of    king.  .  .      It  js 
notli-eabh-    that    the    iliaiinction     latwein    tbf 
Hemitic  newconien  ami  the  iniligenoiin  Shiimiri 
Accaillana  contlnuea  long  to  la-  inu-ealili-  in  the 
namet  of  the  mval  tem|lle-hlllhle^^  even  iifi.r 
th«"    new    Hcmillc   Idiom,    wliich    we    inll    ilii 
Aiayrian,  liail  eiitln>ly  oiiateil  the  old  laiu-iifni 
.  .  Kurtliermore.   even  aiipertlcial  iili«-rv.-iil,in 
aliowa  that  the  old  fainguage  ami  the  old  minii-n 
aiirvive  long<>at  In  Hhuinir,  — IIm'  Houih.     Krin 
thia  fact  it  ia  to  lie  Inferreil  with  little  ilmnn  ,.f 
miatake  that  tiie  North.— llw  lami  of  .Xi.wl  - 
waa   eariier    HemitlznI.    that    the    Semitir    ini 
niigranU  eaUbliah«-<l  their  Hrat  lM-a<h|uan.r«  m 
that  part  of  tlie  country,  that  Ihelr  i«i«ir  nml 
intliiemi-  Ihemv  apreail'to  Itie  Houlh.     r  ulU  in 
acconlance  with  Ihi-ae  imiicniiona.  llie  Hmi  i-rrinil 
hiatorical  figure  that  merta  ua  at  the  I   n-li.-M  .■! 
Chalilean  hiaiorv.  dim  with  the  mialaof  ■iifi-  uml 
fabuknia  tnulltlona.    vii    unmiatakalili    r.  il.   m 
that  of   th<'  !4eniile  t^lwmikln.   king  of  .\,..i,|. 
or  Agadc.  aa  the  gn-at  Northern  city  ranw- 1.>  l» 
calhil  — more  iL'enerally  known  In  hl»li.ri  w^'.-t 
thf   corrupt    nHaieni    nwllng  of    .StrL'in    nnl 
c-allnl  Hargon  I  .  'tlie  Finn.'  to  illalinir<ii'<li  lnm 
fnim  a  vi-r>-  famoiia   Aaayrian  miinnr>  li  ••<  il.i 
tame  name  wlm  relirneii  many  ifiiiiirii-.   ho.  r 
At  U>  the  city  ..f  Airaile.  It  la  no  niln  r  ih.iii  Ilir 
city  of  Accail  mentioned  in  (ieneaia  t.   |o     li 
waatltuateil  cloae  lo  tlie  Kuphniea  mi  «  »i.l. 
canal  Jual  op|i>aille  I4|ppar.  an  ihat  In  lliii-  ili* 
two  clllea  came  l<i  be  <<onaiilen-<t  a*  one  .lniMe 
city,  and  Ih.-  Ilebrewa  alwava  i-alhii  It    ili.'  i»- 
Hippara  —  Heplmrvaln    which  ia  often  a|..>kini'( 
In    the    liilih-  The    tivniemloualv   amfanl 

lUtv  of  IHUU  B  C  h  now  gewrally' lo  .<  I'l'M 
fur  Harguo  ot   A(»d«  -  pcrfaapt  tbr   nm<um 


BABYLONIA. 


BACTRIA. 


tuthrntic  lUte  yrt  arrlvrd  at  Id  liUtnry. "— Z.  A. 
iUfrorin,  Ktanaf  Vhalden.  «*.  4.— "A  hnrde  of 
I  awitii.  or  K<«armni  iw ;.»  down  fmm  the 
nioiiiiliiins  <>f  NortlM-ni  Elain  uikIit  tlieir  Ivuier, 
KImiiimiiniKM;  Aowl  wiu  roiiijiKTi-d.  a  furpifrn 
ilyiir.ity  n(Uil>liiiiM!<l  In  the  litnil,  anil  the  nipttul 
traip'firrol  fMm  A);aile  to  RHii.vlon.  Babylon 
now  liM'ame  a  city  of  importanii:  for  tli«  llret 
liiiii':  th<.-  rank  aaiiKtml  U>  it  in  tin-  mytlilml  »fi' 
niM  lint  a  reflprtlon  of  tlw  puaiiinn  it  lii'kl  afu-r 
ihi'  CiiMite  comiueat.  Tin?  CiuHite  dynasty  i« 
pn.lmlily  '  i"  Anil>iHn  ilynaaty  of  IVniaiM.  .  .  . 
A  ncH  Iv  foiiwl  inmriptioD  of  NuliunidiM  makes 
tlif  dale  ("f  Its  advi-nt)  B.  V.  ST.V)  \fiiottU)lt\. 
.  .  .  Tlip  tint  ran;  of  Khtminiiniirns.  after  rstab- 
liiliinK  liiniM-lf  in  Arratl.  was  li>  cxti'nd  his  sway 
KviT  ilif  Miiitliem  kinploni  of  Siimrr  as  well. 
.  .  .  Khammurana  Ix-mnir  kiriK  of  tlio  «|iolc 
iif  Batiylonia.  From  thia  tinii-  onwani  thecoun- 
try  rrifialned  a  united  mouanjiy.  Tlui  Cassile 
ilyna>ty  muat  have  lasted  for  serenl  cenliiries, 
aiiii  iiniba'jiv  inrlude<l  mure  than  oor  line  of 
kiniK.  .  .  U  waa  under  the  CaMiite  drnasty 
that  the  kinfplom  of  Assyria  tlmt  t<>4i  Its'risi-,— 
partly,  perhaiw,  in  conaequem-e  of  the  Asiaiie 
n>n(|iie«ts  of  ttic  Kgyplian  monarcha  of  the 
rlirhtiinth  dynasty.  ...  In  B.  V.  1400  the 
CsMijie  kinr  married  an  Assyrian  princess.  Her 
•im,  Kara  Murdas,  was  munlerol  by  tlie  party 
oppnui-d  to  Assyrian  influence,  but  the  usurjier. 
Nazi  buKas,  was  quickly  overthmwn  l>r  the 
Assyrians,  who  placed  a  vasaal  prince  oh  tlw 
throne.  This  erent  may  be  cimaklemi  the  lum- 
inir  iNiint  In  tlie  history  of  the  klnifloms  of  the 
Tlirriaand  Euphrates;  Asayria  henceforth  lakes 
lli<|il»ciMif  the  worn  out  monnnhy  of  tlalivlonla, 
ami  |il»_VH  the  chief  part  In  the  afTaintof  VVcstem 
A>ia  until  tlie  flay  of  lu  flnal  fall.  In  little  more 
ihni]  :i  huri>lrr<l  years  later  tlic  Asayriana  were 
acnin  In  Babylonia,  but  this  time  as  avowed 
1111  inirt  lo  all  parties  alike ;  Balirlon  was  captured 
tiv  ilu-  AMvrlan  monarch  Yitflath  Adiir  lu  B.  ('. 

I  ITo.  aiHl  the  rule  of  the  CiMslle  dynasty  came 
111  an  end  "—A.  II.  8ayc«,  Anfifiit  Kmjiim  of 
tht  hint,  apfi.  2. 

.\i.iMi  IN  (J  Kawlinson,  Fire  (Imit  Moivtrrhif  ■ 
l-l„M,.-,  <•*   H  — Hee.  abai.  AssTHIA. 

B.  C.  6as-S39.-Th*  Imttr  Empirt.-Por 
Binri'  thiin   »1»  c<>nturi<<s  after  iIh-  coiKjuesi  of 

II  (  I'.'M.  Babylonia  «n<  olwun'tl  by  Aswyria. 
Itiirinir  nnxit  ui  that  kmit  (lerioil.  the  CbHlili-an 
kint'iliin  Mas  aubji>ct  lo  lis  nonliem  iH-iiriilair 
iiiiii  triinriMMl  by  Assyrian  vliiiMvs  TIhti'  »etv 
fn  <|iii'nt  revolis  and  arane  Iniervala  of  imlepen 
ill  mi',  bill  they  werv  lirlef.  ainI  Ihc  |i<iliticiil  life 
"1  ItHbylotiia  as  a  itlMinct  |io«ir  oinv  !■<•  mid  to 
li.Ki  hiin  sua|iended  from  I'.'M  iiulil  Art  H.  C  , 
» tun  .N,ilii>|>olaaaar  wIhi  nikil  llmt  im  iht-  vlcrniv 

•  ■(  III.'  .Vioyrian  UHaian-h.  threw  oil  his  yoke.  u»>k 
till  silriliiili-s  of  soven-lirntv  lo  hiiiisi>ir.  ami 
!■  iiH-il  ilie  Mithis  in  eillntfulshlnff  the  «lorv  of 
Niin-vi'b  "TIm-  Assyrian  Kinpirr  w««  iinw 
fliiin-l  lirtwiien  MiilU  ami  Ilabvlon  NuImi 
I'hiiir  uim-r.  or  N'eburhadn<r.rar.  SaUipok.ionra 

•  I.I.M  MHi,  waslhrn-al  rmmhrof  iIm-  liabvlonian 
iiiuilri'  The  alleropt  of  Pliaraoli  Ni-cS«i'lo  w  In 
("■r  Kivpi  ihe  Intwrilnnre  of  Asavriii  wan  i»i<r 
il.fon  HI  ibe  Imllhof  I'lm  iHiiriab.  aiHl  wlau 
.N>lii).h«i|n'«*ar  siiii<i<e<|e<i  his  fatli.  r  in  II  f 
«"4  Ik  fuiiiMl  hlnmlf  iIh-  uiMllspiitnl  loni  of 
" . -I.  rti  Alia.  l'Hh<«lim'  was cta'ninl  in  niri.  uml 
II..  .ii-.iru<'tloo  of  Jerusalmi  in  .V»7  liiid  a  way 
Hitu  Ivr  tiw  luTaaluo  ul    £«ypl,   witiili  tuuk 

24; 


place  twenty  years  later.  Tyne  alio  underwent 
a  louK  siege  of  tliirteeo  years,  but  it  is  doubtful 
whither  ft  was  uken  after  all.  Babylon  waa 
now  eurichitl  with  the  spoils  of  foreign  coouuesL 
It  owed  as  much  to  Nebuchadrezzar  aa  Rome 
owed  to  Ausustiis.  The  buildings  and  wnllt 
with  wliich  It  was  Bilome<l  were  wortliy  of  tlie 
metnipolis  of  the  world.  The  palace,  now  rep- 
rcHentMl  by  the  Kasr  mound,  was  built  In  tlftecn 
days,  awl  the  outermost  of  Its  thife  wells  waa 
si'vcn  miles  in  circuit.  HanffinK  gartlens  were 
constructed  for  Queen  Amy  lis,  the  daughter  of 
the  Meilian  prince,  and  the  great  U-mpIc  of  B«'l 
was  niufeil  with  cedar  and  overiaid  with  gold. 
The  temple  of  the  Seven  Lights,  dnlicateil  to 
Nibo  at  Borsippa  by  an  early  king,  who  hail 
raiseil  It  to  a  height  cf  forty-two  cubiu,  was 
completetl,  aiHl  Vk:1ous  otlMT  temples  were 
erecuid  on  a  sumptuous  scale,  both  in  Babylon 
awl  in  tlie  neighlaiuring  cities,  while  new  libra 
ries  were  established  lliere.  After  a  reign  of 
forty-two  years,  six  months  and  twentvonc 
itays,  Nebui-bailrezzar  dl«l  (B.  V.  ,V)3),  ani'l  left 
tlie  crown  to  his  son  Evil  Memdach,  whohnd  a 
alairt  and  inactive  ivign  of  three  years  and  thirty- 
four  daya,  when  he  was  murderetl  bv  his  bmther- 
inlaw,  Nergal-sharczer,  the  Neriglissar  of  the 
Oreeks.  .  .  .  The  chief  event  of  bis  fvign  of 
four  years  and  four  months  waa  the  construction 
of  a  new  pabur.  His  son,  who  aucceetled  him. 
was  a  mere  lioy,  and  was  muirleivtl  after  a  brief 
ivign  of  four  months.  The  power  now  paastil 
from  the  hoi;«e  of  Nabopolaaaar,— Nabu-nuhid 
or  Nabonidos.  who  was  raised  to  tlw  throne, 
la-ing  of  anotlHT  family.  His  reign  lasted 
seventeen  years  and  five  months,  awl  witnessed 
the  end  of  the  Babylonian  empire,"—  which  was 
overthrown  bv  ("yrus  the  (in-at  mr  Kvnw)  li  c 
.•WW— see  Pehsia:  B  C  .^41♦-.V21  —A.'  II.  Saycci 
.tiinriil  Kminni  nf  tht  Kitl.  ny.y.  -i. — Ni..  ,il«,, 
Skmitk<.  Eimiation,  A.smkst:  LninAiiiKsi 
.\NiiKNT:  .Mkdical  Hcik.ick,  Babtminian  ■ 
.MojiKT  A.vD  Bankino;  Tiiadb. 

.Vlso  is:  M.  Uuucker.  //i«<,  tf  Antiguily,  bk. 
I.  '*A.  l,V 


BABYLONIAN  JEWS.    OpcIkwo:  B   C 

rt.l4.Vm:  B   V   Xm  \    I>   .>!.  «n.|  A    l>  21KI-4.SI. 

BABYLONIAN  TALENT,    S,  Tm-kxt 

BABYLONIAN     TALMUD,    The.      ike 

Tai.mmi 

"BABYLONISH  CAPTIVITY"  OF 
THE  POPES.    Sel'Mniv    A   D   l.lil  l;HM 

BACCALAOS,  OR  BACALHAS,  OR 
BACALHAO  COUNTRY.  h.t;  .VitwroiNu. 
i  «Mi   A  i»  iioi-i.^rN 

BACCHIADvE.    s-e  Cohinth. 

BACCHIC  FESTIVALS.    S.e  Oiojuma 

BACONS  REBELLION.    SeeViK„.MA; 

BACTERIOLOGY.  t<.?eMii>i.  ai.  S.  irn,  k 
ll»Til  Ck.i<ii  IIV 

BACTRIA.-"  Wher<'  Ihe  iilifi-  [nf  the  tilil.i 
lind  of  Iranj  rws  to  ilie  l.ifiv  llliidii  Kii.h. 
ilieri-  lies  iin  itn  iionbtrn  ilupe  a  favonHl  ilnirii  t 
In  Ibe  reifiiMi  i.f  lUe  Tpptr  <)zii»  iin  the 

lianks  of  iliii  river,  which  flows  in  ii  ninli 
westerly  illn-.iii.ii.  eiit^nd  liM*|  niiiuiitaiii  pss- 
tiires,  wlM-re  •ii|.|K.ri  in  foumi  lu  iIh-  fn-Ji  nimin- 
tain  sir  for  minieroiis  ber<ls  of  horses  aiel  «lii'.  n 
ami  bemiiih  ilu  wonbil  hilU  ar<'  blooming  s»i 
leva  Mil  ili.-«-  .li.t...  „r  tiM'  llimln  Ku«h  ihe 
inlddk  singe  Utwemi   tlie  table  laad  and    (^ 


BACTRIA. 


BAGDAD. 


deep  pUin  of  the  CMpUn  Sen,  lay  the  BArtrtann 
—  the  Bnkhtri  itf  the  Achaemi'niilii.  tlie  lUkhdlii 
of  tlie  Av«sta.  ...  In  ucirnt  timen  the  Rac- 
trtana  wcrv  hanily  dlitinguhlicd  fn)m  nnmiuls; 
but  thpir  Uml  wm  exteutve  ami  ntn(luoi<d  fniita 
of  all  kind«,  with  the  exception  or  tlie  vine.  The 
fertility  of  the  land  enabled  the  Hellrnic  princes 
to  make  great  conqiietta. "— M.  Duncker,  Jlitl.  of 
Antiquity,  bk.  6.  ch.  3. —The  Bactriaoa  were 
among  the  people  lublugated  by  Cyrus  the 
Orent  and  their  country  formed  part  of  the  Per- 
■ian  Empire  until  the  latter  waa  orerthmwn  by 
Alexander  (are  MACttraxiA,  ifcc. :  B.  C.  880-438). 
In  the  diriaion  of  the  Maeeiloniao  conqueita, 
after  Alexander's  death.  Bactria,  with  all  the 
farther  east,  fi'll  to  the  share  of  Scleucus  Nicator 
and  formed  piut  of  what  came  to  be  called  the 
kingdom  of  Syria.  Alwut  iM  B.  C.  the  Bactrian 
pn>vlnce,  being  then  governed  by  an  ambitious 
Greek  satrap  named  Diodotus,  was  leil  by  him 
into  revolt  against  the  Syrian  monarrhv,  and 
easily  gained  its  independence,  with  Diudotus 
for  fulling  (aee  Seijci'cio.*:  B.  C.  3«1-334). 
"The  autluirity  of  I>iodotus  was  conflrmed  and 
riveiiil  on  his  K(iliJ<-ots  by  an  umllsturbed  reign 
of  eigliurn  years  iM-fore  a  .Syrian  anny  even 
showed  Itself  in  his  nelelilxn'rliooii.  .  .  The 
Bactrian  Kingdom  was,  at  any  rate  at  ita  com- 
mencement, as  thoroughly  Ureek  aa  that  of  the 
Heleucida!  "  "From  B.  0.  »)«  to  aliout  B.  C 
ItiS  was  the  most  tlourishhig  |M<rioil  nf  the  Bw 
trian  monareliy,  which  expandeil  during  thrat 
spwf  from  a  small  kingdom  to  a  coosiderahte 
empire"  — exu-wllng  over  the  gnaaii  part  of 
niixli'm  Afghanistan  awl  acniw  tlw'  Indus  Into 
I  lie  Ihinjaiili.  Rut  mrantimi'  the  nnghhoring 
I'lrtliiaiu.  who  threw  olT  the  tteleucid  yoke  s<N>n 
nftiT  the  Baelrinns  luul  done  ■■>,  were  gniwing 
in  |(iiwi  r  anil  tliev  soon  paiiiK-<l  fmni  rivalry  to 
miMlrry  The  biictriuu  kingiloin  w»«  prac- 
tieallr  extinguiahe<l  alH>iit  t.to  R.  C.  by  thr  con 
(^ueniit  iif  the  l>artliiau  Mithridates  I  ,  '  uithouKh 
t.re«k  nionarrhs  of  the  H^tctrian  serii«  i^iniiniinl 
mSHiem  nf  Calml  an<l  Wenlerii  Inilia  till  Hhou! 
H   (■    IJli  •_<!    \lnw\[n*<u.  .Sifi  (Jrr.il  Uritnl:il 

BADAJOS:    Th«  Geographical  Cooeresa 

(IM4).      K.1-  AmKKHA     .\     11    llm-l.V.'t 

■Aden  :  E«rly  Sueric  popalatiea.  Si 
HrKvi 

A.  D.  iSai.|l03.— Ae^uiaitiea  of  territory 
under  the  Treaty  of  Luneville.   8ee  Okhmanv 

A     l>     1N01-1H(« 

A.  D    ltos-iao6.— Anrraadiaad    by    Napo- 
I'on.  -CroatodaGrBodJtachy.— JoiMd  tothe 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine.    Hee  OmMtN-v 
A    II    IMO,-,  I'VM.  ami  1*>H  i.lA<cfAHr— VioinTi 

A.  D.  iai3.-AI>aadonmeat  of  the  Rhoaish 
Coafederacy  and  the   Froach  Allianc*.    I<ee 

Kmsi-K.  A     l>.    |H|4  (jANItHV— M«K<  ill. 

A.    D.    Il49.— RoToiutioa    sapprosaod    by 

PrusatAB  troopa.    See  Ukumahv:  A    l>    1H4.'« 
11V » 

A.  D.  i8M.-The  Seven  Weeha  War.—  In- 
4ennity  and  territorial  ceioi—  to  Pmaaia. 
He<-  Okhuasv     a    H    l»«) 

A.  D.  ia70-it7i.— Treaty  of  Uoioa  with  the 
Germanic  Confedtratioa,  aaoa  traaafermed 
into  the  German  Bmpire.  Hee  Oknhamv  A 
I*   mTutHKjTKMiiKK-nih-iiiaKa),  and  IM7I. 


BADBN.OR  RASTADT.TrMtyoTdrM). 

Bee  t'nuKUT   A  U   l7U.tTI4 


BADR,  OR  BEDR,  Battlo  of.  See  Ma- 
notiKTAN  CoNiitiarr?  A.  D.  60S-4I83. 

B^CULA,  Battle  of.  See  Puxtc  War. 
Tiia  Hrcond. 

B^RSARK.    See  Bitnannm. 

B^TICA. —  The  ancient  name  of  the  prov- 
ince in  Spain  which  aflerwanis  took   rn)m  the 
Vandals  the  name  of  Andalusia.    8ee  Spain 
B.  C.  818-85,  and  A.  P.  488;  also  Tckdktani. 
and  Vanuaui:  A.  D.  438. 

B.AT1S,  The. — The  ancient  name  of  the 
Ouadalquirrr  river  In  Spain. 

BAGACUM.    See  KERVit. 

BAGAUOS,  Insurrection  of  the  (A.  D.  387). 
—The  peasants  of  Gaul,  whose  condition  had 
become  very  wretched  during  the  distractions 
and  misgovemment  of  the  third  century,  were 
provoked  to  an  Insurrection,  A.  I».  S«7.  which 
waa  general  and  alarming.  It  waa  a  risirn: 
which  seemt  to  liave  been  much  like  those  tliut 
occurred  In  France  and  England  eleven  centuries 
later  The  reliel  peasants  were  called  Bugiiudn. 
—  a  name  which  some  writera  derive  tnmx  ibe 
Celtic  word  "bagad"  or  "bagat,'  signirving 
"tumultuous  assemblage."  They  sscked'and 
ruined  several  cities.-  taJting  Autun  after  a  »ieire 
of  seven  montha, — ami  committed  many  tirrilile 
atmcitiea.  The  Emperor  Maxlmlan—cnllengu.' 
of  Diocletian. — sucoeetled,  at  last.  In  suppn'wing 
the  general  outbreak,  but  not  in  extlnguisliing 
It  every  where.  There  were  traces  of  it  mirviv- 
Ing  long  afterwarda.- P  (Godwin,  //i»<,  of 
fymmtr.  r.  1 :  Aiitient  (hr*i,  hk.  2.  ek.  « 

Atao  n :  W  T  Arwd.1.  The  Hewtan  SftUm  of 
P'nnmnal  Ailmiiulration,  rh.  4— See,  also, 
Denrrmrs. 

BAGDAD,  A.  D.  763.— Tha  feaading;  of  the 
new  capital  of  the  Callpha.    .>«e<<  Maiiomktan 

CoMJJIKOT   ANIl   EmPIHK     .\     D     l«8. 

A.  D.  Its-V^S-— Decline  of  the  Calipkate. 

See  MaROMKTAM  COHUL-KKT  ANU  EmPIMK       \     II 

8t.VIM.V 

A.  D.  lose.— In  the  handa  of  the  Sctdjuk 
Tnrka,    «»■<•  TriiKK   A    D    linM-lotCi 

A.  D.  1158. -The  Fall  of  the  Caliphate. 
Destruction  of  the  ctty  by  the  Moa(ols.-!:i 
l.'.Vi,  on  till-  nccewiion  Ml  M:iiiifu  Kh.iii  ijriniU.ii 
nf  .linpis  KImn.  to  tlie  wivenifiily  nf  ih. 
Mongol  ICinpire  |w  MoNnoiji|,  a  irniil  Kurili  li 
iirrnuii'il  wiw  lii'id.  at  which  It  v>:i'<  di  riili«l  t.> 
wnd  »n  •'«)><<iiiiiiin  Into  iIh-  West,  fnr  t»n  pur 
|>inii<  III.  tn  exienniiiule  tlie  iaiiiailtiin..  • 
Awmwlnii,  «  h.i  «tiil  niaintiiintil  tiieir  |».«.  r  :  , 
mirtlirm  Pi-ntta;  (SI.  t<i  niliu-e  tin-  t  «iipli  .1 
ll:igd>i>l  tn  aiihmimlon  tn  tlie  .Mnniriil  Hiipniiiiii  ^ 
The  command  of  thi-  expe<liiii>n  wa-.  iriv.-n  i.i 
Mangu'n  limiher  Khulagti.  or  Houliii{i«i.  »h.i 
IH'rfoniied  liii  ap|ioinli'il  tiwk*  willi  tliomui'fi 
neas  and  uumen-iful  n-Milutlnn  In  IJ'i7  h' 
made  an  end  of  the  .Xkmimiim.  to  ilie  irr>  1' 
relh'f  of  th<>  wluile  eastern  world,  Mulmmiiiiu 
and  Chrtetuui.  In  l'J.V<  he  |uvtiir<l  on  In  Itn  >iul 
preceded  by  an  emlMMV  wliieli  ■timmiunil  tin- 
I'ullphlo  submit,  to  miu-  the  vrulit  nf  iUu'lpI 
t»  give  up  his  vain  preienainnM  UilheKoverricf'i 
"f  tlie  Mnak-m  world,  anil  to  aiknowletli'i  •■ 
Ureal  Khan  fur  ht«  lord  The  fcelih  >>ali|il>  .11 1 
his  irearlM-nuu  awl  im-afiaMc  iiiiniai-n  miiii  ' 
•MlHni'leil  mir  rnOilii  vtr»nxii>  preparalinn-  I  r 
rtp#eoee  A*»  mnviiiieim-  iiairdaii  wax  i  ik.  1 
afti-raslege  win.  h  noly  etclted  Uh-  f^riHiH  "(  il,. 
Mongols  TI..V  ttreif  llif'  rtiv  atel  ^auifhiio-l 
lU  (H-uple,  esuepiittit  sonic  Clirlslauu.  wIk>  an 


248 


M 


xSdiii 


I 


'I 


I* 

m 


I  ^ 


BAODAD. 


DAINBIUDOE. 


uM  to  bAvo  hcxa  ipaied  through  thr  infliirncp 
of  one  of  Khiihigu's  wivei,  who  wa»  a  Nrstorinn. 
The  sack  of  RKgdad  lasted  tevcn  dnys.  The 
number  of  the  aead,  we  an-  tuld  by  liaachid, 
wa°  HOO.OOO.  The  caliph.  M'MtaHu-m.  with  all 
hU  family,  wa»  put  to  death.— 11.  H.  Hownrth, 
lliit.  '/  tht  MuneoU.  t.  I,  pp.  lil.H-aoi.— Fora 
n>nHidrnible  period  before  tbb  flnul  <!atastrophe, 
In  the  declincof  the  Seljiik  Empire,  the  Caliphate 
at  Dagdad  bad  l)ecom'^  once  more  "an  ladc- 
nendent  tempoial  state,  though,  instead  uf  rul- 
ing iu  the  thir«  qiinrten  of  the  globe,  the 
CfiTlphi  ruled  only  over  the  pmvlnee  of  Irak 
AmbI  Their  position  was  not  unlike  that  of 
the  Popes  In  recent  times,  whom  they  alio 
restmbled  in  aasuminK  a  new  name,  of  a  pious 
cbsnctcr,  at  their  Inauguration.  Both  the 
Christinn  and  the  &loHl<'m  pontiff  was  the  ml 
temporal  sorerelpn  of  a  small  state .  each  claimed 
to  lie  spiritual  soverelRn  over  the  whole  of  the 
Faithful;  each  was  recognized  asauch  by  a  large 
bn<lv,  but  lejectfl  by  others.  But  in  truth  the 
spiritual  recognition  of  the  Abhaside  callplis  was 
mon-  nearly  univenal  in  their  last  axe  than  it 
had  ever  been  before. "  With  the  fall  of  Bagdad 
fell  the  caliphate  as  a  tempond  sovereignty;  liut 
It  iiirvlvtd,  or  was  resurrected,  in  its  spiritual 
fimetl'ins,  to  beo/ms  merged,  a  little  later,  la 
the  supremacy  of  the  suftan  of  the  Ottoman 
Turks.  "  A  certain  Ahmed,  a  real  er  pretended 
AblHi<j>lde  lleil  [from  Bagdad]  to  Egypt,  where 
hn  was  pro<lninied  caliph  by  the  title  of  Al 
Mns'anser  BIMah,  under  th..  pmtection  of  tnc 
then  ^itiHan  Bibars.  He  aad  bis  successors  were 
itci  nicd.  In  spiritual  things.  Commanders  of  the 
Fuitiiful.  and  lliey  were  found  to  be  a  convenient 
in!itniment  iioth  by  the  Mameluke  sultans  tuil 
liy  11'  lur  Mahometan  princes.  From  one  of  them. 
Bai  i/i-t  the  Thunderbolt  received  the  title  of 
Su.iitn;  from  another.  ISelim  the  Inlleiible  pro- 
runil  the  cemion  of  his  claims,  and  obtainol  the 
rii;ht  to  deem  himself  the  shsdow  of  Ood  upon 
i-arth  Since  then,  the  Ottoman  Padishah  has 
liern  held  to  inherit  the  righU  of  Omar  and  of 
Hnniim.  rights  which  if  strictly  presse<l,  might 
Ik'  tcrribk-  alike  to  enemies,  neutrals,  and  allies." 
-K.  A.  Freeman.  Uiii.  andConq.  of  the  Saraeent, 

A.  D.  1393.— Timoar't  pyramid  of  tmmda. 
S<f  TiMorii 

A.  D.tAa3-t63S.—TakM  by  the  Persians  knd 
retaken  by  the  Turks.— Fearful  slanrfattr  of 
the  inhabitants.    Sit^TrHKS:  A.  l>.  16S3-t94U. 

BAGISTANA.    Si*  Bkiiisitk,  Rock  or. 

BAGLIONI,  The.— ■TbeBaglioni  flrst  came 
Intn  rii.tic  !■  iiuring  the  wars  thuy  carried  on  with 
tlie  ( idiii  „f  Perugia  In  tne  Nth  swl  I5lh  cen- 
turies This  was  i>or  of  those  duels  to  tlic  death, 
liki'  that  of  tiM-  Vlseonti  with  the  Torrensi  of 
Mllnn.  on  which  the  fa.e  of  so  manv  Italian 
citH*  of  the  middle  ages  hung  The  nobles 
t'wiKht;  the  townsfolk  atsisUtl  like  a  Oreek 
chorus,  sharing  the  |masi»oa  of  the  actors,  but 
coniriliutlng  little  to  the  catastrophe.  Tho 
piaiia  was  the  theatre  on  whirh  the  tragedy 
w«»  playod  In  this  (-..nteil  the  B««Ho,ii  proved 
the  utMnger.  snd  U'gan  u>  sway  itie  sUf  of 
leniitla  afu-r  tli«  irn-guhr  faahioa  of  italiao 
(lesDou     They  hwl  no  legal  right  over  Uh-  lity, 

no  heredil"""  ' * -*-'        *  * 

authority. 


■spoU     They  had  no  legal  right  over  tin-  eity, 

>  hereditanr  magistracy,  no  Utle  of  prinwly 

ithority.     The    Church    was    irckooed    the 

•upnrme  ■dmlnlsttslur  uT  tbe  Perugiao  t-ummon- 


wealth.  But  in  reality  no  man  could  set  foot  00 
the  Imbrian  plain  without  permission  from  tbe 
Bsglionl.  They  elected  the  officers  of  strte. 
The  lives  and  goods  of  the  citixens  were  at  tbeir 
discretion.  When  a  Papal  legate  showed  hta 
face,  they  made  the  town  too  hot  to  hold  him. 
...  It  was  hi  vain  that  from  time  to  time  ths 
people  rose  against  them,  massacring  Pandolfo 
Bnglioni  on  the  public  square  In  1893,  and  johi- 
Ing  with  nidolfu  and  Biacdo  of  the  dominant 
bouse  to  aa8Ha<iinAte  auother  Pandolfo  with  his 
son  NIccolo  in  1460.  The  more  tiiey  were  cut 
down,  the  m<.ro  tliey  flourislieil.  The  wealth 
they  derived  from  their  lordships  in  tlie  duchy 
of  Hpoleto  and  the  L'mbrian  hillcitles,  and  tbe 
treasures  they  accumulated  in  the  service  of 
the  Italian  republics,  made  them  omnipotent 
in  their  native  town.  .  .  .  From  father  to  son 
they  were  warriors,  and  wc  have  re(:.->i<la  of 
few  lulian  houses,  exceiit  perhaps  the  Maiatestl 
of  Rimini,  who  equalled  them  in  banlihoud  and 
flerceneas.  Esperklly  were  they  noted  for  the 
remorseless  vendetle  which  they  airried  on 
among  themselves,  cousin  tracking  cousin  to 
dentil  with  tbe  ferocity  and  and  craft  of  sleuth- 
bounds  Ha>l  they  restraineil  these  fratricidal 
passions,  they  might,  perhaps,  by  following 
some  common  policy,  like  that  of  the  Medlei  in 
Florence  or  the  Bentirogli  in  Bologna,  have  suc- 
cessfully resisted  tbe  Papal  autliority,  and  se- 
cureil  dynastic  sovereignty.  It  is  nut  until  UOS 
that  the  history  of  the  Bagliuni  beeomi-a  dra- 
matic, possibly  because  till  then  tliey  lacked  llie 
pen  of  Matarazzo.  But  from  this  year  forward 
to  their  final  extinctkin,  every  detail  of  their 
doings  has  a  pictures<)iie  nrn  awful  interest. 
Domestic  furies,  like  the  revel  descrie.l  by  Cas- 
sandm  above  the  palace  of  Mycenae,  seem  10 
take  posaei-sion  of  the  fatnl  bouse ;  anil  the  doom 
wliieli  has  'alien  on  them  is  worked  out  with 
pitiless  exactitude  to  the  last  generation.  "—J.  A. 
Symonds.  tHuleAtt  in  Itait;  and  Ortta,  pp.  70-79. 
BAGRATIDAE,  The.    See  Abiuuiia;  12th- 

I4lll  CENTITHtES. 

BAHAMA  ISLANDS:  A.  D.  149a.— Dia- 
coTcry  by  Columbna.  See  AnKiurA:  A.  D. 
14U-.>. 

BAHRITE  SULTANS.    See  Eotpt:  A.  O. 

ia.V)-l.M7. 

BAI^.— Dais,  in  Campania,  opposite  Puteoli 
on  a  small  Iwy  near  Naples,  was  the  favorite 
watering  pla^e  of  tlie  ancient  Romans.  "As 
soon  as  tho  reviving  heals  of  April  gave  token 
of  advancing  summer,  the  noble  and  the  rich 
hurried  from  Rome  to  this  ''boli'o  retreat,  and 
here,  till  the  raging  dogt.U;  forbade  tbe  toils 
even  of  amusement,  they  di;iporte<l  Ibemaelvee 
or  shore  or  on  sea,  in  the  thick  groves  or  on  the 
piarld  lakes.  In  Ittten  and  chariots.  In  gilded 
Ihiiis  Willi  palntol  sails,  lulled  by  day  and  night 
V  Ith  the  sweetest  symphonies  of  song  and  musk, 
or  gazing  indolently  on  the  wanton  measures  of 
male  and  female  dancers.  The  bath,  ehiewbere 
tbeir  relaxation,  was  here  th<>  business  of  tbe 
dsy:  .  .  .  they  turiMd  tbi' |KKils  of  Avc-mus  and 
Lu'-rinus  into  tanks  for  swimming:  and  in  these 
pie.isant  waters  both  sexes  met  familiarly  to- 

£  ether,  and  convened  amklst  th<:-  rosts  sprinkled 
ivishlv  nn  their  surface." — C.    Merivale,  UiiL 
tf  tkf  Hm<iiu.  M.  '0. 

BAINBRIDCB,  Commodore  WiUlam,  :■ 
the  War  of  iSia.  See  Uiiitbd  «tatw  or  Am.  : 
A.  U.  ttll3-l»U. 


249 


H      R 


¥    ''t. 


Wss, 


BAIWttJXa 
BAIREUTH,  Creation  of  tkt  Priocipalily 

of.     N-eUKRJIAWT:   TninTBEHTH    ClNTfur 

Separation  from  tkt  Eltctorat*  of  Braadan- 
tntf.    Sfe  Uhamukmhi...    a.  D.  1417-l«4t». 

,  BAJAZET  I.-TnrkUh  Saltan,  A   P  1389- 

BAKAIRI,  The.  ti«  Amehkan  Abohkh 
im    ('ARim. 

«?.*'^f -•  Co'o^'    Edward    D.,  KiUed  at 
Ball  ■  BlnC    iSrv  I  .\n EO  Htatu or  Am.  ■  A  1) 
1061  (Oc^uBCIi:  ViRiiiMA). 
BAKSAR,   OR    BAXAR,   OR    BUXAR, 

"1J*?  »',.','%'•.    2:'     ■""■aA.D.  1757-1773. 
.^BALACLAVA.  Battle  of.   See  Hi>^ia:  A.  D. 

1854  (OCTOIIKM— NiirKVBKHI 

BALANCE  OF   POWER.      In  E  ,rop«,n 
diplomary,  «  phrni-  sL-nifvlnif  Ihe  poli.v  wlii.li 
•imni  at  lir.'|iinu'  mi  approKiiniitc  (viuilihriutn 
or  pnwiT  amoii)(   tbe  urcnti-r  niitloiw. —T    J 
L«wr<Ticc,  IiiUriMtionul  Lair.  p.  r.'d. 

i^KSL't^.^  Roman  Emperor.  A.  D  ?.T8 
»..?,^JrB<*A  S  DISCOVERV  OF  THE  PA- 
CIFIC.    S('«  America:  A    1).  1513-i:)17 

BALCHITAS,  The.    8ee  Ambrican  Ar.o- 

RIGZNEg:    PaMPAII  TRtBES. 

BALDWIN  OF  FLANDERS.  The  Cm- 

a^a    ■     .     .  t'"l"*l>E8:    A.  I).  I2»)1-1S()3 
Baldwin  I..  Latin  Emperor  at  ContUntiaoole 
(Rmnania),    A.  D.  l!H»i-iao5. ....  Baldwin  It 
A.  D.  1287-1891.  «»«»wia  ii.. 


BALKAN  ASn  DANCBIAN  STATES. 

BALEARIC  ISLANDS.-' The  nam.  n.. 
I.sre.'  wai.t,  rived  by  the  Orrekt  from  '  l»ill,  |" 
'■"  i-J;  ""l!.'  '»  ■"  ''""•'«   Phwnlriun    -1 

Mu"'"^  '"■  ■*  *-*'«""'»'«•*  -Kid 

BALI.    "*«*  Malat  AnCHiMLAeo :  Ditch 

BALIA  OF  FLORENCE, Tht.-The  chief 

in»tnim<iit  cmplou^l  |,y  the  McdIcI  to  eiil«l.li«h 
Iher  p..*,r  in  fl„n-uce  wu  "tlio  p,.n,i,  i.,,,, 
»y.u-m  of  the  I'Mrl.u.unto  nn.l  Ilalla.  l>ym.«iM«f 
which  the  iMf.pl,  ■uM-nil.lnl  fmm  time  to  time  in 
the  public  iKiuMn',  unit  iotimidiiu-d  by  liic  niai;ln» 
fxtlon,  mru.t«l  full  powen  to  a  » l.-.t  ,,„„! 
nilttre  ruminalwl  in  pri\  iilc  by  the  ch,.  f,  ,if  Ute 

rr'i'IlI.T-  •  •.  \^P'' »«>■'=  'The  Parl»,„..,„„ 
S.  '  ""^I'nf  "'  "'«  Klun-ntlne  people  ,,„  |. 
Piaii,  .,f  tlie  SI({nory.  When  the  slgnory  I,. . 
trtlien  11..  plm-c  to  tuhlrvM  the  meeting,  tl„  pi ,/, . 
li  guarded  by  anued  men,  and  then  th..  m  ..i.le 
are  aikwl  whether  they  wish  to  give  all*.|  ,ic 
pow.r  (Balb.1  and  authority  tothodll..  n,n«MH,l 
t..r  their g.«Hi.     \\  hen  the  anawer.  ye.,  promputi 


la  return.  ,1,  the  Mf  Dory  immediately  retfn  ^  im, 
hepaUir  Thi»  kalf  that  i«  meant  by  thin  h«r 
lamini...  which  thua  .dve«  away  the  full  ,»,\v,.r 
or  eil.Tiing  »  (bAOA-  in  theaUte."— J  .\  >;« 
inimda,  Jirnaiuawf  ,„  Half :  Af^Ou  Ik.,.,t4 

A.  D.  1878-1437.  aud  145H-14M. 


BALKAN  AND   DANUBIAN  STATES.' 


Ancient  Hiitory.  —  The  Slatea  of  aouth 
eautern  Kurope,  Ut«ly  cnmncipimil,  for  the 
most  |mrt,  from  the  rule  of  the  Turka  uro  ao 
a««K mted  by  a  common  hintory.  although  re- 
markahly  diverw  In  rac...  tlial  it  aetmaexr»nllent 
to  bring  them  for  iluw-uMion  togi  hor  TIkv 
■iccupy  mainly  tlie  ngiona  known  inRoinun 
times  aa  Momia.  Daiia  an<l  Ii.i.vrici  m  to 
which  namea  the  n-ader  la  nfem-d  for  «om, 
acoiunt  of  the  a<nnly  inci.ienta  of  tlieir  early 
niatory  — See.  also,  Avahh. 

Races  exifting.-"  In  u  part  of  Wratern 
Europe  do  we  And  distrieU  iiihul.it.,1  l,v  men 
difTerhig  in  ancech  and  uaiioiml  fw-linK,  liinit  in 
distinut   patclMTi  here  and   tluir  over  a    larj 

r.""".'"-  ,  ,V"''"^"  "*'•  ""<■  "f  ""'  l"ri"r  .-ouii. 
t  e»  in  »  h  .  h  one  parish,  |)erhap,  „„„  hm.,|r,.,| 
ajHike  Welaii  anoUier  Latin,  aiiothe.  Kiik1i.Ii 
aiiotlier  Maniah,  another  Old  Knnch,  aii,,tli,  r 
the  tongue  of  more  mwlem  a.-ill.n.,  KlenilnK. 
Huguenota  or  Palalinea.  la  aniiiiililiig  w hich  «,' 
find  lianl  to  c<m.-eive.  and  which,  a<«  «ppli«l  i„ 
ciirown  land  or  to  any  other  Weiiem  land  wunda 
al~..nl  on  the  face  of  It.  When  we  p.M  Into 
Houlh  .HHlen.  Kurope,  Uila  state  of  thing.,  the 
very  ,leu  of  which  «-em.  abaunl  in  the  W«f   |. 

w,  fln,|  dwelling  tliere  at  Uie  beginning  of 
rerorried  l„.,.,ry,  together  with  aeveral  «c 
which  have  come  In  ainee,  .||  „maln.  not  an 
Znu  I'^rr'^'  '"  "!"■**»'«■  but  aa  nationa. 
f^Hn™  L'  *  ""'."r'  '""K'^R"^  •"'«  national 
feellnga  and  each  having  lu  greater  or  le«. 
aliar,'  of  pructioal  ln.|«)rtapce  in  tjie  iHilitica  of 
thepr.p,.„  moment  Setting  aalde  ra<-ea  which 
have  ai inply  puMMt^  Uirough  Ok  country  without 
M:cupylng  it,  we  may  «iy  that  all  the  lacet 
•8»»  Ap|itndi<f>  B  and  r,  vol.  |. 


'ioi) 


wl  r!>  have  ever  iettled  in  the  eountry  are  there 
Mill  aa  diatii.et  rarea.  And,  though  each  race 
hi.a  ta  own  particular  region  where  It  r.,ri„s  the 
whole  p„,ple  „r  ,|,e  gre.i  majority  of  the  .,.  .,,.1, 
Mill  there  arc  large  diatricU  where  illir  '.  ui 
race,  really  live  aide  by  aide  in  the  ven  >.»v 
which  aeem.  K>  abaunl  wIhu  we  try  to  coi„  ,  ,ve 
Urn  any  Wettem  country  We  cannot  ,,,„. 
cilve  a  Weleb,  an  EngliJi,  and  a  Nomuiii  vi|. 

a  Turkiah  village  .idc  by  aide  la  a  thi-ig  »l,;,h 
may  be  M-eii  in  manv  part,  of  Tlira.e.  The 
ohieat  race,  in  thoae  Inndh.  tha«!  which  answer 
to  U«M(ue.  and  Brrtona  in  Wcatern  Eun.iN.  l„,i,l 
iiuiu-  another  pnaiiiuo  from  tliat  of  Baixiue'.  ,ii,,| 
Ilreton.  in  Wcalcrn  Eur..p,  They  form  ihnr 
Mvintf  and  vignrou.  naiionn,  OreeV,  Allm;  >.ii, 
.i.id  ilouman.     They  «iand  aa  nations  al  .tu.lil'' 

•f  the  Slave,  wlm in  Uier,  and  who  answer 

Muithly  to  the  r-iitona  in  the  m-ot.  while  .,ll 
alike  are  under  tlie  rule  of  thu  Turk.  wh..  Im> 
nothing  answering  to  him  in  the  H\>| 
«hen  the  Honiana  con.|uer.d  the  .Smlli  la-uni 
landa.  they  found  there  thnv  gnat  rail,  ilie 
(Jreek,  the  lllyri.n,  and  tlie  Thra.ian.  il„.H, 
three  rana  are  all  then-  still.  Th.>  (lre.k.  .,„ .,li 
for  tliimaelvea  The  Illvriana  are  repr, .,.,!..! 
by  the  modem  Alhuilan'a.  The  Thrai  ian.  are 
rrpr*^^.^!,  there  st-ems  every  reaaou  to  U  li,  >e, 
by  llie  mnlern  Koumana.  Now  had  iIk  «Ih  le 
ill  ■  •'""'I' «»lern  landa  la-en  Inhabit.l  Iv 
lllynana  and  Thraciana.  thoae  hinds  ft..ui;i 
doulitles*  have  Uicme  aa  thoroughly  ll>ni,,M  u 
the  Healern  lands  liecanie  ...  But  the  |..«i 
lioii  of  the  V.ntk  nation,  iu  long  hialory  si„l  in 
high  tlvilizailou,  hinden-<l  thia.  The  (ir.^ks 
could  Dot  become  lUimaiM  in  any  but  Iht  m.^ 


Mr. 


DANUBIAN    \  « 

AND  ^^  : 

BALKAN  STATES       ' 

•MOWINO  CHANOCt  OUNINa  

THt  PRUENT  UNTURV 

r^'r«Ji/-'4JM«MtaHM<«fll«aMMlff  BOM  AS 

"u..   ...,,.  ,t,.,M.r.rt««»»»  ITALIC 

U  'TIMS  *«*'»t»H|4«^»o«w<4ft    ■,.«..« 
'»•  *MJ«i*r«««  >.iiM<wn  «cnrilMy  f»  r»«  f^Mfy 


1^^  !•»««■*.  ft.. j«/^. «  r. 


l4!i. 


BALKAN  AND  DANCBUN  STATES. 

pui-ely  political  aenw.    Like  other  gubjecU  of 
the  Koman  Empire,   they  gradually  took  the 
Homan   name;    but  they  kept  their  own  lan- 
guage, literature,  and  civilization.     In  sliort  we 
nmy  §ay  that  the  Koman  Empire  in  the  East 
occame  Greek,  and  that  the  Greek  nation  be- 
came Roman.    The  Eastern  Empire   and    tlic 
Orcek-biH-akmg  lands  became  nearly  coe.xtcn- 
aive.     Greek   became  the  one  language  of  the 
tastern  Homan  Empire,  while  those  that  spoke 
t  still  called  themselves  Romans.     Till  (luito 
lately,  that  is  till  the  mo<icm  Ideas  of  nationality 
iKgim  to  spread,  the  Grecksp<aking  subjecta  of 
the  Turk  called  themselves  by  no  name  but  that 
of  Romans.  .  .  .  While  the  Greeks  thus  took 
the  Homan  name  without  adopting  the  Latin 
language,  another  people  in  the  Eastern  penin- 
sula adopted  both  name  and  language  exactly 
as  the  nations  of  the  West  did.    If ,  as  t  here  is  good 
reason  to  believe,  the  modem  Roumans  repre 
sent  the  old  Thracians,  that  nation  came  under 
the    general    law,    exactly   like    the    Western 
nations.      The    Thracians   became   thoroughly 
Roman  in  speech,  as  they  have  ever  since  kept 
the  Roman  name.    They  form  in  fact  one  of  the 
Romance  nations.  Just  as  much  as  the  people  of 
Gaul  or  Spain.  ...  In  short,  the  existence  of  s 
highly  civiliasl  people  like  the  Greeks  hindered 
in  every  way  the  influence  of  Rome  from  being 
BO  thorough  in  the  East  as  it  was  In  the  West 
Tlic  Greek  nation  lived  on,   and  alongside  of 
Itself,  it  preserved  the  other  two  ancient  nations 
of  the  peninsula.     Thus  all  three  have  lived  on 
to  the  present  as  distinct  nations.     Two  of  them 
the  Greeks  ami  the  lllyrians,  still  keep  their  own 
languages,  while  the  third,  the  old  Thracians 
swak  a  Romauce  language  and  call  themselv™ 
Kiiumans.  ,  .  .  Tlie  Slavonic  nallons  hold  in  the 
hast  a  place  answering  to  that  which  is  held  by 
the  Toutiinic  nations    in    the    West  .         But 
though  the  Slaves  in  the  East  thus  answer  in 
many  ways  to  the  Teutons  in  the  West    their 
position  with  regard  to  the  Eastern  Empire  was 
not  (|uile  the  same  as  that  of  the  Teut4ins  to- 
wards the  Western  Empire.  .  .  .  They  learned 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


much  from  the  half  Human,  half  Greek  power 
with  which  they  had  to  do;  hut  thev  dlil  not 
themselves  hiTome  either  On-ek  or  ijonian    in 
the  wav  in  which  the  Teutonic  con.iuerors  in 
tlio     Western     Empire    U'cuuie    Roman    . 
Thus,  while  In  the  West  everything  except  a 
few  survivals  of  earlier  nations,  is  either  Homan 
or  Teutonic,  in  the  East,  Greeks,  Illyrian«.  Thnu  i- 
ans  or  Roumans.  and  Slaves,  all  slool  side  by 
side  as  distinct  nalli,.  s  when  the  next  set  of  in- 
vailera  came,  ami  they  remain  as  distinct  nations 
itill.  .  .  .  TliirecameMTiongthem.inihefiinnof 
the  Ottoman  Turk,  a  people  with  whom  unlnn 
Was  not  only  ImnI  but  inipoxsilili',  a  jwople  wlio 
Wen-  kept  illsllnct,  not  by  speeiul  ( ire  iiuistances 
but  liy  the  inherent  nature  of  llie  case.     Had 
the  Turk  Ik'cu  other  than  what  he  reallv  was 
be  might  simply   have   Income  a  new  "nation 
Jl.mgslde  of    the  other  Southeastern   nations 
B«'ing  what  he  was  the  Turn  couhl  not  do  this 
.  .  .  The  original  Tii-ks  did  not  l»'long  to  the 
Ar}Bn  bnuK  h  of  nmnkind.  and   their  original 
spcich  Is  not  an  Arjan  •pcecli.     The  Turks  and 
their  aiH'eih  Uloug  to  »ltogeth<     anolhi-r  class 

of  nations  and  lauiriMgei ^ng  before  tlio 

Turks  came  into  Eurom..  the  Msgyan  or  llun- 
garians  liail  come ;  an<t,  iN'fore  the  Magyan came 
tiM  UulK«riaui  had  oume.    Both  tin  M*(yars 


and  the  Bulgarians  were  in  their  origin  Tur 
anlan  nations,  nations  as  foreign  to  tlfe  Arviin 
people  of  Europe  as  the  Ottoman  Turk.s  thrm 
selves.     But  their  history  shows  that  a  Tunuiian 
nation  scttlmg  in  Europe  may  either  be  aMimi. 
lated  with  an  existing  European  nation  ..rniav 
sit  down  as  an  European  nation  along.si,!,.  of 
others.     The  Bulgarians  have  done  one  of  iliese 
things;  the  Magyars  have  done  the  other    t|,.. 
Ottoman  Turks  have  done  neither.     So  much 
has  been  heard  lately  of  the  Bulgarians  as  I,,!,,,, 
in  our  times  the  special  victims  of  the  Turk  that 
some  people  mav  (ind  it  strange  to  |,,,,r  «ho 
the  original    Bulgarians  were.     Thev   were   a 
people  more  or  less  neariv  akin  to  t)io  Tiirlis 
and  tliey  came  into  Europe  as  bnrlMirian  eon". 
querors  who  were    as    much    dreaded  !iv  the 
nations  of  South-eastern  Europe  as  the  turlts 
themstOves  were  afU'rwanls,     The  oM  Bulirar. 
lans  were  a  Turanian  people,  who  8ettle<l  in  a 
large  part  of  the  Southeastern  peninsula    in 
tands  which    had    been    nin.idy    occupied    bv 
Slaves.    They  came  in  as  1.  ,i  barian  conquerors- 
but  exactly  as  happened  to  so  many  conuu.rors 
In  Western  Europe,  they  were  presently  as^imi. 
Uted  by  their  Slavonic  suhjrets  an.l  iieighlx.urs. 
They  learned  the  Slavonic  speech;  they  enulu- 
ally  lost  all  traces  of  their  foreign  origin      Those 
whom  we  now  call  Bulgarians  are  a  Slavonic 
people  speaking  a  Slavonic  tongue,  and   thev 
have  nothing  Turanian  alwut  them  exiei.t  the 
name  which  thev  borrowe<l  from  their  Turanian 
masters.  .  .  .  The  Bulgarians  entered  the  Em- 
pire  In    the    seventh    centurv,   and   eml.raied 
Christianity  In  the  ninth.     Tiuv  rose  to  cnat 
power  in  the  South-eastern  lamis,  and  pl^ivid  a 
great  part  in  their  h..(torj-.     But  all  thVir  later 
history,  from  a  comparallvelv  short  time  «ft,.r 
the  first  Bulgarian  eon.iuest,  has  iK-en  thai  ,,f  » 
Slavonic  and  not  that  of  a  Turanian  |„.,nle 
Thi'   history  of  the  Bulgarians  therefore  shows 
that  it  is  quite  possible,  if  cireumstancs  are 
favourable,    for   a   Turanian    pt^ple    to  „ttle 
among  the  Aryans  of  Europe  and  to  Ix.  i|,„r. 
oughlv  assimilated  by  the  Aryan  nation  anmiut 
whoiiilhey  setthHi."— E.  A.  I'ri-eman.  The  mio- 
man  /infer  in  Eiiroix,  eh.  3. 

Also  in:  R  O.  Latham,  Tlu  XationalitU,  cf 
A'/r«;»e.  ■' 

7th    Century.-(S«rri«,    Croatia,    Bosnia. 

Dalmatia  and  Mentco«Kre.)— The  Slavomc 
settlement.— "No  country  on  the  face  ..f  nur 
unfortunate  planet  ha.   wtn  oftener  ravat'c-.l  no 

and  so  ofu-n  soaked  with  the  blood  ,  f  its  In 
haliltaiiu.  At  the  <iawn  of  histor)-  n,.»,ila 
fomKHl  part  of  Illyria.  It  was  said  to  have  Im-cb 
already  iK-oidcl  ty  Slav  trilies.  Rome  <(,n- 
ilueriHl  all  this  region  as  far  as  the  Oanulii-  and 
annexed  It  to  Dalmatia.  Two  proviiid's  were 
formed,  'nalmalia  maritlma,"  and  •  Dalmatia  in 
U-n\i\,  or 'Illyris  Imrbani.'  Onler  reigiinl  and 
as  tlie  Interior  communicated  with  the  c  oa»i  ihs 
whole  country  flourished.  Important  |»>rti 
grew  upon  the  littoral.  ...  At  the  fall  of  the 
Kniplre  came  the  Goths,  then  the  Avars,  who  for 
two  iTiilurii's,  burned  and  massacred,  ami  turm^d 
till-  whole  country  into  n  desert,  ...  In  i:;to  llie 
(roats  iK'gau  to  occupv  th>'  present  Cn'itls, 
Slavonia,  and  the  north  of  Bosnia,  and  In  Kto  the 
Servians,  of  ili«  uinc  met-  ami  jaiiKUBtfi',  ex- 
linuinaliil  the  Avars  and  [leophil  flcrvla, 
Sjiutherii  B<isnia.  Montenegro  and  Dalnmlla. 
The  ethnic  situation  which  exisu  to-day  daua 


252 


BAXKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


from  this  spoch." — E.  de  Laveleye,  The  Balkan 
PeniMula,  eh.   8. — "Heracliiis    [who  occupied 
the  throne  of  the  EHStcrn  Empire  iit  Constan- 
tinople from  610  to  642]  appears  to  have  forined 
the  plan  of  establishing  a  permanent  barrier  in 
Europe  against  the  encroachments  of  the  Avars 
and  Sclavonians.  .  .  .  To  accomplish  tliis  object, 
Heracliug  induced  the  Serbs,  or  Western  Scla- 
vonians, who  occupied  the  country  about  the 
Curpatliian  mountjiins,  and  who  had  successfully 
opposed  the  extension  of  tlic  Avar  empire  in  that 
direction,  to  almndon   their  ancient  scats,  and 
move  down  to  the  South  iirto  the  provinces  be- 
tween the  Adriatic  and  the  Dauiibc     The  Roman 
and  Ori'i'li  population  of  these  provinces  had 
been  driven  towards  the  Bcacoast  by  the  con- 
tinual incun^ions  of  the  nortliern  trilios,  and  the 
desolate  plains  of  the  interior  had  been  occupie<l 
by  a  few  Sclavoniun  subjects  and  vassals  of  the 
Avars.    The    most   importiii.t  of   the   western 
Sclsvonian  tribes  who  moved  southward  at  the 
invitation  of  Heraclius  were  the  Servians  and 
Croatinns,   who   settleil   In   the   countries   still 
peopled  by  their  descendants.     Their  original 
settlements    were    formed    in    consequence    of 
friendly  arrangements,  and,  doubtli-ss,  under  the 
sanction  of  an  express  treaty;  for  the  Sclavonhm 
people  of  Illyria  and  Dalmatia  long  regarded 
themselves  as  bound  to  pay  a  certain  degree  of 
territorial  allegiance  to  the  lilastern  Empire.  .  .  . 
Tiipse  colonies,  unlike  the  earlier  invaders  of  the 
Empire,   were   composed  of  agricultural  com- 
munities. .  .  .  Unlike    the    military    races   of 
Ootlis,   Huns,   and  Avars,   who   had  preceded 
them,  the  Servian  nations  increased  and  flourished 
in  the  litmis  which  they  hod  colonized;  and  by 
the  absorption  of    every  relic  of    tlie   ancient 
piipulati(m,  they  formul  political  communities 
snd  independent  states,    which  olTercd  a  firm 
barrier  to  the  Avars  and  other  hostile  nations. 
.  .  .  The  staU-B  which  they  cnnstitutetl  were  of 
consiilirable  weight  in  the  history  of  Europe; 
and  the  king<l»nis  or  bannats  of  Croatia,  Servia, 
Bosnia,  Kascis  and  nalmatia.  occupietl  for  soma 
centuries  a  political  porfticm  very  similar  to  that 
now  held  by  the  seccmdary  monarchical  states  of 
the  present  day."— G.  Finlay,  Onere  undtr  the 
Rmniu,  eh.  4,  •«•<.  6.— St'e.  also,  Avars:   Tira 
Breakino  or  theik  Dominion  ;  and  Slatonic 
Nations;  6th  and  7tii  C'ENTi'Ruti 

7th-8th  Centuries  (Bulgaria).— VasMlmn  to 
the  Khaiara.    See  Khazahb. 

9th  Century  (Serrial.- Ri»«  of  tht  Kiar- 
dom.— "  At  the  period  allude<l  to  [the  latter  part 
of  the  ninth  century)  the  Servhiiis  did  not,  like 
the  rest  of  the  Sclavonians.  constitute  a  distinct 
state,  but  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  the 
Eastern  Roman  Emneror:  In  fact  the  country 
llicy  inhabitetl  had.  from  ancient  times,  formed 
part  of  the  Roman  terrilory ;  ami  itslill  remained 
nsrt  of  the  Eastern  Emiiln-  when  the  Western 
Empire  was  re  esubllshwl,  at  the  time  of  Charle- 
magne. The  Servians,  at  the  same  tieriod,  em- 
hrae.'.l  the  Christian  faith ;  but  In  doing  so  they 
dill  not  subject  themselves  entirely,  cIlhiT  to  the 
empire  or  church  of  ihe  Greeks.  ...  The  Em- 
■^'T'  ;  .■  P*""'tl«l  tlie  Servians  to  be  ruled  by 
native  chiefs,  solely  of  their  own  election,  who 
preserved  a  patriarchal  form  of  government 
.  In  the  eleventh  century,  the  Greeks,  des 
pit*  of  the stlpulathms  lliey  had  ent.ml  into  at- 
tempted to  uke  Servia  under  their  immediate 
•oatrol,  and  to  subject  U  to  their  flnanH^l  ty*. 


tem.  The  attempt  met  with  a  defeat  which 
wasdeclsive.  •'  Notonly  did  It  put  a  speedy  ter- 
mination to  the  encroachment  of  the  Court  of 
Constantinople  In  imposing  a  direct  government, 
but  it  also  firmly  established  the  princely  power 
of  the  Grand  Bhupanes;  whose  existence  de- 
pended on  the  preservation  of  the  national  inde- 
pendence. ...  Pope  Gregory  VII.  was  the 
first  who  saluted  a  Grand  Shupane  as  King  "— 
L.  Von  Ranke,  mtt.  ofSenia.  cA.  1. 

0th-l6th  Ceatnrie*  (Boania,  Servia,  Croatia, 
Dalmatia.)— Conrertion  to  Christianity.— The 
BoKomilei.— Huorarian    crusades.  — Turkish 
conaueit.— AfU-r  the  Slavonic  settlement  of  Ser- 
via, liosnia,  Croatia  and  Dalmatiu,  for  a  time  "  the 
B<)vereignty  of   B,-zantium  wa.t  acknowledged. 
But  the  conversii/n  of  these  tribes,  of  identical 
race,  totwodiffen-ntChristianrites,  creatal  anon- 
Wgonism  which  sliU  exist*.   The  Croau  were  con- 
verted first  by  missionaries   from  Rome;   they 
thus  adopted  Latin  letters  and  Latin  ritual ;  the 
Servians,  on   the    contra-y,    and    consequently 
part  of  the  Inhabitants  of  Bosnia,  were  brought 
to  Christianity  by   Cyril  and  Methodius,  who, 
coming  from   Thessalonica,  brought   the  char- 
ncUrs  and  rites  of  the  Eastern  Church.     About 
860  Cyril  translated  the  Bible  Into  Slav,  Invent- 
ing an    alphabet   which   bears   his   n"me,  and 
which  Is  still  In  use.  .  .  .  In  874  Budmir,  the 
first  Christian    Khig    of   Bosnia,    Cri«itia  and 
Dalmatia,    called   a   diet    upon    the    plain   of 
Dalmlnium.  where  he  tried  to  establish  a  regular 
orgauiiation.    It  was  about  this  time  that  the 
name  Bosnia  appeared  for  the  first  time.     It  la 
said  to   be  derived    from  a  Slav  tribe  coining 
originally  from  Thrace.    In  90.T  Brisimir,  King 
of  Servia,  annexed  Croatia  and  Bosnia;  but  this 
union  dhl  not  lost  long.    The  sovereignly  of 
Byzantium  ceased  In  these  parts  after  the  year 
1000.     It    was    gained    by    Lndislaus,  King  of 
Hungary,  obout  1001.     In  1103  Coloman,  King 
of  Hungary,  added  the    titles    of  '  Ilex  Ruinie^ 
(Heraegovma),  thenof  'Rex  Bosniie."    Sincetlien 
Bosnia  has   always   been  a  dependence  of  the 
crown  of  Saint  Stephen.  .  .  .  Almiit  this  time 
some  Alblgenses  came  to  Bosnia,  who  converted 
to  their  iK'llefs  a  large  number  of  the  people  who 
were  called  Catare,  In  German  I'utarener.     In 
Bosnia  they  received  and  a(li>pte<l  the  name  of 
Bogomile,  which  means  'loving  Gfxl.'     Nothing 
is  more  tragic  than  the  history  of  this  heresy. 
.  .  .  They  [the  Bogomilrs]  became  in  Bosnia  a 
chief  factor,  both  of  Its  history  and  its  present 
situation.  .  .  .  The  Hungarian  Kings,  in  oltcdl- 
ence  to  the    Pope,  ceaselessly   endeavoured  to 
extirpate    them,    and    their  "frequent    wars  of 
extermination    prov..ked    the    hatred    of    the 
Bosnians.  ...  In  li3H  the  first  great  cnisade 
was  organized    by    Bela  IV.  of    Hungory,  in 
obeilience  to  Pope   Gregory    VII.     The  whole 
country  was  devasUted,  and  the  Uogomiles  nearly 
all  massacnsl.  exeept  a  numlNr  wlio  escaped  to 
the  fon-Kts    and  mountains.     In  1243  the  Hun- 
garian Bishop  of  Kalocsa  hintmlf  led  a  second 
crusnile.     In  I2H0  a  third  cnisaile   was  under- 
uken  by  I^dlslnus  IV.,  King  of  Hungary.  In 
order  to  n-galn  the  Pope's  favour,  AlKUit 

the  year  IHOO  Paul  of  Breblr,  '  lianus  Croutorum 
et  Uosulse  domlnus,'  finally  added  Herzegovina 
to  Bosnia  I'lider  the  Ban  Stephen  IV.,  the 
Emperor  of  Servia,  the  great  Dushnn,  occupied 
Bosnia,  but  it  soon  regaineil  its  independence 
(ISW),  awl  uwler  Stepbea  Tvartko,  wijo  took 


253 


BALKAN  AND  DANXJBIAN  STATES. 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES 


~ri.!!/'o^t^°i•„i'•„'^^»5't7 '"^"^^r »'!!?'  »"^. "f!?. i-lr °r "-F--E- PLbbon. /..,.. 


pcnod  of  peace  and  proeperity,  .  .'."  Before  liia 
death  tlic  Turks  appeared  on  the  frontiers.     At 
the  memorable  and  decisive  buttle  of  Kowiovo 
fcf*  •^*^'''o'"'i^-  ^   1360-1389].  whieli  wave  them 
bervia,    30.000   Bosnians    were    engaged     and 
thougli     retreating     stoppt^     tl,e     conqueror! 
Inder  Tvanlto  II.,  tlic  seconc*  king,  wlio  was  a 
/r!S'"!',  ."•,  ""^nl'*    '■nJoye'l    some    years'  pence 
i'.'S*;'-t*,^''      '^'"'"  f"'!"""!  [sctTlkks:  A.  D. 
Iwa-lWll  a  bloody   inu-riudc    of   civil    war" 
winch  invited  the  Turks  and  pr<p.are.l  the  way 
for  them.     "  .Mohammed  II,,  wlio  had  just  taken 
Constantmopic  (U.Vl),  advance<I  with  a  formid- 
able army  of  1,50,000  men,  whicli  nothing  coul.l 
resist.     The    country    was    laid    waste:   30  000 
young    men    were    circumcised    and    enrolled 
amongst  the  janissaries;  200.000  prisimers  were 
maile  slaves;  the    towns    which    resisted    were 
bumed ;    the  churches  turned  into  mosques,  and 
the  land  couUscated  by  the  conquerors  (1463). 
:.  •    ,.  P*'""''"'  "f  Wugglo  lastiHl  from  1463  till 
the  detinue  conquest  In  1527  [see  Tuhks-  A   D 
1451-14«11.  .  .  .   Wlien  the   battle    of    Moliaci 
(August  29,  l.^Sfl)  gave   Hungary  to  the  Otto- 
mans [sec  IlrNBAHv;  A.  D.  14«7-1528]  Jaitche 
the  last  rsMipart  of  Bosnia,  whose  defence  had 
Inspired  acts  of  legendary  courage,  fell  in  iu 
turn  in  1527.     A  strange  cfroumsUnce  facilitoted 
the  JIussulman  conquest.     To  save  their  wealth 
the  grittter  number  of  magnates,  and  almost  all 
the  Uogomiles,   who  were   exasperated    by  the 
cruel  iHTsecution*  directed  Kgainst  them   went 
over  to  Islaniism.     From  that  time  they  became 
the  m.»t  anient  followers  of  M<ihammedanism 
whilst  keeping  the  language  and  names  of  th.  r 
ancesKirs.     They  fought  everywhere  In  the  fop-- 
front  of  the  battles  which  gained  Hungary  for 
the  Turks."     Within  the    present    century  the 
Btk man  Miissulmiins  have  risen  in  arms  "against 
all  the  reforms  that   Europe,  in  the   name  of 
modem  principles,  wrested  from  the  Porte  "— 
E.  de  Ijjveliye,  T/u  IMkan  ruiiMiiUt,  ch  8 
Also  in:  L,  von  Uankc.  IIM.  i>f  Serrin  Ae 
loth-iith  Centuries  (Bulrarial.— The  First 
Bulnrian    Kingdom  and   its    overthrow  by 
Basil   11.— ■•  riie  Kl,)ry  of  the  llulgarians  was 
c<>nniK><l  to  a  narrow  s<opo   IkiiIi  of  time  and 
place.      In   the    9th  and    10th    centuries    they 
reigned   to  the  south  of  the   Danutie,    but  the 
more   powerful  nations  that  hiul  foilowwl  their 
emigration  niHlled  all  return  to  ilio  north  and 
all  pn.aress  to  the  west.  ...   In  the  l».gi„ning 
of  the  1  th  e.nliiry,  I  lie  Second  Basil  [liyzomine 
or  (Jn-ek  tnipernr.    A.   I).  U70-llt2.-.|  wlic  was 
lK>rn  in  the  jmrpK  ,  ,h'sciv«l  tlie  appellation  of 
cimqiieror  of    tlic   Bulgarians  [sulHiued   by  his 
pmh'irssor.  .Folin  Zimisccs,  but  still  reU'llfousl 
Ills  avariei'  w».h  in  some  measure  rnitlHcd  bv  a 
treasure    of    4(X»,(H)0     pounds    steriing    iIOIhW 
pounds    weight  of  golil)  which  he  f on  .id  In'tlie 
palace  of  I.vehnidus.    His  cruelly  inHictal  a  col 
am   exiiuli.|le  vengeance  on  15.0<>l),,,ntives  who 
hwl  b«'en  guilty  of  the  defence  of  tlu  ir  coiintrv 
They  were  deprived  of  sight,  but  to  one  of  e.u'l'i 
hundnd  a  slnirl.'  eve  was  left,  that  he  might  con- 
duct his  blind  century  to  the  pnT«.|icc  of  their 

•'I?",  V":^'  •''""  '»  "•''1  '"  '"♦»•••  '"P'rcii  of 
grief  and  li.irnir,  (he  nation  was  awiil  by  this 
terrible  example;  the  Bulgarians  were  swept 
«wa.V  fn)in  their  setlleinenU.  and  clreumscrilM-d 
within  a  narrow  province,  the  surviving  chiefs  be- 
queathed to  their  chllilrea  the  advice  of  patience 


254 


and  fall  of  tit  Romiin  Empire,  eh.  55 

Also  in:   O.   Finlay,    Jiitt.   of  tht  Byznntiue 
Emrnn.fnna  716  to  1007,  bk.  2,  7k.  2.-Sie    i Is^ 
C  ONgTANTiNopi,E:  A.  D.  907-1043,  and  Acukika' 
1  HE  Kingdom  op. 

pA,°;  '096  (BulB«ri»\-Hostilltie.  with  the 
FHjt  Crusaders,    bee  CRuaAUEs:  A.  1).  lu«(^- 

laith  Centnrr  (Bulg«ri«).-The  Second  Bui- 
B«n«n  or  WjUehUn  Kingdom.- •  The  reign 
of  Isaac  ir.  [Byzantine  or  Gre-ek  Emneror  A  T) 
1185-1195]  is  Hlk-d  with ««,ries of  rev'Sts  0^^,^ 
by  his  incapable  administration   and    anaiieial 
rapaciiy     The  most  important  of  these  was  the 
great  rebellion  of  the  Vallachian  and  Bulgurian 
populathm  which  occupied  the  country  between 
Mount  Ha;mug  and  Uie  Danube.    The  immense 
population  of  this  extensive  country  now  sen- 
arated  itsi-lf  finally  from  the  government  of  the 
Eastern  Empire,  ami  iu  political  destinies  ceased 
to  be  united  with  those  of  the  Greeks.    A  new 
European   monarehy.    called  the  Vallachian.  01 
bccond  Bulgarian  kingdom,  was  formol.  which 
for  some  time  acted  an  important  part  in  tlie 
affairs  of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  ami  contributt'd 
p<)wcrfully  to  tlie  depressio.  of  the  Greek  raee 
ThcsuddenimnortanccassMne.Iby  the  VallueliiaD 
population  in  this  revolution,  and  the  gnat  e>t -ut 
of  country  then  occupied  by  a  iwo|iie  wii.,  .md 
previously  acted  no  prominent  part  in  th.  political 
events  of  the  East,  render  it  necessar-  to  Kive 
some  account  of  their  previous  history.    Four 
dilTerent  countries  are  siwken  of  under  the  name 
of  Vallachla  by  the  Byzantine  writers:  (ireat 
V  allachia.  which  was  the  country  round  tlie  i.laia 
of  1  hessaly,  iiarticulariy  tlid  s<iiithern  and  south- 
western part      White  Vailachia.  or  the  niulern 
Bulgaria,  which  formed  the  ValJachlo-Bulgariun 
kingdom   that  re-volled  from  Isaac  II.:   Black 
Va  lacliia,    Mavro-Vallachia,    or    Karolwplcn, 
which  Is  Mohhivia;  and  Hungamvallachia,  or  the 
vallachla  of  the  present  day,  comprising  a  lart 
.   Ti"!!*'''.'"";'*-  ■  •  •  '^'^  question  remains  un- 
decided whether  these  Vallachians  arc  the  lineal 
<U-«ccndanU  of  the  Thracinn  race,  who.  ^\nU> 
tells  us.  cxUnded  as  far  south  as  Thessniy,  and  us 
far  north  as  to  the  borders  of  Pannonia ;  for  of 
I,    i:.;.    '"'"   language   wo   know    nothing  "— 
U.  Finlay,  Ihrt.  of  the  nytiinUiudvii  Hi,rk  Km 
pin;  from  716  to  1453,   A*.   8,  eh.  8   wrr   1  - 

"  ,!',",''.'■'■  ""'y  wreofHlavIc  origin  or  of  Gaelic 
or  Welsh  origin,  whether  they  were  the  u1k>- 
riglnal  Inhaliitauls  of  themuntry  whohad<oiiie 
umlerthc  intluencc  of  the  elder  Home,  aiul  had 
acquired  so  many  Latin  words  as  to  overlay  tlieir 
language  am'  to  retain  little  more  than  Ihi'Vrain- 
nmtical  forms  and  iiiouhl  of  their  own  lant'imiie 
or  whether  they  were  thedescendanlsof  the  I  n 
cohmlsta  of  Ducla  (we  Dacia:  ThajanV  Con- 
HVKtr]  with  a  large  mixture  of  other  |)ei.pli-«. 
are  all  questions  which  have  been  much  i..nlro- 
verUil.  It  is  remarkable  (hat  while  no  people 
living  on  the  south  of  the  Balkans  appear  t.,  Ijc 
mentioned  as  Walliichs  until  the  (eiilli  eeiiiiiry, 
when  Anna  Coninenn  menllons  a  village  lalUii 
Ezclian,  near  Mounl  Klssavo,  iKTupled  bv  ilntn, 
almost  suildeiily  we  hear  of  (hem  as  a  tnat 
niiliontodicsouthof  the  Balkans.  Tliev  ►poks 
a  language  wliirb  differed  little  from'  Latin 
Thessniy.  during  the  (welfih  (rnlurv  in  ii»iially 
called  Great  Wallaehla.  .  .  .  Ih'sides  lln^  U»l- 
lachs  in  Thessaly,  whusc  descendants  are  now 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES.  BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


called  Kutzo-Wallachs,  there  were  the  WallKchs 
in  D»cia,  the  ancestore  of  the  preaent  Rouman 
Una,  and  Mavm-Wallacha  in  Dalmatis.  Indeed 
according  to  the  Hungarian  and  Byzantine  writ- 
ers, there  were  during  the  twelfth  century  a 
series  of  WallHchian  peoples,  extending  from  the 
Thci58  to  the  Dniester.  .  .  .  The  woia  Wallach 
is  usi'd  by  the  Byzantine  writers  as  equivalent  to 
shepherd,  and  it  may  be  that  the  common  use  of 
a  dialect  of  Latin  by  all  the  Wallachs  is  the  only 
liond  of  union  among  the  peoples  bearing  that 
name.  They  were  nil  occasionally  spolien  of  by 
the  Byzantine  vrriters   as   descendants   of  the 

'5°'S*''"-  ';Z^-  ''™"-  ^'^  ^^  "f  CorutantinopU 
eh.  3.-''The  classical  type  of  feature,  so  ofTa 
met  with  among  Roumanian   peasants,  pleads 
strongly  for  the  theory  of  Roman  extraction  and 
if  just  now  I  compared  the  Saxon  peaaanU  to 
Noah  s   arit   figures   rudely   carved  out  of  the 
coarsest  wood,  the  Roumanians  as  often  remind 
me  of  a  type  of  face  chiefly  to  be  seen  on  cameo 
ornaments,  orancient  signet  rings.    Take  at  ran- 
dom a  score  of  individuals  from  any  Roumanian 
rillaee.  and,  lilce   a  handful  of  antique  gems 
which  have  been  strewn  broa<Icast  over  the  land 
you  will  there  surely  find  a  pood  cnolce  of  classi- 
cal profiles  worthy  to  be  Immortalized  on  agate 
onyx,  or  Jasper.    An  air  of  plaintive  melancholy 
pnera  ly  characterizes  the  Roumanian  peasant- 
It  is  the  melancholy  of  a  long-subjected  and 
oppressed  r«cc.  .  .  .  Perhaps  no  other  race  pos- 
sesses in  such  marked  degree  the  blind  and  1m- 
mo^'ablc  sense  of  nationality  which  characterizes 
he  Roumanians.    They  hardly  ever  mingle  with 
the  surrounding  races,  far  less  adopt  mannen 
snrt  customs  foreign  to  their  own.    This  sinirular 
tenacity  of  the  Roumanians  to  their  own  dress 
manners  and  customs  is  probably  due  to  the  In'- 
tluenr..  of  thc|r  reHgion   [the   Greek   chureh] 
I'inf !i"™ !'"  *;™y  'll^'-rpence  from  their  own 
es  abl  *|,^  .„Ir,  i,  sirf,,|.-'_E.  Gerard,   Tmn- 
•ylmnimi  i-,,pif,  (CrHte-np.  lirr..  .Vanh   1887) 

Stephan  Oushan.-'In  1.341.  when  John  Can- 
n™z™usas«ume,lthepurple[at  Constantinople], 
mportant  prospccu  were  opened  to  the  Servfani 

t^ntarurenus  .        went  up  the  mounuins  and 

trv  ™  "'^*^''>,'"'-  ■"•horn  he  fouml  i^  coun- 
L>  ,r'Tf ,V  '^"'■».  '«  Join  his  cause."  As  the 
nsu.t  of  this  connection,  and  by  favor  of  the  op 
^.rtunit,,..  which  the  ,ivil  war  and  genera?  de- 

T  Civ  MlJiii'  *;'"  ''"-"'"i""'  over  EnVrus 
•Tr^auu*''"**'™'"-  ■""'  «  P'»rt  Of  Thrace 
The  .Shkypetares  in  Albania  followed  his 
In  piinAr  "O'l  Joannina  were  in  his  ^«.J1* 
wnL^  ^^ri^r  f"''""  '■''  Volvo,!,.,  [Palatines], 

f,7^„  ^  °  J'^  ^*''''"'  '">''  'ho  Mnrizzn  as 
Z  "  U'llgaria,   which  he    also  regarti,"  lis  a 


266 


r.^  ^    'J*^  laid  the  foundation,  and  ere  be 
n^Jnl?"!^!;.?!?  his  power  by  the  bulwark  of 

&^  «A  1-a"  ^"^  ^^-  '^°°  ^''''*'  -"*"•  "•'' 

Also  IK:  M'me  E.  L.  Mljat,)vich,  Khuovo,  Int. 

A.  D.  1380   (Bulg:ari«).— Conqnett  by   the 

5^60^389  ■"   *'^'"'  0™"ANS):   A.  D 

ft.Ii«J^'"i!.'^  (Bnlgrari.).- Subjection   to 
,%^i.v^  "J™?*"^-  A   D.  1301-1448. 
I4tb.i8th  Centunei   (Roumanla.    or  Wal. 

cSrfikSf..  >Jold.»i.).-Four  cintnrie.  of 
hr  «  V  ^*''  Hunpinane  and  Turks.—"  The 
hlv"".l"?"'^'^*°  monarehv,  whatever  may 
have  been  Ito  limits,  was  annlfelUtcd  by  a  hoiSfe 
of  Tnrtai^  about  A.  D.  1250.  The  mme  raci 
committed  great  havoc  in  Hungary,  cmS 
t  ^"^"l  r?"*"  ""IdaviaT  trensyl'vanK 
middle  of  the  14th  century,  when  tncv  wer» 
driven  northward  by  the  Hungarian,  Saxon  and 
exlt'w'^'h*"'  '!i  Transvlvanit  and  with  Xir 
exit  we  have  done  with  the  barbarians. 

h.i  i..1?*f  "y  *,'!?  '■'»'"''»>'«  of  Roumanla  havi 
o?^,i.""''ii^)i"''  """™  •^"naming  the  events 
-^""f  P*""?  "cyond  traditions  wilich,  though 
very  Interesting  are  now  gradually  giving  plaTe 
to  recoBled  and  authenticated  fabts  *  It  u 
^l?!,;^!^.  ""'  the  plains  and  slopes  of  the 
Carpathtons  were  inhabited  by  commuiiities 
naledover  bv  chieftains  of  varying  powcTand 
rm?nvf  wK.^T  *""=  banatis,*ar  that  of 
ni!;  a*' .  •'''i'  '°".^  remained  a  semi  Indepen- 
dent State;  then  there  were  petty  volvo<Ieror 

£1,^.1.  •  •  '"""^  ^^"^  tfiese' there  were 
Khanates,  .  .  some  of  which  were  pettr 
principalities,  whilst  othen  were  merely  thJ 
goveraorships  of  villages  or  groups  of  them 

hUt;,^  '^;  °"*,  "'  "•*  '"'"*'  "'  Roumanian 
history,    not    only    secured    the    independent 

f^L  ^l  *m  encc  of  God.-  but  in  1.389  he 
formed  an  alliance  with  Poland,  and  assumed 
°  h"  title*  by  the  right  of  conqucsr  This 
m1^^,  1  •  ^  '"'■  It?  "bjocts  the  extension  of 
his  dominions  as  well  as  protection  airalnst 
Hungary  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Ottoman 
power  on  the  other:  for  the  .  .  .  Turkish  ar^ie" 
had  overrun  Bulgaria,  and  about  the  year  1891 
tUL  ,        ?"!f  "'*l''  apt^sfHice  n,>rth  of  the 

successful  In  stemming  the  tllle  of  invasion" 
but  after  a  year  or  two,  "finding  himself  be- 
tween two  powerful  enemies,  the  King  of  Hun- 
gary and  the  SulUn,  Mireea  elected  to  form  an 
al  ance  with  the  latter,  and  concludcl  a  treaty 
with  him  at  Nicopolis  (1893).  known  as  the  Fii/t 
Capitulation,  by  which  Wallachia  retained  its 
autonomy  but  agreed  to  pay  an  annual  tribute 
and  to  acknnwlclgethe  suzerainty  of  the  Sultan 
.  .  .  According  to  several  historians  Mlrca  did 
not  adhere  to  it  long,  for  he  Is  said  to  have  been 
In  command  of  a  contingent  In  the  army  of  the 
cruM,lers,  and  to  hnv,.  I^n  present  at  the  battle 
of  Nicopolis  (1396).  in  whIcA  the  i'.uwer  of  tie 
French  nobility  fell.  and.  when  he  found  thei? 
muse  to  be  hop,.|,.ss,  once  more  to  have  deserted 
hem  and  joine,!  the  victorious  anna  of  Bsjazet. 
ur  the  contiuucd  wars  and  dissensions  in  Wal- 
lachia  during  the  reign  of  Mireea  It  Is  unnc-ces- 
"'X'l'^/ff*^  J^'  "''•■'<  *•">  varying  fortunes 
until  His  A   n  "    A  Srt-ond  Capitufali.m  w2 
ooncludwl.  M  AdiUcople.  wiUi  Uie  TuriU,  S 


m 


i 


H 


;!Ji 


BALKAN  AND  DANXJBIAN  STATES. 

Ji*?;  *'7  ,*  '■'*"■  Wallachian  voivcdc,  named 
Vlad.  It  incrvased  the  tribute  to  the  Porte  but 
made  DO  other  important  chanire  in  the  terms  of 
suzerainty.  Meantime,  in  the  neighbouring 
aioldavian  principality,  events  were  beginning 
to  shape  themselves  into  some  historical  distinct- 
ness "For  a  century  after  the  foundation  of 
Moldavia,  or,  as  it  was  at  first  called,  Bogdania, 


bv  Bogdan  Dragisch  [a  legendary  hero],  the 
hjstory  of  the  country  is  shrouded  in  darknerf 
Kings  or  princes  are  named,  one  or  more  of 
whom  were  Lithuanians.  .  .  .  At  length  a  prince 
"""*  fSr*''^"'  """  ">*  ■***  ascended  the  throne. 
■  A  ■  .  ^'"  Stephen,  sometimes  called  the 
^^«^\  °J' Good' ■  .  ■  He  came  to  the  throne 
about  14o6  or  1458,  and  reigned  until  1504,  and 
his  whDie  life  was  spent  in  wars  against  Transyl- 
vania \V  allachia,  ...  the  Turks,  and  Tartars. 
...  In  1475  he  was  at  war  with  the  Turks, 
whom  he  defeated  on  the  river  Birlad  In 

that  year  also  Stephen  .  .  .  completely  overran 
vvallachia.     Having  reduced  it  to  su'hmission 
he  placed  a  native  boyard  on  the  throne  as  his 
viceroy   who  showed  his  gratitude  to  Stephen 
bj  rebelling  and  liberating  the  country-  from  his 
«r  ,;    ,H'  "'=  ^'»»  '°  his  turn  murd-red  by  his 
Wallachian  subjects.     In  1478  Stephen  sustained 
a  temblc  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  Ottomans  at 
\  alea  Alba  (the  White  Vallev),  but  eight  yeara 
afterwanls.  allied  with  the  Poles,  he  again  en- 
counu-red  [and  defeated]  this  terrible  enemy 
■  ■  ■  After  the  tattle  of  Mohacs  [see  Hcsoart- 
A.  D.  1487-1526]  the  Turks  began  to  encroach 
more    openly   upon    Roumanian    (Moldo-Wal- 
Uchian)  territory.    They  occupied  and  fortilie<l 
Uraila,  Giurgcvo,  ami  Clalatz;  interfered  in  the 
election  of  the  princes  .  .  .  adding  to  their  own 
influence,  and  rendering  the  princes  more  and 
more  subservient  to  their  will.    This  state  of 
tilings  laste<l  until  the  end  of  the  16th  ce    -iry 
when  another  hero,  Michael  the  Brave  o.  Wall 
lacliia.  restored  tranquility  and  independence  to 
the  Irimipshties,  and  raised  them  for  a  season 
in  the  esteem  of  surrounding  nations. "    Michael 
wlio  nioiinled  the  throne  in  1593,   formed  aii 
alliance    with    the    Prince    of    Slcbenbtlrgen 
(Transylvania)  and  the  voivo<lc   of   Moldavia 
against   the   Turks.     He   began   his   warfare! 
rjovember  1501.  by  a  wholesale  massacre  of  the 
Turks  in  Bucharest  and  Jassv.      'c  then  took 
Giurgevo  by  stonn  and  defeated  the  Ottoman 
forces  in  a  battle  at  Rustchuk.     In  1595, Giurgcvo 
'«■'«  Jlie  sctueof  two  bloody  battles,  in  both  of 
which  Mhhael  came  off  victor,  with  famous 
laurels.     The  Turks  were  effectually  driven  from 
tlie  country.    The  ambition  of  the  victorious 
Jlichael    was    now    excited,    and    he    invaded 
Ininsylvania  (l,59«i  desiring  to  add  it  to  his  do- 
minions.     In  a  battle  "  which  is  called  by  some 
the  buttle  of   SchellenlxTg.   and  by  others  of 
llermauHtadt."  he  defeated  the  reigning  prin   • 
(ardlual  Andreas,  ami  Transylvania  was  at  hit 
feet.     lie  »iilKlue<l   Moldavia  with  equal  ease 
and  the  whole  of  ancient  Daela  lieoanie  subject 
to  Ills  rule.    The  Emp<.mr  Rudolph,  as  suzerain 
of  Transylvania,  fcognized  his  aiilhoritv.     But 
his  reign  WHS  brief.     Before  the  doae  of  the  year 
IWK)    a    rising  ix-curred  in  Transylvania,   and 
Michael    was   defeated    In  a  battle   fought  at 
Miriszlu.     He  escaped  to  the  mountains  and  be- 
came a  fugitive  for  some  months,  while  even  hit 
Waliachlan  throne  was  occupied  bv  a  brother  of 
ue   MoUavka  volvode.    It  length  he  mtde 


BALKAN  AND  DAm'BIAN  STATES. 


term*  with  the  Emperor  Rudolph,  whose  nn. 
thority  had  been  slighted  by  the  Traimlvanmn 
Insurgente,  and  procured  men  and  money  with 
which  he  returned  in  force,  crushed  his  opmraenta 
at  Goroazlo,  and  reigned  again  as  viceroy     But 
he  quarreled  soon  with  tlic  commander  of  the 
hnperial  troops.  General  Basta,  and  the  lattir 
caused  him  to  be  assassinated,  some  time     , 
August  1601.  ...  The  history  of  Mol.lo.W,.|. 
acliia  during  the  17th  century  .  .  .  p,w«.s*s 
little  Interest  for  English  readera. "    At  thTemi 
?i  we   17th  century    "another   grea;    Powir 
IKussia]  was  drawing  nearer  and  nearer  to  Ron- 
mante,  which  was  eventually  to  ezcrcl«.  a  erave 
influence  upon  her  destiny.  ...  In  the  iHcin- 
ning   of    the   18tli   century   there   ruled   two 
voivodes,  Corjtantine  Brancovano.  In  Wallacliii 
and  Der     rius  Cantemir  in  Moldavia,  both  of 
whom  ha(.  t>een  appointed  in  the  usual  inanucr 
under  the  suzerainty  of  the  Porte;  hut  tlusc 
princes.  Independently  of  each  other,  had  cntemi 
Into  negotiations  with  Peter  the  Great  after  th,. 
defeat  of  Charles  XII.  at  Pultawa  (17i)9)   to 
assist  them  against  the  Sultan,  their  suzciiiin 
stipulating  for  tlieir  own  Independence  uudcr 
the  protection  of  the  Czar."    Peter  was  ludurid 
to  enter  the  country  with  a  considerable  amiy 
[1 .11],  but  soon  found  himself  in  a  posiliuri  from 
winch  there  appeared  little  chance  of  esrspe 
He  was  extricated  only  by  the  cleverness  of  the 
Czarina,  who  bribed  the  Turkish  comnisnclcr 
with   her  Jewels  — see  Scandinavian   .Stvtes 
(MVEDES):   A.   D.  1707-1718.     The  Mohlnviaa 
Volvodc  escaped  with  the  Russians.    Tlie  Wal- 
laehian,  Brancovano,  was  aeizcd.  taken  to  Con- 
stantinople, and  put  to  death,  along  with  his 
four  sons.     "  Stephen  Cantacuzene.  tlie  son  of 
his  accusers,  was  made  Voivode  of  Wallachla 
but  like  his  pretlecessore  he  only  enjoyed  the 
honour  for  a  britf  term,  and  two  years  after- 
wards he  waa  deuoaed,  ord'  ;d  to  Constantinople 
imprisoned,  and   deu-  litated;   and   with   him 
terminated  the  rule  of  the  native  priiinn  who 
were  followed,  both  In  Wallachla  and  Muhiavia, 
by    the   so-called    Phanariote    governors    [sec 
PiLANARlOTEs]  or  farmere-^eneral  of  the  I'orte, " 
— J.  Samuelson,  Soumama,  Piut  and  I'l-meiit 
pt.  2,  eh.  11-18. 

I4th-t9tli  Centuries:  (Montenegro)  The 
new  Serria.— "  The  people  that  inliabit  ilio  two 
territories  known  on  the  map  as  Serviu  and 
Montenegro  are  one  and  the  same.  If  voii  asik 
a  .Montenegrin  what  language  he  siHakn.  he 
replies  'Serb.'  The  last  of  the  S-rb  (Varsf.ll 
gloriously  fighting  at  Kossovo  In  l:i.s9  [ste 
Ti-RKs:  A.  D.  lMO-1389].  To  this  ,l,v  the 
Montenegrin  wears  a  strip  of  black  silk  upon 
his  headgear  In  memory  of  tliat  faUl  day.  .  .  . 
The  bravo  Serbi  who  escaped  from  Kd«.snvo 
found  a  sanctuary  In  the  mountains  that  <.\  ( rlimk 
the  Bay  of  CatUro.  Their  leaiicr,  Iv..  vur- 
nam«Hl  Tsemoi  (Black),  gave  the  iim ..  of 
Tzmogora  (Montenegro)  to  tliese  desert  n.cki. 
.  .  .  Servia  having  become  a  Turkish  proviniv, 
her  colonists  created  In  Montenegro  a  m  w  and 
Independent  ServU  [see  Turks:  A.  1»  U'll- 
1481].  The  memory  of  Ivo  the  Bkik  U  still 
grven  in  the  country.  Springs.  ruiiiN  and 
caverns  are-  called  after  him,  and  the  people  \mt 
forward  to  the  day  when  he  will  reapixar  as 
a  political  Metdall.  But  Ivo'a  desniulanU 
proved  unworthy  of  him ;  they  commltii  1  tbs 
unpardunable  aln  of  marryiag  sUcn*,  atid  •■  ^\r 


256 


Ilii 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 

In  the  l«th  century  the  last  desoendnnt  of  Ivo  the 
Black  retired  to  Venice.     From    1518    to   1607 
Montenegro  was  ruled  by  elective  Vladikas  or 
Bishops;  from  1697  to  18.51  by  hereditary  Vla- 
dikas.    For  the  Montenegrins    the    16th.    17th 
and  18th  centuries  formed  a  period  of  Incessant 
warfare.  ...  Up  till    1703   the   Serbs   of  the 
mountain  were  no  more  absolutely  independent 
of  tlie  Sultan  than  their  enslaved  kinsmen  of  the 
plain.    Tlie  Havatch  or  Sultan's  slipper  tax  was 
levied  on  the   mountaineers.    In    1703    Pinilo 
Pftrovitch    celebrated    his    consecration    as   a 
Christian  Bishop  by  ordering  the  slaughter  of 
every  Mussulm.in  who  refuse<l  to  be  baptised. 
This  massacre  took  place  on  Christmas  Eve  1703. 
.  .  .  The    17th    and    18th    centuries    were   for 
Montenegro   a   struggle  for  existence.    In  the 
19th  century  began  their  struggle  for  an  outlet 
to  the  sea.    The  fall  of  Venice  would  naturally 
have  given  the  mountaineers  the  bay  of  CattJiro. 
had  not  the  French  stepped  in  and  annexed  Dal- 
matia."    In  1813,  the  Vladika,  Peter  I.,  "with 
the  aid  of   the  British   flei.'t  .  .  .  took  Cattaro 
from  the  French,  but  (pursuant  to  an  arrangement 
between  Russia  and  Austria)  was  compelled  sub- 
sequently to  relinquish  It  to  the  latter  power. 
.  .  .  Peter  I.  of  Montenegro  .  .  .  died  In  1830, 
at  the  age  of  80.  .  .  .  His  nephew  Peter  II.  was 
a  vise  ruler.  ...  On  the  death  of  Peter  II., 
Prin'.a  Danilo,  the  uncle  of  the  present  Prince, 
went  to   Russia   to  be   consecrated    Bishop  of 
Montenegro.    The  czar  seems  to  have  lauglieii 
him  out  of  this  ancient   practice;  and  the  late 
Prince  instead  of  converting  himself  Into  monk 
and  bishop  returned  to    his    own  country  a.nd 
married  [im[].  .  .  .  Prince  Danilo  was  a-ssiis- 
sinntod  at  Cattaro  (I860).  .  .  .  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  nephew  Nicholas."-^.  G.  C.  Minchin, 
.SpmVi    and    Jfimteiugro    (Nationnl    Life    ami 
Thnuqht,    kct.    19). —  "The    present    fiirm   of 
eovernment  In  Montenegro  is  at  once  the  most 
Uespotic  and  the  most  popular  In  Europe— des- 
potic, because  the  will  of  the  Prince  Is  the  law  of 
the  land ;  and  popular,  because  the  personal  rule 
of  the  Prince  meets  all  the  wants  and  wisliesof  the 
people.     No  Sovereign  In  Europe  sits  so  firmly 
on  his  throne  as  the  Prince  of  this  little  Stale, 
and  no  Sovereign  is  so  absolute.    The  Montene- 
grins  have   no   army;  the/  are   themselves  a 
stiinding  army."— J.  O.  C.  Minchin,  T/u>  Orncth 
of  rrffdiin  in  the  Balkan  PeninntUi.  eh.  l.—\.  A. 
Patnn,  Rifitreha  on  the  Diinuhe  and  the  Adriatii; 
hk.  a,  M7(e.  1).— L.  Von  Ranke,  Iliet  of  Serria. 
♦c.  .■    HUiK    Pn  ~:neei   of    Trtrketi,    eh.    %^  — 
"Montenegro  is  an  extremely  curious  instance 
of  the  way  in    which    favourable  geographical 
cimiliiions  may  aid  a  small  people  to  achieve  a 
fame  and  a  place  in  the  world  quite  out  of  pro- 
p'Ttmn  to  their  numticrs.     The  Black  Mountain 
Is  the  one  place  where  a  South  Sclavonic  com- 
munity maintained  themselves  in  Independence 
Koniiliines  seeing  their  territory  overrun  by  the 
lurks,    hut    never    acknowledging     Turkish 
amlK.rily  de  Jure  from  the  time  of  the  Turkish 
t  iimiucst  of  the  I.Mh  century  down  to  the  Treaty 
of  ll.,lui      Montenegro   could    not    have   done 
that  but  for  her  geographical  structure.    She  Is  a 
hijrli  mass  of  limestone;   you  cannot  call  it  a 
plHtesM,  because  It  is  seamed  by  many  valleys, 
and    rises   into    many    sharp   mountain-peaks. 
.    •>    l?^  mountain  num.  the  average  Iielg.it 
of  which  Is  rather  more  thin  8,000  feet  above 
U e  •<.».  with  summlu  «««■  hlt,«  i,W;.    It  is  bare 


257 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 

limestone,  so  that  there  Is  hardly  anything 
grown  on  It,  only  grass— and  very  good  grass— 
In  spots,  with  little  patches  of  com  aud  potatoes, 
and  It  has  scarcely  any  water.  Its  upland  U 
covered  with  snow  In  winter,  while  in  sum- 
mer the  Invaders  have  to  carry  their  water  with 
them,  a  seriousdifflculty  when  there  were  no  roads 
and  active  mountalncera  flred  from  behind  every 
rock,  a  difflculty  which  becomes  more  serious  the 
larger  the  invading  force.  Consequently  It  is 
one  of  the  most  Impracticable  regions  imaginable 
for  an  invading  army.  It  is  owing  to  tliose 
circumstances  that  this  handful  of  people  — 
bcQiuso  the  Montenegrins  of  the  17th  cent  .ry 
did  not  numlier  more  than  40  100  or  50,0<i)  — 
have  maintained  their  inde|,endt.,ce.  That  they 
did  maintain  it  is  a  fact  most  important  in  the 
history  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  and  may  liave 
great  consequences  yet  to  come."— J.  Bryce 
Helntioiu  of  Hittoiy  and  Oeography  (ConUmn. 
Bet.,  Mar.,  1886). 

I4th-i9th  Centnrist.— (Ser*;«) :    The  lonr 
oppreision  of  th»  Turk.- Strurele  for  fre^ 
dom  onder  Kara  Georsr  and  Dfilotch.- Inde- 
pendence   achiered.- The    Obrenovitch    dy- 
nasty.—"Tlie    brilliant    victories    of    Steplian 
Dushan  were   a    misfortune    to    Cliristemlom. 
Tliey  shattenKi  tne  Greek  empire,  the  last  feeble 
bulwark  of  Europe,  and   paved  the    way  for 
those  ultimate  successes  of  the  Asiatic  conqucr- 
ora  which  a  timely  union  of  strengtii  might  have 
prevented.    Stcphan  Dushan  conquerc<l,  but  did 
not  consolidate:  and  his  scourgir'?  wars  were  in- 
sufficiently balanced  by  the  advantage  of  the 
code  of  laws  to  which  he  gave  his  name.     His 
son  Lrosh,  being  a  weak  and  incapable  prince, 
was  murdered  by  one  of  the  generals  of  the 
army,  and  thus  ended  the  Neman  dynasty,  after 
having  subsisted  813  years,  and  priKliiced  eight 
kings  and  two  empemrs.     The     :  )wn  now  de- 
volved on  Knes,  or  Prince  Las.i     .i  <   nnexion  of 
the  hruse  of  Neman.  ...(>'  all  the  ancient 
rulera  of  the  countrv,  his  ini'inory  is  held  the 
dearest  by  the   Servians  of  the   prexent  dnv  " 
Knes  Lasar  perished  in  the  fatal  battle  of  Km- 
sovo,  and  with  him  fell  the  Servian  monarchy 
(see  TCBKS:  A.    D.    1360-1389.    UOS-lWl    and 
1459;  also  Montkneoiio).     "The  Turkish  con- 
quest was  followed  by  the  gradual  dispersion  or 
disappearance  of  the  native  nobilitv  of  Servia, 
the  last  of  whom,   the  Brankuvltch,   lived  as 
'despots' in  the  castle  of  Svincndria  up  to  the 
iH'vinning  of  the  18th  century.  .  .  .  The  period 
preceding  the  second  siege  of  Vienna  was  the 
s|)ring-llde  of  Islam  conquest,     Affr  this  event, 
in  1684,  began  the  clili.      Hunearv  was  lost  to 
the  Porte,  anil  six  yeara  afterwanis  37,000  Ser- 
vian familii-a  cmlgrate<l  into  that  kingdom :  tli's 
fli-st  led  the  way  to  contact  with  the  civilization 
of  Germany,  .  .  .  Servia   Proper,    for  a    sliort 
time  wrested  from  the  Porte  by  the  victories  of 
Prince  Eugene,  again  became  a"  part  of  the  do- 
minions of  the  Sub  in  [see  Ri-ksia:  .V.  D,  1719]. 
But  a  turbulent  n.ilitia  overawed  the  govern 
ment  and  tyrannizwl  over  the  Rayahs,     Pa,sviin 
Oglou  and  his  bands  at  \VI''llu  were,  at  tUc  "';! 
ofthe  last  century,  l:i  oix-n  t.'vi.lt  against  the 
Porto.     Other  chiefs  had  followed  his  example; 
an<i   for  the  first  time  the  Divan  thought  of 
associating  Christian  Rayahs  with  the  spalls,  to 
put  down  thes-j  rebels.     Tue  Dahls,   as  these 
brigsnd-ehiefr,  \ttK  called,  resolved  t<i  anticipate 
the  appnwciiiiig  Mruggle  by  a  luaawtcre  ot  the 


II' 


n 


v, 


1  i 


ml.  .,■ 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBUX  STATES.  BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


most  influential  Christians.   This  atrocious  ma- 
■acre  was  carriwl  otit  with  indescribable  horror 
i^„     .  "^  ^^«  P^"^^  George],   a    peasant 
.<      ,  "'.  ToPo'*  «!>"'"  the  year  1767,    pettin 
timely  information  tliat  his  name  was  in  the  lisi 
or  the  (i.Tomed.  fled  into  the  woods,  and  irradu- 
ally  orpinized  a  formidable  force.     In  tlie  name 
Of  tlie  l^orte  he  combatwl  tlie  Dahis,  who  had 
usuriKil  Iwal  authority  in  dcHnnce  of  tlie  Pasha 
of  B,.I,;ra,lc.    The  Divan,  little  anticipatinR  the 
ultimate  Issue  of  the  strujr«;le  in  Scrvia,  was  at 
■flrst  delighted  at  the  success  of  Kara  Oeorg;  but 
aoon  saw  with  consternation  that  the  rising  of  the 
.Bervmn  peasants  grew  into  a  formidable  n^lwlllon 
and  onlcr.-d  the  Pashas  of  Bosnia  and  Scodrs  to 
Msemble  all  their  disposable  forces  and  Invade 
^,»  *<•  .  Between  40,000  and  50,000  Bosniacs 
?^  ^°*f,,'^^^'^  ?°  the  west,  in  the  spring  of 
1806,  cutting  to  pieces  all  who  refused  to  receive 
Turkish  authority       Kara  Ocorg  undauntedly 
met  tlie  storm,"  defeating  the  Turkish  forces 
near    Tchoupria,    September.  1804,    and   more 
Mverelv  two  years  later  (August,  1806)  at  Sha- 
^/:    u  ^«<*'"]«'"  o' the  same  year  he  surprised 
and  took  Belgrade.   "The  succeeding  years  were 
pajwed  in  the  vicissitudes  of  a  guerilfa  warfare, 
neither  party  obtaining  any  marked  success;  and 
an  auxiliary  corps  of  Rus-sians  assisted  In  pre- 
venting the  Turks  from  making  the  re-conqiest 
pt  Scrvia.  .  .  .  Kara  Oeorg  was  now  a  Russian 
lieutenant-general,  and  exercised  an  almost  un- 
limited power  In  Scrvia;  the  revolution,  after  a 
•trugcle  of  eight  years,  appeared  to  be  success- 
lui,  but  the  momentous  evenU  then  passini;  in 
Europe  completely  altered  tin  aspect  of  affaira 
Kussia,  in  1812,  on  the  approach  of  the  countless 
legions  of  Napoleon,  precipitately  concluded  the 
(treaty  of  Bucharest,  tlie  eighth  article  of  which 
Iformally  assured  a  separate  administration  to  the 
Bervians.      Next  year,    however,    was  fatal   to 
Kara  Oeorg.     In  1813,  the  vigour  of  the  Otto- 
man empire  .  .  .  wa.s  now  concentrated  on  the 
resubjugation  of  Servia.  A  gencml  panic  seeme.! 
to  seize   the  natic  ,;  and  Kara  Georg  and  his 
companions  In  anns  sought  a  retreat  on  the  Aus- 

l"","».'-"iIi'>'"?.V*^'',""'"™  PaMwt  into  WallBchla. 
In  1814.  300  Christians  were  impaled  at  Belgrade 
by  the  Pasha,  and  every  vallev  in  Scrvia  pre- 
sented the  spectacle  of  infuriated  Ti.r-..:sh  spahls 
avenging  on  the  Servians  the  blood,  exile  and 
conHsoation  of  the  ten  preceding  years.     At  this 
period,  Milosh  Obrenovltch  appears  prominently 
on  tlic  po  Itlcal  tapis.     He  spent  his  youth  In 
herding  the  fame<l  swine  of  8«-rvia;  and  during 
the  revolution  was  cmploved  by  Kara  Oeorg  to 
watch  the  passes  of  tlie  Balkans.  ...  He  now 
saw  that  a  favourable  conjuncture  had  come  for 
his  advancement  from  the  position  of  chiefuin 
to  that  of  chief;    he  therefore  lost  no  time  in 
making  terms  with  the  Turks,  offering  to  collect 
the  tribute,  to  serve  them  faithfully,  and  to  aid 
them  In  the  resubjugation  of  the  people. 
He  now  displayed  singular  activity  In  the  ex- 
tirpation of  nil  the  other  popular  chiefs,'  until 
he  found  reason  to  suspect  that  the  Turks  were 
only  usins  him  to  destroy  him  In  the  end.  Then 
In  mn    he  turned  upon  tliem  and  raised    tlii 
standsr.1  of  revolt.     The  movement  which  ho 
headed  was  so  formidable  that  tlie  Porte  made 
haste  to  treat,   and   Mllosch  made    favourable 
terms  for  himself,  being  reinstated  as  tribiitc- 
coileclor      "Many  of  the  chiefs,   Impatient  at 
the  apeedy  lubmiadon  of  Miloah,  wlahad  to  flght 


258 


the  inatter  out,  and  Kara  Georg.  in  order  to  glTe 
effect  to  their  plans,  landed  In  Scrvia.     MlC 
Mretended   to  be  friendly  to    his   design,    but 
>retly  betrayed  his  place  of  concealment  u>  the 
governor,   whose  men  broke  toto  the   cottas! 
where  he  slept,  and  put  him  to  death."-*  A 
Paton,  rUMarchn  on  the  Danube  andth*  Adrintt 
bk.  1.  f.8.-"In  1817  Milosch  was  pr.Xim% 
hermlitary  Prince  of  Scrvia  by    tlie'   Nm™„ 
As-scmbly.  ...  In  1830  the  autonomy  of  ii^rv^ 
was  at  length  solemnly  recognized  by  the  Pone 
and  Milosch  proclaimed  '  the  father  of  iheFiitLnr' 
1    ;:ii  •  V  a*''"' »''y  the  descendants  of  .Mil. 
osch  stiM  rule  over  Servia.  and  not  the  descen' . 
ants  of  Kara  George,  my  answer  is  that  cverv 
step  in  bervian  progress  is  connecte<l  with  tlw 
Obrenovltch  dynasty.     The  liberation   „f     ,1 
country  the  creation  of  a  peasant  preprietarv 
«ie  final  withdrawal  of  the  furkish  troop,  f S 
Belgrade   In    1863,   the    Independence    of    he 
country,  the  extension  of  iu  territory,  and  t Z 
making  of  itarailwayg._all  of  these  are  aiiC 
he  results  of  Obrenovltch  r-le.    The  founder  o? 
the  dynasty  had  n  1830  a  great  opportunity  o 
making  his  people  free  as  w»ll  as  indepenclent 
But  MTlo«^h  had  lived  too  long  with  Tuiks to  te 
a  lover  of  freedom.  .        la  1839  Milcscli  ab- 
dicated.    The  reason  for  this  step  was  timt  he 
refused  to  accept  a  constitution  which  Hussia 
■    .J".u'"''  ^"'^•^tcd   for  him.     This  charter 
vested  the  actual  government  of  the  country  in 
a  Senate  compose.!  of  Miloech's  rivals,  and  en- 
tirely Independent  of  that  Prince.  .        U  was 
anti-democratic,  no  less  than  nnti-dynastic    Mil. 
osch   was  8uccec<lodflrst  by  his  son  Milan,  anj 
on  Milan  s  death  by  Michael.      Michael  W8.i  too 
gentle  for  the  troubled  times  in  which  he  lived 
and  after  a  two  yearss  reign  he  too  st.irt«l  imoi 
his  travels.  ..  .   W  hen  Michael  crossi'il  the  Save 
Alexander  Kara  Georgcvitch  was  elected  Prince 
of  Servia.     From  184?  to  18.58  the  son  of  Black 
George  llve.1  — he  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have 
reigned  --  In  Belgrade.     During  these  17  years 
this  feeble  son  of  o  strong  man  did  ahsnliit,  ly 
nothing  for  his  country.  .  .  .  Late  in  is.i,  h'e 
fled  from  Servia,  and  Jlilosch  ruk-.l  In  h\i  stea.l 
Milosch  is  the  Grand  Old  Man  of  Serb  hi.story 
His  mere    presence  in  Servia  checked    the  \a- 
trigues  of  foreign  powers.  He  died  peaeefully  in 
hisbe<l.  .  .  .  Michael  succeeded  his  father   " 
Pnnce  Michael  was  munlered  by  convicts  in  the 
park  at  Topscliidcra  near  Belgrade  "    He  "uas 
succeetled  (1868)  by  Milan,  tlie  graud.son  of  Ze- 
nlirem,  the  brother  of  Milosch.     As  .Milan  \v;u 
barely  fourteen  years  of  age,  a  Regency  ef  thne 
was  appointed. "—J.  O.  C.   Mincliin,  Srn.i  „nd 
MonUneirro  {\ationnl  Life  and  T hou'ihl  krt  19] 
Also  in:  E.  dc  Laveleye,  Tha  Balhin  linin- 
tula,  fli.  6. 

.^\°-  J-'tS  (BoanU).— A  part  ceded  to  Aus- 
tri*  by  the  Turks.  See  Hungary:  A.  I).  1091I- 
lil8. 

A.  D.  1739  (Bosnia  and  Roumanial.-Entire 
restoration  of  Bosnia  to  the  Turks,  and  Ce«- 
•i.»no' Austrian  Wallachia.  ScoHimia:  AD 

19th  Century  (Roumania  and  SerriaV- 
,'l*""'"K  "'  ■  National  Spirit.- Tfte  effect 
of  historical  teaching.— "No  poliiieal  fa.l  is  of 
more  importance  and  Interest  In  nioderu  loull- 
nental  history  than  the  tenacity  with  wiiirli  the 
smaller  nations  of  Europe  preserve  their  pride  of 
nationality  in  the  lace  of  tb«  growing  tendfiicy 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 

tflvanUi  the  fomution  of  large,  ttronsly  con- 
ct'ntratcd  empires,  supported  by  powerful  armies. 
Why  should  Portu^  utterly  refuse  to  unite 
with  Spain?    Why  do  Holland   and  Belgium 
cling  to  their  existence  as  separate  States,  in 
spite  of  all  the  efforts  of  statesmen  to  join  them  T 
Why  do  the  people  of  Bohemia  and  Croathi, 
of  Finland,  and  of  Poland,  refuse  to  coalesce 
with  the  rest  of  the  population   of   the  em- 
pires of  which  they  form  but  small  sections? 
Why.  finally,  do  the  new  kingdoms  of  Roumanht 
and  Serria  show  such  astonishing  vitality  ?    The 
argiuncnts  as  to  distinctive  race  or  distinctive 
iHDguaKe  fail  to  answer  all  these  questions.  .  .  . 
This  rekindlirsof  the  national  spirit  is  the  result 
chiefly  of  the  development  of  the  new  historical 
school  all  over  the  Continent.    Instead  of  remain- 
hig  in  ignorance  of  their  past  history,   or,   at 
best,  regarding  a  mass  of  legends  as  containing 
the  true  talc  of  their  countries'  achievements, 
these  small  nations  have  now  learnt  from  the 
works  of  their  great  historians  what  the  story 
of  their  fatherlands  really  is,  and  what  title  they 
have  to  be  proud  of  their  ancestors.   These  great 
historians— Herculano,  Palacky,  Szechenyi,  and 
the  rest  —  who  made  it  their  aim  to  tell  the  truth 
and  not  to  show  off  the  beauties  of  a  fine  literary 
style,  all  belonged  to  the  generation  which  had  iu 
interest  amused  in  the  history  of  the  past  by  tJie 
novels  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  and  the  productions  of 
tlie  Romantic  School,  and  they  all  learnt  how 
history  was  to  be  studied,  and  then  written,  from 
Niebuhr,  Von  I{ankc  and  their  disciples  and  fol- 
lowers.   From  these  masters  they  learnt  that 
their  histories  were  not  tr  be  made  interesting  at 
the  expense  of  truth.  .  .  .  The  vitality  of  the 
new  historical  school  In  Roumania  is  particularly 
Mnarkable,    for  in    the    Danubian   provinces, 
which  form  that  kingdom,  even  more  strenuous 
efforts  limi  been  made  to  stamp  out  the  national 
spirit   thim    in    Bohemia.      The  extraordinary 
mpiility  with  which  Uie  Roumanian  people  lias 
reassertwl  itself  in  recent  vears,  is  one  of  the  most 
remarknlile   facta  in  nuxfem  European  history 
and  It  is  If-rgely  due  to  the  labours  of  its  liistor- 
ions.    Up  till  1832  the  Woumanian  languaw  was 
vigorou«1-    ,r()  c'led;  the  rulers  of  the  Danubian 
I'T"*  ■*   instruction  to  the    upper 

<^'"*  ge  of  the  rulers  only,  and 

*'"*■  n  the  days  of  the  Phanariota 

""^j  in!  and  fiuhionable  language, 

j''"'       ■  he  uobility  and  bourgeois, 

"*  r-  'cft  in  ;  ."iorance.    Four  men, 

wbose  .oservc  n     M.  first  endeavoured 

U)  niise  the  lioumoniai  ansuage  to  a  literary 
fcvel.  and  not  only  studied  Roumanian  history, 
buttrirf  to  tearh  the  Roumanian  people  some- 
Uiing  of  their  own  early  history,  (jf  these  four, 
Oiwge  Sohinkal  was  by  far  tlie  most  remark- 
alile.  Hi.  was  an  inhabitant  of  Transylvania,  a 
Ifciuinsniiin  province  which  still  remains  subject 
U>  llun^jarj-  and  he  first  Umught  of  tryinp  to 
revive  11^.  Kimmnntan  natUmality  by  teaching 
UR.  |x«i>l,.  their  history.  He  arraugi^d  the  annals 
f  hU.^umry  fr„n.  A.  D.  8«  to  A.  U.  173»  with 
liia<rwnr:u,ie  laNiur.  during  the  last  half  of  the 

fnlT  •",'■"'''' .™*'''™  '""'*'••  "fter  such  care- 
f  1  weighing  of  ..rigtaal  autlKirities,  and  with 
sue     rmeai  power,  ilmt  Iu-  dewrv™  Ki  b.-  rank«l 

ILri  ';«"">' l»e  saki  that  Schinkals  Histx.ry 
was  not  allowed  to  be  printed  by  tlu!  Hungarian 


259 


BALKAN  AN    .XUBUN  STATES. 

authorities,  who  bod  no  desire  to  see  the  Rou- 
manian nationality  re-assert  Itself,  and  the  censor 
marked  o"  It  "opus  igne,  auctorpatlbulodignus.' 
It  wa.not  published  until  18.53,  mor«  than  forty 
years  after  iu  completion,  and  then  only  at  Jassy, 
for  the  Hungarians  still  proscribed  it  in  Transyl- 
vania.  Schinkafs  friend,  Peter  Major,  was  more 
fortunate  in  his  work,  a  '  History  of  the  Origin 
of  the  Roumanians  in  Dacia,"  which,  as  it  did 
not  touch  on  modem  society,  was  passed  by  the 
Hungarian    censorship,  ami    printed    at    Buda 
Pesth  in  1818.     The  two  men  who  first  taught 
Roumaiihm  history  in  tlic  provinces  which  now 
form  the  kingdom  of  Roumania  were  not  such 
learned  men  as  Schiukal  and  Petar  Major,  but 
their  work  was  of   more  practical  Importance. 
In  1818  Qeorge  Asaky  got  leave  to  open  a  Rou- 
manian class  at  the  Greek  Academy  of  Jassy 
under  the  pretext  that  it  was  necessary  to  teach 
surveying  in  the  Roumanian  tongue,  because  of 
the  questions  which  constantly  arose  in  that  pro- 
fession, in  which  it  would  be  necessary  to  speak 
to  the  peasanta  in  tlieir  own  language,  and  In 
his  lectures  he  carefully  Inserted  lessons  In  Rou- 
inanian  history,  and  tried  to  arouse  the  spirit  of 
the  people.     George  Lazarus  imitated  him   at 
Bucharest  in  1816,  and  the  fruit  of  this  instruc- 
tion was  seen  when  the  Roumanians  partially  re- 
gained  their  freedom.    The  Moldo-Wallachian 
pnnces  encourageii  the  teaching  of  Roumanian 
history,  as  they  encouraged  the  growth  of  the 
spirit  of  Roumanian  independence,  and  when  the 
Roumanian  Academy  was  founded,  an  historical 
section  was  formed  with  the  special  mission  of 
studying  and  publishing  documenta  connected 
with  Roumanian  history.    The  modem  scientific 
spirit  has  spread  widely  throughout  the  klng- 
doin.  — H.  Morse  Stephens,  Modern  Ilutoriaru' 
"SS     "'^  Nationalitie*  (Contemp.  liet.,  July,' 
1887). 

A.  D.  1839  (Roumani*,  or  Wailachia  and 
MoldaT:?>.  — Important  provisions  of  the 
Treaty  of  Adrianople.— Life  Election  of  the 
Ho»pod«r».— Substantial  independence  of  the 
Turk.     See  TunKS:  A.  D.  1836-1829. 

A.  D.  1856  (Roumania,  or  Wailachia  and 
MoldaTia).— Privileges  guaranteed  by  the 
TreatT of  Paris.     See  Russia:  A.  D.  ISSi-lHSe. 

J..  ''S8-t866.— (Roumania  or  Wailachia 
and  Moldavia).— Union  of  the  two  provinces 
under  one  Crown,- Accession  of  Prince 
Charlei  of  Hoheniollern.  See  TcnKs:  A,  D. 
1861-1877. 

t\.1-  '»7S-i878— The  Breaking  of  the 
Turkish  voke.— Bulgarian  atrocities.— Russo- 
Turkiih  War.— In  IsT.i,  a  revolt  broke  out  in 
Herzegovina.  "The  efforts  made  to  suppress 
tlie  growin  J  revolt  strained  the  already  weakened 
resources  of  the  Porte,  until  they  could  bear  up 
aga  nst  it  no  longer,  and  the  Herzcgovlnesc  re- 
bellion proved  the  last  straw  which  broke  the 
back  of  Turkisli  solvenrv.  .  .  .  The  hopes  of 
the  insurgents  were  of  (durse  quickene<i  bv  this 
catastrophe,  whii  li.  as  tliev  saw,  would  alienate 
niuch  sympatiiy  from  the  Turks.  The  oiivlsin 
of  tlio  Sultan,  therefore,  thouifht  it  neccsjuiry  to 
lie  omcillstory,  and  .  .  .  they  induced  him  to 
Issue  an  Irade,  or  circular  note,  promising  tlie  re- 
mission of  taxes,  and  ramomical  and  s<Hial 
rt'torms.  .  .  .  Europe,  however,  had  sniwii  tin^d 
of  the  Porte's  proniisiii  <.f  amendment,  an.l  for 
some  time  Uie  Imix'rial  Powers  hiui  Ikho  laving 
tlieir  heads  together,  and  the  result  of  their  'con- 


Hi 


ri 


n-' 


^4r, 


tK 


w 


BALKAN  AND  DANtJBIAN  STATEa  BALKAN  AND  DANOTIAN  STATES. 


iultntions  waa  the  Aadnusj  Note.  The  date  of 
this  document  was  December  80th.  1875  and  It 
wag  sent  to  those  of  the  Western  Powers  who 

^fhn^^h'?^ '''  '."iS""?  ?'  ^^-  I'  J^*:'*™*!  that 
>™  ?  i""  ""*  'P'"^'  °'  tl"*  »"«gegted  reforms  was 
good  there  was  some  doubt  whether  the  Porte 
had  the  strenRth  to  carry  them  out;  Count  An- 
drassy.  therefore,  proposed  tlm  the  execution 
or  the  necjssary  measures  should  be  placed  under 
the  care  of  a  special  commission,  half  the  mem- 
bers of  which  should  be  Mussulmans  and  half 
Christians.  .  .  .  It  concluded  with  a  serious  warn 


»n™  .i.-.T»ii.'  ■ ^"'— '"tu  niiuaotTioiis warn- 
ing, that  if  the  war  was  not  gone  with  tlic  snow 

Ji.  K  K  "■"'^'"5'"*  °'  ^"^  """l  Montiuegro 
which  have  had  great  difficulty  In  Itceping  aloof 
from  the  movement,  will  be  unable  to  resist  the 
current.  It  was  evi.knt,  however,  that  this 

note  would  have  but  little  or  no  cCku  it  coa- 
talnwt  no  coercive  precautions,  and  accordingly 

i^H^l^f  ."^"j:,""°Ji"^  "■«  question  to  drSp, 
and  contented  Limself  with  profuse  promis^ 
.  .  .  So  affairsdrifted  on;  the  little  war  continued 
to  sputter  on  the  frontier;  reinforced  by  Servians 
and  MooteDcgrins.  the  Herzegovinese  succeeded 
in  keeping  their  enemy  at  bay.  ana.  instigated,  it 
to  said,  by  Kussian  emissaries,  put  forWkrd  de- 
mands whkh  the  Porte  was  unablfl  to  accept 
...  1  he  Powere,  In  no  wise  disconcerted  by  the 
failure  of  their  first  attempt  to  settle  the  diffl- 
cuities  between  the  Sultan  and  his  rebellious  sub- 
lects,  had  published  a  sequel  to  the  Andrassy 
JNote.  There  was  an  infonnal  conf-  ace  of  the 
three  Imperial  Chancellors.  Prince  Bismarck. 
Prince  Oortschakoff.  and  Count  Andrassy.  at 
Bcriin.  in  May    .      .  Then  on  May  18th  the  Am- 

(.fT^iT  S'.^''Si?'"''  *'™»™-  «°'»  Italy  were 
invited  to  Pnnee  Bisnmrcks  house,  and  the  text 
of  the  famous  Beriiii  Jlemorandura  was  laid  be- 

w„™  V'""-  •  • .-,  P".'!-'  "■«  ""«e  Chancellors 
were  forging   their  diplomatic  thunderbolt,   a 

catastrophe  of  such  a  terrible  nature  had  occui^ 
In  the  interior  of  Turkey  that  all  talk  of  armis- 
tices and  mixed  commissions  had  bi-come  stale 
and  unprofitable.     TIr.  Beriin  Memorandum  was 
not  even  presented  to  the  Porte;  for  a  rumour, 
though  carefully  suppressed  by  Turkish  officials 
w  as  beginning  to  leak  out  that  there  had  been  an 
insurrecthm  of  the  Christian  population  of  Bul- 
garia, and  that  the  most  horrible  atrocities  had 
been  committed  by  the  Turkish  irregular  troops 
to  its  suppression.    It  was  communicatcil  to  Lord 
Derby  by  bir  Henry  Elliot  on  the  4th  of  May. 
i,fm     ,  .1,  "^  '?"*  a^letter  was  received  from 
him  at  the  Foreign  Office,  s;iying,   •  The  Bul- 
garian insurrection  appears  to  be  unquestionably 
put  down,  although  I  regret  to  say,  with  cruelty, 
and.  in  some  places,  with  brutality.'.  .  .  A  week 
afterwards  the  Constantinople  correspondent  of 
the  Daily  News  .  .  .  gave  the  estimates  of  Bul- 
garians slain  as  varying  from  18.000  to  30  000 
and  the  number  of  villages  destroyini  at  about  a 
hundred.  .  .  .  That  there  was  mGch  truth  in  the 
Btstementa  of  the  newspaper  correspondents  was 
.  .  .  demonstrated  beyond  po8slbil'»y  of  denial 
as  soon  as  Sir  Henry  Elliots  despatches  were 
made  miMic.  .         'I  am  satisfied.'  wrote  Sir 
Henry  ill.,,1,  •  Uiat,  while  great  atrocities  have 
been  committci.  both  by  Turks  upon  Christians 
and  Christians  upon  Turks,  the  former  have  been 

■,L     ..  J?"?***!'  a'">o"glJ  the  Christians  were 
undoubtedly  the  first  to  commence  them.'. 
Meanwhile,  the  Daily  News  had  nschr-.'  on  send- 
ing out  a  special  commissioner  to  make  an  In  veaU- 


2C0 


gatlon  independent  of  official  WDorts.  Mr  I  * 
JIacGahan,an  American,  who  "had  been  onetf 
that  Journal's  correspondents  during  the  Fran^ 

.^Zl"i  ^"'  *"  '.'"'  J?"""  elected.  X 
Started  in  company  with  fir.  Eugene  Scl  uyler 
the  great  authority  on  the  Central  A«i.» 
ouestton.  who,  in 'the  capacity  o™  Con  uT 
deneral,  was  about  to  prepare  a  similar Tta'e 
ment  for  the  Hon.  HoraSe  Maynard  the  V  .tn 
States  Minlsterat  ConstantinoprT^L,!;'Hr'v'^^ 
at  Phillppopolis  on  the  25th  of  July,  Avtllb 

5^*'<^'t*"^«'  •"■«  °^  ^^0  Secretaries  ,!f  The 
B.uish  Legation  at  Constantinople,  wa,  n\t,J, 

MriS'^A°K~'  "".""'^  information.    The  first  o^ 
Mr  MacGahan's  letters  was  dated  Jul.-tlie  's-h 
and  ita  publication  in  this  country  revivi-d  in  » 
moment  the  half-extinct  excitement  of  h,  popu 
l«*c.  .        Perhaps  the  passage  which  was  m«"t 

ta  which  he  descnbed  tlio  appearance  of  the 
mountain  village  of  Batak.  'We  enter"  ha 
town.  On  every  side  were  skulls  and  skeletons 
charred  among  the  ruins,  or  lying  entire  where 
they  fell  in  thei-  clothl,,  sr.  Thereiere  skefctoil 
of  girls  and  women,  wul.  long  brown  hair  ha^ 

tSJ^  ?h"""  """"i  ^^'^  ''PP'-«'«=l'ed  the  church. 
There  these  remains  were  more  frequent  until 
the  pound  was  literally  covered  by  skdetor 
ski-lFs.  and  putrefving  bodies  In  cl  tS 
Between  the  churcl.  and  school  there  were 
?■?""?;    The  st=nch   *a3  fearful.    We  entered 

The  whole  churchyard,  for  three  feet  deep  was 
festennt  with  dead  bodies,  partly  c„ve,^.d 
hands  legs,  arms,  and  heads  projectinir  in 
ghastly  confusion.  I  saw  many  littk, all, 
heads,  and  feet  of  children  t'ree^  years  «"«e 
and  girls  w.  h  heads  covered  with  l.e.uti^ui 
flair.  The  chureh  was  still  worse.  1  lie  tioor 
was  covered  with  rotting  bodies  quite  uncovered 
1  never  imagined  anything  so  fearful.  The 

own  had  9,000  inhabitanu.     There  noivrema  a 

i;?^;w    ''"'^:'''"'  ^'"'  '■^"P*"''  •""'   •^■'"nied 
recently,  weeping  and  moaning  over  their  ruined 

half  a  mile  off.      Some  were  dlggini'  out  the 
skeletons  of  loved  ones.     A  woman  was  siuL. 
moaning   over   three   small   skulls,   with   Iwir 
cliDgmg  to  them,  which  she  ha.1  in  h.r  lap. 
The  man  who  did  this,  Achmcd  Agra,  has  been 
promoted  and  is  still  governor  of  the  district ' 
An  exceeding  bitter  cry  of  horror  au.i  dis-ust 
f.w.'l  t5i""'K''0"'  the  country  on  the  rt'ceipt  of 
this  terrible  news.     Jtr.  Anderson  at  onee  asked 
for  Information  on  the  subject,  and  Mr.  Bourke 
was  entrusted  with  the  difficult  dutv  of  replvins 
He  could  onlv  read  a  letter  from  Sir  Bam,' -.  in 
which  he  said  that,  as  far  as  ho  had  b<.eu  ahle  to 
discover,  the  proportion  of  the  numlnrs  of  the 
slain  was  about  12.000  Bulgarians  to  .'ioo  Turk.! 
and  that  80  villages  had  been  wholly  or  paniallv 
burnt.  ...  Mr    Schuyler's    opinions  wen,    m 
might  be  cxpectetl  from  the  circumstanee  that 
his  Investigations  had  been  shoru-r  than  tli.)sc  of 
Mr.  Bijrine,  and  that  he  was  ignorant  of  the 
Turkish     language  — which     is     that    chiefly 
spoken  In  Bulgaria  — and  was  therefore  at  the 
mercy    of    his    interpreter,    the    more    highly 
coloureji       lie  totally  rejected  Lord  B-aeons- 
field  s  Idea  that  there  had  been  a  civil  war  and 
that  cruelties  had  been  committed  on  both  sides. 
Un  the  contrary  be  asserted  that  ■  the  insurgent 
▼luages  mads  UtUe  or  no  resistance.    In  many 


BALKAN  Ain>  DANVBIAN  8TATKS. 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


CUM  they  nimndered  their  sniu  on  the  flrat 
demand.  ...  No  Turkiih  women  or  children 
were  IdUed  in  cold  blood.  No  Mussulman 
women  we'  '  TioUted.  No  Mussulmana  were 
tortured.  No  purely  Turkish  village  was 
attacked  or  burnt.  No  Mosque  wu  desecrated 
or  destroyed.  The  Baslii-Bazouks,  on  the  other 
hand,  had  burnt  about  "''  villugea,  and  killed  at 
least  15.000  Bulgarians.'  The  terrible  story  of 
the  destruction  of  Batak  was  told  in  lanfuage  of 
precisely  similar  import  to  that  of  Mr.  Slac- 
Onlian,  whose  narrative  the  American  Consul 
had  never  seen,  though  there  was  a  slignt  differ- 
ence in  the  numbers  of  the  massacred.  '  Of  the 
8,000  inhabitants,' he  said,  'not  2,000  ate  .now.i 
to  survive'.  .  .  .  Abdul  Aziz  had  let  loose  tLc 
hordes  of  Bashi-Bazouks  on  defenceless  Bul- 
garia, but  Murad  seemed  utterly  unable  to 
rectify  the  fatal  error;  the  province  fell  into  a 
state  of  complete  anarchy.  ...  As  Lord  Derby 
remarked,  it  was  impossible  to  effect  much  with 
an  imbecile  monarch  and  bankrupt  treasury. 
One  thing,  at  any  rate,  the  Turks  were  strong 
enough  to  do,  and  that  was  to  defeat  the  Ser- 
vians, who  declared  war  on  Turkey  on  July  1st. 
...  Up  to  tlie  last  Prince  Milan  declared  that 
his  :Dtentions  were  purely  pacific;  bit  the 
Increasing  troubles  of  the  Porte  enabled  him, 
with  some  smal!  chance  of  success,  to  avail  him- 
self uftlie  anti-Turkish  spirit  of  his  people  and 
to  declare  war.  His  example  was  followed  by 
Prince  Nikita  of  Montenegro,  who  set  out  with 
his  brave  little  army  from  Ccttigne  on  July  2nd. 
At  first  it  appealed  as  if  the  principalities  would 
have  the  better  of  the  struggle.  The  Turkish 
generals  showed  tlieir  usual  dilatoriness  in 
attacking  Scrvia.  and  Tchcmaieff,  who  was  a 
man  of  considerable  military  talent,  gave  them 
the  giKKlbye,  and  cut  them  off  from  their  base  of 
operations.  This  success  was,  however,  tran- 
sitory; Abdul  Kerim,  the  Turkish  Commar  icr- 
inChiof,  drove  back  the  enemy  by  mere  force  of 
numbers,  and  by  the  end  of  the  month  he  was 
over  the  herder.  Meanwhile  tlie  hardy  Monte- 
negrins had  been  considerably  more  fortunate; 
but  their  victories  over  Mukhtar  Pasha  were  not 
sufticiently  important  to  oflect  a  diversion.  "The 
Servians  fell  back  '-^n.  all  tlicir  positions  of 
defcinw,  and  on  "  \bcr  1st  received  a  most 
disastrous  beating  I  the  walls  of  Alexinatz. 

...  On  ScpteniTw  •  h  the  Porte  agreed  to  a 
suspension  of  liostiliiies  until  tlie  25th.  It  must 
be  Hcknowledged  that  the  Servians  used  this 
period  of  grace  exceedingly  ill.  Prince  Milan 
*a8  proclaimed  by  General  Tchemaieff,  in  ilia 
absence  and  against  his  will,  King  of  Scivia  and 
Bosnia;  and  though,  on  the  remonstrance  of  the 
Powers,  he  readily  consente<l  to  waive  the 
obnoxious  title,  the  evil  effect  of  the  declaration 
remained.  Lord  Derby's  proposals  for  peace, 
which  were  made  on  September  2l8t,  were 
neverthek'ss  accepted  by  the  Sultan  when  he  saw 
that  imunlmity  prevaih.'d  among  the  Powers, 
and  hi>  offered  in  addition  to  prolong  the  formal 
8us|Knsion  of  hostilities  to  October  2nd.  This 
olier  tlie  Servians,  rvlyirg  on  the  Kusshin  volun- 
U-ers  who  were  flockiug  to  joir  "'ohemaieff, 
rejectiii  with  some  contempt,  a.,  hostilities 
Were  resumed.  They  paid  dearly  for  their 
temerity.  TchemaiclT's  position  before  Ale  ■ 
iiiatz  was  forced  by  the  Turks  after  three  da- 
"■vtrv  flgliiing;  p(»ition  after  pogltlon  ylelj-d 
to  them;  on  October  3Ut  Alexiuau  was  ukeo. 


and  Dellgrad  was  occupied  on  November  1st. 
Nothing  remained  between  the  outpost  of  the 
crescent  and  Belgrade,  and  it  seemed  as  if  the 
new  Kingdom  of  Servia  must  perish  in  the  throei 
of  its  birth."  Russia  now  Invoked  the  Inter- 
vention of  the  powers,  and  brought  about  a  con- 
ference at  Constantinople,  which  effected 
nothing,  the  Porte  rejecting  all  the  proposahi 
submitted.  On  the  24th  of  April,  1877,  Russia 
declared  war  and  entered  upon  a  conflict  with 
the  Turks,  which  had  for  its  result  the  readjust- 
ment of  affairs  in  South-eastern  Europe  by  the 
Congress  and  Treaty  of  Berlin.— CiMe«'»/H««- 
trated  Hittory  of  England,  e.  10,  eh.  23-23.— See 
Turks:  A.  D.  1877-1878,  and  1878. 

A.  D.  1878.— Treaty  of  Berlin.-Tr»nifer  of 
Bosnu  to  Austria.- Independence  of  Serria, 
Montenegro  and  Roumania.— Division  and 
Mmi-independence  of  Bulgaria.- "(1)  Bo«nU, 
including  Herzegovina,  was  assigned  to  Austria 
for  permanent  occupation.  Thus  Turkey  lost  a 
great  province  of  nearly  1,250,000  inhabitants. 
Of  these  about  600.000  were  Christians  of  the 
Greek  Church,  450,000  were  Mohammedans, 
mainly  11  the  towns,  who  offered  a  stout  resist- 
ance to  the  Austrian  troops,  and  200,000  lioman 
Catholics.  By  the  occupation  of  tlie  Novi-Bazar 
district  Austria  wedged  in  her  forces  between 
Montenegro  and  Servia,  and  was  also  able  to 
keep  watch  over  the  turbulent  province  of  Mace- 
donia. (2)  Montenegro  received  less  than  the 
San  Stefano  terms  had  promised  her,  but  secured 
the  seaports  of  Antivarl  and  Dulcigno.  It  needed 
a  demoustration  of  the  European  fleets  off  the 
latter  port,  and  a  threat  to  seize  Smyrna,  to  make 
the  Turks  yield  Dulcigno  to  the  lAontenegrians 
(who  alone  of  all  the  Christian  races  of  tlie  penin- 
sula had  never  been  conquered  by  the  Turks). 
(3)  Servia  was  proclaimed  an  independent  Prin- 
cipality, and  received  the  district  of  Old  Servia 
on  tlie  upper  valley  of  the  Morava.  (4)  Rou- 
mania also  gained  her  independence  and  ceased 
to  pay  any  tribute  to  the  Porte,  but  had  to  give 
up  to  her  Russian  lienefactors  the  slice  acquired 
fnim  Russia  in  1856  between  the  Pruth  and  the 
northern  mouth  of  the  Danulie.  In  return  for 
tills  sacrifice  she  gaine-d  the  large  but  marshy 
Dobrudsclia  district  from  Bulgaria,  and  so  ac- 
quirwl  the  port  of  Kustendie  on  the  Black  Sea. 
(5)  Bulgaria,  which,  according  to  the  Sun  Stefano 
terms,  would  have  been  an  indepcnileiit  State  as 
large  as  Roumania,  was  by  tlie  Beriin  Treaty 
subjected  to  the  suzerainty  of  tlie  sultan,  divided 
into  two  parts,  and  confined  within  much  nar- 
rower limits.  Besides  the  Dobrudsclia,  it  lost 
the  northern  or  Bulgarian  part  of  Jlace<lonitt.  and 
the  Bulgarians  who  dwelt  between  the  Balkans 
and  Adrianople  were  separated  f  ron  ttieir  kins- 
folk on  the  north  of  the  Balkans,  in  a  province 
called  Eastern  Roumelia,  with  Phili.jxipolia  as 
capital.  The  latter  province  was  to  remain  Turk- 
ish, under  a  Christjiin  governor  nominated  by  the 
Porte  with  the  consent  of  the  Powers.  Turkey 
was  allowed  ti>  occupy  the  passes  of  the  Balkans 
in  time  of  war."— J.  H.  Rose,  A  Onturg  nf  Con- 
tinental  lliitory.  eh.  43.— See  Tchks:  A.  D.  1878. 
Also  in:  E.  Hertslet,  The  Map  of  Euroiie  by 
Trenty,  r.  4.  no».  .518,  5'34-533. 

A.  D.  1878-1891.— Proposed  Balkan  Con- 
fede.  ation  and  its  aims. —  '  During  the  reaction 
against  Russia  which  followed  the  creat  war  of 
1878,  negotiations  were  actually  set  on  foot  with 
a  view  to  forming  a  combination  of  the  Balkan 


261 


BALKAN  AKD  DAKUBIAN  STATIC.  bALKAj,  AKO  DANCBUN  STATEa 


I 

.J 


SUtei  for  the  purpose  of  reslntor  RumIm  seirm. 
^on  .  I'rince  Alexan-Ur  alwa«  f«v«^ 
the  I. k.«  of  a  Balkan  C«iife,leratiou  wl.'ch  ,J^ 
to  include  Turkey ;  and  even  llatened  to  propoJL" 
on  the  part  of  Greec...  defining-  the  BulffSrKd 
Greek  spheres  of  inrtucnce  in  Macedonia  Tli.t 
«.e  revoft  of  taa.em  noumelia,  foMowed  by"he 
n,^'^''^?"",?  '■"  ""<*  "'«  cl'«»<l«cment  of 
S^.  ^f  /  '  •"-'  '"*'"■  I'""»''ed  «,  much  bitter 
nesa  of  feelin/r  among  the  rival  racvs  that  for 


'~„ s  .....i.iig  uiv  rivtti  ratvs  that  for 

r^l  r"",  """''-IJ?  ""'«'  ""•"  ''f»"l  «f  »  Balkan 
Confedemtion.  The  idea  liaa  lately  been  ivv  ved 
under  d,fr..rent  auspices  and  with  Somewhat  dif 
ferent  ainis.  Durmg  the  past  six  years  the 
Tn  .1..  Alliance,  witli  EnglandThas,  draoito  tl  e 

Ba  kL'„"Tt°S''"""'  BFsmar^k  pnSj  le 
Balkan  States  in  general,  and  Bu  garia  in  par- 
tieular  from  the  armed  intervention  of  Ru^ia*^  It 
hasal8o  acted  the  part  of  policeman  In  pTewrv- 
ing  Uie  peace  throughout  thb  Peninsula.  a„d  in 
de  ernng  the  young  nations  from  any  dangerous 
indulgence  in  their  angry  paaiona  The  mrwt 
remarkable  feature  in  the^GS^  of  this  periSl 
ha.  been  the  extraordinary  proVw  maj^  bv 

Bulgaria  has  been  treated  by  Dame  Eurooa  as  i 
aaughly  child      But  the  Bulgarianf  hX  be, , 

!n^r'  i""!??**  •°''"*  ""'  tfie  Central  Power^ 
and  England  have  an  interest  in  their  n„«o.i" 
independence  and  consolidation;  they  hal^  n' 
cogniseji  the  truth  that  fortune  favoure  th<^ 
who  help  themselves,  and  they  have  boldly  uk^ 
tl^,r  own  ,rse.  while  can-fully  avoiding  any 
hrin  1k"^  '  "'™P"«'es  such  L  might  aga"n 
bring  them  uij_  er  the  censure  of  the  lurop™" 
vH'T'Ti   J''^-y  venture.i,  in.leed,  to  eTct 

their  himli,,  an(i  pniphesied  that  Prince  Fenli- 
nands  davs  m  Bulgaria  might,  perhaps  be  as 
manr  „,  Pn„ce  Alexander's  yeara^  Yet  Prh," 

InJTlf  "■'I'T'"?  ""  '.''«  "'">"«•  ""d  is  now  en' 
gngi.i  in  celebrating  the  fourth  anniversary  f 
his  accession:  the  internal  development  of  the 
country  pr,H-ec U  apace,  and  the  progress  of    I  e 

o.  *^r''""1,'^"'"!""Tr*  ""'"'''^  "'e  country-"^ 
other  words,  the  Macedonian  propaganda -is 
no,  a  whi  behind  The  Bulgarians  have  made 
their  greatest  strides  in  Macecfonia  since  tl  ™faH 

hf.JT"""?,'^'^""'"*^''-  "■"•'  «a««lways  ready  to 
humour  Russia  at  the  cxix-nse  of  Bulgaria 
What  happeueil  after  tlie  great  wa"-  of  1878  ?  '  \ 
ponmn  of  the  Bulgarian  rSce  was  given  a  nom^ 
°"  ,f:rt""  ^■■"''^  *■'".  ""'T  expected  toTa 
mi  ity;  Russia  pounce.1  on  Bessarabia.  EneLd 

Fran  ;r"'',-^'""™.'?°  Bosnia  and  Herzegovfna 
J- ranee    pot   sometung  elsewhere,  but  that   is 
another  matter.    The  Bulgarians  hive  never  fo 
raV.^,  ;    i'h""'"'™'"''''''  ''"•  "•<••  division  of  their 
?rZ;    \^  '  hav,  «en  some  bitter  jH^'ms  upon  the 
mf^W'™rV  '"  ""-■  Bulgarian  tongue  whch 
laZl     ri;' r""  'J  ^•<"'''' ,"->'  ?«">  to  Sear  tran? 
l^H  In  J''J.^'^'I'S  l'''v«  liatci  us  since  ou-.orr: 
pation  of  (yprus,   and  Hrmly  believe   t; 
mean  to  take  Crete  as  well,     the  Se^.ians  ,.   .c 
not  forgotiei,  how  Russia,  after  instigating  them  , 

J?sLs    rlf^'Th"""'  'I™'' with  their  claims  ' 
at  Sau  .^tefmio;  they  cannot  forgive  Austria  for 
her  occupation  of  fi<«nia  and  iferzegovlna  an  I 
every  Servian  peasant,  as  he  pays  his  ifMvy  taxes 
or  reluctnr.iy  gives  a  big  pfic^  for  sJime^orth 

I'll    iirtlfln     fjiula    *i.^ III 


^3rrc^fX.nt^rS 

the  Balkan  people*  Imve  no   reason    i..^ 
much  benefit  from  the  next  great  wf,  (^.2^^ 
European   Conference  whiclf^rirwiowTt  "or 
from  the  sympathy  of   the  Christlai,  P„"e^ 
rA„,^^~.'.'  "'^°'  ^^  "'"  """">«  of  the  pro  *S 

Object  ?    The  Balkan  States  are  to  act  in<l,p,n, 
;he  foM' irn  Po...»...   —.1  ._  -    """•"nil 


i™»  !„ ■',  f'"^'."  "'«  pnce  lor  sot 

less  imponed  article,  feels  the  gaUlng  yoke  of 
her  flKal  and  commercial  tyranny.     ifeJd  it  bo 


262 


SolreXtao^Xfa^re?irke'rwt£"'' 
portunity  present,  itJelf.    TieymuTt  „"„"?£ 

Peninsula.  In  either  case  the  hones  of  H,»  .  «... 
nations  will  be  destroyed  forev^"?'  ut  ^S 
fore  soug^it  to  extricate  a  jwrtion  at  leasi  of  the 
Eastern  Question  from  the  tangled  web  „5 
European  politics,  to  isolate  it,  to  deal  ^Uh  ^ 
as  »  matter  which  solely  conce™  ,he  8  ck  Mii 
and  his  immediate  successors.    It  ta  howd  tL« 

imMH*'  ^/l"?  ""y  ^  '"""^  by  the  detZiin" 
nttitude  of  his  expectant  heirs  to  make  on'r  to 
them  theirseveral  portions  in  his  lifetime  should 
he  refuse  they  must  act  In  concert  and  ,,me 

eutlmiiaslaf„rthemoribundownerof.M..cSa 
Crete.  an.l  Thrace.  In  other  wonia  it  i«  u.  !.!i 
that  the  a,lk«n  States,  if  oncTtSly  "o  ,  d'en,"^ 

wh«['is"kfto}"H"".l."  "■S"."'^  tLir  cl'imMo 
w  lat  Is  left  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  in  Enrnn,. 

ffiiTJ'""'^.  ■■""^  without  ZaMofTny 
ttv  is  ^oT;  ^""«  «''<^''  P"'^""'  to  bear  u^h 
1  urkey  as  to  induce  her  to  surrender  maceulilv 
her  Eur,.pe.m  inwsessions,  and  to  contem  he  « ff 
henceforth  with  the  position  of  an  Asiatic  P.'^er  ' 

iM.v;!i'""'r5'^'*'  Semi -Abduct  on  aid 
«bdic«tion  of  Prince  Alexander.-" TheB,"" 
Treaty,  by  cuttlnK  Bulgaria  into  three  ,^.ee, 

,     .  "IT  •^"'•«'«'>"l  of  both  geograpliica    .m. 

wlTcri'cJir-  T'  """""^l  the^l^n^und'fn";! 
w men  a  crop    of    neverend  iig    aKitali.u    was 

Trea'tv  oy^TL^Sf  }"  "Pring-a^rorwl. icl,  T, 

Boh  ?rt  *^'l  V""?;  ''''"  "'  "'«  B«""""'.  '""!'  in 
un!nTJ:"\  '"  «"""»''i«.  the  same  .leMre  for 
union  existed.     Both  parties  were  agn,  ,1  as  to 

I.  en,?''i"'''ri'^.'"^"'''  •"  ">  tl'e  mean.sliv  which 

?,l,ir.V  '"'■,"""";'''■•'•  ""  tl'«  other  haiHl,  main 
tain«ltliat  hey  should  be  diallengcl.  It  was 
a  few  Individuals  bi'longing  to  the  latter  pirtv 
and  acting  with  M.  KaravA,ir,  the  l^'ul  ,lf2 

carrie<l  out  the  revolution  of  .SptemlM  r  1^   \m 

So  unanimously  was  this  move ni  si,|.p..it.(i  by 

the  whole  population,  including  ,'v,u  the 
Mussulmans,  that  it  was  accomplish.",!  and  the 
union  pnx'inimcd  without  the  least  resistance 
being  encountered,  ami  without  the  shedding  of 
one  drop  of  blood  I  Prime  Alexander  was  in  no 
way  muuu  aware  of  what  wa«  in  preparation! 


BALKAN  AND  DANTBIAN  PTATES.  BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


but  he  knew  very  well  that '    Tould  I !  his  duty 
to  place  himself  at    the   h    J  of  any  national 
movement,  and  in  a  proclamation  dated  the  19th 
of  September,  and  addressed  from  Tlmova.  the 
ancient   capital,    he    recommended    union    and 
assun.cd  the  title  of  Prince  of  North  and  South 
Bulgaria.     The  Porte    protested  In  a  circular 
dated  th^  28rd  of  September,  and  called  upon 
the  Powers  who  had  signed  the  Treaty  of  Berlin, 
to  enforce  the   observance   of  Its  stipulations' 
On  the  13th  of  October,  che  Powers  collectively 
declare  '  that  they  condemn  this  violation  of  the 
Treaty,  and  are  sure  tlmt  the  Sultan  will  do  all 
that  he   can,  consistently    with    his   sovereign 
rigliis.bi'fore  resorting  to'the  force  which  he  has 
at  his  disposal'    From  the  moment  when  there 
was  opposition  to  the  use  of  force,  which  even 
the  Porte  did  not  seem  in  a  hurry  to  employ  the 
union  of  the  two  Bulgarlas  necessarily  became 
an  nreomplished  fact.  .  .  .  Whilst  Enghind  and 
Austria  both  iioceptcd    the   union  of   the  two 
Bulgarlas  as   being  rendered  necessary  by  the 
position  of  affairs,  whilst  even  the  Porte  (although 
lirotesting)  was  resigned,  the  Emperor  of  Russia 
illspliivefla  passionate  hostility  to  It,  not  at  all  la 
accord  with  the  feelings  of  the  Russian  nation 
...  In  Russia  they  had  reckoned  upon  all  the 
liberties   guan  iiteed    by    the   Con   -'utlon   of 
Timova  becoming  so  many  causes  f;    disorder 
and  anarchy,  instead  of  which  the   i.ulgarians 
were  growing  accustomed  to  freedom.    Schools 
werp  being  endowed,  the  country  was  progress- 
In-  in  every  way,  and  thus  the  Bulgarians  were 
IxLiming  less  r.d  less  fitted  for  transformation 
into  Russian  subjects.     Their  lot  was  a  pref.  r- 
able  one,  by  far,  to  that  of  the  people  of  Rus.sia 
—  henceforth  they   would  refuse  to  accept  the 
Russiiin  yoke!  ...  If,  then,  Russia  wanted  to 
maintain  licr  high-handed   policy  In    Bulgaria 
tlie  must  oppose  the  union  and  hinder  the  con- 
solidiition   of   Bulgarian   nationality    by  every 
means  in  her  power;  this  she  has  done  without 
scruple  of  any  sort  or  kind,  as  will  be  shown  by 
a  brief  epitome  of  what  has  happened  recentlv 
bervn.    lioping  to  e.\tond  her   territory  in  tfie 
direction   of   Tru    and    Widdin,  and,  pleading 
regard  for  the  Treaty  of  Beriin  an  I  the  theotr  ot 
the  balance    of    power,  attacks    Bulgaria.     On 
Novimber   14th   [17th    to  19th?]    1885,  Prince 
Alexander  defends  the  Slivnitza  positions  fin  a 
three  days'  liiittlo]  with  admirable  courage  and 
strategic  skill.     The  Roumelian  militia,  coming 
in  by  forced  marches  of  anhcardof  length   per- 
form ppHligiea  of  valour  in  the  field.     Wi.hin 
eight  days,  i.  e.,   from  the  20th  to  the  28th  of 
^  rvemlKr,  the   Servian    army,    far    greater  in 
numbers,!,  driven  back  Into  Its  own  territory 
the  Draiiomun  Pass  is  crossed ;  Pirct  is  taken  hv 
assjiult;  and  Prince  Alexander  is  marching  ,.}, 
Aisch,  when  his  victorious  progress  is  arrestwi 
by  the  Austrian  Minister,   under  threats  of  an 
armed  intervention  on  the  jiarl  of  that  country  ' 
Uii  Deirmbtr  21st,  an   armlstic!  is  conclude"d 
atlerwanls    made    into  a  treaty  of    peace,  and 
siL'Dnl    at    liiicharwt    on    March   Srd    by    M 

for  the   N.ltan.     Prince  Alexander  "did  all  he 

C0UI.1  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation  with  the 

Mr  and  ,.ven  went  so    far  as  to  attribute  to 

liusMan  instnictors  all  the  merit  of  the  victories 

Ti„ „'  1  J"L*""-     ''''"■  *""f  *""''!  not  vleld. 
Then  the  Prince  turned  to  the  Saltan,  and  with 


him  succeeded  In  coming  to  a  direct  understand- 
ing. -The  I'rincc  was  to  be  nominated  Oovemor- 
beneral  of  Roumclla;  a  mixed  Cor.,mis»ion  was 
to  meet  and  modify  the  Roumelian  Mtatutes: 
more  than  this,  the  Porte  was  bound  to  plat  e 
troops  at  *  disposal,  in  the  event  of  his  bei-  ' 
attacke.1  {"rom  that  date  the  Czar  swore 

that  hi  would  cause  Prince  Alexander's  down- 

n  ;  li  *2*^'"J''  *'"•'  ^f'n™  Alexander  of 
Battenberg  had  chani^eci  into  a  sword  the  sceptre 
which  Russia  had  given  him  and  was  going  to 
turn  it  against  his  benefactor.  Xothing  could 
be  more  untrue  Up  to  the  very  last  moment, 
he  did  everj-thlng  he  could  to  disarm  the  anger 
of  the  Czar,  but  what  was  wanted  from  him  was 

&■'!""    m*    ■'"  '■''     ■""''e     Bulgaria    an 
obedient  satellite  of     ussla,  and  raUier  than  con- 
Mnt  to  do  so  he       t  Sotia.     The  story  of  the 
» '^'=*'^f''"'"*      •'^  ^y  Kussia-i  influence,  or 
as  Lord  Salisbuij-       1,  by  Russian  gold,  is  well 
Known.    A  hantf      ot  malcontent  offict:-s,  a  few 
awets  of  the  Ecoib  Mlliuire,  and  some  of  Zan- 
Koffs  adherents,  banding  themselves  together 
broke  into  the  palace  during  the  night  of  the 
^Ist  of  August,  seized  the  Prince,  and  had  him 
wried  off,  without  escort,  to  Rahova  on  the 
Uaniibe,    from   thence   to   Rent  i'.  Bessarabia. 
Where  he  was  handed  over  to  the  Russians  I  The 
conspirators  endeavoured  to  form  a  government, 
but  the    whole  country    rose  against  them,  la 
spite  of  the  support  openly  given  them  by  M. 
BogdanolT  the  Russian   diplomatic  agent.     On 
t.1e  3rd  of  September,  a  few  days  after  these 
occurrences.  Prince    Alexai  '.er  returned  to  his 
capital,  welcomed  home  by  the  acclamations  of 
the  whole  people;  but  in  answer  to  a  respectful 
not  to  say  too  humble,  telegram  in    which  ha 
offered  to  replace  his  Crown  in  the  liands  of  the 
J-zar,  that  potentate  replied  tlmt  he  ceased  to 
have  any  relations   with   Bulgaria    a.s  long  as 
ITIncc  Alexander   remained    tlierc.      Owing  to 
advice    which   came,    no   doubt,  from    Berlin 
Ifflnce  Alexander  decided  to  alnlicate;  he  did  so 
because  of  the  demauds  of  Oic  Czar  and  in  the 


dc    Ijiveleyc,   T/u 

fitrufrgle  of  th» 
Iroirth  of  fyee- 
'..  Koch,  Prince 


263 


Interests  of   Bulgaria."— E 
Balkan  "niiuula,  Inlrod. 

Also  A.  Von  Iluhn. 

Bulgariant.—J.  G.  C.  Mine. 
dom,  in  Vie  liaikan  Penimulo 
Aleiaruler  of  Batl  i^berg. 

A.  D.  i(<7o.ilido  (Seryia).— Quarrels  and 
divorce  of  King  MiW  and  Queen  Natalia.— 
Abdication  of  tm-  K.ajf.— Tn  Octolier,  1875 
.  .  -Milan,  then  t  i  .ei.fy-one  years  old,  mar- 
r  ;••  atalia  Kechi.  ,,  l.erself  but  sixteen.  The 
pi'  ,  r  Ouecn  was  -e  daughter  of  a  Russian 
ol.  .  and  of  the  Princess  Pulckeric  Stourdza. 
She  as  little  as  her  husband,  had  lieen  bom 
with  a  likeliho<Hl  to  sit  upon  the  throne  and  a 
quiet  burgher  educction  had  been  hers  at  Odessa. 
Hut  even  here  her  great  beauty  attracted  notice, 
as  also  her  abilities,  her  ambition  and  her 
wealth.  ...  At  first  all  went  well,  to  outward 
appearance  at  least,  for  Milan  was  deeol ,-  en- 
amoured of  his  beautiful  wife.  .,ho  soon  became 
the  Idol  of  the  Servians,  on  account  of  her 
beauty  and  her  amiability.  This  affection  was 
but  increased  when,  a  year  after  her  marriage 
she  presented  her  subjects  with  an  heir.  But 
from  that  hour  the  domestic  discord  Iwgan  The 
gueen  had  hern  ill  long  m\A  seriously  after  her 
boy  s  birth ;  Milan  had  sought  distractions  else- 
where.   Scenes  of  jealousy  and  recrimination 


'Pi  i 


1^ 


tag 


BALKAN  Am)  DAKUBIAN  STATE& 

/  frequent  Further,  BenrU  wiis  then  pais- 
Jng  through  a  dilHcuIt  poHUcal  crisis:  the 
Turkish  war  »a»  in  full  swing.  Milan,  little  be- 
loved ever  since  he  Iwgan  to  reign,  brought  home 
no  wreaths  from  this  conflict,  although  his  sub- 
JecU  distinguished  themselves  by  their  valour 
Then  followeil  in  1882  the  raising  of  the  nrinei- 

Sality  into  a  kingtiom  — »  fact  which  left  the 
ervians  verj-  imiKTerent,   and  in   which  they 
merely  beheld  the  |)ruspect  of  Increased  tnxes,  a 
prevision  timt  wiis  ronlized.     As  time  went  on 
and  troubles  inrrciised.  King  Milan  became  some- 
what of  a  despot,  who  was  susUinc<i  solely  by 
the  army,   itself    undermined    by  factious  In- 
trigues.   Meantime  the  Queen,  now  grown  some- 
what callous  toiler  husband's Infldelities,  aspired 
to  comfort  herself  by  assuming  a  pollticiil  rOle, 
for  which  she  Ulieved  herself  to  have  great  ap- 
Htude.  ...  As  she  could  not  influence  tin-  de- 
cisions of  the  Prince,  the  lady  entered  Into  op- 
position to  him,  and  made  it  her  aim  to  oppow 
^1  his  protects.     The  quarrel  sprvad  throughout 
the  entire  Palace,  and  two  inimical  factions  were 
formed,  that  of  the  King  an<i  that  of  the  Queen. 
.  .  .  Meantime  Milan  got  deeper  and  deeper  into 
debt,  so  that  after  a  Umc  he  luul  almost  mort- 
gaged his  territory.  .  .  .  While  the  husband  and 
wife  were  thus  quarrelling  and  going  their  own 
ways,  grave  events  were  maturing  in  neighbour- 
ing Bulgaria.     The  coup  d'etat  of  Mllippopoll 
which  annexed  Eastern  Roun-lla  to  the  princi- 
pality,   enlarged   It  in  such  wise  that  Servia 
henceforth    had   to  cut  a  sorry  flgure  in  the 
Balkans.     Milan  roused    himself,   or  pretended 
to  rouse  himself,  and  war  was  declared  against 
Bulgiirin.   .      ,  There  followe<l  the  crushing  de- 
g'at  of  Slivitzu.  in  which  Prince  Alexander  of 
BaltcnlKT^'   nirricd   iilf  such    laurels,    and   the 
Servians  Iniil  to  lunt  adisgriiceful  and  precipitate 
rctniit.     Fur  frcni  proving  himself  the  hero  Na- 
thalie had  dreiiiiMil.  .Milan  .  .  .  telegraphed  to 
the  Queen,  biisiiil  with  tendi.ig  the  woundnl 
that  lie  intended    to  abdicate   forthwith.     This 
cowardly  oonduct  gave  the  death  blow  to  any 


BALTIMORE. 

hellng  the  Queen  might  have  retained  for  the 
King.    Henceforth  she  despised  him,  niul  tixik 
no  paini  to  hide  the  fact.  ...  In  1S87  the  pair 
parted  without  outward  scandals,  the    Ouwn 
taking  with  her  the  Crown  Print*.  .  .  .  Florence 
was  the  goal  of  the  Queen's  wanderin^ts    and 
here  she  spent  a  quiet  winter.  .  .  .  The  winter 
ended,  Nathalie  ciesiri'd  to  return  to  lielirnule 
Milan  would  not  hear  of   it.  .  .  .  The  iJuein 
went  to  Wiesbaden  in  consequence.     While  re- 
siding  tliere  Milan  professecl  to  lie  suildenlv  taken 
with  a  paternal  craving  to  sec  his  son.  .         \,|,| 
to  the  shame  of  the  Uennan  Ot>veniiiieiit    W  it 
said  they  lent  their  hand  to  alwluetini:  m  onlv 
child  from  his  motlier.  .  .  .  Before  ever  the  ej. 
citemcnt  about  this  act  could  subside  in  Kiirope 
Milan  .  .  .  petitioned  the  Servian  SyniKl  f„r  a 
divorce,  on  the  ground  of  'irreconcilable  mutual 
antipathy  '    Neither  by  canonical  or  civil  law 
was  this  possible,  and   tho  Queen  refused  her 
consent.  .  .  .  Nor  could  the  divorce  liave  JK'en 
obtained  but  for  the    servile    cumplaiKiinre  of 
the  Servian  Metropolitan  Theodore.  .  .      Ouick 
vengeance,  however,   was  in  store  for   Slilan 
The  international  affairs  of  Servia  had  grown 
more  and  more  disturbe<l.  .  ,  .  The  Kiuj.'  per- 
plexed, afraid,  storm  tossed    betwwn    dividiHi 
counsels,  highly  Irritable,  and  deeply  impre«8e<l 
by  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg's  recent  suicide  sud- 
denly  announced   his  intention  to  aMiinle  in 
favourof  hisson,  .  .  .  Without  regret  his  people 
saw  depart  from  among  them  a  man  who  at 
thirty-dve  years  of  u>.'e  was  uirtadv  d.-.  r.nii 
.  .  After  kneeling  down   before  his  s.>ii   nid 
sweariiig  fldelity   tu  him  as  a  »iibj(<t  i March 
!«■<!'),  Milan  bci<K)k  hluiMir  otf  to  t.mr  ilirou-h 
.I''',''*;,-  •  •  ''''"'™  ItW'ts  an'  uppoiMi.,1  ",„ 
iiHd the Kingduring IiIh minority."—" Poliiikos  ' 
TAf  Sinretgnt,  pp.  JWI-Jtoa. 
.  *;,  9l,  ««93-Roy»l     Coup     d'^tat.-In 
April,  1H93,  the  yiiiins;  king,   AUxiuidir,  thin 
8evente.>u  years  old.  bv  a  sudden  rou\>  .I'.tut 
dismissed  the  regents,  and  took  the  nin.s  into 
his  own  bauds. 


BALKH.-Destructlon    by    JinKit    Khan 

(A.  D.  UJli.— Fniin  his  crmquest  of  the  region 
beyond  the  Oxus,  >)ingisKlian  moved  southwanl 
with  his  vast  horde  nf  Mongols,  In  pursuit  of  the 
fugitive  Khahri'iminn  prince,  in  TiSOor  1221 
and  Investeil  th>'  great  city  of  Baikh,— which  is 
thouglit  in  the  eiuit  to  be  the  old.-»t  city  of  the 
worid.  and  wiiicli  may  not  impossibly  have  N-en 
one  of  the  capiliiU  of  the  primitive  Aryan  race 
'•Some  iilea  of  Its  exU-nt  and  rirhes  [at  that 
time]  may  possibly  Iw  funned  from  the  statement 
that  it  eoniaiiiiii  1,2<M)  largo  moHques,  without 
Including  chapels,  anil  2lM»  public  batlis  fir  the 
use  of  fon'ltrn  merrlmnu  and  travellers  — though 
It  has  iM'en  siiggi'sted  that  the  more  correct 
readlnit  would  Im'  2(HI  mos(|ues  and  1,200  liatha. 
Anxi.iiis  to  avert  the  horrors  of  storm  and 
pillage,  the  ritirens  at  once  offered  to  capitulate; 
but  Chlnthi*,  ilistnisting  the  sincerity  of  their 
iuhmis«loi>  Ml  lonif  as  Sultan  Mohamme<l  Sbah 
wasjil  nlivi'.  pn  ferriKl  u>  carry  the  place  by 
force  of  arms  lui  achievement  of  no  gn-at  dlffl- 
cullv.  A  horrible  butchery  ensued,  and  the 
'Taliemsrie  of  Islam '— as  the  pious  town  wu 
calUd  —  was  rajeil  l<i  the  ground.  In  the  w«inli 
of  the  Pinian  iKS't.  uuntcd  hv  Mainr  Prlr» 
•  Tlie  uohle  ciiy  he  laid  as  smooth  as  tlie  palm  of 
Uibaod  — iu  tpiKloua  aitd  kifty  ilructurw  be 


Itutton,    (hitrdl 


\f"itfft>ts. 


264 


levelled    in   the   dust.'"- 
Afia,  eh.  4. 

Ai,soi!t:  II.  II.  Iloworth,  //i«f  oft/i, 
t.  1,  eh.  8. 

BALL'S  BLUFF,  The  Battle  of.  S<« 
I  NrTED  States  or  Ah.  :  A.  I>.  imll  (nduiiuK 
VimiiNiA). 

BALM  ACE  DA'S  DICTATORSHIP.  S,r 
CllII.K:  A.  I).  188.'5-1H01. 

BALNEA.     See  Tiieri(.s. 

BALTHI.OR  BALTHINCS.-'  Hi,  nilin. 
of  the  Vislgolhs,  though  they,  like  Ihi-  .\nml 
kings  of  the  Ostnigoilis.  htvl  a  greui  liuii.c,  ilic 
BalthI,  sprung  from  the  si'ed  of  (IimIs,  iIIiI  n,ii 
at  this  time  [when  driven  acnms  ilic  liiiniilie 
by  the  Huns]  N-ar  the  title  of  KIiilv  I.mi  am 
tented  themselves  with  some  humhh  r  i!.  »iL'ns 
lion,  which  the  I..atin  historimis  trmislati.l  inin 
Judex  (Judge)."— T.  Ilmlgklu.  Il,,/^  „,ul  hfr 
Inmrtm.  int.,  eh.  B.—Hiv  HAfX.   I.c.iii.-  or 

BALTIMORE,  Lord,  and  the  Colonisation 
efMarTluid.  See  Mahtlano:  A  Ii  lii;«,  to 
I8H8-lfn7 

BALTIMORE,  A.  D.  17*9-1730.  Found- 
iBrefthidtjr.   SitMabyland:  A.  n  i:.'!i  \in>i 

A.  D.  iSll.—Riating'af  the  War  Party  -Th« 
mob  and  th«  Podtralisti.  .S41'  I'nitku  States 
or  Am.  :  A.  D.  t«lli  (JuMI-Ocruaut). 


BALTIMORE. 


BALOCHISTAN. 


A.  D.  1814.— Britiih  attempt  agfaiatt  the 
city.  See  United  States  or  Am.  :  A.  D,  1814 
(Auou<<T— September). 

A.  D.  i8io.— The  Douglas  Democratic  and 
Constitutional  Union  ConTentions.  See 
United  Statu  or  Am.:  A.  D.  1860  (ApbiI/— 
Noveuber). 

A.  D.  lUt  (April).— The  citj  controlled  hj 
the  Secessionists.  —The  attack  on  the 
Sixth  Massachusetts  Reriment.  See  Uxited 
State*  op  Am.  :  A.  D.  1S6T  (APHit,). 

A.  D.  1861  (May).— Disloyalty  put  down. 
See  United  States  op  Am.  :  A.  D.  1881  (Apbil 
— )1at:  Maryland). 

BALOCHISTAN,  OR  BALUCHISTAN. 

— "Balochistan,  in  the  modern  acceptation  of 
the  term  may  bo  said,  In  a  general  sense,  to  in- 
clude all  that  tract  of  country  which  has  for  Its 

northern  and  northeastern  boundary  the  large 
kingdom  of  AfglianUtan,  Its  eastern  frontier  be- 
ing limited  by  the  British  province  of  Sindb,  and 
Ita  western  by  the  Persian  State,  while  the  Ara- 
bian Sea  washes  its  southern  base  for  a  distance 
of  nearly  six  hundred  milea  ...  In  area  Balo- 
chistan had  long  been  supposed  to  cover  in  Its 
entirely  quite  160,(K>il  square  miles,  but  the  latest 
estliuiites  do  not  raise  It  higher  than  14i9.0()0 
Si|uari'  miles,  of  which  BO.UUO  are  said  to  belong 
to  wliiit  is  termed  Persian  Balochistan,  and  the 
rcmiiininK  HD.IXK)  to  Kiilati  Baliwhistan,  or  that 
portion  which  is  more  or  less  directly  under  the 
rule  of  the  Brahui  Kluiii  of  Kalat.  .  .  .  Balo- 
clilstaii  may  be  said  to  be  Inhabited  chiefly  by 
the  Haloch  tribe,  the  most  numerous  In  the 
rmintry.  and  this  name  was  given  to  the  tract 
tliiy  iK-eupy  by  tlie  great  Persian  monarch, 
N  idir  Shah,  who,  as  St.  John  remarks,  after 
(lriviii!;the  Afi;lian  Invaders  from  Persia,  mttds 
himself  master  in  his  turn  of  the  whole  coimtry 
tt-.st  iif  tiie  Indus,  and  placed  a  nntlvechlef  over 
tlie  new  province,  formed  out  of  the  districts 
boiiiiiliHl  „n  the  north  and  south  by  the  Halmand 
vulley  and  the  si'a,  and  stretching  from  Karman 
on  the  west  to  Sindh  on  the  east  This  newly. 
forniiHl  province  he  called  Balochistan,  or,  the 
country  of  the  Balocli,  from  the  name  of  the 
most  widely  spn-ad  ami  numerous,  though  not 
the  dominant,  trilH-.  Aeciinllng  toMasson,  who, 
It  must  be  admitted.  Iiiui  more  ample  opportuni- 
ties of  olitaining  correct  information  on  this  sub- 
Jii I  than  any  other  European,  the  Balochls  are 
divided  into  three  great  elas.se«,  vis.,  (1)  the 
Hr  thnis ;  {■>)  Uie  Kinds ;  and  (il)  the  Lumrts  (or 
Nuniris) ;  but  this  must  be  taken  more  in  the 
sense  of  InhalillanU  of  BaicH-histan  than  a*  divis- 
ions of  a  trlbi".  <in<-e  the  llmhulaarp  of  adIITen'nt 
nice  and  lani;  ige,  ami  call  the  tnie  Balochls 
'N'  inds.'lu  (ontraillstlncllon  to  tliemselves  as 

Hilnils.'  .  .  .  The  origin  of  the  word  'Bahsh' 
Is  evidi  iilly  involved  In  some  obscurltv,  and  has 
gtv.Mi  rise  to  many  dllTi-rent  Interpretations. 
I'rolf.snr  Hawlins<m  supposes  It  to  be  derived 
«r..ni  It,.!,,,,  kini;  of  Haliylon,  the  NImrod  of 
Holy  W  rit.  ami  that  from  'Kush.'  Ilie  father  of 
Nlinr.Hl,  comes  the  name  of  the  KalatI  eastern 
district.  -ICaehh."  I'otlinmT  believes  the  Balo- 
chls to  be  of  Turktmian  lineage,  and  this  from  a 
simdarity  In  their  institutions,  habits,  religion  — 
'  ■,  ,-';**-.  in  rvrrsttiiiiii  l,ul  llieir  language,  lor 
•  lilcli  latter  anonialv.  however,  he  has  an  ex- 
planatliin  to  offer.  Bill  Ix-  this  as  It  mav.  tlie 
very  irlbc'  themselves  nstTlbu  their  origin  to  the 


265 


earliest  Muhammadan  invaders  of  Persia,  and 
are  extremely  desirous  01  being  supposed  to  be 
of  Arab  extraction.    They  reject  with  scorn  ail 
Idea  of  being  of  the  same  stock  as  the  Afghan. 
They  may  possibly  be  of  Iranian  descent,  and 
the  affinity  of  their  language,  the  Balochki,  to 
the  Persian,  bears  out  this  supposition  ;  but  the 
proper  derivation  of  the  word  •  Bahxh '  still  re- 
mains an  open  question.  .  .  .  The  Braliuis.  who, 
as  a  race,    arc  very   numerous  In   Balothistau, 
Pottinger  considers    to  be  a  nation  of  Tartar 
mountaineers,  who  settled  at  a  very  early  period 
in  the  southern  parts  of  Asia,  where  they  U^d  an 
ambulatory   life  in  Khels,  or  siwieties,  beaded 
and  governed  by  their  own  cldefs  and  laws  for 
many  centuries,  till  at  length  they  became  In- 
corporated and  attained  their  present  footing  at 
Kalat   and  throughout    Balochistan    generally 
Masson  supposes  that  the  word   'Brahui'   is  a 
corruption  of  Ba-roh-i,  meaning,  literally,  of  the 
waste;  and  that  that  race  enu>red  Balochistan 
originally  from  the  west.  .  .  .  The  country  may 
be  considered  as  divided  into  two  portions— the 
one,  Kaiati  Balochistan,  or  that  either  really  01 
nominally  under  the  rule  of  the  Khan  of  Kalat; 
and  the  other  as  Persian  Balochistan,  or  that 
part  which  Is  more  or  less  directly  under  th« 
domination  of  the  Shah  of  I'ersia.     Of  the  gov 
ernment  of  this  latter  territory,  it  will  suffice  tc 
say  that  It  Is  at   present  lid  ministered   by  the 
Governor  of  Bam-Narma.shlr,  a  deputy  of  the 
Kcrman  Governor ;  but  the  only  district  that  Is 
directly  under  Persian  rule-  is  that  of  Baiiiurr  — 
the  rest  of  the  country,  says  St.  John,  Is  left  in 
charge  of  tlie  native  chiefs,  who.  In  their  'urn. 
Interfere  but  little  with  the  heads  of  vilUjrcs  and 
tribes.  ...  It  wotdd  ,  .  .  app<'ar  that  the  su- 
premacy  of  the  Shah  over  a  very  large  portion 
of  the  Immense  aiea  (6(1,(1(10  square  niilesi  known 
as  Persian  Balochistan  Is  more  nominal  than  real, 
and  that  the  greater  numbiT  of  tlii'  chiefs  only 
nay  revenue  to  their  suzerain  when  compelled  to 
do  so.    As  regards  KalntI  BalochisUin,  the  goT- 
eniinent  Is,  so  to  sreak.  vested   hereditarily  in 
tlie  Brshul  Khan  of  Kalat,  but  his  sovereignty 
In  the  remote  poHloiis  of  his  extensive  territory 
(80,0(10    square  miles),   though  even  in  former 
times  more  nominal  than  real.  Is  at  the  present 
moment  still  more  so,  owing  to  the  alniust  con- 
stant altercations  and  quarrels  which  take  place 
between  the  reigning  Kluin  ami  Ids  Sanlara.  or 
chiefs.  .  .  .  In  .  .  .  the  imslcrn  history  of  Ka- 
hiti  Balochistan  under  the  pn*nt  dvnasty,  ex- 
tending from  sbout  lli.-  couimencenient  of  the 
iNtli  century,   wheu  Abdiila  Khan   was  ruler, 
down  to  the  present  lime,  a  ixriod  of,  say,  nearly 
IHO  years,  there  is  not  much  to  call  for  remark. 
Undoubtedly  the  AiiiriiBtau  age  of  llalochistsn 
was  the  ndgn  of  the  flmt  Nasir  Khan  [IT.'*  nit,')) 
he  Oreat  Naiir,  as  he  is  to  this  day  called  by 
tlie  Balochia     Of  his  predecessors  little  seems  to 
bi'  known  ;  they  were  indeed  simply  successful 
mbliers  on  a  large  scale,  with  but  few  trail's  of 
any  enllghteneil  policy  to  gild  over  a  long  suc- 
cession of  dcisls  of  lawli-ssiicsM,  rapine,  and  bhssl- 
shed.  .  .  .  Had  his  Rinci'«ors  U-rn  of  the  same 
stamp  and  metal  as  himself,  the  Kidati  kinirdom 
of  today  would  not  perhaps  show  lliat  aiianliy 
and  confusion  which  are  now  iu  most  »trlkli!i; 
characteristica"— A.   W     Hughes,    f/,,    O'linlni 
nf  lUilntkittan,   ftp.  8-4X,  and  a:!.-,  —By  treaty. 
Ill  IH.-H,  the  Khan  o*  Kalat,  or  Kl-  lat,  ri'ceivi'ja 
subsidy  from  the  British  government  in  India. 


I 


II 


BAL0CEI8TAN. 

«pd  WM  brought  under  its  Influence.  In  1876 
the  subsidy  was  increased  and  the  British  ob- 
tained praitloal  poaaeaslon  of  the  district  of 
VJuitta.  Since  that  time,  by  successive  arranire- 
Dients  with  the  Kliaii,  they  have  extended  'ht-ir 
ailimmstnitive  control  over  the  districts  of  Bolan 
ail  I  Khctran,  and  established  their  authoritv  in 
tlie  country  between  Zhob  valiey  and  Gumal 
rasa  An  important  ptu-t  of  Balochlstan  has 
thim  become  pra<iicaliy  British  territory,  at- 
tached to  the  British  empire  in  India.  This 
rcjfion  Ims  been  fortiiied,  has  been  and  is  beinir 
intersected  witli  railways,  and  is  a  portion  of  the 
delusive  frontier  of  IndU  on  the  east 

BAN.-BANAT.-'Ban  is  i)ultc(Dui),  and 
Ban.it  18  Duchy.     The  territory  [Hungarianf  east 
of  the  (  arpatlii.ins  is  the  Banat  of  Severin  and 
that  of  tlu-  west  the  Banat  of  Temesvar.  .  . 
llie  Hanat  is  the  cornucopia,  not  only  of  Hun- 
Kar}\  hut  of  the  wli,>lc  Austrian  Empire."— A. 
A.    Paion,     UeKuieh,,   on    the  Danuie  and  the 
^'l"'"tc,  r.  2.  p.  2^  -Among  the  Croats,  "after 
the  kinp,  the  raost  important  officers  of  the  state 
were  tlie  bans.     At  Hrst  there  was  but  one  ban 
who  was  a  kind  of  lieutenant-general ;  but  later 
on  tliere  were  seven  of  them,  each  known  by  the 
name  of  the  province  he  governed,  as  the  ban 
of  ^lrmlil,  ban  of  Dalmatfa,  etc.     To  this  day 
tlie  royal  lieutenant  of  Croatia  (or  '  govcmor-jrcn- 
enjl.   If  I  l.;,t  title  be  preferred)  is  called  the  iMn  " 

a  Ai'i^'Z^J'"'    "■''  ■'io'trv-ITungarv,  p.  5a. 
11?H  IHt  ''np*ri«l.    SccSaxosi:  A.  D. 

the°*R  ^.V^Xt-  B*"ie  Of—Sometime,  called 

the  liaitle  of  Kilirecote ";  foiieht  July  80,  146B 
anil  wiih  siKcess.  hy  a  bo<ly  of  Lantistrian  in- 
suru'cnts,  in  the  KnKli,h  ••  Vi'ars  of  the  uZ-, 


ff'""w ""■„'""•?  °f  •'"'  ^'"'kist  king.  Edwarf 

BANDA.     See  .Molcccas. 

BANDA  0RIENTAL,Th«.-8ignlfyinR  the 

tMj^Urn  Uonler  :  a  name  applied  originally  by 
th..  >puniH..is  u.  ilie  country  on  the  eastern  side 
of  Km  .ie  U  I'lata  whi.  h  afterwanis  t.»,k  the 
*""m'  'I  -i."!?"?-^-     **•"•'  Ahoestisb  Kri-i-blic  : 

A-    I  •     1  '>'^''~1  (  «  I 

BANKOFTHEUNITEDSTATES.  8« 

^MV^i^T^.'^^'""'  '^'*   •*•.  I).  i*«-iH!w. 
i« ilKi*'£-  ;""''  ^'""^  *""  hankino. 

BANKS,  NathanitI  P.-Spt.k.rthip.  See 
IMIKI.  M»TKs  OK  Am:  A.  X).  1»*.M-T8,M- 
Command  in  th«  Shenandoah.  »<o  U.mtkd 
SniE-oF  Ah  ;  A  I)  |S6«  (Mat-Ji^xk  :  Viu- 
«iMAi  .  .  Sieje  and  Captur*  of  Port  Hud- 
ton     NelsivKoSrArKs  or  Am.:  A.  D.  iwia 

piu-.li  ,v  :  Ox    -riiR    MispisHtppi) R,4 

Ri»er  Expedition.    Se,.    I-kitud  Mtaiks  or 
^nA«J'o  "Ji'  '^'*'"  "-MaV:  1^,1  INIANM 

,  '^"ANCE.— The  Bank  of  Anisierilnm 
Wrts  r...ii„l,.,|  ,„  irtoit,  and  replaced,  after  1N14 
by  tlie  N,  Ilierland  Bmk.  The  liank  of  Kngland 
was  f.un.lHl  in  im.4  hv  William  PatU  rson,™ 
8.  ot,  hm  in  ,  an.l  tlinl  of  |.'ranre  by  .lolin  Law,  In 
l.Ifl  1  lie  latter  lulbp,,^  with  the  Mis«l«ln,,l 
••heme  anil  was  n-vlve.)  jn  i7-«  ._.!  i  |^)  ', 
f(  <  itri^./.Hi,!  uj  lu.  Hcitnet.  »«e  .Mo.nkt  a.nd 
BA.^Kl^u. 


2C0 


BAPTISTS. 

TANKS,  Wildcat.    See  Wildcat  Bawi 
BANNAr{^^^T.,""''.i  \^  1887-l(«r^ 

BANNOCKBURN,  Battlo  of  (A.  D.  13,4). 

^^S^^-  ^  °-  18":  and  1814-1828. 

5 ANT,  The.    See  Gau. 

BANTU  TRIBES,  The.    See  Sonn  Af- 
kica:    This    ABOBiomAi,    inh  a  kitants  :  and 

A™CA:  ThB  DTHABrriNO  RAIKH 

o  f  If   I,     ^'^^•~'^''"'"'  "*"'*  ■  HuPtist*  was  not 
a  aelf-chosen  one.     In  tlie  early  Reformation  time 
those  who  withdrew  from  the  dominant  churdies 
because  of  the  failure  of  these  churches  to  ills. 
criminate  between  the  church  and  the  world 
between  the  regenerate  and  the  unrepenerate' 
and  who  sought  to  organize  churches  of  h-licv' 
er»  only,  laid  much  stress  on  the  ln<k  of  iScriii- 
turai  warrant  for  the  baptism  of  infants  and  on 
the  incompatibilitv  of  Infant  Iwptism  with  re- 
generate  meniberabip.      Following    wluit    thev 
believed   to  be  apostolic  pncept  and  ..vaninle 
they   made    baptism  on  a  profession   .if   f„ith 
a    condition    of    church  fellowship.      Tiiis    re- 
jection of   Infant  baptism  and   tljis  insist, me 
on   believers'    baptism    were  so  distindive  i.f 
these  Christians  that  they  were  sti»:iimlize,|  „s 
Anabaptists.'  •  Catabaptist.s.'  and  som.  linu  s  iis 
simpiv  'Baptists' ;  tliat  is  to  say,  they  Merc  de- 
clared to  be    'rcbaptizers,'    'p«'rverter9  ol  hop. 
Ti   """;   '?  ""duly  magnifying  bapii-m  and 
making  it  the  occasion  of  scliism,  siiiiplv  'ban- 
tlzere.      These   party  names  they  carne'silv  re- 
piulinled,  preferring  to  cull  tlicmsclves  Brdiinn 
thristiani.   Disciples  of   Christ,    Believers   ttc" 
.  .  .  IJaptlsU  have,  for  the  most  part,  been  at 
one  with  the  Itoman  Catholic,  ii..   (;r.ek  Cmh- 
olic,  and   most  PnHeslant   coinn. unions   in  ac- 
cepting   for  8ub«tBiic-e   the  so-called  Apuslles'. 
INlccne,  and   Alhaiiaslan  cre<Mls,  not,  however 
iHcause  they  are  venerable  or  because  of  the  de^ 
cIsioDs  of  ecclesiastical  councils,  but  because 
and  only  in  so   far  as,  they  have  appeared  to 
Uiem  to  be  in  accord   with    Scripture.  \s 

ri'mnls  the  set  of  dixtrines  on  which  Angilstin 
dllTjred  from  his  theological  predecessors    ami 
modern    CalvlnisU    from    Arminians,    H«pt|,M 
have  always  been  dlvide<l.  .  .  .  The  great  nn 
iority  of  the  Baptists  of  tuiay  hold  to  what  may 
i)e  calliH   moderate  Calvinism,  or  Calvinism  lein 
IKTW   with  the  evangelical  antl-AuBustiniauisni 
which  came  tiirmigh  the  Moravian  Urtiliren  to 
Wesley  and  bv  him  was  brought  |H)w,rfullv  to 
liear  on  all  b<«lie»    of   cvangeli.al  (  liristinns. 
Baptists  are  at   one  with  tlie  ^'nnt   (..ncreLa- 
tloual  body  and   with  most  of  the  n.iia.r  de- 
nonilnations  as  nganls  chiinh  K"veriin,(  nt  - 
•  ■     1  ^J'*"*",  A  llitlury -f  l/,r  /l.i/,li,i  n.uirfitt 
I't  the  V   «,  »■;.(>->«/.  — "Baptist   prim  11  ,s  are 
dlsooTcrable   In    .New   Knglaml   fi.uii   r 
earliest  colonial  settlements.      The   I'm 
I  lynioiith  had  minghHi  with  Oio  Dutch 
•luring  the  ten  years  of  tliclr  sojourn  in  I 
aiul  some  of  them  teem   to  have  bnuti, 
Haptlst    tendencies    even    In    the     ,M,i\lli)«,r 
Dutch  Baptists  had  eniigrat.'.l  to  y.unUw]  siid 
extended  their  principles  there  :  and  frnm  lime 
tolimeap..rs<'<-nliHl  UaptUt  In  Knvlan.l  ^•i,M 
M!:„..  in  .imeriiB.  ami,  pianlnl  iieo',   iiciiifht 
forth  fruit  after  his  kinii.     But  as  every  olT«l„-.| 
if  these  principle*  here  wasso speedily  liiul » Ig.ir 


very 

l.s    of 

ptisU 

i  inliil, 

over 


BAPTISTS. 


BARBARY  STATES. 


ou»ly  beaten  down  by  pprseeutlon.  and  etpeclally 
as,  after  the   banighnu  i      of   Koger  Williams, 
tliere  was  an  asyliim  a  few  miles  distant.  Just 
over  Narraganset  Bay,  wliere  every  persecuted 
man  could  find  liberty  of  conscience.   Baptist 
nriJcipU'S  made  little  projrcsB  in  the  New  Eng- 
l»'jd  colonies,  except  Khude  Island,  for  the  first 
>  undred  aii !  twenty  ycsrs.     [On  the  banishment 
of   Roger  William.-t   from    Massachusetts,    the 
founding  of  Rhode  Islanil,  and  the  organization 
of  the  first  Baptist  Church  in  that  colony,  see 
Massaciiusktth  :  A.  D.  »!).%,   and  Riiodb   I*- 
LAND.  A.  D.  1531-1838  to  18.39.]    A  little  church 
of  Wilsh  Baptists  was  founded  In  Rehoboth,  near 
the  Rhode  Island  line,  in  1863,  and  shortly  after- 
wanls  was  compc-lled  by  civil  force  to  remove 
to  Swimjea,  where,  as  it  was  distant  from  the 
centres  of  settlement,  it  was  suffered   to   live 
without  very  much  molestation.    It  still  exists, 
the  oMcst  Baptist  church  in  the  State.     In  1669, 
the  First  Baptist  CT-   ch  In  Boston  was  organ- 
ised, nrid,  alone,  for  r...uo9t  a  century,  witlistood 
the  fire  of  persecution,  —  ever  In  the  Barnes,  yet 
never  (|uite  consumed.     In  1698.  a  second  church 
was  constituted  in  .Swanzia,  not  as  a  Regular,  but 
as  a  Six  I'rinriple,  Baptist  Church.    In  17(W,  a 
Baptist  church  was  formed  in  Oroton,  Connecti- 
cut.   These  four  churches,   three  Regular  and 
one  ?ixPrinciple,  having  in  the  aggregate  prob- 
ably less  than  two  hundred   mrmbers.  were  all 
thf  Baptist  churches  in  New  England  outside  of 
Riiixlv   Island  previous  to  the   Great  Awaken- 
iiiif,'— D.  Weston,  Rirly  liiptuU  in  Mam.  (The 
HijiliMiii  nntl  the  Xitliniyil  Centenary],  f>p.  18-18. 
—■•The  represetiiatlve  Baptists  of  London  and 
vicinity,  who  in  1689  put  forth  the  Confession  of 
Faith   which  was    aftcrwanl    adopted    by    the 
PhilHilciphia  Associatifm,  and  is  therefore  known 
in  this  country  as  tlu-  Philaitelphia  Confession, 
copied    the  Westminster   Confession   word  for 
word,  wherever  their  convictions  would  permit, 
and  declnred  that  they  would  thus  show  wherein 
they  were  at  one  with  their  brethren,  and  what 
I'.invictloiis  of  truth   made    impossible   a  com- 
plete union.     And  wherever  Baptists  appeared. 
however  or  by  whomsoever  they  were  opposed, 
the  gr  .und  of  complaint  aralnst  them  was  their 
princi  |>les.    Some  of  I  hese  pri  nri  pies  were  sharply 
antapmlstic  to  those  of  existing  churches,  and 
al*)  111  those  on  which  the  civil  irovemments  were 
administered.    Thev  were  widely  disseminated. 
e«p<'cinlly    in    Ilolbnil.    England,    and    Wales, 
and     tliere    were    separate    churches    formed. 
rnm  purely    doctrlniil    causi-s    also    came    di- 
visions among   'the  Baptlr.e<l  churches'   them- 
Klvea    The    most    notable   one   was   that   In 


England  between  the  General  or  Armlnian  Bap 
tists,  and  the  Particular  or  Calvinistic  Baptists. 
With  the  latter  division  do  the  Regular  Baptists 
of  America  hold  lineal  connection.  .  .  .  The 
churches  of  Philadelphia  and  vicinity  kept  the 
closest  connection  with  the  mother  countrv,  and 
were  most  affected  by  it.  In  New  England,  in 
'  the  Great  Reformation'  under  the  lead  of  Jona- 
than Edwards,  there  was  made  from  within  the 
Congregational  churches  a  most  vigorous  assault 
against  their  own  '  half-wav  Covenant '  in  the 
Interest  of  a  pure  church.  "  Along  hii  lines  of 
thought  lie  started  multitudes  who  could  not 
stop  where  he  himself  remained  and  would  fain 
have  detained  them.  They  wparated  from  the 
Congregational  churches,  and  were  hence  called 
Separates.  A  large  propi.rtiop  of  tlitm  beciimo 
Baptists,  and  formril  themselves  into  Baptist 
churches.  Through  the  laLors  of  earnest  men 
who  went  from  them  to  Carolina  and  Virginia, 
their  principles  were  widely  disseminated  in 
tliose  and  the  neighboring  colonies,  and,  in  con- 
sequence, many  churches  came  into  existence." 

G.  D.  B.  Pepper.  Doctrinal  Ilitt.  and  I'imtion 
(The  mmt).  pp.  81 -52. 

BAR,  A.  D,  1659-1735.— The  Duchy  ceded 
to  France.  Sec  France  :  A.  1>.  Irt.W-lGBl,  and 
IT.'W-lTa.l. 

BAR  :  The  Confederation  of.  Sec  Poland  : 
A.  D.  1:6.3-177.1. 

BARATHRUM, The.— "The  barathnim.  or 
'  pit  of  punishment '  at  Athens,  was  a  deep  hole 
like  a  well  Into  which  criniimils  were  precipl. 
tated.  Iron  hooks  were  inserted  in  the  sides, 
widch  tore  the  bixly  in  pieces  ns  It  fell.  It  cor- 
responded to  the  Ceadas  of  the  I.iice<la'moniiiiis." 
— (}.  Rawlinson,  Iliit.  of  lleiudottu,  bk.  7,  tct. 
1.S3,  note. 

* 

BARBADOES.— This,  the  most  eastward  of 
the  Windward  poup  of  islands  in  the  CarlMn'an 
Sea.  hns  been  claimnl  by  the  Enirlish  slut  e  1B(J.'5, 
occupied  since  1685,  and  has  always  remained 
in  their  possession. 

BARBADOES :  A.D.  1649-1660.— Royalist 
•ttitode  towardsthe  EorlishCommonwealth. 
See  Navioation  Laws;  A.  D.  IMl. 

A.  D.  1656. — Cromwell's  colony  of  disor- 
derly  women.    Bee  Jamaica  :  A.  D.  Itl.'i.j. 

BARBARIANS.    See  AnVANS. 

BARBAROSSAS,  Piracies  and  dominion 
of.     See  lUiinAiiv  States  :  A.  !».  MlO-l.'VI.V 

BARRANCAS,  FORT.-Seixure  by  Se- 
cessionists.   See  I'MTED  STATE.S:  A.  U.  l»«y- 

lt<61  (DlKSMBtll— FEBHL'AUV). 


A.  D.  64V.709.-Mshemetan 
North   Africa.    See  Maiiumrtak   Co'soirtsT 
A   I)  H47-7()9. 

AD.  906-1171.  -The  Fatlmlte  Caliphs. 
Se,.  .Mmiomktan  Comji  isT  AND  EnmnE :  A  D 

diiS  -]  1  ,  1 _ 

.  *  J*-  »4'5— Siege  and  captors  of  Ceuta  by 
the  Portugaesa     See  Poiitcoai,:  A.  D.  141*- 

A.p.  ijOS-1510.— Spanish  coaqassts  en  the 
cosst-  Orao.  _  Bagia.-  Algiers.— Triooll— 
In  \y<\n  Spnnlsh  expedition,  planned  sodurged 
by  Cartlinal  Xlmenes,  oapturad  MaitaniulTer,  an 


BARBARY  STATES, 
conquest    of 


267 


"  Important  port,  and  formidable  neat  of  pirates, 
on  the  Barlmry  coast,  nearly  oppositi'  ('iirlha- 
gena."  In  IStW,  the  same  energetic  prelate  led 
personallv  an  expedition  of  4.1XK)  horse  and 
1(1.(11)0  foot,  with  a  fleet  of  10  gsllevs  ami  hO 
smaller  vessels,  for  the  conquest  of'Omti  •  This 
place,  situated  atiout  a  league  from  the  former, 
was  one  of  the  most  conslderalile  nf  the  Moslem 
possessions  in  the  Medlterranenn.  hi  inc  n  princi- 
pal mart  for  the  trade  of  the  Ix-vant."  emi  main- 

falr.i!!)    :^    5-xsnn    "f    Ofiil^rr^.     Whi'-!l   J-.-,  rjrl    fhc 

Mediterranean  "  and  made  fearful  depri'dations 
on  Its  populous  borders."     Oran  was  taken  by 


BARBART  STATES,  1805-1810. 


AirAoKiwai. 


BABBART  STATES,  1819-153S. 


•torm.        No  mercy  wu  ihown;  no  Kspect  for 
»ge  or  iei;   and  the  soldiery  abandoned  them- 
•elvea  to  all  the  brutal  license  and  ferocity  which 
seem  to  stam  religious  wars  above  every  other. 
.  .  .  No  less  than  4,0()0  Moors  were  said  to  liave 
fallen  in  the  battle,  and  from  8,000  to  8.000  were 
made  prisoners      The  loss  of  the  Christians  was 
^considerable."     Recalled  to  Spain   by  Kiiiit 
Ferdinand.   Xlmenes    left  the  aSy  to^Afri^ 
Mdcr  the  command  of  Count  Pedro  Navarro 
rjavarro 8  •'first  enterprise  was  andnst  Bugia 
(Jan.  13th.  1510),  whose  king,  at  tEo  head  of  a 
powerful  army,  he  routed  in  two  pitched  battles 
and   got   possession  of   his  flourislilng  capital 
(Jan.  3Ut).   Algien.  Teunis.  Trcmecin.  and  other 
cities  on  the  Barbary  coast,  submitted  one  after 
another  to  the  Spanish  arms.    The  inhabitanU 
were  received  as  vassals  of  the  Catholic  king 
•  #•    ,,^^^  Kuarantced.  moreover,  the  liberation 
V.  L^?;'^*'.'?''  "'Pt'^es  'n  their  dominions;  for 
which  the  Algerines,  however,  took  car«  to  In- 
demnify themselves,  by  extorting  the  full  ran- 
sonj  from  their  Jewish  residenu.  ...  On  the 
^Bth  of  July,  1510,  the  ancient  city  of  Tripoli 
after  a  most  blooily  and  desperate  defence,  sur- 
rendered to  the  arms  of  the  victorious  general 
whose  name  had  now  become  terrible  along  the 
whole  northern  borders  of  Africa.    In  the  follow- 
mg  month,  however  (Aug.  28th),  he  met  with  a 
serious  discomfiture  in  the   island  of   Oclves. 
w-herc  4,000  of   his   men  were  slain  or  made 
prisonera.    This  check  ,ii  the  brilUant  career  of 
Count  Navarro  put  a  final  stop  to  the  progress 
of  the  Castillan  arms  in  Africa  under  FerdlMnd. 
The  resulu  obtained,  however,  were  of  great  Im- 
portance        .  Most    of    the    new    conquesU 
escaped  from  the  SpanUh  crown  In  later  times, 
through  the  imbi-cllitv  or  indolence  of  Ferdi- 
nand s  successors.     The  conqu-i«s  of  Xlmenes 
however,  were  placed  in  so  stioug  a  posture  of 
defence  as  to  resist  overv  attempt  for  their  re- 
covery by  the  enemy,  and  to  remain  permanently 


incorporated  with  the  Siianlsh  empire."— W  II. 
Pre»..ott.  Ui,t  of  the  lUign  of  fltrdinand'and 
iKtwUii,  ch.  81  (r.  C). 

A.  D.  t5i6-is«.-PiraUe*l  dominion  of  the 
Barbarossa*  in  Alpera.  —  Etubliahmeat  of 
Turkish  soTcreirnty.  —  Seiaura  of  Tunii   by 
the  Corsairs  and  its  conquest  by  Charlca  V 
— ••  About  the  Inglnning  of  the  Iflth  century    a 
su(I     ri  revolution  hiipnencd,  which,  by  render- 
mg  the  states  of  niirlmry  formidable   to   the 
Europeans,  hath  maile  their  history  worthv  of 
more  attention.     This  nvolution  wai  broQght 
about  by  persons  bom  in  a  rank  of  life  which 
entltle<l   t  .em  to  act  no  such  Illustrious  part 
Horuc  and  Ilsyradin.  the  sons  of  a  potter  i^the 
Isle  of  LI»lK)8,  promptwl  by  a  restless  and  cnter- 
priiing  spirit,  forsook  their  fathers  trade,  ran  to 
sea,  and  joinnl  a  crew  of  pirates.     They  soon 
dl.^tingui»lied  themselves  by  their  valor  uid  ac- 
I  vity,  and,  becoming  miuiUTS  of  a  small  brigan- 
tlne  carrictl  on  their  infamous  trade  with  such 
conduct  and  succ-ss  that  they  asaembied  a  fleet 
of  IS  galleys,  Inxldra  many  vessels  of  smaller 
u.  ..'.*'''"  ""■'''■  ""f""^'   'he  elder  brother, 
called  Ilarbarossa  fmrn  the  red  color  of  bis  beaid 
w«sa.i,^iral,  audHiiyra<lin  second  in  command' 
but  with  almost  equal  authority.     Ther  called 
thems<ves  the  friends  of  the  sea.  and  the  ene- 
mies of  all  who  sail  upon  It:  and  their  names 
Kv>o  tireamc  terrible  frr.m  H«  Slraiui  of  the  Dar- 
•JaneUea  to  Uioee  of  Oibraliar,  .  .  .  TUy  often 


carted  the  prizes  which  they  took  on  the  coast. 

and  enriching  the  InhabitanU  bv  the  mkot 
the  r  booty,  and  the  thoughtless  "piodigan  y  "f 
S*' Mt*^  ""'«  "elcome^uests  fn  every  1^' 
at  which  thev  touched,  -fbe  convenient  ^iZ 
tlon  of  these  harbours,  lying  so  near  tlie  ga'at^st 
commerce  states  at  thit  time  in  Chrisumlora 

Sl^'co'SSt^^'^A"  ^"^  '°'r  «t.-WiShment?i 
that  country.  An  opportunity  of  accomplishing 
this  quickly  presenteJ  itself  flSlO],  whieh  he? 
did   not  suffer  to  pass  unlmpiovtd."     InviteX 

taking  a  Spanish  fort  which  had  been  built  ta 
hU  neighbourhood,  Barbarossa  was  able  U,  mur 
^ri™  ISSJS'""'*'''?  """P'"/".  n"««ter  the  Al- 
^.1  «®J''°??'"?  *°^  "*"'T  '»»  crown.  "Not 
satUfled  wfth  the  throne  wliich  be  had  acquired 
he  attacked  the  neighbouring  king  of  Tremecen' 
and.  having  vanquShed  him  In  battle,  JSte 
dominions  to  those  of  Algiera.  At  the  same 
time  he  continued  to  Infest  the  coasts  of  Sndn 
and  luly  with  fleeU  which  resemble<l  Z  iZt 
mcnts  of  a  great  monarch,  rather  than  the  liirht 
squadrons  ofa  corsair.  Their  frequent  cruel  X 
viMjution.  obliged  Charles  fthe  R?th- ,rgreS 
Emperor  and  Ring  of  Spain:  1519-15,W1,  afcut 

quU  de  Comares.  governor  of  Oian,  with  ttoons 

wf^"."'.??  '"~=?  '''""• "  BarbarlMsa  waHe 
fcated  in  the  ensuing  war,  driven  from  Tren.c 

known  Ilkewhw.  by  the  name  of  Barlmr,«« 
assumed  the  sceptre  of  Algiera  with  the  same 
ambition  and  abilities,  but  with  better  forttr 
His  reign  being  undisturbed  by  the  arms  of  the 
Spaniards,  which  had  full  occupation  in  the  wars 
!?»?£m  "  European  powers,  he  regulated  with 
admirable  prudence  the  interior  police  of  his 
kingdom,  earned  on  hh  naval  operation,  «ith 
^Hnlif"!'  "^"tende.1  his  conquests  on  tlie 
continent  of  Africa.  But  perceiving  tlist  the 
Moora  and  Arabs  siibmittcd  to  his  government 
with  reluctance  and  bein»  afraid  that  his  eou- 

f  iJJ'.'k''''"^*"?"!  *""'''  '">«  •'"y  draw  u|K«. 
him  the  arms  of  the  Christians,  lie  put  hi,,  'l„- 

"1    '°/i'.."„'V'*''  *■;•  protection  of  the  dran<l  .S.ig- 
Pi.?'  fJ'nJ'  •"«'„»ceiv.Mi  from  him  [win,  tUe 
liiM°'  ^i;?'  Bevlcrl.  y]  a  body  of  Turkish 
soldlera  'jfflclent  for  his  domestic  as  well   as 
forelsTi  enemies.  At  last,  the  fame  of  his  exploits 
daily  Increaaing,  Solymun  offered  hliii  the  com- 
mand of  the  Turkish  ttni.  .  .  .  Bart«n.s»«  re- 
paired to  Constantinople,  ami  .  .  .  guln,,!  Uic 
ent  re  confidence  both  of  the  sultan   hikI   his 
til  V  v"  .' .  ™  ''*  cu'nniunicated  a  sclmiie 
vvhich  he  had  formed  of  nuiklng  himself  iim.s|rr 
or  funis,  the  most  flourishing  kingdom  st  that 
time  on  the  coast  of  Africa;  ami  tills  Ixing  so- 
proved  of  by  them,  he  obtalnwl   whiili  ver  he 
Jlcmandiil  for  carrying  it  Into  exeeullon.    Hit 
hope,    of    success    In    this    undertskiiin    Here 
foundeil  on  the  intestine  divisions  In  th,   kin,{- 
dom  of  TunU."    The  last  king  of  that  i-o.iMr". 
11  .  ".*        "'"•  ''^  "llfferent  wivi-s,   lind  estuii- 
IWied  one  of  the  younger  sons  on  the  tlmmi'  -.,§ 
his  successor.      ThU  young  king  atteniincl  lo 
put  all  of  hU  brothen  to  death ;  but  Alnisdiid. 
*{'"  *»•  one  ot  the  eldest,  escaped  and  ll.il  lo 
Algiers.    Barbaiusaa  now  proposed  to  the  Turk- 
ish su!t«a  to  attack  Tijb!»  n.-.  the  pr<=t<  :)r^  -f 
yindlcating  the  rigbU  of  Alraachid.     His  pro- 
"~-' -*  -itedr    ■         ■  •  -       ' 


poeal  WM  adop 
268 


and  carried  out;  but  ereo 


BARBABT  STATES,  1518-1S88. 


Xxr*diUon 
o/OmiinV. 


BARBARY  STATES,  1343-1560. 


before  the  Turkish  expedition  uiled.  Alnucbid 
himsvlf  disappeared  —  a  prisoner,  shut  up  in  the 
Seraglio  —  and  was  never  heard  of  again.  The 
use  of  his  name,  however,  enabled  Barbarossa  to 
enter  Tunis  in  triumph,  and  the  betrayed  in- 
habitants discovered  too  iate  that  he  came  as  a 
viceroy,  to  make  them  the  subjects  of  the  sultan. 
"Being  now  possessed  of  sucli  extensive  ter- 
ritories, he  carried  on  his  depredations  against 
the  Christian  states  to  a  greater  extent  ana  with 
more  destructive  violence  than  ever.  Daily 
compiaints  of  tlie  outrages  committed  by  his 
cruiaera  were  brought  to  the  emperor  by  his 
subjects,  both  in  Spain  and  Italy.  All  Christen- 
dom seemed  to  expect  from  him,  as  its  greatest 
and  most  fortunate  prince,  that  he  would  put  an 
end  to  this  new  and  odious  species  of  oppression. 
At  the  same  time  Muley-Hasccn,  the  exMed  king 
of  Tunis,  .  .  .  applied  to  Charles  as  the  only 
person  who  could  assert  bis  rights  in  opposition 
to  such  a  formidable  usurper.  The  Emperor, 
scconlingly,  In  \TiSS,  prepared  a  great  expedition 
against  Tunis,  drawing  men  and  ships  from 
every  part  of  his  wide  dominions  —  from  Spain, 
Italy,  Oemmny  ana  the  Netherlands.  "Op  the 
tOth  of  July  the  fleet,  consisting  of  near  5(K  res- 
scls,  having  on  board  above  30,000  regular 
troops,  set  sail  from  Cagliari,  and,  after  a  p-os- 
perous  navigation,  landed  within  sight  of  Tunis." 
The  fort  of  Qoletta,  commanding  the  bay,  was 
invested  and  taken;  tlie  corsair's  fleet  sur- 
rendered, and  Barbarossa,  advancing  boldlj  from 
Timls  to  attack  the  invaders,  was  overwhelm- 
ingly l)oaten,  and  fled,  abandoning  his  capital. 
('Imrle.t'8  soldiers  rushed  into  the  unfortunate 
town,  esciiplng  al!  restraint,  and  making  it  a 
i#ene  of  indescribable  horrors.  "  \l)ovc  30,000 
of  tlie  innocent  inhabitauu  perishca  on  that  un- 
happy day,  and  10,0(i.i  were  carried  away  as 
eliives.  Mulry-IIasctn  took  possession  of  a 
throne  surrounded  with  carr"ge,  abhorred  by 
his  subjects,  on  whom  he  hud  brought  such 
rnlamities."  Before  quittirg  the  country,  Charles 
nmcluded  a  treaty  with  Muley-IIascen,  under 
which  the  latter  acknowledged  that  he  held  his 
kliigilnm  in  fee  of  tlie  crown  of  Spain,  doing 
Iwnisgc  to  the  Emp  -or  as  his  liege,  and  main- 
tJiining  a  Spanish  garrison  in  the  OolctU.  He 
also  released,  wlihout  ransom,  all  the  Christian 
slaves  in  his  dominions,  80,000  in  number,  and 
iiromised  to  detain  In  servitude  no  subject  of  the 
Kmperor  thereafUT.  He  opened  his  kingdom  to 
the  Chri.stiun  religio"  and  to  free  trade,  and 
pledgeil  himself  to  exclude  Turkish  corsairs 
from  Ii'b  ports.— W.  Robertson,  "ft.  oftht  Heion 
vfCliarht  r.,bk.  5(c.  «), 

n^-  P-  ,'.M«--tT'««  di»Mtro»«  txpcdition  of 
Charles  V.  agaiott  Aljfiert.— Encouraged,  and 
lUii  iveil,  by  bis  easy  success  «t  Tunis,  the  e.n- 
p«n)r,  riiftries  V.,  detennineii,  i,i  LWI,  to  under 
t.ilie  till    riiluction  of  Algiers,  and   to  wholly 
I  xti  nniii;ite  the  freebooters  of  the  north  African 
<|«i»t.     \h  fore  hit  preparatiims  were  completed 
•■  the  9CHS0T  unforti.natelv  was  far  advanced  on 
wliiih  ncco.mt  the  Po|h;  entreated,  and  D;)ria 
■iHiJurici  him  not  to  expow  bis  whole  armam«  nt 
t(.  a  destruction  almmt  unavoidable  on  a  wild 
sliiire  iluriuK  tlic  violence  of  the  autumnal  gaics. 
Aillhring,  however,  to  his  plan  with  determined 
;'i>«in.i<y.  !ic  rmhsrhed  at  pnrto  Vcncrr 
The  f„r,.c     .     which   he   lia.l   collected  .  . 
c>u«ltu-ci  of  80,000  f<mt  and  a.OOO  Iwnk,,  moatly 
tcfnuu,  togctUcr  with  3  000  Yolualwrt. 


Besides  these  there  bad  Joined  his  standard  1,000 
soldiers  sent  by  the  Order  of  St.  Jolm,  and  led 
by  100  of  Its  most  valiant  knighu.  Landing 
near  Algiers  without  opposition,  Charles  imme- 
diately advanced  towards  the  town.  To  oppose 
the  invaders,  Hassan  had  only  800  Turks,  and 
6,000  Moors,  partly  natives  of  Africa,  and  part'/ 
refugees  from  Spain.  V»'hen  summoned  to  ear- 
render  he,  nevertheless,  returned  a  fierce  and 
haughty  answer.  But  with  such  a  bandfil  of 
troops,  neither  bis  desperate  courage  nor  ■xin- 
summate  skill  in  war  could  have  long  resisted 
forces  superior  to  those  which  had  formerly 
t  ^ated  Barbarossa  at  the  head  of  60,000  men.''' 
He  was  speedily  relieved  from  danger,  however, 
by  an  opportune  storm,  vhlch  burst  upon  the 
region  during  the  secon.l  .iav  after  Charles's  de- 
barkation. The  Spanish  camp  was  flooded ;  the 
soldieiB  irenched,  chilled,  sleeoless  and  dis- 
pirited. In  this  condition  they' were  attacked 
by  the  Moon  at  dawn,  and  narrowly  escaped  a 
rout.  "But  all  feeling  of  this  disaster  wag 
soon  obliterated  by  a  more  affecting  spectacle. 
As  the  tempest  continued  with  unabated  vio- 
lence, the  full  light  of  day  showed  the  ships,  on 
which  alone  their  safety  depended,  driving  fn>-n 
their  anchors,  dnsliing  agamst  one  another,  and 
many  of  them  f  i-d  on  the  rocks,  or  sinking  in 
the  waters.  J:  ^  than  an  nour,  15  ships  of 
war  and  140  ti  -rcrta,  with  8,000  men,  per- 
ished before  their  even;  and  such  of  the  unhappy 
sailora  as  escaped  the  fury  of  the  sea,  were  mur- 
dered by  the  Arabs  as  soon  as  they  reached  land  " 
^^'ith  such  ships  as  he  could  save,  Uoria  sought 
shelter  behind  Cape  Matafui;,  sending  a  mes- 
sage to  the  emperor,  advising  that  he  follow 
with  the  army  to  that  point.  Charies  could  not 
do  otherwise  than  act  according  to  the  sugges- 
tion; but  his  army  suffered  horriuly  in  the 
retreat,  which  occupied  tbn*  days.  "Many 
perished  by  famine,  us  the  whole  army  subsisted 
chiefly  on  roots  and  berries,  or  on  the  flesh  of 
horses,  killed  for  that  purpose  by  the  emperor's 
orders;  numlieis  were  drowned  in  the  swollen 
brooks;  and  not  a  few  were  slain  by  the  enemy." 
Even  after  tlic  army  had  regained  the  fleet,  and 
was  rcenibarked,  it  was  scattered  by  a  second 
storm,  and  several  weeks  passed  before  the 
emperor  reached  his  Spanish  dominions,  a  wiser 
and  a  sadder  man.— M.  Russell,  JliH.  of  th<  Ikir- 
bary  Statrt,  ch.  8. 
Also  in:  W.  Robertson,  UiH.  of  tht  lidgn  of 

A.  D,  i$43->(eo.— The  pirate  Drurut  and 
hi*  exploiti.— Turkish  capture  of  Tripoli,— 
Ditattrous  Christian  attempt  to  recover  the 

Pl«ce.— Dragut.  or  Torghnd,  a  native  of  iho 
Laramanian  c<iiMit,  opwsite  the  Island  of  Rhmies, 
began  bis  career  as  a  .Nlediterranean  corsair  somo 
time  Vfore  the  last  of  tbe  B,.  b'lrossas  quitted 
the  '  .ene  and  waa  advance*)  \y  ■  the  favor  of  the 
Viifcrine.  In  1,140  he  fell  Into  the  hands  of  one 
of  the  Dorias  and  was  bound  to  the  oar  as  a 
galley-slave  for  three  years.— which  did  not 
sweeten  his  temper  toward  the  Christian  world. 
In  1.543  be  n  is  ransomed,  aud  rvs"  ned  his 
piracies,  with  more  energy  than  before.  "  Dra- 
arut't  lair  was  at  the  UUnd  of  Jerlia  f>alle<I 
Cielves.  by  the  Spsninnts].  .  .  .  Not  content 
with  the  rsfh  j,|njltiuf  Europe,  Dmgut  took  tiio 
Spanish  outpost*  in  Africa,  one  by  one  —  Suta, 
Sfax,  Monastlr;  and  Anally  set  forth  to  conquer 
'Africa.'    Itlsaot  luoommon  la  Atabictocall 


2C9 


BARBART  STATES,  184».I8M. 


Lonpf 


M    A'. 


BARBART  STATES,  1578-1578. 


»  country  and  ita  capital  by  the  ume  name.  . 

Africa  meant  to  'he  Arabs  the  province  o; 
no^tT^t^T  ^ri'  ""■  "»  <»pltnl.  which  w^ 
n,m^  -T^  Throughout  the  later  middle  age,  the 
^it  i'^^'^u  '*  °PP'^  ^y  Christian  writeri 
to  the  latter  city.  .  .  .  This  was  the  citv  which 

J;J?«il.Jf'''*  !,''■"?  !'!*?  '°  »"  "narthic  State, 
ruled  by  a  council  of  chiefs,  each  nwlv  to  betrav 
tte  otber  and  none  owl.,,  the  smJl&neS 
Tunr/n»l^'.'™f'  ?'  "I'  "•«  ''«»Pl''"d  king  of 
faZr  n-^n-  T';,°  ■; "^  t^'P^  «"<*  blindeJhls 
.h;2!  '..,"."•  i^harles    V.'s   prot«g5.    One  of 

he  dtv  bv'nWh?™^"'  i?**  '"''  ""'"y  •""''>'°° 
tne  city  by  night.  .  .  .  So  easy  a  triumph  roused 

the  emulation  of  Christendom!'.  .      DonGarda 

dc  Toledo  dreamed  of  outahinlng  the  Coi^Tr^ 

lo.^-  «„'h  '  /?"'"•  *'"'  7'°="'y  "'  Napier  he 
AnK;.»  ilS""^."',  ?>?■"'"*<>  their  aid,  and  old 
Andrea  Doria  took  the  command.  After  much 
delay  and  consultation  a  large  body  of  tZos 
JZT'A^  to  Mahdiya  an^  dStarkeZ^u 
Dmfert  'J^-  ,  ^"S""'  though  aware  of  the 
project,  was   at   sea,  devastotin*   the  Gulf  of 


Genoa,  and  pavlng"him-seif"'ln";;2fvan«  for  any 
Christians  might  Inflict  In  Africa:  hte 


ii-J  .! 


.!l^i.™  -.-■■— —""•"■K'lk  luiuci  m  Ainca:  bis 
nephew  Hisar  Reis  commanded  In  the  city: 
When  Dragut  returned,  the  siege  had  gone  on 

mL  .r"'>  ''V' J"  '""^  In  attempting  to 
raise  it  and  ret  red  to  Jerba.  Mahdiya  was 
ramed  by  assault  on  the  8th  of  September 
->,extyear,  1551,  Dmgufs  place  was  wiJhU.e 
Ottoman  navy,  then  eommanJed  by  Sinan  Pasha. 
snlHipr,  LT^^  ^^  Kalleysorgalleots,  10,000 
Boldiers,  and  numerous  siege-guns,  Sinan  and 
Drngm  sailed  o,^  of  ,he  DanliScllei -whither 
bound  no  Christian  could  tell.  They  ravaged 
M  usu..,l,  the  Straita  of  Messina,  and  then™  vef  ^d 
Uie  pomt  of  attack  by  makiug  dinH^t  for  Malta  " 

fnniiM.i  ""'"/'.?'";.•'' .'•"^=  "K"'""  the  strong 
fortiflc.  tionsof  the  KnighUof  St.  John  was  ill- 
planne.  and  feebly  executed;  It  was  easily 
If£':  if ,  To  wipe  out  his  defeat,  Sinan  "snllea 
strnieht  for  Tripoli,  some  64  leagues  away     Tri 

i^.-i^  ".T,''  '".','*  ?"'8''"'  of  St.  John-muc 
agamst  their  will  — Inasmuch    as  the  Emneror 
had    made   their   defence   of   this  easS™ 

Malta  But  the  fortilications  of  Tripoli  were 
not  strong  enough  to  resist  the  Turkish  W 
bnMm..„t,  andOasnnrd  de  Villiers,  he  c^m- 
niandunt,  was  forced  to  surrender  (August  15tlO 

wl  I.  1  Sueynmn  granted  to  the  Knights  of 
Rh.Kies.    But  Sinan    was  no  Sulevmant  mow 

Ord':r"'lT'"  'I'.l: '"^"Jl'  ™8*  "'■"•  the^Me 
Order,     Ht  put  the  garrison -all  save  a  fcw- 

n  chains   and    carried  them   olT   to  grace  his 

triumph  at  Stambol.     Thus  did  Tr-.olffall  once 

more  Into  the  hands  of  the  Moslems.  Th^ 

misfortunes  of  the  Christians  did  not  eiid  here 

i  ear  after  year  the  Ottoman  fleet  appeariKl  In 

Italian  waters   .  .  .  Unable  as  they  Wit  thein 

selves  o  eop.    dth  the  Turk,  at  .e  '  U.e  ,k Vw,^ 

ou  nn".™  .''-"r  ■^'"'""^  to  strike  one  more 
blow  on  land,  and  recover  Tripoli      A   H.^.t  nf 

Snl^r   f""?'.-'!   .hKthej7ron 
Spain.  Genoa,  'the  IWiglon,' thel'ope   fmn.  a 
quarters,  with  the  Puke  de  MedlnaSl  „7  U.:/ 
6e&.r  nascmbicd  at  Jtessina.  .  .  .  Five  times  the 
ezpedlUou  put  to  ita;  flv.  times  wm  It  driven 


w'^i^  contraiy  winds.  At  last,  on  Febmarr 
10,  1560,  It  was  fairly  away  for  the  aS  ™ 
coast.  Here  fresh  troubles  awaited  if  r  '"" 
delays  in  crowd«l  vessels  had  pt^u^rf  ^.'"j? 
d««trrus  effects;  fevere  and*^  scurfy  and 
.In"**.?  ''*™  ''"''''"8  their  terribl  ",^va«^ 
"■^""ftfie  crews,  and  2,000  «)rpse,  were  flu^n, 
Trinl"  T.?.-  l\  *"«  impossible  tr  lay  siege  ,f 
Tripoli  with  a  diseased  army,  and  *hen  artn,,ii^ 
n  Bight  of  their  object  the  idmirals  p?ve  '™  .'.^ 

XTJ'h™  "^J"^    A  »•"'''''"  descent  qmVkw 
save  them  the  command  of  the  beautiful  Uanf 
■  „i     ,.  '*°  mo:,t;.T  a  strong  castle  wa-  Snii 
with  all  scientlfl.  earthwork8%nd  the  adZ  i 
prepared  to  cany  home  such  troops  m  ^^"'o 
neede<I  for  Its  defence.     Unhappi^  forllm  he 

had  lingered  too  long ft^  was  aCt  to 

prepare  for  departure' when  news  came  tlu  ,1  e 
turkish  fleet  Ud  W^n  seen  at  Goza.  I,  ston,lv 
all  was  panic.    Valiant  gentlemen  forg  rthS 

valm-r,  forgot  thoir  cooffiess Before    hev 

could  make   out  of   the  strait  .  .  .  the   d"^ 

Pa»Ta''i°"«^'^  •''r*"'  »"'•  Ochiali  and  Aa^ 
Pasha  were  upon  them.     Then  ensuwl  a  sr,  ne 

nf  wT'.V'T  "";'  '"'"•'''  'inscription.  Despa  ri  '° 
of  weathering  the  north  side  of  J^rba  the  Z  c' 
S"*'-'^  Clii^tians  ran  their  s.ilps  ashort^  "id 
deserted  them,  never  stopping  evVa  to  <^.t  them 
onflre.  .  .      On  rowed  tlie  fdrks;  gdlevVand 

flm'cl^ti^T^  "l"^'/''  intofhei'r"an';i"1 
t»,ouo   Christians        ved    down    Ixf-re   tluii^ 

Mi'^fSA  "'*'*"'''  "P"""  tnemomble  11  1  of 
May,  lo(K),  was  a  confused  medley  of  strati 'led 
ships,  helpless  prisoners.  Turks  I.ifsy  it,  I'l^tt-^ 
T"  ,!l5'*u??."'"y''-''"'»  a  ''id™"»  '-"-of 
w*'*li"!{"'^-  The  fleet  and  the  an-.  «hi  U 
had  satled  from  Messina  .  .  .  were  a.,«,lut"  y 

p>XiT:ItlT°''-  ""'■  "^  "^^"^""-^ 

fr«™  ?:JS63-i.56s-Repulie  of  the  Moon 
P««n  it°v.T"'  M^yqoi'er.-Caoture  of 
m!»t  nf*  Xe'*»--I'>  ll'c  spring  at  \m  a 
most  determined  and  formidable   attempt  was 

S'm  Sn^  i"j)f*'?'  ^^"'X^y  "'■  ^^'ff'""",  to  drive 
wlLh^??'*"*!  I"'.™,/*™"  ""'i  Mazurquiver, 
which  they  had  held  since  the  Afri.au  eon- 
quesu  of  Cardinal  Ximenes.  The  siege  w^ 
fierce  and  desperate;  the  defence  nuwt  liimi,- 
The  beleaguered  garrisons  held  their  gmund 
U.III  a  relieving  expedition  from  Spain  cai..,.  In 

re?ll.»,  °°  /""f,,  ^"'r"'  .•'""e,  when  the  .M.xir, 
retreateti  hastily.  In  the  summer  of  ih,.  mm 
year  the  Spaniards  took  the  stnmg  i  land  fortnsi 
of  Penon  de  \  elei,  breaking  up  one  mon.  ncs,  of 
pintc"  and  strengthening  their  footing  on  t],e 
Barlwry  coost.  In  the  course  of  the  y.ar  fol- 
lowing  they  blocked  the  mouth  of  the  riv,  r 
letuan  which  was  a  place  of  refuu'e  for  ili>. 
marBudeni._W.  H.  Prescott,  Jh.l.  ofth.  It.,:,,, ,  f 
I'Mip  II,  hk.  4,  eh.  1  (r.  2), 

A.  D.  lS65.-P«rticip«tlon  in  the  Turkish 
Siege  of  M»lta.-Death  of  Dragut.  .vo 
HosprrALLKRs  OF  St.  .liiuN  A  1>  ivhim" 
I  ^-  O-  «57«>-«57«--War  with  the  Holy 
Leane  of  Spain,  Venice  and  the  Pope. -The 
Battle  of  Lepanto.    See  Tl bus:   A.  1>.  I.-.W- 

r,A.    p.    1S7»-»S73  -Capture    of  Tunis   by 
Dob   John    of  Anstria.-fts   recovery,  wita 

r^fVftu'''  *''•  ''"'"''••    "««  Tuwts:   A   M. 
1573-1570,  , 


270 


BARBART  STATES,  1979. 


WanwUk 
MVxtnai. 


BARBART  STATES,  l««4-188t. 


A.  D.  1579.— Inrasion  of  Morocco  bj  Scbaa- 
tiaii  of  Portiigal.— Hia  defeat  and  death.  See 
Portugal:  A.  D.  157»-1580. 

A.  D.  166^-1684.— Ware  of  France  aniut 
the  piratical  powera.— DcatmctiTc  bombard- 
menli  of  AlMn.— "The  sncicDt  alliance  of 
the  crown  of  France  wltli  the  Ottoman  Porte, 
»lwayo  unpopular,  and  less  necessary  sinca  France 
had  become  so  strong,  was  at  this  moment  [early 
in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.]  well-nigh  broken,  to 
the  great   satisfaction    both  of   the   Christian 
nations  of  the  Boutn  and  of  the  Austrian  empire. 
.  .     Divers  plans  were  proposed  in  the  King's 
cou!   il  for  attack'sg  the  Ottoman  power  on  the 
Moorish  coasts,  and  for  repressing  the  pirates, 
who  were  the  terror  of  the  mercliaii'  shipping 
and  maritime  provinces.    Colber    inuuccd  the 
khig  to  attempt  a  military  settlement  among  the 
Moors  as  the  best  means  of  holding  them  in 
check.    A  squadron  commanded  by  the  Duke  de 
Beaufort  .  .  .  landed  5,000  picked  soldie-    be- 
fore Jijeli  (or  DJIgelli),  a  small  Algerine  port 
between  Bouglah  and  Bona.    They  took  posses- 
sion of  JiJeU  without  difBcultr  (July  28,  1684) ; 
but  discord   arose   between  Seaufort  and  his 
officers;  they  did  not  work  actively  enough  to 
fortify   themselves,"   ind    before    the  end    of 
September  they  were  obliged  to  evacuate  the 
place  prccipiuteiy.     ' '  The  success  of  Beaufort's 
squadron,  commanded  under  the  duke  by  the 
celebrated  Chevalier  Paul,  ere  long  effaced  the 
impression  of  this  reverse:  two  Algerine  flotillas 
were  destroyed  in  the  course  of   1865."    The 
Dey  of  Algiers  sent  one  of  his  French  captives 
an  officer  named  Du  Babinais,  to  France  with 
proposals  of  peace.  maKing  him  swear  to  return 
If  his  mission  failed.    The  proposals  were  re- 
jected; Du  Bubinais  was  loyal  to  his  oath  and 
retumeil  —  to  suffer  death,  as  he  '.xpected,  at  the 
hands  of  the  furious  barbarian.     •'  The  devotion 
of  this  Brt'ton  KcKulus  was  not  lost :  d.  spou.-f  ency 
soon  took  the  pla.'c  of  anger  in  the  heart  of  the 
Moorish  chiefs,    Tunis  yielded  first  to  the  gr 
of  the  French  squadron,  brought  to  b  ar  on  i 
from  the  Bay  of  (Joletta    The  Pacha  and  the 
D  van  of  Tunis  obligated  tlicmsclves  to  restore 
all  the  French    slaves   they  possessed,  to   re- 
'R^4  '^'*"'^''  *•»'?».  "d  thenceforth  to  release 
^1  Frenchmen  whom  they  sho"Ui  capture  on 
foreign  ships.  .  .  .  RlghU  of  auu.  le,  and  of 
•wmlraity  and  shipwreck,  were  suppressed  as  re- 
garrtM  Frenchmen  (November  25,  1865)     The 
station  at  Cape  Negro  was  restored  to  France 
•  .  .Algiers  subrnFtted.   six    months   after,   to 
nearly  the  same  conditions  imposed   on  it  by 
Louis  XIV.:  one  of  tlie  articles  atipulated  that 
freiirli  merchants  should  bo  treaUnl  us  favorably 
JS."."''  '""•'«"  nation,  and  even  more  so(MBy  17, 
lB«fl).    More  than  3,000  French  slaves  were  set 
at  liberty.      Betw»"en  1869  and  1872,  Louis  XIV 
was  «'riously  mtKiitating  a  great  war  of  conquest 
with  till.  Turks  and  therr  depcn.l.nciea,  but  pr.. 
fentMl,  Hnajiy,  to  enter  upon  his  war  with  Hoi- 
land,  whirl  brought  the  other  project  to  naught. 
-,„  ?'T  "",'    "■*  ""Oman  empire  then  remained 
on  U.lmbly  good    terms   until   1681.   when  a 
squadmn  of  T-ripoliUn  corsairs  having  carried 
on  a  lTi.nch  ship  on  the  coast  of   Provence, 
Uuniiesne,  Ht  the  heail  of  seven  vessels,   pur- 

I'.t  ti  ''"'^'  "i""  ,"^  *»'*™  "f  Orcece.    They 
took  nfugc  in  tlie  lisrbor  of  Scio.     Duaueue 

;r"u""J  ""I  ^^  °f        o  to  experS 
rh»  Pacha  refrnwd.  .ad  -.ed  on  thlTftSnSi 


271 


squadron,  when  Duqueane  cannonaded  both  the 
piratet  and  the  town  with  sue/-  violence  that  the 
Pacha,  tenUed,  asked  for  a  t.-uce,  in  order  to 
refer  the  matter  'n  tb<i  Sultan  (July  23  1681) 
Duqueane  converted  tht  attack  Into  a  blockade! 
At  the  news  of  this  violation  of  the  Ottoman 
territory,  the  Sultan,  Mahomet  IV.,  fell  into  a 
rage  ..  .  and  dispatched  the  Captain-Pacha  to 
Scio  with  82  galleys.  Duquesno  allowed  the 
Turkish  gaUeys  to  enter  the  harbor,  then  block- 
aded them  with  the  pirates,  and  declared  that  he 
would  bum  the  whole  If  satisfaction  were  not 
had  of  the  Tripolitana.  The  Divan  hesitated. 
War  was  about  to  recommence  with  the  Em- 
peror; It  was  not  the  moment  to  kindle  It  again  jt 
France."  In  tb"  end  there  was  a  compromise, 
and  the  Tripolitana  gave  up  the  French  resael 
and  the  slaves  they  b'd  captured,  ,  romising 
also,  to  rer^lve  a  French  consul  .it  TripoB. 
"During  th  J  time  anothci'  squadron,  o  >mnianded 
bv  Chiteai-Renault,  blockaded  thu  coasta  of 
Morocco,  tie  men  of  Maghreb  having  rivalled 
in  deprediitions  the  vassals  of  Turkey  The 
powerful  Smperor  of  Morocco,  Muley  Ismael. 
sent  the  g'vemor  of  Tetuan  to  Franco  to  solicit 

geace  of  .  ouls  XIV.    The  treaty  was  signed  at 
aiut-Oennaln,  January  29,  1682,  on  advantage- 
ous conditions,"  including  restitution  of  BVench 
slaves.      "Affairs  did  not  terminate  so  amicably 
with  Algiers.    From  this  piratical  centre  had 
proceeded  the  gravest  offenses.    A  captain  of 
the  royal  navy  was  held  in  slavery  there,  with 
many  other  Frenchmen.    It  was  resolved  to  In- 
flict a  tcTlbH   punishment  on  the  Algerinea 
The  thougnt  of  conquering  Algeria  had  more 
than   once    presented   itself   to  the    king   and 
Colbert,  and  they  appreciated  tlie  value  of  this 
conquest;  the  Jiji  ii  expedition  had  been  formerly 
a  first  attempt    They  did  not,  however,  deem 
it  incumbent  on  them  to  embark  in  such  an 
enterprise;  a  descent,  a  si(     ,  would  have  re- 
quired too  great  preparation  .  thev  had  recourse 
to  another  means  of  attack.    The  regenerator  of 
the  art  of  naval  construction,  Pctit-Itenau,  in- 
vented bomb-ketches  expressly  for  the  purpose. 
■  ;_;  ^"''  ^^'  ^''**'  Duquesne  anchored  before 
Algiers,   with    11    ships,    15  galleys,   5  bomb- 
'(etches,  and  Petit-Renau  to  guide  them.     Afte.' 
Ave  weeks'  delay  caused  by  bad  weather,  then 
by  a  fire   on   one  of   the    bomb-ketches,    the 
thorough  trial  took  place  durin"  the  night  of 
August  80.     The  effect  was  terrible:  a  part  of 
the  ,-reat  mosque  fell  on  the  crowd  that  had 
takf  1  refuge  there.    During  tlie  night  of  Sep- 
tember 8-4,  tlic  Algerines  attempted  to  capture 
the  bomb-ketches  moored  at  the  entmnce  of  their 
harhjr;  they  were  repulsed,  ami  the  bombard- 
ment continued.    The  Dey  wished  to  negotiate! 
the  people,  exasperated,  prevented  him.    The 
wind  shifting  lo  the  northwest  presaged   the 
equinoctial   storm;    Duquesne   set   sail  again 
September  12.    The  expedition  had  not  Wn 
dwislve.     It  was  begun  anew.     June  18, 1683, 
Duquesne  reappeareil  in  the  road  of  Algiers;  he 
had,  this  time,  seven  bomb-ketches  instead  of  five. 
These  instruments  of  exU-rmination  had  been 
perfected  in  the  Interval.    The  nights  of  June 
26-27  witnessed  the  overthrow  of  a  great  num- 
bor  of  hnuwfe,  several  mosques,  and  the  nslan-e 
of  the  Dev.     A  thousand  men  perished  'n  the 
harbor  and  the  town. "    The  Dey  opentnl  negotia- 
tions,  giving  up  700  French  slaves,  but  waa 
killed  by  Ua  Jaaixariea,  and  one  Uadsl-Huiaela 


BARBaUT  states,  l«64-ia84. 


i 


S—litanet. 


BABBART  STATES.  17W-1801. 


proclaimed  In  hU  stead.     "The  bombardment 
wag  resumed  with  Increasing  violence.  The 

Algerines  .-jvenged  themselves  by  binding  to  the 
muzzles  of  their  guns  a  number  of  Frenchmen 
who  remained  in  their  hands.  .  .  .  The  fury  of 
the    Algerines    drew    upon    them    redoubled 
calamities.  ...  The  bombs  rained  almost  with- 
out intermissioo.    The  harbor  was  strewn  with 
the    wreclis  of   vessels.    The  city  was  .        a 
heap  of  bloody  ruins."    But  "  the  bomb-ketches 
had  exhausted  their  ammunition.     September 
was  approaching.     Duquesnc  again  departed: 
but  a  strong  blockading  force  was  kept  up,  dur- 
ing the  whole  winter,  as  a  standing  threat  of  the 
return  of  the  'infernal  vessels.'     The  Algerines 
finally  bowed  their  head,  and,  April  25,  1684 
peace   was   accorded    by  Tourvilie,   the   com- 
mander of  the  blockade,   to  the  Pacha    Dey 
Divan,  and  troops  of  Algiers.    The  Algerines 
restored  3'JO  French  slaves  remaining  in  their 
power,  and  180  other  Christians  claimed  by  the 
King;  the  Janizaries  only  which  had  been  taken 
from  them  were  resto.ed  ,  they  engaged  to  make 
no  prizes  within  ten  leagues  of  the  coast  of 
France,  nor  to  assist  the  other  Moorish  corsairs 
at  war  with  France ;  to  recognize  the  precedence 
of  the  fl.ig  of  France  over  all  other  flags,  Ac 
4c. ;  liustly,  they  sent  an  embassy  to  carry  their 
submission  to  Louis  XIV. ;  they  did  not,  how- 
•^«r.  P«y  tbe  damages  which  Duquesne  had 
wished  to  exact  of  them."— H.  Martin,  Iliit  of 
Frarue:   Age  of  Louit  XIV..  t.  1,  eh.  4  ond  7. 

A.   p.    1785-1801.— Piratical   depredations 
upon  American  commerce.— Huinili«tinE  trea- 
ties and  tribute.— The  example  of  resistance 
eiven  by  the  United  States.— "It  is  difficult 
for  us  to  realize  that  only  70  years  ago  the  Medi- 
terranean was  so  unsafe  that  the  merchant  slilns 
of  every  nntion  stood  in  danger  of  behig  cap- 
ture<l  by  pirates,   unless  they  were  protected 
either  by  au  armed  convoy  or  by  tribute  paid  to 
the  i>cttv  Biirlniry  powers.     Yet  we  can  scarcely 
open  a  Iwok  of  travels  during  the  lost  century 
witliout  m.ntion   boiuT  made  of  the  immense 
nsks  to  which  every  one  was  exposed  who  ven- 
tured by  sea  from  Marseilles  to  Naples.  .  . 
The  European  states.  In  order  to  protect  their  com- 
merce, had  tlic  choice  either  of  paying  certain 
sums  per  head  for  each  captive,  which  in  reality 
was  a  premium  on  capture,  or  of  buying  entire 
freedom  for  their  commerce  by  the  expenditure  of 
^rge  sums  yearly.    The   treaty    renewed    by 
France,  in  1788,  with  Algiers,  was  for  fiftv  years 
and  it  was  agreed  to  pay  fiOO.OOO  annually,  be- 
sides large   presents    distributed    according    to 
custom  every  Un  years,  and  a  great  sum  given 
down.     The  jK-ace  of  Spain  with  Algiers  is  said 
to  have  cost  from  three  to  five  mlUionsof  dollars 
There  is  n'lison  to  believe  that  at  the  same  time 
EnRland  was  paying  an  annual  tribute  of  about 
f280.0<X).     Kii:,'land   was  the  only  power  sulB- 
dently  »t  rong  on  tlie  sea  to  put  down  these  pirates- 
but  in  onltT  to  keep  her  own  position  as  mistress 
of  the  seas  she  preferriHl  to  leave  them  in  existence 
In  order  to  be  a  scourge  to  the  commerce  of  otlier 
Euro|)oan  powers,  and  even  to  support  them  by 
paying  a  sum  so  great  that  other  aUtes  might 
find  it  (lilllcult  to  make  i>eace  with  them.    When 
the  Kevoliitlon  broke  out,   we   [of  the  United 
Btatt'S  of  America]  no  longer  had  the  safeguards 
tor  our  commerce  that  had  been  given  to  us  bv 
t.ngiuud,  and  ii  was  therefore  tliat  In  our  very 
Ont  negotiatioM  for  a  treaty  wlU»  France  we 


desired  to  have  an  article  Inserted  into  the  trcatv 
uiat  the  king  of  France  should  secure  the  \a- 
habitanu  of  the  United  States,  and  their  vessels 
and  effects,  against  all  attacks  or  depredations 
from  any  of  the  Barbary  powers.    It  was  found 
impossible  to  insert  this  article  in  the  treaty  of 
1778,  and  Instead  of  that  the  king  agrei  ^  to  'em 
ploy  his  good  offices  and  Interposftion       order 
to  provide  as  fully  and  efficaciously  as  possible 
{?',  "'e„beneflt.  convenlency  and  safety  of  the 
United  States  against  the  princes  and  the  states 
of  Barbary  or  their  subjecU.'"—  Direct  negotia- 
tions between  the  United  States  and  the  piratical 
powers  were  opened  in  1785,  by  a  call  which  Mr 
Acams  made  upon  the  Tripolitan  ambassador' 
The  tatter  announced  to  Mr.  Adams  that  "  '  Tur' 
key.  TripoU,  Tunis,  Algiers,  and  Morocco  were 
the  sovereigns  of  the  Mediterranean  j  and  that 
no  nation  could  navigate  that  sea  without  a  treaty 
of  peace  with  them.'  .  .  ,  The  ambassador  de- 
manded as  the  lowest,  price  for  a  perpetual  p^ace 
80,000  guineas  for  his  employers  and  £3,000  for 
himself;  that  Tunis  would  probably  treat  on  the 
same  terms;  but  he  could  not  answer  for  Algiers 
or  Morocco.     Peace  with  all  four  powers  would 
cost  at  least  |1,000,000,  and  Congress  had  appro- 
priated  only   180,000.   .    .  .   jfr.    Adams   was 
strongly  opposed  to  war,  on  account  of  the  ex- 
pense   and  preferred  the  payment  of  tribute 
...  Mr.  Jefferson  ouite  as  decidedly  preferred 
war.      'The  opinion  in  favor  of  a  trial  of  pacific 
negotiations  prevailed,  and  a  treaty  with  the 
Emperor  of  Morocco  was  concluded  in  1787    An 
attempt  at  the  same  time  to  make  terms  with  the 
Dey  of  Algiers   and  to  redwm  a   numlwr  of 
American  captives  In  his  hands,  came  to  nothing 
'•  For  the  sake  of  saving  a  few  tliousand  dollars 
fourteen  men  were  allowed  to  remain  in  imprison- 
ment for  ten  years.  ...  In   Novemlwr,    1793, 
the  number  of  [American]  prisoners  at  Algiers 
amounted  to  115  men,   among  whom  there  re 
mained  only  ten  of  the  originalcaptives  of  1785  " 
At  last,  the  natlor  began  to  realize  th-  intoiirable 
shame  of  the  matter,  and,  "on  January  2,  1794, 
the   House  of   Representatives  resolved  that  a 
'naval  force  adequate  for  the  protection  "f  the 
commerce  of  the  United  States  against  the  Al- 
gerine  forces  ought  to  be  provided. '  In  the  same 
year  authority  was  given  to  buil.l  six  frigates, 
and  to  procure  ten  smaller  vessels  to  be  equipped 
as   galleys.     Negotiations,    however,   coutiuued 
to  goon,"  and  In  September,  1795,  a  treaty  with 
the  Dey  was  concluded.    "In  making  this  treaty 
however,  we  had  been  obliged   to  follow  the 
usage  of  European  powers  —  not  only  pav  a  largo 
sum  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  peace',  but  an 
annual  tribute,  in  order  to  keep  our  veasels  from 
being  captured  In  the  future.     The  total  cost  of 
'"Ifllllnp   the  treaty    was  estimated   at  <I9»2,- 
463.85.'— E.  Schuyler,  AmeriMn  Diplomify,  pi. 
4.— "The  first    treaty  of    1795,    witli  Algiers, 
which  was  negotiatod  during  Washington  »  ad- 
ministration, cost  the  United  States,  for  the  ran- 
som of  American  captives,  and  the  Dey  s  f.irlxar- 
ance,  around  11,000.000,  in  addition  to  which  an 
annuity  was  promised.     Treaties  with  other  Bar- 
bary States  followed,  one  of  which  purchased 
peace  from  Tripoli  by  tlie  payment  of  a  gross 
sum.     Nearly  $2,000,000  hail.liwn  squandered 
thus  far  in  bribing  these  powers  to  respect  our 
flag,   and  Prpsi.|.-.nt  .Adam-j  omplaitini  in  i"-00 
that  the  United  States  had  to  nay  three  times  th'' 
tribute  Imposed  upon  Sweaea  sud  Denmark 


272 


BARBABT  8TATBS,  1785-1801. 


Dteatm't 
JbploU. 


BABBABT  STATES,  180&-180S. 


But  this  temporizing  policj  011I7  nude  matters 
worse.  Captkln  Bunoridge  arriTed  at  Algiers 
in  1800,  bearing  the  annual  tribute  money  for  the 
Dey  in  a  national  frigate,  and  the  Dey  ordered 
him  to  proceed  to  Constantinople  to  deliver  Al- 
gerine  dispatches.  '  English,  French,  and  Span- 
bh  ships  of  war  hare  done  the  same,'  said  the 
Dey,  insolently,  when  Balnbrldge  end  the  Ameri- 
can consul  remonstrated.  '  Tou  pay  me  tribute 
tiecause  you  are  my  slavea '  Balnbrldge  had  to 
obey.  .  .  ■  The  lesser  Barbary  States  were  still 
more  exasperating.  The  Bashaw  of  Tripoli  had 
threatened  to  seize  American  vessels  unless 
Presideut  Adams  sent  him  a  present  like  that 
bestownl  upon  Algiers.  The  Basliaw  of  Tunis 
made  a  similar  demand  upon  the  new  President 
[Jefferson].  .  .  .  Jefferson  had,  while  in  Wash- 
ington's cabinet,  expressed  his  detestation  of  the 
method  hitherto  favored  for  pacifying  these  pests 
of  commerce ;  and,  availing  himielf  of  the  pres- 
ent favorable  opportunity,  he  sent  out  Commo- 
dore Dale  with  a  squadron  of  three  frigates  and 
a  sloop  of  war,  to  make  a  naval  demonstration 
on  the  coast  of  Barbary,  .  .  .  Commodore  Dale, 
upon  arriving  at  Oibraltar  [July,  1801],  found 
two  Tripoiitan  cruisers  watching  for  American 
vessels;  for,  as  bad  been  suspected,  Tripoli 
already  meditated  war.  The  frigate  Philadelphia 
blockaded  these  vessels,  while  Balnbrldge,  with 
the  frigate  Essex,  convoved  American  vessels  in 
the  Mediterranean.  Dale,  in  the  frigate  Pred- 
dent,  proceeded  to  cruise  off  Tripoli,  followed 
by  the  schooner  Experiment,  which  presently 
captured  a  Tripoiitan  cruiser  of  14  guns  after 
a  spirited  action.  The  Barbary  powers  were  for 
a  time  overawed,  and  the  United  States  thus  set 
the  first  example  among  Christian  nations  of 
making  reprisals  instead  of  ransom  the  rule  of 
security  against  these  commercial  marauders. 
In  this  respect  Jefferson's  conduct  was  applauded 
at  home  by  men  of  all  parties."— J.  Schouler, 
Hilt,  of  the  U.  S.,  eh.  6,  tKt.  1  (v.  3). 

Also  in:  R  L.  Playfair,  The  Soourge  of  Chri$- 
ttndon,  eh.  16. 

A.  D.  1803-1805.— American  War  with  the 
pirates  of  Tripoli.— "The  war  with  Tripoli 
aragired  tediously  along,  and  seemed  no  nearer 
its  end  at  the  close  of  1803  than  18  months  be- 
fore. Commodore  Morris,  whom  the  President 
sent  to  command  the  Mediterranean  squadron, 
cruised  from  port  to  port  between  May,  1803, 
and  August,  1803,  convoying  merchant  vessels 
from  Giliraltar  to  Leghorn  find  JIalts,  or  lay  in 
harbor  and  repaired  his  ships,  but  neither  block- 
a<li.il  nor  molested  Tripoli ;  until  at  le  igth,  June 
2i,  IMS,  the  President  called  him  home  and  dis- 
misst-d  him  from  the  service.  His  successor 
was  Commmiore  Preble,  who  Sept  13,  1803, 
reached  Gibraltar  with  the  relief-squadron  which 
Secretary  Gallatin  thought  unnecessarily  strong. 
...  He  found  Morocco  taking  part  with 
Tripoli.  Captain  Bainbridge,  who  readied  Qib- 
raltiir  hi  the  '  Philadelphia '  August  34,  some 
thit-c  weeks  before  Preble  arrived,  caught  in  the 
rHghborhotKl  a  Moorish  cruiser  of  23  guns  with 
an  AnuTican  brig  in  its  clutches.  Another 
Amiriiim  brig  had  Just  been  seizetl  at  Mogador. 
peterniined  to  stop  this  peril  at  the  outset, 
Pa'ble  united  to  his  own  squakln}n  the  ships 
wiiich  he  had  come  to  relieve,  and  with  this 
rran!-.ir,P.l  force,  .  .  .  scadiag  the  '  Phihidclphia ' 
to  bl(Kkade  Tripoli,  he  crossed  to  Tangiers 
Uctober  6,  and  brought  tha  £mperor  of  Horaoco 


to  reason.  On  both  sides  prizes  and  prisoner! 
were  restored,  and  the  old  treaty  was  renewed. 
This  affair  consumed  time ;  ana  when  at  length 
Preble  got  the  '  Constitution '  under  way  for  the 
Tripoiitan  coast,  he  spoke  a  British  frigate  off 
the  Island  of  Sardinia,  which  reported  thai  the 
'Philadelphia'  had  been  captured  October  21, 
more  ttum  three  weeks  before.  Bainbridge, 
cruising  off  Tripoli,  had  chased  a  Tripoiitan 
cruiser  into  shoal  water,  and  was  hauling  off, 
when  the  frigate  struck  on  a  reef  at  the  mouth 
of  the  harbor.  Every  effort  was  made  without 
success  to  float  her;  but  at  last  she  was  sur- 
rounded by  Tripoiitan  gunboats,  and  Bainbridge 
struck  his  flag.  The  Tripolitans,  after  a  few 
days  work,  floated  the  frigate,  and  brought  her 
under  the  guns  of  the  castle.  The  officers  be- 
came prisoners  of  war,  and  the  crew,  in  number 
800  or  more,  were  put  to  hard  Ubor.  The  affair 
wag  in  no  way  discreditable  to  the  squadron. 
.  .  .  The  Tripolitans  gained  nothing  except  the 
prisoners;  for  at  Bainbridge's  suggestion  PreMe, 
some  time  afterward,  ordered  Stephen  Decatur, 
r  young  lieutenant  in  command  of  the  'Enter- 
prise,' to  take  a  captured  Tripoiitan  craft  re- 
named the  'Intrepid,'  and  with  a  crew  of  75 
men  to  sail  from  Syracuse,  enter  the  harbor  of 
Tripoli  by  night,  board  the  'Philadelphia,' and 
bum  her  under  the  castle  guns.  The  order  was 
literally  obeyed.  Decatur  ran  into  the  harbor 
at  ten  o'clock  in  the  night  of  Feb.  18,  1804, 
boarded  the  frigate  within  half  gun-shot  of  the 
Pacha's  castle,  drove  the  Tripoiitan  crew  over- 
board, set  the  ship  on  Are,  remained  alongside 
until  the  flames  were  beyond  control,  and  then 
withdrew  without  losing  a  man." — H.  Adams, 
Sitt.  of  the  IT.  S. :  Adminutration  of  Jeffermn, 
t.  2,  en.  7. — "Commodore  Preble,  in  the  mean- 
time, hurried  his  preparations  for  more  serious 
work,  and  on  July  25th  arrived  off  Tripoli  with 
a  squadron,  consisting  of  the  frigate  Constitu- 
tion, three  brigs,  three  schooners,  six  gunboats, 
ant'  two  bomb  vessels.  Opposed  to  him  were 
arrt;yed  over  a  hundred  guns  mounted  on  shore 
batteries,  nineteen  gunboats,  one  ten-gun  brig, 
two  schooners  mounting  eight  guns  each,  md 
twelve  galleys.  Between  August  8rd  and  Sep- 
tember 3rd  five  attacks  w^ere  made,  and  though 
the  town  was  never  reduced,  substantial  dumage 
was  inflicted,  and  the  subsequent  satisfactory 
peace  rendered  possible.  Preble  was  relieved 
by  Barron  in  September,  not  because  of  any  loss 
of  confidence  in  his  ability,  but  from  exigencies 
of  tlie  service,  which  forbade  the  Government 
sending  out  an  oflicer  Junior  to  him  in  the  relief 
squadion  which  reinforced  his  own.  Upon  his 
return  to  the  United  States  he  was  presented 
with  a  gold  medal,  and  the  thanks  of  Congress 
were  tendered  him,  his  officers,  and  men.  for 
gallant  aud  faithful  services.  The  blockade 
was  maintained  vigorously,  and  in  1805  an  attack 
was  made  upon  the  Tripoiitan  town  of  Dema, 
by  a  combini'd  land  and  naval  force;  tlic  former 
being  under  command  of  Consul -General  Eaton, 
whonad  been  a  captain  in  the  American  army, 
anil  of  Lieutenant  O'Bannon  of  the  Marines. 
The  enemy  made  a  spirited  though  disorganized 
defence,  but  the  shells  of  the  war-ships  ilrovs 
them  from  point  to  point,  and  finally  their  prin- 
cipal work  was  carried  by  the  force  under 
O  Bannon  and  Mid.^hipman  Mann.  Eaton  wag 
eager  to  press  forwani,  but  he  was  denied  rein- 
forcemenu  and  military  stores,  and  much  of  bit 


273 


t!f|i  --i, 

ill  :! 


BARBART  STATES,  180H806. 


•dTKitage  was  lo6t  All  further  oper»tIon» 
were,  however,  discontinued  in  June  1805 
when,  after  the  usual  intrigues,  delays,  and 
prevarications,  a  treaty  was  signed  by  the 
Fasha  which  provided  that  no  further  tribute 
shou  d  be  exacted,  and  that  Americ;^  vessels 
Should  be  forever  free  of  hU  rovers.  Satiafac- 
tory  as  was  this  conclusion,  the  uncomfortable 
fact  remains  that  tribute  entered  into  the  settle- 
ment. After  all  the  prisonere  had  been  ex- 
changed man  for  man,  the  Tripolitan  Govera- 
ment  demanded,  and  the  United  States  paid,  the 
handsome  sum  of  sixty  thousand  dollars  to 
Close  the  contract.  This  treaty,  however, 
awakened  the  conscience  of  Europe,  and  fram 
the  day  it  was  signed  the  power  of  the  Barbary 
corsairs  began  to  wane.  The  older  countries 
IBW  their  duty  more  clearly,  and  ceased  to  legalize 
robbery  on  the  high  seas."— S.  Lane-Poole, 
afoiy  of  tht  Barbary  Conair;  eh  20 

ALsouf:  J.  p.  Cooper,  HUt.  of  tli»  U.  S. 
Navy,  el,  eh.  18  and  v.  9,  eh.  1-7.— The  same 
W'oJ  PrebU.—X.  8.  Mackenzie,  Lift  of  Deca- 
tur, eh.  8-7. 

ntl  °A  ef5.-Fin«l  V/ar  of  Algier*  with  the 
united  Sutes.— Death-blow  to  AlKerine 
tlif'^T"^"*'  **  '••«  '«'«  war  with  Great 
BriUm  broke  out,  the  Dey  of  Aiglets,  taking 
offense  at  not  having  received  from  America  the 

Ccise  articles  in  the  way  of  tribute  demanded 
unceremoniously  dismissed  Lear,  the  consul 
nad  decUred  war,  and  had  since  captured  an 
American   vessel,    and   reduced    her   crew    to 
Slavery.    Immediately  after  the  ratification  of 
the  treaty  with  England,  this  declaration  had 
been  reciprocated.     Efforts  had  been  at  once 
made  to  lit  out  ships,  new  and  old,  includine 
several  small  ones  lately  purchased  for  the  pro- 
posed squadrons  of  Porter  and  Perry,  and  before 
many   weeks  Decatur  sailed  from  New   York 
with  the  Guerriire,   .Macedonian,   and  Constel- 
lation frigates,  now  released  from  blockade-  the 
Ontario,  new  sloop  of  war,  four  brigs,  and  two 
jch«)nera.    Two  days  after  passing  Gibraltar,  he 
fell  in  With  and  captured  an  Algerinc  frigate  of 
44  guns,  the  largest  ship  in  the  Algerine  navy, 
which  struck  to  the  Guerriire  after  a  runmng 
nght  of  twenty-flve  minutes.    A  day  or  two 
after,   an  Algerine  brig  was  chased  into  shoal 
water  on  the  Spanish  coast,  and  captured  by  tlie 
onallcr  vessels.     Decatur  having  appeared  off 
Algiers,  the  t-rrifled  Dey  at  once  consented  to  a 
treaty,  which  he  submitted  to  sign  on  Decatur's 
quarter  deck,  surrendering  all  prisoners  on  hand 
making  certain  pecunUry  indemnities,  renouncing 
au   future  claim  to  any  American   tribute  or 
presenu,   and    the  practice,   also,   of  reducing 
prironers  of  war  to  slavery.    Decatur  then  pro- 
Jo^Ji'J  to  Tunis  and  Tripoli,  and  obtained  from 
both    indemnity    for  certain  American  vessels 
captured  under  the  guns  of  their  forU  by  British 
cruisers   during    the    late   war.      The    Bey  of 
Irtpoli  being  short  of  cash,  Decatur  agreed  to 
accept  in  part  payment  the  restoration  of  liberty 
to  eight  Danes  ami  two  N'eapolltans  held  as 
i^"'-  •r"„""'''^t'i.  IIi,t.  of  the  U.  S.,  Second 
aertet,  eh.  30  (r.  3). 

13^14*'  "''•^^-  ilafkenzie.  Life  of  Decatur,  eh. 

A.  D.  i8i«.— Bombardment  of  Alnera  by 
Lord  Exmouth.— Reiinquiihment  of  Chriatiaa 
tlavery  m  Algiers,  Tripolij  and  Tunla.- •nio 
eontaira  of  Barbary   still  scouted  the  Mediter- 


Bombardmmit 
efAlgttn. 


BABBART  STATES,  1816. 


nmean;  the  captives  whom  they  had  taken  from 
Christian  VMseta,  still  langutahed  In  captivit/S 
Algiers;  and.  to  the  disgrace  of  the  civiliW 
world,  a  piratical  state  was  suffered  to  exIsUn 

r",!ryn'*°,'-'? P">  conclusion  of  the  war 

[of  the  Coalition  against  Napoleon  and  France! 
made  Uie  continuance  of  these  ravages  utUrlv 
intolerable     In    the  tateresto  of   civilization  it 
was  essential  that  piracy  should  be  put  down 
Bntaiu  >•.  as  mistress  of  the  seas,  and  it  therefore 
devolved  upon  her  to  do  the  work.  .  .  .  Hannilv 
for  this  country  the  Mediterranean  command  Wi 
^]^  ■?¥,«>  "la*^/  [Lord  Exmouth]  whose  braver, 
and  skill  wenj  fully  equal  to  the  dangers  before 
him.  .  .  .Early  In  1816  Exmouth  wa.sin?t™eted 
to  proceed  to  the  several  states  of  Barbarv   to 
require  them   to  recognize   the  cession  of  tlie 
Ionian  Islands  to  Bntain ;  to  conclude  peace  with 
i^iM^^l^r."'  ^l"'*  """l  Naples;  and  to 
^Ush  Christian  slavery.    The  Dey  of  Altera 
readily  assented  to  the  two  first  of  these  omdi 
t  ons;  the  Beys  of  TripolU  and  Tunis  followed 
the  example  of  the  Dey  of  Algiers,  ami  in  add™ 
tion  consented  to  refrain  in  future  from  treatiuj 
prisoners  of  war  as  sUves.    Exmouth  thereuDon 
returned  to  Algiers,  and  endeavoured  to  obtain  a 
simUar  concession   from    the    Dey.    The   Dev 
pleadea  that  Algiers  was  subject  to  the  Ottoman 
Porte    and  obtained  a  tnice  of  three  momlis  In 
order  to  confer  with  the  Sultan.    But  meantime 
the  Algennes  made  an  unprovoked  attack  upon 
a  nelghbounug  coral  fishery,  which  was  6ro- 
tccted  by  the  British  flag,  ma»acring  the  flsLer- 

Frmwh  u^^^?^[",i.  *«  ^»«-  Tills  broucht 
Exmouth  back  to  Algiers  in  great  haste,  with  an 
ultimatum  which  he  delivered  on  the  S7th  of 
August     No  answer  to  it  was  returned,  and  the 

the  Dutch  navy)  sailed  into  battle  range  that 
same  afternoon.  "The  Algerines  permitted  tlie 
ships  to  movfc  Into  their  stations.  The  British 
reserved   their   fire  till  they   could   deliver  it 

watched  the  ships  from  the  shore;  and  Exmouth 
waved  his  hat  to  them  to  move  and  save  them- 
selves from  the  fire.     They  had  not  the  prudence 
to  avail  themselves  of  hU  timely  warning     A 
signal  shot  was  flred  by  the  Algerines  from  the 
mole.      The    -Queen    Charlotte"    repli«l    by 
delivering  her  entire  broadside.    Five  hundred 
men  were  struck   down  by  the  first  dUcharge. 
■,•  •  The  battle,  which  had  thus  begun  at  two 
p  clock  in  the  afternoon,  continued  till  ten  o'clock 
n  the  evening.     By  that  time  half  Algiers  had 
been  destroyed;  the  whole  of  the  Algerine  navy 
had  been    bunie<l;   and.  though  a  few  of  the 
enemy  s  batteries  still  maintained  a  ca.Mial  lire 
their    principal    fortifications    were   cruinblinK 
ruins;    the   majority   of    their  guns   were  dis- 
mounte<l.      The   Dey  humble<l  himself  to  the 
terms  proposed  by  the  British  commander.    "  On 
the  first  day  of  September   Exmouth   had  the 
satisfaction  of  acquainting  his  government  with 
the  liberation   of  all  the  slaves  in  the  city  of 
Algiers,  and  the  restitution  of  the  monev  paid 
«nce   the    commencement    of    the  year  liy  the 
Neapolitan  and  Sardinian  Governments  for  the 
redemption  of  slaves."    He    had  al.*>  cxU)rted 
from  the  piratical  Dey  a  solemn  declaration  that 
he  would,  in    future    wars,  treat   all  prisonorB 
according  to  the  usagi>s   of    European  nations. 
f°  Jhe  battle  which  won  these  important  results, 
188  men  were  killed  and  680  wounded  on 


274 


;|!U 


BABBART  STATBS,  MlflL 


BARBART  ST.'  TZS,  1880-1846. 


bmrd  the  Britteh  fleet;  the  Dutch  loet  18  killed 
■nd  52  wounded." — 8.  Walpole,  Hiit.  tf  £m 
front  181S,  eh.a(v.  1). 

Also  a:  H.  Hutineau,  Eitl.  cf  (A<  Thii  , 
r«art  Prnte,  bk.  1,  eh.  6  {v.  \).—L.  Heitilel, 
CMeeiion  ^  Trtatitt  and  Omteatiom,  e.  1. 

A.  O.  1830.— French  coaqnett  of  Algiers.— 
"During  the  Napoleonic  wars,  the  Dey  of  Al 
pii'n  supplied  grain  for  the  use  of  the  French 
iirmiea;  it  was  bought  by  merchants  of  Mar- 
willtfi,  and  there  was  a  dispute  abni-t  the  matter 
whirh  was  unsettled  as  Ute  as  1829.  Several  in- 
stiilincnts  had  bee:i  paid;  the  dey  demanded 
payment  in  full  according  to  his  own  figures, 
while  the  French  government,  believing  the  de- 
mand excessive,  required  an  investigation.  In 
one  of  the  numerous  debates  on  the  subject, 
Hussein  Pasha,  the  reignine  dev,  became  very 
angry,  struck  the  consul  with  a  fan,  and  ordered 
him  out  of  the  house.  He  refused  all  reparation 
for  tlie  insult,  even  on  the  formal  demand  of  the 
French  government,  and  consequently  there  was 
DO  alternative  but  war. "  The  expedition  launched 
from  the  port  of  Toulon,  for  the  chastisement  of 
the  insolent  Algerine,  "comprised  87,500  men, 
3,000  horses,  and  180  pieces  of  artillery.  .  .  . 
The  sea-forces  included  11  ships  of  the  line,  23 
frif^ates,  70  smaller  vessels,  877  transports,  and 
2.30  boats  for  landing  troops.  Oeneral  Bourmont, 
Minister  of  War,  commanded  the  expedition, 
which  appeared  in  front  of  Algiers  on  the  13th 
of  June,  1830."  Hussein  Pasha  "had  previously 
ssl(ed  for  aid  from  the  Sultan  of  Turkey,  but 
tliat  wily  ruler  had  blankly  refused.  The  beys 
of  Tunis  and  Tripoli  had  also  declined  to  meddle 
with  the  affair."'  The  binding  of  the  French 
WHS  effected  safely  and  without  serious  opposi- 
tion, at  Kidi-Ferruch,  about  16  miles  west  of 
Algiers.  The  Algerine  army,  40,000  to  60,000 
strong,  commanded  by  Aga  Ibrahim,  son-inlaw 
of  the  dey,  took  its  position  on  the  table-land  of 
Staoui'li,  overlooking  the  French,  where  it  waited 
while  their  landing  was  made.  On  the  19th 
Otni'ral  Bourmont  was  ready  to  advance.  His 
sntagoList,  instead  of  adhenng  to  the  waitiug 
attitude,  and  forcing  the  French  to  attack  him, 
on  liis  own  ground,  now  went  out  to  meet  them, 
and  Hung  his  disorderly  mob  against  their  dis- 
ciplined luttalions,  with  the  result  tliat  seldom 
fails.  "The  Arab  loes  in  killed  and  wounded 
was  about  8,000,  .  .  .  while  the  French  loss  was 
less  than  500.  In  little  more  than  an  hour  the 
battle  was  over,  and  the  Osmanlis  were  in  full 
ami  disorderly  retreat"  Oeneral  Bourmont  took 
possession  of  the  Algerine  camp  at  Staouvli, 
where  he  was  again  attacked  on  the  24tb  of 
June,  with  a  similur  disastrous  result  to  the  Arabs. 
He  then  adva  ■d  upon  the  city  of  Algiers, 
estaUislied  his  an.  y  in  position  behind  the  city, 
constructtii  batteHes,  and  opened,  on  the  4th  of 
J  ly,  a  boinbardm_at  so  terrific  that  the  dey 
h...*t«l  the  white  flag  in  a  few  hours.  "  Hussein 
I'aslia  hoped  to  the  last  moment  to  retain  his 
country  and  its  independence  by  making  liberal 
conceasions  in  the  way  of  indemnity  for  the  ex- 
penses of  the  war,  and  offered  to  liberate  all 
(.hnstian  slaves  In  addition  to  paving  them  fo.- 
iheir  scrvic-es  and  sufferings.  The  English  con- 
sul tned  to  mediate  on  this  basis,  but  his  offers 
of  mMiation  were  politely  declined.  ...  It  was 
Anally  agree<l  that  the  dey  should  surrender 
Algiers  with  all  its  fortt  anil  mlliUry  stores,  and 
t)e  permitted  to  retire  wherever  be  chose  with 


his  wives,  children,  and  personal  belnngings, 
but  he  was  not  to  remain  hi  the  country  under 
any  cireumstances.  On  the  5th  of  July  the 
Frencii  entered  Algiers  in  great  pomp  and  took 
possession  of  tha  citv.  .  .  .  The  spoils  of  war 
were  such  as  rarely  fall  to  the  lot  of  a  conquer- 
ing army,  when  its  numbers  and  the  circumstan- 
ces of  the  campaign  are  considered.  In  the 
treasury  was  found  a  large  room  filled  with  gold 
and  silver  coins  heaped  together  indiscriminately, 
tlie  fruits  of  three  centuries  of  piracy;  they  were 
the  coins  of  all  the  nations  that  had  suffered 
from  the  depredations  of  the  Algerines,  and  the 
variety  in  the  dates  showed  very  clearly  that 
the  accumulation  had  been  the  work  of  two 
or  three  hundred  years.  How  much  money 
was  contained  in  this  vast  pile  is  not  known; 
certain  it  is  that  nearly  50,000,000  francs,  or 
£2,000,000  sterling,  actually  i-eached  the  French 
treasury.  .  .  .  Thecostof  the  war  was  much  more 
than  covered  by  the  captured  property.  .  .  . 
Many  slaves  were  liberated.  .  .  .  The  Algerine 
power  was  forever  broken,  and  from  that  day 
Algeria  has  been  a  prosperous  colony  of  France. 
Hussein  Pashf.  embarked  on  the  10th  of  July  with 
a  suite  of  1 10  persons,  of  whom  53  were  women. 
He  proceeded  to  Naples,  where  he  remained  for 
a  time,  went  afterwards  to  Leghorn,  and  finally 
to  Egypt."  In  Egypt  he  died,  under  circum- 
stances which  indicated  poison.— T.  W.  Knox, 
Dteiiite  Battlei  Since  Waterlx),  eh.  8. 

Also  in:  R  L.  Playfair,  The  Scourge  of  Chrit- 
tendom,  eh.  19.— E.  E.  Crowe,  Hitt.  of  the  Reignt 
of  Louie  XVIII.  andCharkeX.,  e.  2,  eh.  13 

A.  O.  1830-1846.— The  French  war  of  Sub- 
junition  in  Algeria  with  Abd-el-Kader.— 
"  When  Louis  Philippe  ascended  the  throne  [of 
France,  A.  D.  1830]  the  generals  of  his  predeces- 
sor had  overrun  the  country  [of  Meiers]  — 
though  they  did  not  effectually  subuuo  it;  their 
absolute  dominion  not  extending  far  found  Al- 
giers—from Bona,  on  the  east,  in  la..  86°  u3'  N., 
long.  7'  46'  W.,  to  Oran,  on  the  west  — nearly 
the  entire  extent  of  the  ancient  Libya.  .  .  . 
There  was  always  a  party  in  the  chamber  of 
deputies  opposed  to  the  conquest  who  deprecated 
the  colonisation  of  Algeria,  and  who  steadily  op- 
posed any  grants  of  either  met!  or  money  to  be 
devoted  to  the  African  enterprise.  The  natural 
result  followed.  Ten  thousand  men  could  not 
effect  the  work  for  which  40,000  were  required; 
and,  whilst  the  youn^  colony  Unguished,  the 
natives  became  emboldened,  and  encouraged  to 
make  that  resistance  which  cost  the  French  so 
dear.  Marslial  Clause!,  when  entrusted  with  the 
government  of  the  colony,  and  the  supreme  com- 
mand of  the  troops  .  .  .  esublished  a  series  of 
fortified  posto,  which  were  adequately  garrisoned ; 
and  roads  were  opened  to  enable  the  garrisons 
promptly  to  communicate  with  eacn  other. 
These  positions,  rapidly  acquired,  he  was  unable 
to  maintain,  in  consequence  of  the  home  govern- 
ment recalling  the  greater  part  of  his  force.  To 
recruit  his  army  he  resolved  to  enlist  some  corps 
of  the  natives;  and.  In  October,  1830,  the  first 
regiment  of  zouaves  was  raised."  ...  In  1833 
we  "  first  hear  of  Abd-el-Kader  This  chief  was 
the  sonof  a  marabout,  or  priest,  in  the  province 
of  Oran.  He  united  consummate  ability  with 
great  vuluur;  was  a  devout  Muhammedun ;  and 
when  he  raised  the  standard  of  the  prophet,  be 
called  the  Arabs  around  him,  with  the  fullest  con- 
fidence of  success.    His  countrymen  obeyed  lUs 


275 


S'\1       . 


I, 


BARBART  BTATES.  1880-1848.     AU^Xaa^.     BARBABY  STATZ3.  1830-1848. 


e»lHn  great  numbers;  and,  encouraged  by  the 
•^VL''.^'"""  "'"^  dtaplsyed.  he  first,  at  the  close 
of  18.«,  proclaimed  himiclf  emirof  Tlcrasen  (the 
former  name  of  Oran),  and  then  seized  on  the 
port  of  Arzew,  on  the  west  side  of  the  gulf  of 
that  name :  and  the  port  of  Mostagsnem,  on  the 
opposite  coast.    The  province  of  Mascara,  lying 
at  the  foot  of  the  Atlas,  was  also  under  hi*  rule 
At  that  time  general  Dcsmichels  commanded  at 
Oran     He  had  not  a  very  large  force,  but  he 
act«l  promptly.  Marching  against  Abdnsl-Kader. 
he  defeated  him  In  two  pitched  battles  j  retook 
Arzew  and  Mostaganem;  and,  on  the  20th  of 
February,  1834,  entered  Into  a  treaty  with  the 
emir,  by  which  both  parties  were  bound  to  keep 
the  peace  towards  each  other.    During  that  year 
the  terms  were  observed;  but,  In  183S,  the  Arab 
chief  again  commenced  hostilities.    Ha  marched 
to  the  east,  entered  the  French  territories,  and 
took  possession  of  Medeah,  being  received  with 
the  utmost  Joy  by  the  Inhabitants.    On  the  36th 
ot  June,  general  Trezel,  with  only  8,800  men 
marched  a^Mnst  him.    Abd-el-Kader  had  8,000 
Arabs  uni-cr  his  command;  and  a  sanguinary 
combat  took  place  In  the  defiles  of  Mouley  Ismaef. 
After  a  severe  combat,  the  French  (oreed  the 
mssage,   but  with  considerable  loss.  .  .  .  The 
French  general,  finding  his  position  untenable 
commenced  a  retrograde  movement  on  the  28th  of 
June.   In  his  retreat  he  was  punued  by  the  Arabs- 
jd  before  he  reached  Oran,  on  the  4th  of  July 
he  lost  all  his  waggons,  train,  and  baggage;  be- 
sides having  ten  oflloera,  and  253  sous-offleera 
and  rank-and-file  killed,  and  308  wounded    The 
heads  of  many  of  the  killed  were  displayed  In 
triumph  by  the  victors.    This  was  a  severe  blow 
to  the  French,  and  the  cause  of  great  rejoicing 
to  the  Arabs.    The  former  called  for  marahal 
Clausel  to  be  restored  to  his  command,  and  the 
government  at  home  complied;  at  the  same  time 
Issuing  a  proclsmution,  declaring  that  Algeria 
AouM  not  be  abandoned,  but  that  the  honour  of 
the  French  arms  should  be  maintained     The 
marshal  left  France  on  the  28th  of  July;  and  as 
soon  as  he  landed,  he  organised  an  expedition 
against  Mascara,  which  was  Abd-el-Kader's  capi- 
tal. ..  .  The  Arab  chieftain  advanced*"  meet  the 
enemv;  but,  being  twice  defeated,  he  n  .jlved  to 
abandon  his  capital,  which  the  French  entered 
on  V  !■  6th  of  December,  and  found  completely 
ae»    ed.    The   strecU  and  houses  were  alike 
empiy  and  desolate;  and  the  only  living  creature 
they  encountered  was  an  old  woman,  lying  on 
jome  mats,  who  could  not  move  of  herself   and 
had  been  either  forgotten  or  abandoned.    The 
French  sot  flrc  to  the  deserted  houses ;  and  having 
effecte.1  the  destruction  of  Mascara,  they  marched 
to  Mostaganem,   which  Clausel  determined  to 
make  the  centre  of  French  power  In  that  dis- 

m.  63*-fld5.—  A  camp  was  esubllshed  on  the 
Taafna  in  April  1836,  and  an  action  took  pUce 
rSS  2?  "'^  ^'"''  '"'"^"  •''«  Tableau  states  that 
8,000  French  engaged  10,000  natives;  and  some 
of  the  enemies  being  troops  of  Morocro,  an  ex- 
planation was  required  of  Muley-Abder-Rach- 
man,  the  emperor,  who  saiil  that  the  assistance 
wasgiven  to  the  Algerines  without  his  knowledire 
On  July  6th,  1836,  Abd-el-Kader  suffered  a  dia- 
■strous  defeat  on  the  river  BIkkak.  near  Tlemsen 
fL!?*  ^i'  "'  Msrshsl  Bugeaud.  November 
1M8,  the  flrat  expedition  was  formed  asainst 
Constantlna.  .  .  .  After  the  faUon  of  dauiel 


276 


9*?"?LP"""*"°"'  '">•  "PPolnted  governor 
Feb    12th    1887;  and  on  the  80th  of  mIv  ,he 
treaty  of  the  Taafna  between  General  B.ijeau.i 
and  Abd-el-Kader  left  the  French  government  a 
Uberty  to  direct  all  their  attention  against  Co" 
stantina.   a  camp  being  formed  at  Tifi^jny-cj. 
Ahmar  In  that  direction.     An  army  of  10  0(10 
men  set  out  thence  on  the  1st  of  October  IN37 
for  Constantina.     On  the  6th  it  arrived  'before 
Constantina;  and  on  the  18th  the  town  was  taken 
I.S  V  nl*"*  1«". 'Ofludlng  Damr«mont.    Mar 
Tifi     n '*?  i""**'"'  Oamrimont  as  govern". 
Jf  thI,n.H'''Js^2?'J!""'°*  <>"*"'yed  the  la.st  r,iic 
of  the  old  Turkish  government.  .  .  .  Bvth.'>7ih 
January,  1838,  loS  tribes  had  submitted  to  Z 
^nch.   A  road  was  cleared  In  April  by  (Jcnml 
Negrier  from  Constantina  to  Stora  on  the  ees 
TTiU  road,  passing  bv  the  camps  of  Smendou  and 
the  Aijouch    was  23  leagues  In  length.    The 
coast  of  the  Bay  of  Stora,  on  the  site  of  the  an 
cient  Kuslcada,   became   covered  with  French 
settlers :  and  Phlllppevllle  was  founded  Oct  1838 
threatening   to  supplant   Bona.     Abd-elK-ider 
advancing  ta  December  1837  to  the  province  o 
Constantina^the  French  advanced  alsb  toobserve 
him ;  then  both  retired,  without  comUig  to  blows. 
A  misunderstanding  which  arose  respecting  the 
riK**  'iL^^'  °!  the  treaty  of  Taafna'was  si'ttled 
ta  the  beginning  of  1838.  ..  .  When  Abd-el- 
Kader  assumed  the  royal  title  of  Sultan  aud  the 
command  of  a  numerous  army,  the  French  with 
republican   charity    and    fraternal    sympathv 
sought  to  Infringe  the  Taafna  treaty,  and  embroil 
the  Arab  hero,  ta  order  to  ruin  his  rising  empire 
and  found  their  own  on  lu  ashes.    The  Emi-  had 
been  recognised  by  the  whole  country,  f^  r.  th" 
gates  of  Ouchda  to  the  river  Mijerda.  Tn; 

war  was  resumed,  and  many  French  razzias  t(K.k 
place.    They  once  marched  a  large  force  fron. 
Algiers  on  Millanah  to  surprise  the  sultan's  c-r  n 
They  failed  ta  their  chief  object,  but  nearl-      \- 
tured  the  sultan  himself.    He  was  surroun    ,  .a 
the  middle  of  a  French  square,  which  tiiou    ' 
Itself  sure  of  the  reward  of  100,000  francs  (£4  Ouu, 
"5'',^.^°'",''*'"=  •""  "ttering  his  favourite  'en- 
shaliah  (with  the  will  of  God),  he  gave  his  white 
horse  the  spur,  and  came  over  their  bayonets  ua- 
wounded.    He  lost,  however,  thirty  of  bis  bo.lv- 
guard  and  friends,  but  killed  si.x  Frenchmen 
with  bis  own  hand.    Still,  notwithstanding  his 
sucresses,  Abd-el-Kader  had  been  losing  all  his 
former  power,  as  his  Arabs,  though  brave  could 
not  match  80,000  French  troops,  with  artillery 
and  all  the  other  ornaments  of  civilised  warfare 
Seven  actions  were  fought  at  the  Col  do  Jloursia, 
where  the  Arabs  were  overthrown  by  the  roval 
dukes.  In  1841 ;  and  at  the  Oued  Foddha,  where 
Ohangamier,  with  a  handful  of  troops,  defeated 
a  whole  population  in  a  frightful  gorge.    It  was 
on  this  occasion  that,  having  no  guns,  he  launched 
his  Chasseura  d'Afrique  against  the  fort,  s.iying, 
'  Voda  mon  artllleriel '    Abd-el  Kader  ha.1  then 
only  two  chances,— the  support  of  Muley-Abd-tr- 
liahman.  Emperor  of  Morocco ;  or  the  peace  that 
the  latter  might  conclude  with  France  for  him. 
General  Bugeaud,   who  had  replac«l  Marshal 
VallSe,  organised  a  plan  of  campaign  by  movable 
columns  radhiting  from  Algiers,  Oran  and  Con- 
stantina;  and  having  100,000  excellent  soldiers 
at  his  disposal,  the  results  as  agatast  tlie  Eralr 
we«)  slowly  but  surely  effective.    U>}neritl  Ne- 

frier  at  Constantina,  Changarnler  amongst  the 
ladjout*  about  MedeahudMiUaaah,  C^valgnac 


B.UtBART  8TATKS,  1830-18M. 


BARCELONA. 


ud  Lunoridire  in  Ono,— carried  oat  the 
commander-ia-cbieCR  instructlona  with  untirinfr 
energy  and  perMverance ;  and  to  the  *prlD«t  of 
1843  the  Due  d'Aumale,  in  company  with  Oen- 
ersl  Changaraler,  aurprlsed  the  Emir'i  camp  in 
the  absence  of  the  greatest  part  of  hi*  force,  and 
It  was  <  ith  difllcultr  that  he  liimself  escaped. 
Not  iong  afterwards  he  toolc  refuge  in  Morocco, 
excited  the  fanatical  passions  of  the  populace  of 
that  empire,  and  thereby  forced  its  ruler,  Huley- 
Abd-er- Rahman,  much  against  his  own  inclina- 
tion, into  a  war  with  France ;  a  war  very  speedily 
terminated  bjr  Oeneral  Bugeaud's  victory  of  Isly, 
with  some  slight  assistance  from  the  bombard- 
ment of  Tangier  and  Mogador  by  the  Prince  de 
JoiDvilie.  In  1845  the  struggle  was  maintained 
amiilattbe  hills  by  the  partisans  of  Abd-el-Sader; 
but  our  limits  prevent  us  from  dwelling  on  its 
particulars,  save  in  one  instance.  ...  On  the 
niglit  of  the  12th  of  June,  1843,  about  three 
months  before  Marshal  Bugeaud  left  Algeria, 
Coianeis  Pelissier  and  St.  Ar-xHud,  at  the  hrad  of 
a  considerable  force,  attemn>e<l  a  razzia  upon 
the  tribe  of  the  Beni-Ouled-Kiah,  numbering,  in 
meu  women,  and  children,  about  700  persons. 
This  was  in  the  Dahra.  The  Arabs  escaped  the 
first  clutch  of  their  pursuers;  and  when  hard 
pressed,  as  they  soon  were,  toolc  refuge  in  the 
cave  of  Kliartanl,  which  had  some  odour  of  sanc- 
tity about  it:  some  holy  man  or  marabout  luul 
lived  and  died  there,  we  believe.  The  French 
troops  came  up  quiciily  to  the  entrance,  and  the 
Arabs  were  summoned  to  surrender.  They  made 
no  reply.  Possibly  they  did  not  hear  the  sum- 
mons. ...  As  there  was  no  other  outlet  from 
the  cave  than  that  by  which  the  Arabs  entered, 
a  few  hours'  patience  must  have  been  rewarded 
by  the  unconditional  surrender  of  the  imprisoned 
tribe.  Colonels  Pelissier  and  St.  Arnaud  were 
desirous  of  a  speedier  result;  and  by  their  order 
an  immense  fire  was  kindled  at  the  mouth  of  the 
cave,  and  fed  sedulously  during  the  summer 
night  with  wood,  grass,  reetls,  anything  that 
would  help  to  keep  up  the  volume  of  smoke  and 


flame  which  the  wind  drove.  In  roaring,  whirling 
eddies,  into  the  mouth  of  the  cavern.  It  was 
too  Ute  now  for  the  unfortunate  Arabs  to  offer 
to  surrender;  the  discfavge  of  a  cannon  would 
not  have  been  heard  in  the  roar  of  that  huge 
blatt-f  umacc,  much  less  smoke-strangled  cries  of 
human  agony.  The  flre  was  kept  up  throughout 
tnr  night;  and  when  the  day  hail  fully  dawned,' 
the  then  expiring  embers  were  kicked  aside,  and 
as  soon  as  a  sufficient  time  had  elapsed  to  render 
the  air  of  the  silent  cave  breathable,  some  soldiers 
were  directed  to  ascertain  how  matters  were 
within.  They  were  gone  but  a  few  mhiutes;  and 
they  came  back,  we  are  told,  pale,  trembling,  I 
terrified,  hardly  daring,  it  seemed,  to  confront 
the  light  of  day.  No  wonder  they  trembled  and' 
looked  pale.  They  had  found  all  the  Arabs 
dead — men,  women,  children.  ...  St.  Arnaud 
and  Pelissier  were  rewarded  by  the  French  miu- 
ister;  and  Marshal  Soult  observed,  that  'what 
would  be  a  crime  against  civilisation  in  Europe 
might  be  a  ju^Mflabie  necessity  In  Africa.' .  .  . 
A  taste  of  Fn  ich  bayonets  at  Isly,  and  the 
iKioming  of  French  guns  at  Mogador,  had 
brought  Morocco  to  reason.  .  .  .  Morocco  sided 
with  France,  and  threatened  Abd-el-ICadcr,  who 
cut  one  of  their  corps  to  pieces,  and  was  in  June 
on  tlie  point  of  coming  to  blows  with  Muley- Abd- 
el-Rahman,  the  emperor.  But  the  Emperor  of 
Morocco  took  vigorous  measures  to  oppose  him, 
nearlv  exterminating  the  tribes  friendly  to  him; 
which  drew  off  many  partisans  from  the  Emir, 
who  trieil  to  pacify  the  emperor,  but  unsuc- 
cessfully." In  December,  1848,  "ho  asked  to 
negotiate,  offered  to  surrender;  and  after  24 
hours'  discussion  he  came  to  Sidi  Brahim,  the 
scene  of  his  last  exploits  against  the  French, 
where  he  was  received  with  military  honours,: 
and  conducted  to  >he  Duke  of  Aumale  at  Ne- 
mours. France  has  been  severely  abused  for  the 
detention  of  Abd-cl-Kador  in  Ham." — J.  R. 
Morell,  .Vqeria,  eh.  23. 

A.  D.  .liSi,— T"-iia  brought  nnder  the  protec- 
torate of  France.    See  Frasck:  A.  D.  1875-188i». 


BARBES.—BARBETS.—Theelders  among 
the  early  Waldenscs  were  called  barbes,  which 
si^nilied  "  Uncle. '  Whence  came  the  nickname 
Barbels,  applied  to  the  Walilensian  people  gen- 
erally.—E.  Comba,  ni$t.  of  tht  WaUetmi  of 
lUili/.p.  147. 

BARCA.    See  Ctrexe. 

BARCELONA:  A.  D.  713.— Surrender  to 
the  Arah-Moora.    See  Spai."»:  A.  D.  711-713. 

A.  D.  1151.— The  County  joined  to  Araron. 
See  Spain:  A  D.  1033- 12.W. 

I2th-i6th  Centuries. — Commercial  prosper- 
itv  and  municipal  freedom.—"  The  city  of  Bar- 
oolona,  which  originally  gave  its  name  to  the 
oo'.inty  (if  which  it  was  the  capital,  was  distin- 
jtuished  from  a  very  early  period  by  arapk 
municipal  privileges.  After  the  union  with  Ara- 
gon  in  the  12th  century,  the  monarchs  of  the  lat- 
ter kingdom  exteuaed  towards  it  the  same  libt'rai 
legislation;  so  that,  by  the  13th,  Bi-.rcelona  had 
rciiclicd  'legreo  of  commercial  prosperity  rival- 
ling that  of  any  of  the  Italian  republics.  She 
divided  with  them  the  lucrative  commerce  with 
Alexandrin;  and  her  port,  thronge<i  with  foreign- 
ers from  every  nation,  became  a  principal  em- 
iv>r1iim  fn  the  Mediterranean  for  the  spices, 
drugs,  perfumes,  and  other  rich  commodities  of 
tlie  East,  whence  they  were  diffuied  over  the  in- 


terior of  Spain  and  the  European  continent.  Her 
consuls,  and  her  commercial  factories,  were  es- 
tablished in  every  consiiLrable  port  la  the  Medi- 
terranean and  in  the  nonft  of  Europe.  Tlie  natu- 
ral product"  of  her  soil,  and  her  various  domestic 
fabrics,  supplied  her  with  'luniiant  articles  of 
export.  Fine  wool  was  if  rted  by  her  in  con- 
siderable quantitifs  fro.-n  iingland  in  the  14th 
and  15th  centuries,  and  returned  there  manu- 
factured into  cloth ;  an  exchange  of  commodities 
the  reverse  of  that  existing  between  the  two 
nations  at  the  present  day.  Barcelona  claims  the 
merit  of  having  established  the  first  bank  of 
exchange  and  deposit  in  Europe,  in  1401 ;  it  waa 
devoted  to  tto  accommodatinn  of  foreigners  as 
wellasof  herown citizens.  ShecUlmsthe  glory, 
too,  of  having  compiled  the  most  ancient  written 
code,  among  the  modems,  of  maritime  law  now 
extant,  digested  from  the  usages  of  commercial 
nations,  and  which  formed  the  basis  of  tlie  mer- 
cantile jurisprudence  of  Europe  during  the  Mi<i- 
dle  Ages.  Tlie  wealth  which  dov.ea  in  upon 
Barcelona,  as  the  result  of  her  activity  and  ont-er- 
prlse,  was  evinced  by  lier  numerous  public  works, 
her  docks,  arsenal,  warehouses,  exchange,  hospl- 
u\i,  and  other  construct Idiis  of  gifueral  utility. 
Strangers,  who  visited  Spain  In  the  14th  and  15th 
centuries,  expatiate  on  the  magniflcenoe  ot  ti;da 


277 


H 


BARCELONA. 

^H' '" fMnraodlons  prirste  ediflcM,  the  ctauiH- 
nesBof  iu  streets  and  public squuro  (n  rlrtuebv 
no  means  usual  in  that  day),  andT  the  J^enit? 
ofltaganiens  and  cultivated  environs.    But  the 

her  municipal  institutions.  Her  government 
consisted  of  a  senate  or  council  of  on^h^",^' 

were  sylod  varying  at  times  from  four  to  six 
n  number;  the  f![.rmer  intrusted  with  the  leiris 
1«  ive  the  latter  with  the  executive  functlonf  of 
~lmmi.,tn.tion  A  large  proportion  ofTeSe 
^lies  were  selected  from  the  n\erchants.  ti«dS! 
men.  aD<l  mechanics  of  the  city.  They  were  in- 
vestcl  not  merely  with  municipal  authority  but 
with  many  of  the  rights  of  sovereignty,  thev 
entered  into  commercial  treaties  wiuj  foreign 
powers;  superintended  the  defence  of  the  cUy 
in  time  of  war;  provided  for  the  security  of 
trade;  gnintal  letters  of  reprisal  against  any  na- 

of  ?^f,  f*  Pf""  ™r*y»  f"'  ^^  oonstnictiou 
rL.f/^  r";""'  "'■  "*«  encouragement  of  such 
commercial  a.lventures  as  were  t^  hazanious  or 

LlPo^'wh'"""'!'.^'','""'  <'-'*^Pri»e.  Th^^u" 
scllors  who  presided  over  the  municipality  were 
complimented  with  certain  honorary  privllcires 
not  even  accor,l«l  to  the  nobility.^  ■fi/Jy  /ere 
wi&il  '^  'Y  """'  of '^sniflcci:  wew  SeatlS? 
with  their  Iiea<l8  covered,  in  the  presence  of  roy^ 
alty;were  prece<le<l  by  macc-bearera,  or  lictora. 
in  their  progress  through  the  country ;  and  depu- 
ties from  tiieir  bojiy  to  the  court  wc^  admitted 
on  the  f(>.iii,g  and  received  the  honors  of  foreign 
ambass;«l.,r,.  These,  it  will  be  rwollccted,  were 
plebeians,—  merchunu  and    mechanics.      Trade 

«ir.»™  TTi  » '''-K^J'tlon  in  Catalonia, 
as  it  csm(^  to  bo  In  Castile."— W.  H  Prcscott 

tnUl  "1(1%'^'""  "■^  ''"^'*"»<'a'»''  ItabOa,  in- 

184a-?M3'*°"~'°*""""°"-    ^■«8paiji:  A.D. 

A.  p.  i6si.i«52.-Sien  and  C4kptnrc  by  tta« 

A.    D.    1705.- Capture    by    the    Earl    of 
Peterborongh.    S.-.- sTpaix  :  A  D  1705 
t,."  ?•   '7o«-— Un»nceeMfnl   liere   by   the 
French  and  Spaniardi.    8,^.  Sp.un:  A.  D  17(W 

th^Ami2'^■47'«^-^•''•'•' "'» -e-rtion  by 

1  "^ni4         SP*»'""-    **    Spais;   a.    D 

A.  D.  184a.— Rebellion  and  bombardment 
See  8pai.\:  .V    D    1H;1;|-1S46  >«^»«eni. 


15'-l""''°'*^'  '^'•"^rot.    Sec  Itait;  A.D. 

Th^e*"?!???^',  °",  BARciNB    PAMILY. 

Ihe.— I  lie  family   of    the  great    Cartluiglnian 

UanulbaJ.  TIh'  surname  »>r<».  or  lUrrai,  given 
u.  laihilcHr  H  riiulvalent  to  the  U.brew  ft  ™S 
will  Nik'mliiil  lighliiiii,: 

BAROI.     Hie  .Mu.VKT  ASD  BA.NklNU:  Flor. 

KN  I  INK, 

BARDS.    See  Fii.i. 

BARDULIA.    S«e  Spatti  ;  A   P  lMe-12S0 

BAREBONES  PARLIAMENT.Ti^  i^ 

MAKENTZ,  Voyajet  of.     See  Pulah  Ex- 
PUBLIC    SAFETY.    «rc    Fca.mb.  a    U 


BABNEVELDT. 

A.°d''?^S^,?(5'''   ^'J'""   ■^"•^•'   S«lt.n. 

Tt^^TU^^^°^\   °^     BARMEKIDES 

1;  .I.Tm''.*  Barm,  rides,  or  Barmelcides  ,mi„„i 
» J  "/''^."y  °'  ""•  Caliplmte  at  Bagrt,  Tnl 
made  familiar  to  a  the  world  bvthe  «nri'.  . 
the  "Arabian  Nights."  we™  a  fa,i:iI%S'n,"J 

.^.  ,  V  I^™"''  or  custodian  of  one  of  hi 
most«^lebrated  temples  of  the  Zoro,istr?m  f.i  h 
n^f^^^^^  MahometaiMsm  and  beo^imo  Lt 
nL-S  '"^l'  "«'■'"»  °'  "le  conspiracy  "iS 
AK,^^':f '^  "'^  Ommiad  Caliphs  ahd  rai*  1  S 
.^S^^if  I*"  "'^  """"«•    The  flm  of  tTubt 

the  sons  of  Yahya  wi»  te^Ln^  tt^  ™S  "' 
thl"^  of  n«roun'andThote''th  "fl.fc 
the  Barmecides  to  iu  acme  of   splen.  I  "r     Sn 

ZlaJ^^  '"  '  ^"'»°  hou«,'eTd  ^wi^ 
Jealousy,  however,  among  the  Arabs,  an.i  In  the 
end,  the  capricious  lonl  and  master  of  do  „n 
P.|werful  vizier  Jaafar  turned  his  hear^  ,  .^j " 

Barmecides  was  made  as  cruel  as  their  ad  v.nc*' 
hZJ'^,.^'^''}  unscrupulous.    J««f«r  w,   T 
headed  without  a  moment's  warning'   his  f  ith^r 
""'  ^rother  were  Imprisoned,  an/k  thom,, 
sUte      R  n  iSfJ'""^,"*  "'"^  *»  have T  „ 

I  ^Also  i.n;   E.  H.  Palmer,   ffaroun  Alr,ur/,i.,. 

BAHNABITES.  —  PAULINES  •  t>. 
derksregularof  St  Paulfpaulff wh';«.  J,'' 
l^&nf"?^  '°"""*'^.  •>'  A..t;>nlo  Maria 
d^tJ. m  °'.,^"'"'°"»  "^  two  Milanese  «*.,. 
I ™  .„.■*•.  "P''i"''"'  ^7  Clement  VII.  in 
in'i  »°,'i.^™"fl™«l  ««  Inifepenileiit  l.v  I'„„i 
111.  in  I.WI,  in  154,5  took  the  name  of  I!  -  . 
bitee,  from  the  church  of  St.  Hamal.,is,  «  „  , 
WM  given  up  to  them  at  Milan.  The  R.rim. 
ofl^^.l^S"''7"'i^^°?i«^'. '"  "'^  <""'•.«•„,, 
r/'n!^p  »■  ~^^-^"^-  ""  '*'"'"'•'•  /'V'nmi- 
M.fn^?-"^,""  COLLEGE.    See  Edication 

Aif^rirKs"!?-  «-^'— wsop 

Wara  of  the  Ho«e«."  E.lward  IV.  having 
be,;ndriveno,it  of  England  ami  Henry  \  ,  n' 
Instated  by  Warwick,  "the  King  niak'.r  "  the 
fTjiior  retiirae,!  In-fore  ,lx  months  had  n.i«,"l 
;.  "  .n-ijle  1.1,  wav  to  I>.nd,>n.     Warwick  ulZ^l 

v.  Ji  ii    ,^?  '■'"""'  '"f'tl"'' "n  Kasl.T  Smii,I;,v, 
l-«.. Ion.     TlH,  victory,  long  d..ul.tful.  «■„  «„„ 

bl.»Kllly  adiieve.1,     The  Eari  of  W«r»i,  k  w« 
am(.ng  the  slaiu.     8e«  E.xoLA.fD:    A  U.   HVV 


278 


BARON. 

BARON.— "The  title  of  baron,  unlike  that  of 
Earl,  U  a  creation  of  the  [Norman]  Conqueat 
The  word,  in  its  origin  equivaient  to  'homo,' 
receives  under  feudal  institutiooa,  like  '  homo ' 
Itself,  the  meaning  of  vassal.  Homage  (homin- 
ium)  is  the  ceremony  by  which  the  vassal 
becomes  the  man  of  his  lord ;  and  the  homines 
of  the  king  are  barons.  Possibly  the  kins's 
thegn  of  Anglo-8n.ion  times  may  answer  to  vie 
Norman  baron." — W.  Stubbs,  CorM.  Hill,  of 
Eni}.,  eh.  11.  tet.  184. 
BARON,  Court.    See  Makors. 

BARONET.— "One  approaches  with  reluc- 
tance the  modem  title  of  baronet  .  .  .  Qram- 
maticall^,  the  term  is  clear  enough;  it  is  the 
dlminutire  of  baron;  but  baron  is  emphatically 
a  man.  the  liege  vassal  of  the  king;  ana  baronet, 
therefore,  etymologically  would  seem  to  imply  a 
a  doubt.  Degrees  of  honor  admit  of  no  diminu- 
tion ;  a  '  damoisel '  and  a  '  donzello '  are  gram- 
matical diminutives,  but  they  do  not  lessen  the 
rank  of  the  bearer;  for,  on  the  contrary,  they 
denote  the  heir  to  the  larger  honor,  being 
attributed  to  none  but  the  sons  of  the  prince  or 
nobleman,  who  bore  the  paramount  title.  They 
did  not  degrade,  even  in  their  etymological 
signiflcation,  which  baronet  appears  to  do,  and 
no  act  of  parliament  can  remove  this  radical 
defect.  .  .  .  Independently  of  these  considera- 
tions, the  title  arose  from  the  expedient  of  a 
needy  monarch  [James  I.]  to  raise  money,  and 
was  offrred  for  sale.  Any  man,  provided  he 
were  (if  good  birth,  might,  '  for  a  consideration,' 
canton  his  family  shield  with  the  red  hand  of 
I'LjUt  '— R  T.  Hampson,  Origina  Patricia,  tm. 
8(»-3fl9.  '^^ 

BARONS'  WAR,  Tht.  See  Ekolaito: 
A.  D.  1216-1274. 

BARONY  OF  LAND.-"  Fifteen  acres,  but 
hi  sivme  places  twenty  acres."— N.  H.  Nicolas 
X.litm  lliitoriea.  p.  lilt. 

BARRIER  FORTRESSES,  The  rssiar 
o' the.    See  Nktuerlands  (Holland^:  A.  tt 

BARRIER  TREATIES,  The.  See  Eko- 
L.t;«D:  A.  D.  1709.  and  NBTmauixDa  (HoL- 
UND);  .V  D.  1718-1715. 

BARROW.— A  mound  rained  over  the  buried 
di«d  "  Thl!<  form  of  memorial,  .  .  .  as  ancient 
M  It  Ims  been  lasting,  Is  found  in  almost  all 
parts  (if  the  globe.  Barrows,  under  diverse 
nam( «,  line  the  coasU  of  the  Medltermnean,  the 
BTftii  iif  iinciint  empires  and  civilisations 
They  almimd  In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  d'lf- 
fcnnff  m  Bbape  and  size  and  made  of  various 
mat.  n:il8;  and  are  known  as  harrows  (mounds  of 
fsnii)  Biid  cairns  (mounds  of  stone)  and  popu- 
lar)- In  Home  naru  of  England  as  lows,  bouea. 
and  l.m,ps.'-Vv.  Orcnwcll.  BHIiA   Aim.«^ 

BARRUNDIA    INCIDENT,    Tht.     See 

UVTIIM,    AMf-TtIC*-    .\     I)     ISKt)-t«»4 

BARTENSTEIN.    Treaty    of.    See   Om- 

"o^Io-^.l'.  'i«''  (•'"nKI'ART-ljfNE). 

A-  I'  1*11  (.Iakcart). 

Jt  h,*^"***'  **  ""■  '•■**'•  «'™«»  «» 

BASHI    B0Z0UK8,  OR    BAZOUKS— 

tt^'M:r:::;!l?:^^i''.VT''^'  '^'^'^ '° 

J- .VKK,;;fi^•,:i»'?S);^;Ud^'^'th;''^?i:^■S? 

»««»  engaged   agalott  Um  Buljaitao^  fmt 


270 


BASmO  HOUSE. 

nnmbers  of  the  Moslem  part  of  the  local  popu- 
latlon  had  been  armed  by  the  Government  and 
turned  loose  to  fight  the  InsurgenU  in  their  own 
way.  These  irregular  warriors  are  called  Bash! 
Bozouks,  or  Rottenheads.  The  term  alludes  to 
their  being  sent  out  without  regular  organizaUon 
and  without  officers  at  their  head."— H  O 
"^S^iTurkiA  Life  in  War  Titne.  p.  15. 
.  ?u  ^i"-  '•  <'!;'••"'  *•»  Macedonian),  Emperor 
tathe  East  (Byzantine,  or  Greek),  A.  D  867- 

^i.J  •°""'.",yH.»%  '-.Grand    Duke  of 

Volodomir,     A.    D.     127i-lS78 Basil    II 

Emperor  in  the  East  (Byzantine,  or  Greek).' 

A  0.  m-lOiS Baail.  Sr  Vassili,  II.,  Grind 

fnne«  of  Moscow,  A.  D.  1889-1425 BasU 

»"•  (The  Blind),  Grand  Prince  of  Moscow. 

BASILEUS.— "From  the  earliest  period  of 
history,  the  soverelps  of  Asia  hod  been  cele- 
brated in  the  Greek  language  by  the  title  of 
Basileus,  or  King;  and  since  it  wos  considered 
as  the  first  distinction  among  men,  it  was  soon 
employed  by  the  servile  provincials  of  the  east 
in  their  humble  address  to  the  Roman  throne."— 
E.  (JIbbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Soman  Empire, 
eh.  18. 

BASILIAN  DYNASTY,  The.  See  Btzah- 
TISE  Empire:  A.  D.  820-1057. 

BASILICA — "  Among  the  buildings  appro- 
priated to  the  public  service  at  Rome,  none  were 
more  important  than  the  Baslllcie.  Although 
their  name  Is  Greek,  yet  they  were  essentlafly 
a  Roman  creation,  ancl  were  used  for  practical 
purposes  pcculUrly  Roman,- the  administration 
of  law  and  the  transaction  of  merchants'  busi- 
ness. Historically,  considerable  Interest  attaches 
to  them  from  their  connection  with  tlie  first 
Christian  churches.  The  name  of  Basilica  was 
applied  by  the  Romans  equally  to  all  large 
bulldlags  intended  for  the  special  needs  of  pubHc 
business.  .  .  .  Generally,  however,  thev  took 
the  form  most  adapted  to  their  purpiises  — a 
semicircular  apse  or  tribunal  for  legal  trials  and 
a  central  nave,  with  arcades  and  galleries  on 
each  side  for  the  transaction  of  business  They 
exUted  not  only  as  separate  buildings,  but  also 
as  reception  rooms  attached  to  the  great  man- 
sions of  Home.  ...  It  Is  the  opinion  of  some 
writers  that  these  private  baslllcie,  and  not  the 
public  edifices,  served  as  the  model  for  the 
Christian  Basilica."- R  Bum,  Rome  and  tht 
Campagna,  introd. 

Also  is  :  A.  P.  Stanley,  Chriitian  Inttitutione 
eh.  9. 

BASILIKA,  The.— A  compilation  or  codifi- 
cation of  the  Imperial  laws  of  the  Byianline  Em- 
pire promulgated  A.  D.  884,  In  the  n'ijm  of 
Basil  I.  and  afterwaMs  revised  and  amplitlcd  bv 
his  son,  I,eo  VI  -(J  Flnlay,  lliit  of  the  Bumn- 
tine  hmpirr,  fr,.m  710  to  Vm,  hk.  2,  cA    1    M^t    1 

BASING  HOUSE,  The  Storming  and  Da- 
atructionof,—'  Basing  House  [mansUm  of  the 
Marquis  of  Winchester,  near  Basingstoke.  In 
Hampshire],  an  Immense  fortress,  with  a  feudal 
CBstle  and  a  Tudor  palace  within  Its  nimparts 
had  long  been  a  thorn  in  the  side  of  the  Parlia- 
ment. Four  yearsit  had  held  out.  with  an  army 
within,  well  pMvlsioni-d  for  years,  and  blocked 
the  road  to  the  west.  At  Isst  It  was  resolved  to 
Ukell .  itud  Tromweil  was  directly  commissioned 
br  Parliament  to  the  work.  lu  capture  is  one 
of  the  most  terrible  and  stlrriof  tncidenu  of  tte 


!  13 


11    li 


BASING  HOUSE. 

war.  After  six  days'  constant  cannonade,  the 
itorm  began  at  six  o'clock  in  the  momlnir  of  the 
14th  of  October  [A.  D.  1645].  After  some  hoiim 
of  dc8p<'rate  liKliting,  one  after  another  lu  de- 
fences wire  talien  and  its  garrison  put  to  the 
sword  or  taltcn.  The  plunder  was  prodigious; 
the  destruction  of  property  unsparing.  It  was 
gutted,  burnt,  and  tlie  very  ruins  carted  away, " 
— F.  Harrison,  Oliter  Cnmtr^eU,  ch.  6. 

Ai.som:  8.  R.  Gardiner.  Hut.  ofthtCinl  War, 

«A.  37(p.  2).— Mrs.  Tliompson,  RecoUtetiont  of  Lit- 

trani  Vharaetert  and  Ctlthrated  Place;  v.  8,  e*.  1. 

BASLE,  Council  of.     See  Patact;  A.  D 

1431-1448. 

BASLE,  Treat!**  of  (1795).  See  Framce: 
A.  1).  1794-1795  (OcroBKB— Mat),  and  1795 
(June— Deckmbkr). 

BASOCHE.-BASOCHIENS.-"The  B.-M- 
oche  was  an  associaticin  of  the  '  clercs  du  Parlc- 
ment '  [Parliament  of  Paris].  The  etymology 
of  the  name  is  uneeruin.  .  .  .  The  Basoche  is 
supposed  to  have  been  instituted  In  1308,  by 
Phllippele-Bel,  who  gave  it  the  title  of  '  Roy- 
aumc  de  la  Basoche,'  and  ordered  that  it  should 
form  a  tribunal  for  judging,  without  appeal,  all 
civil  and  criminal  matters  that  might  arise  among 
the  cltrks  and  nil  actions  brou^tht  against  them. 
He  likewise  ordcrwl  that  the  pre.sident  should  be 
called  •  Rol  dc  la  Basoche, 'and  that  the  king  and 
his  subjects  should  have  an  annual  '  montre  '  or 
review.  .  .  Under  the  n^ign  of  Henry  III.  tli  > 
numU'r  of  .>.  ibjects  of  the  rol  de  la  Basor  ■• 
•motinted  to  nearly  10,000.  ...  The  menilx-rs 
of  the  Basoche  timk  upon  themselves  to  exhibit 
plays  in  the  'Palais.'  in  which  they  censured  the 
pulilic  manners:  Indeeii  they  mav  be  said  to  have 
been  the  flrnl  comic  authors  ami  actors  th.it  ap- 
pj-ari'd  in  Paris.  ...  At  the  commencement  cif 
the  Itevolution.  the  Bawx'kiens  formed  a  troop, 
the  uniform  of  which  was  reil,  with  epaulette* 
and  silver  buttons;  but  thev  were  afterwards 
disbanded  by  adecreeof  the  National  Assemblv. " 
—Uiit.  of  Parit  (Lomhn;  O.  B.  Whitlaktr,  1857), 
r.  a,  p.  lOfl. 

BASQUES,  The,— 'The  western  extremity 
of  the  I'yn-nres,  where  France  and  8pa)n  join, 
gives  \i%  a  locality  .  .  .  where,  although  the 
towns,  like  Bayonne.  Painpeluna,  and  BIIImo, 
are  French  or  Spanish,  the  country  people  arc 
BaM|Ufs  or  Hiscuyims  —  Basiiucsor  Ulscayans  not 
only  In  the  provinces  of  Blway,  l)ut  In  Alava, 
UpiHT  Navarn-.  and  the  French  districu  of  La- 
bourd  and  S<iij1(.,  Tlii-lr  name  Is  Spanish  (the 
worl  having  oriirlnated  In  that  of  the  ancient 
Vftsmne>>,  ami  It  is  nut  the  one  by  which  they 
desiitnnte  themselves;  though  possibly  it  Is  in- 
directly  itinni'cted  with  It,  The  native  name  is 
deriveil  fr.mi  the  txwi  Eusk-;  which  becomes 
Euskara  when  the  langiiiigp,  Euskkrrrla  when 
thec.iuntry,  and  Euskalilunac  when  the  people 
are  np.iken  of  '— H.  G.  Latham,  Ethnology  <f 
Hurrifr,  i-h.  'i. 

Al.KO  IN:  I   Taylor.  Origin  of  iht  Arvnnt.  M. 
4,  tft.  4  —See.  also.    iBXHlA.ts,  Tnit  Wkstkhn, 
and  .\rri;Ni>i\  A.  v   1 
BASSANO.  Battle  of.    SeeFRAHcit:  A   D. 

17ml  (.\PHII,— llrTDBKR.) 

BASSE  IN,  Treaty  of  (tloa).  See  India: 
A.  I)    179H-1N<W 

BASSORAH.    See  Bissohar. 

BASTARNA,  Til*.    See  P«cctin. 

BASTILLE,  The.^  Thf  caw  .-»f  Bast!!!*' 
*r  BMtcl  w**,  in  aocleot  time*,  (Itcd  10  any 


BATAVIAN3. 

kind  of  erection  calculated  to  withstand  a  mili- 
tary force;  and  thus,  formerly  in  IJnglanil  and 
on  the  borders  of  Scotland,   the  term  Biistel- 
houae  was  usually  applie<l  to  places  of  strengtU 
and  fancied  security.     Of  the  many  Bastilles  In 
Prance  that  of  Paris,  .  .  .  which  at  first  was 
called    the    Bastille    St-Antoine,    from    being 
erected  near  the  suburb  of  St-Antoino,  retained 
the  name  longeat    This  fortress,  of  melancholy 
celebrity,    waa    erected    under   the    following 
circumstances:    In  the  year   1356,    when   the 
English,  then  at  war  with  France,  were  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  Paris,  it  waa  considered  neces- 
sary by  the  inhabitants  of  the  French  capital  to 
repair    the    bulwarks   of    their   city.     Stephen 
Marcel,  provost  of  the  merchants,  undertook  this 
task,  uud.  amongst  other  defences,  a<lded  to  the 
fortltlcalions  at  the  eastern  entrance  of  the  town 
a  gate  flanked  w-ith  a  tower  on  each  side."    Tlilj 
was  the  beginning  of  the  constnictlons  of  the 
Bastille.     Tliey  were  enlarged  in  1369  by  Hujh 
Aubriot,   provost  of   Paris  under   (Charles   V. 
He   "added  two  towers,    which,  being  plaewi 
opposite  to  those  already  existing  on  each  side 
of  the  gate,  made  of  the  Bastille  a  square  fort, 
with  a  tower  at   each   of   the   four   an -les '' 
/''er  the  death  of  Charies  V.,  Aubrio:    wlio 
h-Hl  many  enemies,  was  prosecuted  for  alleirwi 
crime*,   "was  condemned  to  t)erpetual  coiitine- 
ment,  and  placeii  in  the  Bastille,  of  whii  h,  ac- 
conllng  to  some  historians,   he  was   tlie   tirst 
prisoner.     After  some  time,  he    was    rrmovod 
thence  to  Port  TEvSque,  another  prison,"  from 
which  he  was  liberated  In  l!!8l,  by  the  itisurn-c- 
tlon  of  the  Maillotins  (see  Paris:   A.  I>.  lltNl). 
"After  tlie   insurrection  of  the  MallKitins    in 
1382,  the  young  king,  fharies  VI.,  still  further 
enlarged  the  Bastille  by  adding  four  tnvers  to 
it,  thus  giving  it,  instead  of  the  square  f,>rm  it 
formerly  possessed,    the  shape  of  an  ohI..ai;  or 
parallelogram.      Tlie  fortn-ss  now  ciin<i^ieil  of 
eight  towers,  each   100  feet  high,  and.  like  the 
wall  which  united  them,  nine  feet  Uilek.    Four 
of  these  towers  looked  on  the  city,  ami  fniir  on 
the    suburb    of    Bt-Antoine.      To    incre,i»e   its 
strength,  the  Bastille  was  surroundnl  bv  a  ditiU 
25  feet  ilwp  and  120  feet  wide.     The  roid  which 
formerly  passefl  through  It  was  turned  on  mie  svW. 
■  .  .  The  Bastille  was  now  completed(13K:h,aii(i 
though  addition*  were  suli*cquently  made  tn  it, 
the  body  of  the  fortress  underwent  ho  iiiipdrtant 
change.  .  .  .  Both  as  a  platw  of  niililarv  de- 
fence, Bn<l  a*  a  state  prison  of  ereat  »tn  ncth. 
the  Bastille  was,  even  at  an  earlv  perii).|.  verv 
formidable. "—//i»f.   of  t/it  HulilU  (rA.i.nVri'i 
MiftlUing,  BO.   182,  e.    17).— For  an  aecnint  of 
the  taking  and  destruction  of  tlie  Risiille  bv  the 
people,  in  1789,  see  Franck:  A.  D.  17hs)  i.liLv), 
AlJK>  IM:    D.  Bingham,    Tk>  liutitU.—ll  A. 
Davenport,  Ifiil.  nf  thr  lUttilt. 
BASTITANL  Th*.    See  Tcbpetahi 
BASUTOS,  Th*.  See  South  Krmcs. :  A.  D 
1811-1868. 

BATAVIA  (I«TB).  Oririn  of.  See  Nkthkb 
LANDa:  A.  D.  1594-lA'JO. 

BATAVIAN  REPUBLIC.  The.  See 
PRAMrK:  A.  D.  1794-1795 ((HT<mitR—M»Tl 

BATAVIANS,  OR  BATAVI,  The.-  Th« 
Germanic  Batavl  bad  been  peacefully  iinitid 
with  the  [Romanl  Empltt!,  not  hv  ('Haar.  but 
not  long  aftarwarns,  perhaps  by  iVrusus.  Thef 
were  settkrt!  tn  the  tthinc  delta,  that  h  .-a  the 
toft  bMik  of  Um  Khliw  ukI  on  tii*  iilandi  fomwd 


280 


9 


BATAYIANS. 


BATTLE  OF  THE  EEOS. 


hj  lu  armi,  upwards  aa  far  at  leaat  ai  the  Old 
Rhine,  and  go  nearly  from  Antwerp  to  Utrecht 
and  Leyden  in  Zeauind  and  Boutbem  Hoiland, 
on  territory  originally  Celtic — at  leaat  the  local 
names  are  predominantjy  Celtic:  their  name  is 
■till  borne  bv  the  Betuwe,  the  lowland  between 
the  Waal  ana  the  Leek  with  the  capital  Noviom- 
agus,  now  Nimeguen.  They  were,  eapecially 
compared  with  the  restless  and  refractory  Celts, 
ob('(lii'nt  and  useful  subjects,  and  hence  occupied 
a  disiinctlTe  position  in  the  aggregate,  and  par- 
ticularly in  tne  military  system  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  They  remained  quite  free  from  taxa- 
tion, hut  were  on  the  other  hand  drawn  upon 
more  largely  than  any  other  canton  in  the  re- 
cruiting: this  one  canton  fumishcfl  to  the  army 
1,000  horsemen  and  9, (KM)  foot  soldiers;  besides, 
tiie  men  of  the  imperial  bixly-guard  were  taken 
eapeciiilly  fn)m  them.  The  command  of  these 
Bntavian  divisions  was  conferred  excluslTelr  on 
native  IJatavl.  The  Batavi  were  accounted  In- 
dlsnutahly  not  merely  aa  the  beat  riders  and 
iwlmmoni  of  the  army,  but  also  as  the  model  of 
true  soldiers."— T.  M6mm.scn,  I/itt.  of  Home,  hk. 
8,  eh.  4. — "  When  the  Cimbri  and  their  aaaociates, 
about  a  century  before  our  era,  made  their 
memnnWe  onslaught  upon  Rome,  the  early  in- 
habitants of  the  lihlne  inland  of  Batavia,  who 
were  proli'lily  Celt*,  joined  in  the  expedition. 
Arectnt  ind  tremendous  inundation  had  swept 
away  tt.  ,r  miserable  homes.  .  .  .  The  island 
was  di~rte<l  of  ita  population.  At  almut  the 
Siiine  piTiod  a  civil  dissension  among  the  ChattI 
—a  powerful  German  race  within  the  Her- 
cynlan  forest — resulted  in  the  expatriation  of  a 
ivmioii  of  the  people.  The  exiles  sought  a  new 
hnme  in  the  empty  lUilne  island,  called  it 
'Bt't  auw,'  or  'good  meadow,'  and  were  them- 
(elvcs  called,  thenceforward,  Batavi,  or  Batav- 
ians."— J.  L.  Motley,  Hut  of  tht  Dutch  BepMie, 
introd. .  tret.  2. 

A.  O.  69.- Revolt  of  CiTiUt.— "Oalba 
[Roman  Emperor],  succee<ilng  to  the  purple 
upon  the  suicide  of  Nero,  dismissed  the  Batavian 
lire-(riii\rds  to  whom  he  owed  hl»  elevation.  He 
is  murdered,  Olho  and  Vltelliua  contenil  for  the 
fucnwion,  while  all  eyes  are  tumiKl  upon  the 
eight  Batavtan  re,i{iment«.  In  their  hands  the 
scales  of  Empire  seem  to  rest.  They  declare  for 
Vitellius  and  the  civil  war  begins.  Otho  la 
defcatitl;  Vitflllus  acknowledged  by  Henatu  and 
xipli'.  Fearing,  like  his  predeoi'.ssors,  the 
in|xrlou«  lurbulonce  of  the  Batavian  legions, 
he,  ti«i,  Hends  them  into  Ocmiany.  It  was  the 
siirnal  fur  a  long  and  extensive  revolt,  which 
had  will  '■•■'\\  nvertunied  the  Roman  power  In 
0;ml  arl  ■•r  Germany.  Claudius  CIvllis 
WIS  a  ll.i'aviiiti  of  noble  rnee,  who  had  •erve<l 
ivtenty  five  years  in  the  Roman  armies.  His 
Teutonic  name  has  perished.  .  ,  .  After  a  quarter 
of  a  (rntury's  service  be  was  sent  In  chains  to 
Rnm  and  his  Imrther  executeil,  both  fals<  h- 
(hari.i-.|  with  consplrarv  .  .  .  Desire  to  aTenm- 
his  own  wmngs  was  mingled  with  loftier 
miitiv,.«  In  his  breast.  He  knew  that  the*cvptre 
J>u  In  the  girt  of  the  Batavian  soldiery. 


111 


liy  his  eourage,  elmiuence  and  talent  for  polltl 
r.il  rnnibinutlons,  CIvllis  etlt(te<l  a  general  con- 
("l-ratim  of  all  the  Netherhind  trilies.  both 
I  ■llic  and  German.  Kor  a  brief  moment  there 
w-JiaTiEltcd  prrpie,  a  tUuvUu  cuwiiioiiwenllh. 
■  The  details  of  the  revolt  [A.  D.  001  have 
been  carefuUy  pivwrrwl  by  Tadtui,  vaA  form 


one  of  hU  grandest  and  most  elaborate  pictures. 
.  .  .  The  battles,  the  sieges,  the  defeats,  the 
indomitable  spirit  of  Civilis,  still  flaming  most 
brightly  when  the  clouds  were  darkest  around 
him,  have  been  described  by  the  great  historian 
in  his  most  powerful  manner.  .  .  .  The  struggle 
was  an  unauccessful  one.  After  many  victories 
and  many  overthrowa,  Civilis  was  left  alone. 
...  He  accepted  the  offer  of  negotiation  from 
Cerialis  [the  Roman  commander]!  ...  A  col- 
loquy was  agreed  upon.  The  bridge  across  the 
Nabalia  was  broken  asunder  In  the  middle  and 
Cerialis  and  Civilis  met  upon  the  severed  sides. 
.  .  .  Here  the  story  abruptly  terminates.  The 
remainder  of  the  Roman's  narrative  is  Ifwt,  and 
upon  that  broken  bridge  the  form  of  the  Batavian 
hero  disappears  forever."— J.  L.  Motley,  Bit  of 
t/ie  Dutth  BemMie,  intrad.,  terti.  3-4. 

Auso  in:  Tacitus,  Uittory,  bkt.  4-5. 
» 

BATH,  The  Order  of  the.— "The  present 
Military  Order  of  the  Bath,  founded  by  King 
George  1.  in  'he  year  1725,  differs  so  essentially 
from  the  Knighthood  of  the  Bath,  or  the  custom 
of  making  Knights  with  various  rites  and  cere- 
mtmics,  of  which  one  was  Bathing,  that  it  may 
almost  be  considered  a  dl.stinct  and  new  fra- 
ternity of  chivalry.  The  last  Knights  of  the  Bath, 
maile  actordiiigto  the  ancient  forms,  were  at  the 
coronatioci  of  King  Charles  II.;   and  from  that 

f)crlod  until  the  reign  of  the  first  Oinrge,  the  old 
n8tit\ition  fell  Into  total  oblivion,  Al;  the  latter 
epoch,  however.  It  was  determined  to  revive,  as 
it  was  termed,  The  Order  of  the  Bath,  by 
erecting  it  '  Into  a  regular  Military  Order ' ;  and 
on  the  25th  May,  1723,  Letters  Patent  were 
Issued  for  that  purpose.  By  the  Statutes  then 
promulgated,  the  number  of  Knights,  indepen- 
dent of  tlie  Sovereign,  a  Prince  of  the  Blood 
Royal,  and  a  Great  Mjkster,  was  restricted  to  85." 
It  has  since  been  greatly  increasid.  and  the 
Order  divided  into  three  classes:  First  Class,  con- 
sisting of  "  Knights  Grand  Cross,"  not  to  excised 
80  for  mllitarv  and  25  for  civil  service;  Second 
Class,  consisting  of  "  Knights  Commanders,  "  not 
to  exceed  lO'i  for  military  and  50  for  civil 
service;  Tlilrd  Class,  "Companions,"  not  to 
exceed  .595  for  military  and  200  for  civil  service. 
—Sir  B.  Burke,  Book  of  Orden  of  Knighthood,  p. 
104. 

BATH,  in  Roman  times.     See  Aqu.*  Soms. 

BATHS  OF  CARA-'tr.LA,  Nero,  etc. 
See  TilKHM*. 

BATONIAN  WAR.  Vhe.-A  formidaMe 
revolt  of  the  DiilmatiaO't  and  I'annoninns,  A.  1> 
6,  Involveil  the  Roman  Kinpin',  unlir  Augustus, 
In  A  serious  war  of  thn'e  vimts  dunilion,  which 
was  called  tl.r  Ilatonlan  \V;\r,  from  the  nanu-s  of 
two  leaders  of  the  Insurgent.s,  —  Uiito  the  Uiilma- 
tlan,  and  Bato  the  I'iinnoulnn.— T.  Mi....msen, 
Hint   of  lime,  bk   H,  eh.  1. 

BATOUM :  Ceded  to  Ruaaia.— Declared  a 
free  port.     See  TniKs:  A.  I)    !•<;?*. 
BATTIADi€,  The.    See  Cvhi;ne. 
BA'^TLE  ABBEY.    See  E.nui.^sd:  A.  D. 

10«)«><TOI1KB). 

BATTLE  ABOVE  THE  CLOUDS,  The. 
See  L'MTKn  Status  or  Am.  :  .\.  1»   l^eatOcTo 

■KK— NoVKMBKK:   TkMNKIWI':K> 

BATTLE  OF  THE  CAMEL.  Sec  Ma 
BiiMr.TiM  t  oNyi  kkt;  A.  D  tiiil 

BATTLE  OF  THE  KEGS,  Th*.  8w 
pHiLASlLruu:  A.  U.  1777-1778. 


281 


£  i'A 


u: 


BATTLE  OF  THE  NATI0K8. 

BATTLE  OF  THE  NATIONS  (Leip.Jc). 

BEn),  and  (Octobkb). 

^I^^IJ-"^  O''  THE  THREE  EMPER- 
?  n'T^,  fi?*"'*  o' Au9terllti-8ee  Pkancb: 
A.  U.  1805  (March— Dbcembkk)—  wasao  called 
bv  Napoleon. 

A^l^TnTT^^'  7f'''  ""j^-    ^  '^*''  Common: 

i.ATT^c^o''  v."'  CRrMWAL:  A  D.  1818. 

BATTLES.— The  battles  of  which  account 

Is  given  In  this  work  arc  scTorally  indexed  under 

the^naraea    by    which    they   are   hlatoricaUy 

BAt'RE,  The.    See  Ahericaw  Aboeioike8: 

ANORI  HX8. 

.ofV^iJTZEN.  Battle  ot   See Germakt:  A.  D. 

1813  (.MAT— Al-OCST). 

BAUX    Lord!  of;  Gothic  Origin  of  the— 

The  Illustrious  Vi!!ijrotliic  race  of  tlie  ■■Diilthi" 
or  Hatha  ("tlie  bold"),  from  which  sprang 
Alaric.  "continued  to  flourish  in  Fiance  fc  the 
Gothic  province  of  Septimonia,  or  Laniniedoc 
<mder  the  corrupted  appellation  of  Baux,  and  a 
(■ranch  of  that  family  afterwards  settled  In  the 
tlT'i'?!  °l  ^«pl<■s.'-E.  Gibbon,  JDMline  and 
tmofthe  limmn  E.npire,  ch.  80,  nott. 

BAVARIA:  The  name.— Bavaria  derived  Its 
name  from  the  Boii.-K.  O.  Latham,  Tht  Ger- 
mama  of  Tacitut;  EpiUgamena,  net.  20— See 
also,  Boians.  ^ 

fj^^i!  ^•''"'''^P ,'!''— ","»^"'»  •  •  •  f«II»Into 
two  divisions;  tne  Bavaria  of  the  Rhine,  and  th» 
Bavann  of  the  Danube.  In  Rhenish  Bavsrir.  the 
descent  Is  from  the  ancient  Vonglones  and  Ne- 
metcs,  either  Germanized  Gauls  or  Gallicized 
Uermans,  with  Itoman  superadditions.  After- 
wanis,  an  ext.nsion  of  the  Alcmaunicand Suevic 
populations  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Upper 
Rhine  completes  the  evolution  of  their  present 
Germanic  character.  Danubian  Bavaria  falls 
Into  two  Bub<livisions.  North  of  the  Danube  the 
valley  of  the  Naab,  at  least,  wai  originally  8U- 
T  :.ic  containing  an  extension  of  the  Slavonic 
P;  .ilatfon  of  Bohemia.  But  disturbance  and 
di-,.laceiiient  began  early.  .  .  .  In  the  third  and 
'."i  ^nO'il'S-  the  SueW  and  Alemanni  ex- 
.  luled  themselves  from  the  Upper  Rhine 
I  he  northwestern  parts  of  Bavaria  were  probablr 
Oeniian  from  Ihe  Uglnning.  South  of  the  Dan- 
ube  lie  etlm.ilogy  changes.  In  the  llret  place 
the  I{.>man  element*  IncreaK;  since  Vindelicia 
was  a  Ifoman  province.  .  .  .  lu  present  charac- 
ter has  arisen  from  an  extension  of  the  Germana 
of  the  I  pper  Rhine.  "-R  O.  Latham.  Ethnciocl 
of  huritpe,  eh.  %,  — ~»» 

.-.Ab'  547--Subleetlon  of  the  BaTkriau 

to  the  Franks.-' It  Is  about  this  period  FA.  D 
Ml)  that  Ihe  Havarians  first  bi'come  known  in 
history  as  tributari.'s  of  the  Franks;  but  at  what 
time  tli.y  Ixeame  so  is  matter  of  dispute. 
ivm  the  nrevicMiB  silence  of  the  annalists  re- 
spert  iig  this  |«.. pie,  we  may  p«'riiaps  Infer  that 
both  tli;y  an.l  the  Mualiian:  remalnixi  independ- 
ent until  the  fall  of  , he  Ostrogothic  Umpire  in 
\u^  ..T'l'"  ^V.'."'''"  ■'■•"''''Ions  V  ere  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Itlwiia  and  Xori.um;  and  between 
thes..  countries  and  tim  Thuringians.  who  lived 
still  further  to  the  north,  was  the  country  of  the 
Bavarians  and  .Suablans.  Thiiringia  h^l  long 
been  jioHsess.;.  by  the  Franks.  Rhaala  was  a^ied 
by  Vilisges,  king  of  Italy,  and  Venetia  was  eon- 
iulTi  V;r  ■^^•""':j'<'-t  fthe  Austraslan  Kmnk 
KlnjJ.    The  Bavarians  were  therefore,  at  this 


BAVARIA. 

period.  alnMMt  turrounded  by  the  Frankish  f» 
ritorie*  .  .  Whenever  they  may  have  fl« 
submitted  to  the  yoke,  it  U  certaii  that  a.  ,? 
time  of  TheudelirtV  death  [T  D.  «?  o 
shorty   after  that  event,   botfi  Bavarians  and 

Sw.,  W"*^  kings. "-W.  C.  Perry,^^-!: 

A.  D.  84>o«a.— Tlie  ancient  Duchy.  Sce 
Gbkmany:  a.  D.  848-968  ' 

a^P'^J^~:*^f^^  *»  *■'•  Austrian  March 
Bee  Austria:  A.  D.  805-1846  "»«rcn. 

A.  D.  iQ7t-ii78._The  Dukes  of  the  House 
ofGnelt  See  Oueijs  and  GHiBBLmE"  m^ 
Saxost:  a.  D.  1178-1183.  '     " 

w*;r°o"^'~°'*"*""'»  C™«*<>e  of  Duke 
Welf.     SceCRtfflADEs:  A.  D.  1101-1103 

.f^"  ^'J?S-«iSa.-The  origin  of  the  Elector- 
ate.   See  Germany  :  A.  D.  1184-1873 

A.  D.   II3S-II83-— loTolved  in  the  b^  i« 
ningaof  the  Guelf  and  Ghibelline  CoSflkti 
The  strurelet  of  Henry  the  Proud  and  Henry 
the  Hon.    See  GrELKs  and  Gbuielli.nes  anj 
Saxony:  A.  D.  1178-1188. 

A.  p.  list-Separation  of  the  Austrian 
March,  whicn  becomes  a  diitinct  Duchy  &* 
Ai-stria:  a.  D,  805-1348  ' 

K.  D.  n8o-i3<6  -The  Houie  of  Wittelt- 
S'^'Hr't*  «C'«?'»ition  of  Bavaria  an"  thj 
Palatinat*  of  the  Rhine.-Losi  of  the  Elect 
tora^  Vote  by  Bararia.- When,  in  11%  The 
dominions  of  Henry  the  Lion,  under  the  h,in  of 

A.  U.  1178-1188),  by  the  imperial  senten.-e  of  for- 
fe  ture  andwere  divided  and  conferre,!  upon 
others  by  Frederick  Barbaroasa,  the  Dmhy  of 
WiT?,'^fhJh"  «^""  to  Otto,  Count  Palatine  of 
Wi  tclsbach  "As  he  claimed  a  descent  fn.nian 
ancient  royal  family  of  B«varia,itwa8allep,.,li!ml, 
In  obtaining  the  iovereignty  of  that  state  he  had 
only  In  some  measure  regained  those  righu 
which  In  fomer  times  belonged  to  his  aunstora. " 
-Sir  A.  Halllday,  AnnaU  of  the  Uoiue  of  Han- 

Tx\\>^<.^V^r"R^^  ■  ■  ■  "osades.Vn.lant 
of  that  Duke  Lultpold  who  fell  in  combat  with 
the  HunMrians,  and  whose  sons  and  gnimlsoni 
had  already  worn  the  ducal  cap  of  Bavari  Xo 
princely  race  in  Europe  is  of  such  ar  ..nt  e.x 
•-iction.  .  ..  Bavaria  was  as  yet  de.stitute  nf 
towns:  Landshutt  and  Munich  first  rose  Into  nin- 
rtderatlon  in  the  course  of  the  13th  eenturv 
Katlsbo:?,  already  a  flourishing  town,  was  n- 
garded  as  the  capital  and  residence  of  ilie  Oukcs 
of  Bavaria.  ...  A  further  accession  of  ilii:iiitv 


and  power  awaited  the  family  in  1214  in  the 
lisltion    of    the    Palatinate   of    Ihe    lihlnc. 


acquii 


Uuke  Ludwig  was  now  the  most  powerful  i.rinee 
of  Southern  Gcnnany.  ...  Ills  son  On',  ilie 
Illustrious  remaining  .  .  .  true  to  the  Imiih  rial 
house,  died  excommunicate,  and  his  diinlni.jni 
were  placed  for  several  years  un<ler  an  iiiK  rdicL 
.  .  .  Ipon  the  death  of  Otto  a  partition  nf  ilie 
Inheritance  took  place.  This  parliilon  b-iame 
to  the  family  an  hereditary  evil,  a  fatal  sourc-e  of 
quarrel  and  of  secret  or  open  ennillv  la 

Ithe]  dark  and  dreadful  perioii  of  lii't.  rr.  cnmn 
(»<-eGERMAKT:  A.  I).  1250-1'.'7'J].  wlnii  ail  men 


282 


waited  for  tlie  final  dissolution  of  the  inwiire 
nothing  appears  concerning  the  Witt.isliarh 
family.  .  .  .  finally  in  1273  Hii.iolf,  the  first  of 
the  lUh»bur«,  awrn-lrd  the  hr.^  unurcuricd 
tlirone.  .  ,  ,  He  won  ovi-r  the  Bavarian  nrinres 
by   bwtowiac  his  daughtvn    upon  them  hi 


BAVARIA. 


BAVABIA. 


intrriBgc.  LouU  lenuined  faithful  and  Tendered 
blm  good  lerrice;  but  the  turbulent  Henry,  who 
had  already  made  war  upon  his  brother  for  the 
possession  of  the  electoral  vote,  deserted  him, 
and  for  this  Bavaria  was  punisheid  by  the  loss  of 
tlie  vote,  and  of  the  territory  aboTe  the  Enns." 
Afterwi  -ds,  for  a  time,  the  Duke  of  Bavaria  and 
ttie  Couiit  Palatine  exercised  the  rieht  of  .be 
electoral  vote  altematelr;  but  in  1&6  by  the 
Ooklcn  Bull  of  Charles  IV.  [see  Obbmant  :  A.  D. 
1347-14931,  the  vote  was  given  wholly  to  the 
Count  Palatine,  and  lost  to  Bavaria  for  nearly 
800  years.— J.  I.  von  DOllinger,  Tlu  Jloute  of 
Wittrhiaeh  (Studiet  in  Burmean  HUtory.  eh.  2). 

A.  D.  1314.— Election  of  Lonia  to  the  im- 
perial throne.    See  Obbmaict:  A.  D.  1314-1347. 

A.  D.  1500.— Formation  of  the  Circle.  See 
GEBM.iST:  A.  D.  1493-1519. 

A.  D.  1610.— The  Duke  at  the  head  of  the 
Catholic  Leapie.  See  OsiutanT:  A.  D.  \WH- 
1618. 

A.  D.  1619.— The  Duke  in  command  of  the 
forces  of  the  Catholic  League.  See  Oerkaht  : 
A.  D.  1618-1820. 

A.  D.  1633.— Tranafer  to  the  Duke  of  the 
Electoral  dignity  of  the  Elector  Palatine.  See 
Germ.kNT:  a.  I).  1621-1623. 

A.  D.  1633.— Occupation  by  CnataTus  Adol- 
phus.    SretiERM.^T:  A.  D.  1631-1632. 

A.  D.  1646-1648.— Ravaged  by  the  Swedea 
and  French.— Truce  made  and  renounced  by 
the  Elector.— The  last  campaint  of  the  war. 
SwOerm.vnt:  a.  I).  1646-1648. 

A.  O.  1648.— Acquisition  of  the  Upper  Pala- 
tinate in  the  Peace  of  Weatphalia.  See  Okh- 
M.\SY:  a.  D.  1(M8. 

A.  D.  1686.— The  League  of  Aursburg.  Si'e 
Oeiim.*nv:  a   D.  1686. 

A.  D.  1689-1696.— The  war  of  the  Grand 
Alliance  against  Louis  XIV.  See  France: 
A  I).  1689-1690;  1689-1691;  1692;  1693  (.luLV); 
1694;  189.')-1696. 

A.  D.  1700.— Claim*  of  the  Electoral  Prince 

00  the  Spanish  Crown.    See  Spain:    A.    D. 
1698-1700. 

A.  D.  1702  — The  Elector  Joins  France 
against  the  Allies.    See  Okrmaht:  A.  D.  1702. 

A.  D.  1703.— Successes  of  the  French  and 
Bavarians.    See  Oermant:  A.  D.  1703. 

A.  0.  1704.— Raraged,  crushed  and  aurren- 
dered  by  the  Elector.  See  Qermamt:  A.  I>. 
1704. 

A.  D.  1705.— DisaolutioB  of  the  Electorate. 
SeeOKRMANY:  A.  I),  170.V 

A.  D.  I7i4.-The  Elector  reatored  to  his 
Dominions.    See  L'trkcht:  A.  D.  1712-1714. 

A.  D.  1740.— Claima  of  the  Elector  to  the 
Austrian   succession.     See    Austria:   A.    L>. 

174U  (( ll  TOIIKK). 

A.  D.  174a.— The  Elector  crowned  Emperor. 

SeeAiNTKiA:  A.  1).  1741  (OrroBKR). 

A.  D.  1743  (April).— The  Emperor-Elector 
recovers  his  Electoral  territory.  See  Am- 
thia:  a.  n   1742  (,IiNE-l»ECKMBKn),  and  1743. 

A.  D.  1743  (Junei.— The  Emperor-Elector 
again  a  fugitive.— The  Auatriana  in  Posses- 
sion.   Sif  AfHTKu:  A.  1)   174.1 

A.  D.  I745.-Death  of  the  Emperor-Elector. 
-Peace  with  Austria.  See  ArsTRlA:  A.  I). 
Ii41  ITl.'i 

A.  D.  !74S.  -Tsrminitlon  and  resaltsef  the 
war  of  the  Austrian  Succesaion.    See  Akla- 

1  HAPEtXE,  TUK  CUMUIIUB, 


A.  D.  2767.— EspnIsioB  of  the  Jesnita.    See 
jMFirrs:  A.  D.  1761-1769. 

A.D.  1777-17/9.— The  Succession  question. 
— "  With  the  di^ath  of  Maximilian  Joseph,  of 
Bavaria  (80  December,  1777;,  the  younger  branch 
of  the  house  of  Wittelsbach  be<»rno  extinct,  and 
the  electorate  of  Bavaria  .  .  .  came  to  an  end. 
By  virtue  of  the  original  partition  iu  1310,  the 
duchy  of  Bavaria  ought  to  pu.-?  to  the  elder  branch 
of  the  family,  represented  by  Charles  Theodore, 
the  Elector  Palatine.    But  Joseph  [the  Second, 
the  Emperor],  saw  the  possibility  of  securing 
valuable  additions  to  Austria  whiclii  aduM  round 
off  the  frontier  on  the  west.    The  Austrian  claims 
were  legally  worthless.     They  were  based  chiefly 
upon  a  gift  of  the  Straubiniren  territory  which 
Sigismund  was  said  to  hava  .nade  in  1436  to  lis 
son-in-law,  Albert  of  Austria,  but  which  had 
never  taken  effect  and  hud  since  been  utterly 
forgottea     It  would  be  impossilile  to  induce  the 
diet  to  recognise  such  cliiims,  but  it  might  be 
possible  to  come  to  an  underataiiding  with  the 
aged  Charles  Theodore,  who  hiid  no  legitimate 
children  and  was  not  likely  tc  feel  any  very  keen 
interest  in  his  new  inheriuince.     Without  much 
difflculty  the  elector  was  half  frightencHl,  half 
induced  to  sign  a  treaty  (3  January,  1778),  by 
which  he  recognised  the  claims  put  forward  by 
Austria,  while  the  rest  of  Bavaria  was  guaranteed 
to  him  and  his  successors.     Austrian  troops  were 
at  once  despatched  to  occ-ipy  the  ceded  districts. 
The  condition  of  Europe  seemed  to  assure  the 
success  of  Joseph's  bold    venture.  .  .  .  There 
was  only  one  quarter  from  whieli  opposition  was 
to  l)e  expected,  Prussia.     Frederick  promptly  ap- 
pealed to  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  Ein|iirc, 
and  declared   his  intention  of  upholding  them 
with  arms.     But  he  could  find  no  supporters  ex- 
cept those  who  were  immediately  interested,  the 
elector  of  Saxony,  whose  mother,  tt.s  a  sister  of 
the  late  elector  of  Bavaria,  had  a  legal  claim  to 
hisallodiii!  property,  and  ehariesofZweibrQcken, 
the  heir  apparent  of  the  childless  Charies  Theo- 
dore. .  .  .  Frederick,  left  to  himvlf,  despatched 
an  army  into  Bohemia,  where  th  s  Austrian  troops 
had  bejn  Joined  by  the  emperor  In  person.     But 
nothing  came  of  the  threatened  hostilities.     Fred- 
crick  waa  unable  to  force  on  a  liattle,  and  the 
sn-atUed  warwas  little  more  than  an  armed  nego- 
tiation. .  .  .  Fnini'e  and  Kussia   undertook    to 
mediate,  and  negotiations  were  opened  ia  1779  at 
TeachcD    where  pe:ice  waa  «igne<l  ou  the  13th  of 
May.     Austria  withilrew      1  claims  which  had 
been  recognised  iu  the  treaty  with  the  Elector 
Palatine,  and  received  the  '<;uartirof  iho  Inn," 
I.  e.,  the     'ivtrlct    from    Pansim    to   Wildshut 
Frederick'        i'ntual  claims  to  the  succession  in 
priiici|ialiiie»  of    .Vnspach  and 
Austria  had  every  inU'rest  in 
recognl.vd  by  the  tri'aty.     The 
ly  were  bought  olt  by  n  pryment 
lalcrs.     The  most  uiiaiitlifaclory 
I>art  of  the  in-aty  was  that  it  was  giiarauteetl  by 
Krncc  and  Kussia.  .  .  On  the  whole,  it  was  a 
gn-at  triumph  f"r  Frederick  and  an  eijiial  h     nil- 


the  Fni 
Bulreu! 
I  pposir; 
rlalins  o: 
A  4,00().(: 


ulion  for  Joseph  II.     His  schemes  of  aggruuu 
Iseinent  ha<l  Innn   foileil."- K.   Lodge,   Uii 
Minttrn  Karopf,  cA  20,  aft  3. 


AlJo  IN:  t.  H.  Dyer,  lliit.  of  Modem  Eurvpt, 
bk  6,  eh.  8  (B  3). 

A.  D.  tSoi-iSoj.— Acquititiau  of  leiiitacy 
under  the  Treaty  of  LuoeTillc.  Sec  Qekmamt: 
A.  D.  UMl-ltWS. 


283 


i 


BAYABIA. 

A.  D.  i«os-i8o6.-An:tmadl».d  by  Napoleon. 
—Created  a  Kiaffdom.— Joined  to  the  Con- 
federation oi  the  Rhine.  See  Qehmaitt:  A.  D. 
180*-1806,  and  1806  (Jamcabt— Acoubt). 

A.  D.  1809.— The  reTOlt  in  the  Tytol.— 
Heroic  ttnigeie  of  Hofer  and  his  conntrrmen. 
See  Oebmant:  A.  D.  1809-1810  (Apw^-Fkb- 
buart). 

^A.  9. 1813.— Abandonment  of  Napoleon  and 
the  Rheniah  Confederation.—  Union  with  the 
AUiei.  Soe  Germany:  A.  D.  1818 (Septbmbbb 
— OcTODEH),  and  (OcroBEit— Dkcembkr). 

A-  D.  1814-1815.— Restoration  of  the  Tyrol 
to  Austria.— Territorial  compensations.  See 
Vienna,  The  Conqress  of,  and  Fbance:  A.  D. 
1814  (April — June). 

A.  D.  1848  (March).— Rerolutionary  out- 
break.—Expulsion  of  Lola  Hontez.— Abdi- 
cation of  the  King.  See  Qebmant:  A.  O  1848 
(MARcn). 

A.  D.  1866.— The  SeTen  Weeks  War.— 
Indemnity  and  territorial  cession  to  Prussia. 
SeeUEHMANY:  .i.  D.  1868. 

A.  D.  1870-1871.— Treaty  of  Union  with  the 
Germanic  Coofeder  .tion,  soon  transformed 
into  the  German  Empire.  See  Oermany: 
A.  D.  1870  (Septembeb— Decbmbeb).  aud  1871. 

BAVAY,  Orifin  of.    SeeNEBYii. 

BAXAR,    OR    BAKSAR,    OR    BUXAR, 


---I      w-»      w.«c»w«»n,     vrn      DUJkAn 

Battle  of  (1764).     S«e  India:  A.  D.  1757-1772 
BAYARD,    The    Cheralier:  His  knightl- 
deeds  and  his  death.    See  Italy:  A.  D.  1501 


BAYEUX  TAPESTRY.-A  lemarkaUe 
roll  of  niedliEval  tajMjstrY,  214  feet  long  and 
80  Inclips  wide,  preserved  for  centuries  in  the 
cathednil  at  liijeii?'.  Normandy,  on  which  a 
pictoriiil  history  of  tlie  Norman  Invanlon  and 
conqutst  of  England  is  represented,  with  mo- 
5J  '<;™  "I  names  and  explanatory  Inscriptions. 
Mr.  h.  A.  Freeman  {Xartnun  Conguat,  r.  8,  ««<« 
A)Mya:  "It  will  be  seen  that,  tliroughout  this 
volume,  I  accept  the  witness  of  the  Bayeux 
Tapeslrv  as  one  of  my  highest  authorities,  I  do 
not  hesitate  to  say  tliat  I  look  on  -t  as  liolding 
the  first  place  among  the  autlioritii »  on  the  Nor- 
man side.  That  It  is  a  contemporary  work  I 
entcrtoin  no  doubt  whatever,  and  I  entertain 
Just  as  little  doubt  as  to  lu  being  a  work  fully 
entitled  to  our  general  conddence.  I  believe  the 
Upestry  to  have  U-en  made  for  Bishop  Odo.  and 
to  have  l)een  most  probably  designed  by  liini 
as  nn  ornament  for  bis  newly  rebuilt  ciitiie.lnd 
churdi  (if  Bayeux."  The  precious  tap.strv  is 
""ZIZ:!',','^!"  "'«  Puljllc  library  at  Hnv.-ux. 

BAYEUX,  The  Saxons  of.  See  Saxons  ok 
Bayki  \. 

BAYLEN,  Battle  of  (!«)«).  Sec  Spain- 
A.  1).  I-^o'^iMay— Skptembeu). 

BAYOGOULAS,  The.  See  Amkkk  an 
ABi)iiimM-..<    Ml  KKiior.EAN  Family 

BAYONNE  (15651.  See  Frame:  A.  D. 
l.WI   I'lTil 

BAZAINES  SURRENDER  AT  METZ. 

S^eehiiA.s,  I,    A   I)   l-<Ti»  (Jii,v_Ai  m^ii  1  \r- 
<»rsT-M:fTi:.Mm;ii),    ,,,i,|    (Skptkmiiku— Oi  Kp- 
ltKiw. 
BEACHY    HEAD,    Battle    of.      See  Kno- 

LANIl      \     I)     1«IK»(.Iim;) 

BEACONSFIELD    iDiaraeli)    Ministries. 

rr,'    t'\"'*^"      -^     "     IWl-lSOa;    1858-1859^ 
18»i8-l»ro,  aud  I87a-1K80. 


284 


BBC. 

A."|^5,^Sf7^<*'    '^•'•-      ««    <'-->«»": 

Bc°±^?:=A.^5,'  /JS.  "'  ""  ^'"""•-  «« 
♦fc^J?'  'S«»-At""'''^''  '°"'  ^  Tpor-ted  in 
iSaM*^  '•■         ^'»*^"-  A.  D 

?;<..  5.;5'"'*  '^  Nantes.    See  Fbakck;  A.  D. 

1001— 1d¥o. 

r°^'^a°"'''  Cardinal.  The  aasassiDstion 
of.  See  Scotland:  A.  D.  1S46 
„  BEAUFORT.  N.  C,  Capture  of,  by  the 
National  forces  (i862>.  See  United  States  of 
Am.:  a.  D.  1863  (J  iart-Apbil-  North 
Caroijka).. 

^f.^H'^^l  ^"'«  of- -The  English  com- 
manded  by  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  defeated  in 
Anjou  by  an  srmv  of  French  and  Scots,  under 
the  Dauphin  of  Prance;  the  Duke  of  cian'oce 
slain. 

,.,?! A"?!^'*CHAIS'S  TRANSACTIONS 
WITH  THE  UNITED  STATES.  X 
United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1776-177H 

a  °n^K5*?.'*'^'    B'"'«   »'•      S™   ^''^•'"■'; 

A.  U.  1>>70  (AUOUST — SEPTFMnER) 

BEAUREGARD,  General  G.  T.-Bombard- 
ment  of  Fort  Sumter.  See  Uniteb  Statks  ok 
Am.  :  A.  D.  1861  (March-  April).  ...  At  the 
first  Battle  of  Bull  Run.  See  United  .Stvtks 
OF  Am  :  A.  D.  1861  (July:  Virginia).  . .  Cora- 
mand  in  the  Potomac  district.  See  Ixrriu 
States  of  Am.:  A.  D.  186I-1H62  (DErEMiiuii- 

April:  \  iRoiNiA) Command  in  the  West. 

See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  U.  1882  (Ficimi.- 
ART— April:    Tennessee),  and  (Aphii,— Mu- 

Tenne8«ee— Mississippi) The  Defence   of 

Charleston.    See  United  States  of  Am  ■  A  D 

=J4^V?.V?'.'Z^'^'^"'""'"=  South  Carolina).  ' 
BEAUVAIS,  Orimn  ot    See  Belo.« 
g|BRYKIANS.Vhe.    See  Bithyniani 
BEC,  Abbey  of.— One  of  the  most  famous 
abbeys  and  ecclesiastical  schools  of  the  middle 
ages.     lu  name  was  derived  from  the  little  beck 
or  rivulet  of  a  valley  In  Normandy,  on  the  banks 
of  which  a  pious  knight,  Herlouln.  retiring  fmu 
the  world,  had  fixed  his  hermitage.    The  renown 
of  the  piety  of  Heriouin  drew  olliers  around 
him  and  resulted  In  the  formation  of  a  religiom 
community  with  himself  at  lu  head.     Among 
those  attracted  to  Herlouin's  retreat  were  a  nolde 
Lombard  scholar,  Lanfrsncof  Paviu,  wlionfttr- 
wanis  became  the  great  Norman  arelil.i.-hiip  of 
Canterbury,    and    Anselm    of    Aoslii,    anoihcr 
Italian,  who  succeeded  Lanfranc  at  Canlr  rlmry 
with  still  more  fame.     The  teaching  of  Lanfranc 
at  Bee  raised  It.  says  Mr.  Green  in  his  SJ..rl 
/fi»<.»ry  </  tlu   Rngliih  I'ciplf,   into  tlie  most 
famous  school  of  Christendom ;   it  was,  in  fart, 
the    first    wave  of    the    inUilleetuiil  ni  .vcmcnt 
which   was  spreading  fnmi  Italv  to  ilie  rtidir 
countries  of  the  West.     The  fubilc  of  lli.'  c.inon 
law  and  of   mediaeval  scholastliisni.   wiili  tlie 
philosophical  skepticism  which  tiMi  HwoKeiindrr 
its  infiuencc,  all  trace  theirori»:iri  to  llei-      'The 
glory  of  Uee  would  have  iM-eii  as  ti:lll^iI^ry  as 
tliat  of  other  monastic  hrnm's.  Imi  f  .r  ihf  ap 
pearanceof  one  illustrioiw  man  [LiiiifniM  |  who 
came  to  lie  enrolled  as  a  private  miiulnrif  the 
hrrithrrh.->.--i.  snd  wh;,  g^-.r  I!.t  fur  :i  w-Hic  a 
special    and    honorable    cliaracter  with    which 
hardly  any  other  moiiuslcry  iu  Christendom  coul  J 


BEC. 


BEGCINE3. 


compart."— E.  A.  Freeman,  Norman  Corupuit. 

BECHUANALAND.— The  country  of  tha 
Berhuanas,  S.  Africa,  between  the  Traiisvaa!  and 
Oerman  territory.  Partly  a  possession  and  partly 
A  protectorate  of  Great  Britain  since  1884-8i 

BECKET,  Thomu,  and  King  Henry  II. 
SccENnLAXD:  A.  D.  1162-1170. 

BED-CHAMBER  QUESTION,  The.  See 
Enol.vnd:  a.  D.  1X37-1839. 

BED  OF  JUSTICE.— "The  ceremony  by 
which  the  French  kin^  compelled  the  registra- 
tion of  their  edicts  by  the  Parliament  was  called 
1 '  lit  de  justice '  [bed  of  justice].  The  monarch 
pncceded  in  state  to  the  Grand  Chambre,  and 
llie  chancellor,  having  taken  his  pleasure,  an- 
nounced that  the  king  required  such  and  such  a 
decree  to  be  entered  on  their  records  in  his 
pri'sence.  It  was  held  that  this  personal  inter- 
ference of  the  sovereign  suspended  for  the  time 
being  the  functions  of  all  Inferior  magistrates, 
anJ  the  edict  was  accordingly  registered  without 
«  word  of  objection.  The  form  of  registration 
was  as  follows:  '  Le  roi  s£ant  en  son  lit  de  Justice 
a  iirdonn^  et  ordonne  que  les  presents  Sditaseront 
curogistrcs;'  and  a*  the  end  of  the  decree,  'Fait 
en  Parlemcnt,  le  rol  y  scant  en  son  lit  de  ^\u- 
xke.'"—StudeiUi'  Hint,  of  France,  not.)  to  eh.  19. 
—See,  also,  Pabliamknt  of  Paris. — "The 
origin  of  this  tirm  ['l)ed  of  justice']  has  been 
much  discussed.  The  wits  complained  it  was  so 
Btylcd  because  there  justice  was  put  to  sleep. 
'file  term  was  proljubly  derived  from  the  arrange- 
imnt  of  the  throne  on  which  the  king  sat,  'The 
Iniek  uiid  sides  were  made  of  bolsters  and  it  was 
called  a  bed."— J.  B.  Perkins,  France  urtder 
.Vftitii-i:!,  t.  1.  p.  388,  foot-note. — An  elaborate 
aiul  eiitertiiiuing  account  of  a  notable  Bed  of 
Ji.stice  held  imder  the  Regency,  in  the  early 
part  of  the  reign  of  Louis  xV.,  will  be  found  in 
the  Memoirs  of  the  Duke  de  8uiut  Simon, 
abridiK  il  tnmslation  of  St.  John,  v.  4,  ch.  5-7. 

BEOR,  Battle  of.  See  MAnoMETAN  CoN- 
qiEsT:  .V  1).  61)9-632. 

BEDRIACUM,  Battlet  of.  See  Rom: 
A.  1>.  IW. 

BEEF-EATERS,  The.  Certain  palace  at- 
ti'n>l:i'itr<  i.n  tlio  Kmrli.-ih  sovereign  whose  duty  is 
toeiirry  >ii>  the  royal  dinner.     See  Yeomen  or 

lilKGlMil). 

BEEF  STEAK  CLUB,  The.    See  Clubs: 

i  nK  lil  K.K  Stkak. 

BEER-ZATH,  Battle  of.— The  field  on 
wliieli  the  great  Jewish  soldier  and  patriot.  Judos 
Miieeabieiis,  liaviug  but  800  men  with  him.  was 
iK-sel  tiv  111!  army  of  the  Syrians  anil  slain,  B.  C. 
161.— .fosephus,  Aniiii.  „f  the  Jem,  bk.  Vi.  eh.  11. 

Also  in:  II.  Ewiild,  ifitt.  ofltmtl.  Iik.  5.  teet.  2. 

BEG.— .\  Turkish  title,  signifying  prince  or 
lorl;  whenri',  als4i,  Hey.     See  Bkv. 

BEGGARS  (Gueux)  of  the  Netherland  Re- 
volt.    See  .NKTlIKiU..l.NDS:  A.  D.  1  jfl'2-l.')88. 

BEGGARS  OF  THE  SEA.    See  Nethkb- 

I.-KNIIS      A     II.    Vui. 

BEGUINES,  OR  BEGHINES.  —  BEG- 
HARDS.  -  Weaving  Brothera.- Lollardi.- 
Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit,— Fratricelli.— 
Biiochi.- Turlupina.— "  In  the  year  1180  there 
liwd  in  Liejje  a  certain  kindly,  stainmeriug 
jinest,  known  from  bis  iDflrmlty  as  Laml>ert  le 
L'-.^iLie  T!'.i»  msr,  tt-'k  pity  on  tlie  destitute 
wiiluwsnf  the  town.  Despite  the  impediment 
in  his  speeeh,  he  was,  as  ofun  happens,  a  man  of 
4  tertuiii  power  and  cloijuence  lu  preaching.  ,  .  . 


This  Lambert  lo  moved  the  hearts  of  his  hearers 
that  gold  and  silver  poured  in  on  him,  civen  to 
relieve  such  of  the  destitute  wunien  of  Liege  ns 
were  still  of  good  and  pious  life.  .With  the 
moneys  thus  collected,  Lamliert  built  a  little 
square  of  cottages,  with  a  church  in  the  middle 
and  a  hospital,  and  at  the  side  a  cemetery.  IIcic 
he  housed  these  homeless  widows,  one  or  two  in 
each  little  house,  and  then  he  drew  up  a  half 
monastic  rjle  which  was  to  guide  their  lives. 
The  rule  was  very  simple,  quite  informal:  no 
vows,  no  great  renunc'ation  bound  the  'Swes- 
trones  Brod  durch  Got."  A  certain  time  of  the 
day  was  set  apart  for  prayer  and  pious  medita- 
tion ;  the  other  hours  they  spent  in  spinning  or 
sewing.  In  keeping  their  houses  clean,  or  they 
went  as  nurses  in  time  of  sickness  into  the 
homes  of  the  townspeople.  .  .  .  Thus  these 
women,  though  pious  ana  sequestered,  were  still 
in  the  world  and  of  the  world.  .  .  .  Soon  we 
find  the  name  '  Swestrones  Brod  durch  Got '  set 
aside  for  the  more  usual  title  of  Beguines  or 
Bcghines.  Different  authorities  give  different 
origins  of  this  word.  .  .  .  Some  have  thought  it 
was  taken  in  memory  of  the  founder,  the  chari- 
table Lambert  le  B*gut.  Others  think  that,  even 
as  the  Mystics  or  Muttercrs,  tlie  Lollards  or 
Hummers,  the  Popelbards  or  Babblers,  so  the 
Beguines  or  Stammerers  were  thus  nicknamed 
from  their  continual  murmuring  in  prayer.  This 
is  plausible:  but  not  so  plau.sible  as  the  sugges- 
tion of  Dr  Mosheiin  and  M.  Auguste  Jundt,  who 
derive  the  word  Beguine  from  the  Flemish 
word  'beggen,'  to  beg.  For  we  know  that 
these  pious  women  bad  been  veritable  begcars; 
and  Ix'Kgan  should  they  again  become.  With 
surprising  swiftness  the  new  order  spread 
through  the  Netherlands  and  into  France  and 
Germany.  .  .  .  Lambert  may  have  lived  to  see 
a  beguinage  in  every  great  town  within  his  keu; 
but  we  hear  no  more  of  him.  The  Beguines  are 
no  longer  for  Liege,  but  for  all  the  world.  Each 
city  possessed  its  quiet  congregation ;  and  at  any 
sieK.be<l  you  might  meet  a  woman  clad  in  a 
simple  smock  and  a  great  veil  like  mantle,  who 
lived  only  to  pray  and  do  deeds  of  mercv.  .  ,  , 
The  success  of  the  Beguines  had  made  tfiem  an 
example.  .  .  .  Before  St,  Francis  and  Mt,  Dominic 
in8titul<'d  the  mendicant  orders,  there  ha<l  silently 
grown  up  in  every  town  of  the  yetheriands  a 
spirit  of  fratemitv,  not  imposed  by  any  rule,  but 
the  natural  impulse  of  a  people.  The  weavers 
seated  all  day  long  alone  at  their  rattling  hHnns, 
the  armourers  beating  out  their  thouglits  in  iron, 
the  cross-lejfgiil  tailors  and  busy  cobblers  think- 
ing and  stitching  together  — these  men  silent, 
pious,  thoughtful,  joined  themsi'lves  In  a  fra- 
ternity modelled  on  thai  of  the  Beguines.  They 
were'  called  the  Weaving  Brothers.  Bound  by 
no  vows  and  fettered  bv  no  rule,  they  still  lived 
the  worldly  life  and  plied  their  trade  for  hire. 
Only  ill  their  leisure  they  met  together  and 
prayeil  and  dreamed  and  thought,  ,  ,  .  Such 
were  the  founders  of  the  great  fraternity  of 
'  Fratres  Textori'S,'  or  Ileghurds  as  in  later  vears 
the  iieople  more  gi'iieniUv  calleil  them."— A,  M. 
F,  Iloliinson,  The  Kh.l  ,',f  the  Midille  Agn.  1  — 
"  The  Lollards  differed  from  the  Heglmrds  less 
In  reali'y  than  In  name.  We  are  informed  ro- 
spcLting  thrm  t;,.it,  ii  their  origin  In  .Vnlrtetp, 
shortly  after  1300,  tliey  ossociateil  together  for 
the  purpose  of  waiting  upon  iMUienls  danger- 
ously sick,  and  burying  'he  dead.  .  ,  .  Very 


285 


1  ^" 


BEGUINES. 

early,  however  »n  element  of  a  dUTerent  kind 
began  to  work  In  those  fellowghipg.  Even  about 
the  do«  of  the  18th  centunr  Irregularities  and 
extravagances  are  laid  to  their  charge  The 

cliargra  brought  against  the  later  Beghards  and 
Lollards,  m  connection,  on  the  one  hand,  with 
the  fanatical  Franciscans,   who  were  violentlr 
conu-nding  with  Uie  Church,  and  on  the  other, 
w  th  the  Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit 
ro  ale  to  tlirec  particulars,  viz.,  an  aversion  t<i 
all  useful  industry,  conjoined  with  a  pnjpensity 
to   mendicancy   and    idleness,    an   inU-n^perate 
spirit  of  opposition  to  the  Church,  and  a  skepti- 
cal and  more  or  less  pantheistical  mysticism 
Ihcy  .  .  .  declared  that  the  time  of  Antichrist 
was  come,  and  on  all  hands  endeavoured  to  em- 
broi    the  people  with  their   spiritual    guides. 
Their  own  professed  object  was  to  restore  the 
pure  pnmeval  state,  the  divine  life  of  freedom 
Innocence,  and  nature.     The  idea  tliey  formed 
or  that  state  was,  that  man,  being  in  and  of  hhn- 
self  one  with  God,  requires  only  to  act  In  the 
consciousness  of  this  unity,  and  to  follow  un- 
restrained the  divinely  implanted  impulses  and 
lucl  nations  of  his  nature,  fn  order  to  be  good  and 

ifodly.  -C.    tllinann,  Stformert  btf^re  the  Re- 
orrmttwn  e.  2,  jm.  14-16.-"  The  names  of  beg- 
lards  and  beguincs  came  not  unnaturally  to  be 
tised  for  deyottes  who,  without  being  members 
of  any  regular  monastic  society,  made  a  profes- 
sion of  rehgious  strictness;  and  thus  the  applica- 
tions of  the  names  to  some  kinds  of  sectaries  was 
easy  — more  especially  as  many  of  these  found 
It  convenient  tu  assume  the  outward  appearance 
of  betfhanls,  in  the  hope  of  dUguising  their  dif- 
fennces  fr<>m  the  church.      But  on   the  other 
hand,  tliis  drew  on  the  orthodox  bocliards  fre- 
quent jHTsecutions,  and  many  of  th.'m,  for  the 
sake  of  siifety.  were  glad  to  connect  themselves 
as   tertianes  with  the  great  mendicant  orders 
U-i.i'  .>     ^     '■"'' «'"tiiry,  the  popes  dealt  hardly 
nith  the  beghards;  yet  orthodox  s<Kicties  under 
this  name  still  remained  in  Germany;  and  in 
Bjlgiurn.  the  country  of  their  origin,  sisterhoods 
Of  l)e«uines  flounsh  to  the   present  day 
Mattl.i.isof  Janow.  the  Bohemian  reformer, 'in 
the  end  of  the  14th  century,  says  that  all  who 
act  <  ilTeremly  from    the    profane    vulgar    are 
called   Ix.ghardi  or  turiupini.  or  by  other  blas- 
phemouii  names.  .  .  .  Among  those  who  were 
confoumled  with  the  beghartis- partly  because 
like  them,    they  abounded  along  the   lUiine  — 
were  the  brethren  and  sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit 
Ihese  appear  in  various  places  under  various 
names.     They  wore  a  peculiarly  simple  dress 
professrc  to  give  themselves  to  routemplatlon 
and.   K.l.ling  tliat  laUiur  is  a  hindrance  to  con- 
templaliDii  and  to  the  elevation  of  the  soul  to 
2?i         ;,  ''^■'^.''.r   beggary.     Their  doctrines 
were  mystical  and  alnuMt  pantheistic.  .         Tlic 
brethri'n  and  usters  of  the  Free  Spirit  were  much 
pers«<iiteil,   and  pml>al)ly  formed  a  large    pro- 
portion .if  ili,«e  who  were  burnt  under  tlie  name 
of  bej:lmr.is    --.J,  c.  Uohcrtson.    I[i.t.  of  Chri>- 
turn  I  hurfh,  l,k  7.  ch.  7(r  8) -••N,.«r  the  clos,. 
oft  ns  centiirv  (the  Ilith]  origlnaud  ii  Italy  the 
I-ratrijeili  and  liij.Hhi.  parties  tliat  in  Germany 
ami   l-miue  were  denominated  lUgiianls;    and 

othir  pontiffs  con<lemned.  and  wishe.1  to  see 
pcrsiTute,!  l.y  the  In-.iuUltinn  and  rxtenii'.aatcd 
1?J'"'';T  r.T"'''-'  .""y-  The  Fratrieelli,  who 
•lao  '.ailed  themselves  In  Latin  '  Fratres  parvi ' 

286 


BEHRINO  SEA  CONTROVEHSY. 

(tittle  Brethren),  or  '  Pratcrcull  de  paupere  vita' 
(Little  Brothers  of  the  Poor  Life),  ^re  fVancta 
can  monk.,  but  detache<i  from  the  great  f  mUv 
of  Pruiciscans :  who  whAed  to  obse^e  the  S 
lations  prescribed  by  their  founder  8t  ¥tlsL 
more  perfectly  than  the  others,  and  tlitrefo« 
PO-esMd  no  property,  either  individually  " 
collecUvely,  but  obtained  their  necessary  fo.^ 
from  day  to  day  by  begging.  Tliov  m/ 

dieted  a  reforniation  and  puriflratlon  ..f  the 
wlw-  ■  A  ■  They  extolled  Celestine  V.  L  the 
legal  founder  of  their  sect;  but  Boniface  an<i  h« 
succeeding  pontiffs,  who  opposed  the  Fr.triee HI 
they  denied  to  be  true  p6ntiffa  As  IIr.  .reat 
Franciscan  family  had  iu  associates  and  .U-xnU 

St  Francis  [which  required  only  cerUin  nious 
observances,  such  as  fasu,  prayers,  eonlinlZ 

>.^J^'  '^^^K^^-  ^""'"y  °'  manners,  &c.' 
but  did  not  prohibit  pnvate  property.  niar^isCT. 
pubUe  oiBces,  and  worldly  occupktioMl.  and  wl^ 

tae  Fratrieelli  ...  had  numerous  Tertlarii  of 
Ito  own.  These  were  called,  in  Italy.  UizocW 
and  BocaaotI;  in  France  Beguini;  and  inTer 
many  Beghardi,  by  which  name  all  the  T.rt  aril 
Tl!^^J^°uJ  ^^^:^.-  These  differ«l  from 

Th«^Vi^  r  •  •  ""'y.  '"  "',"'  ■"«!«  <'f  life- 
The  Fratrieelli  were  real  monks,   living  m„ier 

11  ?.'?  "1  ?'•  r™""^'*;  b"'  the  BizwliT  or  Be- 
gulni  lived  in  the  manner  of  other  people 
rotally  different  from  these  austere  Heguini 
and  Beguino!,  were  the  German  and  Iklitic 
Beguins,  who  did  not  indeed  originate  in  this 
century,  but  now  first  came  into  notice 
Concerning  the  Turiupins.  many  have  written- 
butnoncaccuratcly.  .  .  The  origin  of  th,.  name,' 
I  know  not;  but  I  am  able  to  prove  fr>„„  mh- 
stential  documents,  that  the  Turiupins  who  were 
burned  at  Paris,  and  in  other  parts  of  Kmna> 
were  no  other  than  the  Brethren  of  the  Krw 
Spirit  whoin  the  pontiffs  and  coun(  ils  ron- 
^^"i^eA  —J.  L.  Von  Mosheim.  I,uf>  ..f  tWl,. 
»M*h«jf  IIut..bk.  8.  century  l:i,  pt.  2,  cli'.  i,  „,t 
89-41,  atuleK.  5,  iret.  9.  foot-note. 

Auo  in:  L,  Mariotti  (A.  Gallengs).  /V,i  Mdm 
""£.£.1  ?>'»"•— See,  also.  Pii  ahoh. 
»f3B^^K?r  ^"°."  <OUDE),  Warren 
PBS<^5-f?,''M""'o  "1?  India:  A.  D.  i::;i-iis\ 
BEHTSTUN,  Rock  of.-"  This  rein.irkal.Ie 
spot,  lying  on  the  dire<'t  route  iH'tween  Hiil.\  Ion 
and  Ecbatana,  and  presenting  the  umisuul  n,,,.- 
blnat  on  of  a  copious  fountain,  a  riili  pi liu  ami 
a  rock  suitable  for  sculpture,  must  Imvc  ,i,rlv 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  great  moriardi's 
who  marched  their  armies  tliroiigh  the  Zneros 
range,  as  a  place  where  they  might  eonveni<nlly 
set  up  memorials  of    their  exploits  The 

tablet  and  inscriptions  of  Darius,  wlil.li  liavc 
made  Bchistun  famous  in  miKlern  times  ,m  In  a 
recess  to  the  right  of  the  scariM^i  f,i,e  of  U\e 
")ck,  and  at  a  considerable  elevation  ■— (J  U;,w. 
linson,  /^Vm  Great  .V„i,arc/iif» :  .\U,/i,i  ,■>,  \  _ 
The  mountain  or  rock  of  Uehistun  fixes  the 
location  of  the  dUtrict  known  to  ilieiin.ksaa 
HagLstana.  "It  lies  southwest  of  K.iviml 
between  that  mountain  and  tlic  Za^rnis  iu  tlie 
valley  of  the  Choaspcs.  and  is  the  distrid  now 
known  as  KIrmenshah."— M.  Duncker,  ;//»(  ,/ 
Anttquiti/,  hk.  8.  eh.  I 

BgHRINC  SEA  CONTROVERSY,  and 
ArDltratioo.  See  Ukitbu  States  ok  Am.: 
A.  O.  ltJtM-1883. 


BEIRUT. 


BELORADB. 


BEIRUT,  Origin  of.    See  BBRTTca. 

BELA  I.,  Kiae  of  HanEUT,  A.  D.  1000- 

10«3.....B«U  II.,  A.    D.   1181-1141 Bel« 

III.,A.D.  Ii78-11M.....B«UIV.,  A.  D.  1280- 
1270. 

BELCHITE,  Battle  oC  See  Spain:  A.  D. 
1809  (Fbbrcart— Jum). 

BELERION,  OR  BOLERIUM.— The 
Romto  name  of  Land's  End,  Engfauid.     Bee 

BUTAIN:  CBtTIcTRTOB. 

BELFORT.— Siece  bj  the  Germaas  (1870- 
1871).    See  Francb:  A.  D.  1870-1871. 

BELG.£,  The.— "This  Belgian  confedera- 
tion includea  the  people  of  all  the  country  north 
of  the  Seine  and  Mame.  bounded  by  the  Atlantic 
na  the  west  and  the  Rhine  on  the  north  and  east, 
except  the  Hediomatrici  and  Treviri.  .  .  .  The 
old  oiTisions  of  France  before  the  great  revolu- 
tion of  1789  corresponded  In  some  degree  to  the 
divisions  of  the  country  In  the  time  of  Cssar, 
snd  the  names  of  the  people  are  still  retained 
with  little  alteration  In  the  names  of  the  chief 
towns  or  the  names  of  the  onte-rerolutionary 
divisions  of  France.  In  the  country  of  the  Rem! 
between  the  Hame  and  the  Aisne  there  is  the 
town  of  Reims.  In  the  territory  of  the  Suessiones 
between  ihe  Mame  and  the  Aisne  t  here  is  Solssons 
on  the  Aisne.  The  BelloTact  were  west  of  the 
Oise  (Isara)  a  branch  of  the  Seine:  their  chief 
town,  which  at  some  time  received  the  name  of 
Ccaaromagus,  is  now  Beauvais.  The  Nervii 
were  between  and  on  the  Sambre  and  the  Schelde. 
The  Atrebates  were  north  of  the  Bellovaci  be- 
tween the  Somme  and  the  upper  Schelde :  their 
chief  place  was  Nemetacum  or  Xemctooenna, 
now  Arras  in  the  old  division  of  Artoia  The 
Ambiani  were  on  the  Somme  (Samara):  their 
name  is  represented  by  Amiens  (.Samarobtlva). 
The  Horini,  or  sea-coast  men  extended  from 
Boulogne  towards  Dunkeroue.  The  Mcnapii 
hnnlcrMt  on  the  northern  Horini  and  were  on 
Imth  sides  of  the  lower  Rhine  (B.  O.  iv.,  4).  The 
Caloti  were  north  of  the  lower  Seine  along  the 
cosat  in  the  Pays  de  Caux.  The  Vclocasses  were 
ciLst  (if  the  Cslcti  on  the  north  side  of  the  Seine 
:u  far  as  the  Oise :  their  chief  town  was  Rotoma- 
I7US  (Riiuen)  and  their  country  was  afterwards 
Voxin  Normand  and  Vexln  Fran^ais.  The  Vero- 
maiidui  were  north  of  the  Suessiones:  their 
cliU'f  town  under  the  Roman  dominion,  Augusta 
Veromanduorum.  Is  now  St.  Qucntin.  The  Adus- 
tucl  were  on  the  lower  Maas.  The  Condrusi  and 
tbe  others  incluled  under  the  name  of  Oermant 
were  on  the  M...is,  or  between  the  Maas  and  the 
Kliine.  The  Eburones  had  the  country  about 
Tcingem  and  Spa,  snd  were  the  immediate  neigh- 
lioureuf  tbe  Menapii  on  the  Rhine. "— O.  Long, 
DefUne  of  tKt  Romin  BepuNie,  v.  4,  eh.  8.— 
"CiEsar  .  .  .  informs  us  that,  in  their  own  esti- 
mation, they  [the  Belgte]  were  principally  de- 
scended from  a  Qerman  stock,  the  offspring  of 
8<)me  early  migration  across  the  RLlne.  .  .  . 
Stmbo  ...  by  no  means  concurred  in  CiEsar's 
view  of  the  origin  of  this  .  .  .  rare,  which  he 
Ix'licved  to  be  (iaulish  and  not  Oerman,  though 
ili!l«ring  widely  from  the  Oalli,  or  Oauls  of 
111"  ccntml   region."— C.  Merivale,  Jlut.  of  the 

Also  i.n:  E.  Guest,  Originn  Celtiat,  t.  1,  eh.  12. 

B-  C,  57.~Cseaar'9  campaign  against  the 
confederacy.—  In  the  stcond  year  of  Cesar's 
command  in  Gaul,  B.  C.  87,  he  led  his  legions 
against  the  ficlgs,  whom  he  chanctorised  b  his 


Commentaries  as  the  bravest  of  all  the  people  of 
Gaul.  The  many  tribes  of  the  Belgian  country 
had  joined  themselves  in  a  great  league  to  op- 
pose the  advancing  Roman  power,  andwereable 
to  bring  into  tbe  field  no  less  than  290,000  men. 
Tbe  tribe  of  the  Reml  alone  refused  to  join  the 
confederacy  and  placed  themselves  on  the  Roman 
side.  Csesar  who  had  quartered  his  array  during 
the  winter  in  the  country  of  the  Sequani,  marchca 
boldly,  with  eight  legions,  into  the  midst  of  these 
swarming  enemies.  In  his  first  encounter  with 
them  on  the  banks  of  tlio  Aisne,  tbe  Galgic  bar- 
barians were  terribly  cut  to  pieces  and  were  so 
disheartened  that  tribe  after  tribe  made  submis- 
sion to  the  proconsul  as  he  advanced.  But  the 
Nervli,  who  boasted  a  Germanic  descent,  together 
with  the  Aduatucl,  the  Atrebates  and  the  Vero- 
mandui,  rallied  their  forces  for  a  struggle  to  the 
death.  Tbe  NervU  succeeded  in  surprising  the 
Romans,  while  the  latter  were  preparing  their 
camp  on  the  banks  of  the  Gambre,  and  very 
nearly  swept  Cnsar  and  his  veterans  off  the  field, 
by  their  furious  and  tremendous  charge.  But 
the  energy  and  personal  Influence  of  the  one, 
with  tbe  steady  discipline  of  the  other,  pn  vailed 
in  the  end  over  the  untrained  valour  of  the  N'crvii, 
and  the  proud  nation  was  not  only  defeated  but 
annihilated.  "Their  eulogy  is  preserved  in  the 
vrritten  testimony  of  their  conqueror;  and  the 
Romans  long  remembered,  and  never  failed  to 
signalize  their  formidable  valour.  But  this 
recollection  of  their  ancient  prowess  be<»me  from 
that  day  the  principal  monument  of  their  name 
and  history,  for  the  defeat  they  now  sustained 
well  nigh  annihilated  the  nation.  Their  combat- 
ants were  cut  off  almost  to  a  man.  The  e'ders 
and  the  women,  who  had  been  left  In  secure  re- 
treats, came  forth  of  their  own  accord  to  solicit 
the  conqueror's  clemency.  ...  'Of  600  sena- 
tors,' they  said,  'we  have  lost  all  but  three;  of 
80.000  fighting  men  500  only  remain.'  Cirsar 
treated  the  survivors  witli  compassion." — C. 
Merivale,  UM.  of  the  Human*,  ch.  7. 

Also  in:  Julius  Ciesar,  0<i«tV!  Wnn,bk.  2.— 
0.  Long,  Deelintoftlielioman  Republic,  e.  4.  <!A. 
3.— Napoleon  III.,  Jlint  of  Caiar,  bk.  8,  ch.  5. 

BELGiE  OF  BRITAIN,  The.— Siippo^i^d 
to  t)e  a  colony  from  tin-  Belga;  of  the  1  ontiiient. 
SeeBiiiiAiN:  Ci  i.Tf  TuiiiF.ti. 

BELGIUM:  Ancient  and  Mediaeval  His- 
tory.   Sec  Bei.o.k,  N'kiivii,  Fuanks,  Loiiuainb, 

FLANDKKS,  LifeoE.    NiTnEllI.ANDS. 

Modem  History.    See  NKTnKRi.AND«. 

Constitution  of  1893.  See  Constitltioii 
or  BsLOirM. 

BELGRADE :  Origin.- During  the  attacks 
of  the  Avars  upon  the  territory  or  the  Eastern 
Empire,  in  the  last  years  of  tbe  6tb  century,  the 
city  of  Singidunum,  at  the  junction  of  the  Save 
with  the  Danube,  was  taken  and  totally 
destroyed.  The  advantageous  site  of  the  extinct 
town  soon  attracted  a  colony  of  Sclavonians, 
who  raised  out  of  the  ruins  a  new  and  strongly 
fortified  city  — the  Belgrade,  or  the  White  CMty 
of  later  times.  "The  Sclavonic  name  of  B>;1- 
grade  is  mentioned  in  the  10th  century  by  Cun- 
stantine  Porphyorgeoitus :  the  Latin  appellation 
of  Altia  Gneca  is  used  bv  the  Franks  in  tbe 
beginning  of  the  9tb."— E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and 
Pifl.-.fthr'  Rfljfuin  Bnr-frf.  eh.  48.  ft'-fr. 

A.  b.  1435.- Acquired  by  Hungary  and  forti- 
Bed  acainst  the  Turk*.  See  Hunuahy;  A.  U. 
1301-1443. 


287 


BELGRADE. 

A.  D.  I44a.-Pint  npnlae  of  the  Torki. 
R-r  TunKS  (Tire  Ottoman*):  A.  D.  1402  •  I'li 

A.  D.  1456.— Secoad  rcpnlie  of  the  1  urkt. 
Svv  HuKOARY:  A.  D.  1443-1*58;  and  Turk» 
(TbrOttomaxs):  A.  D.  14.51-1481. 
^A.  p.  isai.— Sien  and  upture  br  SolTman 
the  Mafnificeiit.  Bee  Homoabv;  A.  D.  1487- 
1336. 

A.  D.  i68S-iteo.— Taken  by  the  Anitrians 
and  recorered  by  the  Tnrks.  See  Hdnoart: 
A.  D.  lfl8S-16M. 

A.  D.  1717.— RecereiT  from  the  Tnrka.  See 
Hcnoart:  a.  D.  ItW-lllS. 

A.  D.  1739— Restored  to  the  Tnrka.  See 
Rdwia:  a.  D.  1725-1789. 

A.  D.  1780-1791.— Taken  by  the  Anatriaaa 
and  rettored  to  the  Tnrka.  ^  Turm:  A.  D. 
1778-1798. 

A.  D.  t8o6.— Snrpriaed  and  taken  by  the 
Serrians.  See  Balkan  and  Dandbian  Statbs: 
14th-19th  Centdr»8  (Sbrvta). 

A.  D.  i8«3.— Withdrawal  of  TnrkUh 
troopa.  See  Balkan  and  DAiniBtAN  States: 
14Tn-19TH  Centuriks  (Skbvia). 


I  -  > 


*i  t' 


BELGRADE,  The  Peace  of.  See  Rossia: 
A.  D.  1725-1739. 

BELIK,  Battle  on  the  (Canha—B.  C.  u). 
Sec  Rome:  B.  C.  57-53.  ** 

BELISARIUS,  Campaigns  ot  See  Van- 
dals: A.  D.  533-534.1111(1  Home:  A.  D.  535-55-'?. 

BELIZE,  or  British  Hondnras.  Sec  NiCA- 
R.*01!a:  a.  D.  ISW. 

BELL  ROLAND,  The  great.    See  Oiient: 

A.  n  i.-jsa-i.vto. 

.^^^y-  TELEPHONE,  The  invention  of 

t&e.    See  Ei-Et-iKK  Ai,  Discovkut  and  Inven- 
TicN-:  A.  D.  1S78-1892. 

BELLE  ISLE  PRISON-PEN.  The.    See 

^■'A'^'^%  ^.'.'  I  R"-0«-PkN8,  CoNFKDKIiATK. 

ilJ-LOVACI   The.    See  BKi.<i.f;. 
BELLVILLE,    Battle  of.     See    Uhfted 

BELMONT,  Battle  of.    Sec  Umi  in  .Siates 

OF.\.M.:    A.    D.    1881  (SBPTKllBEU-NuVKMDEn: 

On  Tni'.  MtBsiBsippi). 

BELOIT  COLLEGE.  Sec  Eui  cation, 
MomnN:  Ameuica  :  A.  D.  1769-1884. 

bEMA,  The.     SeePNvx, 

BEMIS  HEIGHTS,  Battle  of.   Sre United 

BENARRQ^  \''    lT77(Jui.v-Ot,oi.EK). 

titinAKEls.— Benares  "msy  even  date 
from  tlie  time  when  the  Aryan  race  first  spread 
Itself  over  Nortlicrn  India.  ...  It  is  certain 
that  the  city  is  ri'ganled  by  all  Hindus  as  coeval 
with  the  birth  of  Hinduism,  a  notion  derived 
both  from  tnulltlon  and  from  tlicirown  writings 
Allusions  to  Benares  are  exceedingly  abundant  iii 
ancient  Sanskrit  literature:  and  perhaps  there  Is 
no  city  In  all  Hindustan  more  frequiiitly  referred 
to.  lly  reason  of  some  subtle  and  nivstcrious 
charm,  It  has  linked  itself  with  the  Vdlgious 
sympathies  of  the  Hindus  through  every  century 
of  iU  existence.  For  the  sanctity  of  ||a  In- 
habitants  — of  lu  temples  and  reservoirs  — of  its 
wells  and  streams  — of  the  very  soil  that  Is 
trodden  — of  the  very  air  tliat  is  breathed- and 
of  everything  In  and  around  it,  Benares  has  been 
Tamed  for  thousands  of  years.  .  .  Previously 
to  Uic  Introduction  of  the  Buddhist  faith  Into 
India,  she  was  already  the  sacred  dty  of  the 
iaod,— the  centre  of  Hinduism,  and  chief  seat  of 
Ita  authority.    Judging  from  the  strong  feelings 


BENEDICTINE  ORDERS. 

of  veneration  and  affection  with  which  the 
native  community  regard  her  In  the  present  dav 
and  bearing  In  mlncTthat  the  founder  of  Bud' 
dhism  commenced  his  ministry  at  this  snot  ii 
seems  Indisputable  that.  In  those  early  times  nn. 
ceding  the  Buddhist  refonnatlop  the  city  i.uia 
have  exerted  a  powerful  and  wldc-spi^ad 
relMoiM  Influenci  over  the  hind.  Thioiighoiu 
the  Buddhist  period  in  IndU-a  periodext.n 
tag  from  700  to  1,000  years-  she  gave  the  same 
support  to  Buddhism  which  she  had  previously 
given  to  the  Hindu  faith.  Buddhist  works  of 
™' e™  •  •  •  c'esfly  establish  the  fact  that  the 
HuddhlsU  of  those  days  regarded  the  city  with 
much  the  same  kind  of  veneration  as  the  Ilindii 
doesillw."- M.  A.  Shcrring,  T/it  Siwrf  Ciivof 
tn*  JuMu;  eh.  1.— For  an  account  of  the  Enit- 
llsh  annexation  of  Benares,  see  Indu-  A  i) 
177;'-1785. 
BENEDICT  II.,  Pope,  A.  D.  684-085,,.. 

Ben<.-dlct  III.,  Pope,  A.  D  835-838 t'en-  diet 

IV.,   Pope,    A.    D.   900-003 Benedict  V 

A°??'  ^  B;.*^"*^ Benedict  VI.,  Pope' 

t;JLV^'"i Benedict  VII.,  Pope,  A.  n 

«2:*^ Benedict  VIII.,  Pope,  A,  1).  101": 

1^1- -.XVo^""!'''  ^^■'  ^SP''  A-  D-  1033-1044. 

1047-1048 Benedict   X.,  Antipope.  A   D 

10,'!8-1059 Benedict  XI.,  Pope,  AD  IMlll 

1804 Benedict  XII.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1334-134" 

....Benedict  XIII.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1394-1423 (at 

Avignon) Benedict  XIII.,  Pope,  A.  D  1734- 

1730..... Benedict  XIV.,   Pope,  A.    D.  '  17401 

BENEDICTINE  ORDERS.-The  rule  of 
St.  Benedict.— "There  were  many  monastirfca 
in  the  West   bi'fore  the  time  of  St.  B»"ne.lictof 
NursLi  (A.  D.  480);  but  he  hus  been  rightly  con- 
sidered the  father  of  Western  monastlcisiii  ■  for 
he  not  only  founded  an  onlcr  to  which  liiany 
religious  houses  became  attnrhed,  but  he  estab- 
lished a  rule  for  their  government  which    in  Its 
main  features,  wns  adopted  as  the  rule  of  mon- 
astic life   by  all   the  orders  for  more  than  five 
centuries,  or  until  the  time  of  St.   Dominic  and 
St.   Francis  of  Assisl.      Benedict  was   first  a 
hermit,    living  In  the  mountains  of    Snutliorn 
Italy,  and   In  that  region  he  afterwards  estab- 
lished In  succession   twelve    monasteries,  each 
with  twelve  monks  and  a  superior.     In  tlic  year 
.530  he  founded  the  great  mouastery  of  Monte 
Casmo  as  the  mother -house  of  his  order,  a  house 
which  iK'came  the  most  cclebmted  and  powirfiil 
monastery,    according  to   .AIontalcml)ert,   in  the 
Catholic  universe,  celehmted  especially  because 
there  Benedict  prepared  his  rule  and  fonnci!  the 
type   which    was  to  serve  as  a  moilel  to  the 
innumemblc  communities    submitting    to   that 
sovercigu  code.  .  .  .   Neither  In  the  East  nor  in 
tiic  West  were  the  monks  originally  ecclesiaitirs; 
and  It  was  not  until  the  eighth  century  that  they 
became  priesU,  called  regulars.  In  contrast  with 
the  ordfn:iry    parish    clergy,   who  were  called 
seculars,  ...  As  missionaries,  they  pmvi'd  tlic 
most  powerful    Instruments   In  extending   the 
authority   and  the  boundaries  of   the  church. 
The  monk    had  no  Individual  property:  even 
his  dress  belonged  to  the  m  mastery.  ...  To 
enable  him  to  work  effleiently.  It  was  neocssary 
to  feed  him  well;  and  such  was  the  Injunctiob 
of  Benedict,  as  opposed  to  the  former  practice  of 
strict    ascellciMn. "— C,    J.     Stiltc,    .Vij,/„j    is 
Medtmud  JIM.,  eh.  12.-"  Benedict   wouKI  not 
have  the  monks  limit  themselves  to  spiritual 


288 


BENEDICTINE  ORDERS. 


BENEVOLENCES. 


labour,  to  the  action  of  the  loul  upon  itself;  he 
mode  external  labour,  manual  or  litemry,  a  strict 
oliIlKStion  of  his  rule.  ...  In  order  to  banish 
indoienrc,  which  he  called  the  enemy  of  the  soul, 
be  reguiated  minutely  the  employment  of  every 
liour  of  the  day  according  to  the  seasons,  ami 
ordained  that,  after  having  celebrated  the 
praises  of  God  seven  times  a-day,  seven  houra 
adsy  should  be  given  to  manual  labour,  and  two 
hours  to  reading.  .  .  .  Those  who  arc  sicilicd  in 
the  practice  of  an  art  or  trade,  could  only  exer- 
cise it  by  the  permission  of  the  abbot,  in  all 
humility  i  and  If  any  one  prided  himself  on  his 
Ulent,  or  the  profit  which  resulted  from  it  to 
the  bouse,  he  was  to  have  his  occupation  changed 
until  he  b'-'  '•'nbled  himself.  .  .  .  Obedience 
Is  also  to  .  a  work,  obedientiae  laborem, 

the  most  i..e.itoriou8  and  essential  of  all.  A 
monk  entered  into  monastic  life  only  to  make 
the  sacrifice  of  self.  This  sacrifice  implied 
especially  that  of  the  will.  .  .  .  Thus  the  rule 
pursued  pride  into  its  most  secret  hiding-place, 
t^ubmission  had  to  be  prompt,  perfect,  ami 
absolute.  The  monk  must  obey  always,  wltli- 
niit  reserve,  and  without  murmur,  even  in  those 
tilings  which  stemed  impossible  and  above  his 
strength,  trusting  in  the  succour  of  Ood,  if  a 
humble  and  seasonable  remonst'-ince,  the  only 
thing  permitted  to  him,  was  rot  accepted  by  hb 
si.j  jriors."— The  Count  de  Hontalembert,  The 
Monkt  of  the  West,  bk.  4,  leet.  2  (c.  2). 

Also  IK:  E.  L.  Cutts,  Sanet  and  Charnttertof 
theMimieAgt»,e  2.-8.  R  Maitland,  The  Dark 
Ai/et,  Xb.  10.— J.  H.  Newman,  Mition  of  St. 
Benetlict  (Hut.  Sketehet,  t.  2).— P.  Schaff.  Uut. 
of  the  Chrittian  Church,  v.  2,  eh.  4,  teet.  4S-4.'!. 
— E.  F.  Henderson,  Select  ffiit.  Doa.  of  the 
MiMlt  Age*,  bk.  8,  no.  1. — See,  also,  Capcchtns. 

BENEFICIUM.  -COMMENDATION.  - 
Feudalism  "had  grown  up  from  two  great 
sources— the  beneflcium,  and  the  practice  of 
commendation,  and  had  been  specially  fostered 
on  Gallic  soil  by  the  existence  of  a  subject  popu- 
lation which  admitted  of  any  amount  of  exten- 
sion in  tlie  n;ethods  of  dependence.  The 
beneficiary  system  originated  partly  in  gifts  of 
land  made  by  the  kings  out  of  their  own  estates 
to  their  kinsmen  and  servants,  with  a  special 
undertaking  to  be  faithful:  partly  in  the  sur- 
render liy  landowners  of  their  estates  to  churches 
or  powerful  men,  to  be  received  back  again  and 
held  by  them  as  tenants  for  rent  or  service.  By 
the  latter  arrangement  the  weaker  man  obtaine<l 
the  protection  of  the  stronger,  and  he  who  felt 
himself  insecure  placed  his  title  under  the  de- 
fenoe  of  the  Church.  By  the  practice  of  com- 
mendation, on  the  other  hand,  the  inferior  put 
himself  under  the  personal  care  of  a  lord,  but 
witliout  altering  his  title  or  divesting  himself  of 
his  riglit  to  his  estate;  he  became  a  va.ssal  and 
did  homape,  The  placing  of  his  hands  between 
those  of  his  lord  was  the  typical  act  by  which 
the  connexion  was  formed.'— W.  Stubbs.  0>rut. 
Ui,t.,fEiu;.,  ch.  9,  met.  98. 

ALfoiN:  H.  Hallam,  The  MiddU  Age*,  eh.  2, 
V'-   1    -See,  also,  Scotland:   IOth-IIth  Ckh- 

TrKIEf 

BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY.-' Among  the 
most  llll^lortant  and  dcariyprized  privileges  of 
the  ,!,»rrh  was  that  which  .-r.nfprred  on  Its 
[;iemlK  rs  immunity  from  the  operation  of  secu- 
ir  law,  and  relieve<l  them  from  the  lurisdic- 
Uou  of  secular  tribunals.  .  .  .  8o  priceleaa  a 


prerogative  was  not  obtained  without  a  long  and 
resolute  struggle.  ...  To  ask  that  a  monk  or 
priest  guilty  of  crime  should  not  be  subject  to 
the  or<Iinary  tribunals,  and  that  civil  sulu  be- 
tween laymen  and  ecclesiastics  should  be  referred 
exclusively  to  courts  composed  of  the  latter, 
was  a  claim  too  repugnant  to  the  common  sense 
of  mankind  to  be  lightlv  accorded.  .  .  .  The 
persistence  of  the  church,  backed  up  by  the 
unfailing  resource  of  excommunication,  finally 
triumphed,   and  the  sacred    immunity  of   the 

firiesthood  was  acknowledged,  sooner  or  later, 
n  the  laws  of  every  nation  of  Europe."  In 
Englaiul,  when  Henry  II.  in  1164,  "endeavored, 
in  the  Constitutions  of  Ckrendon,  to  set  bounds 
to  tlie  privileges  of  the  church,  he  therefore 
especially  attacked  the  benefit  of  clergy.  .  ,  . 
The  disastrous  result  of  th"  quarrel  between 
the  King  and  the  archbishop  [Becket]  rendered 
it  necessary  to  abandon  all  such  schemes  of  re- 
form. ...  As  time  passed  on,  the  benefit  of 
clergy  gradually  extended  itself.  That  the 
laity  were  illiterate  and  the  clergy  educated  was 
taken  for  granted,  and  the  test  of  churchman- 
ship  came  to  be  the  ability  to  read,  so  that  the 
privilege  became  in  fact  a  free  pardon  on  a  first 
offence  for  all  who  knew  their  letters.  .  .  . 
Under  Elizabeth,  certain  heinous  offences  were 
decUred  felonies  without  benefit  of  clergy. 
.  .  .  Much  legislation  ensued  from  time  to  time, 
effecting  the  limitation  of  the  privilege  in  vari- 
ous offences.  .  .  .  Eariy  in  the  reign  of  Anne 
the  lienefit  of  clergv  was  extended  to  all  male- 
factors bv  abrogating  the  reading  test,  thus 
placing  the  unlettered  felon  on  a  par  with  his 
better  educated  fellows,  and  it  was  not  until  the 
present  centurj-  was  well  advanced  that  this 
remnant  of  mediieval  ecclesiastical  prerogative 
was  abolished  by  7  and  8  Geo.  iv.  c.  28."— 
H.  C.  Lea,  Studies  in  Church  Hist. ,  pi.  2. 

Also  in:    W.    Stubbs,    Const.  I/lst.  of  Eni 
teet.  722-725  (eh.  19,  t.  8).— See,  also,  E.noland: 
A.  D.  1162-1170. 

BENEVENTO,  OR  GRANDELLA,  Bat- 
tle of  (1266).  See  Italy  (SoiTnERNi:  A.  D. 
12.">0-I2«8. 

BENEVENTUM:  The  Lombard  Duchy. 
— The  Duchy  of  Bcncventum  was  a  Lombard 
fief  of  the  8tli  and  9th  centuries.  In  southern 
Italy,  which  survived  the  fall  of  the  Lombard 
kingdom  in  northern  Italy.  It  covered  nearly 
the  territory  of  the  modem  kingdom  of  Naples. 
Charlemagne  reduced  the  Duchy  to  subniis.sion 
with  considerable  ditflculty.  after  he  had  extin- 
guished the  Lombard  kingdom.  It  was  after- 
wards divided  into  the  minor  principalities  of 
Benevento,  Salerno  and  Capua,  ami  became 
part  of  the  Norman  conquest. — See  Italy  (Soitth- 
KR.N);  A.  D.  800-1016;  and  10(K>-1090;  also, 
Lombards:  .\.  I).  .'>T:i-774,  and  Amalfi. 

BENEVENTUM,  Battle  of  (B.C.  275).  See 
Rome:  B.  C.  2S3-2T.-). 

BENEVOLENCES.  — "The  collection  of 
benevolences,  regarded  even  at  the  time  [Eng- 
land, reign  of  Edward  IV.]  as  an  innovathm,  was 
perliaps  a  resuscitated  form  of  some  of  the  wor^t 
measures  of  Edward  IL  and  Kichard  II..  but  the 
attention  which  it  aroused  under  Edwanl  IV. 
shows  how  strange  it  had  become  under  the 
Intervealiig  kin^s.  .  .  .  Such  evidence  nA 
exists  shows  us  Edward  IV.  canvassing  bv 
word  of  moutli  or  bv  letter  for  direct  giflji  i\t 
money  from  his  subjccu.    Uenry  III.  had  thua 


289 


i 


,1  ^^1 

Hi 


.■* 


1     •"! 


BENEVOLBKCES. 

begged  for  new  yeu't  gtfu.  Bdwaid  IV. 
requ8«ed  aiid  extorted  '  free-will  offeringt '  from 
ererj  one  who  could  not  mr  no  to  the  plead- 
tanot  lucb  •  ktag."-W.  Stubbe.  Cofut  Hit. 
?m^m!'  ***■  •"••-^  Buouakd:  a.  D. 
BENGAL.  Th*Bn|UtliKqnis]clenot  See 

BEMqAL:"P«mun«itS«tU«ment."  Bee 
Utdia  :  A.  D.  1785-1798. 

BENNINGTON,  Battle  of.     See  U»it«d 

BENTINCK,  Lord  WilJlam,  The  Indiui 
Mministratlon  ot    See  Imdu  :  A.  D.  1828- 

BENTONSVILLE,  Battle  ot  SeeUsrrED 
Statm  or  Am.  :  A.D.  1863  (Fbbiiuabt-Maiich  : 

Thb  CAnOLINAS). 

BEOTHUK,  The.  See  Ajuricah  Abobi- 
or.NKs:  Beotrukan  Famii.t. 

BEK1ERS,  The.  See  Libtaks;  Notiid- 
lANS  J  --r,  Obioih  o»  thr  akciert  pkoplx  • 
and  ii.  I,      I). 

BERE.x-CE,  Cities  of.— There  were  three 
cltiee  of  thk  name  (glTen  In  honor  of  Berenice 
mother  of  the  eecond  of  the  Ptolemice)  on  the 
Egyptian  coast  of  the  Red  Sea.  and  a  fourth  in 
Cvrenaica. 

A  °n^^,f}^^'  ''••••?•  »'  '•>••  See  Rcsiu  : 
A.  D.  1818(OcTiinEn— Dkcembeh) 

BERESTECZKO.  Battle  of  (1651).  See 
Poland  :  A.  D.  1648-1634.  v     3  »•      ow 

BERGEN,  Battle,  of  (1759  and  1799).  See 
Orkmakt:  A  D.  17.W  (Apmi.-AuQcrT  ;  and 

*^'i^2o"/;  A.'ii^  (SEPTEIinKR-OCTOBEK). 

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM,  A.  D.  isSa.-Tfce 
•«f*  raised.  See  Nbthkblands:  A.  D.  1888- 
1593. 

A.  p.  i6a3.— Unsuceessfnl  siege  by  the 
fP*""*™!.    See  Netherlands:  A.  D.  1621- 

A.  D.  i747.i748._Taken  by  the  French  and 
restored  to  Holland.   SecNETnEiii.ANDs 


1746-1747,  and  Aix-LA-CHAi-ELi.B,  The 

ORKgg. 


AD 

CON- 


BERGER.    See  BiitoEit. 
jjBERGERAC,  Peace  of.  See  Frasce  :  A,  D. 

BERING  SEA  CONTROVERSY  AND 
ARBITRATION.  See  United  "?AT^>  op 
Am.;  a.  D.  1886-1898. 

BERKELEY,  Lord.  The  Jersey  Grant  to. 
»e  New  Jersey  :  A.  1).  1664-1667.  to  IOhS-itsn 

BERKELEY,  Sir  William.  GoTernmenl  of 

Vi'iiFVl,'',-     ^^  VIRGINIA  :  A.  I).  1642-184<J,  to 
I0W>-IOj7. 

BERLIN:  A.  D.  1631.— Forcible  entry  of 
y  •   *<lolphns.     See  Geuma.nt  :   A.  I). 


BKRSBRKZR. 
_P=?LIM    CONFERENCE   (iSSj-igg,,. 

T^i'*A"l).187S«"""°"''^"'*'«^-     8«e 

BERMUDA  HUNDRED,  Butler's  Arnli 
•*•    flee  CNIT.D  States  or  Am.  .  A.  D  iS^ 

^^KRMnffl'S''  Tm  Armt  or  the  Jame, 

BERMUDAS,  or  Somers  Islands.-Tlil. 
group  of  small  islands,  iltuated  in  the  wes  .4 
Atlantic.  nearW  «00  miles  eastward  of  (w 
HMteras,  was  dlscorered  In  1S13  bv  a  SpanS 
mariner,  Juan  Bermudes,  and  was -well  C,„ 

•^IS"*^"'  '•*, ""'  «*■"•"?•  but  never  "Z 
pied.  The  region  bore  a  bad  reputation  f, 
storms.  By  the  wrecking  of  the  fcnglUh  ,h  n 
••Sea  Venture,';  with  Admiral  «lr  Georg"so7 

ieW-1616),  the  l«knds  were  brought  into  rtla 
tions  wHh  the  Virginia  colony,  «Sd  were  I^ 
arterwanls  Inclndedin  the  grant  to  the  Virelnla 
Company,  but  sold  presentfy  to  another  colS 

t'Sfn'hS'TSr-      ^b^^  British  D«va,ta 

u  ;  %.  *",'?"  A"*""'  ^'y  "re  to  some  extent 
what  Mauritius  is  In  the  Indian  Ocean,  but  far 

tht  BntiA  OoloniM,  t.  i,ieet.l  ^  •' 

^^BMN,  Diatrich  eC    See  Veboha:  A  D. 

L^V*V!^^fi'^*^ .^^    See  France: 

,^L.n^(ter-fSS?;>iiRT  % 

&wE'S;ri.Wir6E^i;:-rD'' 

1818-1818;  1818  (Adocst).  (SkpTEiBE^ciS: 
BER),  (October— December) 

BERNARD,  St..  and  the  Second  Crusade. 
See  Crdsadeb:  A.  D.  1147-1149 
e  Jif'll'^;  *i-  °-  '353--Joined  to  the  original 
Swiss  Confederation,  or  Old  League  of  High 
"«"n«ny.   See  Switzerland:  A.  D.  1332-1490 

A.  p.  1798.— Occnpation  by  the  Fr«nch.- 
The  plundering  o'  \ht  ;  r»  jury.  Sci  ^fui- 
erland:  a.  D.  1798-1798. 


Threatened  by  the  Swedes. 
•  A.  D.  1640-16tss. 
Ing  Austrian  attack.   Sec 

"(Jl-LT— DErKMIlKIl) 

-en  and  plundered  by  the 
■■■—    SccOeumanv:  a  D. 


Set    '. 

A. 
German. 

A.  D.  I7t..-    .  _.,:„  , 

Austriaasaad  Russians. 

1780. 

A.  D.  1806.— Napoleon  in  possession, 
Oermant:  a.  D.  mm  (OoToiii-H) 
.„^,P;  '•48.-Mistaken  battle  of  soldiers 
ana  citisens.— Continued  disorder.— State  of 
?«f-i8W**        "*'"'''  ■  *  '^  '**"  tMA«c"),  and 


See 


BERNICIA,  The  Kingdom  ot  See  Exo 
land:  a.  D.  547-688;  and  Scotland:  7th  Ce.v- 
ttrt. 

BERSERKER.  -  B.fiRSiERK.  -  •  The 

word  Bffirswric  is  variously  spelt,  and  statpd  to 
be  derived  from  ■  bar '  and  ' sierk,'  or  •  barcshirf 
■riie  men  to  whom  the  title  was  applleil  [among 
the  Northmen]  .  .  .  were  sUteti  to  be  in  the 
hHJit  of  flghting  without  armour,  and  wiarlng 
onlv  a  shirt  of  skins,  or  at  times  .  ki.l.  In 
Iceland  they  were  sometimes  called  I'l..'  ^In 
I.  c.,  wolfskin.  The  derivation  of  Bsisierk  has 
been  questioned,  as  in  philology  is  not  uncom- 
mon. The  habit  of  their  wearing  bear  (l)jftrn) 
skins,  is  said  to  afford  the  meaning  of  the  word. 
In  philology,  to  agree  to  differ  la  heal.  Tlie 
Bienferks,  according  to  the  sagas,  appear  to  have 
i)een  men  of  unusual  physical  development  and 
savagery.  They  were,  moreover,  liable  to  what 
was  called  Rwrasrkegang.  or  a  state  of  (•-•icite- 
ment  In  which  they  exhibited  auperhiunan 
strength,  and  then  spared  neither  friend  nor  foe. 
.  .  .  After  an  attack  of  Bxrscrk  frenzy,  it  wis 

290 


BERSERKER 


BET. 


beliered  that  the  inperfaumaD  lufliienoe  or  (pirlt 
left  the  Bcncrk's  bodT  m  s  'ham,'  orcait-off 
shape  or  form,  with  the  mult  that  the  Bar- 
lark  iuffered  great  exhauitioD,  bis  natural  force* 


being  uied  up." — J.  F.  Vicary,  Saga  Time,  eh.  S. 
Aijo  in:  p.  ~    ~    "■    ■■■  "■■  ■ 

*.  t.  eh.  20. 


Aijo  in:  p.  B.  Du  Chaillu,  Ttu  Yikint  Age, 


BERWICK-UPON-TWEBO:  A.  D.  1393- 

1333.— Conqnaat  bythe  Barlith.— At  the  begin- 
ning, in  \'f»i,  of  the  ttruKgle  of  the  Scottish  nation 
to  cast  o9  the  feudal  yob  which  Edwaru  i.  had 
laiil  upon  It,  the  EDgliih  king,  marchlnK  angrily 
northwards,  made  his  lint  anault  upon  Berwick. 
The  citizeni,  whoae  only  rampart  wai  a  wooden 
ttmkatle,  fooUihly  aggrsTated  bit  wrath  by 
gibes  and  taunta.  "The  stockade  wi.«  stormed 
with  the  loss  of  a  single  knight,  anil  nearly 
8.000  of  the  citizens  were  mown  down  ic  a  ruth- 
less carnage,  while  a  handful  of  Flemish  traders 
who  held  the  town-hall  stoutly  against  fill  assail- 
ants were  burned  alive  in  it.  ...  The  town  was 
ruined  forever,  and  the  great  merchant  city  of 
the  North  sank  from  that  time  into  a  petty  sea- 
port." Sulnequently  recovered  by  the  Scotch, 
Berwick  was  held  by  them  in  1838  when  Edward 
III.  attempted  to  seat  Edward  Balliol,  as  is 
vassal,  on  the  Scottish  throne.  The  Englist  \ 
•lege  to  the  place,  and  an  armr  under  the  r, 
Douglas  came  to  its  relief.  The  battle  of  1.  -.  1- 
don  Hill,  *n  which  the  Scotch  were  utterly 
routed,  decided  the  fate  of  Berwick.  "From 
that  time  the  town  remained  the  one  part  of 
Edward's  conquests  which  was  preserved  by  the 
English  crown.  Fragment  as  it  was,  it  was 
viewed  as  legally  representing  the  realm  of 
wkli'h  It  had  once  formed  a  part.  As  Scotland, 
it  had  Its .  chancellor,  chamberlain,  and  other 
offleeni  of  state;  and  the  peculhtr  heading  of  acts 
of  Parliament  enacted  for  England  'and  the 
town  of  Berwick-upon-Tweed  still  preserves 
the  memory  of  its  peculiar  position.  '—J.  R 
Green.  Short  Hist,  of  Iht  Sttgluh  People,  eh.  4, 
Utl.  3  and  6. 

.Vl.^u  in:  J.  U.  Burton,  Hitt.  of  Scotland,  eh. 
17  — .•>ee  ScoTLAKD:  A.  D.  1290-1305. 

BERWICK,  Paciflcationof.  See Scotlasd : 
A.  I>    1638-1640. 

BERWICK,  Treatyof.  SceScarutKD  A.  D. 
15."jH-15tW. 

BE  RYTUS.— The  colony  of  Bervtus  (mo<lem 
Beirut)  was  founded  by  Agrippa,  B.  0.  15,  and 
maile  a  station  for  two  legions. 

A.  D.  551.— Its  Schools.— Its  Destruction 
by  Earth '.uake.— The  city  of  Berytus,  modern 
Beirut,  was  destroyed  by  eartl  ■uske  on  the  9th 
of  July,  A.  D.  551.  "  'Thttt  city,  on  the  coast  of 
Phcenicia,  was  illustrated  by  the  study  of  the 
dvll  Uw,  which  opened  the  surest  road  to  wealth 
and  dignity:  the  schools  of  Berytus  were  fille<l 
with  the  rising  spirits  of  the  age,  and  many  a 
Touth  was  lost  in  tne  earthquake  who  might  have 
lived  to  be  the  scourge  or  the  guardian  of  his 
country."— E.  Gibbon,  Oeelint  and  FaU  of  the 
Butnan  Empire,  eh.  43. 

A.  D.  nil.— Taken  by  the  Crusaders.  See 
Cbisades:  a.  D.  1104-1111. 


BESAN90N  :  Origin.    See  Vesontio. 

a  D.  ii<a-iA48  — a  Free  City  of  the  Em- 
pire.   See  F'sAMCiiK  Coiitb. 

A.  p.  1674.— Siege  and  capture  by  Vauban. 
bee  NETRSBLAIID8  (IIoUjLHD):  A.  D.  1674- 
I643. 


BESSI,  Th* — The  Beisl  were  an  ancient 
Thracian  tribe  who  occupied  the  mountain  range 
of  Hamus  (the  Balkan)  and  the  upper  valley  of 
the  Uebrus.  They  were  subdued  by  Lucullus, 
brother  of  the  conqueror  of  Mltbridates. — E.  H. 
Bunbury,  JKit.  qfAneitnt  Oeog.,eh.  18,  tet.  6. 

BESSIN,  The.— The  dUtrict  of  Bayeuz.  See 
Saxons  or  Batkux. 

BETH-HORON,  Battles  of.—  The  victory  of 
Joshua  over  "  the  live  kings  of  the  Amoritea  " 
who  laid  siege  to  Gibeon ;  the  decisive  battle  of 
the  Jewish  conauest  of  Canaan.  ' '  The  battle  of 
Beth-horon  or  Qibeon  is  one  of  the  -nost  important 
In  the  history  of  the  world ;  and  yet  so  profound 
has  been  the  indifference,  first  of  the  religious 
world,  and  then  (through  their  example  or  In- 
Quence)  of  the  common  world,  to  the  historical 
study  of  the  Hebrew  annals,  that  the  very  name 
of  this  great  battle  Is  far  leas  knovra  to  most  of 
us  than  that  of  Marathon  or  Cannse."— Dean 
Stanley,  LeeU.  on  (As  HM.  ofth*  Jeteuh  Chvreh, 
teet.  11.—  In  the  Maccabean  war,  Beth-horon  was 
the  scene  of  two  of  the  brilliant  victories  of 
Judas  Maccabeus,  in  B.  C.  167  and  162.- 
Joaephus,  Antia.  of  (As  Jen;  bk.  12.-  Later,  at 
the  time  of  the  Jewish  revolt  against  the  Romans, 
it  witnessed  the  disastrous  retreat  of  the  Roman 
general  Cestius. 

BETHSHEIIESH,  BatUe  of.— Fought  by 
Joash,  king  of  Israel,  with  Amaziah,  king  of 
Judah,  defeating  the  latter  and  causing  part  of 
the  walls  of  Jerusalem  to  be  tlirown  down. — 3 
Chranieht,  xxv. 

BETH-ZACHARIAH,  Battle  of.-A  defeat 
suffered  (B.  C.  168)  by  the  Jewish  patriot,  Judas 
Maccabaeus,  at  the  hands  of  the  Syrian  monarch 
Antiochus  Eupator;  the  youngest  of  the  Macca- 
bees being  slain.— Josephus,  Antia.  of  th*  Jtai, 
bk.  12,  eh.  9. 

BETHZUR,  Battle  oL— Defeat  of  an  army 
sent  by  Antiochus,  against  Judas  Maccabeus, 
the  Jewish  patriot,  B.  C.  165,  Josephus,  Antiq. 
of  the  Jeait,  bk.  12,  eh.  7. 

BEVERHOLT,  Battle  of  (1381).  See 
Flanders:  A..  D.  1379-1381. 

BE  Y.— BE  YLERBEY.—  PACH  A.— PAD- 
ISCHAH.—"  The  administration  of  the  [Turk- 
ish] provinces  was  in  the  time  of  «Iahomet  II. 
[the  Sultan,  A.  D.  1451-1481,  whose  legislation 
organized  the  Ottoman  government]  principally 
Intrusted  to  the  Beys  and  Beylerbeys.  'These 
were  the  natural  chiefs  of  the  class  of  feuda- 
tories [Spahis],  whom  theirtenure  of  office  obliged 
to  serve  on  horseback  in  time  of  war.  They 
mustered  under  the  Sanjak,  the  banner  of  the 
chief  of  their  district,  and  the  districts  them- 
selves were  thence  called  Sanjaks,  and  their 
rulers  Sanjak-beys.  The  title  of  Pacha, 
so  familiar  to  us  when  speaking  of  a  Turkish 
jirovincial  ruler,  is  not  strictly  a  term  imply- 
ing territorial  jurisdiction,  or  even  military 
authority.  It  is  a  title  of  honour,  meaning 
literally  the  Shah's  or  sovereign's  foot,  and 
implying  that  the  person  to  whom  that  title  was 
given  wa.s  one  whoi"  the  sovereign  employed. 
.  .  .  The  title  uf  pi-  . '  was  not  at  first  appliuil 
nmimg  the  Ottonran  .^.iusivcly  to  those  olliirrs 
who  comaiiiir.led  i<rn  ics  or  ruled  provinces  or 
eitlea.  Of  t!ie  ft-.:-  first  Pr,.-has,  t!i-,t  uro 
mentioned  by  •  .-nan  writers,  three  were  liUT. 
ary  men.  By  de.^'rees  tills  honorary  tith'  was 
appropriated  U>  those  whom  the  Sultan  employed 
in  wu  and    set   over   dUtricta  and    important 


291 


-r  t 


ij-t 


BET. 

town*;  S.1  that  the  word  Pscha  became  almnat 
•yuonymou*  with  the  word  governor.  The 
titlK  Pmliachali,  which  the  Sultau  liiinself  bcar». 
and  •vliich  the  Turltiah  diplomatists  have  l)ciii 
very  jealou*  in  allowing  to  Christian  Sovereigns 
is  »n  f.tirely  different  word,  and  means  the 
great,  the  imperial  Schah  or  Sovereign.  In  the 
time  of  Mahomet  II.  the  Ottoman  Empin-  con- 
tttlued  in  Kuro|)e  alone  thirty-six  Saujalia,  or 
lianners,  around  each  of  which  a&scmbled  about 
400  cuvalierB.'— Sir  E.  8.  Creasy,  Uut.  of  tU 
Ottoman  Turin,  eh.  6. 

BEYLAN,  Battle  of  (1833).  See  TtiBKa: 
A.  D.  IS31-1840. 

BEYROUT,  Oripn  of:    See  Berttvs. 

BEZANT,  The.— The  bezant  was  a  Bvzan- 
tlne  gold  coin  (whence  iu  name),  worth  a'little 
leas  than,ten  English  shillings— $8.50. 

BEZIERES,  The  Massacre  at  See  Albi- 
SBNSK8:  A.  D.  1209. 

BHARADARS.  Sec  Ihdia:  A.  D.  1808-18H. 
j^HONSLA  RAJA,  The.    See  I»du:  A.  D. 

BHURTPORE,  Siere  ofdSos).  See  India: 
A.  D.  1798-1805. 

BIANCHI  AND  NERI  (The  Whites  and 
macks).     See  Pu)Behce:  A  D.  1295-1300,  and 

BIANCHI,  or  White  Penitents.    See  White 

Pknitknts. 

BIBERACH,  Battles  of  (1796  and  1800) 
See  Fh.\.\ck:  A.  U.  ViW  (Apkil— Octobek):  and 
A.  D.  lHOO-1801  (Ma»-Fkbkuarv). 

BIBLIOTHftQUE     NATIONALS.     S« 
Li niiAiiiKH,  Modern:  France. 
"RACTE.     S.M.  G.m:i.«. 

^CI,  The.— .V  tribe  of  ancient  Britons 

m-ar  the  Timnicn. 
•  ERAL  SYSTEM,  The.-Tliis  term 
1  ..d  by  Jereniy  liinthMiii  to  the  divisicm 

o    .       Slsliitivc  biKly  into  two  (lminh<r.«  — such 
"ni'i^ti'.""*'  '     '•'"■''"  "'"'  """"''  "f  ''"'unions. 

BICHAT,  and  physiological  science.  See 
ilKrm  u,  .SciKNcK  :  ISm  Ikntiiiv 

BICOQUE,  OR  BICOCCA,  La.  Battle  of 
(I«3I.     ."Sir  FiiAM  K  :  A    I>  I,V20-IM:) 
BIG  BETHEL.   Battle  of.     S«    United 
bJTS!;  4i;.-^    ^-  "*•"  ^ivsK.  Viii.:isiA). 
BIO  BLACK,    Battle  of  the.    He.  L'nitkd 
Btatk*  or  Am  .  A  I>.  ln«8  (Ai'Uii.-Jui.T :  On 
Till;  .MiKsiKsii'pi) 

BIGERRIONES,    Th..      See    A.ji,TAii.t, 

Thk  ANdKNT  TmiWB 

BIGI,  OR  GREYS.  The.-One  of  the  three 
factions  whiih  divided  Flonii.e  In  the  time  of 
Savonarola,  and  after.  The  Hlnl.  or  Ureyt 
Were  the  imrliHithN  of  the  Medici  ' 

BILL  OF  RIGHTS,    tk*  K.soi  ani>:  A   I) 

l«N«(().TonKH). 

BILLS  OF  EXCHANGE.  S.e  I,.uv,  Com. 
Mi.S:  .\   1»    l»Iii;t. 

BILLAUD-VARENNES.and  the  French 
RcTolulionary   Committcs  of  Public  Safety 

t^  FlUN.E:  A  I).  17«;t  (.llNK-O.  T..nKU)' 
(SrPTEm(l.-K— I)Kl  KMBKl;),  lo  ITW-lTUj  1  Jlj.¥— 
Arnri ). 

BILOXIS,  The.  SwAmerkan  Adokioihks: 
Bi"i'»N  Family. 

A^lMSn/'  ''"''*    '''"^  ^'     ^^   Amkiika: 
BIRAPARACH,  Fonrssa  of.    Sw  Jlroi. 


BLACK  DEATH. 

„°"*°^"'  KJ»f  of  Sweden,  A.  D.  1290- 
1319 Birnr.  Rennt,  A  D.  1250-1266 

A^n^"«.S.'',ffi^*A  ■^''•-     8«««™TLand: 
A.  U.  1638-1640;  and  Enoland:  A  D  16411 

^BISMARCK  ARCHIPELAGO.  See  Me^ 

BISMARCK'S     MINISTRY.    Bee    Obr. 

MANY:  A.  0.1H61-1866,  to  1889-1890 ;  and  Feaiii  «• 
A.  n.  1870  'Ju.NK-Jui.T);  187(^1871;  1871  (Ja, 
lABv— MA^h  and  Papacy  :  A.  D.  1870-1874  " 
BISSEXTILE    YEAR.      See   CAii^NDiR 
Julian. 

^!'^,"y'i'^fS''^"^'"ANS.-"AIongthe 

coast  of  the  Euxlne,  from  the  Thraclan  Bo«nlK,ru« 
eastward  to  the  river  Ilalys,  dwelt  Bithynians  or 
Thynians,  Mariandynians  and  Paphlagonians  — 
all  recognized  branches  of  the  widely  extended 
ThracUn  race.    The  Bithynians  especially    In 
the  northwestern  portion  of  this  territory  and 
reaching  from  the  Euxlne  to  the  Propontis  are 
often  spoken  of  as  Asiatic  Thracians,— while  on 
the  other  hand  various  tribes  among  the  This- 
cians   of   Europe   are   denominatecT  Thynl  or 
Thynians.— so  little  difference  was  there  in  the 
population  on  the  two  sides  of  the  Bosphorus 
alike  brave,   predatory,  and  sanguinary.    The 
Bithynians  of   Asia  are  also  sometimes  called 
Bi'brykians,  under  which  ilenomination  they  ex- 
tend as  far  southward  as  the  gulf  of  Kios  in  the 
Propontis."— U.  Grote,  llitt.  of  Greta,  pt.  2  rA 
16 —The  nitliyniaus  were  among  the  penpl'e  in 
Asia  Minor  Bubjugnted  byCr(Psu.s,  king  of  Lvdia 
and  fell,  with  Ills  fail,  under  the  Persian  nile' 
Hut,  in  some  way  not  clearly  understo<Kt,  an  in 
di'iMnileut   kingdom  of   Bitliynia   was   forineit 
alout  the  middle  of  llie  8th  century  B.  C   which 
rfisted  the  Persians,  successfullv  rcsistiil  .Mix. 
iiiiiler  the  Great  and  his  successors' in  Asia  .Mitmr 
^•slsted  Mithridates  of  Pontiis,  and  existed  until 
H.  C.  74,   when   its  last    king  Nlcorae<lis   III 
bi'i|ueathcd   his  kingdom  to  Rome  and  it  was 
made  a  Itomaii  province. 

A  ^,'7,9.^J.9i.^'"'*  "'  <'734)-    See  France 

BITURIGES,     The.       See     .«dii;     also 
Bot'Hoi.s.  OitioiN  or. 

BIZOCHI.  The.    See  Beocines,  etc 
J  BLACK  ACTS.  The.    SeeSioTtAM.    A  1) 

BLACK  CODES.   S.*  pag..  !M:8  ,,  .'   :, 
BLACK  DEATH.  The.-"The  III.1.  k  IVath 
npiwirs  to  have  Imd  iU  oriiflii  hi  tii<'  o,ritrM  .,f 
Cliliia,  in  or  about  the  year  i;a-(      It  is  w.;.|  il.ut 
it  was  acroin|>anieil  at  Its  ouilircnk  by  v;iric.ii!i 
terr.-strial    and   atmosplierir    pliieiiomi-iui    uf   u 
niivil   and    most    destructive    eimracli  r     phi- 
noiiiena  similar  to  those  which  rliari(  li  riznl  tl.« 
flmt  apiM-arance  of  the  Asiatic  ("hoi.  m.  .,f  Hie 
Iiillui  uia,  anil  even  iu  more  remiit4>  times  of  the 
Atli. niiiii  Plague.     It  is  a  singular  fait  that  nil 
ephle.iiics  of  an  unusually  destru.-tive  1  luirsrl.T 
have  had  their  homes  in  the  farth.'st  l-jt^i  nmt 
have  travellnl  slowly  fMm  those  regions  in«anl« 
Kur.pe.     It  appears,  t<M),    that  the  ill8.-n«.-  ex. 
hHUslcl  Itatlf  In  the  place  of  its  origin  at  .'ilioiit 
Ilie  Nime  time  In  which  it  made  its  apwiiranee 
In  Kuroiie.  ...  The  disease  still  exists  iiniler 
tlw  name  of  the  Levant  or  Oriental  I'lagiii',  and 
is.'ndeinir  in  Asia  Minor,   in  parta  of  Tiirkev 
and  ill  Egypt.      It  Is  speclllcally  a  .llsesw  la 
wlijih  Uiii  lilnnfj  (•  poisoned,  la  wfc'.:-h  •!■!-  c-.-^u-r-. 
sciks  U)  ndleve  itself  by    suppuration  .d  ilw 
glands,  and  la  which,  tlie  tissues  becoiulof  ills 


212 


BLACK  DEATH. 


BLOCKADE. 


or^nnljicil,  and  the  blood  thereupon  being  In- 
UliruU-'il  into  them,  dark  blotches  appear  on  tlio 
skin.  Hence  the  earliest  name  by  whicli  tlic 
Plugiie  was  described.  The  storm  burst  on  the 
Island  of  Cypnis  at  the  end  of  tlie  year  1347, 
ami  WHS  accompanied,  we  are  told,  by  remark- 
able physical  phenomena,  as  convulsions  of  the 
earth,  and  a  total  change  In  the  atmosphere. 
Many  persona  ailccte<l  died  instantly.  The  Black 
iJeath  seemed,  not  only  to  the  frightened  im- 
agination of  the  people,  but  even  to  the  more 
sober  observation  of  the  few  men  of  science  of 
the  time,  to  move  forward  with  measured  4teps 
irom  tlic  desolated  East,  under  ♦;  •  Ut-r>  of  a 
dark  and  fetid  mist.  It  is  v  v-hU^::  .;.«t  "<,!'- 
sequent  upon  the  great  pi.  '  Jil  convul.iii.r^ 
which  hiul  rent  the  earth  am  :)rc('i!od  the  dis- 
ease, foR'ign  substancea  of  a  c  el  it  r  us  characl  »r 
liail  iK'pn  projected  into  thi  alu  ■  sjiheri!.  ,  .  . 
The  Black  Death  appeared  a;  ,  vgi^on  ii  Jan- 
liiiry  1348,  visited  Florence  u^  A.  r-'i'-O  of 
.\|iril.  and  had  thoroughly  penetrated  Krant. 
iiiiii  Germany  by  August.  It  entered  Poland  in 
1349,  reached  Bwedcn  In  the  winter  of  that  year. 
and  Norway  by  infection  from  England  at  about 
the  !iame  time.  It  spread  even  to  Iceland  and 
Oretnland.  ...  It  made  its  ap|)earance  in  Rus- 
sia ia  13Sl,aftcr  it  hod  well-nigh  exhausted  itself 
ill  Euroiw.  It  thus  took  the  circuit  of  the  Medi- 
ttrriinean.  and  unlike  most  plagues  which  have 
|H-nelratC(l  from  tlie  Eastern  to  the  Western 
world,  was  checkeil,  it  would  seem,  by  the 
barriir  of  the  Caucasus.  .  .  .  Ilecker  calculates 
the  loss  to  Europe  as  amounting  to  25.000, UUO. " 
—J.  £.  T.  Rogers,  Uitt.  of  Ai/rieuUur»  and 
I'rirfi,  e.  1,  «A.  15. 

Also  in:  J.  F.  C.  Heckcr,  Etiidtmift  of  t/u 
Viddh  Aget—See..  also,  Encii.and;  A.  D.  134«- 
134H;  Fhance:  .V.  D.  i;U7-134«;  Florencic: 
A.  I).  13W;  Jkws:  A.  I)    1348-1349. 

BLACK  EAGLE,  Order  of  the.— A  Prus- 
sian onlir  of  kniu'lithood  institutetl  by  Frederick 
llI.,<l«torof  liniriclenburg,  in  1701. 

BLACK  FLAGS,  The.    Bee  Fuance  :  AD. 

l<T"i    1NH». 

BLACK  FRIARS.  HeeMiNDirANTOiinKKS. 
BLACK  FRIDAY,     btr  Nkw  Vokb  :  A.  U. 

I  111  I. 

BLACK  HAWK  WAR,  The.  See  Illi- 
MMs:  .\    |>.  im:w. 

BLACK  HOLE  OF  CALCUTTA,  The. 
Se<-lM>i*:  A.  1).  17.VV17.17. 

BLACK  PRINCE,  The  wart  of  the.  See 
I'oiTlKlis;  Franck:  .\.  I),  1360-13W);  and  SPAIN 
(CA^Tii.K):  A.  1)    i;m<H3ll9. 

BLACK  ROBE,  Couatcllort  of  the.  See 
VlNHK:  A.  D.  1IK)S-1319. 

BLACK  ROD.—"  The  gentleman  whose  duty 
it  is  to  preserve  decorum  in  tlie  House  of 
I/inN.  Just  as  it  is  the  duty  of  the  Hergeontat- 
Km\s  to  maintain  onler  in  the  House  of  t'om- 
miihK  These  otHclnls  are  bound  to  execute  the 
conimandi  of  their  respective  cliamliers.  even 
tlii>U):li  the  task  Involves  the  foreilile  ejection  of 
snotwiri'iicrousniemN'r.  .  .  .  Hls|Hliick  Itxia) 
must  disturbing  i«x'ii|)nlion,  now  aiiays.  is  when 
lie  conveys  a  nie»j<,ige  fnim  the  l-ords  to  the 
t'omnioiis.  .  .  .  .\(,  siH>uiT  do  the  [Kilieemen 
lieralil  his  appnituh  fniin  the  loblili's  than  the 
il'iorsof  the  Ixiwir  ('haniU-r  are  elomil  against 

liire    r.n.!    !;;--    i=   r.-.n-.pjl^i    t,>  »,;!;    f„f   a,!lSli-ii.-a 

Willi  Iseoming  liiimiilty  and  humhlenrai.  After 
this  has  been  granted,  he  advouect  to  the  bar. 


l>ow8  to  the  chair,  and  then  —  with  repeated  acta 
of  olit'isance  —  walks  slowly  to  the  table,  where 
his  request  is  made  for  the  Speaker's  altim  lance 
Ih  the  L'pi»r  House.  The  object  may  be  to  listen 
to  the  Queen's  speech,  or  it  may  simply  be  to 
hear  the  itoyal  assent  given  to  various  bills.  .  .  . 
The  conse(juence  is  nearly  always  the  same. 
'.  e  Sergeunt-at- Anns  shoulders  the  mace,  the 
Speaker  joins  Black  Rod,  the  mcmliers  fall  in 
behind,  and  a  more  or  less  orderly  procession  then 
starts  on  its  way  to  tlio  Peer's  Chamber.  .  .  . 
No  matter  what  the  subject  under  consideration. 
Black  Rod's  appearance  necessitiUes  a  check  .  .  . 
till  the  journey  to  tlie  Lonls  has  been  completed, 
The  annoyance  thus  caused  has  often  found  ex- 
fessioii  diiriug  recent  sessions." — i'o)iuiar  Ae- 
:  unt  of  Purliaimiitarv  I'metdure,  p.  11. 

BLACK  ROOD,  of  Scotland.  See  Uolt 
Rood  ok  Si  othsd. 

••BLACK  WARRIOR,"  The  case  of  the. 
Bee  CuiiA  :  A.  U.  ItiSO. 

BLACKBURN'S  FORD,  EnraKement  at. 
See  United  States  or  Ak.  :  A.  l7.  1861  (July: 
Viroinia). 

BLACKFEET.  SeeAsiEitiCAN  Adohioikes: 
Ul.vckkkkt. 

BLAOENSBURG,  Battle  of.  Sec  Tnited 
States  OF  Am.  :  A.  U.  1814  (Ai!oi;st— Ski'tkm- 

IIEII). 

BLAIR,  Francis  P.,  Sr.,  in  the  "Kitchen 
Cabinet "  of  President  Jackton.  See  L'nitku 
States  OK  Am.  :  A.  1)    1829. 

BLAIR,  General  FrancisP.,Ir.— Difficulties 
with  General  Fremont.     See  L'mtkd  .■'T.itks 


1801  (AfoL'sT— Octoukk:  .Mis- 
oC 


or  Am.  :   A.  D. 

SOUKI). 

BLAKE,  Admiral    Robert,  Victories 
See  Knoi.anh:  A.  I)   l«.Vi-lil.-)4. 

BLANC,  LOUIS,  Industrial  scheme  of. 
See  S»( m.  .MovEMKNT-:  A.  I)    ["lil-lsis. 

BLANCO,  General  Guiman,  Thedictator< 

•hip  of.      See  Vknizi-hf  A  :  A.   l>.  lHli!l-lMIJ 

BLAND  SILVER  BILL,  The.  S.c1;mii£D 
SlATliS  (IK  All.:  A.  1).  1878. 

BLANKETEERS,  The.  See  EsoLANn: 
A.  1).  1810-lH-.'l». 

BLENEAU,  Battle  of  (1653).  SeeFuANiK: 
A.  1).  l(V>l-lil.">.t 

BLENHEIM,  Battle  of.  See  UKiiM.vvr: 
A.  I).  I7in 

BLENNERHASSET,  Harman,  and  Aaron 
Burr.  See  L'.NiricD  firATKHor  Am.  :  .\  I)  I'^iMt- 
1807. 

BLENNERHASSLTT'S  ISLAND.- An 
Islanil  in  the  Ohio,  near  Mariettji.  on  tvltii  li  ll.ir- 
inan  Illennerliaisi'lt.  n  geullenuui  Iroui  In  I  mil. 
had  creatitl  a  eliannlng  home,  ut  tlie  l>' ;iiiiiliii; 
of  the  present  eentiiry.  He  wa.s  drawn  iuio 
Aamn  llurr's  mysterious  aebeiiie  (wf  I'MTKn 
Statkh  ok  Am.  :  A  1>.  1806-1807):  his  Island  lie- 
eame  the  rendezvous  of  the  ex|H'dition.  and  he 
«aa  involved  in  the  ruin  of  the  tnason.lile  pri- 
ject. 

BLOCK  BOOKS.  See  I'hintino  A  I> 
14311-1  l.V! 

BLOCK  ISLAND,  The  oame.  See  Nkw 
YmiK    .\    l>,  HllO-lrtl4. 

BLOCKADE,  Paper.— This  t<Tin  lias  Nen 
applii'il  toihe  Mssuinplion  liya  lielliKeri::!  power. 
In  war.  of  (he  ri.'ht  lo  ihclari'  a  givii  roust  or 

vrrtrtl-i    .-iHiHi-i:-.!*-!    J---FH.  !-•    'v    i'i    Piv   -Hit-'.f 

hliH-kuili'.  wlllioiit  actual  presi'iiee  of  l.lm  bailing 
squailroiia  to  euluns  the  declaration;  lu  by  lue 

'.•3 


p.  m 


(■  ■ 


BLOCKADE. 

^^fMilP'^^  •"  Council. "and  the  " Berlin- 
s' ITiJS^  P*"^    °'.  N«P«'«>n.  In  18(»-1807. 

Hf  oV5°T'"*Tf°',^  =  A.  D.  1804-1809. 
15M  Treatlei  of.    See  Italy  :  A.  D.  1501- 

BLOOp   COUNCIL,    The.    See  Netii«ii 
LANDx:  A.  D  1887  riiTHKii- 

_;;^0£D  AND  IRON"  SpMck  of  Bl.. 
ti»rtk.    See  Oekxabt  :  A.  D.  1861-l8fl« 

«,?i;°°°y    ^^'H.LE-    The.  To    UK.TED 

A."a'?S?r8.^S.  ^''-  ^  ^-'^- 

E±5Po°IS"i°6?5'''^""<>'     «-NKW 
BLOODY   MARSH.  The   BatUe  of  the. 

Bee  Qboroia;  A.  D.  1788-1748 
BLOREHEATH   Battle  of  (A.  D.  1450). 

-Fought  on  a   plain  called   Blorehcath.  near 

V  t^l^  Dudley,  and  about  half  that  number  of 
Yorkists  under  the  Earl  of  Salisbury.  See  En" 
lAsn  ,  A.  I>.  14.W-1471.  ' 

BLOCKER'S  CAMPAIGNS.  See  O.b. 
MINT;  A.  D.  1806  (OcTOBKU):  1812-1813;  1813 
OVlllIL  — Mat)  to  (OCTOIlKIl  — I)KtEliBER)- 
FkaKO:   A.   O.    1814  W.-..UAHT-MABCH).    ,^d 

.n^""A%",fejsr"""-  '^''^•-"'- 

BLUE    LICKS,  Battle  of  (A.  D.   178a). 

Sw  kKNTlTKV:  A.  D.   1775-1784  '     ' 

BLUE-LIGHT   FEDERALISTS. -"  An 

nciilcnt,  rtal  ,.r  imapiuary,  which  Im.l  Uu-iy  fin 
181J]   wrurrtHl  at   New   London  IConnectlcitl 
wna  aeiied  upon  a.  additional  pnxij  of  collusion 
between  the  FedemlisU  and  the  etieniv       Ifk-c 
iNiTKD  State*  or  Am.:  A.  D.  181^1"   As  the 
winter  approached.  Decatur  hail  vximtni  to  gel 
to  «•«  wftb  his  two  frigate..     Vexe,(  l„  timl  hHn- 
•cir  thwarted  In  every  attempt  by  thr;  wiitchfu! 
nesa   of   the   enemy,   he   wrote   to  the    Nav 
Department  In  a  fit  of  dlagu.t,  that,  h,.you.l  ull 
■  •.il.t   the  British  had,  by  signals  or  otiirrwiw 
i^H  ant4iniH)UB  Information  of  all  his  movcmenu, 
and  as  pr.K,f  of  It,  be  suu.l  that,  after s^.v.rai 
niffhui  of  favorable  weather,  the  report  eln-iilnt 
nif  ill  the  town  that  an  attempt  was  to  lie  mmle 
W'  get   out.   'In  the  course  of  the  eveniiiR  two 
Mue  lighi.s  were  burned  on  boUi  p<iinu  of  the 
lmrl«.r»  mouth/    These  -signal,  to  the  en.mv,' 
for  .uch  he  unhesitatingly  prououn.i.l  th.ni  hail 
l«ei.  re,R.ate<l,  „,  ho  wrote,  and  lia.1  Ixmi.  «, „ 

though  it(lo4Tinot  appear  that  Decatur  hlnmir 
wiuonrof  the  number  .  .  .  Such  a.h.mor  wh,, 
ruiiKd  aN.iit  it,  Uiat  one  of  the  CunHertiiut 
meml».rs  of  Congress  mored  for  a  o>i,„„lttee 
of  iuv.stlgutlon.  ...  The  Inquiry  was 
quashrd,  but  the  story  sprea<l  and  grew,  ami 
the  more  v.-liement  onnonenui  of  the  war  began 
to  Ih.  MigmaliiH  as  'blue  light  Fetlerali        ' 


BCEOTIA. 


.BLUE  PARTV  (of  VenesaeU)" The 


Bee 
Bee 


VBNi.il  KI.A.  A    I)    I8afl-'l88a. 
BLUE  RIBBON,  The  Order  of  the 

BIHAI'tllM 

BLUES,  Roman  Patlioo  of  the.    See  Um 
vm,  Factior.  or  TBE  lioiiAji. 


2P4 


S^in.    See  Spain:  A  D.  1478-141(2. 

^^  BOADICEA,  Rerolt  ot    See  BRrrAW :  A.  D. 

-9^"*^',  .The.- A    "Cow-lord,"   having 

BOARIAN  TRIBUTE,  The.-Also  oiiled 

exaction     said     to    have    been    levied    on   Ihi 
province  of  Leinster  by  a  King  Tuathal  of  Erin 

'"iSSi/"''  fi*"  hundred  years. 

BOCAGE.  The.    See  Fua.nce:  A.  I)    170a 
(Mahcii— Aphii,).  '"*' 

BODLEi'AV^>?°l'^*''°-     ^'"^'■""■ 

iS'o¥A'^^Hs'^''s^;"^rTrAAr;';^. 

BCEOTIA.  -  B(EOTIANS   -  "i;;tweer 
Phokis  and  Lokris  on  one  side,  snd  Attica  (from 

and  Pames)  on  the  otfier.  we  Bnd  the  im,K,rtaiit 
territory  called  Bofotla.  with  its  u^n  or  nv,™* 
RUtonomou.  cities,  forming  a  sort  of  confederacy 
under  the  presidency  of  Thelies.  the  most  power 
ful  among  them.  Even  of  this  territory 
dost  ned  during  the  second  period  of  this  liistorv 
to  play  a  part  so  conspicuous  and  effertive  w'c 

7?«"n"^    '"vg ''!.'''"» ''"'  *™'  »*"  '^'""rics  after 
77B  U.  L.     We  first  acquire  some  insight  into  It 
on    wcaslon  of    the  disputes    between  Thebes 
and  Plabea.  alKiut  the  year  530  B.  C.'-O  tJrote 
iM     of   Untct    pi.    2,    eh.    8. -In    the  Greek 
legendary  peruKl  one  part  of  this  territory  sub- 
sequently  Iki-otian- the  Copaic  valley  "in   the 
north-  was  <K-cupled  by  the  enterprising  ,„,,ple 
called  the  .Mmyl,  wliiwc  chief  city  wu.h  (irelio- 
meuus.     Their  neighbors  were  the  Cadriuians of 
Thebes,  who  aro  "rich,"  as  Orote  expr.s,v«  it 
in     legemlarv     amiouitles."      The     npuUni 
founder  of  Thebmi  was  Cadmus,  bring,  r  of  llttoni 
to  Hellas,  fmm  Phcenicia  or  from  Egypt  «,  ,„ni 
Ing     to    dilTerent     represenutlons.       lii„i,v.u« 
nijicchus)  and  U<>n«kl(>s  were  both  8unp„*;i  to 
ncognlie  the  Cadmelan  dtv  as  their  birth  place 
The   terrible   legends  of    ftldipu,  «„,i  Ui\  „„! 
happy  family  connect  Uiomselves  with  llir  wme 
place    and   the   incident  wars  between    IIuIk's 
anil  Argc*.  — the  aasaulta  of  the  sevni  Ar^'lre 
elil,  fj  and  of  tlieir  suns,   the   Epi^imi  -  xeir 
perliiips.  real  causes  of  a  real  destruction  of  the 
power  of  some  race  fur  whom  the  Caiirn.laus 
stand.      They  ami  their  neighlHirs,  (lie  Miiivl  of 
Oreliomeuus.  iipinar  to  have  given  way  li-fore 
another  |«i,ple.    fn,m  Thesaaly,    who  gave  Uie 
name  Bipotia  to  the  country  of  Niih  and  who 
Were  the  liihabilant.  of  the  Thel-t  of  hi»torii 
llnies.— a.  (Jrote,  IlitI  of  Urefft,  ,.t   1    rh    14  — 
h   t-iirtlus.  Ilirt  „f  llrttn.  bk.  1,  eh  4  -■That 
the  Birotla  of  hisUiry  should  never  have  altalneil 
to  a  slgnlHeanee  corre.puoding  to  the  nalursl 
advantages  nf  the  locality,  and  to  the  nnwin'rity 
of  llHi  ilislricl   in   t;i,.   pr,.  Homeric  age.  U  due 
at»ve  all  to  one  priiieiiial  eauw.     The  iinnilgrs 
tion  of  the  Theasalimi  Ikeotianx.  fnim  whiih  the 
country  derived  its  name  and  tiM   l*ginniniji  of 
.•„,""'!"'*■''■''     ''i*tory.    desln.yni    the    1  arlier 
civilisation  of  the   laud,  withoiil   niKnriliiig  hi 
esUbllshiiig  a  new  eiviiiiatiou  capable  if  eoo- 
ducting  the  entln'  district  to  a  pn«|«Toii«  and 
harmonious  development.     It  caniml  la-  wtid  that 
the  ancient  eeniis  i:f  f.!l!:;ri!  -.x-.k.  i,.,..!.!--^.-!  ^if 
tlwt  liurlwMua  times  suixrviuiil      Vhe  siii-ieBl 
s«au  of  the  guUs  aud  uraules  cootioued  lo  to 


BdOTIA. 


BOHEUIA,  ISSS. 


boDOured  ud  the  ancient  featlTali  of  the  Muiei 
on  Mount  Helicon,  and  of  the  Cliarite*  at 
Orchomenoi,  to  be  celebrated.  In  Bceotia  too 
the  beneficent  influence  of  Delphi  was  at  work, 
and  the  poetic  scliuul  of  Hesiod,  connected  aa  it 
wu  with  Delphi,  long  maintained  Itielf  here. 
And  s  yet  stroczer  ncUnation  waa  displayed  by 
the  i£olian  immiEr  <ta  towards  music  and  lyric 
poetry.  Theculttv  .ilon  of  the  musicof  the  flute 
was  encouraged  by  the  excellent  reeds  of  the 
Copaic  morasses.  This  was  the  genuinely 
national  species  of  music  in  BorotU.  .  .  .  And 
yet  the  B<Botians  lacked  the  capacity  for  attract- 
ing to  themselves  the  earlier  elements  of  popula- 
tion in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  about  a  happy 
am»lgitmation.  .  .  .  The  B<Botian  lorda  were  not 
murb  preferable  to  the  Tbesaalian;  nor  was 
there  any  reeion  far  or  near,  inhabited  by  Qreek 
trilies.  which  presented  a  haiaher  contrast  in 
culture  or  manners,  than  the  district  where  the 
roail  led  from  the  Attic  side  of  Mount  Pamea 
acmas  to  the  Bootian. "— E.  Curtlua,  But.  of 
Orott.  bk.  fl,  <A.  1. — See,  also,  Orebce:  Tbs 

MiO  RATIONS. 

BOEOTIAN  LEAGUE.— "The  old  Boeotian 
Lcairuo,  as  far  as  its  outward  forms  went,  seems 
to  h,Hve  been  fairly  entitled  to  the  name  of  a 
Federal  Government,  but  in  its  whole  history  we 
trace  little  more  than  the  gradual  advance  of 
Thebes  to  a  practical  supremacy  over  the  other 
cities.  .  .  .  The  common  Kovernment  waa  carried 
00  in  the  name  of  the  whole  Bceotian  nation.  Ita 
miw:  iiiipr>rt«iit  magistrHtvs  bore  the  title  of  Btso- 
tarili'i;  tlicir  exact  number,  II  or  13,  is  a  dis- 
piiriil  |)iii  ii  .  .  .  Tlicbvs  chose  two  Boeotarcha 
ami  II.  Ii  iif  the  other  cities  one." — E.  A.  Free- 
man.///«(   ■/  h'llfnU  (tort.,  rh.  4.  »«/.  3. 

BOERMAAVE,  and  humoral  pathology. 
See  Ml  111.  .41,  SciKNCK  :   ITxii  Ck.nturt. 

BOERS,  Boar  War.  Hee  Sodtb  Anuca: 
A.  D.  18(»-1881. 

BOGDANIA.    Bee  BjiLKan  aro  DaxtmiAH 

STATKS.  UTII-15TB  CKMTURtKSdiOUMAKIA,  ETC.) 

BOGESUND,  Battle  of  (ism).  See  Scan- 
WHAViAN  .Statks;  a.  D.  13l>7-152r. 

BOCOMILIANS,  Th*  .'.  religious  sort 
which  arose  among  tb  I'ans  of  Thrace 

and    Bulgaria,    in    the  century,   and 

iuffeted  persecution  in.  ludox  of  the 

Greek   church.     They    ».  ..«!   with    the 

IcoonclasU  of  former  timi  were  hostile  to  tlio 
adoration  of  the  Virgin  and  sainu,  and  took 
more  or  leas  from  the  heretical  doctrines  of  the 
Psullolsns.  Tliiir  name  Is  derived  by  some  from 
the  two  8claviinian  worda,  "Bog,  signifying 
Ood,  itnd  "'mllui,"  "have  mercy.  Othen  say 
that  "  Bogumll,"  meaning  "one  beloved  by  Ood. 
wss  the  correct  designation.  Basilios,  the  leader 
of  the  Bugomllians,  was  burned  bv  the  Emperor 
Alexius  Comaenos,  in  the  bippoifrume,  at  Con- 
stantinople, A.  D.  lUA— O.  Finlav,  Ili$t.  »f  th» 
HuturtUiu  and  Orttk  Smptnt.  71»-1453,  Mr.  S, 
tJt.  i.  mrl.  I— See  Balkan  ANt»  Dani-bian 
8t»ii.,i«    t)Tii-ieTR  Crntcrikk  (Bosnia,  ktc.) 

BOGOTA,  The  fouadincof  the  city  (1538). 
8e.  (  OLOMBUN  Htatbs;  A.I)   1,M«-IT31. 

BOHEMIA,  Dcrivatioa  of  the  iwma.    See 

B<>I\M«. 

Its  people  sad  their  early  hiitery.— "  What- 

r'lT  may  be  the  i!)fer>nces  from  th-  fact  of 
l;<iin  uiU  having  been  polltlcallv  connected  with 
llie  eiiipira  of  iho  Oennanic  Marcomaonl. 
wUtever  may  be  thuae  from  tbm  elemaat  Boio-, 


M  coonectlng  ita  population  with  the  Boil  of 
Gaul  and  Bavaria  (Baiovaril),  the  doctrine  that 
the  present  Slavonic  population  of  that  king- 
dom—Tshekhs  [or  Czekhs]  as  they  call  them- 
selves—  Is  either  recent  in  origin  or  secondary  to 
any  German  or  Keltic  aboriginea,  is  wholly 
unsupported  bv  history.  In  other  words,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  historical  period  Bohemia  was 
as  Bktvonic  as  it  la  now.  From  A.  D.  526  to 
A.  D.  S50,  Bohemia  belonged  to  the  great  Tbur- 
ingian  Empire.  The  notion  that  it  was  then 
Oennanic  (except  in  ita  political  relations)  is 
gratuituua  Nevertheless,  Schattarik's  account 
is,  that  the  ancestors  of  the  present  Tshekhs 
came,  probably,  from  White  Croatia:  which 
waa  either  north  of  the  Carpathians,  or  each  side 
of  tliem.  According  to  other  writers,  however, 
the  parts  above  the  river  Eulpa  in  Croatia  sent 
them  forth.  In  Bohemian  the  verb  'cetl'='to 
begin,'  from  which  Dobrowakv  derives  the  name 
Czekhs  =  the  beginners,  the  foremost,  i.  e.,  the 
Ilrst  Slavoniana  who  passed  westwards.  The 
powerful  Samo,  the  just  Krok,  and  hia  daughter, 
the  wise  Libussa,  the  founder  of  Prague,  oegin 
the  uncertain  Uat  of  Bohemian  kings,  A.  D.  634- 
700.  About  A.  D.  722,  a  number  of  petty  chiefs 
become  united  under  P'remyal  the  nusband  of 
Libusaa.  Under  his  son  Xezamysl  occura  the  first 
Constitutional  Assembly  at  Wysegrad ;  and  in 
A.  D.  848,  Christianity  was  Introduced.  But  it 
took  no  sure  footing  till  about  A.  D.  960.  Till 
A.  D.  1471  the  names  of  the  Bohemian  king* 
and  heroes  are  Tahekh  —  Weoeeslaus,  Ottoluir, 
Ziska,  Podiebrad.  In  A.  D.  1564,  the  Austrian 
connexion  and  the  process  of  Oernianiziiig  tiegan. 
.  .  .  The  history  and  ethnology  of  Moravia  ia 
nearly  that  of  Bohemia,  except  that  the  Mar- 
romannic  Qermuns,  the  Turks,  Huns,  Avars, 
and  other  less  important  populations  mar  have 
effected  a  greater  amount  of  Ind  rmtxturo. 
Both  populations  are  Tshekli,  speuking  the 
Tsliekh  language — the  language,  probably,  of 
the  ancient  Quadi." — R.  O.  I.,atbam,  Sthnology 
0/  Burom,  eh.  11. 

7th  Century.— The  Yoke  of  the  Avar* 
broken.— The  Kingdom  of  Samo.  See  Avars: 
7tii  Cextikt. 

^th  Century,— Subject  to  the  Moraviaa 
Kingdom  of  STatopluk.    .Sec  Moravia.    Oti 

CKNTfHV. 

13th  Ccntuiy.- The  King  made  a  Germanic 
Elector.    SeeOBRMAMT.  A    I)  11?.1-1!!7a. 

A.  D.  1276.— War  of  King  Ottocar  with 
the  Emperor  Rodolph  of  Hapsburg.— Hia  de- 
feat and  death.  See  Ai;stria:  A.  D.  1246- 
Vixi. 

A.  D.  1310.— Acquisition  of  the  crews  by 
John  of  Luxembourg.  See  OcaMAirr:  A.  D. 
law- 181 3. 

A.  D.  1347.— Charles  IV.  elected  to  the  In- 

ferial  throne.    See  Obrmaht:    A.    D.    1847- 
4t)». 

A.  D.  1355.— The  iuccesiion  fiaed  ia  the 
Luxemburg  dynaaty.— Incorporation  of  Mo- 
ravia, Silesia,  ftc— The  dirt  of  the  nobles,  in 
13.VI,  Joined  ('harles  IV,  In  "fixing  the  order  of 
sui'ct'ssliin  III  the  ilynastr  of  Luxemburg,  and  in 
delinltely  establlsliing  that  principle  of  primo- 
geniture which  liatt  alreaily  been  the  custom  in 
the  Premvslide  dynaitv  MnraTta,  f.'.'.i-sin, 
Upper  Lusalia,  Brandenburg,  which  had  been 
arquirad  from  the  margrave  Otto,  and  the 
oouaty  of  OloU  (Kladiko),  with  the  oooaeat  ol 


295 


I  '^S|  "  "^5'  F 


ll;l 


DOHEMU,  1*55. 


JoXn  Hui. 


BOHEMIA,  1405-1415. 


Uie  (lieu  of  these  provinces,  were  Utclared  In- 
tegral nnd  inalienable  portions  of  the  Itingdom 
of  Bohinnia.  — L.  Leger,  Uitl.  of  Auttro-nun- 
gary,  rh.  11. 

A.  p.  1364.— RcTcrsion  of  the  crown  piar- 
anteea  to  the  House  of  Austria,  See  Aus- 
TRU:  A.  D.  1330-1384. 

A.    p.    1378-1400.— Imperial    election    and 
A ''l°"l347  1493        "'"'""■     ***    Germany: 
I    A.    D.    Mos-Mij.-john    Hus,    and    the 
moTement  of  Religious  Reformation.— "Some 
sparks  of  the  lire  whicli  Wiolif  li:iil  lighted  faee 
Enuland:  A.  I).    13«0-1414],   l.hnvii  over  half 
Europe,  as  fnras  remote  Bohemia,  iiuirkeiied  into 
stronper  artivliy  a  flame  which  for  l-mg  years 
l)urm-;l  and  scorched  and  consumed,  dcfyinjr  all 
effcirts  to  c.xtinKuish  it.     But  for  all  this,  it  was 
not  Wicllf   who    kindled    the   Bohemian  fires 
His  writing  did   much    to  fan  and  fee.1  them; 
while    the    assumed    and    in    part    errrmeously 
Msumed,   idonlity  of  his  teaching  with  tliat  of 
Hus  tontnbutiil  not  a  little  U>  .shape  the  tragid 
tasues  of  the  Bohemian  reformer's  life.     But  the 
Bohemian  movement  was  an  indeiwndent    and 
eniinentlv  a  national  one.     If  we  look  for  the 
proper    forerunners    of    Hus,  his  true  spiritual 
ancestors,  we  shall  find  them  in  his  own  land   in 
a  succession  of  earnest  and  faithful  preachers 
.  .      John    Hus    (b.    1389,  d.  1415),  the  central 
Ogurc  of  the    Bohemian    Reformation,  took   in 
the  year  1394  his  degree  as  Baihelor  of  Theo- 
logy ill    lliat  Iniversity  of    Prague,   upon   the 
fortiiiii-s  of  wiiiih  he  was  destiniil  to  exercise  so 
hwtiiig    an  inlluencc;  and  four   years  later    in 
13«H,  he  Ixgan  to   deliver  lectures  there    ' 
He  siM)n  signNllz..d  himself  by  his  diligence  in 
breaking  the  briml  of  life  to  hungering  souls  and 
his  boldness  in  relmking  vice  in  high  places  as  in 
low.     So  long  OH  he  confined  himst^lf  to  reproving 
the  sins  of  the  l.iity,  Ic      ..g  those  of  the  Clergy 
and  monks  una.s.-ail<Hi,  ,.,:  found  little  »p|)osition 
nay.  rather    support  and   applause   from  thesi'' 
Hut  w  lien  [\i»:,]  he  brought  them  also  within  the 
circle  of  hm  eoiiilemnation,  and  began  to  upbraid 
theiu  forllinrcovetousness,  tluir  umbition,  their 
luxury,   their  sloth,  and   for    other   vices    tliey 
turneil  angrily  upon  him,  and  sought  to  under- 
mine his  authority,  everywhere  s|madiug  reports 
of  the  uiihouudtiess  of  his  teaching    .         V,M\e 
matters  were   in  t  '»  strnined  ciiidition  events 
took  place  at   I'rsg.ie  which  ar.'  ti  .  elom'lv  con- 
nected with  the  Ktorv  th»,  we  nri' tilling"  e.ver- 
cised   tiHi  great  «n   iiirt..eiice  in  briiigiiig'abo„t 
the  Issues  that  lie  U-for.'  us.  to  allow  us  -o  pass 
them    by     .       .    Tlie     University    of    }'ngw. 
though  nrently  founded  —  it  only  dateii  liaek  to 
tlieyear  1348— was    now,  next    after    those  of 
I'aris  and  ( ixfoni,  the  moat  illustrious  in  Europe 
This  l-niversity,  like  that  of  I'aris,  on  tliu 
pattern  of    which    It    bad   been  m0dell.1l,  was 
diviiledintofour'nations'— four  groups  that  is 
or  families  of  k  Iml.rs  —  each  of  these  having  iii 
academical     alTiiirs    a    single     col|o,tiv,.    vote 
These  nations  wen'  the  navarlin,  the  .Sixon   the 
PolHh.  and  tin-  Bohemian.     This  dis's  not  appear 
at  first    an    unfair  division -two  (iemmn  and 
two  Slavonic;  but  In  practical  working  Jie  Polish 
was  so  largely  reeriilled  from  Hllesia,  and  other 
Oi'rnian  or  half  (Jerman  lands,  that  Its  vote  was 
n  t:ut  Oerm^i..  si,„,     Tl.-r  Trutr.ni.    voU»  were 
thus  as  three  to  one,  and  the  llohenilans  In  their 
own  Uad  and   their  uwa  I'Divenit/  un  trtrj 


296 


mportant  matter  hopelessly  outvoted.    When 
by  aid  of  this  preponderance,  the  University  wm 
made  to  condemn  the  teaching  of  Wiclif 
matters  came  to  a  crisis.     Urged  by  Hus  who 
as  a  stout  patriot,  and  an  earnest  lover  of  the 
Ilohemmn  language  and  literature,  had  more  than 
a  theohigicai  interest  in  the  matter,—  bv  .leronie 
lof  Prague],— by  a  Urge  numlier  of  flie  IJoho- 
niian    nobility,- King    Wenzel    publish.,!   ,„ 
edict    whereby    the    relations   of    nativ.s   a„d 
foreigners    were    completely    revenwd.      'fliere 
should  be  henceforth  three  votes  for  the  liohe 
mian  nation,  and  only  one  for  the  three  others 
buch  a  shifting  of  the  weights  certainly  aippean 
as  a  reiirossing  of  one  inequality   bv  . riming 
another.  .' i  all  events  it  was  so  earnestly  resf  ntij 
by    the    Germans,  by    professors    anil  stuilints 
alike,  that  they  quitted  the  University  in  a  IkhIv 
some  aav  of  five,  and  some  of  thirty  thousand  and 
founded  the  rival  University  of  hipsjc  l,,,vini 
no  more  than  two  thousand  students  at  I'riigue 
»uli  of  indignation  against    Hus,    whom    tliev 
rsgarde<l  as  the  prime  author  of  this  affront  and 
wrong,  they  spread  throughout  all  Gernianv  the 
moat  unfavourable  reporUof  him  and  of  his  ti"ach- 
Ing.     Thiaeicxiua  of  the  foreigners  hail  left  Hus 
who  was  now  Rector  of  the  Unlversitv,  with  a 
freer  field  than  before.     But  Church  matters  at 
Prague  did  not  mend;  they  became  nior.^  om- 
fused  and  threatening  every  day;  until  prewnlly 
theahamcful  outrage  againstali  Christian  nioraliiv 
which  a  century  later  did  a  still  more  elL-ciuiil 
work,  served  to  put  Hus  Into  open  opiKwiti.m  to 
^e  corrupt  hierarchy  of  his  time,     hw  .iohn 
XXIII.,  having    a  quarrel    with    the    King  .if 
Naples,  proclaimed  a  crusade  against  him   wiili 
what  had  liecome  a  c.mstant  accompaiiini.  nt  of 
this,-- Indulgences  (o  match.     But  to.l,Ti,„in.e 
Indulgences,  as  Hus  with  fierce  and  rigl,i,„ii8 
iniiignation  did  now,  was  to  wound  K.mie  in  h.r 
most  sensitive  part,     lie  wnsexcommiinicai.-.Ut 
once  and  every  place  which  shoiil.l  harbour  him 
stricken  with  an  iiitenllct.     While  matt,  rs  were 
In  this    frame    the    Council  of    Constanc  [•<,.• 
Papacy:  A.  I>.  1414-141**]   was  opem.l    wl.i.h 
should  appciise  all  the  troubles  of  Christen.l,.m 
and  correct  what.ver  was  amiss.     The  Holninmn 
dllHculty  could   ii.it    Ik-  omitteil,  ami    Hus  ».« 
summoned  to    nnike    answer    at   Coiisiin.'.'  f..r 
himself.     He    h.i.l  not  been    there    four  nirlis 
when  he  was  rii|uired  to  appear  Ih  fore  Ih.'  I'niie 
andCanliiials(.Nov.  18,1414).    AfKra  l.iief  ii.lor- 
mal  hearing  he  was  commilted  to  harsh  .luran.-e 
from  whicli  he  never  issmil  as  a  fri'e  nmn  ai;iiln 
NIgismund,    the    German    King    and    Knii'.rnr 
Elect,  who  had   furnlshe.l   Hus  with  .1  sau  iim- 
duct  which  shoul.l  protect  him.   'g  .ing  l.ithe 
Council,  larrjingat  the  "oiineil,  returning' fp.ra 
the  Council,' was  abs«'nt   'r.mi  Con«t«riie  aiihe 
time,  and  lieani  with  real  displeasure  lio»  lithllr 
regarded  this    prmilse  and    pledg.'  of  hi-  \v.vl 
Iwen.     Home  big  wonls  Urn  he  spoke,  tlir.  .1.  ning 
to  come    IdmM'ir    and  releiuie    the    pri-, mr  t>y 
force;  but,  being    wait<sl    on    bv  a  il.  pui.iiii.ii 
from  the   Count  II,  who  represen'tnl  to  l.ini  I'lst 
h.',  asa  lavnian.  In  giving  •uch  a  saf.- ...n.liict 
had  exrenled  his    |«iweni.  and    inlruii..!  intns 
region  which  was  not  bis.  ,Sigisniuii.l   was  .vn- 
vinMil.  or  affected  to  be  convliieed.         .   Mere 
than  seven    nionlhs   ehipmsl    I  ..tor.'  H>i<  e.mlil 
obtain  a  ln'arlng  liefon'  the  C 11  il      Thin  «w 

S ranted  to  him  nt  last      Thrice  heanl  (June  S,  7, 
.  1418),— if  indcud  such  tumultuary   nittiiigt 


rOHEHIA,  1405-1419. 


VMorUa  at  tU 
Humttm. 


BOHEMIA,  1419-1434. 


«bcn  the  man  inMiking  for  his  life,  and  for 
miic'b  more  Uum  his  life,  wua  cimtioually  inter- 
•n]iied  and  overborne  by  hmtile  voicfs.  by  Idud 
1  '".eti  of  '  Recant,'  '  Kecant,'  may  be  reckoned  aa 
hcHriiigs  at  all, —  he  bore  himself,  by  tlic  cnn- 
frssinn  of  all,  with  ciuiraf^e,  mcelineiu  and 
ilipnity."  He  refuned  to  recant.  Some  of  the 
Hrticlc'S  brought  agalnnt  him.  he  uid,  "rhnrgcd 
liim  with  teaching  thhijn  whic  li  he  had  never 
tHii^ht,  and  he  could  not,  by  tliis  formal  act  of 
retraction,  admit  that  he  had  tavight  tlicin."  He 
was  condemned,  sentenced  '»  tlie  stake,  and 
Immed,  on  the  8th  of  July,  41i5.  His  friend, 
Jerome,  of  Prague,  suffernl  tlie  siime  fate  in  the 
following  May. —R.  C.  Trench,  Leelt.  on  Mediaeval 
Chunk  llttlory.  leet.  22. 

Also  in:  E.  H.  Gillett,  Life  and  timet  of  John 
Hut. — A.  H.  Wratiilaw,  John  Hut. — A.  Neander, 
Oenernl  Hitt.  of  Chrittian  Belif/ion,  t.  Q,  pt.  2. 

A.  D.  1410. — Election  of  King  Sigismund  to 
the  imperial  thron*.  See  Uekxany;  A.  D. 
1347-1493. 

A.   D.   1419-1431.— The    Hnisite    Wars.— 
The  Reformation  checked.— "The  f..ta  of  Hiiaa 
and  Jerome  created  an  instant  and  tierce  excite- 
ment   among    the    BohemUns.      An    addrem. 
defending  them  againit  the  charge  of  heresy  and 
prnte.sting  against  the  injustice  and  barbarity  of 
the  Council,  was  signed  by  400  or  500  nobles  and 
forwarded  to  Constance.    The  only  result  was 
that   the  Council  decreed  that  no  safe-conduct 
could  be  allowed  to  protect  a  heretic,  that  the 
I'nlversity  of  Prague  must  be  reorganized,   and 
tlie  strongest  meaf -ires  applied  to  suppress  the 
HiDwite   doctrines    in    Bohemia.      This    was  a 
(leflance    which    the    Bohemians    courageously 
Hoceptod.     Men  of  all  classes  united  in  proclaim- 
in/'  tliat  the  diKtrincs  of  Huss  sliciuld  be  finely 
taii^lit,   and  tliat  no   Intenlict  of  the  Church 
uliiiulii  lie  enforced:    the  University,  and  even 
W'l  iizeis  queen,  Sophia,  favored  this  movement, 
wliicli  siHHi  l)ecanie  so  powerful  (liat  all  priests 
tt  iio  nf  used  to  administer  the  sacrament  '  in  both 
f.iniis'  were    driven    from    the    churches.  .  ,  . 
When  the  Council  of  ConsUnce  was  dissol  veil 
IMIN],   SIglsmund    [the   Emp»Tor]   liasteiied  to 
Hungary  to  carry  on  a  new  war  with  the  Turks, 
who  were  already  extending    their    conciuests 
iiloiiff    he   Danulio.     The   Hussites  in  Holieniia 
ciii|)loyiHl  this  opiwrtuiiitv   to  organize   tlieni- 
silves   for  resistance:  40.(HX)  of  tliem.  in  July, 
UIH.   aHseniblcd  on  a  mountain  to  whieh  Ihev 
pi>e  the  name  of  Tal)or.    and   chose  as  tliefr  | 
liielir  n  nobleman   who   was  siirnamcd  Ziska.    ! 
Ih.-  oiieeyeil.'    The  excitement  s<«'n   rose  to 
Mi.h    n    piieli    that    severnl    immast,  Hes    were  i 
M..1T1111I  and  plundered.     King  Wenir,  I  arrested   i 
►ome  of  the  ringleaders,  but  tills  only  Inlhinied   I 
liie  spirit  of  the  |«-ople.      They  fomi"<l  a  pro-   i 
(esMon  in  Prague.    marche<l   through  the  citv     I 
(iirrvinir  tlie  saeramenul  cup  at  their  iiead,  and 
I'N.k   foreilile    iHisM'SMJon  of    several    churches 
^\  hill  they  halted  liefon>  the  citv-hall,  to  demand 
the  r.  h'ss,.  of  their  Imprisontif  brethren,  s vmes 
Win-  thrown  at  them  (Mm  the  windows,  wliere- 
iil'"ii  liny  bn.ke  into  the  building  and  hurled 
till-  HurKiimaster  and  six  other  ollleials  umm  the 
uplu  hi  siK'nrs  of  those  Mow.  .      .  Tile  Huss- 
ites^ wen-  nirraily  divided  Into  two  parties,  one 
m:=.:  r,!,.  jii  jj,  ,!,.n,anii5_  (.giij,,)  (j,„  j-„ij^,j,„., 
tn,m  the  Utin  '  calix.'  a  rhsMce,  which  was  their 
«v,i,l».|  [nferrlng  to  their  demand  for  the  ad- 
mhiistr^aon  of  the  eucbarUlic  cup  to  the  laltv 


or  communion   '  sub  utraque   specie '—  whence 
they  were  also  called  '  Utraquisw '] ;    tiic  other 
radical  and  fanatic,  called  the  •Taborites,'  who 
priKluimed  their  separation  from  tlie  Church  of 
Home  and  a  new  system  of  brotherly  equality 
tlin)Ui,'li  which   they  expected   to  establish  the 
.Millenium  upon  earth.     The  exigencies  of  their 
situation  obliged  tiiese  two  parties  to  unite  in 
common  defence  against  the  forces  of  the  Church 
and  the  Empire,  during  the  sixteen  years  of  war 
which    followed:    but    they    always    remained 
separated  in  their  religious  views,  and  niutual'v 
intolerant.      Ziska,    who  called   himself   'John 
Ziska  of  the  Chalice,  commander  in  the  hope  of 
God  of  the  Tabcrites,"  had  been  a  friend  and 
wag  an  ardent  follower  of  Huss.     He  was  un  old 
man,  bald-headed,  she-,  broad-shouldered,  with 
a  deep  furrow  acroij  his  brow,    an  enormous 
aquiline  nose,  and  a  short  red  nioustaclie.      In 
his  genius    for   military    operation  .   he    ranks 
among  the  great  commanders  of  the  world;  his 
quickness,   energy    and    inventive  talent  were 
marvellous,    but    at    the  same  time    11c    knew 
neither    tolerance   nor   mercy.  .  .  .  Sigisniund 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  aware  of  tii .  formid- 
able character  of  the  movr  mcnt,  until  the  end  oC 
his  war  with  the  Turks,  fjme  months  afterwanis, 
and  he  then  perauadcd  ..he  Pope  to  summon  all 
Christendom    to    a    crusade    against    Bohemia. 
During  the  year  1420  a  force  of  100,000  soldiers 
was  collected,  and  SIgismu.nd  marciied  at  their 
head  to  Prague.    The  Hussites  met  !iim  with  the 
demand    for  the  acceptance  of    the    following 
articles:    1.— The   word  of  G'kI   to    be    freely 
preached ;  3.  —  The  sacrament  to  be  adniinistereu 
in   both  forms:    3.— The  clergy   to  posses-  no 
property  or  temporal  authority:  4.— All  sin-,  to 
lie  punished  by  the  proper  authorities,     .sigis- 
niund was  ready  to  accept  these  articles  as  the 
price  of  their  submission,  hut  the  Papal  I.*gate 
fiirbaile  the  «greement.  and  war  followed.     On 
the  1st  c:  Novemlier,  1420,  the  Crusaders  were 
totally  ilefeated  by  Ziska.  and  all  Bohemia  was 
soon   relieved  of  their  pr^icnco.     Tlie  dis,'ute 
between  the  nroderaU-s  and    tlic  radirals  broke 
out  again :  the  idea  of  a  community  of  nni|)erty 
Ik,    n  to  previ.il  among  the  Taborites,  and  most 
of  the  Bohemian  notileii  refuseil  to  act  witli  them. 
Ziska  left  i'ragiic  with  his  tn)ops  and  for  a  time 
devoUKl  himself  to  the  task  of  suppn-ssing  all 
opIMisition  tlirough  the  country,   wiili  lire  and 
swonl.     He   burned   no  hss  tliiin  .V>0  eonvenU 
and  monasteries,  slaying  tlie  priests  and  monks 
who  refused  to  accept  the  new  doelrines.  .  .  . 
While   Ijcaleging  tlie  town  of  Ifciliv,  an  armw 
destroyed  his  remaining  eye,  yet  lie  eoniinued  to 
plan   battles  and  sieges  as  before.      The  very 
name    of    tje    blind    warrior   iK'canie  a  '.error 
throughout  Oennanv.     lu    September,    I4'j|,  a 
second  Crusade  of  Sixi.lHK)  men,  commanded  by 
five  German  Electors,  enlereil  Bohemia  from  tlie 
west.  .  .  .   But  the  blind  Ziska,  nothingdaunted, 
led  his  wagons,  his  Hail  iiien,  and  mucewielders 
against  the  Elittors,  whiwu  insips  Iwgan  to  ily 
iH'fore  them.     No  bittle  was  fought :  tl«!  StH),000 
Crusaders  were  scatU'n-d  In  all  ilireetion.s.  and 
hist   heavily  during  tlieir  ri'treat      Then  Ziska 
wheiled  alKiut  and  niarelied  against  ,sigi»mund, 
who    ,'.a»  late  In  makinir  his  appeamnie      The 
two  nrniies  met  on  ttie  »th  of  January.  I4'.'2  |at 
DeiitM-hbnNi].  and  the   Hussite  victory  was  so 
eiinipleUi  that   the   Emperor  narrowly  eseji|MHl 
falling  into  their  bauda  ...  A  thin)  Cruaads 


2T, 


hi 


3 


l^irt 


fi ,.' 


*1  -"sf 


BOHEMIA,  1419-14S4. 


The  Fr/ormaHo» 
Ckteliwt 


BOHEMIA,  U84-14S7. 


WM  arranged  and  Frederick  of  Brandinbiirg 
(the  Hohenzollem)  wl<>cted  to  comumnd  It,  l,„t 
the  plan  failed  from  lack  of  support.     Tlic  dK 
lensions  among  the  Humltes became  fiercer  than 
ever;    Ziska  was  at  one  time  on  the  point  of 
attai-king  Prague,  but  Uie  leaders  of  the  mo,lcr- 
ate  party   succeeded  in  coming  to  an  under- 
standing with  him,  and  he  altered  the  citv  in 
triumph      In  October,   1424,   while   marcfiing 
against  Duke  Albert  of  Austria,  who  had  invaded 
Moravia,  he  fell  a  victim  to  the  plague.    Even 
after  death  he  continued  to  terrifv  the  German 
•oldiers,   who  believed  that  his  sliin  had    lieen 
iniide    nto  a  drum,  and  still  called  the  Hussites 
to  battle.     A  majority  of  the  Taborites  elected  a 
pncst,  called  Procoplua  the  Great,  as  Uicir  com- 
mander in  Ziska  ■  stead;  the  others  who  thence- 
forth  styled  themselves  '  Orphans,'  united  under 
another    priest,    Procoplus    the    Little.      The 
approach  of  another  Imperial  army,   in  1426 
compelled  them  to  forget  their  differences,  and 
the  result  was  a  splendid   victory  over  their 
enemies.      Procoplus  the  Great   then   invaded 
Austria  and  Silesia,  which  he  laid  waste  without 
mercy.      The    Pope  called   a  fourth  Crusade, 
which  met  the  same  fate  as  the  former  ones:  the 
united  armies  of  the  Archbishop  of  Treves,  the 
ilectnr  Frederick  of  Brandenburg  and  the  Duke 
of  haxony,  aOO.OOll'strong,  were  utterly  defeated 
and  fled  in  disonl.r,  leaving  an  enormous  quan- 
tity of  stores  and  munitions  of  war  in  the  hands 
of  the  Bohemians.    Procoplus,  who  was  almost 
the  equal  of  Ziska  as  a  military  leader,  made 
■ev-ral    unsuccessful    attempu    to    unite   the 
HussiU's  in  one  religious  body.      In  ordc;  tv 
prevent  their  dissensions  from  becoming  danger- 
ous to  the  common  cause,  he  kept  the  soldiers  of 
ail  sects  under  his  command,   and   undertook 
fierce  invasions  into  Bavaria.  Saxony  and  Bnin- 
denburc.  which  made  the  Huiwite  name  a  terror 
to  all  Germany.     During  these  expeditions  one 
hundred  towns  were  destroyeil,  more  than  I  rm 
Tillages  burned,  tens  of  tiiousands  .)f  the  inhabi- 
tanw  slain,  and  such  quantities  of  plunder  col- 
lected that  it  was  impossible   to  tniiisport  the 
whole  of  It  to  Bohemia.     Fmlerick  of  Branden- 
burg and  several  other  princes  were  cuniiwlled 
to  pay   heavy   tributes    to    the    Hussites:    the 
bmpirc  was  thoroughly  humiliateil,  tl.e  neonle 
weary  of  slaughter,  yet  the  1'  .|m-  refiis.'d  even  to 
cal!  a  (  oiineil  for  the  disrusKiou  of  thedilli,  ulty 
.  .  .  The  German  prini'es  made  a  la.staii.!  iles- 
p<Tale  effort :  an  unny  of  130,000  men,  40  ik'MI  .if 
whom    were    cavalry,    was    brought    to/.ether 
under  the  command  of  Knhleriik  of  Branii.ri- 
burjf,  Willie  Allurt  of  Austria  was  to  support  it 
by  invading  IJoheniia  from  the  south.     I'nKn 
pius  and  his  dauntless  Huasilis  nut  the  (  riisiiders 
on  the  I4th  of  August.   Uai,  «t  a  place  called 
rhauss.  and   vmn  another  of  tlieir   marvellous 
victories.     The  Im|icrial  army  was  literallv  cut 
to  pieces,   S.IKIO  wagons,  filled  with  iir.iv[si..ns 
and   iniinitiiins  of  var,  and  I.W  cannmiH    were 
left    upon    the    field.      The  Hussites  nianlied 

northward  to  the  Baltic,  and  eastward  i Hun 

garj-,  burning,  slaying,  and  plundering  as  they 
went,  tven  the  Pope  no\,  yielded,  and  the 
Hussites  were  Invltetl  to  attend  the  Couneil 
at  Basil,  with  the  most  lolemn  stipulations  in 
regard  to  personal  safety  and  a  fair  discussion  of 
their   <n«n,!x  In l^.--.-?.  fiimily  3i)0 Hussites, 

heaile.i  b^  Procoplus,  appeared  in  liasel.     They 


liSii     K  '."'^,'™  "P""  "'''"=''  ""ey  "^  united  in 
J^\   ^1"  ?,'"•■'  Jf"™  ***''»  °'  talk,  during 
which  the  Council  agreed   upon  nothing   «,„| 
primised    nothing,   they  marched  away    after 
stating  that  any  further  negotiation  must  Z 
airried  on  in   Prague.    ThU  course  compelM 
the  Council  to  act:  an  embassy  was  appointed 
which  proceeded  to  Prague,  and  on  the  30th  of 
November,  the  same  year,  concluded  a  tnaty 
with  the  Hussites,      the  four  demands  were 
granted,   but   each  with    a  condition  attache! 
which  gave  the  Chureh  a  chance  to  remin 
lost  power.     For  this  reason,  the  Taborites  an  I 
Orphans    refused  to  accept  the  compact    tlie 
moderate  party    united   wflh    the    nobles   and 
undertook  to  suppress  the  former  by  force      i 
fierce  inu-rnal  war  followe.1,  but  it  was  of  shon 
duration.     In  1434  the  Talmrites  were  defeat 
[at  Lipan,    May   80],    their  fortified    mounlS 
taken,  Procoplus  the  Great  and  the  Little  were 
both  slain,  and  the  membemof  the  sectdispersed 
jhe   Bohemian    Reformation   was  never  airahi 
dangerous  to  the  Church  of  Rome."— B  Tavlnr 
Hut.  ofOermann,  eh.  28.  '     ^     ' 

An^J""-  ?:  ^-  ^^^^-  ^o'^tion  and 
AnUKtfonmtton  in  Bohtmia,  introducluni  eh 

9,  M.  18-18.-E.  de  Schweinltx,  ilit.  oftKiCk 

-  ^;°i,'*?*-'fS2.-Omiiia«tlonof  the  Utra- 
qnitt  NatTon./  Churcli.-Minority  of  Ladit. 
laui  Poathumua.— Rejrency  of  CcotKe  Pod  «I 
,«»"^-OW»  «'tb.  Oniti  Fr.tSS!-'!Th^ 
battio  of  Lipan  was  a  turning  point  In  the  his 

vhi  ir.^)  the  hands  of  the  UtraquisU.  an.l  enabled 
them  to  carry  out  their  plans  unhindered  The 
man  who  was  foremost  in  shaping  eveiiu  auil 
who  became  more  and  more  prominent,  until  he 
exercised  a  commanding  influence,  wb.s  J„\m  of 
Hokycana.  .    At   the  diet  of  1435  he  «,s 

unanimously  elected  archbishop.  .  .  .  Meaniirac 
Ngismund  endeavored   to  regain  his  kin>;,l„m 
The  Diet  ma.le  demands  which  were  strinci  nt 
and  humiliating;  but  he  nledge<l  himself  to  fullill 
them,  and  on  the  8th  of  July,  1436,  at  a  niciing 
held   Willi  great  pomp  and  solemniiv.   in   the 
niarket-place  of  Iglau,    was  formally "acknowl- 
edgeilas  King  of  Bohemia.    On  the  same  .x.u»ion 
the   t.impacUta   were   anew   ratified  and    the 
Bohemians  readmitted  to  the  fellowship  of  the 
mother  church.     But    scant- ly   had  SiKisniiind 
reacheil  his  capital  when  he  began  so  serious  a 
reaction    In    favor    of    Rome    that     Kokyeans 
sicretly   left    the  city  and    retired    to  a  eastle 
near    Parduhic    (14af).      The    kings    Inaeherv 
was,  however,  cut  short  by  the  hand  of  death 
on  the  9th  of   December,  of  the  same  year    si 
i^naim,  while  on  his  way  to  Hungary    ami  his 
successor  and  son-in  law,  Allwrt  of  Au.iria  fol- 
lowe.1  him  to  the  grave  in  1439,  in  the  midst  of 
a  campaign  against  the  Turks.     Bohemia   was 
left  without  a  ruler,  for  AlUrt  had  no  eliiMrpu 
except  a  fKwthumoua  son  [l,a<li8laus  I'osthuniiis. 
—  .See  Hlnoarv:    A.   D.  l.*Jl-l44a,  and    144*- 
UM],     A   time  of  anarchy  began  and   various 
leagues  arose,  the  moat  powerful  of  which  stood 
un.hr  Baron   I>tacek.   ...    He  .  ,  .  called   so 
^™'«'»'«"tl<'al  "invention  at  Kutlenlierg  (i let.. her 
4th).     This  conreution  brought  about  far  nwh. 
iug  resulLH.   .  .  ,   iiokycaiia  was  acknowle.l(fed 
as  Archbishop  elect,   the  supreme  dlre<tioii  of 


demud^a  nulWng  mo™  U«n  th«l.Z«„™'"^»      "  Arehblsho,,  elect,  the  supreme  dlre<tio„  of 
iwHiawi«u  ouuuug  mure  uuut  U«i  acceplanoe  of  j  eecIeaiaaUca)  affairawaa  committed  Into  hhi  hands, 

298 


BOHEMIA.  1484-1487. 


The  Vnltat 
AVafriiM, 


BOHEMIA.,  1458-1471. 


the  priests  promised  him  obedience,  and  34  doc- 
trinal and  coostitutiuaal  articiea  were  adopted 
whicli  laid  tlie  foundation  of  tlie  Utraquist 
Cliureli  as  the  Katiooal  Church  of  Bohemia. 
But  the  Taboritea  stood  aloof.  .  ,  .  At  last  a  dis- 
putation was  agreed  upon, "  as  the  result  of  which 
the  Taborites  were  condemned  by  the  Diet. 
"Tliey  lost  all  prestige;  their  towns,  with  the 
cxirptioD  of  Tabor,  passed  out  of  their  hands; 
tlieir  membership  was  scattered  and  a  laree  part 
n(  it  joined  the  National  Church.  In  the  follow- 
ing summer  Ptaceit  died  and  Qeorge  Podiebrad 
iuccceded  him  as  the  bead  of  the  league. 
.\UUougb  a  young  man  of  only  24  years,  he  dis- 
played the  sagacity  of  an  experiencied  statesman 
ami  was  distinguished  by  the  virtues  of  a  patriot. 
In  1448  a  bold  strolce  made  him  master  of  Prague 
and  constituted  him  practically  Re*  ^nt  of  all 
Bohemia;  four  years  later  his  regency  -as  form- 
ally aclinowledged.  He  was  a  warm  friend  of 
Rokycana,  whose  consecration  he  endeavored  to 
bring  about"  When  it  was  found  that  Rome 
could  not  be  reconciled,  there  were  thouglits  of 
cutting  loose  altogether  from  the  Roman  Catholk 
and  uniting  with  the  Oreeic  Church.  "  Negotia- 
tions were  actually  begun  in  1493,  but  came  to 
an  abrupt  close  in  the  following  year,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  fall  of  Constantinople.  About  the 
tame  time  Ladislaus  Pusthumus,  Albert's  son, 
awumcd  the  crown,  Podiebrad  remaining  Re- 
gent The  latter  continued  the  friend  of  Roky- 
cana; the  former,  who  was  a  Catholic,  conceived 
a  strong  dislike  to  him.  As  soon  as  Rokycana 
liad  given  up  the  hope  of  conciliating  Rome,  ho 
began  to  preach,  with  great  power  and  eloquence, 
against  its  corruptions. "  It  was  at  this  time  that 
a  movement  arose  among  certain  of  his  followers 
which  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  remark- 
al)le  religious  b<xly  which  called  itself  Unitas 
Fnitrum.  The  leading  spirit  in  this  movement 
was  Kokycana's  nephew,  commonly  called  Ore- 
gory  the  Patriarcli.  Tlie  teaching  and  intiucnce 
which  shaped  it  was  that  of  Pet<!r  Chelcicky. 
OK'gory  and  his  companions,  wishing  to  dwell 
togitlier,  in  the  Christian  unitv  of  which  they 
had  formed  an  ideal  in  their  minds,  found  a  re- 
treat at  the  secluded  village  of  Kunwald,  on  the 
esiHte  of  George  Podiebrad.  "  The  name  which 
they  chose  was  'Brethren  of  the  Law  of  Christ' 
— 'Fratrca  Lcgis  Christl';  inasmuch,  however, 
u  this  name  g'lve  rise  to  the  idea  that  they  were 
a  new  order  of  Monks,  they  dianged  it  simply 
iotn '  Bretliren. '  When  the  organization  of  their 
Church  had  been  completed,  they  assumed 
the  Aiii'itional  title  of  'Jednota  Brstrska,'  or 
Unitas  Pratrum,  that  is,  the  Unit*-  of  the 
Bri'tliren,  which  has  remained  the  .incial  and 
signlflcant  appellation  of  the  Church  to  the  pres- 
ent day.  ...  It  was  often  abbreviated  Into '  "The 
foHy.  Another  name  by  wblcli  the  Church 
called  itself  was  'The  Bohemian  Brethren."  It 
related  toall  the  Brethren,  whetlier  they  belonged 
ui  Bohemia,  Moravia.  PrussU  or  Poland.  To  call 
them  The  BohemianMoravian  Brelhien,  or  tbo 
Moravian  Brethren,  la  historically  Incorrect  The 
name  Momvtan  arose  in  the  time  of  the  Renewed 
Brethren's  Church,  because  the  men  by  whom 
it  was  renewed  came  from  Moravia.  .  .  .  The 
orgsniutiou  of  the  Unitas  Pratrum  took  place  In 
the  year  1457."— E  IV  Brnwrfntt^.  Hint.  */  «*« 
CAiircAiaawaai  Unitai  fhitrum,  (A.  Ift-W. 
.  ^'^vMS*- -Election  or  OMrn  Podiabntd 
to  tht  threo*.    See  UimoAmT :  A.D.  144i)-14S8. 


A.  D.  1458-1471.— Papal  escommmilcatioii 
■ad  deposition  of  the  king,  George   Podie- 
brad.—A  crusade.— War  with  the  Emperor 
and  Matthias  of  Huafarr.— Death  of  Podie- 
brad and  electioa  of  Ladisiaui  of  Poland.— 
"George  Podiebrad  had  scarcely  ascended  the 
tlirone  before  the  Catholics,  at  the  iistigation  of 
the  pope,  required  him  to  fulfil  I        oronation 
oath,  bv  expelling  all  heretics  from  tlie  king- 
dom,    lie  complied  with  their  request,  bunish«l 
the  Taborites,  Picards,  Adamites,  and  all  other 
religious  seots  who  did  not  profess  the  Catholic 
doctrines,  and  issued  a  decree  that  all  his  sub- 
jects should  become  members  of  the  Catholic 
church,   as  communicants  under  one  or   both 
kinds.    The  Catholics,  however,  were  not  satis- 
fied ;  considering  the  Caliztins  as  herev.cs,  they 
entreated  him  to  annul  the  compacts,  or  to  ob- 
tain a  new  ratiflcatica  of  them  from  the  new 
pope.     To  gratify  their  wishes  lie  sent  an  em- 
baasy  to  Rome,  requesting  a  confirmation  of  the 
compacts;  but  Pius,  under  the  pretence  that  the 
compacts  gave  occasion  to  heresy,  refused  his 
ratification,  and  sent  Fantino   deila  Vuile,  as 
legate,  to  Prague,  for  the  purpose  of  persuading 
the  king  to  prohibit  the  administration  of  the 
communion  under  both  kinds.    In  consequence 
of  tills  legation  the  king  called  a  diet,  at  which 
the  legate  and  the  bishops  of  Oimutz  and  Bres- 
lau  were  present     The  ill  success  of  the  embassy 
to  Rome  having  been  announced,  he  snid.  '  I  am 
astonished,  and  cannot  divine  the  iuteutions  of 
the  pope.    The  compacts  were  the  only  means 
of   terminating    the   dreadful    commotions   In 
Bohemia,  and  if  they  are  annulled,  tlie  king- 
dom will  again  relapse  into  the  former  disoniers. 
The  council  of  Bislo,  which  was  composed  of 
the  most  learned  men  in  Europe,  approved  and 
grant«d    them    to    the    Bohemians,    and    pope 
Eugenius   confirmed   them.    They   contain  no 
hercsv,  and  are  in  all  respvcU  conformable  to  the 
doctrines  of  the  holy  church.    X  and  mv  wife 
have  followed  them  from  our  childhood,"  and  I 
am  determined  to  maintain  them  till  my  death.' 
.  .  .  Fantino  replying  in  a  long  and   virulent 
invective,   the  king  ordered  him  to  quit   the 
assembly,  and  imprisoned  him  in  the  castle  of 
Pixliobrsd,   allowing  him  no  other  sustenance 
except  bread  and  water.    The  pope,  irritated  by 
this  insult,  annulled  the  compacts,  in  146.1,  and 
fulminated    n    sentence    of    excommunication 
against  tiie  king,  unless  he  appeared  at  Home 
wituin  a  certain  time  to  justify  his  conduct 
This  bull  occasioned  a  great  ferment  among  tlie 
Catholics;   Podiebrad   was  induced  to  lilierate 
the  legate,  and  made  an  apology  to  the  ofl^ended 
pontif!:  wiiilu  Frederic,  gretctui  for  the  assist- 
ance which  he  had  recently  received  from  the 
king  of  Bohemia,  when  besieged  by  his  brotlier 
Albert,  interposed  his  me<ilatli>n  with  tlie  pope, 
and  procured  the  suspension  of  the  sentence  of 
excommunication.     Pius  dying  on  the  14th  of 
August,   1464,  the  new  pope,  Paul  II.,  perse- 
cuted the  king  of  Bohemia  with  Increasing  acri- 
mony.    He  sent  his  legate  to  Breslau  to  excite 
commotions  among  the  Catholics,  endeavoured 
without  effect  to  gain  Caalmir,  king  of  Poland, 
by  the  offer  of  the  Bohemian  crown!  and  applied 
with  the  same  ill  success  to  the  stales  of  Ger- 
many.    He  ni  length  orcroimc  the  gratitude  of 
the  emperor  by  threats  ami  pr,.iui»i.i,  and  at  the 
diet  of  Nuremberg  In  1467,  the  proposal  of  his 
legato  IVuitlao,  to  form  a  crusade  against  Um 

2\)9 


,'.  f 


' 


1 


i  : 


BOHEMIA.  1«8-U71. 


^'"'S^'**  BOHEMIA,  187»-1«01 


his  emissaries  wi 
•xle  tliruufchout 
the  Austrian  tcrr 
<ric  drew  from 
violent  iuvrcli- 
formal  derlan 
declaration  by 
ing  devastatio: 
In  vain  appliei 
assistance:  ttii< 
of  Hungary  ai; . 


Im^*!?  1^°*'^'''  ^'le'^.  »M  «upported  by  the 
Imperial  ambassadors.     Altljougli  this  uronosal 

sentence  of  dep..s,i,„n  against  Pinliebrad,  and 
Ilowed  to  preach  the  cru- 
iny,  and  in  every  part  of 
The  conduct  of  Fred- 
^1,'  of  Bohemia,  In  1468,  a 
!ist  his  ingratitude,  and  a 
war;  be  followed  this 
ption  into  Austria,  spread- 
as  I  !..•  Danutw.  Fmlcric 
if  princes  of  the  empire  for 
■ngth  excited  Matthias  king 
i»»V  r="-'.  ■":'  ■  '  '"'  father-in-law,  by  offcr- 
hig  to  invest  him  with  the  liinsdom  of  ftiomia. 
Matth  as,  forgetling  his  obligations  to  Po.lie- 
brad  to  whoni  he  owed  his  life  and  crown,  wa? 
dazzled  by  the  offer,  and  being  assisted  by 
bod'-^of  German  marauders,  who  ha<I  assumed 
the  u  J88,  invaded  Bohemia.    At  the  same  time 

^1„f,  l^^T  "'..""  P"P*  •^'^c'ting  the  Catholics 
to  psurrection  the  country  again  became  a  prey 
to  the  dreadful  evils  of  a  civil  and  religious  war 
The  vigour  and  activity  of  George  Podiebrad 
suppressed  the  internal  commotions,  and  repelled 
the  invasion  of  the   Hungarians;  an  armistice 

rS^f  T  ao*^';  'i'i''  "'"  '"°  ^'"go-  °°  t'"'  4th  of 
April  U69,  held  an  amicable  conference  at 
Sternberg  in  Moravia,  where  they  entered  into 
•  treaty  of  pear,..  But  Matthias,  influenced  by 
the  perfidious  i,  .  sim,  th.it  no  compact  should  be 
kept  with  hcretir.s,  w.is  persuaded  by  the  papal 
legate  to  ri'sume  hostilitfes.  After  overrunning 
Moravia  and  bilesia,  he  held  a  mock  diet  at 
Olmutz  with  .some  of  the  Catholic  party  where 
he  w,«  cmson  Ijing  of  Bohemia,  and  iolcmnlv 

crowned  by  the  legate Po.liebra<l,  in  ord/r 

to  iMlfle  the  designs  both  of  the  emperor  and 
aialthias.  siimiiioncd  a  diet  at  Prague,  and  pro- 
p.«..  to  the  Mates  as  his  8ucces.«.r,  Ladislaiis, 
e^drst  mn  of  Ca.siiiiir.  king  of  Poland,  by  Eliza- 
bj-ih,  see,)nd  daughter  of  tlie  emperor  Albert 
I  he  prriposiil  w:u  wurnily  approved  bv  tlie 
nail"".  ...  as  the  (Jatliofics  were  desirous  of 

inH".*f  "']'.'■,•".''"•'"'''"'  ""■'■■  o*"  communion, 
and  the  (  alixims  an.>;ii>u9  to  prevent  the  aocea- 
sioii  of  Fie,|,  r,e  „r  Matthi.is,  b.,th  of  whom  were 
hostile  to  their  .|.  .ctrines.  Tlie  stites  acc<.nlii,g|  y 
a88<'nled  witlioui  lie.^itation,  and  Udi-laus  was 
unanimously  n..min.il(.d  sueces.sor  to  the  throne 
I  he  mdnrimtion  of  .Matthias  was  intl,im<>fl  bv  liis 
disiippointment.  and  liostilities  were  cnntihue  1 
with  ncreasing  fury.  The  two  armies,  con- 
ducted by  tlieir  respective  sovereigns,  the  ablest 
genera  »  of  the  a^e.  f„r  some  time  kept  each 
other  in  elieek:  till  at  len-th  both  tiarties 
wearied  by  tlie  devastation  of  tli.ir  resn.etive 
mintricH  concluded  a  kind  of  armistice,  on  the 
»Jn<l  of  .luly,  1470  which  nut  a  peri.M  to  I, « 
tililies.     On    the    death    ol    l'o«iiebrad,    in  tlic 


18 


ensuing  vear  irederic  again  presenting  hiiiiwlf 
as  a  caiididute.  was  6up|M)rte<l  by  still  fewer  ad- 
herenu  than  on  tlie  former  occasion;  a  morr 
numerous  party  espoused  the  InteresU  of  Mat^ 
uilag.  but  the  majority  declaring  for  Ladislaus 
Bewail  re.lerted,  and  proclaimed  king.  fml'. 
eric  .uH^trtod  Lailislaus  in  preference  to 
JJatthlas.    and   by   fomenting    the    troubles    in 

iill'''"/-ii  I"  ";*"  "^  ^'y  '''"  Intrigues  with  the 
king  of  Polaml.  i  nde.<v,.„n,d  not  onlv  tn  dliwt>- 
|H>int  Miitililas  of  the  throne  of  IV.liemU.  but 
eveu  to  drive  bim  frotn  that  of  Huogwy  "— W 


A.  D.  147 1-1479.— W«r  with  Matthias  of 
Hungary—Surrender  of  MorarU  and  Sde.iL 
See  UUNOAKV;  A.  I).  1471-14«7  ^"e»'«. 

th™?»/t?*~'^'°*^  LadiaUu.  elected  to  th. 
throne  of  tfungary.    See  Hungary:  A.  D.  14«7! 

„fa;,R"  '^'tL57«.--Acceiiion  of  the  Houn 
Al.«„'!;~^\'  Reformation  and  its  .treng^? 
i;;1i5f«  VI  '?*i  '°'"*t.on  and  perwcutioS.- 
In  1489  \  ladislav  •  was  elected  to  the  throne  nf 
Hungary  after  the  death  of  Mathlas  Corv im» 
He  died  in  1516,  and  was  succeeded  on  the  tl  m» 
of  Bohemia  and  Huni^ary  bv  his  mim,r  rn 
I^uta.   who  perisli«i  in    152/ at  the  bat  ifof 

1487-1528].  An  equality  of  rights  was  main 
taiued  between  the  Hussites  ^d  the  iCan 
Catho  ic»  during  theae  two  reigna,  LouisT,  ft 
no  children,  an/was  succeeded*on  thelSrncf  „ 
Hungary  and  Bohemia  by  Ferdinand  of  Austria 
[see  also,  Austria:  A.  t).  1496-1526).  bS 
of  the  E,np,.ror  ChariesV..and  marritd  to X 
sister  of  Iajuis.  a  prince  of  a  bigoted  and  desnoUc 

found  aspeedy  echo  amongst  the  Calixtines  und/r 
the  prece<ling  reign;  sn.F  Protestantism  gained 
so  much  ground  under  that  of  Petxlinanl  tS 
the  Bohemians  refused  to  take  part  in  the  war 
against  the  Protestant  leajrue  of  Smalkalden.  and 
formeil  a  union  for  the  defence  of  the  nai  onal 
ami  religious  liberties,  which  were  menami  bv 

h^,7'Ti  J."*  ''¥<'•'•  "'  "'«  Protestantsa  the 
battle  of  Muhlberg.  in  1547,  by  Cliaries  V  wh  ", 
laid  prostrate  their  cause  in  Germany,  pnKluceJ 
a  severe  reaction  in  Bohemia.  Several  leallm 
of  tho  union  were  executed,  others  inipris.,nea 
or  banislied;  the  property  of  many  nobles  w,« 
coiiliscuted,  the  towns  were  heavily  (in,-,l  d" 
prived  of  several  privileges,  and  sibjeit,.;!  to 
new  taxes.  These  measures  were  carried  in  0 
execution  with  the  assistance  of  German,  .Spani"  l" 
and  Hungarian  soldien,,  and  legalized  by  an  as- 
seinbly  known  under  tiie  name  of  the  Ul,KKly 

i„„  .1  ■  .•  ■  ■  ^''?  "'**U'*"  *'*^"'  "'"« Intiwlueed  dur- 
ng  that  r,.ign  into  B<.hemia.     The  privileires  of 
thctal  xtine  or,  as  it  was  officially  call,,!,  the 
PnM?„  ^^   Cliurch,    were    not    abolished,    and 
l-erdinand,  who  h.»d  succeedi'd  to  the  imperial 
erown  after  the  8b<lication  of  his  brother  Charles 
\ .,  wftened,  during  the  lalt^^r  years  of  hi.s  reign. 
his  harsh  and  despotic  character.  .  .  .  He  .lied 
In  1..64,  i-'ncerely  regretting,  it  is  said,  tlie  a(  t« 
of  oppre  „ion  which  he  ha.l  committed  acainst 
his  Bohemian  subjects.     He  was  succeede,:  bv 
his  son,  the  Emperor  Maximilian  II..  a  ni.in  u'i 
noble  character  and  tolerant  disposition,  whidi 
cd  to  tlic  Uhef  that  he  himself  Inclineii  Inwanli 
t''« 'Iwtnnes  of  the  Ke'forniation.     He  <lip<l  ir. 
1579,  leaving  a  name  veneraUKl  by  all  parii,s. 
•  .  .  Maximilians  son,   the  Emperor  Hu,l..l|ili 
was  educated  at  the  court  of  his  cousin,  I'hiiip 
u.  o.  Spain,  and  could  jot  be  but  adverac  to 
I  rotestanlism,  which  had,  however,  become  t..> 
sinmg.  not  only  in  Bohemia,  but  also  in  AuMru 
proper,  to  be  easily  suppreascil;  but  several  wi- 
direct  means  were  adoj.iwl.  in  order  a.-sdually  t- 
<^ecl  this  objeea.-V.  Krasinski,   l^u  „„  tU 
Jitiwtmit  IIinl  uf  the  Slawnie  Xations,  Uet  i 

A. p.  1576-160*.— PejMcuUon  of  Protestants 
BTRudolph.     Siee    Uuhoabt:   A.  I).    1M7- 


800 


BOHEMIA.  1811-1«18. 


Th' Letter  of 


BOHEMIA,  16U-iai8. 


A.  D.  1611-1618.— The  Letter  of  VLtAttij, 
or  Rojal  Charter,  and  Matthias's  Tiolation  of 
it.— Ferdinand  of  Stjria  forced  upon  the 
nation  as  king:  hy  hereditary  right. -The 
throwing  of  the  Royal  Counsellors  from  the 
window.— Beginning  of  the  Thirty  Years 
War.— In  1811.  the  Emperor  I{o(lolph  was 
forreil  to  surrender  the  crown  of  Bohemia  to  liis 
'.irotlier  Miittfaias.  The  next  year  ho  died,  and 
Matthias  succeeded  him  aa  Emperor  also.  "The 
tranmiillity  which  Hn<lolph  II. 'a  Lietterof  Majesty 
soe  Germant:  A.  D.  1608-1018]  had  established 
in  B<ilieiriiB  tested  for  some  time,  under  the 
ailmi!:istijtioD  of  Matthias,  till  the  nomination 
of  a  new  h«ir  to  this  kingdom  in  the  person  of 
Fcnllnanii  of  Oratz  [Styria].  Tills  prince,  whom 
we  shall  afterwards  become  better  acquninte<l 
with  under  the  title  of  Ferdinand  II.,  Emperor 
of  Germany,  had,  by  the  violent  extirpation  of 
the  Protestant  religion  within  his  liereilit.iry 
dominions,  announced  himself  as  an  inexombic 
zealot  for  popery,  and  was  consequcntir  lookeil 
upon  by  the  Roman  'Catholic  nart  of  Bohemia 
as  the  future  pllbtr  of  .iieir  church.  Tlie  declin- 
ing health  of  the  Emperor  brought  on  this  hour 
rapidly ;  and,  relying  on  so  powerful  a  sup- 
poner,  the  Bohemian  Papists  began  to  treat  the 
Protestnnts  with  little  moderation.  Tlie  Protes- 
tant vassals  of  Roman  Catholic  nobles,  in  pur- 
ticulNr,  experienced  the  harshest  treatment.  At 
length  several  of  the  former  were  incautious 
enough  to  speak  somewhat  loudly  of  their  hopes, 
nnd  by  threatening  liiuts  to  nwaken  among  the 
Protestants  a  suspicion  of  their  future  sovereign. 
But  this  mistrust  would  never  have  broken  out 
into  nrtual  violence,  had  the  Ib>inan  Calliolics 
conflueil  themselves  to  general  expressions,  and 
not  by  attacks  on  individuals  furnished  the  dis- 
content of  the  people  with  enterprising  leaders. 
HiMiry  Matthias,  Count  Thum,  not  a  native  of 
B'ljii'inia,  but  proprietor  of  some  estates  in  that 
kinidom,  had,  by  his  zeal  for  the  Protestant 
cause,  and  an  enthusiastic  attachment  to  his 
ni-wly  adiipted  country,  gained  the  entire  con- 
fitliuce  of  1  lie  Utniquists,  which  opened  him  the 
war  to  the  most  im|)ortiint  posts.  ...  Of  a  hot 
anil  Impetuous  disposition,  which  loved  tumult 
beoiiise  his  talents  shone  iu  it  —  rash  and 
thou^tlitless  enougli  to  underhike  things  whicli 
cnid  [irudcnce  and  a  caliiuT  temper  would  not 
hive  ventured  ujxm  —  unscrupulous  ciioiigli, 
where  the  gratiflciilion  of  his  piissinns  was  con- 
ccraed.  to  sport  with  the  fate  of  tliousaiids,  and 
al  the  same  time  jiolltic  onougli  t/)  hold  in  lead- 
inir  strings  such  a  peoph  the  Toheminus  then 
were.  lie  had  alrvadv  tjiriin  an  active  part  in 
the  troubles  under  Rudolph's  administration; 
»iid  the  Ixjtter  of  Maiesty  which  tlie  States  had 
ixtiirted  from  tliat  Em|)eror,  was  chiefly  to  I)c 
laiil  to  his  merit.  The  court  had  intrusted  to 
hun,  as  burgrave  or  caaUdlan  of  Calstein.  the 
iu*!i«ly  of  tlie  Bohemian  crown,  nnd  of  tlie 
naticmal  charter.  But  the  nation  had  ploced  in 
i.ii  hands  sonu'thing  far  more  importimt  — itaelf 
—  Willi  ih<>  olBce  of  defender  or  protector  of  the 
fuiih  Tlie  aristocracy  by  which  the  Empi^ror 
«  '«  ruled,  imprudenjy  deprived  him  of  thi^ 
■  irinl(-s  guanli.iwliip  of  the  dead,  to  leave  him 
III-  fiill  inrtuemc  over  the  Uving.  They  took 
ti  in  him  his  oillce  of  hiirgrnve.  or  eonstJilile  of 
li.f  .  ;u.ile,  which  litwl  remlered  him  dependent  on 
ll.i'  •■■uri.  I  hereby  opening  his  eyes  to  the  im-  I 
lK.n»nie  uf   the  other   which   remained,  and 


wounded  his  vanity,  which  yet  was  the  thing 
that  made  his  ambition  harmless.     From  tbS 
moment  he  was  actuated  solely  by  a  desire  of 
revenge;   and  the  opportunity  of  gratifying  it 
was  not   long  wanting.    In  the  Royal  Letter 
whicli  the  Bohemians  had  extorted  from  Rodolpb 
II.,  as  well  as  in  the  Qerman  religious  treaty, 
one    material    article   remained    undcermiued. 
All  the  privileges  granted  by  the  latter  to  the 
Protestants,  were  conceived  in   lavour  of   the 
Estates  or  goveruing  Iradies,  not  of  the  subjects; 
for  only  to  those  of  ecclesiastical  states  had  a 
toleration,  and  that  precarious,  been  conceded. 
The  Bohemian  Letter  of  Majesty,  in  the  same 
manner,  spoke  only  of  the  Estates  an<l  the  im- 
perial towns,  the  magistrates  of  which  had  con- 
trived to  obtain  equal  privileges  with  the  former. 
These  alone  were   free  to  erect  churches  and 
schools,  and  openly  to  celebrate  their  Protestant 
worship:  in  all  other  towns,  it  was  left  entirely 
to  the  government  to  which  they  Ijelonged,  to 
determine  the  religion  of  the  inhabitants.    The 
Estates  of  the  Empire  had  availed  themselves  of 
this  privilege  in  its  fullest  extent;  the  secular 
indeed  without  opposition;    while  the  ecclesias- 
tical, in  whose  case  the  declaratio.i  of  Ferdinand 
had  limited  this  privilege,  disputed,  not  without 
reason,  the  validity  of  that  limitation.     Whnt 
was  a  disputed  poiut  in  the  religious  treaty,  was 
left  still  more  doubtful  In  the  letter  of  Majesty. 
...  In  the  little  town  of  Klostergrab,  subject 
to  the  Archbishop  of  Prague;   and  in  Braunau, 
which  iK'longed  to  the  abbot  of  that  monastery, 
churches  were  founded  by  the  Prote-stants,  and 
completed    notwithstanding   the  opposition    of 
their  superiors,  and  the  disapprobation  of  the 
Emperor.  ...  By  the   Emperor's   oniers.   the 
church  at  Klostcrgrab  was  pulletl  down;  that  at 
Umunau  forcibly  shut  up,  and  the  most  turbulent 
of  the  citizens  thrown  into  prison.     A  general 
commotion  among  the  Protestants  was  the  con- 
sequence of  this  measure;   a  loud  outcry  was 
everywhere  raised  at  this  violation  of  the  Letter 
of   Majesty;   and  Count  Thum.    animated    by 
revenge,    and   particularly  called  upon   by  his 
oflice  of  defeniler,  sliowed  himself  not  a  little 
busy  in  inflaming  the  minds  of  the  people.     At 
his    instigation    deputies    were    suininoued    to 
Prague  from  every  circle  in  the  empire,  to  con- 
cert the  necessary  mea.siircs  again.st  the  common 
danger.     It  was  resolved  to  petition  tlie  Emperor 
to  press  for  the  liberation  of  the  prisoners.     Tiio 
answer  of  the  Emperor,  already  olleiisive  to  the 
states,  from  its  lieing  addressed,  not  to  them,  but 
to  his  viceroy,  denounce.l  their comliiot  as  illegal 
and  rebellious,  justified  what  had  lieen  done  at 
Klostcrgrab  and  Brauiiau  as  the  result  of  an  im- 
perial mandate,   and  contained  some  passages 
that  might  be  consfied  into  threats.     Count 
Thurn  did  not  fail  t.    .mrment  the  unfavourable 
impression  which  t     -  imperial  edict  made  upon 
the    assembled    E      les.  ...   He    held    it  .  .  . 
advisable  flrst  to  .!     it  their  indi^'nation  against 
the  Emperor's  coiia.sellors;  nnd  for  tliat  piirpo.se 
circulate<l  a  reimrt,  that  the  imperial  pnnhiina- 
tion  had  l)een  drawn  up  by  the  gmemnieiit  at 
Prague  and  only  signed  in  Vienua.     Among  the 
imperial    delegates,    the    chief    objects    of    the 
popular  hatred,  were   he  President  i>f  the  Cham- 
iK-r.  S!aw.it«,  ami  Bar.in  .\ffirtinitz.  who  lis.1  been 
elecWd  in  place  of  Count  Thurn,   Burgrave  of 
Calstein.  .  .  .  Against    two   characters  so  un- 
popular the  public  indignation  was  easily  ex 


SOI 


i 


'A; 


'IJ 


BOHEMIA.  leil-lSIS. 


I*<rt»  Fton 


BOHEMIA,  174a. 


dted,  and  they  were  marked  out  for  a  iacrlflcc 
to  the  eeneral  Indignation.    On  the  23nl  of  May, 
1B18  the  depuUea  appeared  armed,  and  In  great 
numbers,  at  the  roTal  paUoe,  and  forced  their 
way  Into  the  haU  where  the  Commlaioncrs  Stem- 
herg.  Martlnlti,  Lobkowiti,  and  SlawaU  were 
assembled     In  a  threatening  tone  they  demanded 
to  know  from  each  of  them,  whether  he  had 
taken  any  part,  or  had  consented  to,  the  Imperial 
proctamatlon.     Sternberg  received  them    with 
composure.  Martlnitz  and  SUwata  with  defiance. 
This  decided    their  fate;    Sternberg  and  Lob- 
kowitz,  leas  hated.  ,  id  more  feared,  were  led  by 
the  arm  out  of  the  room:  Martlnitz  and  SUwata 
were  seized,  dragged  to  a  window,  and  pre- 
cipitated from  a  height  of  80  feet.  Into  the  castle 
trench.     Their  creature,  the  secretory  Kabrlclus 
was  thrown  after  them.    This  singular  mode  of 
execution    naturally    excited   the    surprise   of 
clTlllzed  nations.    The  Bohemians  Justified  It  as 
a  natloMl  custom,  and  saw  nothing  remarkable 
in  the  whole  affair,  excepting  that  any  one  should 
have  got  up  again  safe  and  sound  after  such  a 
fall.    A  dunghill,  on  which  the  Imperial  oom- 
mlsslonere  chanced  to  be  deposited,  had  saved 
them  from  Injury.     [The  Incident  of  the  flinging 
or  the  obnoxious  ministers  from  the  window  fi 
wten    referred   to   as    'the   defenestration    at 
"ague.]  .  .  .  By  this  brutal  act  of  self-redress, 
no  room  was  left  for  Irresolution  or  repentance 
Md  it  seemed  as  if   a  single  crime  could  be 
absolved  only  by  a  series  of  violences.    As  the 
deed  itse  f  could  not  be  undone,  nothing  was  left 
but  to  diaann  the  hand  of  punishment.    Thirty 
directors  were  appol  ted  to  organize  a  regular 
Insurrection.    They  seized  upon  all  the  offlcea  of 
state,  and  all  the  imperial  revenues,  took  into 
their  own  service  the  roval  functionaries  and  the 
soldiers,   and  summoned   the  whole  Bohemian 
nation  toavenge  the  common  cause. "— P  Schiller 
Hint,  of  Uie  Thirty  Tcart'  War.  bk.  1.  pp.  8l-S.^' 
Also  Df:  8.  R.    -  'Hlner,   Tht  Thirty  Yrari' 
War.  .«A    8.-A.   I         -y.    Hint,   of  tht   Thirty 

n     ■'    "^l-  ^„-  Kohlrausch,    HiU.    of 

Oermany,  eh.  23. 

#  ^'  ?-'*'8-«6«>.— Conciliatory  measure!  de- 
feated by  Ferdinand.— His  election  to  the  Im- 
penal  throne,  and  hit  deposition  in  Bohemia. 
—Acceptance  of  the  crown  by  Frederick  the 
Palatine  Elector.— Hia  unsupported  situation. 
SceQERMANT:  A.  D.  1618-1620. 
.,\°A  •*»»--Di»»PPointment  in  the  newly 
elected  KinK.— His  ^tcressivc  Calvinism.— 
Battle  of  the  White  Mountain  before  Prairue. 
—Frederick's  flight.— Annulling  of  the  Royal 
charter.— Loss  of  Bohemian  Liberties.    See 
Oekmant:    a.  D.  1620.  and  Huhoart:   A    D 
10(*fl-1660. 
AD.  16a1.1648.-The  Reign  of  Terror.- 
j  *    •  .T.'*""*'""*'"'    'onfiication,   dranioo' 
ades.— The  country  a  desert.— Protestantism 
crushed,  but  not  slain.— "In  June.  1621,  a  fear 
ful  reign  of  tiTror  began  in  Bohemia,  with  tlie 
execution  of  37  of  the  most  distinguished  here- 
tics.   For  years  the  unhappy  people  bled  under 
It;  thouaaniN  were  banished,  and  yet  Protestant- 
Ism  was  not   fully  exterminated.     The  clinrtcr 
was  cut  into  shreds  bv   the   Emperor  himself- 
tliere  could   be  nn  fofb-mrance  towards  'such 
acknowledged  rebels. '    As  a  matter  of  course, 
the  Lutheran  pn«cl.ine  was  forbidden  umlsr  the 
heaviest  penalties;   heretical  works.   Bibles  es- 
pecially, were  token  away  In  heaps.      Jesuit 


colleges,  r  rches,  and  schoob  came  Into  power- 
but  Uils  was  not  all.  A  large  number  of  dli-' 
t  nguished  Protestant  families  were  deprived  of 
hefr  property,  and,  as  if  that  were  not  cnouKh 
it  was  decreed  that  no  non-Catholic  could  be  a 
citizen,  nor  carry  on  a  trade,  enter  Into  »  m.,. 
riage,  nor  make  a  will;  any  one  who  harlmured 
a  Protestont  preacher  forfeited  his  pronertv- 
whoever  permitted  Protestont  Instruction  to  t» 

given  was  to  be  fined,  and  whipped  out  of  town- 
le  Protestant  poor  who  were    not  converted 
were  to  be  driven  out  of  the  hospltols,  and  to  be 
replaced  by  Catholic  poor;  he  wfio  gave  freeze? 
presslon  to  his  opinions  about  religion  was  'o  ho 
executed.    In  1634  an  order  was  issued  to  all 
^^  "",  u?^^  »eachera  to  leave   the   country 
within  eight  days  under  pain    of  death;  ana 
finally.  It  was  ordained  that  whoever  had  not 
become  Catholic  by  Easter,  1626,  must  emigrate 
.  .  .  But  the  real  conversions  were  few ;  thousands 
quietly  remained  true  to  the  faith;  other  thou 
sands  wandered  as  beggars  Into  foreign  lands 
more  than  80,000  Bohemian  families,  and  among 
them  800  belonging  to  the  aristocracy,  went  into 
banishment     Exiled   Bohemians    were   to   be 
found  In  every  country  of  Europe,  and  were  not 
wanting  In  any  of  the  armies  that  fought  against 
Austria.     Those  who  could  not  or  would  not 
emigrate,  held  to  their  faith  In  secret.    Arainst 
t  lem  dragoonadea  were  employed.  DeUchments 
of  soldiers  were  sent  Into  the  various  districu  to 
torment  the  heretics  till  they  were  converted 
The    'Converters'    (Scllgmacher)    went    thus 
throughout  all  Bohemia,  plundering  and  murder- 
ing. .  .  .  No  succour  reached  the  unfortunate 
people^ut  neither  did  the  victors  attain  their 
end     Protestontism  and  the  Hussite  memories 
could  not  be  slain,  and  only  outward  siibmi3.slon 
was  extorted.    ...    A  respectoble  Protestant 
party  exlato  to  this  day  In  Bohemia  and  .Momvia 
But  a  desert  was  created;  the  land  was  crushed 
for  a  generation.    Before  the  war  Bohemia  had 
i-^S?^  Inhabltonto,  and  In  1648  there  were  but 
700,000  or  800,000.     These  figures  appear  pre 
nosferous,  but  they  are  certiSed  by  Bohenilan 
histonans.     In  some  parts  of  the  coimtry  the 
population  has  not  attoined  the  standard  of  1630 
fo  this  day.  "—L.  HBusser,  The  Period  of  tht  Rt- 
forina.  on,  ch.  Z2. 

Also  in:  C.  A.  Peschek,  Reformation  and 
Anti- Hfformatinn  in  Bohemia,  v.  2  — E  do 
Schwclnitz.  Hitt.  of  the  Church  knoten  at  tht 
Unitat  Fratrum,  eh.  47-51. 

A.  D.  1631-1633.- Temporary  occupation  by 
the  Sa=ons.— Their  expulsion  by  Wallenstein. 
ScoOermant:  a.  n.  lfWI-16:)3. 

A.  D.  1640-1645.— Campaigns  of  Baner 
and  Torstenson.  Sec  Oehmant:  A.  1)  I6411- 
164.1. 

■^  °;.  i«4*-'«48.— Last  campaigns  of  the 
Thirty  Years  War.— Surprise  and  capture  of 
part  of  Prague  by  the  Swedes.— Siege  of  the 
old  city.— Peace.  See  Oehma.nt:  A.  1).  I«4«- 
1648. 

A.  D.  f  740.— The  question  of  the  Austrian 
Succession.- The  Pragmatic  Sanction.  t«^ 
Austria:  A.  D.  1718-1738.  a.-  '  1740. 

A.  D.  1741.— Brief  conquest  by  the  French, 
Bavarians  and  Saxons.  See  Ai-xtuia:  .K.  D 
1741  (ADOcrr— NnvEMBEit).  and  (Octdhkhi. 

A.  D.  1741  (January— May).— Prussii.!  inva- 
sion.—Battle  of  Chotusitz.  Sec  .•li.ariu\ 
A.  D.  1748  (Jandarv- May). 


302 


[ml- 


\±  u 


BOHEMU,  1743. 


BOKHARA.  1819. 


A.  D.  174a  (Tone — December). — Bxpuliien  of 
the  French.— Beileiile's  retreat. — Maria  The- 
resa crowned  at  Prague.  See  Auuthia:  A.  D. 
1742  (June— December). 

A.  D.  1757.— The  Seren  Years  War. — 
Frederick'!  InTaaion  and  defeat.— Battles  of 
Prague  and  Kolin.  See  Oermahy:  A.  D.  1757 
(April— June). 

BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN,  The.  See 
BoiiEMi.i:    A.    D.    1434-1457,    and   Oebxamv: 

A.  D  1830. 

BOHEMIANS  (Gypsies).    See  Otfsies. 

BOIANS,  O"  BOII.— Some  pas  *es  in  the 
curlier  Uistory  ..ail  movements  of  the  powerful 
Otillic  tribe  KDown  as  the  Boii  will  be  found 
touched  upon  under  Rome:  B.  C.  890-847,  and 

B.  C.  29.5-191,  in  accounts  given  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  Rome  by  tlie  Oauls,  and  of  the  subse- 
quent wars  of  the  Romans  with  the  Cisalpine 
Osuls.  After  the  final  conquest  of  the  Boians  in 
(jallia  Cisalpina,  early  In  the  second  century, 
B.  C..  the  Romans  seem  to  have  expelled  them, 
wholly  or  partly,  from  that  country,  forciig 
them  to  cross  the  Alps.  They  afterwards  occu- 
pied a  region  embraced  in  modern  Bavaria  and 
U,>Iicmia,  both  of  which  countries  are  thought 
to  have  derived  their  names  from  these  BoTan 
people.  Some  part  of  the  nation,  however,  as- 
sociated itself  with  the  Ilelvetii  and  Joined  in  the 
migration  which  Ciesar  arrested.  He  settlei 
these  Boians  in  Qaul,  within  the  .Eduan  terri- 
tory, between  the  Loire  and  the  Ailler.  Their 
capital  city  was  Gergovia,  which  was  also  the 
name  of  a  city  of  the  Arverni.  The  Oergovia  of 
the  Boians  is  conjectured  to  have  been  modem 
Moulins.  Their  territory  was  the  modern  Bour- 
bonnais.  which  probably  derived  its  name  from 
them.  Three  important  names,  therefore,  in 
European  geograpliy  and  history,  viz. —  Bour- 
bon. Bavana  and  Bohemia,  are  traced  to  the 
Gallic  ua*'  n  of  the  Boil. —  Tacitus,  'Jermans, 
tnint.  by  (Jhureh  and  Brodrihh,  notes. 

Also  in:  C.  Merivale,  Jlitt.  of  the  Romnnn,  e/t. 
12,  note. 

BOIS-LE-DUC— Siege  and  capture  by  the 
Dutch  (1629).  See  NhTtiEULANUS:  A  0.  1621- 
KCJS. 

BOKHARA  (Ancient  Traososania).- 
'  Taken  literally,  the  name  [TmuwxaniaJ  is  a 
translation  of  the  Arabic  Mavera-un-uehr  (that 
which  lies  beyond  or  across  the  river),  aad  it 
might  therefore  be  siipposed  that  Transoxanlii 
meant  the  country  lying  Iteyond  or  on  the  right 
sliore  of  the  Oxua.  But  this  is  not  strictly 
8;)eiiking  the  case.  .  .  .  Prom  the  period  of  the 
SumaniJes  down  to  modern  times,  the  districts 
iif  Talltan,  Toltliaristan  and  Zcm,  althougli 
lying  partly  or  entirely  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Oxiis.  have  been  looked  on  as  integral  portions 
of  Bokhara.     0>ir  historical  researches  seem  to 

gn)ve  that  this  arrangement  dates  fmm  the 
umaniiles,  who  were  themselves  originally 
natives  of  that  part  of  Khonissan.  ...  It  is 
almost  impossible  in  dealing  gcognphically  witii 
Transoxania  to  assign  detinit<;ly  au  accurate 
frontier.  We  can  and  •■■ill  therefore  compre- 
hend in  our  definition  '  f  insoxania  solely  Bok- 
hara, or  the  khanate  01  .i,)khara;  f«'  .ilthough 
it  ha.4  iiiity  betu  known  liy  llie  iatu-r  name  since 
the  time  of  Shctbani  antf  of  the  Ozbegs  [A.  D. 
1500),  ihc  shon-H  of  the  Zerefshan  and  the  tract 
of  country  stretching  southwards  to  tiie  Oziu 


and  northwards  to  the  desert  of  Kizil  Kum, 
re|ireaent  the  only  parts  of  the  territory  which 
have  remained  uninterruptedly  portions  of  the 
original  undivided  state  of  Transoxuiiia  fronitlia 
earliest  historical  times.  .  .  .  Bokhara,  the  capi- 
tal from  the  time  of  the  Samanides,  at.'!  tlie 
date  of  the  very  earliest  geogmphicHi  i>>>iirts 
concerning  Transoxania,  is  said,  during  Hh  jiros- 
perity,  to  have  been  the  largest  city  ol  the 
Islamite  world.  .  .  .  Bokhara  was  not,  however, 
merely  a  luxurious  city,  distinguished  by  great 
natural  advantages;  it  was  also  the  principal 
emporium  for  the  trade  between  China  and 
Western  Asia;  in  addition  to  tiie  vast  ware- 
houses for  silks,  brocades,  and  cotton  stuffs,  for 
the  finest  carpets,  and  all  kinds  of  gold  and 
silversmiths'  work,  it  boasted  of  a  great  money- 
market,  being  la  fact  the  Exchange  of  all  the 
population  of  Extern  and  Western  Asia.  .  .  . 
Sogd  .  .  .  comprised  the  mountainous  part  of 
Transoxania  (which  mav  be  described  as  the 
extreme  western  spurs  of  the  Thien-Shan).  .  .  . 
The  capital  was  Samarkand,  undoubtedly  the 
Maracanda  of  the  Greeks,  which  they  specify  as 
the  capital  of  SogdU.  The  city  has,  throughout 
the  history  of  Transoxania  been  the  rival  of 
Bokhara.  Before  the  time  of  the  Samanides, 
Samarkand  was  the  largest  city  beyond  the 
Ox  us,  and  only  began  to  decline  from  its  fonner 
importance  when  Ismail  chose  Bokhara  for  his 
own  residence.  Under  the  Khahrezmians  it  is 
said  to  have  raised  it^olf  ugaiu.  and  liecome 
much  larger  than  its  rival,  and  under  Timour  to 
h:ive  reached  the  culminating  point  of  its  pros- 
perity. " — A..  Vambery,  Ilitl.  of  Bt>kluirii,  iiitrod. 

Also  in:  J.  Button,  Central  Anin,  eh.  3-3. 

B.  C.  329-337. — Conquest  by  Alexander  the 
Great.     See  MACEDONtA:  B.  C.  330-.S23. 

6tb  Century. — Conquest  from  the  White 
Huns  by  the  Tnrks.  See  Turks:  Btu  Cen- 
tury. 

A.  D.  710.— The  Moslem  Conquest.  See 
Mahometan  Conqukst:  A.  D,  710. 

A.  D.  991-998. — Under  the  Samanides.  See 
Samanioks. 

A.  D.  1004-1193.— The  Seldjuk  Turk&,  See 
Turks  (TuE  Seldjdks):  A.  D.  1004-luii3,  and 
after. 

A.  D.  iao9-iaao. — Under  the  Khuarezmians. 
See  Kiiuarkzm:  13Tn  Ckntury. 

A.  D.  1219.— Destruction  of  the  city  by 
Jing^s  Khan. — Bokhara  was  taken  l)y  Jingis 
Kimn  in  the  summer  of  1219.  "It  was  then  a 
very  large  and  magnificent  city.  Its  name, 
according  to  the  historian  Alaiudilin.  is  de- 
rive<l  from  Bokliar,  which  la  the  Magian  lan- 
guage means  the  Centre  of  Science."  Tne  city 
surrendered  after  a  siege  of  a  few  d.iys,  Jingis 
Khan,  on  entering  the  town,  saw  the  great 
mosiiHC  and  asked  If  it  was  the  Sultan's  palace. 
"Being  tolil  it  was  the  house  of  Qod,  ho  dis- 
mounted, climbed  the  stem,  and  8;tid  in  a  loud 
voice  to  his  followers,  'The  hay  is  cut,  give 
your  horses  fodder.'  They  easily  understood  this 
cynical  invitation  to  plunaer.  .  .  The  inhabit- 
ants wen;  onierud  to  leave  the  town  .  niliixly.  with 
only  their  clothes,  so  that  it  might  Ih!  more  easily 
pillaged,  after  which  the  spoil  was  divldeil 
among  the  victors.  '  It  wm  a  fearful  i\.\y,'  says 
Ibn  al  Itliir;  'one  only  iieani  tiie  solis  an<l  wii'p- 
ing  of  men,  women  and  chlhlren,  who  were 
separated  forever;  women  were  ravished,  while 
meD  died  rather  Ihan  survive  the  dishonour  o{ 


303 


t  i 


fl 


^1 


BOKHARA,  1819. 

b^ll.tTiTrfl""'.*'",?''?*"-'    "^  Mongol,  ended 

i^DdiL*  »  '[fre/'ullt  of  firiok  remained 
•tanding.  _H  h,  Howorth.  n~,.  of  the  Mon- 
fft'.T.  1.  MS.-"  The  flourishing  city  on  the 
t^J^^  ^  ^T  •  ''"••"P  "f  ".bCish.  but 

wUch  deserves  our  admiration.     Tlie  Mongol 

wl^^f,.°S^''  ^'^"'V  "'"  B"'"""-i"t8  themsclvea 
7^  J^  "■'  *"  i'"'  »?«"''Sl»'lil<'":  but  all  In 

Jh/«in  I'  Y""  <=«'•P^•«<''  "'en  ""'I  unimals  that 

Kfi,.!^,'  ''"''■     T''«  ix-aceablc  portion    of  the 

reristance.    More  than  80,000  men  were  executed. 

the  v?^"??''"'",''*"'  *'"'  'he  exception  of 
ine  very  old  people  among  them,  reduced  to 
slavery,  without  any  distinction  of  rank  wha^ 
I!  ™i  ?  .' j"?  the  InhabltanU  of  Bokhara,  lately 
10  oelelmited  for  their  learning,  their  love  of  art. 
ana  their  general  refinement,  were  broueht 
^nT^Jatri't^'"'';!  "'  '"'~^y  »""  .ie/mdatfon 
5/,i^?aTi  *°  "I'  quarters.  "-A.  ■C'ambcnr, 
nsllla:  "•  '^*  Mongols:  A.  0. 

A.   D.   1868.— Subjection  to   RouU.      See 
RfHBiA:  A.  n.  18.W-1878.  "■»—»•      oee 


BOJ-ERIUM.    8cc  BEI.KRION. 

lOlHl-Kli) Boleslaui  11.,  Kine  of  Poland 

A-  ,1^    '""f-l"*) Bolesliu,  ifl.,   Duke  of 

Poland    A.    D.    1103-1138. .. .  Boleilaui    IV 

'•"»*.,  King  of  Poland,  A.  D.  123:-ia7» 

r..S?n     Y'*'l^'""~***'"*K«'  *"•'  "d  e«e- 
l."3f^°54:i       ^•'*<"^'"'-  A.  I>.  1527-1.531;  and. 

nRf'S^Ji';.,  Sec  Bcloaria:  Orioi.v  op. 
BOLIVAR'S     LIBERATION    OF    XHP 
SOUTH  AMERICAN  STATES.      See  "? 

LOMi.iAN  States:   A.  D.  1810-1819,   181B-1830- 
1826- InT'  1830-1836.    1825-1826.   and 

"Wh^'.y^"    """  ■ho'j.K''"'!  inhabitants.- 
VVitl!  t he  Toromonos  trilK-.  who  (x-cuj.ied    as 
Orb.sny  t<-ll8  us.  a  district  of  from  IP  to  13^  of 
bomli   latitude,   it  was  an  established   rule  f,>r 
.vtrv  man  to  build   his  house,   with  his  own 
hands  iil.jiie,  and  if  he  did  otherwise  he  lost  the 
title  of  man  as  well  as  became  the  laugliing- 
wn^!  >"^   r  f'^^"""' e't'^nB-    The  only  clothin^' 
worn  I.y  tliese  p<.ople  was  a  turban  on  the  head 
c..ini«,H,.,l  of  feathers,  the  rest  of  the  liody  being 
P«rf.iily  naked;  whilst  the  women  us«l  a  gar 
m.^nt,    manufactured  out  of  cotton,   that  only 
partially  vnyered  their  persons.  .  .  .  The  oma 
mom  m  whu-h  the  soft  sex  took  most  pride  was 
a  necklHiH-  niade  of  the  teeth  of  enemies,  killed 
\v  their husliands  in  battle.    Amongst  the Mox<« 
polygamy  was  tolerated,  and  woman's  infldelitv 
severely  punish,,!.      .  .  Tlie   Moxos  eullivateJl 
the  land  with  ploughs,  and  other  implements  of 
agneulture.  maile  of  wood.      They    fahricaU.l 
canws,  fouiiht  and  fishe<i  with  bows  and  arrows 
Jntl.e  nrnvinre  of  the  Mox.»  lived  also  a  tribe 
ea!  .<!  lK..,.mir^,  wh,,.  !K:sidrs  the«'  i„,,i  ,M,„ai 
Instriimenls   of   war.  used    twool-cd    wo<«len 
Jcimitam.      The  immonillly  of  thes,.  Uonomoi 


BOLOONA. 

WM  Mmething  like  that  of  the  Mormons  of  our 
time  .  .  fhe  Canlchanas.  who  live.",,™; 
Machupo.  l«tween  13°  and  W  8.  lat.  and  Ot'  "o 
fl«o  W.  long,  t  8  reputed  by  M.  d'Orbiimy  as 
the  bravest  of  the  Bolivian  IndUns.  Tli.v  „n! 
accredited  to  have  been  cannitials.  .  .  w>i,"^ 
Jujuy-the  most  northern  province  of  t^ 
Argentine  Republic-iolns  Bolivia,  we  have  in 

ndirnTT,"'?,/'"'  ««'««"«?«  «"''  t»„h^ 
Indians.  The  latter  are  represented  to  me  by  Oi 
Mattenzo  of  Itosario.  as  intelligent  and  dfvoted 
to  agricultura  labor.  They  have  fixed  to  .1  .riu 
K*.™^'  "".*  '"'"'*»  of  whfch  are  clean  and  iiea" 
Each  town  is  commanded  by  a  capitan.  whose 

only."_T  J.  Hutchinson.  T/u:  /^.r«,w. '/"  4 - 
a^'-rupi'  ^'"^'"'^'''*  Aborioines:  A-ndewahs, 

In  the  Empire  of  the  Incaa.  See  Peru  Tm 
Empire  op  tub  Incas. 

»f  ri?'  'SS9--E»tabliihment  of  the  Audiencia 
of  Charcas.  See  Acdiencias. 
II- r  D-  »;a5-'*a6— The  independent  Repub- 
Uc  founded  and  named  in  Upper  Peni.-Yhe 
BohTian  Con«titution.-"Up,ier  P.ru  |„r  1^ 
Charcas,  as  It  was  more  spec  ically  ku,>wi  1 

RKPCnLic:  A.  D.  15^-1777]  fmm  the  ^oJ'm- 
ment  of  Lima  ...  to  form  part  of  tin.  newlv 
ronstituted  Viceroyalty  of  BSen,«  Ayres  The 
fifteen  years'  struggle  foi"  independence  w,w  here 


a  sanguinary  one  fiideed.     There-'is^i'anTl'y's 
town,  viUage    or  noticeable  place  in   this  vast 
region  where  blood  is  not  recorded  t,)  liavo  l»en 
alied  in  this  terrible  struggle.  .  .      "Thf  Snunlsh 
army  afterwanis  sueeumlieil  to  that  of  tin'  inde 
pendents  of  Peru;  and  thus  L-pp.r  Per.i  p,i„«i, 
not  indee.1  liberty,  but  independence  iind,  r  the 
rule  of  a  republicim  army.     This  vast  i.mvince 
was  incapable  of  governing  itself      Tl„'  .Vriten 
tines    aid  claim  to  it  as  a  province  of  th,  Jon 
UHleration ;  but  they  already  exercisi'd  t,H>  irreat 
a  preponderance  in  the  South  Am.rican  system 
and  the  Colombian  generals  obtained  Ilic  nlln 
miishincntof  111,  'ii. pretensions.     Sucre  (itolivars 
Chief  of  htniri  lussumed  the  government  until  a 
congn-ss  TOuf.l    lie  a.sseml)le,i:    „„,|   „n,|,r  the 
inHuencc  of  the  Colombian  sohiierv  IniHr  I     u 
was  erectol   into  an   inil,|H>ndent  stjiU'  by  ,  ,e 
iiaiiie  of  the  I{epublic  of  Bolivar,  or  Ilolivia  '- 
*-•  J.  1  ayne.  Jlift.  of  Eun>i»m  Coloni,:  n  29() 
—  tor  an  account  of  the  Peruvian  war  of  lilKr 
ntion  — the  results  of  which  embraced   Inp-r 
leru  — ami  the  adoption  of  the  Bolivian  tunsli 
,oJi'"    hy    I  lie    latter,    see  Peru:  A.  I).   1830- 
1826.  and  IMi-,-182(l. 

A.  D.  1834-1839.— Confederation  with  Peru. 
-War  with  Chile.     See  Peru:    A.   I).  1828- 

A.  D.  i879-i88^.-The  war  with  Chile.    See 
Chile:  .\    |)   ik!'U1884. 

BOLIVIAN  CONSTITUTION,  or  Code 
BoUvar.  See  Peru  :  A,  1).  1835-1828,  auii  1836- 

lc*iO. 

BOLOGNA:  Oriein  of  the  city.— On  the 
flual  eomiuest  of  the  fJoianOaiils  in  .North  Italy 
a  new  Itoman  colony  an.l  frontier  fortnss  were 
establishwl.  B.  C.  189.  callwl  ftret  F.'lsiiis  and 
then  Bonoiiia.  which  is  the  Bolosna  of  msalern 
Italy.- 11.  u.   Ll.ldell.   Ui,t.  of  liome.  bk.  i,  eK 

Origin  of  the  name.    Sec  Buians. 


304 


K?- 


BOLOGNA. 


BOOK  OF  THE  DEAD. 


B.  C.  43.— Cenftreiic*  of  tli«  TrianTin. 
SecRomt:  B.  C.  44-48. 
nth  Centnry.— School  of  Law.— The  Gloo- 

Mton.— "Juit  lit  thia  time  [end  of  the  11th  cen- 
turv]  we  find  a  famoui  school  of  law  establishetl 
In  Bologna,  and  frequcnt«Ml  by  multitudes  of 
pupils,  not  only  from  all  parts  of  Italy,  but  from 
Otrmnny,  France,  and  other  countries.  The  basis 
of  hII  itx  instructions  was  the  Corpus  Juris CiTilis. 
Its  teachers,  who  constitute  a  series  of  dis- 
tin)riii»be<l  Jurists  extending  over  a  century  and 
a  liiilf.  devoted  themselvcn  to  the  work  of  ex- 
piiunding  the  text  and  elucidating  the  principles 
of  the  Corpus  Juris,  and  especially  the  Digest. 
Frdin  the  form  In  which  they  recortled  and 
bawled  down  the  results  of  their  studies,  thev 
have  obtained  the  name  of  glossators.  On  their 
copies  of  the  Corpus  Juris  they  were  accustomed 
tn  write  glosses,  1.  e.,  brief  marginal  explanationa 
and  remarks.  "—J.  Fladley,  Intnd.  to  Human  Late, 
Uel.  3.    See,  iilso.  Education,  MKDr.KVAt.. 

iith-i2th  Centuries. — Rite  and  Acquisition 
of  Republican   Independence.      See    Iiai.t  : 

A.  n.  lorja-iiw. 

A.  D.  1275.— Sorereienty  of  the  Pope  con- 
firmed by  Rodolph  of  Hapibure.  See  Qsu- 
UANV  A.  D.  1273-131)8. 

A.  D.  1350-1447.— Under  the  tyranny  of  the 
Visconti.  S'l'  .Vtii.A\  .V.  U.  1277-1447 ;  and 
Fi.'iKF.Nt  E  :  A.  n   \mv    1112. 

A.  D.  1512.- ..  -■  ion  by  Pope  Juliut  II. 
Sii'  Italy  ;  A.  I'llH. 

A.  D.  1796- .  n  ined  to  the  Cispadane 
Republic.     S.  .<<k  :  A.  D.  1796  (Apuii.— 

Oi  I'l'iKii):  17^^     r'.t7  (OrronK.it— .Vrmi.). 

A.  D.  1831.— Revolt  suppressed  by  Auitrian 
troops.     (M'C  Itai.v:  A.  I>.  1830-1N12. 
« 

"  BOMBA."     8.e  Italy  :  A.  D.  imR-lS49. 

BOMBAY.— Cession  to  England  (1661). 
See  Isnn:  A    O    1«<K)-1702. 

BON  HOMME  RICHARD,  and  Serapit, 
sea  fight  of  the.  See  United  Htatks  or  Am.  : 
A   II   177!l  (Skptkmbkb). 

BONAPARTE,  Jerome,  and  his  Kingdom 
of  Westphalia.     See    Okbm.\.vt:   A.    D.    1807 

(.IlNK     .IlLY);      i-^lS     (SKITE.MBER  —  OCTOBEn), 

aiiii  (i)c  roiiKii— l>i:('KMiiKii). 

BONAPARTE,  Joseph,  King  of  Naples  and 
King  of  Spain.  Sue  Filv-mk;  A.  D.  iSo.VlWW 
(l)KrnMiiKK— Srftksiiikki;  Spain:  A.  D.  1808 
(Mw— Seiti  MiiKH).  to  1812-1814. 

BONAPARTE,  Louis,  and  the  Kingdom  of 
Holland      S<r  Nktiikrlands:  A.  D.  1808-1810. 

BONAPARTE,  Louis  Napoleon.  See  Xapo- 

LKDS   III. 

BONAPARTE,  NAPOLEON,  The  career 

of.  See  France:  A.  I).  17»:)(Jclt— DErEMBKB), 
and  17M  (OcTonER— Decembeii).  to  181."). 

BON  AP  ARTE  F  AM  I L  Y,  The  origin  of  the. 
— "  About  four  miles  to  the  south  of  Florence,  on 
an  eminence  overlooking  the  valley  of  the  little 
river  Greve,  and  the  then  bridle-path  leading 
towards  Siena  and  Rome,  there  was  a  very  strong 
castle,  called  Monte  Boni,  Mons  Boni,  as  it  is 
styled  in  sundry  deeds  of  gift  eiec-itetl  within 
its  walls  in  the  years  1041,  1085,  and  1100,  by 
which  its  lords  made  their  pea"*  with  the  Church, 
in  the  usual  way,  by  sharing  with  churchmen 
Uje  proceeds  of  a  rnurse  of  life  such  as  ne<Hled  a 
whitewashing  stroke  of  the  Church's  office.  A 
strong  castle  on  the  road  to  Rome,  and  just  at  a 
point  where  the  path  ascended  a  steep  bill,  offered 
20 

30 


■dvaotages  and  temptations  not  to  be  resisted; 
and  the  lords  of  Monte  Bon! '  took  toll '  of  pasxen- 
gers.  But,  as  Villani  very  naively  says,  'the 
Florentines  could  not  endure  that  another  should 
do  what  they  abstained  from  doing. '  So  as  usual 
they  sallied  forth  from  their  gates  one  fine  morn- 
ing, attacked  the  strong  fortres.s,  and  razed  it  to 
the  ground.  All  this  was.  0.1  we  have  seen,  an 
ordinary  occurrence  enough  in  the  histnry  of  young 
Florence.  This  was  a  w.iy  the  burghers  had. 
They  were  clearing  their  liind  of  these  vestiges 
of  feudalism,  much  as  an  Ameriuin  settler  clears 
his  ground  of  the  stumps  n  muining  from  the 
primevol  forest.  But  a  special  interest  will  be 
admitted  to  belong  to  this  insLince  of  the  clearing 
process,  when  we  disaiver  who  those  noble  old 
freebooters  jf  Monte  Boni  were.  The  lords  of 
Monte  Boni  were  called,  by  an  ca.sy,  but  it  might 
be  fancied  Ironical,  derivation  from  the  name  of 
their  castle  'BuonI  del  Monte,' — the  Good  Men 
of  the  Mountain ; —  and  by  abbreviation,  Buondel- 
monte,  a  name  which  we  shall  hear  more  of  anrn 
in  the  pages  of  this  history.  But  when,  after  the 
destruction  of  their  fortress,  these  Good  Men  of 
the  Mountain  became  Florentine  citizens,  they 
increased  and  multiplied ;  and  in  the  next  genera- 
tion, dividing  off  Into  two  branches,  they  as- 
sumed, as  was  the  frequent  practice,  two  distinc- 
tive appellations;  the  one  branch  remaining 
BuondelmontI,  and  the  other  calling  themselves 
Buonaparte.  This  latter  branch  shortly  iifter- 
wanis  again  u'vlded  Itself  into  two,  of  which  one 
settled  at  9an  Ailniato  al  Tedesco,  and  became 
extinct  there  in  the  person  of  an  aged  canon 
of  the  name  within  this  century;  while  the 
other  first  established  itself  at  Sarzana,  a  little 
town  on  the  coast  about  half-way  betw.'eii 
Florence  and  Genoa,  and  from  thence  at  a  later 
period  transplanted  itself  to  Corsica ;  and  has  since 
been  heard  of."— T.  A.  Trolloiw,  iri»t.  of  the  Com- 
mimrr.iHh  nf  Florrwe,  t.  1.  pp.  .'lO-.'il. 

BONIFACE,  ST.,  The  Mission  of.  See 
Christianity:  A.  D.  496-800. 

BONIFACE,  COUNT,  and  the  Vandals. 
S<e  Vandals:  A.  D.  429-439. 

BONIFACE  III.,  Pope,  A.  D.  607,  Febbcart 
TO  November.  . . .  Boniface  IV.,  Pope,  A.  D. 
008-01.'5 Boniface  V.,  Pope,  A-  D.  819-625. 

. .  Boniface  VI.,  Pope,  A.  D  896 Boniface 

VII.,   Pope,  A.   D.   974,    984-985 Boniface 

VIII.,  Pope,  A.  I).  1294-1303. . . .  .Boniface  IX., 
Pope,  A.  D.  1.380-1404. 

BONN,  Siege  and  Capture  by  Marlborough 
(17031.     See  Nethehlands:  A.  D.  1 702-1704. 

BONNET  ROUGE,  The.  See  Liberty 
Cap. 

BONONIA  IN  GAUL.    See  Oesoriaci-m. 

BONONIA  IN  ITALY.    See  Boloosa. 

BOOK  OF  THE  DEAD.— "A  collection 
(ancient  Egyptian)  of  prayers  and  exorcisms  com- 
[OTged  at  various  periods  for  the  benefit  of  the 
pilgrim  soul  in  his  journey  through  Araenti  (the 
Ki»yptian  Hades);  and  it  was  in  order  to  pn)vide 
liim  with  a  safe  conduct  tlm)ugh  the  perils  of 
tint  terrible  valley  that  copies  of  this  work,  or 
portions  of  it,  were  buried  with  the  mummy  i:i 
ills  tomb.  Of  the  many  thousands  of  papyri 
which  liave  been  preserved  to  this  day,  It  is  per- 
haps scarcely  too  much  to  say  that  one  half,  if 
not  two  thirds,  are  copies  more  or  less  complete 
of  the  Book  of  the  Dead."— A.  B.  Edwards, 
Aeademii,  Srpt.  10,  1887.  M.  Naville  puhlislied 
in   1887  a  collation  of  the  numerous  differing 


^•^1 


BOOK  OP  THK  DEAD. 

U^m'i,*k"  ?*;'',"'  "•"  ^*^-  o"  »•">  Prep^tlon 

nnJ?M="  '"^l'  '"  '■"  e'>8»««s<»  '<»  ten  yekn. 
ir.^9   S5'  ?'":?'•   "•'   "«•  ••ttliment   of 
Md  ITTlMTsI*"'    '^'^'""•'"^  ^  J*-  "65-1778, 

A^P^iSw'iS-'-^'  ^•*H«  »'     See  MiMocB,: 

A.  I)    1S«I(FKBKCARr— JULT) 

BOONSBORO.  or  South  feountmln,  Battle 
of.  Ne  LNiTEn  8TATEII  or  Am.:  A.  D.  1863 
(.SEPTKMHitR:  .Maryland). 

Pr!.^?.L"'.^»''".  Wilke..-A.MMin.tioii  of 
aL     A    K  Vi!!?"'?-     ^  ^''""°  State,  or 
*1i'^-  "•  "*M.\Puii.  Uth). 
BOR-RUSSIA.   SeePHUB«A:TnEOiuoii.Ai, 

Ps^?!l?.^f  "\,  *'"    SLATEBr.     Medmsval: 

A.Nor.\.Nt):  iilso  Man-okk 

Tt.wf"  Mahomktak  Comucew:    A.  D. 

Ste;.°»fV5?°-~.'*"^*  "'  ""•  Frondeurt.- 
aleee  of  the  citr  — TreatT   of   Pmu      s^ 

0™J1  "T-'**''*"'?,"  »C  *'••  Soiiety  of  the 
and  iubmiMion  of  the  city.-- The  pence  of 
Bonleaux  InOctob.  r.  l.r.0.  h'i  l.-ft  ,h«  cUrtrr/n 

neither  att«rhn,J  to  th-  ffovemuirt.t  nor  afmi.l  of 

.'i„'  i  "JT  .*■*,■•  •"  "I  '^'"^'*-  "  ^'ol''"'  element  ol.. 

!i       L*?"".:'''   """''r  '"■■  '""•orl'anee.  and    not 

alarmed  by  the  posslhllity  of  radlenl  rl,ang,.H  in  th,. 

f^uTt" """"«  ""^  I">l'<il'>r  emoli.M, 

amilriHt  EiH'rnon,  nieetmgn,  moMllv  of  the  lower 
Claniwij,  had  been  hehi  umler  annie  Kreut  elms 
near  the  rit  v.  and  from  thia  circumiiUnce  a  party 
hml  taken  ttie  n.ime  of  the  Ormec.  It  now  as- 
sumed a  niof  definite  form,  and  befjan  to  pro- 
test  niralnst  the  aliM-knesa  of  the  offleem  au.l 
miiKi.»tml<>>i.  who  It  wh«  clmrjfed,  were  ready  to 

«»'."!  ""i/  V  .i;"!"!'"""  ""•«••  The  I'arllati.ent 
wan  i»..fdivid,.,l  into  two  factions."  Itnown  as 
111.  Litilc  Fronde  and  the  (Jwit  Fronde  — the 
latter  of  whl.h  wns  dev„ie.l  to  tlic  Prinee  .:f 

«H"'r"ii  V"'  ''V.'"^"  *"'*  "■'■'ety  comiKiml 
originally  of  a  smnll  numU-r  of  a.tive  and  vio. 

I.'L"i!i.'".'i."'  ""'.'  '"  L'"  '"•(r'«nl««llon  not  wh.illy 

unlike  the  s-niety  of  the  Jh<-obin« Troul.lii 

tocrraae,!  I«.tw...„  IliU  s.m|hv  ami  the  parlia- 
ment  am  on  .1  ,.,,,■  3d  (19.-.2|  it  held  a  mWtinK 
atU.nd«l  bv  HICK)  ann.-l  men,  nn.l  d.Tided  on 
the  ..<lle  of  foiirtw  n  of  the  Judges  who  were  rr- 
jtar.1"!  as  ir.itnrs  to  the  <a.i«..  .  .  .  The  offend- 
Ine  Judife.  w.re  ohiiired  to  leave  the  city,  l,ut  In 
f'V*  ''»> •  I'Tlioment  aRain  ol.l«in«|  con- 
trol and  the  exile,  were  nrullwl  and  rc^-elved 
with  If  real  solemnity.  Hut  the  Omific  was  not 
thus  to  lie  over.;ome.  On  June  8.1th  the.,,  cm- 
U-'ts  resulti-l  In  n  buttle  in  the  itreels,  In  whl,  li 
llie  s.Kietr  l;'»'l  llie  advaMta^e.      Many  of  the 

JiidKea  abiuid •.!  the  confli<t  and  lefl'lhe  ritv 

1  he  Onnfc  establl.lH,!  Itaelf  at  the  Hotel  do 
i  I"'';. •"''  ""'•'■'-•'"'t  In  controllint  for  the  moat 
pait  the  affairs  ot  the  Hty.  .  .  .  iNmdi  decide,! 
lli.it  ]»■  would  re<Hi(tnli;e  the  Ormft-  a^«  a  political 
orifiinlMtion.  anil  «ir.n«lhen  It  bv  his  approval 
.  .  .  1  ho  restomtlon  of  lh«  Kind's  authority  at 
Paris  f»„.  Jhakcr:  A  I).  1M1-I(W;)]  slwnith- 
ene.1  the  part;-  at  llonli-aiu  that  ilesfre<l  peace 


and  Inen^Kf  the  .!,,ie.,..r  ,,f  the  ,.,r,j-  thsi"  wai 
•ppoied  to  It     PloU  w«r«  laid  for  the  orw^ 


BORNEO 

throw  of  the  local  authoriUei,  but  they  wem 
wholly    unsucctWul.  .  .  .  The   desire   of   i|« 
people,   the  nobility,   and  the  clerKy  was  f  r 
peace     Only  by  speedy  aid  from  Spain  could 
the  city  be  kept  In  hoatllity  to  iu  Kfcg  and   n 
allcrlancetoeondfi.    Spali  waa  a.k«f  to  ^nd 
assistance  and  prevent  this  important  loss    \mt 
the  Spanish  delayed  any  vigoroS  actlolpa '  y 
from  lemisuieu  and  partly  from  lack  of  in^Z 
and  money.  The  most  of  the  province  of  Oulenne 
was/fiuduallylosttothetasurminta.  .  .     Con.iI 
seems  to  have  left  Ouienne  to  itaelf    '        in 
llihi  condition  the  people  of  Bordeaux  turied  to 
[;  h"l!!r'.'i."'  ""  ""V  Peraon  who  had  the  power 
io  help  them.      .      fhe  envoyi  were  reieiv.Hl 
W  Cromwell,  but  he  took  no  step,  to  send  aid  to 
Bbrdeaux.       Hopea  were  held  out  which  en 
couragcd  the  city  and  aUnr-d  »:,e  French  mini,, 
ter    but  no  ahipt  were  sent."     MeanUme.  th. 
Kings  forces  In  Ouienne  advanced  with  stead v 
success,  and  early  in  the  lummer  of  1653  tliev 
^S?f„  '^S  "'***  "'  the  city.    The  peace  party 
ni!?l°'  ^^  encouraged,  soon   overthrew   the 
Ormfc.  and  arranged  terms  for  the  iubml««ion 
of  the  town.     "The  government  proceede.1  st 
once  to  erect  the  castles  of  Trompette  and  H4 
and  lliey  were  made  p.)werful  enoueh  to  check 
any  future  turbulence. "-J.  B.  Perkins.  Frane, 
vnder  Maiarin,  rh.  15  (».  S).  .  «  »  «« 

I  -^"i  '?/."'-7''"''«  girendiati  in  the  National 
H«f *?,'?""  Asaembly.  See  France:  A.  1) 
nui  (<HroBi.;n). 

A.  D.  1793.— ReTOlt  anintt  the  Revolu- 
tiooary  Covemment  of  Paria.— Fearful  ven- 
geance of  the  Terrorists.     ^'■•^   '•'ranck     V    I) 

l.»:ll.Il'.NE);  (.h  l.Y— DeIEMBEK);  SU.I  I71*i-i:W 
(OCT.inKB— .Vphil). 

IS.^^lMsf""""'''''^''®-  **KAIfSA.;AD. 
1708  (APKII,— OCTUBEH). 

jjfjORC'AS.  Tht.    See  Pafact:  A  D.  MTt- 

doS  ,S^i^°T  J*"'  ,'»™'''-ly  powerful  kl.,«. 

nZi  1  r  "■'  ^'?  '"  "«""•  '»  *  *""'«lm< 
«r,,n  i  V""  '"i""^'  '^■'"  '«''"'''  "f  «l'i''i  " 
h.?'  ",(       ;  ,"""  '«<T'  '-"^t.  ,  .  .  Kx,lu,l,n« 

thc.ohil„,.,it„|  u„,l  ,„,,„  „    i„„,  „,.^  ,^,,^,^,  ,^^ 

.  .   -   With  the  Hilju.eiitiit.lj.  .  .       jt  h,„ai.,.„I 

two  an.  a  half  tln,,.s  that  of  U...  Hriil,],  |,lei 
.  .  .  JBya,ievenoreijrlit  times smHll.r,..«(,„li 
t  t.;n  or  twelve  time,  ii,  the  nundsr  nf  |i,  i„ 
habitants.^  even  the  thinly  pe„p|„|  i,iH,„|  „f 
Hima.ra  U  more  than  twi,-..  li  f„,,„|.,„s. 
.,'  r.?',  li'T".?''  •••*'"»"•  <ll«proporlioi,  mui.t  Im- 
^>re,Ui  which  enclnl,,  nearly  th..  whole  „f  ihe 

wn?'""i:u--  •  •  ""•I  hunting  U  11 lv.,l,j...t 

wiU.  which  many  trib,.»  ai.prau h  ll...if  .1.  idi 
Dora.         .  SighteiJ  by  the  1'ortuiru.w  pn.UMr 


306 


in  tlie  flrat  years  of  the.Uleenth.Tnlurv"  H..ri. 
reniHln.M  unknown  to  history  till  I,Wl.'v.l„i,  ii». 
survivors  of  .Magellan's  expedition  r.,ui,.l  th- 
glolie  pn  ...nUHl  lhem«-lve.  iM.for..  Brunei  ^,.« 
aftrr  this  evout.  J„r«e  ,i,-  M.^neses  «rt„l,ll,l„-.|  s 
factory  00  the  writ  cuaat;  the  Uul.b  made  iLeit 


BORMXC. 

tpponnce  la  1086,  wad  they  were  toon  followed 
bv  the  BngUth.    But  all  attempt*  at  ezploratioD 
were  lUCceHively  abandoned.  .  .  .  Permanent 
European  aettlemention  the  coaat  were  first  made 
in  1813,  wben  the  Engllih  occupied  Pontianac  and 
BiuiJermaMin,  wbicb  were  two  yean  later  tn'.r- 
rendered  to  tbe  Dutch.  .  .  .  The  Dutch,  matters 
of  all  the  rest  of  Indonesia,  except  the  eastern 
half  of  Timor,  bare  not  bad  time  to  establish 
tlirir  rule  over  the  whole  of  Borneo.    They  have, 
liDwever,  gradually  redui«d  or  annexed  all  tbe 
aection  Irfng  south  of  the  equator,  as  well  as 
Hbnut  half  of  the  northern  districts.     But  possvs- 
Hion  of  tbe  north-west  and  northern  parts  has 
l>t«n  secured  by  the  EnKiisb,  through  various 
treaties    with    the     Sulian    of     Brunei,    former 
tiizersin  of  the  whole  of  this  nwlon.     In  1H40 
tile  British  goTemmcnt  obtaineu  tbe  absolute 
cnwion  of  tbe  island  of  Labuan,  at  tlie  entrance 
of  Brunei  Bay,  despite  thi-  protests  of  the  Netb- 
erlHods     But  the  sultan  had  already  granted  to 
James  Brooke  the  principality  of  Harawak,  com- 
prising the  southern  part  uf  his  kingdom.    In 
return   for   a  yearly  subsidy,   this   soldier   of 
fortune,    commonly  known   as  Kajab   Brooke, 
thus  became  master  of  an  extensive  territorv. 
which  has  since  been  gradually  enlarged  at  tlie 
expense  of  the  sultan's  domain.     On  the  i>piM> 
site  side  of  Brunei  the  tultan  lins  also  yieUied 
llie  northern  part  of  the  islaml  to  a  powerful 
llritlsh  company,  which  has  already  oiitained  a 
royal  charter  from  tbe  Crown  of  Gnglatid.     A 
pirt  ot  this  territoiy  having  also  Ixren  eliilnieti 
by  the  sovereign  of  the  Sulu  archlpel.igt),  tliiit 
piti'ntate.  like  hit  Brunei  colleague,  has  U-en 
fxiiiitht  oir  by  a  pennon.    Thanks  to  this  piir- 
oliaiwof  the  land,  Hpain,  which  had  meantime  lie- 
eoine  the  suierain  of  the  Hulu  prince,  baa  lien(«- 
(nrlh    been    excluded    from    all    claim    Ui    the 
powwlon  of  any  part  of  Borneo.    Lastly,  the  siil- 
uiuBic  of  Hrunel  itself  depends  for  its  verv  exist- 
piii-e  cm  the  suiferance  of  England,  and  it' Is  now 
prc)iK»ed  to  unite  it  to  tbe  other  territories  of  the 
twii  cumpanies,  under  the  direct  protectorate  of 
Great  Britain.     But  a  frontier  question  still  re- 
niiiinn  to  be  settled  between  tbe  Dutch  govem- 
iiivnt  and  the  North  Borneo  Companv.    arising 
nut  nf  a  misunderstanding  aa  to  the  Klentity  ot 
Un-  river  ,Sebukn.  which   Is  accepted   by  both 
•iiles   as   the  lioundarr   line.  .  .  .  Borneo  tllll 
liHilHiiirs  many  alwilutely  savage  peoples.   .  .  . 
Till-  )!rt«t  bulk  of  tbe  inland   populations  are 
rnllwtlvely   known  as    Davaks   [or   Dvaks),    a 
term        .  whi<'h,  for  tbe  .Vislava.  has  sl'mplv  the 
sen*  of  'wild'  or    '  heathen.'''— K.  li<'clus,  T/u 
Kirih  ,vid  lit  In'iiihitiinUi :  ttftnuim.  rh.  «.—«<■<• 
,MAl.^v^1    K.iK  — 'Hlr  James   Uro-ike   visited 
Hnrncn  in  ih.^,  lo  sueceeil  In  carrying  out.  by 
hi«  ii«ii  pi'PKinal  energv,  what  the  gnat   East 
IjkIIii  Coiiiininv  had  fiiflifi  to  arcompllxh      lie 
f.iiii.|.-l    Saniwuk      With    the  aid   of   Ailmlral 
Ki  piwl  III'  annlhllaterl  the  dangerous  Imnles  of 
t'lrHii-i    tliai   Infi-mtiHl    the   western  coasU      He 
Micwfiili,-  xamiM-d  out    a  risinc  of  Clilnese, 
in  will,  h  ojx-niilim  llm  native  tribes  lovallv  cume 
111  lin  HHHlstaiiee ;     and    he    has  (leiiiiin«trat<-d. 
tlrnin.  iaily  niHl  politically,  the  wtalom  of  thoae 
enrlv  Hutch  and  Hrlliali  ailventurers  who  saw  a 
»l>ii^ri<lii|  prop<-rtv  In  the  iKlaiKt  of  Uomeo.     In 

1*4,    the    t''neli>h     e<3Ver!..!!«!t,    »eri.-jjr    tIsB  (?B- 

ixirtani-e  of  a  station  in  this  latttutle,  piirrhaMil 
Uhiian,  sn  Island  ofl  the  onaM  of  Borneo,  and 
■uUe  it  an  English  colony,  wltk  a  fovtroor  and 


307 


BOROUOa 

all  tbe  necessary  offlcen  and  applUncM  of  aa 
effldent  administration.  Such  is  the  brief  hi*, 
tory  of  Borneo,  poatession  of  which  is  now 
divided  between  tbe  Dutch  government,  the 
Hultan  of  Brunei,  Rajah  Brooke,  and  the  British 
North  Borneo  Company,  the  latter  recently 
(IHtllJ  endorsed  in  ita  undertaking  by  the  royal 
charter  of  her  Majesty  Queen  Victoria.  Borneo 
has  been  made  familiar  to  the  general  reader  by 
the  settlement  of  Sarawak,  which  is  situated  on 
the  western  side  of  tbe  island.  Rajah  Brooke's 
territorv  iionslsts  of  over  IW.OOO  sijuare  miles, 
.  .  .  Alone  and  unaided,  without  state  protec- 
tion or  oHlrlal  service,  for  forty  years  Sarawak 
lifls  maintained  an  independent  position,  her 
Eu^Miah  ibief  holding  sovereign  power,  bis  gov- 
ernment being  often  spoken  of  by  travellers  who 
have  visited  Borneo  as  an  example  worthy  to  be 
studied  by  some  of  tbe  world's  greatest  powers. 
1'lie  Britiab  North  nomeo  Company  have  raised 
tlitlr  Hag  over  about  the  same  extent  of  country 
Hs  that  which  comprises  8arawak :  and  they 
have  wisi-ly  Imitated  the  policy  of  Rajah  Brooke 
In  ruling  the  natives  through  their  thiefa,  and 
with  all  due  respect  to  tbeir  own  laws,  cualoros, 
and  religion.  Harawak  is  a  happv  and  pnwiM-r- 
mis  colony.  With  a  populatlim  of  IMtl.WHi  souls, 
it  has  a  respectable  military  force,  garrisons,  and 
forU ;  it  pays  a  competent  staff  of  Euro|>ean  and 
native  ofUccrs :  and  maintains  three  gunlMnts  to 
imrtect  its  commerce  and  guarantee  the  safety  of 
life  and  property  to  its  8iilije<ts.  (Rajah  UriK.ke 
left  Sarawak  in  IwW,  and  died  in  England  in  1M18. 
He  was  succeeded  aa  rajah  bv  a  nephew  who 
had  taken  his  name.  Sarawak  was  placeil  under 
BriUiih  protection  In  18HH.)  .  .  .  The  I>iit<h 
claim  suzerainty  over  all  the  other  portions  of 
Honieo  that  are  not  occupied  by  Kajab  Hr(H>ke 
In  Harawak,  the  British  North  itdrni.'i  tnnipany 
in  Habab  and  tbe  Hultanate  of  Uruiui.  Tliey 
have  established  something  like  a  regular  gKV- 
emment  over  the  coast  dlKtricts  of  the  west  and 
south.  They  have  Residents  in  the  sotithern 
and  eastern  districts,  and  their  chief  town  is 
Pontlanak.  A  native  sultan  is  nominal  ruler. 
They  have  as  yet,  however,  done  nothing  in  the 
way  of  developing  this  colony  compariHl  with 
their  working  of  other  posaessibna  "— J.  llatton. 
Be  Mne  OiloH.  rk  8. 

BORNHOVED,  Battia  ofdsay).  See  Bcan- 
DIHAVIAK  Htatss:  A.  D.  101K.-i»i7. 

BORNY,  OR  COLOMBEY-NOUILLV, 
Battle  of.  8eeFR*m«:  A.n  l«70(Jt!LT— Ado  l 

BORODINO,  OR  THE  MOSKOWA, 
Battle  of,    Hee  Husiia:    A.  D.   mt  (Jurb— 

HiPTKMaRM) 

BOROUGH,-  CITy,-TOWM.-VILLB. 
—••The  burh  of  the  AnglivBaxon  period  wae 
simply  a  more  strictly  organiznl  form  of  the 
township.  It  was  prol«bly  In  a  more  ilefenslhle 
position  :  hail  a  ditdi  and  mouml  instead  of  the 
imickset  hedge  or  'tun'  from  Kblcli  tbe  town- 
ship took  Its  name  ;  and  as  the  •  tun '  originally 
waa  the  fenced  humesti'sd  of  the  tiiltivator.  tlie 
burh  waa  the  fortlHed  bonne  and  courl-vani  of 
the  mighty  man  — the  king,  tlie  magistrate,  or 
tlie  noble."— W.  Stiihha,  Cntuit.  Him.  oi  tSnf  , 
th.  B.— "I  must  freely  confess  that  I  do  not 
kn<iw  what  dllTrrence.  except  a  dtfferenre  la 
ntnk.  there !»  in  England  bclwra-n  a  rity  and  a 
Nirough.  ...  A  city  doe*  not  seem  to  have  sny 
righu  or  power*  as  a  city  which  an  aot  rqiially 
siMnd  by  every  other  corporate  town.    Tbe  oeir 


!■■     n 


BOROVOa 

eorpoimte  toWM  whkh  hsre  any  ipedal  power* 
•bove   other.   «re   those  which  are  coumfeaof 
tlieniael»e«i  and  all  cities   are  not  counties  of 
thcmaeWea,  while  aome   towns   whicli  ure  not 
cities  are.    The  citir  in  En«hmd  U  not  so  easily 
deHned  as  the  city  in  the  United  Sutea.    There 
eveiy  corpont«  town  is  a  dty.    This  makes  a 
»rmt  many  cities,  and  it  leada  to  an  use  of  the 
word  citv  In  common  tallc  which  seems  a  little 
atranmi  In  British   ears.     In  England,  even  in 
speaking  of  a  real  city,  the  wonfclty  U  seldom 
used,    except   In   language   a   litUe  formal  or 
rhetorical:  In  America  It   U   used  whenever  a 
city  is  mentioned.    But  the  American  rule  has 
I        I.*?"'?**  °{ •*'"«  perfectly  cliarana  avoid- 
ing all  doubt     And  It  agrees  very  well  with  the 
Origin   of   the   word:   a   corporate   town   is  a 
civltaa,  a  commonwealth;  any  lesser  collection 
or  men   hardir  U  a  commonwealth,  or  b  such 
only  in  a  much  leas  perfect  degree.    This  brings 
us  to  the  hUtoricsl  use  of  tiie  word.    It  Is  cl<ar 
at  *Urtlng  that  the  word  is  not  English.    It  haa 
no    Old-English     equivalent;    burh,     burgh 
hMwugh  in  Its  various  spellings  and  variSui 
shadea  of  meaning.  Is  our  native  word  for  urbes 
of  every    kind    from    Rome   downwanl    It  Is 
curious   that    this   word    should   In    ordinary 
speech  have  been  so  largely  displaced  by  the 
vaguer  word  tun,  town,  which  means  an  enclos- 
ure of  any  kind,  and  in  some  English  dialecU  ia 
still  applied  to  a  single  bouse  and  iu  surround- 
ings. .  .  .  In  common  uik   we  use  the   word 
borough  hardly  ofteuer  than  the  word  city;  when 
the  word  U  used,  it  has  commonly  some  direct 
reference   to   the  pHrtlanuntary   or   municipBl 
charactera  of  the  town.    Miiny  people,  I  suspect, 
would  define  a  borough  as  a  town  which  sends 
members  to  Parliament,  and  such  a  definition, 
though  still  not  arc  urate,  has.  by  lato  changes 
been  bought  nean-r  to  accuracy  than  It  used  to 
be.    City  and  Ummgh,  then,  are  both  rathtr for- 
mal wonls;  town  is  the  word  which  comes  most 
naturally  to  the  lips  when  there  is  no  special 
reason  for  ustag  one  of  the  others.    Of  Uic  two 
•ormsl  words,  borough  Is  English;  city  is  Latin 
It  comes  to  us  from  (}»ul  and  Italy  by  aome  road 
or  other.     It  U  in  Domes-lay  that  we  find   bv 
no  means  l.s  first  use  In  England,  but  lu  first 
clesriv   formal    use,  the  firet  use  of  it    to  dls- 
Ungulah  a  eeruin  class  of  towns,  to  mark  tiiose 
towns  which  are  'civltatcs'  as   well   as  burgi 
from    those   which   are    burgi   only.     Now  ia 

-'"'.K""J;i*"*i  .'°  '""^  '♦■""">  language 
WMthe  tribe  and  its  territory,  Uie  whole  Inn,l 
of  mo  ArvemI,  Parisll.  or  any  other  tribe.  In  a 
secondary  sense  It  meant  the  hcati  town  of  the 
JH      ;  i.-  y»^hen  Christianity  was  esubli-ihf.i, 

eiuat  of  the  bishops  diocese;  Oie  civlias' 
to  Iho  narrower  «nso  bwmme  the  ImnuHliate 
•eat  of  Us  bishupstool.  Th..»  we  amnot 
say  that  in  Oaul  a  town  Ucamc  a  cKv 
bH.-ause  It  was  a  bUhop'a  see;  but  we  may  mv 
thai  a  ceruin  clans  of  towns  became  hlJi.,!,,' 
sevs  because  they  were  alrvadv  cities.  Bui  in 
ni'xi.m  french  use  no  dUlfnction  U  mA<le 
l«rween  these  ancient  oapiuls  which  b.Hamo 
hi.hopricaand  oUicr  towns  of  leas  temporal  ami 

hill  "S^  ^''  ■  "^  ""  "'  ">•  bt^opric.  the 
lM-a.1  of  the  .iiclent  Drovtaos,  the  hMM]  of  Um 
m,iil.«^d«p-rtm-at.  ifi=  tnm\u>f  sr-wa  which  has 
m-vir  rissD  to  any  of  those  dlnitlaa.  an  >ll 
•iilurllW.  loro-s-'w-uirW-IitairwlJ! 


BOSPHORUa 


808 


dbtlngulshed  from  meaner  places.  The  woM 
cite  is  common  enough,  but  it  haa  a  purely  I,kS 
meaning  It  often  llstingulshea  Uie  old  pa?? 
a  town  the  ancient  Vivrtas,-  from  later  addN 
tlona.  In  Italy  on  the  oUjerhand.  citU  isC 
U>8  familUr  and  Uie  formal  name  for  town, 
grat  and  malL  It  is  used  ^ust  like  ville  " 
fv^:.~^J-  Freeman,  fti,  and  Bo^h 
(Jfumtttsn'i  Mag.,  May,  1889).  ^' 

j,,|^ROUCH-6ncLISH.    SeePiuDALTra- 

mB."m",SS^."'.?®5l.,"**"«  ot-Pought 
March  1«.  1W8,  In  the  civil  war  which  arose  la 
England  during  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  m  sc^ 
count  of  the  fing-s  favorites,  the  IMspenw^ 
Thomas,  Eari  of  Uncaster,  the  leader  of  oppW- 

'i^^^^'^-  '^^"^'  ""»°-Hix  £?*:« 

BOROUGHS,   Rotten  and   Pocket     Sm 

BORROM«AM.  OR  GOLDEN  LEAGUE. 
The.    See  Switxbrlahd:  A.  D.  167»-168() 

the  Greeks  gave  anciently   to  the  river  now 

^°   -  ^0   Dnieper,  'it  ,1,0  became  th' 

name  of  a  town  near  Uie  mouth  of  Oie  river 

which  was  originally  called  01bla,-a  very  earl. 

tiling  settlement  of  the  Mllesl^  '       ' 

BOSCOBEL.Th.  Royal  Oak  of:    See  Scar. 
"ND:  A.  D.  1651.  D«!ocoT- 

8TA?at*"^    ^     °*'''^    *""     DA.^rBU!, 
BOSPHORUS,  OR  BOSPORUS,  The- 

straiu  from  Europe  Into  Asia.  They  gave  the 
name  particularly  to  that  channel,  oS  wh"h 
C.mstantlnople  lies  but  applied  it  al««  to  other 

^ "f '  •'.r'"2'  '"'^.''  "  ""'  Cimmerian  Bosporus 
opening  the  Sea  of  Aiov.  '^  ^ 

The  city  and  kinrdom.— "  nesnectlni;  Bm. 

fTL^  ^r""^'^'  'f™  "oth  nS  doIZ 
)^.„^.  city,  though  Uie  former  luinie  often 
comprehends     be    whole    snnci»l    domlni.m) 

It  SJu  K'™™«'^»'',B*»P"rus  (near  K.risch) 
wo  first  hear,  about  the  period  when  Xtnn 
waa  repulsed  from  Greece  (4«(M79  B  C  »  'i 
was  the  centre  of  a  domlni.m  inclu.ling  Pham- 

on  Uie  AsUtic  side  of  the  strait;  and  it  in  ui,|  u. 
hnve  been  governed  by  what  aeems  to  have  beta 
iiu  oligarchy— called  the  Archmin«ktl,l,i_f„r 
f,.i1y-two  voari(4»(M88  B,  C  )    After  ll„m  we 
have  a  series  of  princes  standing  out  Imlivi,!,,- 
ally  by  "aire  and  succeeditv  each  other  In  tl„ 
same  family.  [488-384  B.  cf.  .  .  .  During  tl,e 
relps  of  tbaeo  princea.  a  connexion  ..f  mnw 
Intimacy  subsisted  between  Ath-niami  U,».|»,ri.,; 
a  oonnesloo  not  political,  since  the  I».«|H.r«in,> 
prinoea  bad  little  Intoreat  in  Uie  conlentlmn  «l«)ut 
Hellenic  hegerajwy _ but  of  private  lnt<p.vur*., 
commercial  eichangeand  redprucal  g(K»l  i.tflee<. 
The  eastern  comer  of  the  Tauric  (^herwHi.«u.i. 
between  Pantikapcum  and  Theodosia.  ww  well 
suited  fof  the  production  of  com;  while  iiieiuy 
I*!:  ^i"  ^"  ••  •«»".  "«•  to  he  ha<l  In  or  nei 
the  Palus  Mootia    Com.  salted  fish  »i..l  .n.>sl, 
Wde*  and  barbaric  slaves  In  oonshleral.le  num 
oral,  w«r«  iu  demaaii  among  all  (Jreeks  niuiul 
SLwT**?'   •««»  "Ot  lea*  at  Athens,   where 
MqrtWaa  alavsa  wen  nunerous;  while  oil  and 


B08FH0RU& 


BOSTON,  188t. 


trine,  and  other  products  of  more  ioutheni 
re^loni,  were  uceptable  in  Bosporus  and  the 
ntlier  Pontic  ports.  Tliis  important  traffic 
Menu  to  have  been  mainly  carried  on  In  ships 
sod  by  capital  belonging  to  Athens  and  other 
Mgaia  maritime  towns,  and  must  have  been 
gmitly  under  the  protection  and  regulation  of 
ibe  Athenians,  so  long  as  their  maritime  empire 
subaUteil.  EoterprisGig  citizens  of  Athens  went 
to  Bosporus  (as  to  Thmce  and  the  Thraclsn 
Chemonesus),  to  push  i  "Ir  fortunes.  .  .  .  We 
have  no  means  of  following  [the  fortunes  of  tlie 
Doaponiaic  princes]  in  detail ;  but  we  know  that, 
almut  a  century  B.  C. ,  the  then  reigning  prince, 
I'arisades  IV.  found  himself  so  pre««l  and 
squeezed  by  the  Ucytliians,  that  he  was  forced 
(like  Olbia  and  the  Pentapolis)  to  forego  his 
independence,  and  to  call  in,  as  auxiliary  or 
master,  the  formidable  Mithridates  Eupntor  of 
I'ontus ;  from  whom  a  new  dynasty  of  Bospor- 
anic  kings  began— subject,  however,  after  no 
long  Interval,  to  the  dominion  and  Interference 
ot  Rome."— O.  Orote,  Ilut.  of  Oittee,  ft.  8, 
th.m. 

Also  ir:  T.  Hommsen,  IIM.  of  Rome,  bk.  8, 
th.  7.— SeeMrTHRiOATic  Wabs,  and  Romb:  &  C. 
47-W. 

Acqnisition  by  th«  Goths.  Bee  Qoths,  Ac- 
qonunoH  or  Bospborus. 

A.  D.  565-574.- Captor*  by  tba  Tarkc— 
"  During  the  reign  of  Justin  [A.  D.  56.V-574]  the 
dty  of  Bosporus,  In  Tauris,  liad  been  cnpturecl 
by  the  Turks,  who  then  <ir<  iipird  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  Tauric  C'liersnnesus.  The  city  of 
('hemon  alone  continued  to  maintain  its  inde- 
pendence in  the  northern  regi>^ns  of  the  Block 
f'ea."— 0.  PlnlaVi  Oneu  under  tht  liomaiu,  eh. 
4,  itct.  8. — See  Tinuts:  Sixth  Csirri'BY. 


BOSSISM.—  The  ' '  S  polls  Svstem  "  In  Amerl- 
ran  politics  [see  Spoils  System]  developed  enor- 
mously the  influence  and  power  of  oertam  leaden 
»n<l  niB..  ^n  of  party  organlistions,  in  the 
^■nal  cliirs  and  some  of  the  states,  who  acquired 
the  niimcsof  "  Bosses,"  while  tlie  system  of  poli- 
tics wlilcli  they  represented  was  called  "Boss- 
Urn."  The  notorious  William  M.  Twee<l,  of  the 
New  York  "Tammany  Ring"  [see  Nkw  York: 
.\.  n.  180ii-t8i  1]  terms  to  lisve  been  the  flrst  of 
theH|M'ries  to  be  dubbed  "Boss  Tweed  "by  his 
"  het'lors."  or  followers,  and  tlie  title  passed  from 
bini  to  othcr<i  of  like  kind. 

BOSTON :  A.  D.  16*8-1630.— Th*  feaad- 
Ing  and  aaminr  of  tha  city.  Hcc  llAStACav- 
^KTTl^    A.  U.  16!»-I62(*.  and  l«80. 

A.  D.  i43i-i65i.-Th«  Paritan  Tbaecrae*. 
AeeMASSAravsiCTTS:  A.  O.  1881-1686,  to  1646- 
IH'il. 

A.  D.  1635.— Ponndlnc  th*  Latin  School. 

8ee  ElltTATION,  MoDKHM  :  Amrrica. 

A.  O.  1656-1661,- Tho  porsocation  of  Qna- 
ksrs.    See  Mass ACBtWRrrs :  A.  D.  I6M-1A1. 

A.  D.  1657-1669.— Tho  HalfiraT  CovoMuit 
aad  the  foundiac  "'  **>•  Old  South  Chnrch.— 

"  In  MnsMihiisittji  after  16.VI  thi<j|il;iiim  rapidly 
gxini'd  gn>uo<l  Uiat  all  baptlani  perMiiia  of  up- 
riithl  anil  dtroniun  lives  ought  to  lie  innRldered, 
fur  pniiiiral  purposes,  as mrmbers of  the  cl.urch, 
»ikI  llicn'fore  entitled  to  the  exerriiie  of  pollllral 
riKhla,  even  tliough  unqnalifled  for  pnrtlclpatluo 
iu  ihc  I.ord's  {(iipiirr.  This  liieury  of  churrb- 
ini'nihcrslilp,  bosefl  on  what  wss  at  that  Uma 
itijiinatlsed  u  tbv  Halfway  Covenant,  aroutsd 


Intense  opposition.  It  was  the  great  question  of 
the  day.  In  1657  a  council  was  held  in  Boston, 
which  nppmved  the  principle  of  the  Halfway 
Covenant;  and  as  this  decision  was  far  from 
satiaf  viiig  the  churches,  a  synod  of  all  the  clergy- 
men in  Massachusetts  was  held  Are  years  Uter, 
u>  a-coDsider  tlie  great  question,  llie  decision 
of  tlie  synod  substiiutlally  confirmed  the  decision 
of  the  council,  but  there  were  some  dissenting 
voices.  Foremost  among  the  dissenters,  who 
wished  to  retain  the  old  theocratic  regime  In  all 
Its  strictness,  was  Charles  Chaunccy,  the  presi- 
dent of  Harvard  College,  and  Increase  Mather 
ngn'ed  with  him  at  the  time,  though  be  after, 
ward  saw  reason  to  cliange  his  opinion  and  pub- 
lished two  tracts  in  favour  of  the  Halfway  Cov. 
cnant.  Host  bitter  of  all  toward  the  new  theory 
nf  cburch-memberahip  was,  naturally  enough, 
Mr.  Davenport  of  New  Haven.  This  buming 
question  was  the  source  of  angry  contentions  In 
the  Pint  Church  of  Boston.  Its  teacher,  the 
learned  and  melancholy  Norton,  died  in  1668, 
and  four  yean  later  the  aged  pastor,  John  Wil- 
son, followed  him.  In  choosing  a  successor  to 
Wilson  the  church  decided  to  declare  Itself  inop- 
poattion  to  the  liberal  decision  of  the  synod,  and 
in  token  thereof  Invited  Davenport  to  rome  from 
New  Haven  to  take  charge  of  it.  Davenport, 
who  was  then  seventy  yeara  old.  was  disgusted 
at  tlie  recent  annexation  of  his  colony  to  Connec- 
ticut. He  accepted  the  Invitation  and  cnme  to 
Boston,  against  the  wishes  of  nearly  half  of  the 
Boston  congregation,  who  did  not  like  the  illib- 
oril  principle  which  he  represented.  In  little 
more  than  a  year  his  ministry  at  Boston  waa 
ended  by  death;  but  the  opitosition  to  his  call 
had  alreailr  pro  ile<i  so  far  that  a  secession 
from  the  old  church  had  become  inevitable.  In 
1889  the  a<l vacates  of  the  Halfway  Covenant  or- 
gauizeil  themselves  into  a  new  society  under  the 
title  of  tlie  •  Third  Church  in  B<iston.'  A  wooilen 
meeting-house  was  built  on  a  lot  which  had  on<  a 
liclonged  to  tlie  late  governor  WInthmp,  in  what 
was  then  the  south  part  of  the  town,  so  that  tha 
society  and  its  m(>eting-liouse  became  known  aa 
the  South  Church;  and  after  a  new  church 
founded  in  Summer  Sln-et  in  1717  took  the  name 
of  till'  \cw  South,  the  church  of  1869  came  to 
lie  fiirilier  diitlnguislied  a»  the  Old  S<mth.  Aa 
this  eliunli  represented  a  liberal  idea  which  waa 
growing  in  favour  with  the  people,  it  soon  be- 
came the  most  douriahing  church  in  America. 
After  sixty  vears  its  numticrs  had  increased  so 
that  the  old  mi-elingliiiuw  could  not  contain 
them;  and  in  1<;!9  the  famous  building  which 
still  stands  was  erected  on  'ho  same  sp<it, —  a 
building  with  a  gramirr  history  than  anV  other 
on  the  American  cimtlnent,  unless  It  be  that 
other  plain  brick  building  in  Philadelphia  where 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  waa  adopted 
and  the  Federal  Co..stitutlon  framed."— J.  Flake, 
Th*  BiginniHf  »/  AVw  fiu..  eh.  8. 

Amow:  H.  M.  Dexter,  Thi  Omfrrtgalionalitm 
<^th*lail  900  gean.  het.  9.— B.  B.  Wisn'-r,  lti,t. 
vf  Ou  Old  Smth  Chvrrh.  wn»n«  1.— W.  Emer- 
son, UiH.  Hheteh  eflht  F\nt  Ch.  in  liiiton.  itct. 
4-7. 

A.  O.  l674-i67t.-KiaK  Pbllio'i  War.  See 
Nbw  Ekolaxd:  a.  D.  1874-167.'):  KIT'i,  1«T6- 
1678. 

A.  D.  i6<9.— Tbe  rieiac  for  William  and 
Maiy  Md  tbe  downlall  of  Andrea.  Sci'  .VI  asoa- 
cmornm.  A  D.  I8M-16(M. 


109 


::;■ 


i> 


BOSTON,  ie»T. 
tj^  ?•    ''97:;-Thrwitene«l   attack   by  tht 

A.  O.  i704._Th«  fifst  newipaper.  See 
pRlwriNo,  4c. :  A.  U.  1704-1729         ' 

Hall.    8ee  Panbdil  Hall. 

A.  D.  1761.— Th«  qnattioa  of  the  Writs  of 
auistaoce  aad  W.  Otia'a  tiSech^  s^ 
MAMACHPBBTre:  A.  D.  1761  "»««»•     oee 

Non-importation  amementa.  »««  UirrrED 
Btatim  ok  Am.  :  a.  tt  17W-1767 

/  n  ^  LiBBRTT  Trek. 

. Jr  ?•  y?*— Tht acisure  of  the  sloop  " Lib- 
*■'*'•  -«'oto»»  patriotiim.— ■' For  some  veani 
^Htn?':^?, '"'  the  custom.)  had  bJnTcTuffln 
making  neizures  of  uncustomed  goods,  which 

n^™^  I  •"""?•  ""*  ">*  <Jcterml£i»ti^of  the 
rommiMloDcni  of  customs  to  brealt  up  thU  prsc- 
lice  freouently  l«l  toeolltalons;  but  no  flaSunt 
outbreal   occurred   until  the  seizure  of  5X 

with  a  csrjfo  of  Madeirs  wine.     The  offlcer  in 

In  the  cabin  the  greater  part  of  the  cargo  w^ 
rpmoTed,  and  the  remainder  entered  at  the  cus- 
tom-house as  the  whole  cargo.  ThS  led  to  »?z 
ure  of  the  ve«el,  „M  to  h.%e  been  IhelreTZie 
bv  the  commissioners,  and  for  security  she  Was 
placed  under  the  guns  of  the  '  Romncy, '  .  ma" 
of^ar  In  the  harbor.  For  this  the  re^nueTfS- 
cere  were  roughly  handled  by  the  mob.     Thdr 

i^v  I^fhli;""';  ""•".'!""«'•  threatened.  aSd 
they  with  their  Blarme.1  families,  took  refuge  on 
Iioani  the  '  IV,mney, '  and  llnally  in  the  cSle 
These  prooe«llng,  undoubtedly  led  to  the  «nX 
i-.<  adJitionsI  milit.,rj'  force,  to  Boston  In  ^p 


I '  •  time,  but  no  effectual  nroc-twUngs  were  Uken 
•..■.ln»t  the  rioters.     Pubfic  sympathy  wm  with 

-M.    rhsmberlafn.    Tht    limMion    Immmiina 

.  *•    "•    "TM.— The  quartering  of    British 

f«  h^l  .  '"  '*"r"'";  "M"  "■«'"»<•'"»  from  Httll 
fax  lia<l  iK^n  onienil  thither.  When  news  of 
thst  not  arriv,,!,  two  .ddlti.mal  reglminu  were 
orter,.d  fn.m  Inlnnd.  The  srrival  of  an  „ffl^7 
sent  by  Ouije  fn.m  New  York,  to  nnTvide 
quarters  for  these  trrwps,  oc-caslone-l  i  town 
-ne-tlng  in  !!.«,.,„,  by  w'Sch  iSTgorern' r  ws° 
req<,™t«l  to  summon  a  new  General  ( "ourt  which 
he  p..mmptorily  n.f..«,i  to  d,..  The  m*?h  g 
then    rrcmmind.-l   »  amvenllon  of    delem,u5 

/„»".'"  ;'">■■••  '"'■'•"«•' luence  of  prevail- 
Ing  s|.preh,.„,io„H  of  a  war  with  Franco  '--such 
was  tif  pr-  teiKc  -they  s,W|mhI  all  p,.non«  n.  t 
.  re«.ly  provided  with  'rtrr-arm,  u,  pn'^-^  Jhem 
St  once ,  ,h,y  a  «,  ..ppolnu-l a dnv  of  fa,  ?„, .nd 
praver.  to  U-  „l.«.rvr,l  by  all  the  CongrpJtl.ma 

r.*t^,..>','''T  ',"""  """^  «»"»  l?2nd^ 
iZ,    -w      "'■"  '^ ''"«l.v   at   Iho  day  appointed 

1^1  %''{"":  V''"""K.  «l»«ker\,f  iW  1^ 
.10 uic.  a.  tiM-lr  chairman. and  p.tltlon,Kl  Bernanl 
tosummon  a  .Jen.ml  Court.    Vhe  gnvernTSo 


BOSTON,  1788. 

eautloui  and   mc'-'^te.      All   nretmainn.   . 
poUdcal  authority  were  ex^fy^dSci" 
In  tlw  couias  of  a  four  days'  i««iion  aS™  , , 

i^nfr££!l.'*r*u^  ""1  «  letter  to  "t, 
toTf.^  ^"^^  of  which  the  chief  buniea  wm 
to  defend  the  prorhioe  against  the  charge  of  ^ 
rebellious  spirit    Such  was  toe  flrsroftl^L* 

n^^ru^ts-'fjss.'iji^rtTtt 

3^rt^ '5  ""' '"""^  The  council  werSS 
tJie  quartering  Act.  as  they  a  legeil  till  ii„ 
barracks  were  ?ull  there  wui  L  necl^  y  "  nro: 
bir^T.'^ZJlif'""'"-  ^7»"1  '■"Ute/tl.it'^ire 

conridered  as  already  full.  The  ^uncH^repM 
that.  eTen  allowing  that  to  be  the  case  bylh; 
J«™»  »'  the  act,  the  provUion  ^qu7rte« 
bel«ged  not  to  then-,  but  to  the  locsl^™^^ 
iratea  There  was  a  large  building  hi  Bostnn 
bdong^ng  to  the  provinceflnown  as*the  '& 

poor  !amlllea  Bemaid  pressed'the  cimneU  to 
jdTlse  that  this  bu'ldlng  lie  cleared  and  nrt^DaJrt 
reft.^'^K"'"'  °'  '"e^r^jpsThSt  they  utw^ 
™  h^^-  The  governor  then  undertook  to  do  it 
?.nHii  '^"..'""^•"^•y--  The  troops  ha.1  aliwMll 
landed,  under  cover  of  the  ship,  of  war  loihl 

Peared  to  demand  an  entrance  Into  the  Manii. 


only   Refused   u.  nnlve  tlieir 'iH-tUiiln    but  iIa- 
"iti  charff.  the  proceeding  wore  eiceediagly 

310 


which  liad  no  tents,  the  temporary  use  of  R. L   i 
th«Tr:  "'•"•»*nt'y/l«l«le>l;    t^  the  res.  ..f  h 

except  the  council  chamlx-r.  was  thrown  .,,,..„ 
by  the  governors  order  It  was  Sunday,  th" 
Town  OouM  was  directly  opposite  the  nieetin« 
In"  W  ;  ^.^'"'Chureli;  "LUnon  wen' Kl 
stnlu  ,h.  1  ^  M.""™''*  ""•"=  "tatl,,,,,,!  in  the 
streets;  the  Inhabltanu  were  challenged  amh.v 
PMsed.    The  devout  were  greatly  ncKrivm,,! 

tnarehing  of  the  troops.  iWntly  Oa«,.  .Hme 
to  Boston  to  urge  the  provUlon  of  ,,,,.,rl.r. 
The  council  dlrecte.1  blsatunllon  to  tlie 'i.r.n, ,.t 
the  act.  and  referred  him  to  the  wlreim.  n  .v, 
the  act  spoke  only  of  justice,  of  the  ihs.,.  il,,' 
jelectnu^n  decline,!  to' take  any  s.e  «  ii' {i: 
matter  Bernard  then  r..nstltute.f*i,Ht  he  ,„11«| 
M,i^~  °l  ;  !?1!"'*'^1  ?"''  f'-i"''*!  them  t,.  linl 
fl„L  '■"if"',""'*'''"'*'  «'"l'"rity.     Oage  waH 

outof  his  own  mlllury  chest  the  firing.  l«-.|.|in.- 
and  o  her  arUce.  menll,m«t  In  the  ^iiartorl.  .• 
Act  the  .»uncll  having  declined  toonltr  anv .  x 
pendlture  for  those  purnosi,.  un  the  «r-M,iHl 
that  the  appmpriaUon  of  money  hlonit^i  . » 
clu^vHy  to  the  General  Court.'_R  llWreti, 

r  1  S-  •*•  •'"thlneham.  Uf:  .,sif  n=i^  f 
.rrtf  ?'■"*."■..'•*  8_-T.  Hut^hlna(,D,  Hit*  »/ 
1*«  AwNass^  Mrtm.  ibjt,  I7«-1774,  pf.  »(»-glT 


B08T0X,  17W. 

A.  D.  I7<9.— The  pktrioU  tbrMtenid  and 
VimnU  ipcakiaf  out.    See  Uhitkd  Statu  or 

AM. :  A.  D.  nro. 

A.  D.  1770.— Soldiers  ud  citiseu  in  col> 
liiion.— The  "  MMMcre."~Remoral  of  the 
troopt.— "As  Uie  spring  of  the  year  1770  «p- 
pmiwl,  the  14th  and  20th  regiment*  had  l^en  m 
boston  about  seventeen  months.     The  14th  was 
in  barracks  near  the  Brattle  Street  Church ;  the 
Stthwas  quartered  jus'  -nuth  of  King  Street; 
•bout  midway  between  them,  in  King  Street, 
ud  close  at  hand  to  the  town-  liouse,  was  the 
main  fcuard,  whose  nearness  to  the  public  build- 
ings bod  been  a  subject  of  great  annoyance  to 
the  people.  .  .  .  One  is  forced  to  admit  .  .  .  that 
a  good  degree  of  discipline  was  maintained;  no 
blood  had  as   yet  been  shed  by  the  soldiers, 
although  provocation*  were  constant,  the  rude 
element  in  the  town  growing  gradually  more  ag- 
gressive as  the  soldiers  were  never  allowed  to  use 
their  arms.    InaulM  and  blow*  with  flste  were 
frequently  taken  and  given,  and  cudgels  also  came 
into  fashion  in  the  brawls.     Whatever  awe  the 
regiment*  had  inspired  at  their  flrst  coming  bad 
long  worn  off.    In  particular  the  workmen  of  the 
rope- walks  and  ship-yards  allowed  their  tongues 
the  largest  license  and  were  foremost  in  the  en- 
countv'rs.    About  the  1st  of  March  fights  of  un- 
usual bitterness  had  occurred  near  Orey's  rope- 
vslis,  not  far  from  the  quarters  of  the  89th, 
between  the  hands  of  the  rope-walk  and  soldiers 
ot  that  regiment,  which  had  a  particularly  bad 
reputidi  .1.     The  soldiers  bad  got  the  worst  of  it, 
and  »i-."j  much  irriuted.    Threats  of  revenge 
bail  been  made,  which  liwl  called  out  arrogant 
replii'8.  and  signs  abounded  that  serious  trouble 
was  n<it  far  off.     Prom  an  early  hour  on  the 
evening  of  the  Sth  of  March  the  symptoms  were 
very  ominous.  ...  At  length  an  altercation  be- 
ran  in  King  Street  between  a  company  of  lawless 
boys  and  a  few  older  brawlers  on  the  one  side, 
kA  the  npntlnel,  who  paced  his  beat  before  tlie 
cu«ti>mhou«e,  on  the  other.  .  .  .  The  soldier  re- 
treatnl  up  the  step*  of  the  custom-house  and 
callr<l  out  for  help.     A  Die  of  soldiers  was  at  once 
df«p«trhc<l  fn>m  the  main  guard,  across  the  street, 
byC'aptain  l'rest<in,oincer  of  the  guard,  whohim- 
«elf  ftxm  followed  to  the  scene  of  trouble.    A  coat- 
in?  of  ice  covered  the  ground,  upon  which  shortly 
before  bad  fallen  a  light  snow.    A  young  moon 
wanfihining;  the  whole  transaction,  therefore,  was 
plainly  visible.     The  soldietn,  with  the  ««ntinel, 
nine  in  number,  drew  up  in  line  Ijcfore  the  people, 
who  gnally    outnumbered   them.     The    pieces 
were  IhbiIhI  and  hi  Id  reaiiy,  but  the  mob,  bellcv- 
inu  tliat  the  tMops  would  not  use  tbeir  ar-ns  ex- 
cept  ujion    n'i|iilsition   of  a  civil    magistrate, 
(houted  ooarse  insulu,  pressed  upon  the  very 
muiilcs  of  the  pieces,  struck  them  with  sticks, 
«nd  BMHultcti  the  MiUliers  with  balls  of  Ice.     In 
the  tumult  preclaely   what  was  said  and  done 
lannot  Im  known      Many  affldaviu  were  taken 
In  the  Investigation  that  followed,  ami,  as  always 
•I  tuib  times,  tlie  testimony  was  most  contredic- 
i«>ty.     Henry    Knox,    aflerwards    the    artillery 
ten,m\.  at  this  time  a  b<x)kseller,  was  on  the 
»pot  and  uaeil  his  liifliienoe  with  Preston  to  pre- 
vent a  <^>inmand  to  flre.     Preston  dwiarwl  that 
he  nevHr  Kive  the  command.    The  air,  however, 
Wh«  full  of  «hnuta.  darin-  the  «oli!'er«  u>  Are 
•"me  of  wiiich  may  have  been  easily  unlrrsUwd 
u  >  'inmanilii.  and  at  laM  the  diwbarfe  came.     If 
tt  lud  taiM  10  Goaa,  iodoMl,  ttM  (urbMiMM 


BOSTON,  1770. 

wonM  have  been  quite  miraculmia.    Three  were 
killed  outright,  and  eight  wtw  wounded,  only 
one  of  whom,  Crispus  Attucks,  a  tall  mulatto 
-.ho  farod  the  soldiers,  leaning  on  a  stick  of  coid- 
WO.HI,  bad  really  laken  any   part  in   the   dia- 
turbance.    The  test  were   bystander*  or  were 
hurrying  'nto  the  street,  not  knowing  the  cause 
of  Uie  tumult.  ...  A  wild  confusion  .  .  .  took 
possewion  of  the  town.    The  aUrm-bells  rang 
frantically  ;  on  the  other  hand  the  drums  of  the 
regimenu  thundered  to  arms.  .  .  .  WiuU  averted 
a  fearful  battle  in  the  streeU  was  the  excellent 
conduct  of  Hutchin*on"— the  lieutenant-governor 
who  made  his  way  promptly  to  the  scene,  caused 
the  troop*  to  be  lent  back   to  their  barrack* 
ordered  the  arrest  of  Cuptain  Preston  and  the 
nine  aoldlers  who  had  done  the  firing,  and  began 
an  investigation  of  the  affair  the  same  night    The 
next  day  a  great  town  meeting  was  held,  and,  as 
crowds  from  the  surrounding  towns  pressed  in 
It  was  adjourned  from  Faueuil  Hall  to  the  Old 
South  Church,  and  overflowed  in  the  neighboring 
streets.    A  formal  demand  for  tlie  removal  of  the 
troops  was  sent  to  the  governor  and  council  by  a 
committee  which  had  Samuel  Adams  at  its  head 
Governor  Hutchinson  disclaimed  authority  over 
the  troops;  but  their  commanding  olBcer,  Colonel 
Dalrymple,  proposed  to  compromise  by  sending 
away  the  89th  regiment  and  retaining  the  14th. 
As  the  committee  returned  to  the  meethig  with 
this  proposal,  through  the  crowd,  Adams  dropped 
right  and  left  tlie  words,  "Both  regimenu  or 
none."— "Both  regimenu  or  none."    So  he  put 
into  the  mouths  of  the  people  their  reply,  which 
they  shouted  as  tvith  one  voice  when  the  report 
of  the  committee  was  made  to  them.    There  was 
a  determination  in  the  cry  which  ovenume  even 
•he  obstinacy  of  Oo'emor  Hutchinson,  and  the 
departure  of  both  regimenu  waa  ordered  tlut 
same  day .     "  In  EngUod  the  affair  was  regarde<l 
as  a  •  successful  bully '  of  the  whole  power  of 
the  government  by  the  little  town,  and  when 
Lord  North  received  details  of  these  evenU  he 
always  referred  to  the  Uthand  29th  as  the  '  Sam 
Adams  regiment*. '  "—J.    K.    Hosmer,    Samuel 
ArliW.  eh.  11. 

Also  in:  K.  Frothingham,  Lift  and  Timei  nj 
JompK  Warrtn.  eh.  «.— The  same,  Th*  Sam 
AdaiHt  RrgimenU  {AlUntie  .VxiUAiy,  r.  9,  10,  ami 
18;  ltWM3j.— J.  Q.  Adams,  Life  of  John  Adamt 
eh.  8  (».  1).— T.  Hutchinson,  Ifint.  of  (he  Proriaet 
»/-"<««•.  Ilfiv,  1749-1774,  pp.  270-3SO.— H.  Mies. 
Prineiplf  and  AeU  of  thr  Reruliition  (CkiUniniat 
tdition),pp.  15-79.— F.  Keddcr,  lliit.  of  ih*  Burton 
Matnert. 

A.  D.  1770,- The  fair  trial  of  the  soldiers.— 
"  The  episode  [of  the  affray  of  March  Sth)  had 
...  a  sequel  which  is  exlremrly  cnxliublo  to 
the  American  people.  It  was  determined  Ui  try 
the  soldier*  for  their  lives,  and  public  feeling 
ran  so  fiercely  against  them  that  It  seemed  as  If 
their  fate  was  sealed.  Tlic  trial,  however,  was 
delaye<l  for  seven  months,  till  tlie  excitement  had 
In  »ome  degree  subsided.  CapMin  Prestnn  very 
judiciously  appealed  t.)  John  Adams,  who  wa* 
mpldly  rising  to  the  llrst  pUce  both  among  the 
lawyers  and  the  popular  patrioU  of  litMton.  to 
umleruke  his  defeni-e.  Adams  knew  well 
how  much  lie  wa*  risking  by  espousing  so  un- 
r«>p«I»r  a  r-suse.  Inil  ho  kacw  aiio  his  pro- 
fesaloniil  duty,  ami,  though  violently  oppoaed  tt 
the  British  government,  he  was  in  eminently 
honest,  brave,  and  hlUMM  maa.    jt  WIUUB9 


ail 


Ji 


Pll 


BO8T0X,  1770. 

Uon  with  JcMUh  Qulncy,  a  young  lawyer  who 
wu  aim  of  tlie  patriotic  party,  he  undertook  the 
inridious  taak,  and  he  diicharged  it  with  con- 
summate ability.  .  .  .  There  was  ahumlnnt 
evidence  that  the  soldiera  had  endumi  gnws 
provocation  and  some  violence.  If  tlie  trial  liad 
been  the  prosecution  of  a  smuggler  jr  a  setlitJDiis 
writer,  tlie  Jury  would  probably  have  deciiletl 
agaiost  evidence,  but  they  had  no  disposition  to 
she<i  innocent  blood.  Judges,  counsel,  and 
Jurymen  acted  bravely  and  honourably.  All 
the  soldiers  were  acquitted,  except  two,  wlio 
were  found  guilty  of  mansUughter,  and  who 
escaped  with  very  slight  punishment.  It  is  very 
rcmarkabl'i  that  after  Adams  had  accepted  the 
task  of  di  lending  the  incriminated  soldiers,  he 
was  el('cte<l  by  the  people  of  Boston  aa  their 
representative  in  the  Assembly,  and  the  public 
opinion  of  the  province  appears  to  have  fully 
acquiesced  in  the  verdict.  In  truth,  although 
no  pvople  have  indulged  more  largely  than  the 
Americans  in  violent,  reckless,  and  unscrupulous 
language,  no  people  have  at  every  period  of 
Ibc'ir  history  been  more  signally  free  from  the 
thirst  for  blood,  which  in  moments  of  great 
political  excitement  has  been  often  shown  Doth 
In  England  and  Prance.'— W.  E.  H.  Lecky, 
lliil.  »/  Eng.  in  th»  18<A  Centnry.  th.  12  (».  8). 

Almoin:  J.  Adams,  AvtMngraphy  (Woria,  ». 
2,  ;>.  280).— Lord  Mahon  (SiW  Stanhope),  Hit. 
of  Eng..  1713-1788,  e.  8,  a  260. 

A.  D  1773.— The  Tea  Party. —  •' News 
rraolied  Boston  in  the  spring  of  this  year  [1778] 
tliiit  the  East  India  Company,  which  was  em- 
Inrmmeil  by  tlie  accumulation  of  tea  in  England, 
owing  to  the  refusal  of  the  Americans  to  bi:y  it, 
had  iiidua-d  pitriiament  to  permit  iuexpnrtation 
to  Aiiiprica  without  the  pityment  of  the  usual 
duiv  [sec  United  States  or  Am:  A.  D.  1772- 
1773].  This  was  intended  to  bribe  the  colonisU 
to  buy ;  for  there  had  bt-i'n  a  fluty  Ixith  in  Eng- 
land /ind  in  America.  Tiiat  in  Eiiglancl  was  six 
pence  a  p<mnd,  tliat  in  Amcrioi  three  pence. 
Shins  were  laden  and  sent  to  Boston,  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  and  Chiiricston,  and  they  were 
now  expected  to  arrive  in  a  short  time.  ...  On 
the  2«th  of  November,  1773,  whl<li  wasSiiniliiv, 
the  (Init  ten-ship  (the  '  IMrtm.Hiih')  eiiU-mi  the 
harlKir  [of  Boston!.  The  f.)llowlna;  miirniiig  tlie 
rllizens  were  iniormcd  by  plaeanl  tlmt  tlio 
•  worst  of  plagues,  the  detested  tea,'  had  arlually 
arrivetl,  and  that  a  meeting  was  to  lie  hchl  at 
nine  in  the  morning,  at  Faneuil  Hall,  for  the 
pirposc  of  making  'a  united  and  suecesHfui 
nuiatanre  to  this  last,  worst,  and  most  deslruc- 
live  measure  of  administration.'  The  Cradle  of 
Mlwrty  WHS  not  large  enough  to  conuin  the 
•Mwd  that  was  calleil  Uigellicr.  Aiiiims  rose 
nnd  made  a  stirring  motion  expressing  deter 
tiilnalion  that  the  lea  slioiild  not  be  liimTed.  and 
it  was  unanimously  agni'.l  to.  The  mtH'ting 
then  adJoumc»l  to  the  Old  South  meeting  house, 
wliere  the  motion  was  repeated,  ami  again 
aiiopted  without  an  opposing  voice.  Tlio  owner 
of  tlie  sliiii  protested  in  vain  tlutt  the  pmriwl- 
ings  were  Illegal;  a  watch  of  twentyBve  persons 
was  set,  to  see  that  the  intenti'Hi:!  of  llie  citiscns 
*vn-  not  pvaiU-d,  and  the  meeting  ailjoumt'.l  to 
the  following  morning.  The  thnmg  iit  ilmt 
time  was  as  gn«t  as  usual,  and  whih;  the  A,  liU-r 
atlolM  were  gi.ing  on,  a  nwange  was  received 
from  the  governor,  tliroiigb  the  sheriff,  ordering 
'  —i  to  CUM)  their  ttruveuaiogs.    It  wm  voM 

8 


BOSTON,  1778. 

not  to  follow  the  adTioe,  and  the  sheriff  was 
hissed  and  obliged  to  retreat  disoomflted     It 
was  formally  resolved  that  any  person  importing 
tea  from  Enghud  should  be  deemed  an  eueniv 
to  his  country,  and  It  was  decUred  tiiiit  at  the 
risk  of  tlieir  lives  and  properties  the  landiuc  of 
the  tea  should   be  prevented,  and    its  nium 
effected.     It  was  necessary  that  some  posiiive 
action  should  bo  taken  in  regard  to  tlie  ten  within 
twenty  days  from  ita  arrival,  or  the  col leetor  of 
customs  would  confiscate  ships  and  cargiws 
The  twenty  days  would  expire  on  the  ietli  of 
December.     On  the  fourieenth  a  crowded  meet- 
ing was  held  at  the  Old  South,  and  the  importer 
was  enjoined  to  apply  for  a  clesranre  to  allow 
his  vessel  to  return  with  its  cargo.     He  applied 
but  the  collector   rcfuscil    to   give   an  answer 
until  the  following  day.     The  meeting  therefore 
adjourned  to  tlie  10th,  the  last  day  before  oontis 
cation  would  be  l^gal,  and  before  the  tea  wouM 
be   placetl    under    protection  of  tlie   shins   of 
war  in  the  liarbor.     There  was  another  eirlv 
morning  meeting,  and  7,000   peopli^  tliron'e!! 
about  the  meeting-house,  all  filled  with  n  nenae 
of  the  fact  that  something  notable  was  to  o,Tur 
Tlie  importer  appeared  and  reported  that  the 
collector  refused    a  clearance.      He   was  tlun 
directed  to  ask  the  governor  for  a  paiw  to  enahic 
him  to  sail   by  the   Castle.      Ilutcliinwm  h  ul 
retreated  to  his  mansion  at  Hilton,  and  it  would 
take   some   time  to  make  tlie  demand      The 
importer  started  out  in  the  cold  of  a  New  Eni- 
land  winter,  apologlxed  to  his  Excellency  foi  his 
visit,  but  assured  him  that  it  was  involuntary 
He  received  a  reply  that  no  pass  could  \k  given 
him.  ,  .  .  It  was  six  o'clock  before  the  importer 
returned,  and  a  few  candles  were  brought  In  to 
relieve  the  fast-increasing  darkness.    He  n>port«i 
tlie  governor's  reply,  and  Samuel   Adams  moe 
and  cxcUimed:  'This  meeting  can  do  nothing 
more  to  save  the  coiintrv  I'    In  an  instant  there 
waa  a  shout  on  the  porch;  there  wasawar-whoop 
in  response,  and  forty  or  fifty  of  tlie  men  (liasuised 
as  Indians  rushed  out  of  the  doom,  down  Milk 
Street  towards  QrifBn's    (nfterwanls  Liverpool) 
Wlmrf,  where  the  vessels  lay,     Tlie  mectiiiit  was 
decUred  dissolved,  and  tlie  throng  followed  their 
leaders,  forming  a  determined  giiunl  about  the 
wharf.     The    'Mohawks'  entemi   the   vrasil; 
tliere  was  tugging  at  the  ropes;  tlien-  was  Imak 
ing  of  light  boxes ;  there  was  pouring  of  pniious 
tea  into  the  waten  of  tlie  harbor.    For  two  or 
throe  hours  the  work  went  on,  and  three  hun- 
dred and  fortv-two  chests  were  emnti.  j.    Then. 
under  the  light  of  the  moon,  the  Indians  mnrrlipii 
to  the  sound  of  flfe  and  dmm  to  their  liomes,  and 
the  vast  throng  meltctl  away,  until  not  s  nuin 
remained  to  tellof  the  decil.    The  committee  of 
oorreapoodcnce  held  a  meeting  next  clay,  and 
Samuel  Adams  and  four  others  wero  sppolntiii 
to  prepare  an  account  of  the  affair  to  N^  ixotol 
to  other  plaoea.     I'liui  Revere,  who  in  aald  10 
have  been  one  of  the  '  Mohawks,' was  aeMiexpres* 
to    Phlhuk-lphia    with    the    ww«,    whuh    waj 
received    at    tliat    place    cm    the  •ifltli.     It  wm 
Bnnounce<l  by  ringing  of    lielUi.  awl  tin  re  wu 
every  sign  of  toy.  .  .  .  TIh'  eoulinent  ww  uiii 
vcrsally  stirred  at  !•«. "—A.   Ulliiiau,   TA.  .V./» 
^f  Baton,  e/t.m. 

Al*o  I." :  E.  Q.  Phrter,  Tke  Re.Tinr.ir--: ,-.!  .'>..• 
hntitUitn  (iltmuriiU  Hit.  <tf  Ontim.  r.  ;l  r/i  li 
— B.  J.  I/Ming.  M<A(  riM*  nftitt  /£  nVxfi  "I  n  I 
«».  «1.-T.  UutchiMou,  Uit.  u/  Uk  I'/whoi  ■■/ 

t 


BOSTON.  ITJt. 


BOSTON,  1774. 


Mam.  Bay.  174»-in4,  pp.  4aM40.— S«rac,  Diary 
and  Letten,  p.  188.— <}.  Baacroft,  llUt.  of  l/u 
U.  S.  (Autht>rf$laitrmm<m),  v.  8,eA.  84.— .J.  Kim- 
hall,  The  10(MA  AntUvtrmry  of  tht  Dtntraetion  of 
Tea  {Euex  Intl.  Iliit.  GM.,  c.  13,  no.  3). 

A.  D.  1774.— The  Port  Bill  and  th<  Mmm- 
chuietts  Act— Commtrce  interdicted.— Town 
Meeting*  forbidden.  See  United  Btatiw  or 
Am.  :  A.  D.  1774  (Marcu— ApniL). 

A.  D.  1774.— The  enforcement  of  the  Port 
Bill  and  its  eflecta.— Military  occnpation  of  the 
city  by  General  Care.— "The  exeoutiim  of  thii 
measure  [the  Port  Bill]  devolved  on  Tbomas  Oage, 
who  arrived  at  Boston  May  13,  1774,  as  Captain 
General  and  Oovemor  of  Masaacbusetts.  He 
was  not  a  stranger  In  the  colonies.  He  had  ex- 
hibited gallantry  In  Br.uldock's  defeat.  ...  He 
had  married  In  one  of  the  most  respectable  fami- 
lies in  New  York,  and  hail  partaken  of  the  boa- 
pitalltiea  of  tbe  people  of  Boston.  His  manners 
were  pleasing.  Hence  he  entered  upon  his  pub- 
lic duties  with  a  large  measure  of  popularity. 
But  be  took  a  narrow  view  of  men  and  things 
about  him.  .  .  .  Oeneral  Oage,  on  the  17tb  of 
May.  landed  at  the  Long  Wharf  and  was  received 
with  much  parade.  .  .  .  On  the  first  day  of  Juno 
the  act  went  into  effect  It  met  with  no  opposi- 
tion from  the  people,  and  hence,  there  was  no 
difHrulty  in  carrying  It  Into  rlf^orous  execution. 
'I  hear  from  many,' the  governor  writt-s,  'that 
tlieacthasstaggeroithcmcHi  presumptuous:  the 
violent  party  men  seem  to  break,  luwl  people  to 
fall  off  from  them.'  Hence  he  looked  for  sub- 
mi&siiin ;  but  Boston  asked  assistance  from  other 
ciil(inio3,  and  the  General  Court  requested  him  to 
appoint  a  day  of  fasting  and  prayer.  The  h)yBl- 
iKts  felt  uncassy  nt  the  absence  of  the  array.  .  .  . 
Ilonrf  a  respectable  force  was  soon  concentrated 
la  IloHton.  On  the  4th  of  June,  the  4th  or  king's 
own  rcfe'iment,  anil  on  the  15th  the  43d  regiment, 
lanilwl  at  the  Long  Wharf  ar  '  encamped  on  the 
common."  The  ."Sth  and  3?  1  -egimenta  arrived 
m\  the  4th  and  5tli  of  Jul}  ,  .ho  PIHb  regiment 
was  lamlnl  at  8alein  August  6.  and  additional 
troops  were  ordereil  from  New  York,  the  Jerseys 
anil  Quclwc.  "The  B<>.non  Port  Bill  went  Into 
'ipcration  amid  the  tolling  of  bells,  fasting  and 
pniyiT.  ...  It  liore  severely  upon  two  towns, 
Boston  and  Clmrlestown,  which  hiul  been  long 
(-onncctrd  hyacommon  patriotism.  Their  laborers 
woro  thrown  out  of  employment,  their  poor 
Wire  deprived  of  bread,  anci  gloom  pervaded 
their  streets.  But  they  were  cheered  and 
siisialncil  by  the  large  contributions  sent  from 
evi TV  quarter  for  tholr  relief,  and  by  the  noble 
woriis  that  accompanied  them.  .  .  .  The  ex- 
cit<'ment  of  the  piilillc  mind  was  intense;  and 
till'  months  of  June,  July,  and  August,  were 
fliaractcrlMil  by  variol  political  activity.  Mul- 
lituile*  signed  a  solemn  league  and  covenant 
agiiinst  the  use  of  British  goods.  Th»  lireach 
lutwi-en  the  whigs  and  loyalists  daily  became 
wilier.  Patriotic  donations  from  every  colony 
were  on  their  wav  to  the  suffering  Uiwns. 
Bupplles  for  the  British  tnxips  were  refused. 
It  wss  while  tlw  public  mind  was  i.i  l»'l* 
state  of  exciteownt  that  other  acU  arrivecl  wh^■h 
Oencml  Oage  was  Instructed  to  carry  into  effect. " 
These  were  the  acta  which  virtuallv  annulleil 
liu!  Mwmchuaetu  ciiaru-r,  which  forbade  town 
meetings,  and  which  pmvltlod  for  the  sending  of 
aetiuHKl  penoos  10  England  nr  to  other  colonies 
fur  trial.     "  SbuuiJ  MiMacbuMtU  tubmlt  to  the 


new  acts  T  Would  the  other  colonics  see,  with- 
out increased  alarm,  the  humiliation  of  Massa- 
chusetts T  This  was  the  turning  point  of  the 
Kvvolutlon.  It  did  not  find  the  patriots  unpre- 
pared. Thev  had  an  organization  beyond  the 
reach  alike  of  proclamations  from  tbe  govemoia, 
or  of  circulars  from  the  ministry.  This  was  tbe 
Committees  of  Correspondence,  chosen  in  most  of 
the  towns  in  legal  town-meetings,  or  by  the  vari- 
ous colonial  assemblies,  and  extending  through- 
out the  colonics.  .  .  .  The  crisis  called  for  all 
the  wisdom  of  these  committees.  A  renurkable 
circular  from  Boston  addressed  to  the  towns  (July, 
1774),  dwelt  upon  tbe  duty  of  opposiug  the  new 
laws:  the  towns,  In  their  answers,  were  bold, 
spirited,  and  firm  and  echoed  tho  necessity  of 
resistance.  Norwasthlsall.  The  people  promptly 
thwarted  the  first  attempts  to  exercise  authority 
under  them.  Such  councillors  as  accepte<l  thefr 
appointments  were  compelled  to  resign,  or,  to 
avoid  compulsion,  rvtiretlinto  Boston.  Oeneral 
Oage  now  began  (In  S:.'pterabcr)  movements  to 
secure  the  cannon  and  powder  In  tho  neighbor- 
hood. Some  850  barrels  of  powder  belonging  to 
the  province  were  stealthily  removed  by  his 
orders  from  a  magazhie  at  Cbarlestown  and  two 
field-pieces  were  carried  away  from  Cambridge. 
"  The  report  of  this  affair,  spreading  rapiilly,  ex- 
cited great  indignatioa  The  people  collected  in 
large  numlwrs,  and  many  were  In  favor  of  at- 
tempting to  recapture  the  powder  and  cannon. 
Influential  patriots,  however,8uccee«lcd  in  turning 
their  attention  in  another  direction.  .  .  .  Mean- 
time the  fact  of  the  Kmoval  of  the  powder  be- 
came magnifietl  into  a  report  that  the  British  bod 
riinnonodiHl  Boston,  when  the  bells  rung,  beacon- 
fires  bhued  on  tbe  hills,  the  nci);libor  colonics 
were  alarmed,  and  the  rf)ads  were  filled  with 
armed  men  hastening  to  the  point  of  supposed 
danger.  These  demonstrations  opened  the  eyes 
of  the  governor  to  the  extent  of  the  popular 
movement.  .  .  .  Oeneral  Oaiire  saw  no  hope  of 
procuring  oliedtenco  but  by  the  power  of  arms: 
and  the  patriot  party  saw  no  safety  in  anything 
short  of  miiilary  preparation.  Uesistance  to  the 
ants  continued  to  l)c  manifested  lu  every  form. 
On  the  9th  of  SepU'mln-r  the  memorable  Suffolk 
resolves  [drawn  by  Joseph  Warren]  wore  adopted 

thy  a  convention  of  Suffolk  county,  which  em- 
raced  Boston]  .  .  .  and  these  were  suc(x>ede<l 
by  others  In  other  couuties  equally  bold  and 
Ylrited.  These  resolves  were  approved  by  the 
Continental  Congress,  tlien  In  session.  Every- 
where thepeoplc  either  compelled  the  unconsti- 
tutional olncers  to  resign,  or  opposed  every  at- 
tempt to  exercise  authority,  whether  by  the 
governor  or  constable.  They  also  made  every 
effort  to  transport  ammunitiim  and  stores  to  place* 
of  security.  Cannon  and  musket*  were  carrieil 
secretly  out  of  Boston.  The  guns  were  taken 
from  an  old  battery  at  Cbariestown.  where  the 
navy  yani  is,  .  .  .  •ilently,  at  night  .  .  .  Oen 
eral  Gage  immeiliately  began  to  fortify  Boston 
Neck.  This  addeii  inU-nsiiy  to  tho  excitement. 
The  inbabitanta  berame  alarmed  Kt  so  ominous 
a  movement :  auvl,  on  the  5th  of  September,  the 
selectmen  waited  on  the  geoeral,  represented  the 
public  feeling,  and  rcquealed  bim  to  explain  his 
ohject  Tb-»  srovemor  8tsi!!d  In  reply  tbal  hU 
object  was  to  protect  hi*  najesty's  troops  and 
hi*  majesty's  subjects;  and  that  he  hod  no  Inten- 
tion to  stop  up  the  avenue,  or  to  obstruct  the 
frte  passage  ovtr  It,  or  to  do  anything  heitUe 


SIS 


m 


i\ 


BOSTOX,  1T74. 

•gnlnst  the  InlmliltanU.     He  went  on  with  the 
works  nnil  soon  mounted  on  them  two  twenty- 
four  noumlers  ami  eight  nine  pounders.  ■  — R. 
frotlilngliam. //irt.  of  Uui  IXtgi  of  Bottoa.  dt  1 
AlJM  IM:  TUe  same.  Ltfe  nnd  Timet  of  Jonepli 

rjj'"'^!^-  "■  ",i^  "I!P-  '  <fl»"'V  tut  of  the  Suf 
f'ik  Awrf»)._w.  if.  Wells.  Life  of  Samud 
Adam,.,  a  pp.  164-233. -W.  Tudor.  Lift  of 
J'unet  Otit,  eh.  27-20.  ^     ■' 

1  t:  ^'  '175 -The  bcKinoinr  of  war.— Lex- 
ington.—Concord.-Bnnker  Hill.  See  Uhited 
Btatrb  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1778 

A.  D.  i775-i776.-Th«  iieM.-ETacuBtlon 
of  the  city  by  the  British.  Sec  Umtkd  States 
CP  AM. :  A.  D.  1.7,'>-17T6 

A  D.  i87a.-The  Crest  Fire.-A  fire  which 
broke  out  Jfov.  9.  1872.  swept orer 6.'. aires  in  the 
business  heart  of  the  city.     Loss  «SO,UOO,0(IO. 

BOSTON  UNIVERSITY.  See  En.  ca- 
tion. MoDKRN:  Amrrica:  A.  D   1789-lt<84 

BOSWORTH,  Battle  of  (A  D.  MSsT  See 
England  :  A.  I).  14«8-1485. 

^^^7Jir  ^*^-   ^  ^-™---  A.  D. 

BOTH  WELL,  Earl  of.  and  Mary  Stuart. 
Bee  Scotland  :  A.  D.  l.WI-lSeS 
BOTHWELL    BRIDGF,   Battle  of.    See 

«,?.?J.°^"°°^''^''«-     ^«  Amkbican  Abo- 
BiniNES:  Trpi. 

BOUIDES,  The.  See  MA^oMlCT^^  Cor- 
QUKST  AND  Emi'irk  :  A.  P.  015-945 ;  also  Turks  • 
A.  D.  100|-1(I63:  also.  Samanidks  " 

BOULANGER,  General.  Ti.e  Intrigues  ot 
See  France:  A.  D.  187.'5-1889 

SSHJ-I;.T.'l«-    ^^  Areopaocs. 

BOULOGNE  :  Origin.    See  Gewjriacui.. 

A.  D.  1801.— Bonaparte's  preparations  for 
the  invasion  of  Eng:rand.-NelslMi's  atUck. 
Ne  Fka.nce;  A.  D.  1801-1802 

i-S9H^°''/.^'"'«  "^    See  France:  A.  D. 
tu^h^^a"^"^'^    EXPEDITION.    See  Po.n 

BOURBON.  The  Constable:  His  treason 
and  bis  attack  00  Rome.    See  FRANrE'  a    i> 

n|A°V:«r  ?,  •  ME°"h^  ^t-7  ""••    «« 

F„^m"ll^^°^'  T"'  "»"•  of:    It.  oripn.- 
Fmin   kiug  Louis  IX.  (St.   Louis).  „f  Fniiire 

r„»?"S    /!  '  ''"'  ""''"  '■''''■'•  ""'««  >'e  Vniw. 
Comte  de  Clermont,  sprang  the  House  of  Hour- 

Beatrix,  wife  of  this  i)rinee.  was  en.cte,l  Into  a 
frhr''IIlL"  """f."'  Lo"l».  I'U  son,  and  gave 
to  his  iJesoemlants  the  name  which  they  havt  rc- 
tnlne.  that  of  hVance  lH.|ng  reserved  for  the 
Uoyal  branch.  .  The  Huu*,  which  h,ul  the 
honour  of  s.mplylnp  »,,verelgns  to  our  couutry 
-as.nlhM  ■J.Vi.ice.''  But  our  kings.  Jealous  of 
tlrnl  t-reat  name,  rt^rved  It  for  tLelr  own  sons 
M^tftT  M^iJ''''"?  the  designation  '  fils '  an.l 
■m.  p  '*  Tj*"^  The  posterity  of  each 
flls  de  France  forme,!  a  clct  branch  which  t<w.k 

Artols  BourlHin  Ac.  At  tbe  time  of  the  acces 
.Ion  of  Henry  IV  Uie  name  of  Bourbon  mit!!."" 
wiUi  those  younger  bmnches  of  tJoii.le.uid  .Mont- 
Knrier  wh  ,:h  h»l  spning  from  the  main  branch 
before  the  OutUi  of  ilenry  Hi    But  Henry  IV.  s 


814 


BOCROES. 

children,  those  of  Louis  Xin.,  and  those  of  tli.i. 
succe^wrs  In   the   throne,  were  su™I^«l    1' 
Pr».K)e  ;  whibt  in  conformity  with™Tavf  to 
de«:en.UnU  of  LouU  XUI. '.  tcond  «.n  r^^d  '  1 
the  surname  d"  Orl«ans,  from  the  UUe  bon,  •  W 
their  gmmlfaUicr.      .  .  Posser-.rsof  vast     .rf 
tones  which  they  [U.e  BourL.,ns]  owed  m.'  ,'"o 
fjimily  alliances  than  to  the  gencii)slty  of  kinifs 
lev  hml  known  how  to  win  the  affec.io,  *  f 
tlK'Ir  vassals.    Their  magnlflcent  hospitality ,lrow 
arumid  t|„m  a  numerous  and  brilliint  nobiliiy 
Thus  the   ■  hotel-  of  those  breve  and  auirust 
L^w'^V^irl'V*  ^""•'«  Bourbon.' as  ou 
school  in  which  a  young  nobleman  could  lf„r„ 
the  DTOfession  of  anna.     Tlie  order  of  t he  In, 
^tftuted  by  one  of  them,  hiul  been  coveted  „,i 
worn  by  tlic  bravest  warriors  of  France     s" 
flclently  powerful  to  ouuhine  the  rauk  and  flic  of 
the  notlllty.  they  had  at  the  «,me  time  n"  l, „ 

ii'I!P..*'Vi'^  ■""  "'«  '""nense  power  wliicl, 
enablejTthe  Dukes  of  Bourgogno.  U  Bretag ,? 
Md  otiier  great  vassals,  to  be,5)ine  the  rival,"; 
the  enenjlesof  the  royal  authority."  The  ex 
ampte  of  the  trr-<aon  of  the  Constable  Bourlxm 

by  any  of  the  princes  of  his  House  Tlip 

pmnerty  of  U,e  Conndlable  was  deflnltelV  aliin 
ated  from  hs  House,  and  Vendflme  [his  brotlurl 
did  not  receive  the  hereditary  posseilons  of  ilic 
Dukes  d  Alenyon,  •/>  which  hU  wife  was  eutltl«l 
He  died  on  the  25th  of  March,  1538.  leaving  t 
a  scanty  i»triinony  to  his  numerous descin.hmts. 
.  .  .  JT,»c  only  of  his  sons  obtained  their  uiaioritv 

Antoine  [Due  de  Vendome  and  afterwards  Kinc 
of  Navan*  Uirough  hU  marriage  with  Jeanne  ,r 
Albret.  see  Navarre:  A.  D.  A2S-15631.  fatl.or 
or  Henry  IV..  who  was  the  ancestor  of  all  iIr. 

born  15J01,  who  was  the  r.K,t  of  the  House  „ 
Conde  and  all  ito  branches. " —Due  d'  Amiulc 
I'»it.ofthePri<M,aftUUouMofCondrhk.  1  el,' 

BO       ^'^N :    The    Spanish   House.     S.e 
^''i^J?.;^-^    '8I»-1700.  Snd  1701-17"' 
BOURBON  FAMILY  COMPACTS. 

(A"orT^^°"«''"*«<«"-'"''^ 

word  Bourg  ongmally  meant  any  aggregati.mof 
houses,  fmm  tfie  greatest  city^o  tlies.n.-.ll.-st 
hamlet.    But.      .  the  wor,lshifte<l  itsnuanir.ir. 
and  came  to  signify  an  nssemblaffc  of  h„u„s 
jurrounded  witE  walls.      Si.c»„,||y.   ,|.e  word 
Bourgeois  also  was  at  first  use.1  us  synonym.,,,, 
t  th    the    Inhabiuiiit  of   a  bourg.    Afterw.ir.l 
when  corporete  fnuichises  were  bcstowe.1  on  par 
tieular  bourgs,  tlio  word  acmiired  a  sense  nlru' 
sponding  wfth  that  of  the  English  dcslgnalioa 
Burgess;  that  is  a  per»>n  entitled  to  the  privi 
leges  of  a  municlpia  corpomtion.     Finally,  tlic 
word  Bourgeoisie,  in  lu  primitive  sense,  wi,  tlic 
description  of  the  burgesses  when  spoken  .if 
collectlvelv.     But.   in  lU  later  use.  the  woni 
would  be  best  rendered  Into  English  by  our  term 
citizenship:  that  is.  the  privilege  or  fnncbise  of 
bjng  a  »«'g«»-^'-Sir  J.  Sviphen.^wto..  //,,<  „/ 

unUtnA  ^.'^"i*  •■  >«*"-l»TH  Cksti. 

HOURCES,  Origin  of.— Thedty  of  Bourc. « 

I  ranc»-,  was  originally  Uie  capital  dty  of  uc 


Spe 
1761 


the 


BOUROES. 

Oallic  tribe  of  the  Btturigea,  tod  wai  called 
Avuricuin.  "As  with  many  other  Okuliah 
towus,  the  original  name  became  exchanged  for 
thut  of  the  pei^ple,  I.  e.,  Biturigea,  and  thcoce  the 
mixlcTn  Bouriea  niid  the  name  of  the  province, 
Ikrri."— C.  Mcrirale,  JIM.  of  the  Romaiu,  eh. 
13.— Stf.  »l»o,  JEdvi,  and  Oaiti.:  B.  C.  88-81. 

BOUVINES,  Battle  of  (A.  O.  1314).— The 
battle  of  Bou vines,  fought  at  Bouvinea,  In  Flan- 
ilcrs.  not  far  from  Touruuy,  on  the  27th  of  August, 
A.  D.  1214,  was  one  of  tlie  ini|>ortnut  battles  of 
EurniK-au  history.    On  one  side  were  the  French, 
Iwl  by  their  king  Philip  Augustus,  and  fighting 
(isli'nsibly  as  the  champions  of  the  Pope  and  the 
cliiirch.     On  the  other  si<le  was  an  allied  army  of 
Euglish,  under  king  John,  of  Ocrmam    under 
Otho,  the  Ouelf — one  of  two  rival  claimants  of 
llie   imperial   crown  — and   of    Flemings   and 
liOtliaringUns,  led  by  their  several  lords.    Philip 
Aujfustua  had  expelled  the  English  king  from 
his  Norman  dukctlom  and  caused  a  court  of  the 
p<^rs  of  Franco  to  c  1  .-cUre  the  title  forfeit.     From 
that  success  his   .  ubltlon  rose  so  high  that  be 
luul   aspired   to   tlie   conquest  of   the  English 
crown.    A  terrible  pope  —  Innocent  III.— had 
approved  his  ambition  and  encouraged  It;  for 
John,  the  miserable  Engllahkhig,  hadglven  pro- 
vocations to  the  church  which  had  brought  the 
thunders  of  the  Vatican  upon  his  head.    Excom- 
municated, himself,  his  kingdom  under  Interdict, 
— thelatltr  offered  itself  a  tempting  prey  to  the 
vigorous  .French  king,  who  poeed  as  the  champion 
of  the  pope.   Ho  had  prepared  a  strong  army  and  a 
fleet  for  the  invasion  of  England ;  but  fate  and 
papal  dii  'omacy  had  baffled  his  schemes.     At  the 
last  moment,  John  had  made  a  base  submission, 
had   meekly  surrendered    his   kingdom  to  the 
lH)pc  and  had  received  it  back  as  a  papal  fief 
Wlii'reuiwn  the  victorious  pone  commanded  his 
Fri'uch  champion  to  forego  his  intended  attack. 
Philip,  under  these  circunutauces,  detcrnilneil  to 
UBc  tliearmy  he  had  assembled  against  a  trouble- 
tome  and   contumacious    vassal,  the  count  of 
Flanders.    The  iwpe   approved,  and    Flanders 
was  overrun.    King  John  led  an  Englisli  force 
across  tli,^   channel  to  the   help  of  the  Flemish 
count,  and  Otho,  the  German  king  or  emperor, 
who  was  king  John's  nephew,  joined  the  coali- 
tion, to  antagonize  France  and  the  iwpe.    The 
Utile  of  Bou  vines  was  the  decisive  contlict  of  the 
war.    It  humbled,  for  the  time,  the  independent 
Bpiiit   of  Flanders,  and  several  remoter  conse- 
iiuciiccs  can  be  traced  to  It     It  was  "the  first 
mil  Flinch  victory.     It  roused  the  national  spirit 
lis  noihiug  else  could  have  roused  it;  it  was  the 
niuions  tli-st  taste  of  glory,  dear  above  all  things 
t"  ilie  French  heart.  .  .  .  The  buttle  somewhat 
inikc  the  higli  apirit  of  the  barons:  the  lesser 
l«ii.iii»  iind  cimrclics  grouped  themselves  round 
ilic  kiiii,';  the  greater  lonis  came  to  feel  tlieir 
wiamicss  in   the  presence  of  royalty.     Among 
111-   iniiilciital    consequences    of     the    day    of 
U..11  vines  Win  the  ruin  of  OUio's  ambition.     He 
nil!  triMii  the   llcid    into  utter   obscurity.     He 
rvUn;\  u>  tlic  llartz  mimnUlns,  and  there  spent 
liii;  rcMMiiiing  jciirs  of  his  life  In  private.     King 
•iHliii,  iiK),  was  utterly  dlscrDdiU-d  by  his  share  In 
[he  vcar.s  campaign.   To  It  may  partly  be  traced 
Ins  liunuliiitlon  k'fore  hlsbamna.  and  ihpslKnios 
I'!  ilif  Gmil  CiiariiT   in  the   following  year  at 
hiimymHc'-rj.  W.  Kitchin,   /li.l.  .^hanet. 
'*■  .t.r/.  7.*>p<.4.--TlieliBttleof  Bouviueswaa 
not  ilie  vhiury  of  Philip  Augustus  alone,  over  a 


315 


BOV8  IN  BLUE. 

coalition  of  foreign  princes;  the  victory  was  the 
work  of  king  and  i>eople,  barons,  burgliers,  and 
peasanu,  of  Tie  de  France,  of  Orleanness.  of 
Picardy  <,f  Normandy,  of  Champagne,  and  of 
Burguiuly.  .  .  .  The  victory  of  Bouvmes  marked 
the  commencement  of  the  time  at  which  men 
might  speak,  and  Indeed  did  sneak,  by  one 
single  name,  of  'the  French.'  The  nation  in 
France  and  the  kingship  in  France  on  tliat  day 
rose  out  of  and  above  the  feudal  system."— F  P 
Guizot,  J^pul<tr  Hut.  ^  France,  eh.  18.— See! 
<^}»o.  Italy:  A.  D,  1188-12S0,  and  Enolamd: 
A.  D.  120,5-1313,  and  1218. 

BOVATE,  OR  OXGANG.-"  Originally  as 
much  as  an  ox -team  couhl  plough  in  a  year 
Eight  Bovatea  are  usually  said  to  have  made  a 
Carucate,  but  tlie  number  of  acres  whicli  made 
a  novate  are  variously  stated  In  ililTerent  records 
from  8  to  84."— N.  H.  NIcohu,  yotitia  Uittoriea 
p.  134. 

BOVIANUM,   Battle  of  (B.  C.  88).     See 
Kosfit:  B.  0.  90-88.  ' 

BOWDOIN  COLLEGE.     See  EoucAxioif, 
HoDBiiN:  Akeuica:  A.  D.  1794 

BOWIDES,  The.    See    MAnoMBTAH    Cow- 
^citT  AND  EsfpiBB :  A.  D.  818-848. 

BOYACA,  Battle  of  (1819).    See  CoixMrniAW 
Btatbs:  a.  D.  1810-1819. 

BOYARS. — "In  the  old  times,  when  Russia 
'  ,,"*'*'?  »  collection  of  Independent  prin- 
cipalities, each  reigning  prince  was  surrounded 
by  a  group  of  armed  men,  composed  partly  of 
Boyars,  or  large  landed  proprietors,  and  partly  of 
knights,  or  soldiers  of  fortune.  Tliese  men,  who 
formed  the  Noblesse  of  the  time,  were  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  under  the  authority  of  the  Prince 
but  they  were  by  no  means  mere  obedient,  silent 
executors  of  his  will.  The  Boyars  miglit  refuse 
to  take  part  in  his  military  e.x|K'<liii(m8.  .  . 
Liider  tlie  TarUir  domination  this  political  equi- 
librium was  destroyed.  When  the  country  Irnd 
been  conquere<l,  the  princes  became  servile  vas- 
sals of  the  Khan,  and  arbitrary  rulers  towards 
their  own  subjecta.  The  political  sigiiirtcancc  of 
the  nobles  was  thereby  gnally  dliiiiuUne<l. '— 
U.  M.  Wallace,  Ru—ia,  eh.  17. 

BOYNE,  Battle  of  the  (1690).  See  Ireland: 
A.  D.  1689-1691. 

BOYS  IN  BLUE.- BOYS  IN  GRAY.- 
Soldicr  nicknames  of  the  American  Civil  War. 
— "  During  the  first  year  of  the  war  [of  the  Keliel- 
llon,  in  the  United  States]  the  Union  soliilcrs 
commonly  called  their  oppom-nu  'Kcbs'  awl 
•Sccesh";  In  1862,  'Confeds';  in  1803,  '  Gray- 
backs '  and  •  Butternuts ' ;  and  in  1864,  'Johnnic-s  ' 
The  nickname  'Butternuts'  was  given  the  Con- 
federates on  account  of  their  homespun  dollies, 
dyed  re<ldlsli-l)niwii  with  a  dye  iimilc  of  biittemiit 
bark.  The  last  name,  '  Joluinies. '  hi  siiid  to  have 
originated  In  a  quarrel  iH'twwn  two  pickets, 
which  l>egan  by  the  Union  mans  saying  tliat  the 
Confederates  de|K'iido<l  on  England  to  get  tlK'Ui 
out  of  their  scrape.  .  .  .  The  Union  nmn  .  . 
said  that  a  'Hcb'  was  no  better  than  a  Johnnv 
Bull,  anyhow.  .  .  .  The  name  stuck,  ami  in  the 
hut  part  of  the  war  the  Confederate  soldiers 
were  almost  universidly  called  'Jobiinica.' 
Throughout  the  war  the  Confeileretes  diiblied 
all  the  Union  snldlcn  ■  Yankr^K '  und  'Yriiikii,' 
without  any  reference  lotlH'  imrt  of  tlie  country 
they  came  from.  .  .  .  Otiier  nicknnnies  for 
Union  soldiers,  wcaslonallv  umiI,  were  Kiila.' 
'  Blue  Birds  and    Blue  lie I'lii's.'    SIncx-  the  wa' 


I -I  I 


BOTS  m  BLUE. 

the  opponenti  have  been  oommoDlr  called  '  Bon 
In  Bluo'uid  'Bovi  in  Or»y.'  "—J.  D.  Chunp- 
lln,  Jr.,  Young  FhtM  BStUnrf  (tfVu  War  for  Vu 
Union,  p.  187. 
BOZRA.  SeeCARTRAOB:  DivuioHs,  Ac. 
BOZZARIS,  Marco,  The  death  oC  See 
Orkbcb:  a.  D.  1831-im 

BRABANT :  Mythical  Bsplaaatlon  of  the 
name.    See  Amtwerp. 

4th    ceatnrr.— Firat    Mttlement    of    the 
Franks.    See  Toxandrix. 

9th  century.— Known  as  Basse  Lorraine. 
See  Lorraine:  A.  D.  848-870. 
,  *^P-  '096-1009.— Dnke  Godfrey  de  BouiUon 
in  the  First  Crusade,  and  his  kinrdom  of 
Jerusalem.  See  Crusadis:  A.  D.  l()9»-109e: 
and  Jerusalbm:  A  D.  1099-1144. 

lath  to  15th  centuries. — The  county  and 
duchy. — From  the  berlnniugof  the  13tli  century 
the  county.  afterwanU  the  duchy,  of  Brabant, 
ezistec'  under  Its  own  counts  and  dukes,  until 
the  beginninf;  of  the  l.')th  cpntury,  when  U 
drifted  under  the  sovereignty  of  the  burgiuidisn 
dukoa. 

A.  O.  1430.— Acquisition  by  the  House  of 
Burgundy.  See  Ne  1  hbrlanim  :  A.  D.  1488- 
148U. 


BRACCATI,  The.    See  Roint :  B.  C.  878. 
BRACHYCEPHALIC    MEN.    See  Oom- 

CnOCKPIIALIC 

BRACTON,  HENRY  DE.and  early  Enr- 
lish  Law.    Sik-  Law,  Common  :  A.  D.  1216-1878. 

BRADOOCK'S  DEFEAT.  See  Ohio 
(VAr  i.Kv);  A.  D.  l?.^. 

BRADFORD,  GoTcmor.  See  Massachu- 
setts :  X.  D.  1681,  and  after. 

BRADFORD  ACADEMY.  See  Educa- 
tion, MoriFKN  :  Refohmn:  A.  D.  1804-1891 

BRADFORD'S  PRESS.  See  Prwtiho, 
4c. :  A.  I).  1585-1709,  17i>4-1789. 

BRAGANZA.  The  House  of:  A.  D.  1640.— 
Accession  to  the  throne  of  Portunl.  See 
PoHTUOAL:  A.  D.  1637-1868. 

BRAGG,  General  Braxton.- luTasion  of 
Kentucky.  See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D. 
1868  (June- Octoueh:  Tennessee  —  Kkn- 
TOCKT).....The  Battle  of  Stone  River.  Sec 
Ukited    States   of   A>i.  :    A.    D.    IWiJ-lSttI 

Prcbmber  — Janc.vrt:     Tennessee) The 

Tullahoma  Campaira.  See  United  States  of 
Am.:  A.  D.  1863  (June-July:  Tennemke). 
. . .  .Chickamanga.— The  Chattaooora  Cam- 
paign. See  UNrTBD  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D  ISO:) 
(Auouan^-SBPTBiiBBB,  and  Uctobbii— Xovem- 
BBR:  Tennessee). 

BRAHMANISM.   See  India;  The  immiora 

TION  AND  CONQUESTS  OF  THE  AltYAS. 

BRAHMANS.  See  Caste  system  of  India. 
—Also.  India:  Trb  AooRiaiNAi,  iNUAmTANTS. 

BRANCHID.A,  The.  See  Ur.\clE8  of  the 
Greeks. 

BRANDENBURG:  A.  D.  9*8-1  wa.-Be- 
(Innittgs  of  the  Marparate.— "A.  I).  928 
Henry  tlie  Fowler,  msrcbin};  Hcnua  I  lie  fnir.en 
bogs,  took  Bniunlbor,  a  chief  foitrtvi  of  the 
Wemls;  flr»t  mention  in  human  speecli  of  tlio 
place  now  called  Itrandenburg :  Bor  or  '  Burg  of 
the  Brenns '  (if  '  pre  ever  was  any  Tribe  of 
Ureni!!!.— Brenn!  there  w  rl.owhprr'  Ik-lng 
name  for  Kin«  or  ^  adcr);  •  Burg  of  ilic  Woods^ 
say otlKTS,— whoasllttleknow.  Probably,  atthat 
time,  a  town  of  cUy  huts,  with  ditch  aud  palisaded 


BRANDBiroURO,  1149-11S3. 

!?*S?" /"■'""'  "'  certainly  'a chief  forutssof 
the  vrei^  —  whb  must  have  been  a  cowl  dial 
surprised  at  sight  of  Henry  on  the  rimy  winter 
morning  near  a  thousand  years  ago.  That 

Henry  appohitod  due  Wardcnship  In  Bp.miilmr 
was  In  tlie  common  oourae.    Sure  cnouiM  wunc 
Markgnf  must  Ukechsrce  of  Braunibor  —lie  of 
the  Lausitz  eastward,   for  example,   o-  \k  of 
Salzwedel  westward:— that  Braunibor,  ii  time 
will  Itself  bo  found  the  fit  place,  and  I  :ivf  its 
own  Harkgraf  of  Bramlenbure;  this,  a, A  what 
in  the  next  nine  centuries   iJrandenljiiri;   will 
grow  to,  Henry  is  far  from  surmising.  .        la 
.  T.      "  *™  "*"  °'  "■*  P'^mitive  >IarkKraves 
of  Brandenburg,  from  Henry's  time  downward- 
two  wu,  •  Markgreves  of  tlio  Witekiud   nice ' 
and  of  another:  But  tliey  are  altogetlicr  uncer- 
tain, a  shadowy  intermittent  set  of  Miirkitravcs 
both  the  Witckind  set  and  Uie  Non-Wireklnd- 
and  truly,  for  a  couple  of  centuries,  seem  none 
of  them  to  have  been  other  than  subaltern  Depu- 
ties, belonging  mostly  to  Lausitz  or  Salzweilel 
of  whom  tlicrefore  we  can  say  nothing  here  but 
must  leave  the  Prst  two  hundred  years  iu  tlicir 
natural  gray  state,- perhaps   sufflcicntly  con- 
ceivable  bv    the  reader.  ...  The  J)itnwrs,li. 
Btade  kindred,  much  shkia  ta  battle  with  tlie 
Heathen,  and  otiierwisc  beaten  upon,  died  out, 
about  the  year  1180  (earlier  perliaps,   pcriiaps 
later,  for  all  Is  shadowy  still) ;  and  were  succeeiled 
in  the  Salzwedel  part  of  tlieir  function  liy  a  kin 
dred  called  'of  Ascanlen  and  BaHcnslil<it ■ ;  tlie 
Ascanlcr  or  Anbalt  Margraves;  wiiose  History 
and  that  of  Brandenburg,  becomes  liencefortli 
articulate  to  us.  .  .  .  ThU  Aacanien,  iiapoily 
has  noting  to  do  with  Brute  of  Troy  or  the 
pious  .Sneas'a  son  j  It  Is  simply  tiie  name  of  s 
most  ancient  Castle  (etymology  unknown  to  me 
rums  still  dimly  traceable)  on  the  uortli  s1o|k'  of 
the  Hartz  Mountains;  short  way  from  Aschore- 
lebcn,— the  Castle  and  Town  of  Aschirsliben 
arc,  so  to  speak,  a  second  edition  of  Awaniea 
.  .  .  The  kindnd,  called  Grafs  aud  ultimately 
Hcrzogs  (Dukes)  of  'Ascauien  and  Balleiistadt  ■ 
arc  very  famous  In  ol<l  German  llistorv,  espe- 
cially down  from  tliis  date.     Some  r.tkiin  that 
they    had    intermittently    been    Markgnif*    i.i 
tlicir  n'gi(ra,  long  before  this;  which  U  coin',  iv- 
able  enougli;  at  all  events  It  Is  very  plain  they 
(lid  now  atudn  the  Offl<.c  in  Salzwedel  (BtraiL'ht- 
way  shlftinif  It  to  B  >,  lenburg);  and  held  it 


I  else  that  lay  adjacent, 
,  coQspicuous  maimer. 
lasted  for  alxjut  two- 
Carlyle,    Fre(krick    thi 


316 


continuously,  it  and  r. 
for  ccnluricH,  in  a  •■' 
In   Brandeiiliurg  tli 
Imndred     vciirs."—  I 
Grtal.  Ilk.  5,  cA,  8-L 

A.  D.  iiaa-iisa.— The  Electorate.- •  He 
tlicy  cull  •Albert  the  Ik'iir  (Albr.  Lht  d.r  lUr),' 
first  of  the  AsciUiieii  Markgmves  of  Ilniiulen- 
Imrg;  — Unit  wholly  definite  Markgraveof  linio- 
dcnburg  that  there  is;  once  a  very  sliinlnij  lii-ure 
in  tile  wo/ld,  tlioi.ijli   now  fallen  dim  ui..iigh 

»?»' got  tlie  Xorthern   part  of  what  ii 

still  called  S.ixtmy.  ami  kept  it  1.    Iii^i  fiinily. 

got  the  Bmndenlmrg  Countries  withal,  grii  the 
ausitz:  was  tlie  slifnin:.' Hgiire  iind  ffM  man 
of  the  North  in  his  day.  Tlic  MarkgriMim  of 
Salzwedel  (which  sixm  became  of  BrandenlMir/j) 
he  very  naturally  ac(|ulrcil(.V.  D.  1143  oniirlier), 
very  iiaiunilly,  tousideiiiig  wiial  S:ix..ji  itad 
other  honours  uud  |>one«sioiis  ho  hail  aln-adv  :.'ot 
hold  of  We  can  only  siiy.  It  was  tlie  luckiest  o( 
events  for  Braudeuburg,  aud  the  bcgiuuiug  of  ail 


BRANDENBURG.  11«»-115>. 


BRANDSNBURQ,  1168-1417. 


the  better  deaUnief  it  baa  had.  A  conspicuoua 
Country  ever  ■Incu  in  tlie  world,  and  whicU  growa 
criT  more  so  In  our  late  times.  ...  Ho  trans- 
ferml  the  Harlignifilom  to  Brandenburg,  proba- 
bly as  more  central  in  Ills  wide  lands ;  Salzwodel 
is  knccforth  tbe  led  Markgrafdom  or  Harck, 
and  soon  falls  out  of  notice  in  the  world.  Salz- 
wedcl  is  called  henceforth  ever  lince  the  'Old 
Marck  (Alte  Harck,  Altnurck)';  the  Branden- 
burg countries  getting  tbe  name  of  '  New  Marck. ' 
.  .  .  Under  Albert  the  Markgrafdom  had  risen 
to  be  an  Electorate  withal.  The  Markjgraf  of 
Brandenburg  was  now  furthermore  the  KurfQrat 
of  Brandenourg;  ofllcially  'Arch-treasurer  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire ';  and  one  of  tbe  Seven 
who  have  a  right  (which  became  about  this  time 
an  exclusive  one  for  those  Seven)  to  choose,  to 
'klercn '  the  Romish  Kaiser;  and  who  are  there- 
fore called  '  Kur-Princes,'  KurfQrste  or  Electors. 
as  the  highest  dignity  except  the  Kaiser's  own." 
— T.  Carlyle.  Frederick  the  Oreat,  bk.  8,  eh.  4.— 
See.  also.  Oeruany:  A.  D.  1135-1872. 

A.  D.  1168-1417.— Under  the  Ascaniui,  the 
Bavarian  and  the  Lnxemburg  line*i  to  the 
first  of  the  HoheiuoUem. —  Allicrt  the  Bear  was 
■ucceeiled  in  1168  by  his  son  Otho.  "In  1170, 
as  it  would  appear,  the  name  of  Brandenburg 
was  substituted  for  that  of  North  Mark,  which 
had  ceased  to  describe  more  tiuin  the  original 
nucleus  of  the  colonv,  now  one  of  tlio  several 
districts  into  which  it  was  divided.  The  city 
and  territ<>ry  of  Brandenburg  were  not  probably 
included  in  tbe  Imperial  grant,  but  were  in- 
herited from  the  Wendish  prince.  Pribislaw, 
whom  Allx'rt  had  converted  to  Christianity.  .  .  . 
Under  Otho  II.,  brother  of  the  preceding,  the 
(auiily  luliuritance  was  sori'ly  mismanaged.  The 
Marjjnivc  becoming  involved  in  some  quarrel 
with  the  See  of  Magdeburg,  the  Archbiaiiop 
pkicLiI  him  under  the  ban;  and  aa  the  price  of 
release  Otho  was  required  to  ar  nt  the 
Suieniinty  of  the  prelate  for  the  old'"  d  better 
part  of  his  dominions.  His  l)rotlii  and  suc- 
ceawir.  Albert  II.,  was  also  unfortuuate  in  the 
bcgiiuiiiig  of  his  career;  but  recovered  the  favor 
of  the  Emperor,  and  restored  tbe  prestige  of  his 
house  before  hia  death.  .  .  .  Very  important 
acquisitions  were  made  during  the  reign  of  these 
two  princes  The  preoccupations  of  the  King 
uf  Deumark  gave  them  a  secure  foothold  in 
Pomeniuia.  which  the  native  nobility  acknowl- 
edged :  the  frontiers  were  pushed  eastward  to 
the  Oiler,  where  the  New  Mark  was  organized, 
and  tlie  town  of  Frankfort  was  Iniil  out;  pur- 
ciMiie  put  them  in  possession  of  the  district  of 
Lcbus;  and  the  bride  of  Otho  III.,  a  Bohemian 
Iiritiees-i,  brought  him  as  her  dowry  an  extensive 
rigiun  on  the  Upper  Spree  with  severni  thriving 
Tillai;e9  — all  tliis  in  spite  of  the  division  of 
power  and  authority.  .  .  .  Otho  III.  died  in 
1J67.  John  one  year  laU-r;  an<l  a  new  partition 
of  tlie  estate  was  made  between  tlicir  several 
fcins,  the  oldest.  Otho  IV.,  receiving,  however, 
liie  title  and  prerogatives  of  head  of  the  house." 
Tiie  last  iiiiiriJtrave  of  the  Ascauian  line.  Walde- 
iiui.  died  in  l:il9.  •■  His  cousin  and  only  heir, 
ll.iirv,  WHS  a  minor,  and  survived  him  but  u 
.veur  •  Tiien  •'  a  host  of  claimants  nrose  for  the 
wlinli'  (if  paru  of  ihe  Mark.  The  estate!  showed 
M  lii>i  ii  p.llaiit  devotion  to  the  wi<low.  and  in- 
tnisiid  liie  reins  of  aviliority  to  her;   but  she 


•■'!i-"d  tlii*    ttdelitv   by   hastily   es|Miusing    the 
Uulie  of  Uiunswick,  avd  transferrlug  iier  righu 


to  him.  The  tnuiiaetloo  wm  not,  howarer, 
ratified  by  the  esutes,  and  the  Duke  failed  to 
enforce  it  by  arms.  PomeranU  throw  off  tbe 
voke  which  it  bad  once  unwiUhigly  accepted; 
Bohemia  reclaimed  the  wedding  portion  of 
Otho's  bride;  the  Duke  of  LiegniU  sought  to  re- 
cover Lebus,  although  it  had  once  been  regularljr 
sold;  and  in  the  general  scramble  tl:<>  Church, 
through  its  local  repnaenUtivcs,  fought  witli  all 
the  energy  of  mere  worldly  robbers.  But  in 
tids  crisis  the  Emperor  forgot  neither  tlie  duties 
of  his  station  nor  the  interests  of  his  house. 
Louis  II.  of  Bavaria  then  wore  the  purple.  By 
feudal  law  a  vacant  fief  reverted  to  its  suzerain. 
.  .  .  It  wrj  not  therefore  contrary  to  law.  nor  did 
it  shock  the  moral  sense  of  the  age.  when  Louis 
drew  the  Mark  practically  into  bis  own  posses- 
sion by  conferring  it  nominally  uimn  his  minor 
son.  .  .  .  During  the  minority  of  fjouis  the  Mar- 
grave, the  province  was  admiuisteri'd  liy  Louis 
the  Emperor,  and  with  some  show  of  vigor." 
But  troubles  so  thickened  about  the  Emperor,  in 
his  contiict  with  tlie  House  of  Austria,  on  the 
one  hand,  and  with  the  Pope  on  the  other  [see 
Oer.hanv  :  A.  D.  1314-13471.  that  he  could  not 
continue  the  protection  of  his  son.  "The  Mark 
of  Branilenburg  was  invaded  by  the  King  of 
Polaud.  and  its  Jtargravo  "  watched  the  devasta- 
tion in  helpless  dismay."  The  people  defended 
themselves.  "The  young  city  of  Frankfort  was 
the  leader  in  tlic  tJiniv  but  successful  uprising. 
The  Poles  were  expelled;  the  citizens  had  for 
the  time  saved  the  Mark.  .  .  .  The  )Iargrave 
Anally  wearied  even  of  tlie  forms  of  authority, 
and  sold  bis  unhappy  dominions  to  his  two 
brothers,  another  Louis  and  Otho.  In  the  mean- 
time his  father  bad  died.  The  Electors—  or  five 
of  them  —  bad  already  deposed  him  and  chosen 
In  his  place  Charles  of  Moravia,  a  prince  of  the 
house  of  Luxemburg,  aa  bu  successor.  He  lie- 
came  respectably  and  even  "iredilably  known  in 
history  as  Charles  IV.  ...  /  ''ough  he  failed 
in  tbe  attempt  to  sulidue  by  ai..  Uie  Margrave 
of  Brandenburg,  who  had  naturally  espoused 
his  father's  cause,  he  was  persistent  and  in- 
genious in  diplomatic  schemes  for  overthrowing 
the  House  of  Bavaria  aixi  bringing  the  Mark 
under  his  own  eceptre.  .  .  .  From  Uiuis  he  pro- 
cured ...  a  treaty  of  succession,  by  which  he 
should  acquire  Brandenburg  in  case  of  tbe  death 
of  that  Margrave  and  his  brother  Otho  without 
heirs.  His  Intrigues  were  finally  crowned  with 
complete  success.  Louis  died  suddenly  in  1365. 
Otho.  thenceforth  alone  in  the  charge,  vacillated 
between  weak  submission  to  tlie  Emperor's  will, 
and  spurts  of  petulant  but  fc>-ble  resistance; 
until  Charles  put  on  end  to  the  faroe  bv  Invading 
the  Mark,  crushing  the  anny  of  tbe  Margrave, 
anil  forcing  him  to  an  abject  capitulation.  In 
1371,  after  a  njiiiinal  rule  of  half  a  century,  and 
for  the  price  of  a  meagre  annuity,  the  Bavarian 
line  transferred  all  its  rights  to  the  family  of 
0h.«rie8  IV.  '  Ohnriea  died  in  1378.  HU  sou 
Wenzcl,  "  for  whum  the  Mark  had  been  destined 
in  the  plans  of  Charles,  acquired,  meanwhile, 
the  crown  of  Bolicinla,  a  richer  prize,  and 
Braodeulmrg  passed  to  the  next  son,  Sigismond. 
The  cliauge  was  a  disastrous  one."     Si);isnionii 

Sawne<i  the  Miirk  to  his  kinstn-iii,  .Uilwt.  of 
loravia,  and  It  fell  Into  great  disonler.  "Im- 
perial alTnirs  during  tills  |)crio<l  were  in  scarcely 
leas  confusion.  Wcnzel  of  Boiieiiiia  liiid  lieen 
chusen  em|icror,  and  then  deposed  for  obvious 


317 


BRANTENBCRO,  1108-1417. 

unntnoii  jpert,  Count  P»l»tine.  had  next 
been  elected.  bj'iI  lixl  dUxl.  Again  the  iioit  wai 
Tueunt.  Mini  SlfiMnnnd,  Mill  the  ival  Elector  of 
BrniiiJeabiinr.  .  lasuwl  auccemfully  from  the 
conlcsl.  Hi.  (:^'  1  fortune  wa*  due  In  a  con- 
»pieuou«degrci'  ■  >  the  influence  and  the  money 
of  Frwlrri.-.  Htingnnc  of  Nuremlicrg  r«ee 
H011KNZ01.1.K  ;^  I(HK  OF  Tire  House  ok);  and 
it  is  to  ilie  cr  il.'  ,1  Sigisinond  that  he  did  not 
»d<l  insrutiti.l  to  Ids  oilier  vices,  but  on  his 
election  as  era  •  rot  hastened  [1411]  to  malie  his 


BRAKDENBURO,  16«^lfl88. 


patron  stattba  I 

years  later.  In  U,: 
Tentvil  with  the  »■ 
M.irgravc    ami    l^i, 


x-roj-of  ttie -Mark."  81x 
cderic  was  formally  In- 
igniy  of  the  Hark,  as 
— H.  Tuttle,  Out.  Of 
■>/  Frederick  th»  Oreat, 


-n-c 


.re. 
ioh 


•n  integral  part  of 
lUa,     Bee    Boobmia: 


5.,u  -Rii  ng  importance  of  the 

lam-  v.-  .^.':quilition     of     the 

I    iug  Invested  with  the 

^    Trederick  of  Nurem- 

•'  paje  t'>  the  Vurem- 

-i'.l'  ':'■''■■ '-.    y  ■     .   ince. 

■  •'■    '        us,  he 

.  ■  ;  from  anarchy 

.~  Sigianmnd  he 

'.ag  the  i-eign  of 

istically  known 

''3).  the  strong 

!  M  nl)urg  became 

and  onier.     The 


Pru—iit  ti>  t 
eh.  landi. 

A.  D.  nr; 

the    Kinpio"- 
A.  D.  !3.r! 

A.  D.  I  i  ••/- ; 
Hohensolltrii 
Duchjr  of  P'u«sif  - 
Electorate  of  Ur  •  i  m:  , 
berg  sold  tl..  .  '-■  ..f  n 
bergers  anr  .^c  :  >'■<  ,i  I :  ■ 
"Temiierat. ,  inst  ani,  Jjim  ; 
succeeded .  i  ducir.;^  ariii )  l 
to  order.  ',r  mi'- jn  leiKtv 
had  beguii  ih  ■  in-',.. 
his  son  and  s^  i-aaor,  >  ii  1  -.. 
as  Frederick  1  -nteeth  i  14  ' 
nand  was  not  ',  ixeil;  a  1  i  . 
tbenceforwari)  lamntl  i,,  \-.\i  „.„,  „rucr.  me 
Electorate,  wli;ch  during  tiic  ji.M  edin;}  century 
had  been  ciirtailvd  by  losses  in  war  and  by  sales 
began  again  to  .'iilarge  its  borders  The  New 
March,  whicii  liiid  been  sold  in  the  davs  of  Sigii- 
mund  to  the  Ti-iitonic  Knights,  was  now  [14551 
bought  back  fmin  them  in  their  need.  .  .  . 
Albert  Achilles,  the  brother  and  successor  of 
Frederick  II.,  was  a  luan  as  powerful  and  as 
able  lu  his  pn-dcci-swr.     By  his  accession  the 

Cu-ipiUlties  of  Baireuth  and  Anspach,  which 
been  separated  from  the  Electorate  for  the 
TOuuKersous    .f  Fn-derick  I.,  were  ri'united  to 
it;  and  by  a   sclieme  of  criws  remaijiders  new 
plans  were  laid  fnr  the  acquisition  of  territory 
...  It  W.1S  already  unilerstood  that  the  Elector- 
ate was  to  desceml  according  to  the  law    of 
primogeniture;  but  Auspiich  ami  Baireuth  were 
still  reserved  as  appanages  for  younger  sons- 
and  upon  tlie  dratli  of  AIUti  Achilles,  in  U84 
Ins  territories  were  again  diviiled,  and  remained 
so  for  more  than  a  hundreii  years.     Tlie  result 
of  tlie  ilivision.   however,  was  to  multiply  and 
not  to  weaken  tlie  strength  of  tlie  Hou.su.     The 
earlier  years  of  the  16th  century  saw  the  Hohen- 
zoik-ms  rising  everywhere  to    power      Albert 
Acliilk's  liad  been  succeeded  [t4«6)  by  John  of 
whom  littl*-  is  known  except  his  eloquence,  and 
bv  .Joachim  [Ul»9],  who  was  preparing  to  bear 
his  part  against  the  lieforraation.     A  brother  of 
Joachim  had  become,  in  1514,  Elector  of  Mentz- 
auil  the  double  vot.,-  of  the  family  at  the  election 
of  diaries  V.  ha<l  increased  their  importance 
The  younger  branch  was  rising  also  U,  eminence 
(Jfoige  of  Brandenburg.  Margrave  of  Anspach 
and  grHiklsou  of  Albert  Achilles,   was  able  iii 
1TJ4   to   purcliase  the  Duchy  of  Jain.mdorf  In 
Sllesm.  awl  with  it  tiie  reversions  to  the  prind- 
iwlilies  of  OpiK-hi  and  lUtibor,  which  evontuailr 
fell  to  hha     His  youuger  brother,  Albert,  had 


been  cnoaen  in  1511  Qrand  MaMer  of  the  Ttu 

tonic  Order,  and  was  already  converting  1,1, 
o.'Hce  into  the  hereditary  Dukedom  of  Prussia  ■• 
woicu  it  became  in  1535  (see  Poland-  v  n 
l*«-l-^73).  ••  The  Elector  Jo«;liim  I.  of  7in,n 
denburg  U  perhain  the  least  prominent,  but  wm 
not  the  W  prudent,  of  hb  family.  Thr»u«li- 
out  hU  life  he  adheiud  to  the  old  faith,  and  nre 
served  his  dominions  in  trauquililv  His  wn 
and  succeaM>r,  Joachim  II  ,  to  the' joy  of  his 
people,  adopted  the  new  religion  ri,'i;i91  ami 
found  in  the  secularized  bishoprics  of  BrVndeo 
burg  Havelburg,  and  Lebua,  some  compensation 
for  the  eccleshutical  Electorate  which  «  i.,  about 
to  pMS,  upon  the  death  of  Albeit  of  .Mentz 
from  hU  family.  But  he  atao  was  able  to  .vcim. 
the  continuance  of  peace.  Distrustful  of  the 
•uccesi  of  the  League  of  Smalkald  he  refMs-d  to 
Join  In  it,  and  became  chiefly  known  as  a  media. 
tor  in  the  struggles  of  tiie  time.     The  EI«t.,r» 

[l.W(Ma08]  follo»-l  the  same  poli<  v  of  [i^acc 
.  .  .  Peace  and   luwrnal  progrus.-  hail  (imrac- 
terized    the   IBth  century,     war    .ml    external 
ftcquisltlons  were  to  mark  the  17th.     The  failure 
of  the  younger  line  in   1603  caused  liivreutii 
Anspach,  and  Jaiferndorf  to  fall  to  the 'Elisior 
Jo*-him  Frederitii. ;  but  as  they  were  re  j'Rinie.l 
almost  at  once  to  younger  sons,  and  uevir  ui;,lu 
reverted    to    the    Electorate,    their   ae(iuiMti„u 
became  of    little   imiKirtauce.     Tin-    Mar  -nvu 
George  Frederick,  however,  had  heltl,  in  siliiiiion 
to  his  own  territoiiea,  the  olHce  of  mimiiiistraior 
for  Albert  Fre<lerick,  second  Duke  of  I'nis,sia 
who  had  become  imbecile;  and,  by  his  ilialli 
the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  became  next  of  liin 
and  claimed  to  succeed  to  the  olBce,     Tlic  sui 
mission  of  this  claim    pliiced    the   Electors  in 
virtual  possession  of  the  Duchy.     By  a  th-i-.l  of 
co-iufeofl'inent,  wiiieii  Joachim  II.  had  obtaiiie,! 
in  loAH  from  his  father-in-law  the  Kins,'  of  I'liUm' 
tliey   were   heirs    to   the    Duchy    u|ion    fuiiiire 
"I  '''0  younK'-r  line,  .  .  .  Duke  AlUrt  .i;..lin 
1618;  and  Brandenliurif  and  1'rus.sia  weri    ;lien 
united  under  the  EU-eior  John  Sigismiin  i     It 
was  well  that  the  Doi-liy  had  b-en  secunsl  Ik-- 
fore  the  storm  which  was  already  gatlieriiii,'  ov -r 
the    Empire    had    burst.  .  .  .   ihmas,  the  Icmi; 

struggle  of  the  Thirty  Years'  W.ir.  liie  liistory 

of  Brandenburg  is  tliat  of  a  sullenr  niihir  tliau 

an  acuir.  .  .  .  Gi-orge    William,    wlm    ilu.l   in 
1840,  bequeathed  a  desert  to  his  suci-essor      Ttuit 

successor  was  Frederiek  William,  to  Ik-  kiimn 

in  hUtory  as  the  Great  Elector,  "—t'.  !•"  ,I.jiiu 

stone,  llulorim  A'mtr.ictn.  ch.  5. 

.\L80   in:  T.    Carlyle,    IlUt.  of  Fr„i       k  the 

Or, 'It.  bk.  S(c.  1(. 
A.  D.  1609.— The  JUlich-CleTe  contest     See 

Okkiianv:  a.  I)    IdOS-luis 
A.  D.  1637.— Occupied  by  Wsllenstein  and 

the  Imperial  army,     aee  (it..u>n.Nv     hi,',-  ;i.j;) 
A.    D.   1630-1631.— Compulsory  allia.icf  of 

the    Elector    with    Guitavus    Adoli)::»s    of 

Sweden,    tiee  Uuuma.ny :  .v   1).  l«:lo-iii,ii  i,.,,! 

1631. 
A.  D.  163a.— Refusal  to  enter  the  Union  of 

Heilbronn.     See  GKiim.\v.    .V    li    lii.i.'  |i..tl 
A.  D.   1634. -Desertion  of  the  Prote;     -it 

»"»«•— Alliance  with  the  Emperor,    ^e. 

JiASYt  A    !>    !(!.{+- !!'.:M1 

A.D.  1640-1688.  -The  Great  Elector.-His 
deTelopment  of  the  strena^th  a',  the  Electorate. 
— Hia  Miccettfui  wars.— His  acquisition  of  the 


318 


BRAKTiENBUBO,  1«40-1688 

CMBPlH*  foverticaty  of  Pnu«i«.— PtbffetUia. 

— "rVoderic  Wtlltom,  koown  la  hiatory  u  the 
Orait  Elector,  wu  only  twenty  yon  uld  whco 
he  iiicceeded  hli  fatter.  He  fouail  everytlilng 
In  diaonder:  b<»  country  d>>aoUte,  hit  fortrmci 
i;iiiTi>nn<Hl  by  troops  undei  a  tnlemn  order  to 
obcycnly  the  nianil>ic((4  the  Emperor,  hUarmy 
to  be  counted  almoeton  the  flngera.  Hit  flnt 
CUV  WW  to  conclude  a  tnioe  with  the  Swedei; 
bis  aecond  to  Kcure  hU  western  borders  by  an 
tllisDce  with  Holland ;  his  third  —  not  in  order 
of  sitioD,  for  in  that  respect  it  took  first  place  — 
to  ralM  the  nucleus  of  an  army ;  his  fourth,  to 
cauM  the  eTacuation  of  his  fortresses.  ...  To 
uilar  tlic  wrath  of  the  Emperor,  be  temporised 
uutil  bis  armed  force  had  attained  the  number  of 
8,000.  That  force  once  under  arms,  he  Ixtldly  as- 
Kfted  h<8  position,  and  with  so  much  effect  that 
in  the  discusRions  preceding  the  Peace  of  West- 
phalia he  could  exercise  a  considerable  Influenoe. 
By  the  terms  of  that  treaty,  the  part  of  PomeranU 
known  as  llinter  Pommem,  the  principalities  of 
Magdeburg  and  Haloemtitdt,  and  the  bishoprics 
of  Minden  and  Kammln  were  cedrd  to  BraiMlen- 
hur(.  .  .  .  The  Peace  once  signed,  Frederic 
William  set  dillKi'ntly  to  work  to  heal  the  dis- 
ordtn  and  to  repair  the  mischief  which  the  long 
WHr  had  caused  in  his  dominions.  .  .  He  specf 
tlly  cherished  his  prmy.  We  have  SPf^  its  small 
U-'ginning  In  i64(M3.  Fiftn'n  year<  later,  in 
16.1.5.  r  seven  ycam  after  the  conclusmn  of  the 
Peace  '  Westphalia,  it  amounted  to  ftVOOOmen, 
well  'trilled  and  well  diacipli'u'd,  dispn^ng  of 
wvcniy  I -vo  pieces  of  cannon.  In  the  ;  les  In 
which  lie  lived  he  had  nee<t  of  such  an  -rmy. 
In  18.V(.  Christina,  'he  waywanl  and  ..'Ifted 
Liughti '  nf  Oiutavus  \dclphu4.  had  abdicated. 
Her  sui  -asor  on  the  throne  of  Sweden  was  her 
couuD.  ibarlcs  OustAvus.  Duke  of  ZweibrQcken. 
.  .  .  The  right  of  Charles  Oustavus  to  the  suc- 
ceisioD  »  a.  however,  contested  by  John  Casimir, 
Kill)  >f  i  land  .  .  .  War  ensued.  Inthatwar 
tlie  Klar  of  Charles  Oustavus  was  in  the  asrpnd- 
aut,  and  the  unfortunate  John  Casimir  was  forced 
to  shandiin  his  own  dominions  and  to  flee  into 
SiWa  The  vicinity  of  the  two  riv-ils  to  bis  own 
outlyin;^  territories  was,  however,  too  netr  not  to 
render  an xi<. us  Frederic  William  of  Brandenburg. 
Toprotect  Prussia,  tlien  held  'ntlef  from  the  King 
"t  Poland,  he  marched  with  8,000  men  to  its  bor- 
ders But  even  with  such  a  force  h'-  was  unable, 
or  p<Tliiip8.  more  correcily,  he  va^  prudently 
unwilliiie.  to  resist  tlioimiiatance  put  upon  him 
at  Knmifsberg  by  the  victorious  Kmg  of  Sweden 
(KLVIi  i4i  transfer  to  him  ilie  feudal  ovorlordahip 
of  that  pfovince.  Great  results  follo»'l  from 
this  (ompliance.  Hanlly  had  liic  tre,iy  been 
(iened.  when  John  Casimir  >tumingfromSileal« 
with  an  Imperial  army  ii:  his  hvk.  drove  the 
Swi'l-s  from  Poland,  and  reoovcK^I  his  domin- 
iont  He  did  i«)t  evidently  inttnil  to  stop  there. 
Tbin  it  was  that  the  opi>ortiinitv  arrived  to  the 
On-M  Elector.  Earnestly  w.licitfKl  liy  the  King 
of  Swpil.n  to  aid  him  In  a  oootcst  wli'ieh  had  as- 
sumed liimensions  so  formidable,  IVnleric  ftil- 
liam  c(.a*-.ii'-d.  hut  ool  u  the  coixiition  tluu 
besihould  ret-svetht  Polish  palatinates  (Woiwod 
*aften)  of  Pmm  utd  Kaliscli  as  the  price  of 
'-"-■~~~~  -— --jslgn.  He  ihr^  ioinrd  the  S:: 
with  hisani  metlhrencnivat Warww.fouuh. 
with  him  ( h««  to  ihM  .ity  a  great  h«t(te,  wbioh 
la*nl  liin^  ,iay«  («l^h  to  SOth  July  ]«M),  anl 
wucb  tt'rmiaated  tlk-o,   thanks  mainly  to  -im 


BRAXDKNBURG.  lMO-ia(l& 

pertlnarity  of  the  Braadenburgen  —  in  the  com- 
plete defeat  of  the  Poles.  The  victory  gaineiL 
Fretleric  William  withdrew  his  tiu>p&  .  .  . 
Again  did  Joan  Casimir  rccorer  from  his  defeat; 
again,  aided  by  Uie  ImperUllita,  did  be  muih 
to  the  front,  reoccupy  Warsaw,  and  take  up  a 
threatening  pnaition  oppodto  to  the  Swedish 
camp.  The  King  of  Sweden  beheld  in  this  actfcw 
on  the  part  of  his  enemy  the  prelude  to  his  own 
certain  deatructlon,  unless  l>y  any  means  be  cnukd 
induce  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  once  more  to 
save  him.  He  sent,  then,  urgent  meaaengen 
after  htm  to  beg  him  to  return.  The  rocssengcni 
found  Frederic  WUlUm  at  Labian.  There  the 
EI<<ctor  halted  and  there,  joined  the  next  day, 
SOua  November  KM,  by  King  Cliiirlcs  OuaUvua, 
he  signed  a  treaty,  by  whiiii.  on  condition  of  hit 
material  aid  in  the  war,  tiie  latter  rcnouna'd  hia 
feudal  orerlordship  over  Prussia,  and  agreed  to 
acknowledge  the  Elector  and  his  male  descenJ- 
ants  as  sovereign  dukes  of  that  province.  In  the 
war  which  followed,  the  enemies  of  Sweden  and 
Brandenburg  muluulled  on  every  side.  The 
Danes  and  Lithuanians  espoused  'he  cause  of 
John  Casimir.  Its  'isue  seemed  to  i  rederic  Wil- 
liam inore  than  doubtful.  Hs  asked  himself, 
then,  whether — tiie  newer  -mieswhohail  arisen 
being  the  enemies  of  Sweden  and  not  of  himself 
—  he  bad  not  more  to  gain  by  sharing  In  the 
victories  of  tiie  Poles  than  in  the  i  efeato,  of  the 
Swedes.  Iteplying  to  h  nwl'  alUrmatively,  he 
concluded,  afllh  (Septcnlur  1657,  through  the  In- 
terint-Uiation  of  the  Emp.r.ir.  with  the  Pi>l<«.  at 
W"hlau,  a  treaty  wbereli  .e  duke<loni  of  Pr's- 
aia  was  ceded  In  absoluu-  sovereignty  to  liio 
£le<  !»i  of  Brandenburg  and  his  male  hsue.  with 
reverse  >n  to  PoUnd  in  case  of  tliv  exllnition  of 
the  family  of  the  PraoconUu  Hohenzolb  'iw  in 
return.  Frederic  WIDUm engaged  himself  t  «ip. 
port  the  Poles  in  their  war  a.Tiinst  Hvedcr  «ith 
a  corps  of  4.000  n'en.  But  before  this  c  en- 
tlon  could  be  aited  upon,  fortune  had  iilu 
smiled  upon  Charles  Guatavus.  Tuminir  .  tlie 
height  of  winter  agfinst  the  Danes,  tin  King  of 
Sweden  liad  defeated  them  in  tlic  open  Oehl.  ptir- 
sued  them  across  the  tnizen  wiLivnof  tlie  BcH  ■■> 
FQnen  an  '  Heelaiid,  ai  hiul  iiii|«>Hc<!  upon  tin  ir 
king  the  huiiiiliatiiit'  -.oeot  Kooskilde  (lest^t 
He  seemed  iuriined  <  eed  still  further  in  i! 

dest-'iction  of  the  anra-        ival  of  his  couiilij, 
whri    acom'inid  amiv    ■:  Poles  and  Bmndvn- 


burgers  sui  tily  poiire<I 
burg  into  H  istidn.  drove 
and  gave  tin  '<  no  rest  till 
likewise  Schi  ^wig  nnd  Ji 
battle  which  i««»k  a-e  sh 
the  IsUnd  of  F,  n,t,  t  Ny  b 
fercd  a  defeat.  T!i:a  defeat 
tavusdespni 
>  treat  fi" 


'Ugh    Mcckk-n- 

e   the  Swedes, 

luui  evacuated 

!   (IMQ).     In  a 

afterwards  fin 

the  Sweiles  suf- 

uie  Churh'S  Ous- 

>i'.«ea8,  and  he  liail  alnixly  liei^un 

when  I  -ath sua) (lied  him  from 


MY  leeO)  The  nei-  !  iaiions  which 
■»<  -•••r,  continued,  ainl  flnully  iK'nce 
'.!  the  1st  May  1980,  In  lite  mononiiTy 
«e  to  Danzig.  This  peace  (-ontiniKtl 
rof  rtrHmlenburghisBoverelKnriglits 
luehy  if  IVussia.  Fr>m  this  epoch 
coinplele  union  of  Brandenliurg  uiid 
PritNsta  —  a  union  upon  which  a  great  iiiun  was 
abic  u.  '^iiiic  fuumlAliou  ui  a  iiuwerrui  North 
Qenna  Kliittdom!"  During  the  mxt  dozen 
Ttaf  -im  <r"iMt  Elector  was  chiefly  lnitiie<l  in  es- 
:at>i>  :iiiig  biK  auilHirity  in  his  doniiiiion.t  and 
cnrfamg  the  power  of  tnc  nobles,  puriii/.irly  iu 


\iH' 

sceue 

ha.: 

bcgu 

wa- 

sIgD' 

of 

Mva 

to 

KU 

ov. 

th. 

dsi 

li 

sm 


r  • 


BRANDENBURG,  1M&-1688. 

PnutI*.    In  I«74.  when  touii  XIV.  of  France 
provoked  war  with  the  Oennan  prince*  by  hii 
attack  on  the  Dutch,  Frederic  William  \vd  20,000 
men  Into  Aliace  to  Join   the  Imperial    forces. 
Louia  then  called  upon  hia  allies,  the  Swedes,  to 
hivade  Brandenburi,  which  they  did,  under  Gen- 
et^ Wrangel,  in  Januaty,  1875.     "Plundering 
ud    burning  aa  they  advancetl,   they  entered 
HaTelUnd,  the  granary  of  Berlin,  uud  carried 
their  devastations  up  to  the  very  (futcs  of  that 
capital. "    The  Elector  was  retrettlin!.'  from  Alsace 
befora  Turenne  when  he  heard  of  tlie  Invasion. 
He  paused  for  some  weeks,  to  put  bis  army  in 
good  condition,  and  then  he  hurried  northwards, 
by  forced  marchea.    The  enemy  was  taken  by 
surprise,  and  attacked  while  attempting  to  re- 
treat, near  Fehrbcllin,  on  the  18th  of  June.    After 
two  hours  of  a  tremendous  hand-U)-hand  conllict, 
"the  right  wing  of  the  Swedes  was  crushed  and 
broken ;  the  centre  and  left  wing  were  in  full  re- 
treat  U>wards  Fehrbellin.     The  viiU.rs,  utterly 
exhauste<l  —  they  had  scarcely  quitted  their  tjul 
dies  for  eleven  days—  were  too  worn  out  to  pur- 
sue.    It  was  not  till  the  following  niomiuK  that, 
refreshed  and  recovered,  thev  billowed  the  re- 
treating foe  to  the  borders  of  .Merklenburg.  .  . 
The  Ureat  Klector  proniptlv  follnwed  up  hia  vic- 
tory till  he  hnd  cumpelled  tne  Swedes  to  evacuate 
all   I'omeninia.     Three  years  Inter,  when  they 
once  more  rroased  the  bonier  from  Livouia,  he 
torcfl  them  again  to  retreat;  and  although  in  the 
treaty   signc<l  at  St.    Uermaln   in   I6*l»  he  waa 
forc«Hl  to  nnciuiiee  his  I'omeraulun  conquests,  he 
did  not  the  leas  extablish  the  ultimate  right  of 
the  SUte  of  which  he  was  the  n»l  founder  to 
thow  landH  on  llie  Baltic  for  which  he  had  so 
hanllv  struKRlinl  at  the  negotiations  wbieh  pre- 
ceded the  Peace  of  Westphaliu.     Whin  he  dleil 
(Ihh  .Mav  1«W)  he  left  the  Klnp.lom  ainady  niatle 
In  a  luwlllun  of  priMperily  ■ullliieut  to  justify  his 
son   nnil   Huricssor  In  aaiiunilng,  thirtein  viars 
laliT,  on  till-  anniveraary  of  the  vlclnrv  of  tVlir- 
belliii,   the  till,,  of  King."-().  B.  .Malliwm.  Uo 
Balltr  h\MM„f  llfrnMiiii.fk.  H  — S.i-.  «!«>  S«aii- 
DlN.*vi\N  St»tk.s(,Swki.M):  A.  I)   l«44-i««r 

A.  D.   1648. -The  Pmc*  of  Westphalia.— 
Loss  of  part   of  Pomcrania.— Compcnsatiar 
■cauisitions.    Sir  Ukkm.i.ny:  A.  I).  HUH 
.  *■  O-  •*Z»-«*7»--ln  th«  Coalition  arainst 

Louis    XIV.       !»«•     XltTnKIII.ANIIl.    (lli.I.l.AM.) 
A   l»  IflTJ  l(IT4,  and  I874-187H,  alwiXiJiKiiiKM 

A.  D.  i68y-i«96.-The  war  of  the  Grand 
Alliance  against  Louia  XIV.  Si-  Kua.mk 
A.  I>    HWK  l«H«i.  t(i  18V.VI8IM. 

A.  D.  1647. -Tbo  Traaty  of  Ryawick.- 
Rtatitutiona  by  Fraac*.    See  Fha.nik    A.  I>. 

A.  D.  i7oa.-Tha  RIactor  mad*  Kior  of 
Prussia.    Si.  I'hib*ia  :  A.  I».  I7uu 

BRANDY  STAtTonT  OR  FLEBT- 
WOOD.   Battle  of.    Si.    Imrmi  Htatks  or 

A*        .\     It     l'««Wl.ll„IC      V  BOIMIA) 

BRANDVWINE,  Baltit  of  U*  (A.  D 
1777'.  S.<>  t  NiitiiSTATMur  Am.  :  A  I»  1777 
(Jam  miv     I>ki>mu»:h) 

BRANKIRKA,  Baltit  of  (1(11).  SeiH^A-*. 
DiN.Mts  .M  tt»«     \    |l    |iiti;.iKg7 

..BRANT, CHIEF. and  iha  Indian wartert of 
lbs  Amtrican  RcTolution.  tiit-  I'NrrKii  Statks 
or  A«      A    U    1T7B   .Jiaa-NovMUM),   and 

iJuLV). 


i  4 
|3 


BRAZIL,  ISIO-IMI. 

BRASIDAS     IN    [CHALKIDIKE.     8«a 

OllKBCB:  B.  C.  4M-4S1. 

BRAZIL:  OrMn  of  the  lUUB*.—"  As  the  moat 
valuable  part  of  the  cargo  which  Americus  Vcl. 
Ductus  carried  back  to  Europ3  was  the  well 
known  dve-wood,  'Ceaalpina  BraziMinsis '_ 
called  In  the  Portuguese  hinguage  '  pau  brazil ' 
on  account  of  ita  resemblance  to  •  bm/.ns,'  •  .mi 
of  Are,'— the  land  whence  it  .-ame  was  icrmid  the 
•  land  of  the  bnuil-wood ';  and  Bnally  this  appel- 
latlon  was  shortened  to  Brazil,  anil  cimii.llicly 
uaurped  the  names  Vera  Cruz,  or  Sunla  Crui:  ■'_ 
J^\  Fletcher  and  D.  P.  Kidder,  /lr.,:,t  „,„)  (A, 
Bmttliaiu,  eh.  8. — See,  alao,  Ameriia:  .\.  D 
1800-1514. 

The  aboricinal  inhabitanta.  See  AnKiiicAii 
Aboriulnes:  Tin,— OUARA.M.— Tii-ivx>  ^, 
GtJCTt  or  Coco  OnutT. 

A.  D.  i500-lS04.-DiscOTef7,  exploration  of 
the  coast  and  Brat  aettlemeot.    S.-.'  A  m  i  uica 
A.  D.  1496-1500,  l.VW-ISU.  and  l.-,0;H.To| 

A.  D.  1510-1661,— Portugucae  colonization 
■ad  acriculture.— Introdnction  of  Slavc-v  — 
The  cominf  of  the  Jeauits.-Cor.cues'.s  of 
the  Dutch,  and  the  Portuguese  recovery  of 
them. — "Umzil,  on  which  tlir  I'liriuu'in  s,.  ^iiip, 
had  been  cast  by  accident,  Imil  Uiii  f  .mi  1  to 
unite  In  Itw'lf  the  capniiilities  of  i-v.rv  |:irl(i( 
the  world  in   which   Eiimiwun  Imv.' s,  lUwl 
though  happily  gold  and  silv.r  hnd  11. .1  v.  t  Iwii 
discovered,  sml  the  colonists  b«l.«.k  ilu'invlvu 
from  the  Unit  to  agriculture.     The  llr^t  i..  mis 
nent   aettlemenU  on   this  coast  «iri'  rn  ilc  by 
Jews,  exlhil  by  the  perserutiou  of  ih,.  |:„|:ii,i. 
tion;   and  the  govenimiiit  siippli  im  nii  <l  ilirsc 
by  sending  out    criminals  of    nil    ki:i.K     Hut 
gradually   the    conseiiu.ii.i'  of    IJri/il    Unimc 
recognized,  and,  as  afterwnnis  hN|>|H  iir.l  I:;  N.-w 
Enilan.!,  the  nobility  at  fannie  a.'.kiii  In  sh  inlhr 
land  among  themselves.     Eiiiniuiiiii  I  «.  ,il  I  mit 
countenance  such  a  claim,  but  IIiIh  lii.iI  irinw 
died  In  IXil,  and  his  su.ii'ssi.r.  J  Im  III    n 
tended  to  Brazil  the  same sysli  in  » liii  li  h  „i  \ma 
ailopteil  in  Mnileira  ami  the  A/<>ns.     1 1„  «||„|,. 
sea-coast  of  Brazil  was  panTll.il  mil  \\  f,  u,lal 
panta.     It  waadivideil  Inlo  rniiiulm  ii  ^'.  ,.  h  ,W 
leaRues  hi  length,  with  no  liniils  in  ih.  ,;  :,  rior. 
and  these  were  granhil  out  us  iii,il,    1.'.   witli 
absolute  power  over  the  iialiMs,  >,i,  U  ...  ;.:  ilmi 
time  exishil  over  the  serfn  wlin  till, , I  ih,  -  ij  In 
Euro|ie.     But  the  native  BrHiillniis  »,  n  n,  lUirr 
■oeasy  aconqui-st  asthePinivli  is,  n.  r».i:uilv 
inilueeil  to  InlHiur;  and  the  I'lirtu   11, -,  :    »  U- 
gnn   to  brini;    mxros  frum   iln    iluii;,  ,1  ,.«»t. 
This  tralTtc  in  huiiinn  tii-sh  hwl  h     _■  Ik.  n  ujiir 
ously  puniued  in  vnrious  iwris  i.f  llMri*  ,"thf 
Portuguese  now  intriMlu.iil  it  to  Ann  ru  1      Tlif 
selllers  of  Hrazil  «ire,  pni|irrly  »|.<»kiiit',  the 
first  Kuni|>ean lolimisU,     For  llii  v  o.M  ihi  irown 
iMMseaniiins  st  home,  and  liMuirlil  tli.ir  hnuw 
holds  wllh  Ihini  to  the  new  cnuiilrv       riiinlbry 
Krwlunlly   forni.il   Hi.'   henrt  of  a  ih-h    n^iikia 
when-as  the  ililif   Spaninnts  »l«,i\,   Munml 
home  after  a  eirlaln  tenure  of  iliilr' .Hli.  ir  sad 
those  who  reiimiiiiil  In  the  colony  ileni. intid  to 
tlie  rank  of  the  r«ni|iirnit   nsllVi  <      .Miiir  of 
tlioae  wh.i  eniiie  lo  Kraril  Iwd  alrimh  s.  ri.il  la 
the  expeiiiiioiM  to  Hie  l-jisl,   •ml  Ih.'-  nnurslly 
[lerceiveii  that  ilw  roast  of  Ameriia  ii.ii-hl  rslsr 
the  pmlueilmm  of   India     ll.iice  Ilni/il  .srlr 
N««ime  a  RlaElatluo  •.■■.A-.a-.v   zvM  !:=  ;-..-; .ii.riir  U 
very  much  due  Ui  the  nilluri'  of  llii'  »iiit«r  i-aar 
Tbe  Hortuguess  were  greatly  aasiihnl.  IkiUi  is 


820 


BRAZIL,  15I»-1MI. 

the  Eut  ibA  the  Weet,  hy  the  eflotta  of  the 
newlT  founded  order  of  the  Jeeuiti.  .  .  .  John 
III.  (n  [1649]  KDt  out  liz  of  the  order  with  the 
fint  goTemor  of  BrmzU.  .  .  .  The  Dutch,  made 
bold  oy  tbeir  giemt  tucoeiee*  in  the  Eut,  now 
■ought  to  win  the  trade  of  Brazil  by  force  of 
irmi,  ud  the  lUCCCMof  the  Eut  India  Company 
rnrciurafed  the  idveaturen  who  iubicribea  the 
funds  for  that  of  the  Weit  Indiea,  incorporated  in 
1821.  The  Dutch  Admiral,  Jacob  Willekena,  luc- 
ressfully  aaaulted  San  Salrador  [Bahia]  In  1634, 
iiiil  ibouKb  the  capital  wsa  ofterwardi  rvtakro  by 
tiie  Intrepid  Archbishop  Texeira,  one  half  of  tbe 
coant  of  Braiil  lubmitted  to  the  Dutch.  Here, 
i>  in  the  Eaat,  the  profit  of  the  company  was  the 
whole  aim  of  the  Dutch,  and  the  spirit  In  which 
they  eiecuted  their  design  was  a  main  cause  of 
Its  failure.  .  .  .  But  ...  tbe  profits  of  the 
company  .  .  .  roee  at  one  time  to  cent  per  cent. 
Tbe  visions  of  the  speculaton  of  Amstenlam  be- 
came greater;  and  they  resolved  to  become 
masten  of  all  Bratll.  .  .  .  The  man  whom  they 
despatched  [1687]  to  execute  this  design  was 
Prince  John  Maurice  of  Nassau.  ...  In  a  short 
time  he  hnd  greatly  extended  tbe  Dutch  posKS- 
■ions.  But  the  Stadhouder  was  subject,  not  to 
tlic  wise  and  learned  men  who  sat  In  the  States- 
Gt'neral,  but  t<>  the  merchants  who  composed  the 
rourtsof  the  nimpany .  Tbvy  thought  of  nothing 
but  tbi'ir  diviilt-nds ;  tbey  considered  that  Maurice 
kept  up  nuire  tninps  and  built  more  furtreasea 
Ihun  wfre  necessary  furs  mercantile  community, 
and  that  he  lived  In  too  princely  a  fasliion  fur 
one  in  tbeir  service.  Perhaps  tbey  suspccled  him 
ofsn  intention  of  slipping  into  thut  n>yiil  dig- 
nity which  tbe  feudal  frame  of  nnziliati  society 
■ei  .1(1  t«i  offer  bim.  At  any  rat*,  in  1848,  tbey 
forced  bIm  to  resiva.  A  recent  revolution  had 
tenninated  the  sut  i  ctiun  of  Portugal  to  8pttin, 
sn<l  llie  new  king  cf  Portugal  nmcludefl  a  truce 
for  t«u  years  with  ilolUnd.  War  w.ns  therefore 
•upiuMi'd  to  lie  out  of  tbe  question.  Hut  tbe 

nrall  of  .Maurii-f  was  the  signal  for  iin  imliiK'nd- 
ent  revolt  in  Brazil.  Though  tbe  motlier  ciiun- 
trii->  were  at  |>eacc,  war  broke  out  between  tbe 
Dutrh  and  the  Portuguese  of  Braxll  In  164-'S. 
The  Ji'suits  bad  long  preacbcd  a  crusade  against 
the  bcntic  Duti'h.  .  .  .  John  Kenlinand  de 
VIcvra,  a  wcsltby  men-hiint  of  Pemamburo,  le<l 
s  |ti  tiernl  uprihlng  uf  tbe  itraxillans,  and  although 
till-  Dutcli  msiie  a  stubUirn  resisumw,  Ihey  re- 
r<ivii|  no aHiistance  from  borne ,  tbey  were ilriven 
fr'ni  one  post  after  another,  until,  in  18.M.  tlie 
liut  of  tlie  mmpuny's  servanU  iiuittml  Hnuii 
Tlie  Dutth  lierlanil  war  a^rainst  I'ortugal;  but 
hi  IDitl  |>ea«*  was  inaile.  anil  the  Dutch  sold  tbiir 
cUiiiu  for  S.OOt.OOO  florins,  the  right  of  trading 
being  secured  to  them.  But  after  tlie  eipuUioii 
of  the  Dutch,  tltr  trade  of  Brazil  came  more  ami 
more  into  the  bands  of  tbe  Knglish  '— E.  J 
I'srne,  /At*,  r/  Kui->i<nin  a*'«i«».  M.  3-3. 

Aiao  iH:  rt.  0.  Wat*.n,  f^piniih  nnd  /».r<B. 
fMsi  SnlkAm€ritn.  »  l.rA.  »<tn<i  1(1,-  e.  9.  e*. 
1-4.-11  Boutbey.  IIMM UmH.  r.  1-4 

A.  D.  1524.— Conceded  to  Portnnl.  See 
Amkkica:  A    l>   I.1lt>-l.t34. 

A.  D.  ISJ1.1641.— The  Republic  of  St.  Panl. 
-The  Paulistas  or  Mameluke*.-  The  cele 
brated  republic  of  St  Paul,  as  it  Is  usually 
oenominalAl.  h^d  It!  fi"e  aLhh.!!  tl^e  vear  !SS!. 
'nim  a  very  Inconsiderable  beginning.  A  mariner 
of  the  name  of  Hamalhn.  having  been  ship 
wrecked  oa  this  part  of  the  coast,  wm  rcMlTcd 
SI 

a: 


pidly. 
'ng  • 


BRAZIL,  lSSl-1641. 

•monc  a  naU  Indian  tiiba  oaUed  tbe  Pbatinlnn, 
after  the  name  of  their  chief.  Hera  he  waa 
found  by  De  Sousa  some  years  aft  -wards,  and, 
contrary  to  the  esubllahed  policy  .^nnitting 
no  settlement  excepting  Immediately  on  the  sea- 
coast,  he  allowed  this  man  to  remain,  on  account 
of  his  having  intermarried  and  having  a  family. 
The  advanUge*  of  this  establishment  were  such, 
that  permiidon  waa  soon  after  given  to  others  to 
settle  bera,  and  aa  the  adventiirera  intermarried 
with  the  nati  vea,  their  numben  Increased  rai 
...  A  mixed  race  was  formed,  poesese^ng  _ 
compound  of  civilized  and  uncivilized  mannen 
and  custooa.  The  Jetulte  soon  after  establislied 
themselves  with  a  number  of  Indians  they  had 
reclaimed,  and  exerted  a  salutary  influence  in 
softening  and  harmonizing  the  growing  colony. 
In  1S81,  the  seat  of  government  waa  removed 
from  St  Vincent  on  the  coast  to  St.  Pauls;  but 
Its  subjection  to  Portugal  was  little  mora  than 
nominal  .  .  .  The  mixture  produced  an  im- 
proved race,  'the  European  spirit  of  enterprise,' 
says  Boutbey,  'developed  itself  in  constitutions 
atlapted  to  the  coimtry.'  But  it  la  much  more 
likely  that  the  fne  and  popular  government 
which  tbey  enjoyed  produced  the  same  fruit* 
here  as  in  every  other  country.  .  .  .  They  soon 
Quarreled  with  the  Jesuiu  [IMl],  on  acootmt  of 
the  Indiana  whom  they  had  reduced  to  slavery. 
The  JesulU  declaimed  against  the  practice;  but 
as  there  were  now  many  wealthy  families  among 
the  I>aullstaa,  the  greater  part  of  whose  fortune* 
consisted  In  their  Indians,  it  was  not  heard  with 
patience.  The  Paulistas  first  engaged  In  war 
against  the  enemies  of  their  allies,  and  afterward* 
on  their  own  account,  on  finding  It  advantageous. 
Tbey  "stebllahed  a  regular  trade  with  the  other 
provinces  whom  they  supplied  with  Indian 
slaves.  Thev  by  this  time  acquired  tlie  nuine  of 
Mamelukes,  from  the  peculiar  military  discipline 
tbey  adopted,  tiearing  some  r«-semlilance  to  the 
Mamelukes  of  Egypt  The  revolution  in  Portu- 
gal, when  Philip  II.  rf  Spain  placed  bimsilf  on 
lu  throne.cast  the  Pau  I  istas  In  a  stete  uf  independ- 
ence, a*  they  wera  the  only  settler*  In  Bmiil 
which  did  not  acknowlettge  the  new  dvtuisty. 
Prom  thcyear  1S8U  until  tbe  nildiile  of  the 'follow- 
ing century,  they  may  be  regtinleil  as  a  npiililic, 
and  It  was  during  this  p«'ri.Kl  tbey  displavi-d  that 
active  and  enterprising  character  for  whleli  tbey 
were  so  much  celebnte<l  .  .  .  While  a  HpuoUli 
king  <iocuple<l  tbe  throne  of  Poriugal,  tbey 
attacknl  tbe  Spanish  sitllenients  on  the  Para- 

fruay,  allegini;  timt  tlie  ^puniards  were  encroaeh- 
ng  on  their  terrllorv.  .  .  .  Tbey  attacked  the 
Jesuit  missions  1I6JV].  ...  .is  tbey  bad  fixed 
IlienwIvfseast  of  tbe  Parana,  the  I>Bullstaa  laid 
bold  of  this  as  a  pretext  Tbey  carrii'il  away 
upwanis  ivf  a.tKXl  of  tlieir  Indians  Into  captivity, 
I  lie  greater  part  of  whom  were  sold  and  dls- 
tributeil  as  slavea  The  Jesuiu  complainetl  to 
tbe  king  of  Hpain  and  t<>  tbe  p<ip«;  tbe  Inller 
fulminated  his  excommunication  The  Paullnlii* 
attacked  the  Jesuiu  in  tbeir  college,  and  tii:t 
tbeir  prinri|>al  to  death,  cx|K'lled  the  r<'msiii<ler, 
and  set  up  a  religion  of  tbeir  own,  at  least  no 
longer acknowle<lge<l  thesupn-macyof  tliei>o)iv. 
Ineimspquence  of  '..,e  Interruption  of  tbe  .\rriean 
Irn.le  during  the   Dutch  war,  tbe  demand  for 

!5:!!»n    s'.s-.rj    srM   rs-rv    n-.-.j.-h    m.-r«i54aj        Tiie 

Paulistas  ivibiubled  tbe/rexertions,  awl  traversed 
every  part  of  the  Braiils  in  armed  iruopa.  .  .  . 
The  fuuadatloii  was  laid  of  enmity  to  the  Portu 


? 


ii 


11 


!i 


f  -  i; 


BRAZIL,  isn-iait: 

rxw.  whleh  oootlBaM  to  Ihia  day,  althouch  • 
pomplete  ttop  wu  put  to  tlw  intunoiu  practice 


In  the  )r«ar  17S6. 


Wlwo  the  bouae  of  Bia- 


gaoia.  in  1640,  awmided  the  throne,  the  PaulU- 
tas.  inatead  of  ackaowledcinc  him.  oooccived 
the  Idea  of  electing  a  king  for  UieinaelTea.  Tbor 
actually  elected  a  diatinguiabed  dtlien  of  Uie 
name  of  Bueno,  who  peniated  in  refuaing  to 
accept,  upon  which  thev  were  induced  to  ac- 
kn.>wl«ige  Joam  IV.  [1»41].  It  waa  not  until 
long  afterwaida  that  they  came  under  the  Portu- 
giute  ^Temmeot."— U.  M.  Brackenildge,  Yog- 


eh.  n 


iSSS-'fto.— Attempted   HocBeaet 
A.  D.  ISftClMa, 


agt  to  SautA  Amniea,  t.  1,  ek.  ». 

ALao  tM:  a  Boutfaey,  JKK.  of  Braml, 
<».  8). 

,^A.  D.  iS40->54>--O'«U«aa'8  veraga  down 
the  Amaaona.    »ee  AMaioHa  Rivbr. 

A.  D. 
calonj  I 
Flouda:  a.  _.  .„ 

A.  D.  i654-t777.— The  Peitunca*  policy  of 
•>clnaion  and  reatrlctioo.— BoBodarT  dia- 
patea  with  Spaifc— "  The  period  of  oeace  which 
followed  tlieae  rlctr-iea  [oTer  the  Dutch]  .  .  . 
waa  uaed  by  the  Ponugueee  government  only  to 
get  up  a  kind  of  old  Japaneee  ayalem  of  liolatlon, 
by  which  It  waa  intended  to  keep  the  colony  in 
perpetual  tutelage.  In  oonaequenoe  of  thia  eren 
■pw,  after  the  lanae  of  half  a  century  aince  It 
*iolenUy  aeparated  itaelf,  Biaiiliana  genenUly 
aatertain  a  bluer  grudge  agaiait  the  mother 
■ountry.  All  the  trade  Ir  and  fiom  Braxil  waa 
angraaed  by  Portugal;  f.rery  functionary,  down 
to  the  laat  cle.k,  wan  Por«ugueie.  Any  other 
Curopean  of  adentiflc  education  waa  looked  at 
with  auapicioo!  and  particularly  they  aought  to 

Krevent  by  all  meaoa  the  eiploratlon  of  the 
iterlor,  ai  they  feand  not  only  that  the  erea  of 
the  naUrea  might  be  opened  to  their  mode  of 
admlnlalrstioa,  but  abo  that  luch  trarellera 
might  tide  with  the  Spanbrda  In  their  lung  dis- 
pute regarding  the  boundaries  of  the  two 
nationi,  as  the  French  aatmnomer.  La  Conda- 
mine,  had  done.  Thia  queation,  which  arose 
shortly  after  the  diacorery,  and  was  hushed  up 
only  during  the  slmrt  union  of  both  crowns 
(from  l.Wl-llMO),  bnike  out  with  renewed  rlifor 
now  and  then,  maugra  i:m  Treaty  of  Tordealirias 
•?  li**  t""  AMBaiiA:  A.  I).  U»4).  ...  By 
the  Treaty  of  tM<>  Il.iefooso,  ia  1777,  both  partira 
having  long  felt  how  lmpraclfa»ble  the  old 
arrangemenu  were  — at  least,  for  their  American 
colonies  — the  buundariee  were  fixed  upon  the 
principle  of  the  utl  poasidetla,'  at  any  mte  so 
far  as  the  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  hiterior 
allowed  -.  but  this  effort  alao  proved  to  be  rain 
.  The  unsolved  question  descended  aaan  evii 
heritage  to  their  respective  heirs,  Braall  and  the 
Boutb  Aawricaa  Hepublka.  A  few  y<«n  ago  It 
gave  rise  to  the  tefrilile  war  with  Paimguav  and 
it  wlU  lead  to  fresh  cunlllcta  between  Braxil  and 
the  Argentine  Republlr  "— K.  Keller  7'*« 
Amattm  and  )f<KUnt  Mmn,  pp  g3.g4 
Also  IK:  R  tJouthey,  MMwy  ^  BrtM,  ..  • 

med.    Bee  (JniKaT.  A.  D.  17IS-t7t4. 

jii;;.a;i»rf7r^-'*^^-»-  ^ 

A.  O.  lart-llM-SMMMS  tb« 

idlag  _  _  „,. 

.— ■•  Whihi  aoaKhy  and  ruin 


— -  ri7*itr— Tke  hMdiM^Tu?  !•■ 

ImI  iMira.--  Whlb  aaaKly  and  ruin 

'verawwJ  W«  gi«kWr  part  of  tiii  beauUtui 

Of  BmUi  AMttea,  Ike  l«yif«  Of  Bm- 


12'1 


BRAZIL,  1808-180. 

^  won  an  independent  enatanca  without  blond- 
shed,   and  kept  it  with    credit.      The    Dutch 
oonqueat  of  Bnuil,  and  iu  raoonquest  by  the 
Port"*""*".  •»•  been  mentioned  In  a   former 
chapter.    The  country  long  remained  under  the 
cloeeandoppreaaivemonopiriy  Impoaed  upon  it 
by  the  PortugtMse:  but  in  1858  [l807]whcn  N. 
pblcM  invadid  Portugal,  the  regent  wnbarkcd 
[see  Pobtooal:  A.  D.  1807],  witC  the  royal  in^ 
signia,  for  Braxil.  which  at  once  assum^  the 
dignity  of  an  Integral  part  of  the  kingdom.  The 
porta  were  opened  to  the  commerce  of  the  world 
the  printing-preaa  waa  introduced;  learning  was 
encouraged;  tha   enonnoua    naources   of  the 
country  were  explored:  foreign  aettlon  were  In 
Tited  to  eatabliah  themaelvea;  emhaales  were 
aent  to  Konpean  powers  of  tha  fli  -  rank,  sod 
diptomatio  agoito  (eoelred.     N/>w  towns  and 
harboura  were  planned:  new  Ufa  was  breathed 
into  every  department  of  tha  atata;    After  a  few 
yeara.  the  atato  of  affaiis  in  Europe  compelled 
King  Jobn  VL  to  return  to  Europe,  as  the  only 
chtnoe  of  preserving  the  Integrity  of  the  mon- 
archy.   The  Cortea  of  Llabon  Invited  their  sover- 
eign to  revisit  his  ancient  capital,  and  deputies 
from  Braxil  were  aummoned  to  attend  the  sit- 
Ungs  of  the  National  Assembly.    But  before  the 
deputies  could  arrive,  the  Cortea  had  rehired 
tl>'~  Braxil  should  be  agabi  reduced  to  aUolute 
dependent*  on  Portugal      A  resolution  more 
scnseieas  or  mora  impiacticabie  can   haidly  be 
imagined.    The  territory  of  Braxil  was  s>  farm 
aa  all  Europe  put  U)«.ther;    Portugal  wu  a 
little  kinplom.  Isolated  and  without  luflu.uce 
among  the  monarchies  of  the  Ol.l  World    v.t  it 
waa  deliberetoiy  decree<l  Uut  all  the  nioM.iix.jic. 
or  the  exphxled  oolonlal  svsi.  m  should  Iw  re- 
vived, and  that  Enghmd  siiould  bedeprin^lof 
>er  free  tnde  to  baxlL    The  king  apHuied 
hta  eMeat  son,  Dom  Pedro.  Regent  of  the  new 
kingdom,  and  soon  after  took  lila  departure  fur 
Usboo.   with  many  of  the  emlfrrant  nohiliiy 
I>>m  Pedro  assumed  the  government  undrr  the 
perplexing  circumstances  of  an  empty  trcmurv 
a  heavy  public  debt,  and  the  pruvincrs  alm.«t  lii 
revolt.     Bahia  diaavowed  hU  authi>rity,  and  the 
Cortea  wlthheM  their  support  fr.Mu  liim.    The 
regent  reduced  his  expenditure  to  the  monthly 
sum  altowed  to  hia  princess  for  pin  nion.) .  h^ 
retired  to  a  country  house,  ami  olwin'Jl  tUc 
most  rialii  economy.     By  great  exerilonn  h.'  n- 
ducBl  the  public  expenditure  fnHn  $.'W,ij(«m«ii) 
to  ll.t.UUO.UUO;    but  tlie  uunh<-m  au<l    liu<m»l 
piDvlncea  still  wlthlield  tliilr  t«sn,  the  «niiy 
liecame    mutinous,   anil    the   niinistcn    r.f    hU 
fatlwr.  who  still  remalne<l  in  power,  were  ua 
popular;   the  regent  In  despair  deinaninl   hi* 
recall.      But  the  Bntlllan*  were  at  k-nitth  dU 
armed  by  his  noble  conduct;  llwy  ni-oKui/nl  his 
artlvtty.   his  benefloenoe,  hU  amiduliv  In   th« 
affs  s  of  government,  and  tlie  iMtiituai  fci  lino 
of  I.,    jtlon  and  respect  for  the  IIoum  uf  Brs 

ria,  which  had  for  a  moment  b«n  Islil  v\nn 
.  diatruat,  were  reawakened  with  nix  wwl 
•tjength.  It  waa  fortunate  that  the  uii«ml» 
which  diatttrbad  Braxil  wrreaonMninu!«U'<<  !•  r»r« 
the  arrival  of  Intelligence  from  Portugal  lUnlly 
hail  the  king  arrived  in  Lisbon  wlien  he  f..uud 
bimaelf  obilged  to  aaeat  to  s  ronstituiluo  whh  h 
treated  Ua  BrBslUaa  subjects  as  mere  I'oluauu, 

ItuiBllfaitinf  to  the  Brexlllaaa      The  deslKu  •>( 
lieeiariag  BruU  aa  ladapaadant  kiBgdum.  grew 


=.  I 


BRAZIL,  180e-18M. 


BRAZIL,  1871-1888. 


mon  and  mora  In  public  farour;  but  the  prinoe 
wM  uDwttUnK  to  place  btmiclf  in  direct  nbcllion 
to  the  crown  of  Portunl,  and  ■taulily  adhered  to 
hii  determination  to  leave  America.  At  length, 
it  ii  related,  a  deipatch  was  delivered  to  the 
regent,  which  he  declined  to  ihow  to  any  of  hta 
mmiaten,  but  which  evidently  excited  in  hit 
Blind  no  ordinary  emotion*  of  anger:  he  cnuhed 
the  paper  in  hia  hand,  and  moved  away  to  a 
window,  where  he  stood  for  a  few  momenta  in 
thought;  at  length  he  turned  to  bis  council  with 
the  words  '  Independencia  ou  morte': — the  ex- 
clamation waa  received  with  tumultuous  cheers, 
and  wss  adopted  aa  the  watchword  of  the  Bevo- 
lutioa.  The  Portuguese  troops  wer«  sent  back 
to  Europe.  The  Cortea  of  Lisbon  were  now 
anxious  to  recall  their  obnoxious  decrees;  to 
sdmi'  the  deputies  from  Brazil;  to  make  any 
concession  that  might  be  demanded.  But  It  waa 
too  late:  the  independence  of  Braxtl  waa  for- 
mally procUlmed  m  August,  1833,  and  in  De- 
cember of  the  same  year,  Dnm  Pedro  was 
crovned  Emperor  of  BiBxil.  This  is  tile  first, 
and  a*  yet  the  only  inatanoe  of  a  modem  colony 
achieving  ita  independence,  and  aeparating  itself 
completelv  from  ita  metropolla  without  blood- 
shed. "—Viscount  Bury,  £«Miiif  tf  0»  WmHtm 
Xatimi,  «,  3,  cA.  II. 

Also  IS:  J.  ArmiUge,  Bitt.  (tfBratO,  e*.  1-7. 
—See,  also,  Portvoal:  A.  D.  11130-1884. 

A.  D.  iSas-i86s.— Wars  with  th«  Arreo- 
tiaes.— Abdication  of  Dom  Pedro  I.— Tb« 
GuarradosCabaaoa.- "  In  1838,  chinHy  through 
tli«  mediation  of  England,  Braxil  was  acknowl- 
edged as  an  indepeodent  empire.  But  the  inner 
i-ummntions  continued,  and  were  not  even  sootheti 
by  s  new  Constitution,  drawn  up  in  1838,  and 
sworn  to  bv  the  Kmperor  in  1884.  New  revolu 
in  IVmambuco,  and  aiime  of  tlie  otiier  Northern 
prorinm,  and  a  war  of  three  yeara  with  tlio 
Argi'otine  Kepubltc,  which  ended  in  1823  by 
Brazil  giving  up  Banda  Uriental,  annexed  only 
eleven  years  before,  disturbed  and  weakened  the 
Uml.  The  foreign  soldiers,  enlisted  for  this  war, 
and  retained  afl«r  iu  condusioa  to  keep  down 
If  Opuaition.  anti  the  extravagant  private  life 
if  ilie  Empemr,  who  recklessly  trampled  down 
tlie  honour  of  respacUble  famlliaa,  provoked 
dliMliifsctlon  and  murmurs,  which  rose  to  the 
b\iiUi'»i  pitch  when  be  inaisi  '  upon  earrviiig  on 
a  Hunt  unjHipular  war  in  Po.  ugitl  to  derentTtiie 
riKliU  o(  Ilia  daughter.  Dona  jiaria  da  Gloria  (in 
whuM  faviiur  he  had  abdicated  the  Portuguese 
Crown),  against  his  biuthcr.  Don  Miguel  [see 
i'oKTiiiAL:  A.  n.  ]884-t88»]  In  April,  Iftll, 
U'Mi  Hniro  I.,  so  enthuaiaatically  raised  to  the 
Hmziliitn  Uinme  only  nine  yeare  before,  waa 
fnnwl  to  abdicate  It.  deserted  and  betrayed  by 
evfry  one,  in  behalf  of  hia  younger  son,  Pwiro 
1  lie  next  peritKi  was  the  most  disturbeil  one  tliHt 
U.0  voung  Empire  hiid  yet  witnewwd  Hhve 
K;»<>lls  at  Bahia,  a  civil  war  In  tlie  >louth,  which 
alinwt  n<tl  it  tlie  pnivinceof  Hioarawledu  Hul. 
ami  tlie  bloody  rebellion  known  aa  the  Ouerra 
iii«  (  alunos.  In  I'ara  and  Amuim,  fn>m  1883  to 
l!w:,  (i>llowe<i  each  other  quickly.  In  tlila  last 
revolt,  the  Bratilians  bad  stirred  up  Uie  Indians 
anil  mesUniea  agaltiat  tb«  abhorrad  Portuguess, 
«iihout  ixmsiderlng  that  they  skouki  not  be 
slile  to  gucDch  tlia  Are  thev  had  UMOHalvaa 
S.MM.  in  »  ahm  time,  tke  fury  of  M*  wboU 
Allured  populaikw  tunMd  aniMt  ail  wUmh 
imilltaaa  aad  PunuftMM  iBka,  wHkoui  aajr 


distinction.  Mon  than  10,000  persons  are  said 
to  have  perished  in  this  Guerre  dos  Cabanos; 
and,  to  tlie  preaent  day.  those  terrible  times  and 
the  barbarous  cruelties  committed  bv  the  In- 
dians, lialf-castes,  and  mubttoes,  continue  to  be 
talked  of  with  awe  In  the  two  provhiccs.  A 
revolution  in  Uinaa,  got  up  by  the  personal 
ambitiona  of  a  few  polUical  leaden,  rether  than 
emanating  from  the  spirit  of  the  people,  and  the 
war  against  Roaas,  the  DicUtor  of  Uie  Argentine 
Republic,  passed  over  Brazil  without  leaving 
deep  traces,  at  leaat  when  compared  with  the 
last  war  against  Paraguay;  which,  besides  the 
stimulus  of  the  old  differences  about  boundariea, 
waa  occaaioned  by  the  endless  vexations  and  re- 
atrictiona  with  wlilch  the  DicUtor  Lopez  strova 
to  ruin  the  Brazilian  trade  on  the  Pant,aay,  and 

to  prejudice  the  province  of  Mato  Qroaso." F. 

Keller,    1%4  AnaioH  and  Madtin  Binrt,   t». 

Also  di:  J.  Armitage,  Bit.  rf  Braril,  1808- 
1881.— See,  alao,  Aaournra  Rkfcbuc:  A.  D, 
1818-1874. 

A.  D.  1I6S-1I70.— Th«  war  with  Paracuay. 
SeePAHAOUAT:  A.  D.  1806-1878. 

A.  D.  t87i-i88a.— Emaacipatioo  of  SUvas. 
—The  Brazilian  act  of  emancipation,  known  as 
the  Law  of  Rio  Brenco  (taking  tliat  name  from 
the  Minister  who  carried  It  through)  was  passed 
on  the  38lh  of  September,  1871,  "and  from  that 
date  it  wu  enacted  'that  cliildren  henceforth 
bom  of  alave  women  shall  be  considered  of  frea 
condition.'.  .  .  8uch  cbildren  are  not  to  b* 
actually  free,  but  are  bound  to  serve  the  ownen 
of  their  motliera  for  a  term  of  31  yean,  under  the 
name  of  'apprentices.'  These  must  work,  under 
severe  penalties,  for  their  bereiiitary  niastera; 
but  if  tlie  latter  inllict  on  tlicm  excessive  bodily 
piinUliment,  they  are  allowed  to  bring  suit  in  a 
criminal  court,  which  mnv  declare  their  freedom. 
A  pnivlslon  was  alao  maJe  for  the  emHncipalion 
of  government  slaviii,  and  there  was  a  clause 
which  insured  a  ceruin  sum,  U>  tie  annually  set 
aside  frnin  Hue*,  which  was  to  aid  each  pmvince 
in  emancipating  by  piirrlntae  a  certain  number 
of  alaves.  .  .  .  The  passage  of  this  hw  did  not 
prove  merely  prospective  in  ita  elTwln,  In  a 
very  short  time  tlie  sums  placed  aaiile  roremnnri- 
pating  slaves  by  purchase  resulted  in  tlie  frreiiom 
of  many  bondmen.  And  more  tlian  this,  there 
seemed  to  be  a  genenms  private  rivalry  in  the 
good  work,  fMm  motives  of  lienevolencf  and 
from  rellgloiia iiiHueiice.  Many  p^raona in  various 
parts  of  firatil  lilieratcd  their  alxrea  without  cim- 
p«-nsation.  ...  I  am  happy  to  say  tliat  the 
number  llbcreuil,  either  liv  the  provisions  of  the 
Huie  or  by  |irlv«tp  imlivUunla,  N  slways  in  an 
increasing  mlio.  When  the  writer  lint  went  to 
UrHZll  [IH.U|  ...  It  wiM  estlinale.^  that  there 
were  S.UUll.UUi)  In  alarery.  .  .  .  There  were  at 
tlie  beginning  of  \n'\  when  the  law  of  emanc. 
patlon  hail  iMvn   hut  a  little  more  than  three 

fean  In  onerHtlon,  l,478,S8i  slavea. "— J.  C 
letcbcr  and  l>  1'  Kidder,  Ortuit  n/uf  Iht  Bm- 
iil,aiu.  eA.  38— "(Mi  the  35lh  o!  .Manb.  |fM(. 
alavery  waa  abolialied  In  the  pmvince  of  Ciiini 
The  lUo  News  says.  The  movemt-nt  began  only 
18  nmatiu  ago,  the  first  municipality  ilbcntting 
IM  ikvaa  OB  tl<e  lat  of  January,  1888.  The  new 
<•«  tow  of  \aM  Nnvinnber  emtiv  acc-leraled 
Ikis  niogrsM.  because  It  mad*  alavehokllng  im- 
POHibto,  tk*  value  of  the  slave  being  leaa  than 
UMtar"*    Ua  tiis  38tk  ot  OapUaber,  1888,  ifet 


828 


f! 


BRAZIL,  1871-1888. 

IrapstlMioe  of  the  BniflUiii  to  rid  thenuelrei  of 
sUrerv  eipitMnd  itMlf  In  a  new  EmancipaUon 
Act,  known  u  the  Suaira  Uw.  It  pn^ided 
f^        1?'^*  haitenlni  the  extension  of 


BRAZIL,  1888-1881. 


freedom,  by  ina«Mlng  the  public  fund  Bppropri- 
•t«l  to  Jt,  by  defining  the  Ttluation  of  glaTee, 
and  bT  other  effecUve  provliions,  so  that 
■•within  ten  yean  (from  ita  date]  it  ia  siippoMd 
?5  'If 'ST?  ""'  •"»"  «*«<'  to  e»l»t  in  Bntil.  " 
.  7i}-  k-  """''•  ■*  '«»'■  •'»  -Shut/,  op.  381-2tM  — 
'•'On  March  !»,  1887,  the  official  return  nve  the 
nu  Tiber  of  ilares  in  Brazil  aa  788.419,  of  Uie 
|legarr,Iu«  of  $485,885,818.  On  May  18,  1888, 
itfce  Crown  Princeaa,  aa  reeent,  javc  the  royal 
aifcnt  to  a  itiort  measure  of  two  clauMis.  the  flrat 
decUrfng  that  ilg  ery  was  abolished  in  Brazil 
Ttom  the  day  of  the  promulgation  of  the  law,  and 
the  second  repealing  all  former  AcU  on  Uie  sub- 
ject. Boih  Cbar.u)ors  refused  to  consider  the 
claim  for  compensation  made  by  the  sla»e  own- 
ers. —Statr^imurt  Ttnr-Book,  1890,  n  391 

of  the  Empjre.-B8UbUahmeBt  of  the  Republic 
of  the  United  Stataa  of  Brazil.— RejVjoua 

freedom  declared.— "The sudiko  ollapsooftlie 
Imperial    Oiivcrnment    in    November    fl88"l 
resulting  in  the  downfall  of  Dom  Pe<lro  and  hU 
banishment,   causi-d    universal   surprito.      For 
some  time  the  Government  had  been  cniilied  bv 
the  Republican   Journals  with  the    wish   anil 
intention  to  dUperse  Uie  army  througlio,..  the 
provinces  and  along  the  frontier,  ro  Uutt  with 
the  assUtance  of  th-  newly-organised  National 
Ouaid,  the  succession  of  the  Prfncesa  Imperial  to 
the  throne  might  be  secured  1 1  the  event  of  tlie 
djMth  or   incapacity  througl      Id    age  of   the 
^peror  Dom  Pedro.     An  infantry  battollon 
ordered    to    embark    for   a   disUnt    province, 
mutinied  and  refused  to  go.    The  W«'  Depart- 
ment  resolved    to   compel    them    by   force  to 
depart       The  result  was   a   general    niuUny 
(NoTember    15    1888).   which   soon    l«fame  i 
rsTolutloo.     "The  organlurr  of  Uie  muUny  was 
Colonel  Benjamin  C<msUul  Botelho  de  Magal- 
kMt,  an  officer  of  exceptional  ability  andPro- 
Umatia  the  MlUtary  Academy.    The  movement 
•wmed    dlivcted    at    first    only    against    Uia 
oboozlous  Ouro  Preto  Ministry ;  but  the  enUiusi- 
Mm  of  Uie  iMpublicana.  under  Uie  leadership  of 
a  popular  agitator,  J(«e  da  Patn^lnio.  waa  so 
IT'^uP.T^'^'^'J'"''  •'  •  nieeUng  held  In  the 
dty  hall.  In  Uie  afternoon  of  Nov.  15,  a  rrtolu- 
tioo  proclaiming  Uie  Republic  was  pasaed  bv 
aixlamatlon.     About  the  same  hour,  a  silf  con- 
stltuu-jl  committee  consisting  of  General   Deo 
don.    |,la    Fonseca],   Benjamin   CoosUni,    su.l 
Uiilntliio  Bocayuva,  met  ami  organlse<l  a  Pro 
vl»l.«i«l  Government,"  with  Marshal  l).i.l.«i)da 
Foims-a  f..r  iu  Chief.  Colonel  UoU  ll.o  .K-  M„„|. 
bar.  f,.r  .Mlni.t.'r  of  War.     ••  A  f.Hinal  decree 
wa»   lssue<i  d«larln»  a   fe.l.nil    Kinulill..   the 
sevrral  provlnren  of  the  lain  Kmpln.u-..n»t;i«ilng 
the  Hutes  and  eaih  Htate  arranging  iu  o»ii  mn- 
stitutlon  and  clerti'ig  Iu  drllU-milve  Uxli,-.  ami 
tooal  govemmenu     On  Uie  iiK.rnIng  <.f  tlw  IMih 
the  denoani  Kmpiror  received  liitlmatkin  ilmt  lie 
and  hia  family  niu»t  leave  the  ii.iintry  wlthi,, 
twenty  four  hours  —  •  Between  ii  and  3  oolmk 
on  tlie  morning  of  lliv  17lh  an olBcr app«Breil  at 
Uie  palace  and  liif  .rmrii  Uie  KinpenV  that  lie 
m.»t  St  nsee  emte^k.  «iil,  .\\  'Sht  Wrmlx:™  of 
l.m  family.      The  wrtlclw,!  ,.l,|  ,mo   prolealed 
UMt  1m  waa  not  a  fmlllvu,  and  Uiat  he  prefarreil 


to  embMk  by  day;   bat  aftw  Iktmilng  to  the 
officers  ezplanaUoo  Uiat  a  cooOict  might  occur 
Md   blood   might  be  ahed,  he  flmilly  y  e^' 
proteating  thatln  such  a  criaia  hia  old  griy  S 
was  the  only  one  Uiat  was  oooL    And  so  at  the 
dead  hour  of  night,  wiUi  no  one  to  say  a  fair, 
well  MKl  bid  him  Godspeed,  the  aged  iTmperor' 
with  hi.  dcirated  wlfeiS^childreV^wmtt 
to  the  Caes  Pharoni,  where  a  launch  was  wait 
^g  to  convey  them  out  to  the  small  RuniKwt 
Pamahjrba.      About    10   o'clock    the    gunlx" 
steamed  out  of  the  harimurand  w.-nt  down  („ 
Ilha  Orande  to  wait  for  Uie  merchant  ,u,.mer 
^'S*"^  ^■^^'^  "^  •*•»  <^'>«rt"wl  to  cnvpy  the 

exile,  to  Europe- It  waa  said  tlwt    he 

Imperial    MinUt^.    prindnally    throuifh    the 

with   Dom   Pedro  to  abdicate  at    the    rnj    i 
January.   1890,  in  favour  of  hU  daughter   the 
i^  ."««"  dEu-      But  the  CounteM,   with'  her 
ausband,   was  extremely  unpopular    wiih   ilio 
army  and  navy    and  from  tli««e  the  f.rlins  of 
disloyalty  spre«l  rapidly  among  the  pcplo     [u- 
decree    of    Um    Provisional    Ooveni.n;  ,u,    ,hi 
pi^ovinoes  of  Brazil,  united  by  th.-  tic  of  f«l,.r. 
atlon    were  to  K  .lyU-d  the  •United    StaU,.  of 
Brazil,    and  general  elections  were  to  Uikc  nlare 
n  August   1890,  to  confirm  the  esUbllalmient  of 
the  l^public.     A  counter-revolution   lm.ke  out 
!    >  '.'S  "^-  '*■     •*  nximXm  of  soldiers,  aailnn 
an.l  clvlltans  took  part  in  it,  and  troops  hail  t.i !« 
on,,  red  out  to  disperse  them.     It  was  not  mitll 
I  Uie  m)\  that  the  disturbance  was  flnally  iiui'lli,!  • 
-AuHunl   RmMtr,    1889,   ft.  1,  „,.  444-MK - 
The  revolution  was  the  work  of  leaii.M  who 
were  not  only  conscious  of  their  power  liiii  alao 
confident  that  Uie  nation  would  inevitably  con- 
done their  temporary  acu  of  usurpation.   'Tlieie 
were  no  signs  of  weakness,  vacillation  or  uncrr- 

tainty  in  their  actio! A  coalition  of  the 

•"Jjy  officere  and  the  conatlluUon  mak.Ts  and 
political  dreamers  of  tlie  League  would  iiare 
been  im7racticable  If  the  leaders  ha/i  not  known 
that  tha80  provinces  of  the  Emplr  weiv  pro- 
roundly  dlMlTected  and  would  readily  acquiesce 
In  a  radical  change  of  government.  .  .  .  The 
Emperor  of  Bnszii  haa  enjoyed  Uie  repuUtion  of 
being  one  of  the  DMst  enlightened  and  pm- 
grnalve  aoveraigoa  of  hIa  Ume.  ...  He  was  s 
ruler  wlUi  maov  faKinathigandestimalile  trhitu 
w  ho  endeared  bImMlf  to  hU  people.  Thia  and 
much  moie  may  ba  said  in  prcise  i>f  the  ilep,.*! 
and  baniahed  Emperor;  but  when  the  ntonl  ,.f 
hts  public  services  and  of  his  privau-  vlmi.-»  in 
riimplete,  the  fact  remains  tliat  he  stool  fur  s 
svilein  of  centralizatitm  that  practically  dinrinMJ 
the  great  series  of  fedeniu-d  provlmi-s  of'  llu  ir 
BUtonuiny  and  his  sulijccts  of  the  privilege,, if 
•elf  government.  Dom  I'lilni  II  whs  not  a  ,..« 
sUtutional  rtlormer.  The  charur  wliii  li  he  lu,| 
reoslved  from  his  father  was  not  ni<Klitie<|  In  any 
easenUal  respect  during  his  long  reign  •-.>■  )* 


TViJiilM  «n,„,  r.  I,  M.  18  (I8N9)-'  A  new 
ConsUtutfcitt  .  was  raUlled  liy  tlw  flr-t 
NutliHwl  Congri'M.  ronve->e.l  ihi  Nor  l.l.  \-<wt 
By  this  instrument  liie  Il.nuilian  uitllon  (vtiml- 
tut«-i|  lui'lf  Into  a  finiersl  rrpubllc,  uii,li  r  tin 
name  of  the  Unitwl  Suu^s  of  llrsiil  K  i,  k  of 
Uiooiil  provinces  was  di-rliinHl  a  self  ifm,  miiin 
su««,  to  In  atliuinisleriMl  uudorareiMiliViniii  f.irra 
of  guiretuuu-tu,  with  power  to  Impose  t««,  i.  aii,l 
nibjoct  to  no  interfi  rencn  from  Uie  ( .  ntrai 
Goveranwnt,   except  for  purposes  of   oati<iUiil 


324 


BRAZIL,  18W-18n. 


BRnrBNTELD. 


df  fcBM  or  tlM  pmerratUn  of  IntoAil  order  or 
for  Um  execution  of  Fedenl  bwi.  Lea[liUtion 
reUtiog  to  cuitonu,  paper  cturencj,  wid  poatal 
rommunlcetions  ii  reeerred  to  tin  Fedenl 
Govcrament.  The  right  of  lOffrBge  te  Mcured  to 
all  male  citizeiu  over  21  Tean  old,  wtUi  the 
i<ir«pt!oa  of  brggmn,  peraooa  ignonuit  of  the 
alphabet,  soldieni  in  actual  lerTke,  and  penom 
under  monaatlc  Towa,  regtalratlon  beHng  the 
only  prerequUtte.  The  ezecutlTe  authority  is 
Tfttnl  in  the  Preddeot  .  .  .  elected  by  the 
people  diivctlv  for  the  term  of  liz  years,  and 
not  eiigilile  for  the  succeeding  t«nn.  .  .  . 
Senslors  are  electt-d  by  the  Legislatures  of  the 
Sutes  for  nine  yean,  three  from  each  State,  one 
retiriog  and  his  sucoeaaor  being  choieu  every 
tbivt'  yi'Sts.  .  .  .  The  Chamber  of  Deputies  has 
the  initiative  in  all  laws  reUting  to  taxation. 
I)eputic«  lire  elected  for  three  yean  by  direct 
popular  vote  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  every 
lO.OOO  inlubitanta.  ...  It  is  declared  that  no 
•I'd  or  church  sliall  receive  aid  from  the  National 
or  State  governments."  In  18S1,  differences 
aroae  between  the  President  and  Congress,  at 
flrst  over  financial  nieaaures  paaard  by  the 
Chambcn  and  vetned  by  the  I*resident  and 
Khemes  recommended  by  the  President  that 
were  voted  down  by  Congress.  In  November 
the  President  published  a  decree  dissolving 
CoDgreas,  closed  the  Chambcn  by  force,  pro- 
rlslmed  himself  Dictator  on  tlie  invitation  of 
offlcrn  of  the  army,  and  convoked  a  new  Con- 
gress, to  be  charged  with  the  revision  of  the 
constitution.  The  State  of  Rio  Orande  do  Sul 
led  off  in  a  revolt  against  this  usurpation,  and  on 
thf  23d  of  November,  after  some  shots  had  been 
tiriHt  into  the  city  of  Rio  de  .laneiro  by  a  naval 
't.juailrun  acting  against  him,  President  Funseca 
ri'aigned.  "  Floriano  Peixuto  was  immedlataly 
I  Killi'ii  br  tlie  revolutionary  committee  ssPrn- 
ii|i-ni  In  his  metui."—Apt>lrton'i  AtiHvai  Cyrl^- 
I  '.lut  isiil.  ;./)  Dl-M.— Fora  time,  the  govem- 
I  lint  oiKicr  President  Peixoto  was  maintained 
vviih  < oiiHidemlile  sticress :  but  in  iH98  a  serioui 
r-lx  llion.  in  which  the  navy  took  the  lead,  ^)rok• 
Mil.  The  naval  insurgents  held  the  harbor  of 
Uio  de  Janeiro  for  some  months,  but  gmdually 
I  <  support.  On  the  Ist  of  Manh.  INtM.  a  pre*' 
M'-ntial  I'lertinn  was  hrkl.  which  n-Miltrd  m  th« 
rhoicc  of  Prudente  Morws,  a  civilian.  This  ra- 
movnl  the  leading  grievance  of  the  rrbeU.  that 
iVi\'ito  WHS  (lerpctuatint!  a  regime  of  purr  milt- 
iHriuu.  On  the  11th  <il  Manli  the  f.ret  which 
the  governmi-nt  hail  In-i  n  fitting  nut  In  tb« 
I'liltitl  Htittrs  and  Eur<'|if  appeari-d  at  the  en- 
irariiv  to  the  harbor  of  Rio.  The  Insurkjnt 
rominanili'r  ufTired  to  surrender  on  cooditKma, 
whii  h  heinir  n'fuvHl.  he  and  his  ofllrfn  sought 
ii«ylum  on  flrst  ii  Krcnrli  and  later  a  Portuguese 
n  If  vi'wi'l  Tims  ili'iH'rted,  tlie  orews  of  the 
i'i<iir<i'nt  TPam'U  surrrndered  without  rrslstaoca 
wlii-n  till'  government  iNttlcrles  opened  flr*.  In 
III"  rtr»t  n.irt  of  April  the  Eovimment  forcM 
'  'I'tllv  ilrreuted  the  rebels  In  Hio  Urande  do  8uL 
NT  0o^8^lTt•TlOH  or  Rrazil. 


BREAD  AND    CHBKSB    WAR. 

NtTiiKiit  «M>»:  A.  I>.  14W-14im. 


B«« 


BRECKINRIDCB,    lehn    C- Defeat  bi 

Ree  I'siTHi 


Preside.itiai  clecMea.     Bee  I'xiTi'  i>  Htatbs  or 

">x        A     Ii     imKi  (ApHII.— KuVKMHKH) 

BREDA :  A.  D.  IS7S.— Spaaish-Ottch  Cm> 
grtsi.    tiaa  Nbtbularim  :  A.  D  MTtiy  1977. 


A.  D.  ino.— Optm  hf  Priaet  Maorlca  •! 
NasBan-Orann.  Bee  NvmEBLAmis:  A.  D. 
1588-1503. 

A.  D.  iAa4-l6as.— Sicfe  and  captara  by  th« 
Spaaiarda,  See  NBTiiKRi.AMoa:  A.  D.  ISSl- 
lKi3. 

A.  D.  1637,— Takta  br  the  Pihica  of  Oraas*. 
See  Nbtrkrlands:  A.  D.  lOWV-lOHS. 

A.  D.  1793.— Takca  aad  lost  by  the  Preach. 
SeeFRAHca:  A.  P.  1798  (Fbbhuakt— Arau,). 
> 

BREDA,  Dcclatatioa  from.  See  Eholaxd: 
A.  D.  165»-1«60. 

BRBDA,  Treaty  of  (tM6).  See  NcracB- 
laKiM(HoLLAHO):  A.  D.  16l»-lflW. 

BREED'S  HILL  (Bnakcr  HiU),  Battle  oC 
See  UifiTSD  Status  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  1775  (Juki). 

BREHON  LAWS.— "The  portion  of  the 
Irish  tribe  system  which  has  attnuted  most 
attentio  ia  tlie  mode  in  which  the  judicial 
authoritv  was  witiidrawn  from  the  chief  and  ap- 
propriated by  the  hereditary  caste  of  tlie 
Breiions,  and  also  the  supposed  anomnlous 
principles  which  tliey  applied  to  the  decision  of 
the  cases  which  came  before  them.  The  curlier 
English  «'riten  foiud  no  terms  too  strong  to  ex- 
press their  abhcrrenco  and  contempt  of  tliese 
natlvu  judges,  and  their  contempt  for  the  prin- 
ciples upon  which  they  pn)cee<lt>d.  On  the  otlier 
hand,  Irish  writcrr  attributeil  to  them>  profes- 
sional nrbitml'irg  advuicol  princlplni  of  equity 
wholly  foreign  U)  an  early  community.  .  .  .  The 
tnn^ation  of  the  existing  vast  nia«.H  of  Rn'hon 


law  books,  and  the  trunslatlon  [publication?]  of 
the  moot  Important  of  tlicm  by  the  onivr  of  the 
government,  have  disposed  of  the  argumenta 
and  awcrtions  on  hotii  sides.  It  is  now  ad- 
mitted, that  the  aysiem  and  principles  of  the 
Brehun  jurisprudence  pn>senl  no  characteristics 
of  any  special  character,  although  in  them 
primitive  ideas  of  law  went  eUbonted  in  a 
manner  not  found  elsewhere ;  ...  the  hiws 
which  existed  among  the  native  Irish  were  In 
substance  those  \?liich  are  found  10  have  pre- 
vailed among  other  Aryan  tribes  in  a  similar 
stage  cf  social  progress ;  as  the  social  develop- 
ment of  the  nation  was  prematurely  arreslea,  so 
also  were  the  legal  ideas  of  the  same  stage  of 
existence  retidned  after  they  had  dlaappearMi  In 
all  other  nations  of  Europe.  This  legal  survival 
continued  for  centuries  the  property  of  an 
hereditary  caste,  who  had  acquired  thn  knowl- 
edge of  writing,  and  some  tincture  of  scholaritic 
pbUosophy  and  civil  law.  .  .  .  The  learning  of 
the  Brehons  consisted  (1)  in  an  acquaintance 
with  the  minute  ceremonies,  intelligible  now 
only  to  an  arcbnologist,  and  not  alwavs  to  bim, 
by  which  the  action  could  be  instituted,  and 
without  which  no  Hrrhon  rould  sasume  the  m! 
-if  arhitrator:  and  (2)  in  a  knowledge  of  i' 
tradilioiia,  customs  and  precedrnta  of  the  tril 
In  accordance  with  whlcn  the  dinnule  should  in 
decided."— A.  O.  Rlcbey,  SKtrt  liiM.  qftkt  IriiA 
Aentt  eh  S. 

Also  .m  ;  Sir  II  Maine.  XaHg  IIM.  /  M- 
MtuHonM  Uet  3 

BRBISACH:  A.  D.  id)t— Si«icc  aad  can- 
tar*  br  Dnka  Barahard.  ?»  Qrrma.iy:  A.  ft. 
l«S4-ta8» 

A.  D.  1641.— Ceaalau  to  Fraac*.    Hee  Oaa- 

HANV:   A.  I>    iOM. 

BRBITBNFBLD,  Battle  of  lor  Srst  battle 
•r  LaipaiC).      See   UaaMAJIV:   .V  I*.    IU3I     ... 


i  '  'tt. 


325 


t. ' 


BRUTUUFKLO. 

Jk        I  1         V  tf  4tf  ^T  ■  III   I         1      -   -  *      L  ft*     * 


BRETWALDA. 


R^rmed  RdJcien.    8ea  Papact:  A.  D.  1334- 

S^»  ^^iSLly^"*^  "K  *'••  Blihoprlck  to 
.    JJ"*    "^OfUtAWT:  A.  D.  1«48 

Ommaict:  a.  D.  IMl-lsS.       **"~^*-    "^ 
A.    D.    iSiit.— AuMscd  to    Pnacc     Sae 

FkaH«;  A.D.  J8lO(F..ROABT-DECKI.B«Rr 

A.  D.  iBio-iSi(.-LoM  aad   rtcerery   of 
•BtomHnraa  •  "£f  dty."    See  Crrw7lM 
rtniAi,  AHD  Fmb,  op  Obmaht 

A.  D.  iSic.— Onco  mort  a  Fn*  City  sod  a 

AbUtKtt^^SteiSJOrs;; 

OaBMAmr:  A.  D.  1888. 

BRBMI :  A.  D.  l63S-t««t.— Takon  br  tha 
Fr«aeli.-RacoTM^  tqr  tft^  SpanUrti'  SeS 
Italy:  A.  D.  ItatV-lASs'  -•—"»•    oee 

BRtMULB,  Battla  of  (iito).  See  X>a- 
Laxd:  a.  D.  1067-1 18S.  Vh    a^    ajxa 

BRBMTlfORD  BatUe  oC-Foujht  and 
woo  by  Edmund  frtnulde.  In  hU  oonMet  w^th 
CMut.  or  CMiute.  for  tb.  Engltah  thro^  aTd! 

I  ^"^^'Ai  ^  ^^  «5«».— Captara  aad  bU. 
j*|J  by  the  French.    See  Italt:  A^R  18?S^ 

A.  D.  1849.  — Bombardment,  capture  and 
imtal  treatment  bj  the  Anatria^  HiynM.  fcS 
Italy:  A.  U.  1(»4»-1M».  "•jnau.  ckv 


,"""SLAU :  A.  D.  1741.1760.-In  the  wara 

1.41  (Mav-Jlm);  174a  (JA:iuABr_MAr)  :Va 
(Jr««):  Okhmakt:  A.  D.  I7S7  (JctV-l  kk" 
■cm,  ami  1700.  i'k.«»- 

whlcl,  fr,.m  tie  llr-i  Ul^.uwl  uiler  "«■  ,L"X: 
fecu  and  Imptrfeotl.m,.  h«l  in  counK  of  tlm„ 

10  \>\ect  of  tlH-mwIVM.  or  been  lUnDn-au.! 
Th-  two  tl.ln«..  h„w«v,r.  Mill  eitauJl  'Tli^e 
prt.p..„«lty  u.  «llKl,H„  M«idall«r  am' 
l^H-""!  "'•""«*'"'<  •«ndlli,H.,  which  m  u"mi 
and  n.n,i,.„,l  pr«ctlc»l,le  ti.e  effort.  utb^^T^ 

taSr.iA'^""'"  '"»•«"««  of  the  Common  Lot 
!!l    "","••,    •     Tli«  ant  ■otiiur  of  thtancw 

1* -uli  dc  Umnt,  urlmnlu,  Ma«nu«),  a^Sa 
•f  flowla*  piety  ««i  (mat  Id  loTUag  gwU 


powerful  popular  orator  aad  an  affoctloiiato 
I?L^2?.®I'*Pi?T*'^  the  ancient  Fathew  l,ln 
lerting  the  racorda  of  Chttatian  antluuitv 
Hence,  ho  had  tona  before  employed  young  men 
under  I.U  0Yerri|i>t,  aa  copyliu.  thereby  «! 
compltahlng  the  threefold  edd  of  multipiln, 
the*  good  theological  worto,  giving  proflubif 
employment  to  the  youths  and  obtalSlnir  mod 
portunltr  of  influencing  their  mind..  TT,U  L 
continued  more  aad  more  to  do.  The  dnlr.  nf 
hU  youthful  friend.,  «Aolar^  Md\Sni:riU 
became  from  day  to  day  larger,  and  grew  «t 

part  owed  It.  origin  to  the  copying  of  tlie  S<riD 
ture.  anddeTotlooal  book..  tlJe's-Siety  fmmX 
out«t,  «id  through  it.  whole  continuince,  ^1* 
^  Holy  Scripture  and  iU  prop.g.tio„^e 
^'?i?-  ~"|«^«.  PW"'^*.  •lid  Stilizinu  „f 
good  theological  and  Mcetical  boolu.  one  of  lt» 

BreUiren  of  t^  Common  Lot,'  [or  of  tli..  Cam. 
f??n  J;"'J  1',  Brethren  of  Good  Will.-  •  Fnitre. 
Coltatlonan  .'  'JeronymUn..'  and  'O^rKorUnT 
.  .  .  ImitathiB  the  Church  at  Jeruaalt-n«  aoj 
K!?S?^.h^^*u'^  BffecUon.  they  nm!u»IIy 

erty.  or  coomcrated  al«>  their  fortune.  If  tlier 
P?||*ijed  any.  to  the  wrvlce  of  the  communlt/ 
rrom  thiaaource.  and  from  donation,  aad  leeV 

ejch  of  which  a  certain  number  of  memlxrs  lir«| 
together,  .ubjected.  it  i«  true,  in  drew,  dl,  t  .nd 
general  way  of  life,  to  au  appointed  ruk"  hut 
wkh^M^ST'"^'?  "^''"'^red  from  tlie  world, 
with  which  they  maintained  coovtaot  Int^m.urw 
and  in  .uch  a  way  h.  In  oppoiition  to  .M..n>i<h: 
fEui""  ''^.'r."  '*•  J"''«^P'«  of  imlivMu.! 
Utjerty.  —C.lllnuum,Afun:tmirfor(thtll,f„r. 
7Xy-  t?J,.'^-  *.-  '^-  »— "ThroJgh  th..  w,.D 
derful  actirity  of  that  fraternity  of  teailier!, 

rS^'  "?»'  »«»■<»"«>  th«  B^thren  of  tS 
LummoD  Ufa,  the  Netherland.  bad  the  Unt  ivi- 

K  i?!!f  "".M*'"^..'"r*5r  '•"■(!•  town  .n.1  Kln,„t 
^tke  IfithMandi,  p.  &_8ee.  alw,  Eolhatio!.: 

•i-jRC**'*  ff  OommoH  Lift,  M.  )M1  (r  Ii 

.i?i!!?ili°.f  X.'  '^'•^  ot-The  treaty.  cnlW 
?•?•,';""*»  pdward  HTof  Englao.1  .„,|  .i;,|,d 
n«,l?"""T'  '1  "£!'=''  ^""^  r..|i,.,.n...l  hii 
L^!!^2^  '",'?"  '^•"■''  '•"'"''■  "•"'•««■''  f"  » 
r^Il!:'"'^'''!'"'--"'*''  »  Priioner  lo  hi.  I>.,ikU. 
and  rorolvedtlie  full  •.ven-ignty  of  (Jul,  „«■. 
lo^tou  and  Ponthieu  in  Praiia-.  btidc.  r..i*lni„K 
Calah  and  Oulwea-ace  F«a«cb:  A.  U  IJt: 

the  early  Eogllah  kinga  "  Opinions  ilim  r  u  10 
the  meaoiug  of  the  word  Brtlw.ld*.  I-Klirmvt. 
•?•„  WP^nwwf  take  it  a.  equivalent  to 


of  Briuhi':  Kemble  cooMniM  it 


326 


„  nilfr 
.■j~lizr",  ■  ."""""^  ""•"n"""  II  bniail  niliiiir.' 
•M  eoee  in  it  a  dignity  without  duty.  Iianfly 

SSS!'*J''.!M'''"*'"»'  1»:1u<I"  El  mum  of 
*•«■  WM  iiroke  the  powvr  uf  tlio  putty  klagf 


BRZTWAXOA. 

u  far  u  the  Homber,  Redbald  of  Eait  AncIU, 
who  obuined  it  bj  gome  nukai  eren  in  tbelife- 
time  of  Etbelbert,  uid  the  tbree  past  North- 
umbrisn  kings,  Kdwin,  OtwoM  Mid  Oiwy,  wboM 
iupremacy  howeTerdid  not  eitend  to  Kent"  — 
C.  EltoQ,  Origiiu  of  BngUtk  HiM.,  p.  SM,  aota. 

Aim  nf :  K  A.  Freeman,  Hut.  if  IM*  Jioiman 
Odiu.  of  Bng.,  ».  1,  am.  A— See,  also.  Eholamd: 
A.  D.  477-527,  and  EaoLAND:  7th  Ckntuht. 

BREWSTER,  WiUUm,  and  the  Plymonth 
Pilninu.  Bee  iHDBPEifoeim:  A.  D.  1001-1617, 
UHTMAnACBiiBrm:  A.  D.  1680,  anil  after. 

ERE  YZ AD.— The  people  and  the  language 
of  Brittany,  or  Bretagne.  See  BHiTTAiiy:  A.  5. 
618-912. 

BRIAN  BORU,  The  reign  in  Ireland  eC 
See  Ireland:  A.  D.  1014. 

BRIOGE,  BatUe  of  the— A  lerioue  reverie 
suffered  by  the  Arab  followen  of  Mahomet  in 
tbeir  early  moTemenU  against  the  Persians, 
A  D.  684.  A  force  of  9,000  or  10,000  having 
croaed  the  Euphiatea  by  a  bridge  of  boats  were 
beaten  back,  their  bridge  deatroyed  and  half  of 
them  slain  or  drowned.— O.  Rawlinaun,  Smnlh 
Ortat  Oriental  Mmankp.  eK.  M.— See  Mauomk- 
TAX  roNqtmr:  A.  D.  ma-651. 

BRIOGEWATER,OR  LUNDY'SLANB, 
Battle  of:  See  UMrnco  Statu  op  Ah.  :  A.  D. 
1814  (JcLT— SarrtMBiR). 

BRIOGBWATER,  Storming  et  See  Eng- 
laud:  a.  D.  1648  (July- Siitkmbeb). 

BRIENNE,  BatUe  et  See  Fhahcb  :  A.  D. 
1814  (Janitabt— March). 

BRIGANTES,  The.— One  of  the  stmngest 
snd  flpiwst  of  the  tribes  of  ancient  Briuin.  be- 
lirvnl  liy  some  historians  to  have  been  the  origi- 
lul  [irr  (Vltic  inhabitanu  of  the  Island.  At  tlie 
time  of  lhi>  Roman  conqueat  they  held  the  whole 
interior  northward  from  the  [lumber  aod  Mersey 
to  the  Forth  and  Clyde.  They  were  subdued 
by  Aifrioola.— E  Quest,  Origiiui  Otttiea.  ».  1,  M. 
1  —See,  also,  Britaim,  Celtic  TRiBca,  and  A.  O. 
43-,'l3.  also,  Irblaud,  Tmibbs  of  Early  Celtic 
iNHABrrANTa. 

BRIGANTINE.-BERCANTIN.     See 

Caravklh. 

BRIHUEGA,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  1710).  See 
Spaih  :  A.  D.  1707-1710. 

BRILL.,  Tha  capture  oC  See  NETnERLANOa: 
A.  I)   I.ITJJ. 

BRISBANE.    See  ArvniALU  :  A.  D.  1800- 

1841).  And  law, 

r.o«5S?Jl.P"  WARVILLB  AND  THE 
GIRONDISTS.  See  Frahce  :  A  U.  1791 
(I)<tx>bf:k).  to  178S(HErTBMBEH— December). 

BRISSOTINS.-The  party  of  the  Gimn- 
ilUu,  In  the  French  Hevolution,  waa  aoroetimes 
to  I'slk'd,  after  Brisaot  de  WarTllle,  one  of  iu 
lestlrn. 

BRISTOE    STATION.   Battia    eC     See 

iMTKllSTATEaOPAM.;  A.  D.  ltM8(jDLY— No- 

vemrch:  Vinuinia). 
BRISTOL:  i«th  CeBtur.-ltt  aUpt  trade 

and  other  cemmtrcc.—- Within  iu  compara- 
tively narrow  limits  Bristol  must  have  been  In 
feneral  rliaracter  and  aapect  not  unlike  what  It 
"  fT"^''  r  *  •^y'  ""^'tog.  doselypached  city, 
full  of  tlie  eager,  active,  surging  life  of  cinn 


full 


""Th'  ,',?'"e^-  0«me"  tnm  Watcrf.ml 
»"•  >u!,i::i.  horthinen  Uwn  Uw  Westero  Isles 
sn.1  ih-  more  distant  Urknoya,  and  even  from 

•  "-"  '-'  ' olfi  Uis 

which 


m  111-  more  distant  Urknoya,  and  even  fi 
Ni'rw.y  Itself  Iwl  long  ago  leant  to  avoiii 
*w*  «f  (hi  UigiB.'  ika  mlgMy  cumat  wli 


BRISTOL. 

itni  kept  iu  heathen  aame  deriTcd  from  the  aea- 
jod  of  their  forefathers,  snd  make  it  serve  to 
float  tliem  into  the  safe  and  commodious  har- 
bour of  Bristol,  where  a  thousand  ships  could 

iS.'J'L'i'J?^'.  A»,»5««™»ttn«ling  centre  of 
the  west  Bristol  ranked  ss  the  third  dty  in  the 
kingdom,  surpassed  in  importance  only  hy  Wln- 
clinter  and  Ixmdon.  The  most  lucrative  branch 
of  IU  trade,  however,  reflecu  no  credit  on  lu 
burghers.  All  tlie  eloquence  of  8.  Wulfstan 
and  all  the  sternness  of  the  Conqueror  had  barely 
availed  to  check  for  a  while  their  piactice  of 
kidnapping  men  for  the  Irish  slave-market;  and 
tliat  the  tnfflc  was  in  full  career  in  the  latter 
years  of  Henry  I.  we  learn  from  the  eipericnces 
of  the  canona  of  Laon. "— IC  Norgate,  Bn^nd 
under  tht  Angnin  King;  t.  1,  eh.  1. 

A.  D.  1497.— Cabot's  voyage  of  diacoTcrr. 
See  America:  A.  D.  1497. 

A.  D.  1645.— Tha  stormiBC  of  tha  city  by 
Pairlas.  See  £.<iolaiio:  A.  D.  1643  (Jult-- 
September). 

A.  p.  1A8&— The  ceoimarca  and  wealth  of 
the  city.— '•  Ne«t  to  the  cspiui.  but  next  at  an 
Immense  distance,  stood  Bristol,  then  the  flret 
English  seaport  .  .  .  Pepys,  who  visited  Bris- 
tol eight  vears  after  tlie  Restoration,  was  struck 
by  the  splendour  of  the  city.  But  his  sUndard 
waa  not  high ;  for  he  noted  down  as  a  wonder  the 
circumstance  that,  in  Bristol,  a  man  might  look 
round  him  and  see  nothing  but  houses.  ...  A 
few  churches  of  eminent  beauty  rose  out  of  a 
labyrinth  of  narrow  lanes  built  upon  vaulu  of  no 
great  solWity.  If  a  coach  or  cart  entered  those 
alleys,  there  was  danger  that  it  would  be  wedged 
between  tlie  houses,  and  danger  also  that  it 
would  break  in  the  celUrs.  Goods  were  therefore 
conveyed  shout  the  town  almost  exclusively  lu 
trucks  drawn  by  dogs;  snd  the  richest  inlwbit- 
nnU  exhibited  their  wealth,  not  by  riding  in 
carriages,  but  by  walking  the  streeU  with  trains 
of  servanu  in  rich  liveries  snd  by  keeping  tables 
loaded  with  good  cheer.  The  hoaplulity  of  the 
c'ty  was  widely  renowned,  and  especially  the 
collatlooa  with  which  tlie  sugar  reflnen  r«nled 
their  visltoii.  .  .  .  This  luxury  waa  suppi>rte<l 
by  a  thriving  trade  with  the  North  American 
PfamUtioas  and  with  the  West  Indies.  The  pas- 
sion for  colonUI  tratllc  wiis  so  strung  tlist  there 
was  scarcely  a  small  shopkc«pcr  in  Bristol  who 
tiad  nut  a  venture  on  b<«nl  of  some  ship  bound 
fur  Virginia  or  the  Antilles.  Some  of  these  ven- 
turers indeed  were  out  of  the  most  honourable 
kind.  There  was.  in  the  Transatlantic  pusses- 
sioasof  tlie  crowu,  a  grent  deiiiHiid  for  hibour; 
and  tills  demand  was  piirtly  siipplieii  by  a  system 
of  crimping  nmi  kiilimiipiug  at  the  principal 
English  seaports.  Nowhere  was  this  system  in 
such  active  ami  extensive  operation  as  at  Brialol. 
.  .  .  The  numlivr  of  iiuusi-a  appears,  from  the 
returns  of  tlie  hearth-money,  to  have  been,  In  the 
vear  168,1,  Just  8.800.  .  .  .  The  popuhtiim  of 
Bristol  must  therefore  have  been  about  S9,0OU."— 
Lord  .Moeaulay,  //.««.  uf  Eng.,  rA.  8  (».  1). 

A.  D.  iljf.— Ths  ffsform  BUI  Riots.— The 
popubv  excitement  Drodiiced  In  England  in  18dl 
by  the  action  of  the  House  of  Lords  in  rejecting 
tlie  Heform  Bill,  led  to  riou  hi  several  pbon,  but 
most  seriously  at  Bristol.  "  Th*  Bristol  mobs 
have  always  Been  noted  for  their  bruUlity ;  wd 
tlie  outbrsak  now  was  such  as  to  sinase  and  con- 
found the  the  wbois  kingdom.  .  .  .  Tlie  lower 
parts  of  the  city  wsri  tlMi  barUMurage  of  probably 


327 


BRISTOL. 

a  woiH  ieaport  populace  tban  any  other  place  In 
England,  while  the  police  waa  ineffective  and  <lc- 
moraliwd.    There  waa  no  city  In  which  a  greater 
amount  of  aavagery  lav  beneath  a  society  pr<)uil, 
excluaWe,  and  mutually  repellent,  rather  than 
enlightened  and  accuitomed  to  aoclal  co«pem- 
tlon.     Thcae  are  circunutancea  which  go  far  to 
account  for  the  Bristol  rloU  being  ao  fearfully 
Imil  ns   they   were.     Of  this  city,  Sir  Charles 
Wcthcrell  —  then  at  the  height  of  his  unpopularity 
ns  n  vigorous  opponent  of  the  Reform  Bill— waa 
recorder;  and  there  he  bad  to  go.  Id  the  laat  days 
of  October,  in  his  Judicial  capacity.  .  .  .  The 
symptoms  of  discontent  were  such  aa  to  Induce 
tlie  mayor,  Mr  PInncv,  to  apply  to  the  homc- 
offlcc    for  military  aid.     Lord  Melbjume  sent 
clown  some  troops  of  hone,  which  were  quartered 
within  reach.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  dty. 
.  .  Sir  Charles  Wetherell  could  not  be  indurad 
tn  relinquish  his  public  entry,  though  warned  of 
the  danger  by  the  magistrates  themsolvca.  .  .  . 
»)n  Sotimluy.  October  2«,  Sir  Charles  Wetherell 
entcrwl  Bristol  in  pomp :  and  before  he  reached 
tlie  Mansion  House  at  noon,  he  muat  have  been 
pretty    well    convinced,    bv    the  hootlnga  and 
throwing  of  stones,  tint  he  Lad  better  have  fore- 
gone the  procession.     For  some  hours  the  special 
constal>le8  and  the  noisy  mob  in  front  of  the  Man- 
sion House  cxdiangrd  discourtesies  of  an  em- 
phatic character,  but  then-  wa.i  no  actual  violence 
till  night.     At  night,  the  Slansion  House  was 
attAcko<l,  and  the  Klot  Act  was  read;  but  the 
military  were  not  brought  down,  as  they  ought 
to  have  been,  to  clear  the  streets.    The  mayor 
liiul  •  religious  scruples,'  and  was  '  humane ';  and 
liLi  indecisinn   was  not  overborne   by  any  aid 
from  his  brother  ma^'islrates.     When  the  mili- 
tary were  brought  in,  it  waa  after  violence  had 
been  committed,  and  when  the  passions  of  the 
mob  were  much  excited.    Sir  Charles  Wetheiell 
escaped  from  the  city  that  nlitht.     During  the 
dark  hours,  sounds  were  hearil  provocative  of 
further  riot;  shouU  in  the  slreetH,  anil  the  ham- 
mering of  workmen  who  won-  Itonnling  up  the 
lower   windows  of  the  Mansion  nnuw  and  the 
neighlKiuring  dwellings.     l>n  tlie  Sunday  morn 
ing.  tJie  rioters  bmkv  into  the  Mansion  Ilnuso 
without  oppoKilion;  and  from  the  liiiie  they  got 
into   the   cfllars,    all    "iiit    wrouj       Hungry 
wretches  and  boys  broke  the  necks  of  the  ImtTi-s, 
and  Queen  Sijuarc  was  strewed  with  the  Inxlles 
of  the  ilead  ilrunk.     The  soldiers  were  left  with- 
out  onlers,  and  their  otlleers  without  that  sanc- 
tion of  the  magistracy  In  tlie  altsence  of  whirh 
tliiy  could  not  act,  but  only  raradr;  and  in  this 
parnding.   some  of  the   soldiers   nalurallv   lost 
tlwir  tempers,  and  siMikc  anil  uiaile  gestures  on 
lliilr  own  accoimt,   which   iliil  not  lend  to  the 
smithing  of  the  mob.     This  mob  never  consisteil 
of  more  than  live  or  sl.x  huiiiireil.  .   .  .  The  mob 
ihi'lanil  op^-nly  what  they  were  golns  In  do ,  and 
they    went  to   work    un'eherkeil  —  armeii    with 
suves  anil  bludgeons  from  the  quavn,  and  witli 
inm  palisades  fmm  IIm-  Mausiou  House  —  to  bn-a., 
open  au.l  burn  the  briilewell.  the  Jsil,  the  lil.Hlmps 
palace,    the  eusiomhnusc.  and  Queen  Siiiian> 
They  pave  half  an  hour's  notice  to  the  inhali<uiils 
of  each  house  In  the  si|iiare,  wliieli  thev  then  set 
Hre  to  In  regular  sucnHnihin.  (Ill  two  sides,  each 
measuring  S.W  fitt.  lay  in  smoking  roln.      The 
b>aiitt«  of  the  rininken'were  se<-n  roasting  in  the 
(Ire.     The  grea'"  <<iirober  of  the  riotera  were  be- 
Ucvad  to  be  unUi.t  twenty  years  of  age,  and  some 


BRITAIN. 

were   mere   children;   MMiie   Sunday  acholaia, 
hitherto  well  conducted,  and  it  may  be  ques- 
tioned whether  one  in  ten  knew  anything  of  tlie 
Kiform  Bill,  or  the  offences  of  Sir  Charles  Weth- 
erell.     On  the  Monday  morning,  after  all  aetual 
riot  seemed  to  bo  over,  the  soldiery  at  last  niaile 
two  slaughterous  charges.     More  horse  arrived 
and  a  conshlerablo  Ixxiy  of  foot  soldiers;  ami  the 
conatebuhtry  became  active:  and  fmm  that  time 
the  city  was  In  a  more onlerly  aUto  than  the  nsi 
denta  were  accustomed  to  see  it.  .  .  .  TbcniairiS' 
trates  were  brought  to  trial,  and  so  was  Cnlimel 
Brereton,  who  was  understood  to  be  In  comnuimt 
of  the  whole  of  the  miliUry.    The  result  of  that 
court-martial  caused  more  emotion  throuirliout 
the  kingtiom  than  all  the  sUughtering  ami  hum. 
Ing,  and  the  subsequent  executions  wliich  marked 
that  fearful  season.     It  waa  a  year  before  the 
trial  of  the  magistrates  waa  entered  upon.    Tlie 
reault  was  the  acquittal  of  the  mayor,  and  the 
consequent  relinquishment  of  the  proeccutlnn  of 
his  brother-magistrates."— H.  Martlncau,  A  Hit- 
torn  "/  '*<  Tliirtg  Tean'  Pent*,  bk.  4,  eh.  4  (t.  2). 
» 
BRITAIN.Connt  and  Duke  of.- The  military 
commmndera  of  Roman  Britain.    HeeUHiTAix' 
A.  D.  838-337,  also  Arthck,  Kiwa. 
BRITAIN,  Tha  name.    See  BRrrAiran. 
Celtic  Tribea.—"  It  appeara  that  the  south- 
eaatem  part  of  the  laland,  or  the  district  now  oc- 
cupied bv  the  county  of  Kent,  waa  occupiiil  bv 
tlie  Cantii,  a  Urge  and  Influential  tribe,  which  iii 
Cnaar's  time,  waa  divided  among  four  cliltfs  or 
kinga.    To  the  west,  the  Regni  held  the  mi»lem 
counties  of  Suaaex  and  Surrey,  fromtlic  sia  e.iast 
to  the  Thamea.     Still  farther  west,  the  Bilirie ne- 
cupied  the  couutry  from  the  aouthem  coast  to 
the  Bristol  Channel,  Including  nearlv  the  whole 
of  Hampahire,  Wiltahire  and  8omeraet»hiie     The 
whole  of  the  extensive  district  extemiingr  fruin 
the  Bclga  to  the  extreme  western  point  nf  the 
island,  then  called  Antivestvum  or  Boleriiim  (nnw 
the  Land's  End)  Including  Devonaliin-  ami  C.rn 
wall,  waa  occupini  by  the  Diiinnonil,  or  Dam- 
nonll.     On  the  coast  between  the  I)umiiMiiii  iinj 
the  Belg.e  the  smaller  tribe  of  tlic  IMin.irij-e* 
held  the  moilera  county  of  Dorset.    On  the  ntlur 
side  of  the  Thames,  extending  nortliwani^i  t,i  t!i^ 
Stour,  and  including  the  greater  part  of  .Mill. lie 
sex  as  well  as  Eamsx,  Uy  the  Triuoliuites.    To  ili- 
north  of  the  Stour  dwelt  the  lei-ni,  e^lemlin;.' 
over  the  counties  of  Suffolk,  Norfolk.  Ciinliriil.'o 
and  Huntiugdoa     The  Coritavl  piwuewed  li..' 
liP'sent  counties  of  Northampton,  L<iiv»ter  Uu! 
lomi,  Derby,  Nottingham  and  Lincolii;  ,m\  the 
southeaslem  par*  of  Yorkshire  was  lnM  h\-  xUc 
Parisl.     Between  the  tribes  last  eiiuniirati-.l.  In 
tlic  counties  of  Buckingham,  Biilford  iwil  llert 
ford,  lay  the  tribe  called  by  Itolei'.v  ilie  (  a'- 
yeuchlani,  ami  by  others  Cstuvelhinl.'   .\ii.>ther 
name,  apparently,  for  this  lrilH3,  r.r  f„r  a  .livibion 
of  It,  was  the  Cassli.     West  of  lliiiw  were  the 
Atrehates.  In  Berkshire;  and  still  further  west 
were  the  DobunI,  In  the  counties  of  (»»f,.ri  snii 
(Jloucester.  .  .  .  Theinteriurof  theisiami  inirtli 
ward  waa  occupieil  by  the  Brigantes.  wIh>  liel ! 
the  extensive  districts,  difflc"''  uf  appriMih  i>a 
account  of  their  mouuuin*  wimmI^  ikiukI 

ing  from  tlie  Humber  and  Mewy  ii>  the 

prraent  iK-.nIrr*  nf  S.--->tl«^.!  Tiil-i  .v :....-■;».. 
tribe  appears  to  have  fncluih-u  .-veral  Miinller 
ones  [the  Voluutii,  the  Seatuni.i.  the  .Iniidiiti:! 
and  llM  Cao(i].     The  Brigantes  are  bvlievnl  ui 


BRTTAIK. 

hire  bren  Um  origbukl  lahitblUnta  of  the  laUnd, 
who  had  been  driren  northward  by  niccoMlTe  in- 
Tuiom.  .  .  .  Wale*,  alin,  WM  lnbabtte<l  by  a 
primitive  population.  The  northern  countie* 
. . .  wu  the  territory  of  the  Ordovlcea.  Thcsouth- 
eutrm  rountiea  .  .  .  were  lield  by  the  Demetac. 
The  still  more  celebrated  tribe  of  the  Silures  in- 
hatiiteii  the  modem  counties  of  Hereford,  Radnor, 
lirrolinoclt,  Monmouth  and  Cbmorgan.  Between 
tlieae  and  the  Brigantci  lay  tlie  Comabii  or  Cam- 
tbii.  The  wilder  parU  of  the  island  of  Britain, 
to  the  north  of  the  Bricantes,  were  inhaliitcd  by 
a  great  number  of  smaller  tribes,  some  of  whom 
seem  to  bare  been  raised  in  tlie  scniu  of  eiviliza- 
tiim  little  above  savages.  Of  tlicae  we  liare  the 
names  of  no  less  than  twenty-one.  Bordering 
on  the  Brigantes  were  the  Otadcni,  inhabiting 
the  coast  from  the  Tyne  to  the  Firth  of  Fortli. 
.  .  .  Next  to  them  were  the  Oa>icni.  .  .  .  The 
Selgova  inhabited  Anoandale,  Nitbadale  and 
Eikdale.  in  Dumfriesshire,  with  the  East  of  Oallo- 
wsT.  The  Novantes  iuhabite<l  the  remainder  of 
Oslloway.  The  Damull,  a  larser  trilie,  held  the 
country  from  the  cliain  of  hills  separating  Oal- 
loway  from  Carrick,  northward  to  the  river  £m. 
Thrw  tribes  lay  to  the  south  of  the  Forth  and 
Clj'iie.  Beyond  the  narrow  boundary  formed  by 
Ihrw  rivers  lay  [the  Horestii,  the  V-nricones  or 
Vcrnicnmes,  the  Taixali  or  Taexali,  the  Vaco- 
nugi.  the  Albani,  the  Cintai,  the  Logi,  the 
Cafnabii,  the  Catini,  the  Mertc,  the  Camonacc, 
the  Crcones,  the  Cerones,  and  the  Epidii].  The 
ferocious  tribe  of  the  Attaootti  inhabited  part  of 
A'  :>  Icshire,  and  the  greater  part  of  Dumbarton- 
»hire.  The  wild  forest  country  of  tlie  interior, 
■(Down  as  the  Caledonia  Sylva  (or  Forest  of  Cel- 
riiiion).  extendeii  from  the  ridge  of  mountains 
bttween  Inverness  and  Perth,  nonliward  to  the 
forest  of  Balnagowan,  including  the  middle  parts 
of  luverneas  aiul  Rosa,  was  held  by  the  CaMonil, 
wliirb  appears  to  have  been  at  this  time  [of  the 
conquests  of  AgricoUJ  the  most  important  ami 
powerful  of  all  the  tribes  north  of  the  Briganles. " 
-T  Wright,  Tlie  Celt,  the  Roman  and  the  Saxon, 
eh.i. 

.\i.ai)iM:  J.  Rhys,  Cellie Britain.— J.  P.  Skene, 
•Vliu  Heollaml,  bk.  1,  eh.  8. 

B-  C.  55-54.— Caaar's  inruions.— Having 
Fitendeti  his  conquesU  in  Oaul  Ui  the  British 
riiannel  and  the  Strait  of  IK)ver  (see  Oacl: 
H  ('.  5H-51),  Cvaar  crossed  the  !  ler.  In  August, 
II  ('  !y\  and  made  his  first  Uiidiiig  in  Britain, 
whhtwn  legions,  numbering  8.000  tu  10.000  men. 
P'>rtu«  ItUia,  from  whicli  he  sailed,  was  probably 
eiiliir  Wl^aant  or  Boulogne,  and  his  landing 
pliire  on  the  British  coast  is  believed  to  have 
l)e.  II  ii<  HI  Deal.  The  Britons  disputed  his  land- 
ing witii  great  obstinacy,  but  were  driven  back, 
iin.l  ()IT<rc'd  to  submit;  but  when  a  few  days 
iCerviinls,  Camnr'n  fleet  suffered  greatly  from  a 
"I'-nii,  they  rcconaidemt  their  submission  and 
opened  hi.'^tllltics  again.  Iioutc<l  in  a  second 
Iwllle.  tlK'jf  once  more  sued  for  peace,  and  gave 
U»Utfn;  whereup<m  Cesar  recmlmrkcd  his 
tri»ipi.  and  returned  to  the  contin.  ,;i,  having 
n-nwlniil  in  Britain  not  more  titan  three  weeks 
»nil  penetrated  the  island  a  short  dutaiice  only. 
The  f.illowing  summer  be  cruuttl  lo  Britain 
sgdin.  deU'i-minnil  im  maklDK  a  tii!>rou^h  cnn 
quest  or  the  «>imtry  This  time  lie  hati  five 
legi'ins  at  his  bnt-k.  with  two  thousani  horse, 
««■!  the  eipeditlun  was  embarked  on  more  than 
eiflit  huodfed  ships     H«  sailad  from  and  Uadad 


BRITAIN,  A.  D.  4a-sa 

at  the  same  pointa  as  before.  Ha  vtais  established 
and  garrisoned  a  fortlflcd  camp,  ho  ailvanced 
into  the  country,  encountering  and  defeating  the 
Britons,  first,  at  a  river,  supposed  to  be  the 
Stour  which  flows  past  Canterbury.  A  storm 
which  damaged  his  fleet  then  interrupted  his 
advance,  compelling  him  to  return  to  the  coast 
When  the  disaster  had  been  repaired  he  marched 
again,  nud  again  found  the  enemv  on  the  Stour, 
assembled  under  the  command  of^Caasivelauniu, 
whoso  kingdom  was  north  of  the  Tliamcs.  He 
dispersed  them,  after  much  fighting,  with  great 
sbiugliter,  and  crossed  the  Thames,  at  a  point,  it 
is  supposed,  near  the  Jimction  of  tlie  Wey. 
Thence  he  pushed  on  until  he  reached  the  "oppi- 
dum  "  or  stronghold  of  Caaaivelaunus,  which  la 
Iwlleved  by  some  to  have  been  on  the  site  of  the 
modem  town  of  St.  Albans. —  but  the  point  la  a 
disputed  one.  On  receiving  the  submission  of 
Cassivelauniis,  and  of  other  chiefs,  or  kinga, 
fixing  the  tribute  they  should  pay  and  taking 
hostages,  Ciesar  returned  to  the  coast,  reem- 
barked  his  army  and  withdrew.  His  stay  in 
Britain  on  tills  occasion  was  about  sixty  daya — 
Coisar.  Oattie  War,  He  4,  eh.  80-86,  and  bk.  7, 
eh.  7-83. 

Also  nt:  H.  M.  Scarth,  Raman  Britain,  eh.  3.— 
O.  Long,  Decline  of  the  Roman  RepuHie,  t.  4,  ek. 
•  ami  11-18. — T.  Lcwin,  Inmeion  of  Britain  bf 
Caear.—T.  T.  Vine,  Cmar  in  Kent.—Z.  Guest, 
Originee  Oeltiea,  t.  8. 

A.  D.  43-53.  —  Coaquesta  of  Claudiua.— 
Nearly  a  hunured  years  passed  after  Ciesar's 
hasty  invasion  of  Britain  before  the  Romans 
reappeared  on  the  isbind,  to  enforce  their  chiim 
of  tribute.  It  was  under  the  fourth  of  the  im- 
porinl  successors  of  Julius  Coesar,  the  feeble 
Cliuidius,  that  the  work  of  Roman  conquest  in 
Britain  was  really  begun.  Aulus  Plautius.  who 
commanded  in  Oaul.  was  sent  over  with  four 
legions,  A.  D.  43,  to  obtain  a  footing  and  to 
smooth  the  way  for  the  Emperor's  personal  cam- 
paign. With  him  went  one,  Vespasian,  who 
began  in  Britain  lo  win  the  fame  which  pushed 
him  into  the  imperial  seat  and  to  a  great  place 
in  Roman  history.  Plautius  and  Vespasian 
made  good  their  occupation  of  the  country  aa 
far  as  the  Thames,  and  planted  their  forces 
strongly  on  the  northern  bank  of  that  river,  be- 
fore they  summoned  the  Emperor  to  their  aid. 
Claudius  came  before  the  close  of  the  military 
season,  and  his  vanity  was  gmtiflc<i  by  the  nomi- 
nal leading  of  an  advance  on  the  chief  oppidum, 
or  stronghold  of  tbe  Britons,  called  C^mulo- 
dunum,  which  cx-cupie<l  the  site  of  the  modem 
city  of  Colchester.  The  Trinobantes.  whose 
capital  it  was,  wore  beaten  and  the  place  sur- 
rcnden-d.  Satisfied  with  this  easy  victory,  the 
Emperor  returned  to  Rome,  to  enjoy  the  honors 
of  a  triumph  :  while  Vespasian,  in  command  of 
the  second  legion,  fought  his  way,  foot  by  foot, 
into  the  southwest  of  the  island,  and  subjugated 
tbe  obstinate  trilxn  of  that  region.  During  the 
next  ten  years,  umlvr  the  command  of  Ostoriiis 
ScapuU,  who  succeeded  Plautius.  and  Avitiis 
DIdlus  Oallus,  who  succeeded  Ostorlus,  the 
Itoman  power  was  firmly  settled  in  southern  Bri- 
tain, from  the  Stour.  at  the  East,  to  the  Exe  and  the 
SfTrm  St  thi-  Wi-at.  Th«  .Hll'.m-*,  of  ftiiith 
Wales,  who  had  resisted  moat  stiiblHimly,  under 
Caractariis,  the  fugitive  Trinobnntine  prince, 
were  siibducii  and  Caractacus  made  captive. 
The  loetU  (in  Suffolk,  Norfolk  and  Cambridf*- 


829 


BRITAIN, 


Aln)  wme  ndaccd  fhmt  alllM  to  lulleD  depend- 
MU.  The  Brigantei,  mnt  powerful  of  M  the 
WbM,  ud  who  held  the  gnmltr  part  of  the 
Whole  north  of  modem  Enclaod.  were  etUl  in- 
dependrat.  but  dtotracted  by  Internal  dimnaioni 
wnich  Roman  influence  waa  active  in  keepioc 
•"»••  Thl«.  't«ted  briefly,  waa  the  extent  t3 
which  the  conquest  of  Britain  waa  carried  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Claudiui,— between  A.  D.  43 
•nd  54.— C.  Merivale,  Mut.  of  lAt  /bmaiu.  e*. 
01. 

ALao  w  :  K.  Gueat,  Originet  OUiem,  t.  2.  pi. 
J,  (*.  18.-H.  M.  Hearth,  Jhman  Britain,  ik. 
4.— See,  alao,  CoLcmcaTBR,  Oaiom  or. 

*•  D;  *'•— Camnalgna  of  Snatoaiu  Panli- 
ans.— From  A.  D.  SO  to  61,  while  Didiua  Oallus 
ami  hU  lucceiMr  Veranlua  commanded  in 
Briuin,  nothing  waa  done  to  extend  the  Roman 
acquialtiona.  In  the  btter  year,  Suetonius 
Paulinus  came  to  the  command,  and  a  stormy 
period  of  war  ensued.  Hit  flrM  movement  waa 
to  attack  the  Druids  In  the  iaie  of  Mona.  or 

i^'}'^^^  i"?"  ."'**  ^r  •»<«  retreated  from 
Gaul  and  Britain,  in  suooesalTe  flights,  before 
the  ImphMble  hostility  of  Rome.     "In   this 
gloomy  Uir,  secure  apparenUy,  though  shorn  of 
might  and  dignity,  they  still  persisted  in  the 
practice  of  their  unholy  sapentftion.  .  .      Here 
thejr  retained  their  aaaemblies,  their  schools,  and 
their  oracles;  here  was  the  asylum  of  the  fugl- 
tlTes;   here  was  the  sacred  grove,  the  abode  of 
the  awful  deity,  which  In  the  stillest  noou  of 
night  or  day  the  priest  himself  scarce  ventured 
to  enter  lest  he  should  ruth  unwittingly  into  the 
pivience  of  Its  lord. "    Prom  Segontlum  (modem 
Caernarvon)  Suetonius  croaied  the  Menal  Strait 
on  rafu  and  boatt  with  one  of  hit  legion.,  the 
Batavian  cavalry  twimming  their  hones.     The 
landing  w»t  fiercely  dteputed  by  women  and 
men.  priests  and  worshlppere;  but  Roman  valor 
bore  down  all  resUunce.     "Prom  thlt  moment 
the  Dnilils  disappear  from  the  page  of  history; 
thev  were  exterminated,  we  may  Relieve,  up^n 
their  own  altara;   for  Suetonius  took  no  half 
metaurea        ThU    accomplished,    the    Roman 
commander  was  qnlcklv  called  upon  to  meet  a 
terrific  outburst  of  patriotic  rage  on  the  part  of 
the  powerful  nation  of  the  Icenl.  who  ociupied 
the  region  now  forming  the  countiet  of  Suffolk 
Worfolk,   Cambridge,   and    Huntingilon.    Thev 
had  iK-en  alllet  of  the  Romans,  first;  then  tribu- 
taries.  under  their  own  kinir.  and  flnnllv  sub- 
Jecta.  much  opprette<i,    Their  latt  king.  t>rasu- 
tMut.  had  vainly  hoped  to  win  favor  for  hit 
wife  and  children,  when  he  died,  by  bequeath- 
ing hU  kingdom  to  the  Roman  Slate.     But  the 
widowed  queen,  Boudicea,  or  Boadicea.  and  her 
daughteri,  were  only  expow^l  with  more  htlp- 
hemaemto  the  insolence  and  the  oiitmges  of  a 
brutal  Roman  officer.    They  appealed  u>  their 
people  ami  m(ul.lene<l  them  by  the  exposure  of 
indcK-ribal.lo  wrongs.     The  riting  which  ensued 
was  flcrrc ami  Kcniral  bevond  precedent.     ••  The 
Roman  offld«ls  fli'd.  or,  if  arreatail.  were  slaugh- 
teml ;  and  a  v.tst  multitude,  armed  and  unarmnl 
lolled  southward  to  overwhelm  and  extirpate 
the  Intrudera     To  the  Coin*,  to  the  T^merM 
the  tea,  the  country  lay  enthnely  open."    The 
-  ^Z.  •»  C»n;ulodunum  (Colchawefx  waa  de- 
•troyed:    Veruhunium  (St    Albans),  and    Loo- 
ninmm  (l«hl<Hij.  «ere  tacked  and  burned;  not 
less  than  70.000  of  the  Romans  in  Britato  ;rere 
tUufhtersd  without   micy.    buetooluT 


BRITAra,  A.  D.  78-M. 

hatte  to  quit  ABflaiej  when  Um  diMdful  newt 
reached  hJm,  and  preasad,  with  all  speed  ^ 
«»  f!^  W«''7'y  of  Watitag  8tiwt!l^ffl 
up  Eta  forces  In  hand  -beVent-tofe.?^  ,Sf 
awfu  scene  of  rage  and  terror.  Ha  had  col. 
le«ed  but  10,000  men  when  he  eonfronte.i  i, 
hut,  the  vast  swarm  of  the  insnraentt.  oi  t 

;ilI1."'i''M'5?!.i'  'T'^'^  "»* »»  haJtecun.l,  la 
the  neighborhood  of  Camulodunum.  But  once 
more^  vakwof  undltdplioed  teml-barliari,™ 
wrecked  Itaelf  on  the  flrm'shiekb  of  the  It^ma™ 
johort*  Mod  80,000  Britona  are  said  to  mJ 
fallen  In  the  mereil«.  flght  The  IntunecSi 
wat  cruthed  and  Roman  authority  in  Bri™Q  I? 

l?ISr-  ..?".V  ""e,*^™  Suetoniut  dealt  so 
hanhly  with  the  broken  people  that  even  Home 
remooatrated.  and  he  waa.  preaently,  recalled  to 
give  place  to  a  more  paclflc  commander  —(' 
Merivale.  Eim.  <!fa»  TajSoiu.  ^^^"-^ 

ALao  «:  H.  A  BcMrak,Jloman  Britain,  tk.  J. 
— T.  Mommten,  BiH.  ef  Bomi,  bk.  8,  ck  5 

A.  D.  7M4.— CMipalcaa  of  Agricola.-Far 
Kventeen  yeart  after  the  recall  of  Suetoniut 
Pwlinua  (A.  D.  61)  there  wu  a  tutpension  0? 
Roman  oonquett  In  Britato.  The  military  power 
to  the  bland  luffered  great  demorafuation, 
retulttog  naturallv  from  the  chaos  of  affsin  « 
Home,  between  Nero  and  Veapaaian  Thete 
conditiont  ceated  toon  after  the  acceision  of  the 

in  Britato  the  foottoa  from  which  he  clImM  to 
the  throne,  interested  hbnself  In  the  epretilinir  .f 

island.    C.  Julius  Agricola  was  the  soldier  and 
statesman— a  great  man  to  each  charader  — 
whom  he  selected  for  the  work.    Agricola  wu 
nwle  prefect  or  Oovemor  of  Britain.  A   f)  78 
••  Even  to  hta  first  summer,  when  he  had  been 
but  a  few  montht  in  the  taUnd,  and  wlien  none 
even  rf  hta  own  ofllcers  expected  active  «rrvi<-e 
Agricola  led  hta  forcea  into  the  country  of  the 
Ortlovicet.  in  whose  mountato  passes  the  war  of 
lndei«nd.noe  still  lingered,  drove  the  Briuinji 
across  the  Menal  Straita  and  pursued  them  inio 
AJL'U.«/,  aa  Suetonius  had  done  before  him  hv 
boldly  croastog  the  boiling  current  in  the  fare  of 
the  enemy.     Another  summer  saw  him  advance 
northward  Into  the  territory  of  the  Bri»ranl«i, 
and  complete  the  organization  of  Uie  dlmrict, 
Uitoly  reduced,  between  the  Humber  and  Tyne 
Struck  perhapa  with  the  natural  defences  ol'^the 
line  from  the  Tyne  to  the  Solway,  when-  ii,e 
Island  seems  to  have  broken,  as  ft  were,  in  the 
middle  and  soldered  unevenly  together  he  lin'W 
»  p^'n  o'  'oris  from   tea  to  sea.  ...  In  the 
third  year  of  hta  command,   Agricola  pushed 
forward  along  the  caatern  coast,  and,  niaklog 
gooA  with  rowlt  and  fortrestet  every  inch  of  bit 
progrns,  reached,  as  I  imagine,  Uie  Firth  of  Korth. 
.  .  .  Here  he  repeated  the  opeiations  of    the 
preceding  winter,  planting  hta  camps  and  stations 
from  hill  to  hill,  and  securing  a  new  belt  of 

territory,  ninety  miles  ac '  -  " 

tion."     The    next    two 


830 


I,  for  Roman  orriips 

— yean  were   »i>eiii   In 

strengthening  hit  poaitkni  and  organiilnir  hit 
conquest  In  A.  D.  88  and  84  he  a.lv«n(.d 
beyond  the  Forth,  to  two  campaigns  of  hard 
flghting.  the  Utter  of  which  was  made  m<  mor 
aUe  by  the  famous  battle  of  the  Onunpiaus.  or 
Graupiaa,  fought  with  the  CsfctKnjian  hcrj  Gai 
pcua.  At  the  clote  of  tbta  campaign  he  tent 
his  flaat  Borthward  to  explon  the  unknown 
to  kwa  the  rsaoMr  Mbn,  tad  It  i* 


BRTTAIK,  A.  D.  7»44. 


IRITAIX,  A.  D.  a8»-888L 


tUmed  that  tiie  tmmI*  of  Agrloola  dreumiMrl- 
latcd  the  uIwmI  of  Britain,  for  the  first  time,  and 
WW  liie  Orkneyt  and  Shetlaod*.  The  further 
pUns  of  the  lucoeaiful  prefect  were  Interrupted 
by  liii  sudden  recall.  Vfipaelan,  flrat,  then 
TU.is,  hud  died  while  he  r.ued  hie  vtctorioua 
course  Id  Caledonia,  and  the  &^ean  Domltian  waa 
envious  and  afraid  of  his  renown.— C.  Merirale, 
Ui$l.  oftkt  Bamaiu,  <*.  St. 

Alm>  ik:  Tacitus,  il^n'cjta.— Momnuen,  Ittit. 
tfOmit,  hk.  8,  ck.  S. 

j:-3d  Ceotariea.— latrodnction  of  Cbri»> 
tianitT.    See  CHKurriAiimr:  A.  D.  100-813. 

A.  D.  jot-aii.— Canpaigoa  of  Sararaa.— 
A  frf^i  Inroad  of  the  wild  Caledoniana  of  the 
north  upon  Roman  Britain,  In  the  vear  906, 
caused  the  Emperor  Sererua  to  visit  toe  distant 
Uaad  In  person,  with  hia  two  worthlesa  sona, 
Cancalla  and  Qeta.  He  desired,  it  is  said,  to  re- 
DtoTc  those  troublesome  youths  from  Rome  and 
to  subject  them  to  the  wholesome  discipline  of 
militnry  life.  The  only  result,  so  far  as  they 
were  concerned,  was  to  give  Caracslla  opportuni- 
ties (or  excltinf  mutiny  anaong  tlie  troops  and 
for  making  several  attempts  against  his  fatber'a 
life.  ButSeverua  pvrslsted  In  his  residence  In 
Britain  during  more  than  two  years,  and  till  hi* 
death,  which  occurred  at  Eboracum  (Yorli)  on 
the  4th  of  February,  A.  D.  811.  During  that 
time  be  prosecuted  the  war  against  the  Cale- 
doniana with  great  vigor,  penetrating  to  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  iaiand.  and  loaing,  it 
is  uid,  above  SO,  000  men,  more  by  the  hardabipa 
of  the  climate  and  the  march  than  by  tlie  attacks 
of  the  skulking  enemy.  The  Caletloniana  made 
a  pretence  of  submlsuon,  at  last,  but  were  soon 
hi  arms  again.  Sevenu  waa  then  preparing  to 
pursue  them  to  exierminatioa,  when  ho  died. — 
£.  Gibbon,  DtcUnt  and  fUU  ^  th*  Oman  Bm- 
fin,  ck.  6. 

AI.80  1S:  T.  Mommsen,  IKH.  <if  Rome,  M.  8, 
A.  S. 

A  D.  a8S-«97.— RabellioB  of  Caranaius.— 
"  During  the  reign  of  Qalllenus  [A.  D.  30O-26H] 
.  .  .  the  pirate  fleets  of  the  Franks  infested  the 
British  ^M,  and  it  became  needful  to  have  a 
lle<-t  to  protect  tlie  coast  The  command  of  tliis 
tteet  hml  litvn  conferred  on  Caiausius.  a  Mcnaplan 
birtb :  but  he  was  suspected  of  conniving  at 

Eaty.  in  order  that  he  might  enrich  himself  by 
iimins  a  slurer  in  their  booty,  wlicn  they  re- 
turned  laden  with  plunder.  To  save  hiinseif, 
tlicrefore,  from  punishment,  h<'  usurfMil  the  Im- 
perial power,  A.  D.  888,  and  reigned  over  Briuin 
lur  seven  years.  A  vast  number  of  bis  coins 
strurk  in  Britain  have  been  preserved,  so  many 
tlMt  tlie  history  of  (,'arausius  has  been  written 
(Mm  liis  medala.  He  waa  slain  at  length  by  hi* 
miniHler  Allcctus,  wlio  usurped  his  power.  The 
FntiiltK  [iM  allies  o(  Allectus]  had  well-nlgli 
eslalilisbiil  their  [lower  over  tlie  south  portion  of 
Briiiiin  when  it  wss  broken  t»v  Consuntlua,  the 
father  of  Constantlne  the  (Jfcat,  who  defeated 
Alleitiit  in  a  deciaive  battle,  in  wliich  that 
usii'-iH-rwatsiitin.  .  .  .  Allectu*  held  the  govern- 
ment of  Britain  for  three  yeara.  Many  of  hIa 
coins  are  found."— II.  M.  Hearth,  Rn'f.m  Britain, 
th.  II). 

A1.S0  hi:  T.  Wright,  OU,  Ammh  am)  /l^am. 
ch  4 

A-  D,  333-3W.— Ceaatantiac'a  Orraalsatiea. 
—  I  niler  the  scheme  o(  government  designed  by 
Diucieiiau  and  amended  by  Cooatautioe,  "  Briiaia 


formed  part  of  a  Taat  pro-oouufaite,  extaadta* 
from  Mount  Atlaa  to  the  Caledonian  deaerta,  and 
waa  govened  by  the  QaUlc  prefect,  through  a 
'vicar'  or  deruty  at  York.  The  ialaod  waa 
divided  Into  five  new  provlnoea.  .  .  .  Britain 
was  under  the  orders  of  the  Count  of  Britain, 
assisted  by  the  subordinate  offloen.  "TIm  Duka 
of  Britain  commanded  in  the  north.  The  Count 
of  the  Suoa  Shore,  governed  the  'Maritime 
Tract '  and  piDvided  for  the  defence  of  the  south- 
eaatem  coast.  The  Saxon  Shore  00  the  coaat  of 
Britain  must  not  be  mistaken  for  the  Saxon 
Shore  on  the  oppoalte  coaat  of  France,  the  bead- 
quarteiaof  which  were  the  harbour  of  Boulogne. 
"The  namga  of  the  several  provlnoea  into  which 
Britain  waa  divided  are  given  in  the  '  Notttla,' 
vix:— 1.  Britannia  Prinu,  which  included  all  the 
south  and  weat  of  England,  from  the  eatuary  of 
the  Thame*  to  that  of  the  Severn.  8.  BriUnnla 
Secunda,  which  included  the  Principality  of 
Walea,  bounded  by  the  Severn  on  the  eaat  and 
the  Iriah  Channel  on  the  west  8.  FUvla 
Cnarienal*, — all  the  middle  portion  of  Britaia, 
from  the  Thamea  to  the  Uumber  aud  tha 
eatuaiT  of  the  Dee.  4.  Maxima  Caaariensls,- 
the  Brigantlan  territory,  lying  between  the 
eatuarieaof  the  Humber  aiid  Dee,  and  the  Barrier 
of  the  Lower  Isthmua.  S.  Valentia,-  the  moat 
nortbera  portion,  lying  between  the  barrier  of 
Hadrian  and  that  of  Antoninu*."— U.  M.  South, 
Ammm  Britain,  th.  10. 

A.  D.  367-370.— DaUTaraaca  br  Thcodoaina. 
-The  dlatracted  condition  of  affsira  In  the  Ro- 
man Empire  that  soon  followed  the  death  of 
Constantlne,  which  waa  relieved  by  JulUn  for  a 
brief  term,  and  which  became  worse  at  hi* 
death,  proved  eqiecially  rulnoua  to  Roman  Bri- 
ti\ia.  'The  savage  tribea  of  Caledonu — the  PIcta, 
now  beginning  to  be  aasociated  with  the  Scota 
from  Ireland — became  bolder  from  year  to  year 
In  their  incunion*,  until  they  marched  acrnaa  the 
whole  extent  of  BritaiiL  "Their  path  waa 
marked  by  crueltiea  so  atrocious,  that  it  was  be- 
lieved at  the  time  and  recorded  by  St  Jerome 
that  they  lived  on  human  fleah.  London,  even, 
was  threatened  by  them,  and  the  whole  i»land, 
wliich,  like  all  the  other  provinces  of  the  Empire, 
liiul  lost  every  spark  of  military  virtue,  was  In- 
capalile  of  opposing  any  resutaoce  to  them. 
Tbeodosiu*,  a  Spanish  otncer,  and  father  of  the 
great  man  of  the  aame  name  who  was  afterwards 
aasncbkted  In  the  Empire,  was  charged  by  Vaien- 
tiniun  with  the  (ie(ence  o(  Britain.  lie  forced 
tlic  Scots  to  fall  buck  (A.  U.  387-370),  but  with- 
out having  been  able  to  bring  them  to  su  en- 
gagement"—J.  C.  L.  de  Sianiondi,  Fail  uf  tht 
lioman  timpirt,  eh.  9. — "Tile  nplendour  0}  the 
cities  and  the  security  of  the  (ortiUcntiona  were 
diligently  reatnn^l  l>y  the  patenial  care  of  Tbeo- 
duaiua,  wlio  with  a  strong  liau>l  contlneil  the 
trembling  Caledoiiiiuis  to  Uie  northern  angle  of 
the  Island,  aud  periictuated,  by  the  name  and 
aettlement  of  tlie  new  province  of  Valentia.  the 
glories  of  t!ie  reign  of  \  alentiniao. " — £.  Qibbon, 
Dtfline  and  Fail  of  the  Hitman  Empire,  eh.  i!i. 

A.  D.  383-3U.— RcTOitof  Masimu*.— In  :i83, 
four  vean  after  Theodoaius  the  Oreat  had  been 
asKKiated  in  the  Roman  sovereignty  bv  the 
younif  Emprnr  Oratlan.  aiwl  !>lw"l  <m  the  tl!rt.oe 
of  the  East,  the  geuerou*  Uruliiin  lost  tiia  own 
throne,  ami  bis  li(e,  thnnigli  a  revolt  tliat  waa 
organised  In  Britain.  "Une  Maxiinua,  a  Span- 
iara  by  birth,  uix'upying  a  high  olBclal  position 


331 


Is  : 


'% 


BIUTAIX,  A.  D.  88S-888. 

fa  that  proTince,  ^>n«d  on  Uep  bj  ttrp  into  In- 
•unectlon.  by  a  loldiery  and  a  people  of  whom 
he  anpcara  to  have  been  the  fdol,  raiM-d  tiie 
itandard  of  rcrolt  in  the  island,  and  paaied  orcr 
.»;'.>,&"''■  ■«««'''>«l  l>y  «  Urp)  multitu.Ic.- 
\%^^m  men  and  70,000  women,  bhvi  Zociimut 
the  By/jintino  historian.  This  colouy,  iettllnjr 
In  the  Armoriran  peninsula,  gave  it  the  name  of 
Brittany,  which  it  has  since  retained.  The  rebel 
tones  were  soon  victorious  over  the  two  Em 
perors  who  had  aneed  to  share  the  Roman 
IhroiJB  [OratUm  and  his  boy-brother  Valeutinian 
who  divldt'd  the  sovereignty  of  the  West  between 
them,  while  Theodosius  ruled  the  East].  Gra- 
tian  they  slew  at  Lyons;  Valentinian  they 
speedily  expelled  from  Italy.  .  .  .  Theodotius 
adopted  the  cause  of  his  brother  Emperor"  and 
overthrew  Maximus  (s<«  Roue:  A.  D  871Mi05) 
—J.  O.  Sheppard,  FaU  of  Bmm,  Uet.  6. 

Also  ih:  E.  Oibboo,  DtAin*  and  f\M  of  tk, 
Roman  Empire.  cA.  87. 

" -r?-  ^?7— Th«  UanrpaUoii  of  CenatMtiiM, 
—    The  Roman  soldiers  In  Britain,  aeeing  that 
the  Empire  was  falling  topieces  under  the  feeble 
sway  of  Honoriua,  and  fearing  lest  they,  too 
should  soon  be  ousted  from  their  dominloQ  In  the 
bland  (part  of  which  was  alrewiy  known  as  the 
Saxon  Shore)  clothed  three  usurpers  wccesiivelr 
with  the  Imperial  purple  [A  D.  4071.  falling,  u 
-ar  as  sod,  1  position  was  concerned,  lower  and 
lower  fa  their  choice  each  time.     The  last  and 
least  ephemeral  of  these  rulers  waa  a  ;;rivate 
soldier  named  Coostantlne.  and  chosen  for  m, 
pthjr  reason  but  his  name,  which  was  accounU-d 
lucky  as  having  been  already  borne  by  a  general 
whi.  had  been   carried    by  a  BritUh    army  to 
supreme  dominion.  "—T.  Hodgkln,  Italy  aniUtr 
Inmtb-,,  bk  i,  M.  5.— The  usurper  Constantine 
soon  led  his  legions  acmas  the  channel  Into  Gaul 
then  ravagwl  by  the  Vaiidal.H,  Smvcs,  Alans  and 
Burgundlaus  who  passed  the  lUiine  In  406.     He 
was  welcoine.1  with  joy  by  Uie  unhappy  people 
who  found   themselves  abau.loncjl  to  the  bar- 
barians.     Some  BUcriHiaes  which  the  new  Con- 
stantine had,  in   pnnlent    encounters  with  de- 
tached parties  of   the  German  iuva<l..rs,   were 
greatly  magnlfled,  and  pave  pnstiKC  to  his  cause 
Ue  was  still  more  succt-ssful,  for  a  time,  in  buyini 
the  precarious  friendship  of  some  tribes  of  the 
enemy,  and  made,  on  the  whole,  a  consiilerable 
show  of  dominion  In  Gaul  during  two  or  thn-« 
years.     The  seat  of  his  gov.m.mnt  was  estab- 
lished at  Aries,   to  whicTi  city  Uie  ortiocs  and 
court    of    the    Roman    I'netect    of    Oiiul   h,ui 
retreated  from  Treves  in  408.     With  the  help  of 
•  c<.nsi<lerable  army  of  barbarian  auxiliaries  (a 
curious  mixture  of  Scota,  Moors  and  Mareom. 
anni)  he  extendc<l  his  sovereiifKly  over  Spain 
He  even  extorteii  fnini  tlie  pusilliinimoiu  court  at 
Kaveiina  a  recognition  of  his  usurpeil  n.yaltv 
and  promiswl  assistance  to  Honorius  against  tlid 
Gotl^     But  the  tide  of  fortune  preseniTy  turned 
The  lieutenant  of  Constant  iiM;  in  Spaih.  Count 
Uerontius,   l»ecame  for  some  reason  disaffcolwl 
and  crowmil  a  new  usuriwr.  nam.'d  Maximus 
In  support  of  the  latter  he  attackwl  Constantine 

?|i  P^iL'  "'1?,"^  i"  *'*«l.    A'  "'«  «">«  "me. 
tlie  bmperor  Honorius,  at  Ravenna,  having  made 

peace  with  the  Goths,  sent  his  general  ClonJtantius 

?!'*.':".*.L'^  Oa.k.-Britl.*  usun-T.     CoT^nthH 


BRITAIN.  X.  D.  UM. 

Arlsa  capitulated  to  the  representative  of  the 
great  name  which  Honorius  still  bore,  as  tituUr 
rn:pei«tor  of  Rome.  Constantine  was  s,, t To 
Jr.T*"^  S?**.  P"*  *»  <*«•">  on  » '«  way  (X  U 
»!^^  M°  8.^  ^•■"'  "**  ^  '^  ""  '^'"'' 

..  /v.  ?•  4»o.-Ab»ndontd  \n  th«  Romans.- 

.  2J°  n"L."^l?"i'  •  •  •  "■'«''  "»«  '"UxrUI 
troops  quitted  Britain,  we  tee  them  ablr  asilv 
to  repel  the  attacks  of  lu  barbarous  ».v.,ilanti 
When  a  renewal  of  their  inroa<ls  left  Britain 
weak  and  exhausted  at  the  accession  of  tli,.  Em. 
peror  Honorius.  tlie  Roman  general  Stilid,,,  „. 
newed  the  triumnlis  which  Trie<Ml,»,,usliml  ,„n 
The  Hct  was  driven  back  afn*l,,  the  Ss„« 
boats  chased  by  hU  gallevsas  far  as  ll.,.  ( )rk,„  v" 
and  the  Saxon  Shore  probably  •.trengtl...i«l  wlili 
fresh  fortresses  But  the  campaign  of  .Mili,.ho 
—  the  hut  triumph  of  the  Empire  lu  li«  «i  sttrn 


waters, 
drew  In 
fifth  cer 
and  th. 
sheb 
1L 
by. 
thar 


ai.pnMM-hing  Aries,  found  It  already  besieged  bv 
Qerontius,      The  btter  waa  aU  nSone.!  VhU 


troop.,  and  fled,  to  bo  •tain  «»B  afterw^ 


832 


"i  struggle  Rome  had  wagwl  «,,  |„„» 
to  i-s  end:  at  the  o\w\mvs,  „t  tu' 
I'     '^rn.siataiipesuddenly  broke  (li.wu 
fx  mass  of  barbarism  wiili  »i,iti; 
'.       \  b-  ..ke  in  upon  tlie  Empire.  . 
i'  llie  Empire,  broken  everywliere 
volts.   Was  nowhcri-  more  timkcn 
ain.  where  the  two  legion-  wliidi  re- 
•urn,  artered  at  Rlchlxirough  au<j  York  set 

up  I.  ./.„  tlwn  once  their  chiefs  as  En.|x mrs  and 
followe<l  them  acroes  the  channel  fa  a  mar,  1.  uiion 
Home.   The  histof  these  pretenders.  Cuisiaiiiiue 
crosfce.1  over  to  Gaul  In  407  with  tlie  bulk  „t  ilic 
soldiers  quartered  In  Britaia.  aii,l  the  pn.viuce 
seems  to  Imvc  been  left  to  ita  own  dcf, m      f„r  it 
was  no  longer  the  legionaries,  but  '  ll„.  i.  ,nle  of 
Britain    who  'taking  up  arms.'  npuLvi  .  „.» 
onset  of  the  barbariana  .  .  .  They  api...,.    I  to 
Honorius  to  awcpt  their  obedi.  ni.c,  and  r,  i.moe 
the  troo|)s.     But  the  legions  of  tlie  Enii.ire  »,  re 
needed  to  guard  Rome  itself:  and  in  410  a  Utier 
of  the  hmjwror  bade  Britain  pr,>vide  t.r  its  ..»u 
g,)v..ninient  and  lu  own  defence.     K,.*  si  iie- 
ments  are  more  false  than  those  wliiih  pin, in; 
tiie    British    pmvinclals    as   cowanis,    „r    ii,.ir 
struggle  against  the  barbarian  as  a  w,ak  .u.,1  mi 
worthy  one.      Nowhere,    fa   fact.  tl.r,  .^U   Hie 
wimie  circuit  of  the  Roman  worl.1.  wn.,  .- .  I. :,. 
and  so  desperate  a  reaislauce  offerx.,!  to  il...  „ 
sailanta  of   the  Empire.  .  .  .  For  B,)me  iliirtr 
years  after  the  withdrawal  of  the  legion.s  th,  frti 
province  maintained  an  eiiual  struggle  .ii.  ,ju»i 
her  foes.     Of  these  she   proliably   e«uut,  i  tin. 
Saxons  as  still  the  least  f,)rmldable.  .         It  «•«» 
with  this  view  that    Britain   turned   t,i  what 
seempjl  the  weakest  of  her  assailanu.  an.l  »ir..T8 
to  tlnil  .  .  .  troops  whom  she  could  us,-  as  iicr- 
cenaries  against  the   Pict."— J.  R  Qreeu    Tin 
Maktitg  of  fngUiut,  int. 

Also  in:  J.  M.  Uppenberg,  IIUI.  of  Km. 
under  IhtAnjiotiixon  kinff:  ».  1.  p/,.  ST-iW 
,.  *•  "•  44*— The  Uat  appeal  to  Rome.— 
let  onre  again  a  suppli.atiiig  cinlia..v.v  was 
sent  to  the  R<iman  general  .Stius.  durini;  his 
third  coiisiilship.  in  the  vear  448.  .  .Kiius 
was  unable  to  lielp  them.'*-J.  M.  Lapp..iil»rj, 
io  "iC*''^  ""*'■  '*•  -*««*>  •'*"«"«  Ai ',....  p 
83.—"  The  date  of  the  letters  of  appeal  i»  fixed 
by  the  form  of  their  address:  'The  gn«n.  of 
tlie  BriUins  to  Aetlus  for  the  third  time  Coi,,  i 
Tlie  savages  drive  us  to  the  sea  and  the  sea  <  »su 
u«  back  upon  the  ••▼•(«■:  so  arise  two  kinds  of 


BRITAIN,  A.  D.  446. 


^anSH  COLCHKA. 


dmth,  ud  «  are  either  ilrowncd  or  ilaaglit«md. ' 
The  thin)  (  •naulaie  of  Aetiiu  (ell  in  A.  I  446, 
t  year  memorable  in  tlu?  >Ve(t  aa  the  be^t  ining 
of  a  profouo'l  calm  wtiich  precni>->l  <  '  on- 
tUu^ht  of  Attila.  The  'omplaiut'jf  iirii  i  liaa 
Irft  ti'i  irare  in  the  poenii  n  uich  celebr  •^  tlie 
year  ^f  repoM-  ami  our  i'ltroniclcs  »t  :>t  any 
mte  wronK  win  n  they  attribute  ita  rejct  tion  to 
the  strtiM  of  j  war  with  t'.  '  una.  It  ia  pnniblc, 
indeetl,  tliat  the  appeal  w«  ..'Ver  made,  ai  '•-  tlutt 
the  whole  ttorr  r<'pnr.vnts  nothing  but  a  rumour 
current  in  the  ilayn  if  Uildiui  among  tlie  BritiEh 
exiles  in  Anno'ri<  .  "— 0.  Elton,  Origint  of 
Snfluh /lut.,  cA.  1 

A.  D.   449433.— The   Anglo-SAxoa    Cod- 
qnest.    tV  e  Enulamd  ;  A.  D.  44V-473.  Ui  :>4;-«):i 

Ath  CcBtaiy.  The  cnaubdued  Brttona.— 
"The  Hritiios  were  soon  reatricttKl  to  ihe 
we*t<-m  parta  of  tlie  iilanil,  where  tliry  main- 
tainetl  thenuelvea  in  aeventl  aimill  at«tc:i.  of 
which  lliiwe  lying  U>  the  east  yitiUcil  more  and 
more  to  Germanic  inr.  uen(  ";  the  others  ppiu-cted 
by  their  mountains,  preserved  for  a  c<  luUlerable 
time  a  gradually  decreasing  iDilepeD<'t'n>u.  .  . 
In  the  southwest  we  nw  '  with  ll-  (."""'ert'ul 
territory  of  Damuoniu,  the  kingdon  >\  Arthur, 
wbii'li  iMire  also  the  name  of  \s  < »'  Wales. 
Paiiirinnia,  at  a  later  periixl.  was  I.  .<ited  to 
Uyvn.tiul,  or  Uevonshin.',  by  ilut  sepunition  of 
Cirnau,  <ir  t'omwull.  The  ilitlricl3 1'ulleil  by  the 
Saxous  those  of  the  Sunioi^itin,  of  the  Thoru- 
KClmt  (IKimetshire),  anil  llif  vViUstttaH  wure  lost 
to  the  li'T."  of  Uyvnaiul  it  au  e;irly  period; 
tlioii;;h  (i^iuriea  after- •■  rila  a  la  ■;'<"  Bntisl, 
|H>pul:itioii  ^.aiit»!nediti>cl'  .,  tiioHepit  '  aiiioo^ 
the  Sax. Ill  settlers,  as  aI!  as  mii  i<  tb' 
Defnsiiias.  long  after  the  Nixon  o,iii|  ii  it  Oi 
Dyvimiiit.  who  for  a  considerable  lime  pti  virvcd 
tollic  luitivr^t  of  thjit  shirt*  tlieapiH'ila'in  .  if  Uio 
"Wclsli  kiml  Cambria  (('yiuru).  tlie  ci  ;iitry 
whii  !i  at  tbi'  pn'M'tit  day  we  (all  Wilm.  wiia 
aiviili  I  into  w-nnil  »t«t«8. "  The  iliief  if  these 
early  xtAtes  uiu  Veiietlotia  (Gwyiutltll,  the  Ikiug 
of  which  was  supreme  over  the  other  states 
Araoiii;  these  latttT  were  Dimetia  (Uyvcd),  or 
West  Wttle.i ;  Powys,  which  »  as  east  of  UwyiiciM 
and  Pnowdon  iiiountuiu;  (iweiit  (Monmouth- 
shin)  or  South  tast  Witlcf,  the  ounlry  of  the 
Hilures.  "The  usages  aud  Uws  of  the  Cam 
brisiis  were  in  all  these  states  csiientially  the 
same.  An  invaluable  aud  venerable  iiionumeui 
uf  tliim.  although  of  an  age  in  whirli  tiic  Welsh 
had  long  lieen  stilij'Ct  to  the  Anglo  ..txons,  and 
had  adopted  many  of  their  insliliaiona  aud 
custoiiis,  are  the  hiws  of  the  king  llowel  Dtia, 
who  reigned  in  the  early  pari  of  the  luth  century. 
.  .  .  The  partition  of  Cambria  iuto  several  small 
states  in  not,  as  luts  often  been  supixiseil,  the 
eonaeipi  nee  of  a  divislou  mile  by  kinjj  Hudri 
Mawr,  or  Koderic  the  Great,  among  b3  lona. 
...  Of  Dyfeil,  during  the  tint  centuries  after 
the  coining'  uf  the  Saxuus,  we  know  very  little : 
but  witli  ri'gard  to  Owynedd.  which  was  in  con- 
suiit  'varfare  with  Northumbria  and  .Utrcia,  our 
infoniiation  is  hss  scanty:  of  Owent,  also,  aa 
tlie  bulwark  ot  Dimetia,  frequent  mention  occurs. 
On  ilie  whole  we  are  less  iu  want  of  a  nuaa  of 
M.furiiiation  respecting  the  Welsh,  than  of 
a-xuracy  and  precision  iu  that  which  we  poaeaa. 
.  An  olwuniy  still  more  dense  than  tiLit 
'  T  Wales  involves  tlie  dbtrict  lying  to  tin 
north  of  that  country,  comprised  under  Uv: 
nauie  uf  Cumbria  [lee  Ccmbma  amd  eiJUi.; 


cLTDEl  "— J.  M  Lappenberg,  JSitl.  et Br.^.  under 
(W  AmA    iiMtii  Kinf,  e.  1,  p.  11I>-I23. 

A.  D    63;.— Defeat  of  the  WeUh  by  th« 
Ei^ltah  of  Banicia.    See  Uevehvixu),  Battljc 


3  ITAIN,  Great:  ."  4option  of  the  name 
for  le  United  Kingdoms  of  Eneland  and 
Scoi.aad.     bee  HCUTLANO:  A.  U.  1707. 

BRITAIN,  R«aaa  WaUi  in.  See  Hoiiam 
Walls  in  Britaoi. 

BRITANNIA,  The  Origla  of  the  name.— 
"  Mauv  aiv  tii>*  .speciilatioos  which  have  been 
si«rte<l  ai  to  the  -  tymolugy  of  the  word  Britan- 
nia, and  among  tue  hiter  ouea  iiuve  lieei:  some  of 
tlie  most  cxtmordinary.  Vci  surelv  it  is  not  one 
of  tliosc  philologinl  dlfflculties  wdich  we  need 
despair  of  solving.  Few  penons  >viU  question 
tliat  the  name  Britannia  is  connoctcJ  with 
Uie  n-uno  Britanni.  in  the  same  way  as  Oer- 
manU,  Uallht,  Graoia,  &c.,  KithOertnani,  Ualli, 
Graeci,  &c.,  and  1:  ia  not  unreaaonable  to  as- 
aume  Uutt  Britanni  was  originally  nntliii.g 
more  than  the  Latinized  fcrm  of  the  Welsh  word 
Brytlion,  a  name  which  we  find  given  in  the 
Triads  1  one  of  the  three  tribes,who  tlrst  coto- 
uized  Br  lain.  .  .  .  Prom  the  Welsh  '  brith '  and 
Irish  '  l-rit,'  parti  foloureo,  may  have  come  Bry- 
I  then,  which  on  this  hypothesis  would  signify  t£e 
I  paiated  men.  ...  As  far  ttien  as  philology  la 
I  concerned  ' liere  vem»  tc  be  no  obJetti,jti  to  our 
j  assuniiig  :rytbou.  and  therefore  also  Britanni, 
to  signify  '10  painted  men.  How  this  Celtic 
I  name  tlrst  »amc  to  denote  the  inhab't.i-ts  of 
liH-iu-  ifilaniis  is  a  quostiou,  the  propter  aii^  ver  to 
I  Aliuh  liei*  •lifjK.'r  than  is  generally  suppo»!tl. 
.  .  .  The  liiiiaonic  Isles'  is  tin.-  oldest  name 
v>t  fird  given  m  theie  islands  iu  the  clait-sieal 
writers  Vndtr  this  title  I'olybius  (:i.  57)  refers 
to  tliem  In  connection  with  the  tin  iraile,  and 
'he  well  known  work  on  the  Kosmos  (c.  3)  men 
litxui  'The  Britimnic  Isles,  Albion  aud  leme." 
.  .  But  in  truth  ueither  the  auiiiorKliip  nor  the 
ago  of  this  laat-named  work  haa  been  satisfac- 
torily aettli'<l,  and  therefore  we  cannot  aasert 
thai  the  pU.-ase  ' The  Britannic  Isles'  came  into 
uj"  before  the  second  century  B.  C.  The  Uiime 
Britanuia  flrst  occurs  in  the  works  of  Cowai  and 
waa  not  iripr?l>ably  Invented  by  him.  "  -K. 
Guest,  Origint*  Celtica,  t.  2,  eh.  l.-^Tl.,-  etymol- 
ogy contended  for  bv  Dr.  Quest  ii-  so 
Mr.  IUiy8,onprinciplesof Celtiephoiiilf-i 
on  the  contrary,   traces  relatiui,-.   tiei  ^ 

name  Brython  and  "the  Welsh  ^.^aLlea 
'  bruthy n, '  cloth,  and  itr  congeners, "  aii' )  con- 
cludes that  it  signified  "a  clothed  or  cloth  clad 
people." — J.  Rlivs.  CeUie  Brituin,  eh.  6 

BRITANNIA  PRIMA  AND  SECUNDA. 
See  BKITAI.N :  A.  I).  328-837. 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA:  AboriKinal  iif 
babitaota.  Sec  Amkricak  Abobiolnks:  Atra- 
PASCAN  Family. 

A.  D.  1856-1871.— Eatabltshment  of  provin- 
cial (oremmenl.— Union  with  the  Dominion 
of  Canada. — "British  Columbia,  the  Urgest  of 
the  Ctnadian  province*,  cannot  he  said  to 
have  had  any  existence  ai  a  colony  until  18S8. 
Previous  to  that  year  provision  had  lieen  made 
by  a  series  of  Acts  for  extending  the  Civil  and 
Cnnitnailrfiwsol  the  Court/) of  lower  and  L'ppcr 
t'anada  over  territories  not  within  any  province, 
t'ut  o.iierwise  the  territory  was  useil  as  a  hunting 
ground  o!  the  Uudaun's  Bay  Company.    The 


333 


^ 


I 


BRTTISH  COLCKBIA. 

Aq>QtM  and  dlfflcuitiM  thtt  aroM  from  Um  ta- 

t2?ii.^^n  **!!;  •*»«»»»o«>  of  the  lloence  of 
the  lIudMo  I  Bi..'  ComtMuiy.  sad  the  paMlar  of 
the  mperi.1  Act  M  A  £7ic,.  c.  M.  tiToJlde 
for  the  iruvcnimejt  of  Britiih  Columbb. 
^H  k"^.  ^'""''TJ^  tppolnted  Oorernor 
•aa  bv  bU  cuinmiiiion  be  wu  authoriied  to 
make  Uwi.  Institutione  and  ordinanoea  for  the 
Rj^w  r  ""^  '^^  P»»erniiiBnt  of  Britiih 
Lm  "■■'''-  P"wlamatlon  Iwued  under  the 
puhic  ieal  of  the  colony.  ...  The  OoTemor 
contlnue.1  t»  kgiiUte  bjr  pmchunatloo  uaUl 
1W4.  wben  bii  pmclamatloaa  gave  way  to  Onll- 
nancet  paned  by  the  Oorernor  with  tie  adrlca 

and  coMint  of  the  LegUMre   Council 

L  p  to  thii  time  the  Goremor  of  Britiah  Colum- 
bia was  alao  OoTrrflor  of  the  neichbourinf  Uhmd 
of  Vancoujrer.  VancouTer',  Itland  ultotori. 
cany  ao  older  colony  than  Britiah  Columbia. 
Though  diicof  ered  in  ISM  it  remained  practicallr 
unluowa  to  Europeana  for  two  oenturiea.  and  ft 

r^u""?."".'"  ""*•  "•»"  ">«  '»'««»  "■•  ranted 
to  the  Hu.l«>n,  Bay  Compayr.  that  a  oSreroor 
waa  anpo  nted.  .  .  .  In  18«f  the  legialature  of 
the  ItlatMl  adopted  a  aeriea  of  laaolutiona  in 
farour  of  union  with  Britiah  Columbia,  and  br 
the  Imperial  Act  W  ft  W  Vic.  (i).  c.  67.  the  twb 
oolonlfa  were  united.  ...  By  an  Oixler  in 
Council  datol  the  Itth  day  of  kay,  1871,  BriUih 
Comnibia  waa  decMred  u  be  a  prorhice  of  the 

i«?i  f'""  '"^  ^lj*..*"i-  ^  '^  •"•'•  "nJ  •TW- 
ISTS) from  the  *«h  of  July.  1871."— J    E.  C 

Munro,  Tht  r.Httilulion  of  Camula,  cA.  % 

A'JK)  is:  ii.  H.  Bancroft,  Hit.  .jT  UU  AmOd 

A.  O.  ia7a.-SettlMwnt  of  the  Sm  laaa 
Water  B{>undarT  OUpate.  Hee  Baa  Jcai  oa 
NoMTirwKn'EiiM  Water  BovMOiuiT  QimmoH. 

APRl'cA*"s?^r  '^""'CA  AND  SOUTH 

AFRICA.     .Ste  .\FHH  A  :  A  I).  Il«4-l(j|».  ,nd 
"»'L._""-  ""<  Til  ArHicA.  and  Ibka 
BRITISH    HONDURAS.    See    C««Tm*L 

BRITISH    MUSEUM.     .Sre    Libbawim. 

pJ?i?i^'?!f  u''°'*'^"     BORNEO     COM. 
BRITONS,     .s,-,.  ('Ki,T« ,  «|«.i.  BniTAHMiA- 

BKi  TTANY  ;  la  the  Roman  period.     Haa 

AH«..m,  » :  ,|„j^  VKNitii  ..r  Ui,«Tieii!«  (Jac. 
A.  D,  jlx-Britiah  aattlamaat  aad  —- > 
.Vf  lliiii  «iN  :  A.  I),  DMMHN.  "- 

,  ^  **•  4*?-— Independanee  aaaarted.— At  ih> 
t  m..  lh.tX  Brl.iruUn.1  pmrtiaSi;  J^V^ 
it.  omn.^  ti.m  will,  the  e«plrinK  Homai  Kmnire 
(.b.,u.  4(W,  the  Briu-Oi  of  Uie  'mU^-Tt^^ 
Armonna  pn.Tloce.  or  m<>iem  Brittanr - 
MU.w.,|  the  eiampl.  "Thry  eipeiw'ihe 
Rmiaii  marfl.tnii«.  who  .rt«i  uod^the  au^ 
thorily  of  the  uaurprr  ConslaiiUne ;  and  a  free 
««vrmm..„t  WM«ul.lUh.,i  anH,.,,  ,  peopl-wh^ 
ha.1  •.  long  l«.n  .uhj«t  to  th^  arli.Ary  will  of 

»«►•»  kmp,r,,  r*    81  -■■Km.n  thi.  timr  Vr 

fmni  ih.-  i^Uilr,  of  the  r»t  of  FrwKw  whirh 

war.  found  flghllng  by  th.- .i.|,  „f  1,V.«al 


BRirrAKT 

H**  ^°?"*  "P*"*  *^  HuBi,  on  the  great 
dar  at  Chalona.  Bee  Ho«a:  aTd.  451  "^ 
_  *•.  D-,  •i»-9H.— Tha  Brarsad  Kingdom  - 
Sat^ien  to  tha  Normaa  l)«kaa.-3^rrir 
'"•«°«  "uprenutty  over  the  Armoricam  in»v  bt 
oompared  to  Uie  dominion  exeitrfaed  by  I„„"rW 
R«»*  •»<»«»»  the  Caucadan  tribea-Jh.^ 

righU  of  Independeoce.  intercahued  amon«»t  the 
coorerje  perloda  when  the  Emperor  cannont^rt 
the  rig hu  of  authority ;  yet  the  Pranit  woul.llt 
abaadw  the  prerogaUTe  of  the  Cae«n^ Th  Ut 

^tJ^S^.SL  •'""'n'on  on  the  one  part.  .,,.1  the 
1  ^SI5!?!5"?°°'j?^'*»«'0'>»heotlK!r.  nri.Mnv 
b  dirMed  into  Bretagne  Bretonnu.,t«  «,„|  h^'^ 

kST^IS'L-^  ^"*'  conatltuted  tl...  m  J^ 
Unda,  and  here  .he  Counto  marrhen,  w.r*.  pl,„,i 
by  Charlemigne  and  bU  auecewr.,  Kniu 
moatly  by  llm.a«e:  ret  one  Breywd.  Ncuii,.* 
waa  tniated  by  loufc-le-dibonnalr,!  A.  I)  "*) 
with  a  delegated  authority.  Ncwnli,.*  ,1.^  rv^ 
.i  ^**n'  '•«*»•.•»"<'  "'  the  n<'w  m.i.„f  the 
era,  Ilterelly  ukrn  from  the  ploiii;li  Tl» 

dlaeenaiooa  among  the  Pnuik.cnabl.,|  Xo,„in.*t« 
tacreaae  hia  auilH.rlty.  Could  th.r.-  l«  „,. 
adTeiaary  of  the  Kii,pire  *o  (tupl.1  ui  ,i  ,i  u, 
prolltbT  the  l«tllo  of  Wntemiy.  .'  .  .  s.mL\i 
aaaumea  the  royal  title,  Tindloile.!  ,h..  ImM.  "a 
denoe  of  hU  a„,lcnt  p.«ple.  ami  .-miblnl  ,h. , ,,  in 
Uptime  of  Hollo,  toawcrt  with  inoom.i  g^^a- 
dUoouenoB  panlonable  In  political  .rg„„,.„i  ,i,., 
UieFranit  had  nrver  rrlgned  within  tl..^  |.rn„.r 
Armorican  bcMindaric •'  Nomln.*  lr«Mi,iuiii«| 
hia  crown  to  hl»  ion  ileriapoe;  but  lli.'  I.iur 
re  giied  bri<>ny.  .u,vumhlng  u,  a  ..„„,,ir.cy 
which  raiac.1  hi«  nrplu-w,  SoCmon,  loll,,,  ilm.w 
au.?^  .■T"»  '  v'Kon'Ua  warrior.  ...m.  lin^ 
lf,i.  IL*^  '^™"''»'  1'"*  ">"«■"•»■••  "tnu-dins 
email  klngdoii,.      lie  rxu-nd^l    bu  .loti,i„|.,n. 

S!!!: *"?'•_'?. 'I'"'"*' .*fj"»-  ""1  ""■  '"iiira 
"til 


--"  --~w*   --"•-"..».    .■•■■•■u.    will    iiic    itlMire 

Normandv.  and  hie  royal  title  waa  «n.  i,o„.,|  bv 
Chariea  the  H„l,|  H„t  he.  U»i,  »u  ,,„„|,i^a 
againit.  bllmtia  and  (ifthn>i,rd,  dying  in  |,ria.in 
!^mIS^.'  I?-  Ihe.-^ond  duke  of  X.,rln«,„i; 
eaUbliabed  hia  ioniihip  ovrr  tlif  ili-'ri.in| 
country.  ••  ili.iorir«|  BrIUniiy  miiL^I  im.,  f,,,,, 
great  ■muntl.'H.  whith  alio  alMorli.^1  |I„  c.r. 
lovlngian  mar.  It  IkiuU.  I^nmn,  .Nnnl.<  Vnnneg 
an<l  (  .^ounill.  ■..  rivHillng  ami  je.,l„„K;ni;  ,i,»ri 
Ing  ami  warring  agaliMt  r*  h  olht  r  f,.r  il„.  r,  J 
or  ducal  dlgniiy.  imiil  tlic  mipnnia.  v  »  ..  i-r 
nianemly  «iUhlUl,«l  in  Alan  »Vri,'Hnr.  Iin.  iIh. 
ally,  the  onnonciit,  llirnon  In  law  of  W  illi.i.i  ihi. 
liaaUnl.  Hut  ll,r  •iiu-raliilv  or«ii|>crii.nit  ..f  »l| 
Hritanny  waa  vraie.1  In  the  (•.M,.iu.r..r <  ii,  1  !!»■ 
Planugenrt'a  lim^ge,  tlU  tlw  forfciiiin.  in.  urtwl 
Sr  King  JiJtn  — an  unJuAlcjcniwnf  Iumi,,.    _ 

M.  I,  M.  8. 

.i.^i°:.'»f' V  -'^''«  ""»  D»k"        After 

the  death  of  hi.r h,  .      .  all  tln-o-  .li»in.  i.iif 

territorire  nM-rgi'.l  In  th^-  thrw  (l.-minmi  nn  .if 
Nantea.  Rennra,  ami  ('onmuailln  .\ni..ii  -.t  (he 
(•ella  nmnm\  w«>  lm|Nwiili|<'  In  ,»As~  -.mt^ 
Nomrnop  the  Hul.rof  Cormnialll. ,  lw,l  *.,iiii»,| 
I'V  l*r  auilHirily.  ihi'  n.v»l  ,\\\.  l.m  ib, 
r.iiinu.if  Ki'nmv ai'iiuinMl  ihcpri'  finiihiMi  .»rr 
llir  .Hher  chlefuin.  Higalliv  ,;,m,|,„|  (j„,f 
friy.  aua  of  I'ouau  [A   O.  VW  Knm'  iuuM 


334 


BRITTANT. 


BBIXHAM  CAV. 


bi  dtattDguiihad  m  the  flnt  Duk*  of  Brittany. 
Ba  cooiUtuted  himaelf  Duke  ttrnply  bv  takinf 
Dm  Me.  Thl*  HMimptiaa  nuy  poaibly  hav* 
ben  HiictlaiMd  b/  the  ettcc— or  of  Saint  Peter; 
ud,  by  decreet,  hie  rank  in  tlie  dTll  hieraroiiy 
bttame  olilmately  Teoognixed.  .  .  .  The  Count* 
of  Brittany,  and  tlie  Dukea  in  lilu  manner,  in 
bter  timee.  Tendered  homage 'en  parage'  to 
Normudjr  In  the  ilrit  instance,  and  tliat  tame 
homane  wai  afterwarda  demanded  br  the  enwn 
ofFnuux.  ButtheCapetianmonarcharefueedto 
letainwledge  the  '  Duke,'  until  tiie  time  of  Peter 
Ibuclerc  aoo  of  Robert.  Count  of  Dreui,  Earl  of 
RIchinonil  (A.  D.  UlS-lSST]."— ,?lr  F.  Palgrave, 
Biit.  ^Jiormandg  and  Rng.,  «.  is,  p.  165. 

A  O.  1341-1^5.— The  lone  Civil  War.— 
Montibft  agaiatt  Bloia. — Aimoat  limuitane- 
oualy  with  the  beginning  of  tlie  Hundred  Years 
Wir  of  the  Engliu  kings  In  France,  there  broke 
out  s  malignant  and  destructive  drii  war  in 
Brituoy,  which  French  and  English  took  part 
in,  on  the  opposing  sides.  "John  III.  duke  of 
thsl  province,  had  died  without  issue,  and  two 
rivsU  disputed  his  inlierilanre.  The  one  was 
Cbsrlea  de  Bluis,  husband  of  one  of  his  nieces 
tod nrpbew  of  the  King  of  France;  the  other, 
Montfurt,  .  .  .  younger  bruttici  of  the  last  duke 
sod  .  .  .  disinherited  by  him.  The  Court  of 
Pwra,  devoted  to  the  king,  adjuJgrd  the  duchy 
to  C'lisrk«  de  Blois,  his  nephew.  Hontfort  im- 
awillat«ly  made  himaelf  master  of  the  strongest 
nlscc*.  awl  rendered  homage  for  Brittany  to 
Liog  lidward  [III.  of  EnglanU],  whose  ssslstsnoe 
he  Implored.  This  war,  in  which  Charles  de 
BMa  wu  supported  by  France  and  Montfort  by 
Eoxlaod,  lasted  twenty-four  years  witliout  Inter- 
lupthio,  anil  presented.  In  the  midst  of  heroic 
sctiou.  a  lung  oiunte  of  trmchprics  and  atrocious 
mbberics."  Tlic  war  was  ended  In  lUM  by  the 
bsttli!  uf  Auray,  in  which  Charles  de  Blols  WM 
•lain,  snd  Hcrtrand  Du  Quesdin,  the  famous 
Brrtun  warrlnr,  was  taken  prisoner.  This  was 
•nnn  followeil  by  the  treaty  of  Ouiiande,  which 
MUblitliml  Miinlfurt  In  the  duchy.— E.  Da  Bon- 
aeibw.  Hit  of  Franet,  s.  I,  bk.  %  eh.  %  mad  i. 

Almi  m :  Proiisart  (Johnes),  CArmMss,  U.  1, 
M.  64-227. 

A.  D.  1491.— Joia*4  kv  ■aniaga  tm  tha 
French  crown.— The  famlnr  of  Montfort,  hav- 
iag  bm'n  raUbliiliol  In  the  auchy  of  Brittany  by 
the  >mi»  (if  tlie  English,  were  naturally  iacUned 
to  Kntclinb  (xntiiTtliina;  "  but  the  Bretona  would 
■rliluiii  prmill  thrm  to  be  effectual.  Tvro  car- 
ilinsl  (rrllDM  guiilrd  tlie  eomiuct  of  this  brave 
ukI  fjiilliful  iietiplr;  the  one  an  attachment  to 
th<-  Fri-iu'b  natiiin  and  monarchy  In  oppoaltion  to 
fiinifii  riu'iiiica:  the  iiibrr,  a  rral  fur  tiielr  own 
privilojje*.  aiul  tlii-  family  of  Montfort,  In  opposi- 
tion Id  lilt'  t'nrMarb'iients  of  Uie  crown.  lu 
FniH'ii  il  .  tlie  pn-i<:.t  duke Jat  the  time  of  the 
tmwi.in  of  Clmrli's  VIII.  of  France.  A.  D.  iiM], 
llir  mail-  line  of  tliat  family  was  about  to  be  sx- 
lliii;iii>Uii<l  Ilia  ilaiiirhter  Anne  was  natumlly 
tl  iil>)i'ii  r  many  siiluirs.  amonic  wliom  wera 
INtnii'iilarIt  (limiiiguiiilinl  the  tluke  of  Urleooa, 
»h<,Mi<inii  u>  havi.  been  pn'frmil  by  herself, 
liu  iiml  of  Altmt.  a  inrmlHT  of  the  Uaariin 
family  nf  |-\il«  fii».niwi  by  tlif  Bn-Um  nobility, 
•  »  iiiiml  liii  Iv  1.1  (imn-rre  tlie  prnce  and  lilirrtles 
"f  llitir  <iiuii(ry.  Iiiit  whoee  niro  .Tniiemi  him 
im  viTv  iuir|il«ti|,!  ui  a  yniilhful  prinoras:  tnd 
Mmtmilian,  liih<  of  the  Homiui*  [wlMaie  Arst 
«llr.  Mary  uf  Burgundy,  died  Ui  t^U]    UriUur 


waa  rent  bj  ffeetfams  and  OTsmin  l>y  the  armlei 
of  Uie  regent  of  France,  wito  did  not  lose  tliis 
opportunity  of  interfering  with  its  domestic 
troubles,  and  of  penacuting  her  private  enemy, 
tiM  duke  of  Orieaaa.  Anne  of  Brltany,  upon  Mr 
fatlwr's  death,  finding  no  oUier  means  of  escap- 
ing tlie  addresses  of  Albret,  wss  married  by 
proxT  to  Maximilian.  Tliis,  however,  aggra- 
vated the  evils  of  the  oountrv,  since  France  waa 
reaoived  at  all  events  to  bresik  off  so  dangerous  a 
connexion.  And  as  Mazimillan  himaelf  waa  tu- 
able,  or  took  not  tuffldent  pains  to  relieve  his 
lietrathed  wife  from  Iter  emiMutassments,  she  waa 
ultimatelv  compeiled  to  accept  the  hand  of 
Charles  VUL  Ua  had  long  been  engaged  by 
tha  treaty  of  Arraa  to  marry  the  daughter  of 
Maximilian,  and  that  princess  vras  educated  at 
the  French  court.  But  this  engagement  had  not 
prevented  several  year*  of  hostilities,  and  con- 
tinual intrigues  with  tha  towns  of  Flanders 
againat  Maxuaillan  Tha  double  injury  which 
this  latter  sustained  in  the  marriage  of  Cliarles 
with  the  halrsss  of  Britany  seemed  likely  to  ex- 
dte  a  protrtctad  contest ;  but  the  king  of  France, 
wlio  had  other  objects  In  view,  and  perhaps  was 
conscious  that  he  had  not  acted  a  fair  part,  soon 
came  to  an  accommodation,  by  which  be  restored 
Artois  and  Franchs-oomtA  .  .  .  France  waa 
now  oonsoUdatad  into  a  great  kingdom:  the  feu- 
dal sjitem  waa  at  an  end."— H.  tiallam,  Tht 
MUUU  Afm.  ek.  t.jpt.  a— In  the  contract  of 
.narriage  between  Charlea  VIIL  and  Anne  of 
Brittany,  "each  party  surrendered  all  scpaiata 
pietenshins  upon  tlie  Duchy,  and  one  stipulation 
alone  wss  comddered  requisite  Ut  secure  the  per- 
petual union  of  Brelaoy  with  France,  namely, 
that  in  case  the  queen  should  survive  her  con- 
sort, she  should  not  remarry  unless  either  with 
the  fu'un  king,  or.  It  that  were  not  possible, 
with  the  n.-vaamptive  heir  of  the  crown."— C 
Smedky,  Uut.  <^fyanct,pt.  1,  «A  18. 

Aiaon :  F.  P.  Quisot,  npularBitl.  ttftVaitm, 
ck.  *6. 

A.  D.  rsja.— Piaal  raaaioa  with  tha  crowa 
of  Frail  je.—"  Duprat  [chancellor  of  Francis  L 
oi  F.ance],  whose  auminiatratioo  was  .  .  . 
shameful,  promoted  one  measure  of  hi^h  utilitv. 
Francis  I.  until  then  had  govenH«i  Britunv  only 
In  the  oualitv  of  duke  of  that  ptovlni  v ,  iViprat 
counarllvd  him  to  unite  this  duchv  in  an  ludis- 
soluble  manner  with  the  crown,  anil  he  prevailed 
upon  tlie  Hutas  of  Brittany  thomaelvealii  request 
this  rvunktn,  which  alone  was  capable  of  pre- 
venting the  brsakina  out  of  dvil  wan  at  the 
it  h  of  the  king.  It  was  Irrevocably  voted  by 
the  H'stes  asK^mbled  at  Vanoes  in  I.Vl;i.  The 
king  swore  tii  reaiMft  tli«  rights  of  Brittany,  and 
not  to  raiw  any  sul:«iily  llirreiu  without  the  con- 
srnt  of  the  Mutes  i'rovincial. "— E.  de  Uonne- 
chuse,  Uut  ,^  FroMi.  bk   \.tk.%. 

A.  D.  179].— Raaistaaca  to  tha  French 
Ravelatioa.- ThaVaadaaaWar.  HvoKKANca: 
A  U.  I7W  (Mamcm— AraiL),  (Jtna);  (Jilt— 

DasCBMBU). 

A.  D.  i7«4-i7«6.— Tha  Chanaaa.  8«a 
FnAJica:  A.  iTlTiH-ITWI 


BRIXHAMCAVB.-AmvimnearnrlilMm, 
Ilevunahlre.  Knglaml.  In  wlilrh  niit»l  ■■ti.lciiiit 
of  a  very  early  rwr  of  mi'ii,  t-oatriii|»iriiieiiua 
with  i-rrtain  estlmt  aninuUa,  have  Im-n  found.— 
J    <>plktr.  rrrkftanr  Kurap* 

AUK>  UI    W.  B.  Uswkiaa,  Osat  tfaniinf. 


335 


1 ;  i'  ■ 


BBOAD-BOTTOMD  ADMINISTHATION. 
TION°T^.'°lIS'*"°    ADIIINISTRA- 

I8?r°8« 'nSS!!!!.'?:?'  ^   "'•  War  ol 
loia.    see  UxiraD  StATn  opAm.:  A  D  iHia 

*»SS22!.=-*-  •*  1867-1878.  *'' 

BROMSE  BRO,  P«w*  of  ( tUtt    Rh.  n.. 

MAST:  A  D.  1640-l«2k  '  ^^    8«>0t«. 

^.SS^^'lJL^f  "^"^^  SPRUIT,     B.ttle     of 

BoM^''*'     "•J'*'    "^     S"-""^-      8« 
BROOKLYN,  N.  Y.:  A.  D.  i6m  -The  int 

the  women  worklug  in  Uit-  (iiW,.  ,|,iu.  ,|.e  ^ 
71^  «"«■««  In  tlie  KTvice  of  the  Dntrh  Wwt 

l»«d.-The  occupation  of  luid  within  the  l&lta 
of  the  preMotctlT  of  Brooklyn  .  .  .  hwlHwrfUr 
progiMiMl.  until  now  (l«A)  nearlr  thewbol* 
w»ter.fn«t,fromN.wto;„C™ektoihe^2Ss; 
iniUi  """•?'"»  ""y.  »••  In  th,.  poaealoBoY 

v^iT^  '''i'"";rr  "«•««!  ">  lu^lcturicuiti. 

A.  D.  177«.-B«ttl.  of  Lou  I.»«i.  li 

IKITKI)  STATE"  or  Am.:  a    I)    1776  lAllmwrT 
BROOKLYN    BRIDGE.- T^e  ^Ji^tTi 

K     \7\"^  Brooklyn,  at  •  h.  i«ht  of  m  feet 
a,«»  feet ;  ri»er  upwi,  I.S».'4  HH'i-iuci. 


JlTen 
11 


h,"i?°.M""*  JONATHAN._A  title 

by  WMhln^Um  to  h  ,  cIom  frien.l,  Oov.  Jon, 

BRoV{«iSfitnn.J>  P'""?  «"  An..ri<W 

SSSSrlPJ?^    ^'■"^>  ■>■»«••    W,.'  (  1 1 1« 
rH.?°^J!'*:?"«*'  •"••  *•■•  C«««di«i  "CltM 

Ilia.    He«  iKiTtu  Maik,  ,„  Am    a  1)   mi 

(>M«^IB«B--^.,^E^BKHi;     IMH   ,(.,to„»,,_ 

pi;i       x'   .J"''"  -  Attack    on    Harper'. 

Ferrr.- Trial    and  ...cutioo.     .S.,   l.uki' 

»TAiM..r  Aw     A   l>  IKW 
BROWN  UNIVERSITY.   H«  K.„  ,  at...v 
BROWN?STB*  ^i  l>   .r«-17..u 

J»«^!W.^"  "°^"'  ""^  "*  8«»»l«»d.  A   I» 

nllSv -""•■^"■"'*  " 

but  the  feotral  aic«uot  bow  li,  thai  the  ChM- 


BRUNSWICK. 

•vl  «n.J  AagriTaill  eot««d  their  wliLment, 
dn.ve  them  out  ud  utterij  exterminui.TS 
wiih  Uie  common belpof  the nelglilMiiritu'  in  «" 
either  from  hatred  of  their  tyriiny  or  fn  m  ii  ' 
attmctlon.  of  plunder  or  fr4  bii."  ,  fl'  ,t' 
aW«  regard  for  ua.    it  did  not  eve,.  gruZT^ 

Ell'  —..S^"'  ^  Roman  amu  «n<l  w,«,h,i„ 
^.'S;.*''?**'*''  •*'•>">  our  d..|lg|,i„(  e,T"  • 
"The  origta.l«rttlemenUof  the  B„.cJ>^  ?r„r 

^P"fH'...'"5'  '°  '»''•  '^■n  »>itween  the 
T^?f  ISlSl?"'  "".•"•'•'■•'Jo  of  thJup^" 
Their  deatmctioo  couM  banllv  have  Ik-,.„*L, 
complete  M  Tadtui  repiwente.  aalliev-^.  .„t^ 
"9UenUjr««..loned  S,  CI^V-ItZZ 

BRUGES :  Itth  C«.»«.y.-Th.  Great  Fair 
SeeKLAHDiM:  ItTHCwrrwET.  ■"*'™"^»"- 
oJ^fiti!?S  C«»tlri~.-Commerci.l  i». 

B^'asiii?.'irF;!^^^-/V^^^^ 

A.  D-  >379-i3ti.-HeMUiU«a  with  Cheat. 
See  Flaxdbiu:  A.  D.  187»-ia«l. 

*".°"  .'J?*~^»*«"  ■"*  plnadered  b»  the 
poopit  of  Ghent.    S.*Fi^5d£h.:  A  I)  i". 
A.  D.  14to.1488.-At  war  with  Ma«im.liaa. 

A.  p.  15S4.— SubmiMion  to  Philip  of  Spaia 
Bee  Nktiiehlakos:  A.  I)    IStW-l.W.'i 

[J.^^     i     "'•«;. NKTHE«LAN,«l(A,;,rKU.N  I'Roy. 
CO^^  Ac      "^  ~.a  A,X.LA.CHAPEtLK     1  U, 


See  Ambmcan  AiioRMi.<(t> 


See   FitA.M-( 


of.     .Sv 


n  (■ 


BRULE,  Tho. 
Sioi'A.v  Kamii.t. 
BRUMAIRB,  Tht  moath. 

A    D    nW  (OCTIIBBB). 

BRUIIAIRE,  Tht    Elckteenth 

I''i*''<K     A.   I)    17»(N0VEMBKH) 

^■RUNDISIUM:  Origm.    He«  Ro»k 

«^°i,^*»-^''W  •'Pompeiut  before  C«».. 
Be-  ItoMK    U  v.  5(MI».  '--■"• 

-i.?."  '^•n*"~'^**  P^»  "^  Aatony  and  Octi- 
Tiua.-llie  peai-e  whi.li  Ani.«iy  .n.l  iM.v.u. 
wen.  fonwl  by  their  own  eol.llt'n  t..  luak.  .1 
Brun(li,ii.iii.  B  C.  «),  p,»  poor.l  f,.i  t,,,  u-.r. 
Ilw  ttuMi  Mruggle  hetweeu  the  two  rlii,  f  Tri  in, 
vlre.  J„r  a  much  Innnr  time  It  ".li  I  at  l.«,! 
•ecure  ti.e  rep,*,  of  lljjr.  F..r  «  jxri,,!  ,.f  ,1,,,, 
humlre.1  and  flfty  ynm,  eie..pt  (.■„•  ,1,,  ,  e.ihr 
tag  lo  the  atrecu  of  Rome,  from  lUirgnim  t,.  11,. 
KuMcoa  00  awonia  waie  again  cm«m^  inwsr 
— 8ea  RuMB :  B.  C.  81. 


BRUNEL    SeoBommn. 
BRUNKBBURG,Battl««r tht  (1471).   S«. 

BRUNNABURGH,  OR  BRUNANBURH, 
Battle  oC    Hee  Krolahd:  A  D  »;•< 
BRUNSWICK.  The  citr   of.-OrigiB  awl 

tma.- In   the   tenth  (intiiry,  it  priii -•  ' 


336 


Bruno,  younger  kmi  of  Uir  relifnln»  iiiiki'  .f  "b» 
Ttlte,  aad  gnuideuB  of  the  Emperur  Ucnry  Ita 


Hi 


BRUNSWICK. 


BVDQXT. 


TtmUr,  ntiind  h  bii  patrtniaaT  the  country 
tbout  the  Ooker.  "  HbtIdk  flied  hi*  reiidenoe 
tx  *  Tillage  eMabliabed  br  Ch«rleiiui|nie  on  the 
bulu  of  that  rirer,  it  became  known  a*  the 
■Vh-us  Branonix,'  acu.  wlien  enlarged  and 
formed  into  a  city,  afterward*  gave  it*  name  to 
the  prindpaikT  of  which  it  formed  the  capital " 
-Sir  A.  fiblUday,  AntuUt  <if  tK$  Umm  <ff 
Uawrr,  «.l,  Uc  4. 

la  the  HaoMatie  Laafv*.  See  HAvaA 
TowKi. 

BRUNSWICK-LUNIBURG,  OR  HAN- 
OVER.   See  HAifOTKi. 

BKJNSWICK-WOLFENBUTTEL,  OR 
BRUNSWICK :  Oricin  of  the  heu*  sod  dnke- 
doB.  See  Saxokt  :  The  Ulo  Dvcht,  and  A.  O. 
1178-1188. 

The  Goetf  conaacttao.  See  Qvmlw  axv 
Ohibklumk,  and  Em,  Hovtm  or. 

A.  D.  1543.— ExpaJaioa  of  D«k«  Hetur  b* 
the  Leant  of  SmalaUd.  BeeOBBMAMT:  A.  U. 
15.<«-lS4a. 

A.  D.  1S46.— Final  aapaimtiaa  from  the 
Llacbarc  or  Haaovariaa  braach  af  the  heaaa. 
bee  UAHOvut:  A.  D.  IIM*. 

A.  D.  ito«.-Tha  Daka'a  iimlnleaa  coaSa- 
cated  by  Napolaoa.    See  Osbhakt  :  A.  D.  ISOS 

(OcTOaSa— DiCBMBBB). 

A.  D.  ilo?.— Abaerbad  ia  the  Idafdom  of 
Weetphatla.    See  Oemuamj:  A.  D.  IWT  (Jma 

— Jl'LT). 

K  D.  lije.— Dapoaitlaa  of  tfca  Duka.  See 
QauAHY.  A.  D.  1&I9-1847. 


BRUSSELS:  A.  O.  1577.— Tha  Uaioe  of 
Ik*  patriot*.  See  NrrBBBLAima:  A.  D.  1573- 
1S77. 

A.  D.  15SS.— Sarreadar  to  tha  Spaaiarda. 
8r«  .NamaLAHD*:  A.  D.  IDM-liMM. 

A.  0. 169s.— Bombardmaat  by  tha  Freach. 
8ee  PHAxrB:  A.  D.  1«»IV-16M. 

A.  0.  ifaA.— Takaa  by  Marlberoach  and  tha 
AUie*.    See  NvnuaiJuiD*:  A.  D.  t7(M-1707. 

A  D.  i746-i74S.~Takaa  by  tka  Freach  aad 
rt*tef«d  to  Aaatria.  See  NaraBBLAKD*:  A.  D. 
17M-1747,  and  Au-LA-CHAmLi.B:  Taa  CoH- 
aan*.  Ac. 

A.  D.  fits.— Tha  Battle  af  Watarlao.  See 
fntiic*:  A.  D.  1816  (JcHE). 

A.  D.  ilje.— Riot  aad  Rarolatioa.— Datch 
tttatk  oa  tha  city  rapaUad.  See  Mbthbu- 
UKM:  A.  D.  18a»-lMS. 


BRUTTII,  The.    See  SAMNrraa. 
8RUTUM  FULMEN.-A  phraae.  aignify- 

Ini;  t  hllad  tbniiit  which  wa*  applied  in  a  coo- 
I'  tiiiHinirv  pamphlet  by  PranrI*  Hutman  to  the 


Kill  of  I'irominiink-atiini  Ifutied  br  Pope  tiixttis 
i'luN.  K:  A  l>   1W-I.V<1». 


V    aifMiiat   HenrT   of    Navarre,    In    ISM —See 


BRUTUS,  Luciu*  Jaaiaa,  aad  the  eapal- 
lion  of  the  Taroaina.     Hee  KoMB :  R  ('  ItlU 
BRUTUS,  hiarcu*  laalaa,  aad  the  ataatai- 

■ttioa  of  Caaar.     Si^IUimb  -.  B.  C.  44  l<>  44-42 

BRYN  MAWR  COLLEGE,     ^«e«  Enii  a 

r!"-<,  M.iiiicRs    Hk  oiiMx    A.  D.  ISIM  lt«l, 

BRYTHONS,  The.    See  Cblt^  The 

BUBASTIS—  On  the  eaalern  aide  nf  the 

IMii,  |.,f  ibe  Nile],  more  than   half  w«v  from 

«•  ">i>lin  Iti  Z.«n.  Ur  the  (treat  Htv  of  I'l  beielh. 

IT  Itiibuiit     V»«t  moimil*  now  n.iirk  tlie   ilii' 

»iiil  prewrve  tli.-  name;  deep  In  ll»'lr  nitii»t  He 

tlie  •haltered  fragmrota  uf  the  beautiful  lemplt 


whl:>h  ilerodotu*  aaw,  aad  to  which  in  hi*  day* 
the  Egyptian*  came  annually  in  va«t  numben  to 
keep  the  grealeet  featlral  of  the  year,  the  Amem- 
bly  of  Boat,  the  goddea*  of  the  place.  Here,  after 
tlie  Empire  bail  fallen,  Shiahak  [Sbeahonk]  aet 
up  hi*  throne,  and  for  a  abort  *pace  revived  the 
Imperial  magniflcenoe  of  Thebe*."— R  8.  Poole, 
6V(M*  «f  BmpI,  ek.  10. 

BUCCANEERS, Tha.  Bee  Ambbica :  A.  D. 
18»9-1700. 

BUCENTAUR,  Tha.  See  Vbhicb:  Urn 
Cekti'rv. 

BUCHANAN,  JAME&-Pratidantial  alac- 
tien  aad  admiaiatratiax  Bee  L'hiteo  State* 
or  Am.  :  A.  D.  1806  to  1861. 

BUCHAREST,  Treaty  of  (itiiV  See 
Trax*:  A.  D.  ITW-ISIS;  alio  Balban  and 
Dahubiam  State*:  14TH-l»ra  CEMTtJBU* 
(Sbbvia). 

BUCKINGHAM.  AaaaaaiaaUea  oC  See 
Enoland:  A.  D.  16%. 

BUCKINGHAM  PALACE.  Bee  St.  Jameb, 
Tar.  Palace  ahd  Coitbt  or. 

BUCKTAILa  Bee  Nbw  Yobx:  A.  D.  1917- 
1810. 

BUDA :  A.  D.  tsa6.— Takaa  aad  plaadarad 
by  tha  Tarka.    See  Hdnoabt  :  A.  O.  1487-1696. 

A.  D.  iu»-is67.— Takaa  by  the  Tarka.— 
Baaiagad  by  tha  Aaatriaaa.— decayed  by  tha 
Snitaa.— Bacomaa  the  aaat  of  a  Paaha.  Sea 
liUMOAar:  A.  O.  1SS6-1567. 

A.  D.  16M.— Racovary  bom  th*  Tarka.  See 
IIUNOABT:  A.  D.  168»-1687. 

A.  D.  iaA9.— Sicga  aad  capture  by  tha  Haa- 
gariaaa.    See  Aiitria:  A.  U.  184»-184». 

BUDA-PESTH:   A.  D.   187*.— Uaioa   of 

tha  citiaa.- Buda,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Danube,  and  Peath,  un  the  left  were  incorpoiBtcd 
in  1873  into  one  city  —  Buiia  I'enth. 

BUDDHISM.  See  India:  B.  C.  81S- -; 
alio  LAMAa— LAMAitM:  and  Chixa:  The  rk- 
uaioNa 

BUDGET,  Tha.— "The  annual  financial 
■Uleinent  which  the  Cbaooellor  of  tlie  Exchequer 
make*  in  the  llouae  of  Common*  in  a  Commlltee 
of  war*  and  mean*.  In  niaklng  thi*  Matrnient 
the  mini*U-r  give*  a  view  of  the  general  finaiirial 
policy  of  the  government,  and  at  the  nime  lime 
preaenu  an  eatimate  of  the  probable  income  and 
expenditura  for  the  following  twelve  mnniUi, 
and  a  atatement  of  what  taxe*  it  i*  intencletl  to 
reduce  or  aboliah.  or  what  new  om-i  it  may  be 
nercaeary  to  impoM-  — To  open  the  budfret,  to 
lay  before  the  IrglKlatlve  hoily  the  flnanrUl  <*• 
timateoand  plan*  of  the  executive  gov't." — Imp. 
IHft— Mr  l^twrHinhbt  lluli-ry  ,(fTiuntit>H  ir  1, 
M.  S)  (taUii  that  the  plinuH- '  i>|ienlny  the  Budget ' 
came  into  uie  In  EngUml  during  the  reign  of 
(leorge  III.,  hwI  that  It  Ikirv  a  reference  to  the 
bougette,  or  lillle  hag,  in  whicli  the  cluincellor 
of  the  exche<|uer  kept  hit  papera  The  French, 
he  add*,  ailoptni  tlie  U'rm  In  tlie  preient  centuiy, 
about  1814.  1'lin  fidlowlnif,  however,  ia  la  dl*. 
agreement  with  .Mr.  INiwell'*  explanattoo:  "In 
tlie  reigu  of  Uenrge  II  Hie  wnni  w*a  utetl  with 
cnn*riou*  ■lliinlnn  to  the  relelmited  pamphlet 
which  ridlcuieil  8lr  It.  Wulpole  a*  a  conjuror 
opening  III*  liiuliret  or  'bag  of  trick*.'  Aft<'r- 
wanU,  it  mum,  f«r  a  time.  Iiave  been  current  a* 
•lang.  bul.  a*  It  •unplled  a  want.  It  wa*  M«>n 
taken  up  loki  titeonllnary  vocabulary.  "—<< (Am- 
mum,  m  14.  t8»t.  p.  Sli 


837 


M 


i 


if  iH^ 


BVDim. 

BUOINIiTlM.— A  noniaaic  tribe  which  ITfm- 
iotiu  dncrlbM  M  kodentir  inhablUnff  »  ngina 
bctwera  the  Lral  Mouauina  ud  tlie  CwDlao 
8e»  ;;5;  Onte.  ISH.  </  OriMt.  pi.  9,  a.  17. 
w°'i5?'iV'  G«"*S»f  *>«  CmIo*,  Cuaptignu 
fr  *»  Ukiwd  BTATn  o»  Am.  :  A.  lyitiai 
(Jdit— NovBMBBii);  I86t  (Jahvary— FUIRD- 
A«T:    KlWTrCBT-TlUOIBMt);    (Pbbhuakt- 

*»•«»•=  TwmwMB);   (Jcm-Ociobbh:    Tew- 
■■•«■— KwrnrcBTX 

HC  VH.      oee  AJWBHTUf  B  tUCPUBLIC. 

BUENOS  AYRKS.  Tl»  City  of:  A.  D. 
*S*-~f**^  "^  ■MBCCMrtU  budlac  of  tht 

■""'ALO,  N.  v.:  Tb«  .boricioal  occih 
MBU  of  Um  lit*.  See  Ambricak  AaoKioDiBa: 
UUBONt,  Ac. 

A.  D.  i744._C«Mloo  of  tb«  Pear  Mite  Strip 
br  tk*  Smmcm.    See  PoHTiAc'e  Wab. 

A.    D.  IT79.-TIM   BlU   eccapted  by   tk* 

yMiTRD  BTATRa  or  An. :  A.  D.  1779  (Auaovr— 
Sbptbmbbb). 

Uw  ettr.   ^  Nbw  Tobb:  A.  D.  178M793: 

Bee  Uhitbo  Stat  «  or  Am.  :  A.  O.  18U  (Ssr- 

TBMBBM— NOTBMBBR). 

A.  D.  tti].-  Deatnctioa  by  Billirt  aad  la- 

•UM.     See  CiitTBO  Statbb  or  Am.:   A.  D 

1818  (DaCBMBBB). 

See  NBW  YoBB:  A.  D.  |1i7-1M1l 

A.  D.  i^t.— The  HaMaaai  Pfaa-Sail  Caa- 
«|«rti0B.    Am  Unitc*  SKatm  or  Am  :  A.  O. 

A.  D.  rtM.— Tba  Paaiaa  iavaataa  af  Ca»- 
•4*.    SeaCABAOA:  A.  D.  1H88-1871. 

BUFFALO  HILL,  Battlaa  af.  8«  Ukitbo 
*''*'"^"'  *"■  ■  ^  "  ><••>  (Auoi»T— Decbm- 

BBB:   WbTT  VtROIHIA). 

BUFFINCTON  FOBD,  Battte  oC  Bee 
iHlTBoSTATBeorAM. :  A.  D.  1H«  (JrLT:  Kbh- 
TtTTBT). 

BUCIA,  CMqaaat  br  the  Spaaiardt  (1510). 

BULGARIA.    See  Balbak  a»d  ftAKraiAB 

SH'-'^^i**"'  ^^  raUgioaa  Sectariea  ao 
callad.    See  pACLiciAin. 

A'.i'^^Niisr^''  "^^ ""  •'««-= 
A"n"Vi:,tr^'^'-^-  ^"""--^ 

Pope  BoDlfan  Vllt.  Feb.  S4.  18M,  f..rlikldlni 
the  clergy  to  pay  aod  the  Hwukr  (>nwen  u> 
eiert  under  penalty  of  eioommuntcslina.  ooa- 
trlliutione  or  ta»a.  tentha,  Iwnitteth*.  bun- 
ftiwrtth^  or  the  like,  fmm  the  n-vraura  or  the 
jn^of  the  churchae  or  their  mtnlef  w."— W. 

.A  *lSi?' '  J^  '.  Headafano.  Mte*  Bim  /W.  ^ 

.  BULL  "DaaUaaa  R-  ji .l_.-    Saa 

Jaatrm:  A.  tV  ITa»-lll7I 
BULL  "Bsana  Daiaiaa.'*     flae  Pavadt' 


BUROmfDIANB. 

BULL,G«MaiL  8ea  GoLon  Bitll,  Btiab. 
TJJ.B;  alao  Obbmaot:  A.  D.  1847-U«8.i£ 
III xiiABT:  A.  D.  1114-1801.  '  ™ 

BULL.  "LMidabiUtar/'  Tha.-A  paixU  bun 
promulntod  in  1185  by  ^peAdriaTlv  X 
one  EasUahmaa  who  erer  attained  to  St.  pi-i^ 
"•Vu'TE?^^*^'^''  "»  klBfdom  of  uS«a 

A.^D^'riCSS^-"^-"'^  ««'•-- 

BULL  "Ualfaaltaa,"  The.  See  Port  Rotu. 
lUtSi-ir    ?Hf/   °"    MANASSAS,  Fim 

BULLA.  Tha.    SeeTooA. 

OBO  V.  (NOTBMBEB-l)«CK)IBmj; 

.BUND,  BUNDBSRATH.  BUNDESPRB. 
BIDBNl'.  BUNDBSCBRltHT,  The  S\^ 
See  SwiTSBBi.Ain>:  A.  D.  184»-18M 
,g}WNgB8<TAAT.    8..  oiSLr:  AD. 

BUNDSCHUH  INSURRBCTI0N8.   Be. 

BUNKBR  HILL,  Battte  af.  See  ix^tD 
Statb.  or  Am.:  A.  D.  1775  (JiTit)  n« 
fiaaite  monammt.  1891   fm  In  heiKht   whki 


S38 


BUR6BS8.    See  BooaeBon 
^M»OH.  OR    BURGI,  OR  BURH.   8m 

BURGOS,  Battte  af.  See  SrAm:  A  D  m 
(SBrrBMBBN— Ubgbmbbb). 

BUROOYNB.  GoMnJ  lafca.  and  the  W., 
af  tfea  A«aricaa  Re*olaUoa.  Sh  linn) 
STATBaorAM.:  A.  D.  1773  (Apkil-Mav\  1T77 
(Jtav— Octobkb). 

BURCRAVBS.    See  Palatitcb.  fnr^ 

BURCUNOIANS:  OnKinaadMririuMarT 
—"About  the  middle  of  the  fourth  cvnlurv  li" 
cmtntrtea.  perhapa  of  l.unwv  mh]  Thurini[«,  ..0 
either  aUeof  the  Kibe,  were  (iccupii\l  bv  ilu-  \»gm 
dominion  of  tha  BuririuMiteaa  -  a  w«rlikr  wj 
numeruua  people  of  the  Vandal  mo.,  wh.*    !, 
acure  name  inaeaaibly  awelM  into  »  -..w.-rful 
kin((dom,  and  baa  finally  aettlnl  no  a  H.urtiliin* 
province.  .  .  .  The  diapuied  ponnuno  or  hokk 
rwlt-plta  eataged  the  Alemaaal  and  th..  ttm^n- 
iliana  hi  frequent  conteata.      Thi-   Uu.r  «  m 
ea^   tempted  by  the  aeiwt  •i>ll<ii>iii..n>  1  id 
liberal  offenof  theempemr  IVnlnuinUn.  A  :> 
".'J.-  ■°«1  U^lf  fabuloua  ileaceat  fn.m  tl,.-  Ifc..,  in 
ly^-^T      had  formerlr  been  Irfi  to  gm:  .n 
tha    fortraaaea   of   l)ruau»  wm  ulinUuil  wili 
J"."-*~  «"«lullty,  aa  It  waa  cm  iidvr  to  miimtl 
™"JJ*-     An  anny  of  founon   ihoiiMii.l  llur- 
cuadlana  anna  appeami  on  the  i«nkK  ..f  thr 
Hntoe.  and  Impatiently  rmiulml  ili.«ui.|«.niiiij 
■JwaMtea  which  Valenllnlan  h*!  (inrnilneil    tmi 
***y.^— ■amaaii  with  eiruara  An<l  ilciav.  till  >t 
''1*"i.«ftar  a  fniltleiai  t«prr»at(<-h.  timv  win 
"■^'■!"*.*?  •■■*      The  Aima  aail  fortllii  «imi 
•r  tfea  Oalltr  Kvatier  check  d  Ite  fury  ..f  thrit 
iuatwinliiiBL."-K    UMhb.  OmttJamd  m 


BCItOCNDUNS. 


BDBOUKDT,  A.  D.  Stt-MI. 


f  Oi  Rm»»  XK^n,  A.  IS.— "Weflnthearof 
them  [the  Bunundtaoi]  M  •  trilie  of  Teukwio 
itork.  kiorted  betwen  Uie  Oder  and  the  ViMuta, 
no  riUwr  Imnk  of  the  river  WarU.  When  the 
Grpiilc  dcKendcd  louthwanl  with  the  Oothi, 
tfar  Buixundians  were  onmpelled  tn  recoil  before 
tlie  idmm  of  the  former  tribe:  one  portion  of 
tlM-in  toolc  refuge  in  Bomholm,  an  island  of  the 
Bdtic:  the  rnnaiodrr  turned  westward,  and 
mide  an  attrmpt  to  enter  Oaul.  They  were  re- 
piilird  by  Probua,  but  permitted  to  settle-  near 
the  lourccs  of  the  Main.  JovUu  sltowiil  tlirm 
fivour,  and  gave  them  lands  in  the  Ocnnania 
gwunda.  This  was  in  the  latter  part  of  llie 
fourth  ccntunr.  Just  at  its  cloae,  tlu-y  adnpli-d 
Christianity,  but  luder  an  Arian  form.  Ammi- 
sous  tells  us  that  they  were  a  most  warlike 
rsce."— J.  0.  Bheppard,  TM*  FnU  of  Home, 
bet.  8.— "The  other  Teutonic  people  hnil  very 
little  recaid  for  the  Burgundlans:  tliry  accused 
thrra  of  haring  degroeratMi  from  tlie  vakir  of 
thrir  snccsturs,  by  taking  in  petty  towns  (biiur- 
gaili'*),  whence  their  name  BurKundii  sprang; 
sni  they  looked  upon  them  as  bt-iug  more  suit- 
sblr  for  the  profesuooa  of  mechanica,  smiths,  and 
arprnters,  than  for  a  military  life." — J.  C.  U 
de  Htsmondi,  Th*  fYtnelk  andrr  U«  Merann- 
fiaiu,  eA.  8. — "A  document  of  A.  D.  TM,  in 
Dotiring  the  high  tract  of  huds  between  Ell- 
wsoKcn  and  Anspacii,  has  the  folli>wing  ei- 
uivwiim,— '  in  Waldo,  qui  Tocatur  VIrgunnia.' 
Urimm  looka  for  the  deriratioa  of  this  wuid  in 
the  Moao-Oothlc  word  'fairgunl.'  Oh!  High 
Oennan  'fergunnd'=  woody  bill-range.  ...  I 
have  little  doubt  but  tlutt  tills  is  the  nuiiie  of  the 
tni't  uf  land  fmm  which  tlie  name  liiirgundl 
anair;  and  that  it  Is  the  one  which  dxes  tlicir 
kxiiiity.  If  io,  iM'twM'n  the  Burgundhin  and 
Sut'vir  Orrmans,  the  diifrn-nop,  such  as  It  was, 
was  probably  almoat  wholly  pulitical. "— IL  U. 
Lsthiun,  Tilt  Otrmania  of  Taaliu;  Spiltgamena, 
ml  It. 

A.  D.  406^09.— UtmIm  of  CaaL  Bee 
Oah.  :  A.  1>.  VM-4M. 

A.  D.  443-4S>-— Tbtir  Savajru  kiagdoa. 
— "  In  the  •iiutu-rast  of  Uaul,  tiie  Burgundians 
h«<l.  sfti-r  niaiiy  wars  and  auroe  reveraea,  eatab- 
liiluil  tlirii»irlvt's(44S)  with  the  consent  of  the 
Itiiriiaiit  in  the  <IUtrict  titen  called  thipaudU  and 
niiw  Maviiy.  Their  territory  was  somewhat 
nuire  rxU'milve  tlian  the  pmviniv  which  was  the 
cTullr  of  the  pment  ruval  house  of  Ilalv,  since 
it  tlntiiKMi  DOfthwanls  lieyond  tlie  lake  uf 
Ncuft  hiit4'l  and  suuthwani*  hd  far  as  Qreoobk-. 
Hrrr  the  HurgundUn  imiii.  raiiu  under  tluir 
king  Quoiltuk,  were  busy  si  ttiiiig  tbrmarlvrs  in 
Ihi'lr  new  possession.  cult'vatinK  the  kuds 
whk-h  they  lud  dirliled  by  hit.  eat-h  one  ivcriv- 
hif  half  the  estate  of  a  Itoiiiau  h<iat  or  'hos|M's' 
(for  under  such  gentle  naiuea  tlie  spoliathia  was 
TCilrd),  when  the  news  cam*  that  tlie  t<'rriM<' 
Hun  bad  cmssed  the  Rhine  {A.  D.  4.M|,  ami  Hint 
all  hosts  and  auesu  in  Usui  must  unite  fur  its 
defence"— T,    lliidgklu.  lUUg  and  Utr  inuidtr; 

a  J,  <A  s. 

AD.  4Si.-At  Ut  bMtIa  of  Chaleaa.  thw 
BiKs   A.  D.  t«l. 

A,  D.  *ae.— BBtMsiMi  of  thair  Uard«m.— 
"Their  (the  BurauwiUnsI  domain,  conahirrHhly 
nnre  eitenatTe  than  wlirii  we  hut  vlrwnl  it  on 
Um'  evi  nf  Attlhi'a  invanlon.  wiw  Iwtiiili.l  lli« 
hlrr  norliKt't  of  Biirgiimly,  Kraut  lu'ConiitS 
■ml  Dauphlui,  beaidea  Haroy  and  Um  groaler 


part  of  Switierland  —In  fact  the  whole  of  th« 
Talkys  of  the  tteone  and  tlie  Rhone,  save  that 
for  the  but  hundred  mihss  of  iu  course  the  Visi- 
goths barred  them  from  the  right  bank  and  from 
the  moutha  of  the  latter  river."  At  the  tlnw 
now  spoken  of  (A.  D.  000),  the  Burgundian 
kingdom  was  divided  between  two  bruther-kiDfi, 
Oundofaad,  reindng  at  Lyons  and  Vienne,  and 
Oodegiael  at  Qeneva.  Oodcgiaei,  the  younger, 
had  conspired  with  Cloris,  the  king  of  the 
Franks,  against  Oundobad,  and  in  this  year  SOO 
the  two  confederates  defeated  tlic  latter,  at  Dijon, 
driving  him  from  the  most  part  of  his  Ungdom. 
But  Oundobad  presently  recnveivd  hia  footing, 
besieged  and  captured  Us  treaclienMia  brother  at 
Vtenne  and  promptly  put  him  to  death  —  there- 
by reuniting  the  kingdom.— T.  Hodgkhi,  IIoIm 
mmt  Utr  latadm,  M.  4,  eA  ». 

A.  D.  S344— Final  coaqneat  ^  th*  Franka.- 
"  I  am  impatient  to  pursue  the  final  rule  of  lliat 
kingdom  [the  Burgundian]  which  waa  accoro- 

Slfaibed  under  tlie  reign  of  Bigismond,  the  son  of 
undobald  [or  Oundobadl.  The  Catholic  Sigia- 
mood  haa  Mquired  the  honours  of  a  saint  and 
martyr;  but  the  handa  of  the  royal  saint  were 
stained  with  the  blood  of  his  Innocent  son.  .  .  . 
It  waa  hia  humble  prayer  that  Heaven  would 
inflict  tn  thia  worid  tne  punialimrnt  of  his  sins. 
His  prayer  waa  beard;  the  avengeia  were  at 
hand ;  and  the  provinoea  of  Burgundy  were  over- 
whelmed by  an  army  of  victoriuua  Franka.  After 
the  event  of  an  unauocessful  battle,  Sigismiind 
.  .  .  with  his  wife  and  two  children,  waa  tfana- 
ported  to  Orleana  and  buriul  alive  La  a  deep 
well  by  the  stem  command  of  the  sons  of  Clovis. 
whose  cruelty  ndght  derive  some  excuse  from 
tlie  maxims  and  examph-s  of  their  barbarous 
age.  .  .  .  The  rebellious  Burguniiians,  for  they 
Hitemptcd  to  break  tiieir  clMlna,  were  still  per- 
niitteil  to  enjoy  their  natiouni  lawi  under  the 
oblintioa  of  tribute  and  military  service;  and 
the  Merovingian  princes  peaceably  rt-igned  over 
a  kingdom  whoae  glory  and  greatnesa  hail  been 
first  overthfown  by  the  arma  of  Clovla." — E. 
QibboD,  DtUM  and  nu  tf  tin  Human  Kmpirt, 
M.  88. 
Also  m:  W.  C.  Perry.  Tht  FYaiUit.  «*.  8. 

BURGUNDY:  A.  D.  SM-7SA-Tha  Mer*. 

Ttngiaa  kingdom.— Afu-r  iLe  .ivrrthmw  of  the 
Burgundian  mooarrhy  by  tlie  sons  of  (kivis.  the 
territory  of  the  Burgundlaoa.  with  part  of  the 
neighboring  Frank  terriuiry  luhkil  to  it.  Iieaune, 
umler  the  name  of  Burgumlin  or  lliirguody.  one 
of  the  three  Frank  khigiTonw  ( .\ tiiti nuin  awl  >ieus 
tria  being  the  other  I  wo),  into  which  iIh-  .Mrnivin- 
gian  princes  divhini  thrlr  doiiiiuiou.  ll  uccu- 
pk^  "  tlie  east  of  the  country,  iHtwren  tlif  Uiire 
iind  tlie  Alps,  fnmi  I'nivi'iH'e  ou  iIh-  sihiiIi  to  the 
liillrangfs  of  ttie  Vuagi-a  on  tlu'  north."— P 
(tiHlwiii.  IliM.  11)  fYiiiift  ■  Aiirifiil  U'liil,  (•*.  II, 
A.  O.  I4J-9JJ.— Divisions  of  the  early  king- 
dom.- The  latsr  kingdoms  of  the  south  ana 
the  French  dakedem  of  the  northwest.— Ily 
tlie  In-Hly  of  Vrnlun.  .\  I)  H|:l.  mIh,  h  iMinmllv 
diviiliil  Hie  I'lnpliv  uf  I'iMrh'iiiuKiH'  l<  1  Mt  n  his 
thnv  KnunlMina,  a  part  uf  DnrKuiiilv  »<»  iiikiii 
to  fonn,  with  Ilalv  awl  i^irniiiM-.  tin  l.iiiK>him 
of  the  Eni|H'nir  IxitiMr,  »r  l^otluilrr  In  lbs 
fiirtlM-r  iliiwiliitiisM  whicii  fulkiuiil,  w  khitcclom 
uf  liuri;uiHl>  01  I'rovi'iiK  kiw  liiiniiitl  In  x??  bv 
irtH*  iUimt.  a  iiniH-i-  \\\¥*  IumI  iimiDiit  lniiiiti;nru, 
dsugbler   u(    tlu:    Lui|Hrur    Lmaa    II  ,  »«  ol 


sau 


1 -a  1 

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t  1! 

BCROUNDT,  A.  D. 

L<Hh»lre.  It  "liieludad  ProTmcc.  Dituphlni. 
the  luiithcni  put  of  aiToy,  ud  the  ciintry 
between  the  8mim  ud  the  Jura."  »n<l  ii  *.ni.' 
tlmM  calle<l  the  kinRdom  of  CU-Juniue  Bur- 
fundy.  "The  Ungdom  of  Tnuis-Junuie  Bur- 
ffUDdy,  .  .  founded  bjr  Rudolf  In  A.  U  88H 
recogiiiied  la  the  ume  yew  by  the  Enipimr 
Arnulf,  included  the  northero  part  of  8«voy 
•nd  all  SwiUerUnd  bMween  the  Keux  and  the 
Jun.  —J.  Bryoe.  Tht  JMf  Roman  Bmmn.  ck. 
6.  and  aTV..not,  A.—"Tbe  Ungdomt  of  Pro- 
r*^^  '."^  Tranajuran  Burgundr  were  unlt«l. 
In  ».«.  l.y  Raoul  II.,  King  of  iWjumn  Bur- 
guoily.  and  formed  the  kingdom  of  Arlea. 
SILT"*'..'''.?"  B87  to  W8.  by  Conrad  le 
,    f"!!'."'  ..r'l  O"!*"*.    tSM.    4    ariliMtinn. 

and  England.  6t.   1.   «*.   4.-" Several  of   the 
greater  and  more  commercial  town*  of  France 
•uch   aa    Lyona,    Vienne.    Geneva.    Braancon 
Avignon,   Arlea,   Marseille  and  Grenoble  were 
ritualed  within  the  bounda  of  hU  ftJonrad  the 
Pacinca]  atatea  ■— J.  C.  L.  de  SUmondl,  fVaiM 
«»*r  M.  f>udal  S^mtm,  M.  g.-'Of  the  older 
Burgundlan  kinmlom,   tiie  northweatem    part 
forming  the  Und  l>est  known  ai  llie  Uurhy  of  Bur- 
*"?V''  rS •  •"  **"  <llrt»iona  of  tlie  ninth  century 
a  Jef  of  KarolingU  or  the  Western  Kingdoin. 
Thia  b  the  Biirarimdy  which  ha*  DlJon  for  lu 
capital,  and  which  wai  held  by  more  Uian  one 
dynaity  of  dukea  aa  raaaala  of  the  Weatem  kinn. 
flratatUon.andthenatParia    TbU  Bursundv 
which,  aa  the  name  of  France  came  to  Uiir  fta 
modem  aenae  may  I*  dittlngulshed  aa  Uie  French 
Duchv,muit  be  carefully  dUtinguWied  fn,m  the 
Royal  Burgundy  "  of  tlie  ClaJunine  and  Trana- 
Juranv  kintrclnrnt  mrntii>nr<t  alwvc  — E.  A.  Free- 
man, IliMlnri-iU  l/f'j.  of  furu/r,  fh.  fl  ttd    1 
_*■  P-  M»-«0}J.-th«  French  Dnkedom.- 
Tha  fonndiof  of  tha  Fint  CapttiMi  Honaa.- 
Of  the  earliest  iirimeii  of  thia  northwenttrn  frag- 
ment of  the  ul.l  kinKilom  of  Burgundy  little  aet  ui« 
to  have  be.n  diwNivrmble.     The  flef  and  ita  title 
do  not  weni  U>  hav.-  lHMX.nic  here<llury  until  thrv 
fell    nto  the  gruHpInK    hamln  of  the  Capc-tlan 
family    whhh  ImpiHiinl  Juit  at  the  time  when 
the  aaplring  omnu  of  Haria  were  rl«ing  to  royal 
rank.     In  the  early  yean  of  the  t.-ntfi  i-entiirv 
the  reigning  count  or  duke  wan  Rirhanl  le-JuiJ 
ticler     wlxiM-  (ii«iii)gul.iliiiig    prim-tly  virtue  U 
recorUeiJ  in  lila  name      Thii  Kutianl  )c  Juatl. Lr 
*."*>'  '»'•"'"•'  "'that  Boao,  or  Boaon.  aoo  In  law 
».l     tiiip.p.r  L.,ula  II ,  who  Kok  advantage 
il     .'I"   ""'""*"'  ">«  «'">««<•  fa«hl.>n  for  him- 
aeira  klng<li>m  of  Burgundy  In  the  .South  (('1«. 
Jurane   Burifumly,   or  Provence,— ire    above) 
Rl<  l.«r.l  .  •«!  lUoul,  or  Rudolph,  marrie.1  Emma 
the  daughter  of   Uobert.   Count  of   Pari,  and  j 
uune of  trautv,  who  waa axon aftirwanU. lio«,n  ' 
h.ng,   ,,y  the  noblin,  who  tlre.1  of  (  nrlovlnaUn  \ 
mijrule      Kinn  HolMrt  .  reign  waa  ali..rt.  In-  f,.|l  ! 
lnl»lllo  wilhth.  (ariovlnjan..  atHolii«M»  tlie 

.  J!^L."'  Tlie  Onat.  found  It  more  u.  hU  taate 
to  be  khig  nwk.r  than  U.  lie  king  He  di-clln«l 
the  pnAer.-.! .  mwn.  and  brought  about  the  coro- 
natior,  of  hi.  ImMher  in  Uw,  the  llurgumlUn 
.  '  .''''JH'".'.'*'?'^  '"'  «'«vn  year.  Vihru  he 
''.'"m  '5,***'  ""»?''«'»•«"»' ••Ill  lirld  the  crown 
at  hi.  dUp<iaal  ami  .till  refuMl  !.•  wi-ar  It  him 

Tli  i  T'"  t'**^  "•'»  l"n<f  n-ker  to  »t  a 
t.arlovlngian  priiiie  on  the  lhr..ue,  Im  iIic  ner«.n 
Of  Loula  dOutr.  Her.  a  young  mx  of  tCfcS 


BCROUNDT,  1082 

the  Simple  who  had  been  reaivd  In  Ernland  bv 
hla  tnghah  mother.     But,  if  Duke  Hn^uZZ 
nothing  for  the  name,  ho  cared  much  f<ir  tli.„,b 
stance   of  power.    He  graaped  dominion  whtr,.; 
ever  It  fell  within  hU  reach,  and  the  Burgundiw 
duchy  waa  among  the  Matea  which  he  cluicUH 
King  Rudolph  left  nom  to  Inherit  eith.r  |,u 
dukedom  or  hb  kingdom.     lie  had  a  bn,t|„!r 
Hugh,  who  claimed  the  Duchy;  but  the  gr,.,UT 
Hugh  waa  too  strong  for  him  and  KcurwT,  aiih 
t^io  •utbority  of  Uie  young  king.  hi.  prUcKe,  t™ 
Itle  of  Duke  of  Burgumiy  amfthe  largrr  iwrt  ? 
the  domain.     ••  In  the  Duchy  of  France  or  il,. 
County  of  Paria  Hugh  le-Orand  had  nothing  ° 
yowl  the  regalltlM  to  desire,  and  both  In  BurKun,tv 
Md  the  Duchy  he  now  became  an  imnimnble 
\  Iwroy    But  the  privllegessoobtaine.1  l.v  Hugh 
le-Urand  produced  very  Imporunt  p.iliiii-»|  re 
sulU,  both  present  and  future.     Hugh  awunvil 
even  a  loftier  bearing  than  before:  Burgundy  »» 
anneje.1  to  the  Duchy  of  Prance,  and  m«»,1  »i" 
the  Duchy ;  ami  the  grant  thereof  made  l>y  llufh 
tapet  to  hU  son  [brother? ]  Henri  IcOrand  k  v*r 
Ing  the  same  from  the  crown.  creale<l  the  on- 
mier  Duchy  of  Christendom,  the  most  .pifuili,! 
appanage  which  a  prince  of  the  Uiinl  ml  i.  (lUe 
Caiwllau.!  c<.uld  enjoy-  the  rival  of  the  lhn.ne 
^^llr  V    Paiivvttwa    f/.'^    .^  \r •  .  .. 


—  Sir  F.  Palgrave.  Uut.  of  A^rwoVi/V W  AV 
!-♦  —  Hugh-le-Grajid  diwlln 


81U 


*».    I,  pf.  %°  di.  . 

•M.     ••His  power,  which,  more  than  hLuk'nili 
or  ezploiu.  bad  given  him  the  naiiie  of  UrfW 
was  divided  between  hU  chlhlren,  who  vvtv  yet 
very  young    .  .  .  There  Unomrdoubtas  toiluir 
numlier  and  the  ordir  of  their  birth.    It  miwm 
however,  that  Otho  waa  the  el.lwt  of  liis  iLn-c 
sona     He  had  given  him  hi.  part  of  tlu  .lii.liv 
of    Burgundy,   and   had  made  him  nmrrv  ili;. 
I  daughter  and  heir  of  OWebert.  duke  of  «i;.,ii„r 
I   part  of  Burgundy,  to  which  (Uho»ii<i-,-,-,|.,|  ib. 
I  same  year.     The  Utur  dying  in  »M  ,.r  Wi-I   il«. 
duchy  of  Burgumly  passed  to  his  thlnl  bnnhir 
I  .ometlmea    named    Henry,    wmetiinc.    Kul™ 
I   Huguea [Hugh],  sumanail  Capet,  who »«<•.  .•.,l,..l 
!   U)  tiie  county  of  Paris  and  the  duchy  of  Kmiuf 
,   waa  but  the  second  sou."- J.  C.  L.  de  Sism,.u.li' 
I    Th*  fYrwA  undtr  tk*  Cttrlorinffiaii;  rk.  l."i  ■-  In 
W7   Hugh  C«|>et  became  king  of    Fmuiv  .u.l 
founded   the  lasting  dynasty   whliti  U»r<  hU 
nan».     Hi.  ehler  brotlier  Henry  nm«iu.-l  Duki- 
of  Burgundy  until  hi. death.  In  Wn    wlniiliU 
royal   nephew,    lioUrl.    son  and    »u.i-.».».r  ..f 
Hugh,  annexiil  the  Umhv  to  the  CroKii      It  ». 
r.-inaio«i  until  Wfi      Thin  Kiiiir  II,  i,r.  I    ».n 
of    Robert,  grante.1   it  ai   an   .ppnnak-;    t.,  Iii, 
hnilber  Robert,  who  founilnl  tlic  llril  t«i«-iiui 
HouK  of  Burgundy  —E.  ile  B.mii..h.i«.-.  iha 
«/  AVwaar,  4*.  1,  eK.  i 

A.  D.  loja.— The  laat  kiogdom.-  It.  uniaa 
with  Carmaoy,  and  its  dissolution. - Ihi-  Iwt 

kiiigtlom  which  liorc  «hn  im I  Huriiun.li  - 

tlxmgh  more  often  calM  ih.- kluiftl.mi  ,1  .Ulii 
—  fortmnl,  aa  sute<l  aliove,  hy  tin-  iinio.i  i,f  i(w 
short  lived  kingdoms  of  Prminrt-  sii.l  1  mii.ju 
rune  Burgundy.  iK-came  In  lictj  iioini.Mll)  uiiii«i 
to  the  domiiiiona  of  iIh'  EmpiT..r  KIbk-  uf  i«r 
many.  Ita  hut  lnd<')ienileut  knot  *as  Itii.li.lf 
III  .  son  of  Conrail  the  Paiilir.  wlm  »*.  uii.le 
to  the  Emperor  Henry  II  iiehiK  .hil.lirfx.  in- 
named  Henry  hi*  heir  The  latter  ti,.Kivfi 
dle«l  first.  In  10'J4,  and  Rudolf  «tuiiipi.-l  t.. 
canifl  his  lieijiniit.  clslminn  ibal  It  "an  iiw-l.-  !•> 
Henry  |ier»>nallv,  not  a*  Kins  "'  'lie  li.  nnann 
WUen,  however,  ibo  Burgundlan  king  iluil.  la 


BUBOUNDY.  loss. 


BURGUNDY.  1127-1878. 


ton.  the  then  nigntng  Emp«ror,  Connul  the 
HtUc,  or  the  FnuioonUn,  formally  procUinied  the 
unioa  of  Burgundr  with  OcmuDV.  ' '  But  aince 
Bur^ndy  «»  ruled  klnxxt  eiclusirely  by  the 
mat  nobility,  the  eovereignty  of  the  Oemian 
Empvron  there  wu  nerer  much  more  tlian 
■ominiti.  Betidee,  the  country,  from  the  Bemeae 
Oberlanii  to  the  Hfditerranekn,  except  tlut  part 
of  All'-niwioia  which  la  now  Oerman  Switzcr- 
land,  waa  inhabited  by  a  liomauce  people,  too 
dininct  in  language,  ruatnma  and  lawa  from  the 
Oerman  empire  ever  n-ally  to  form  a  part  of  It 
.  Yet  8wit(erlaDd  woa  thenceforth  connecttd 
forever  with  the  development  of  Oemiany,  and 
for  BOO  yean  remained  a  part  of  the  empire."— 
C.  T.  Lewto,  Bitt.  of  Otrmany.  hk.  9,  eh.  ft-T— 
"  The  weakncta  of  Itodolph-leFnineaot  [Hodolph 
III.,  who  made  Henry  II.  of  Ucrmany  hia  heir, 
ai  itatrd  above],  gave  the  great  lonla  of  the 
kioftiiom  of  Aiiea  an  opportunity  of  conaolidat- 
\zf  tbdr  Indepenilciioe.  Among  theae  one  begina 
torcnmrk  Berchtold  and  hia  ton.  Humbert-aux- 
BUnchtn  Maine  (the  White-handed),  CounU  of 
.Mauriinne,  and  loundera  of  the  iluuae of  Savoy ; 
Otto  William,  who  it  la  pretendeil  waa  the  aon  of 
.VIullxTt,  King  of  Itiily,  and  heir  by  right  of 
his  iiiMlliiT  to  the  county  of  Burirundv,  waa  the 
f.iuii'liT  of  the  Bovrrvign  hiiuae  of  Pranche- 
Cimitc  [County  Palatine  of  niirgundy] :  Oulgue, 
Ciiunlof  AllHin,  founder  of  the  aovpn'ign  bouae 
of  tbr  dauphin.s  of  Virnnoia:  and  William,  who 
it  U  i.n'lenilotl  waa  the  i-wuc  of  a  brother  of 
Ralulph  of  liurirundy.  Kini;  of  France,  and 
who  waa  aoven'isn  count  of  Provence.  Theae 
(our  Innla  had.  tlirouKhouf  thr  reign  of  Rodolph. 
much  incin-  power  thnn  he  in  tlie  kingdom  of 
Aril's;  an<l  when  at  hiit  ilfaiii  liia  rniwn  waa 
unltril  to  iIkiI  of  till'  F^mplre  ihr  fnidatoriiM  who 
hail  i;r""'n  titrtA  at  hia  expiiiaa-  became  alnioal 
alMi>liiti'ly  imii-pendent.  On  the  other  hand, 
their  vaiuala  liegan  on  their  aide  to  aci|uire 
impiirtanre  under  them :  and  In  Hrovenre  can  be 
traeeil  at  thin  periiMl  the  HU(?ct*!iJiion  of  tlie  rounta 
of  Kcmilquier  and  of  Veimiiwin.  of  tlie  pnuces 
i>f  Oranire,  of  the  viacoiinta  i>f  Slaraeilie.  of  the 
llama*  of  Baux,  of  Hault.  of  Uricnau.  and  of 
Cwtiilane.  We  can  atill  follow  the  fonnatiimof 
a  frn'at  numlier  of  other  fi'udatory  «r  rather 
anvrn  inn  lioiiapa.  Thiw  the  eouiitaof  Tixiliiuar, 
Ibipni'  nf  Itiiiiergue,  the  iluki-H  of  (luM'imy.  tiic 
I'oiihU  iif  Fiilx.  of  IMwrn,  and  of  (anamime. 
ilate  1(1  li'wi!  from  thia  e|Mich ;  but  their  exUlfOi'C 
is  SMUiHineeil  to  ui>  only  by  their  dililoiuaa  and 
ihfir  'villn ."— ,1  0.  L.  de  Hlnmoudl,  >n«K«  uiuUr 
"m-  r'.'i-M  Aiiltm.  eh.  8— See.  aiiio.  Pbovtsce: 
A   !•  iMS-lOB'J.  and  Fhani'HK  t'.iMTK. 

A.  D.  ti»7-i378.— The  Franco-Carmaoic 
conteit  for  toe  valley  of  the  Rhone.— End 
of  the  kmgdem  of  Arlaa.— "Aa  aomi  aa  the 
I 'apt  ti.iii  niitnarehn  buitnri)tiinii  enough  atrrogth 
It  li.iiii- 1,1  In'  alilr  III  liKik  with  aafety  abrtwd, 
tliev  l"eiui  to  make  iiiti^riMliiiia  nn  tlw  tempting 
•nj  wenltliy  ili'iMiideinifii  of  tlie  itialant  em- 
jK'pirs  Hut  tlie  Itlitini'  valli-y  waa  Ion  ini|>ortant 
in  i!«  If.  auil  of  tii.1  xnal  utratrgli-al  value  aa 
•aeuniii  an  eiwy  ri«d  to  Italy.  t«i  make  It  p.*- 
•IbW  f.r  till-  emiMron  to  iui|Uieac«!  eaailv  in  lla 
loaa  Ill-nil'  «  I'ing  eoiirtut,  whleh  aonn  im-ame 
a  aaiii.iial  i-onlliit  of  Frtiiirh  and  Oeraana.  to 
■auiuiii  the  Imfierial  piwilion  in  llie  aiddle 
kme  t.im  '  ,,f  tlie  Ulmne  valley  M  Fneniier  a 
lii«li  !<!- ItovaiMB.  i  Ark-B  et  lie  Vienn  118»- 
ll>i .  par  I'aul  Fuumtvrj  ahaa  at  gtviag   an 


adequate  account  of  thia  ttruggte.  .  .  .  From 
the  time*  of  the  mighty  Barliaroiaa  to  the  ilnieii 
of  the  pretentioiu  nnd  cunning  tburles  of 
Luxemburg  [aeeOsaiiAHT:  A.  D.  (ISS-I^IM,  and 
A.  D.  1347-I4V8],  nearly  every  emperor  aougbt 
by  conatant  acta  of  eovereignty  to  uphold  lila 
prt'carioua  power*  in  the  A  relate,  tnablo  to 
effect  much  with  their  own  rcsoiircea,  the  em- 
pc-rora  cxbnuated  their  Ingenuity  iu  tinding  allies 
and  inventing  brilliant  achemea  for  reviving  the 
Arclate,  which  invariably  came  to  nothing. 
Barbaroaaa  won  the  band  of  the  heiresa  of  the 
couiity  of  Burgundy,  and  sought  to  put  in  place 
of  the  local  dynaatles  princes  on  whom  be  could 
rely,  like  lierthold  of  zkringen,  whiit>e  father  had 
received  in  1127  from  Conrad  III.  the  higli- 
aounding  but  mcaoinglea*  title  of  Hector  of  the 
Burgunuiea.  But  hia  quarrel  with  the  church 
aoon  aet  the  clergy  against  Frederick,  and.  led 
by  tlie  Carthuaiwi  and  CiatercUn  onlera,  the 
Churchmen  of  the  Arelate  began  to  look  upon 
the  orthodox  king  of  the  French  aa  their  truest 
protector  from  a  schismatic  emperor.  But  the 
French  king*  of  the  period  saw  in  the  power  of 
Henry  of  Anjou  [Henry  II.,  of  EnKland — aee 
ENoijtND:  A*.  D.  1154^11Ntt]  a  more  real  and 
preaalng  danger  than  the  Empire  of  Ilic  Itohen- 
Ktaufen.  The  result  waa  an  alliume  betwei-n 
I'hilip  Auguatua  and  hia  auccessora  ami  the 
ISwabUn  emjierora,  which  gave  Fnilerirk  and 
Ilia  aurcesaora  a  new  term  m  whii  h  they  could 
Ktrive  to  win  back  a  real  hold  over  HurVumly. 
Knilerii-k  II.  never  lost  sight  of  thii  i.'.jni 
Ilia  invmtlture  of  the  great  feudal  lord  \Vi!li;ini 
of  Baux  with  the  kingdom  of  Aries  In  l'.*!.'!.  his 
lonir  istruggle  with  the  wealthv  nienliuiil  riiy  o( 
Maraa-illt-s;  hia  alliance  with  Ihiynioirr  of 
Toulimae  and  the  heretical  elements  in  l*ro%enre 
ngainut  the  Pope  and  the  Freneli :  bin  itTort ^  to 
leoil  an  army  against  Innocent  IV.  at  Lyons, 
were  among  the  chief  phases  of  his  ioii.>tuut 
elforts  to  make  the  Imperial  Influeiiee  really  felt 
ill  the  valley  of  the  Hhone.  Hut  he  lind  Ni'litllo 
sureesa  that  the  French  cruandet<<  ai;:iiu»t  the 
.VUiigenaes  wnfed  open  war  within  its  liiiiit]. 
and  destroveil  the  heretic  eltv  of  ,\vij:noii  («ii> 
Ai.nioK!i»its:  A.  D.  1217-1229).  while  liiii.»i'iit 
ill  hi<  ex:le  could  And  no  surer protiitinn  a.'Miiint 
the  emjieror  tlmu  In  the  Im|>erial  i  ity  of  l.\.iiia. 
After  Fnderlek'a  death  the  poliiy  of  St  l-oula 
of  France  waa  a  complete  triumph  IlislirMilier. 
Clisrlea  of  Atijou,  eatablislied  hini.-<lf  i:i  l*niv- 
eu.e,  though  in  later  llimathe  .Xncivin  !  riis  of 
I^nivcnee  and  Naples  bi-rame  ao  mroiu'  that  tlii  ;r 
local  intereats  maile  them  enemies  ruili.  r  ilian 
friendaof  the  exteualonof  French  |h)»i  r  on  ilicir 
Imnlera.  The  sul>«eiiuent  efforts  of  the  i'ni|', mra 
were  tlie  m^'rest  ahania  and  unn'ulilies.  liiidolf 
of  llapaburg  wuiiiesced  without  a  miinnnr  iu 
the  pnigreaa  of  Philip  the  Fair,  wlio  niuli'  liim 
«'lf  master  of  I.yona.  and  si-cursil  tin-  Kn-o 
County  of  llurgiindy  for  his  aon  [ai-e  Fhami  UK 
(  iiMTEJ.  .  .  .  The  "n-aldence  of  the  I'oiiea  at 
Avignon  was  a  further  help  to  lli-  Fn  neU 
lulvauc)'  .  Weak  as  wen  the  early  \  alon 
kiuga,  Ihey  were  a'.ning  enough  W  ii'u-,h  aliil 
further  the  ailvuntage  won  by  their  greaUT  pre- 
desi-saom  The  rivalry  of  the  lerding  htuti-a  of 
tile  Rhone  valley.  8avoy  b.'mI  Daupliiny.  faiili- 
Uleil  their  task.  Phllln  VI.  a»j)ire<l  t'-  take 
Wnne  an  Philip  IV.  hoi!  obtalueil  Lyons  The 
IHtuphin.  lIunilK-rt  II..  stniggh'<l  in  vain  against 
him.   and  at  last  accepted    tbs    hieviuble    by 


Ul 


f! 


^^fi 


BUBOCITOT,  n>7-lST& 

?*"«  «<»  *•  'WW*  kliif  the  lucceaion  to  all  hta 
n«nu  in  DauphiiiT,  henceforth  to  become  the 
•ppwMge  of  the  eMett  •om  of  the  Prem  h  klnin. 
At  last.  Ouu-lea  of  Luxemburg.  In  1378,  nVe 
toe  Piwich  airrcfiioni  a  legal  basii  by  con- 
ferrtag  the  VIcariat  of  Arlw  on  Uie  Dauphin 
ghyl**.  auhMquently  the  mad  Charlea  VI.  of 
riaoCT.  From  thia  mnt  Bnroy  only  waa  ex- 
»pte4  Henceforth  the  power  of  Fiance  in  the 
Hhooe  TallcT  became  ao  great  that  It  aoon  be- 
S?^  .J*",  'f^'*""  y  •''•jP'*'  "uwl  Ignore  the 
•"^  0«.  8,  1801  (retieving  "U  Btmumt 
A.  D  laoMJoi.-AdTaacaeftha  demioiou 

BeeBATOT:  Htb-IStb  CurrtmiEa. 
A.  p.  >3&t-— Th*  Frueh  DDkadom.— Th« 

iy^'Jj*'^-:^*"^  Oukeof  Burgundy 
Rober*.  aoo  of  King  Robert,  died  in  December. 

the  Chlteau  d«  Rourre.  near  Pljon.  had  been 
Wa  Mrthplaoe.  and  hia  reaidence  He  waa  Mill 
to  Ua  youth  when  he  died,  although  he  had 
borne  the  ducal  Utie  for  twelre  ycara.  It  fell  to 
him  at  thr  age  of  four,  when  hU  father  died, 
nom  lil.  mother  and  hIa  grandmother  he  In- 
herile.1  ad<litioii»])y,  the  county  of  Burgundy 
yianchp  Coml«)  and  the  cnuntiet  of  Boulogne 
Anv-rtroe  and  Artoia     Hlx  tender  veara  had  not 

SreTtutfd  the  marrUge  of  the  young  duke  to 
Iar«ret,  daughter  and  beireaa  of  the  Count  of 
Ilanden  JoKn  11.  King  of  Fnuce.  whoae 
mother  was  a  Burgundian  princeaa.  claimed  to 

ULi  ..''"^'.'V'*"'*°"'"'y"'">*  "Juk".  when 
the  Utt.-r  .lied  in  IMI,  and.  although  hia  claim 

^.^/"•'T*  '•^  "">  King  of  NavSrn..  diariS 
the  Ba<r  Kina  John  took  poaaeaalon  of  the  duke- 

„."•  J,'*  "JrJl''?  ■?«'"  °'  •"n»"lo".  and  not 

of  King  ftolwrt  having  en  tain*.  I  no  rev.mlonarv 
pn.viiii»ii.  Kranche  Comt*.  or  the  c.inly  of 
Burgumlv  together  with  Artohi.  rrmalne.1  to  ti.e 
I?,?,",f  *''''"^""K»'««  of  Flandeia,  while  the 
oountl.-.  of  Boulogne  and  Au»ergne  pa«M<d  U) 
John  of  Uoulogne,  Count  de  -Montfort.  A  tmx 
opportunity  for  atnngtheuing  the  crown  of 
F>«ii.r,  l.y  annexing  to  it  the  powerful  B.irg.in 

^^ri  i".  ""'■  ."""o-pff'™! ««  King  John  .?l,„t 
ho  lii.k.'.l  (lie  wlailom  to  improve  it.  He  ur.f.rr.Kl 
to  grant  it  a»ar  aj  a  anlemlid  appaiiagr  for  hi., 
ft.von...*„,_,|,cfourtl.-theapirit«dhul  Philip, 
ni  LhI  t ...  Frarl,....  wIh.  had  stood  by  hia  f«th.-ri 
^1-  m  II..  .  I«,tr.m.  battle  of  PoitiAni.  and  wl... 

»h..  h  t...k  rtT.<t  on  King  John.  dcaUi,  in  IM4 

Pliilji,  II...  Marie.,  ,o,l on  bis  h.lia.  «.«.«  »/i,r 
»«r.l-.  I  l.ilip.  m.rTia„v  with  th*  young  wl<l.,w 
on.i.,m,„K.,.,«o.,  I'lm=pd..i{.,uvre.  w«»lm„,»|,i 
alw.  .> ..«  h  i,«or..,i  :i,.  ir  f  .rmer  union  with 
the  u,,K„|.„„  ibe  Mori.  .,«lUn  County  (Kran,he 
Con  I. ,  „„|  beewiui,  »  Artoia,  wl.ilr  it  guv« 
W  .l«  ,„  «  :hike  pR..,...„v,.ly  the  rich  .-orinly 
of  H«i,.l.r>,  I.,  which  .Mar^flnt  waa  th..  I„  in«i 

JvlTrMl'T'  '(',"»'■•"»"•  m,«t  for,„l.l,l,le 
rival  nhi.i,  ,(„.  ^,,,1  iH.w^f  ,„  Ynacf  t,w|  ev^r 
l«.j..nu  r.,1  will,.  an.l  ihr  ..laKnlluileof  tl,o  l,|,„„|.., 

ll  ,""■'  ,  '"  u^"^  "■'■'••'."''  '"•'•"'  half  »  r...,iury 
^  ij'lT*     ~       '"^  (j,.h,K.,)  C-ArwaK/«,  4*.  { 


BUROUNDT,  IMT. 
^Auom:  7.  p.  Oolaoi,  IkruUu- UiM. o/fh^ 

A.  D.  i3S»-Flaad«rs  addad  to  the  dotal 
domintooa.    8m  Fiajionia:  A.  D.  laa 

^  °-  »4«-l453--CiTU  war  with  the  Ar. 
■iacMca.-iaUMct  with  the  Engli.lL  >i^ 
fKAllc*:  A.  D.  1880-1418;  MlV-UlJ^un 
14W;  14S9-1481:  1481-1488.  "*^""''  '*"- 
I  ^  D- J4^--Holtaiid,  Haiiwidt  and  Friaa. 
iMul  ateeiUl  by  th.  dakta.  See  .N'S 
i^oa  (HoLuutDAHO  Hajhadlt):  a.  Dnit. 

il«  wilS-T*^"*^"  »*•  B<»«>-Hi.po.i. 
UoOtbctwaMGwauuiTaad  France.-HiJai 
taCMlMB  to  Letiia  xf.— The  "Middle  KiS^ 

hlOoryM  Cl*rlea  the  BoW.  became  Ii„li,M,fTr 
'""^  ?.r*;^A»"?*«*""9  '"'•  '"her  Philip  mi 
namea-ThaOood."    " Hi,  portion  w J,  t", 

ChviM  held  the  rank  of  one  of  the  flr«t  prinm 
taEurope  without  being  a  King,  ,„,|  iuSZ 
poaaeaalng  an  Inch  of  ground  for  whi.h  he  did 
not  owe  wrrice  to  aome  auperior  l..r,|      » J^ 
more  than  thh.  he  did  not  owe  ^rvue  t^Z 
lord  oriy.    The  phnae  of    Orfat  l'o*,„   m 
not   bwn  inrented  in  the   ISth   ont.irv    bw 
torn  CM  be  DO  doubt  tliat.  if  It  hH.1  !«.„  thi 
Duke  of  Burgundy  would  have  ra«li...|  ,„W« 
the   foremoat   of   them.     He   w«»,    i„  ...^1 
strragth.  the  equal  of  hU  royal  miKhlNntr  to  Uw 
weat  and  far  inore  than  theequal  of  I.U  lni,KtUI 
ne^hbour  to  the  eut.     Yet  for  evrrj- 1„,  i,  !,f  ™ 
teiTltoriM  he  owed  a  Taaal'a  duty  to  .,..«  or 
°*^'.°'i,'"'°h    ^'•<*'  "n  'he  bonl.ni of  Knuw 
and  the  Empire.  M>me  of  hia  terriLwi.,  «,.„■  heU 
of  the  Empire  an.!  «>nie  of  the  Fnn.  h  (  n.wn. 
Charka.  puke  of  Burgumly^  Count  of  Himlen 
and  ArtoU,  wa.  a  vaMal  ofTr«nce;  l.«t  (  l,„rl«s, 
Duke  of  Brabant.  Count  of  Burgumly,  Ii„||.i3^ 
and  a  down  other  duchiea  and  counti...,  I.,.M  hii 
d..mini.Hi.  aa  a  vanal  of  Cawr.     HU  .Inniinioai 
were  large  in  ptisltive  extent,  and  they  wn» 
Talaab  e  out  o^  all  proportion  t<,  their  eMent. 
^o    other    nrin.^e    In    Eun>|>e    wa«    tl...  .liiect 
•ovcreigii  of  •<>  many  rich  and  flourinhing  riti««, 
ryn.Ier..d  stil    ni..re  rich  and  fl..uri«hing  thn.utli 
■  '  ■""«»;''•,'"  *^o  ""'n.  P««<*ful  a.lmin:itii 
Hon  of  hi.  father.     The  ritie.  of  tl.«  N.lli.rlMdi 
were  ncomparahly  greater  and  m..re  pr,..i.muii 
than  th.«c  of  Iramt-  or  Kn^'lau.l:  .n.l.  lUouili 
they  enj.iyed  Urge  mi.ni.'i|ml   privil.,f..H    ibry 
were  not,  like  thiMe  of  U.rmanv.  in  I,  |»-M.lnit 
i»inm<.nwealtha.  acknowledging  wilv  hi. .  »i.nwl 
suztnilo  In  their  n.>niinnl  h>r|      (lih.rtMru.)! 
l.i.  doniinliM)..  tlie  Duihv  ..f  Burgun.lv  ,>|».i 
ally,  were  aa  rich  In  m.-n  hh  Klnn.l.r..  km  ri.h  id 
m.mey      8o  farthe  I)uke.,f  B:ii«un.lv  lii.<l  aime 
great  a<lvanug<«  o\.reverv  .uli.r  priii.e..f  kb 
lime.      But,  on  the  ..Iher  ^i«o.|.   hU  .l..miniooi 
were  further  r.Miiov...l  than  ih.Mr  of  «nv  prince 
in  fcuropr  from  f.>nnlng  a  |.<.in|Kt<  i  « li  !.■     lie 
*»f  P"»  King  .if  one  kingiloin,  hut  Diik..  CouBt, 
and  l»nl  .>f  iuniini.nilih'  .lu. hi..H,  .^otniiitMi  ud 
l.irtl»hl|.«.  a<'.|uir...l  l.y  .lifT.n-nt  nteai...  h.M  by 


.,—        ,--.-.. I — ....  ..J  <i,ii(-n-iiL  iiit-Kiift.  n.-ii, 

ll-  m"  .  *'"'  "'  ■''"••"•nt  overi..nl«,  HiMak- 
ilij.'.i  to.lllT.Tinl  lawi, 
.lmir.nt  riil.'«  i.f  i 


342 


ing  different Ungii«i'..«,  »ul,i.Hi  to.lllT.nni  1 
tnoainittod  .oconliuii  to  .|l(T,r.nt  riil..«  i.f  __ 
ceaMion.  ,  .  .  Th.'V  l»v  in  tw^.  large  luAue*  the 
two  Burgumliea  f  ,nnlng  on.'  nn<l  the  Uw 
Couotrira  forming  the  .M her.  iki  tl.ni  ihcirixninuia 
maatM  cuuU  not  go  from  one  capital  u.  uwiiMt 


Af 

8n 
417- 

riw 

m. 
«17- 


lur- 


ion 
out 
ilA 
Dd. 
xt 
>«1 

)Ut 

llM 

"« 

Ul 

bt 

Ul 

lii 

or 

ee 

U 

n. 

n 

«, 

1 

U 

u 

r» 

L 

CI 

I. 

h 


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If] 

ill 


t-  -^L 


m 


BUBOUXDT.  1467. 


BCnOCXDY.  1467-1468. 


without  pudnc  through  •  (orplgn  territoiy. 
Awl,  even  within  theae  two  i^rntt  niMus,  ttivrv 
wrn-  ptirtioni  nf  territory  intenpctinc  th«  iliical 
ildiiilnlooi  which  there  wai  no  hope  of  Annexing 
liy  fair  rocani.  .  .  .  The  citreer  of  Cluu-lcs  the 
B<il<l  .  .  .  divides  ittelf  into  a  French  ami  a 
Oemuio  portion.  In  both  alike  be  is  expoiie<l  to 
the  rfJtleas  rivalry  of  Lewis  of  France;  but  in 
the  one  perlnl  tliat  rivalry  is  rnrriMl  on  openly 
wiiliin  the  French  territory.  «liilc  In  the  second 
nericiil  llie  crafty  kin)(  fiiiiU  tlie  means  to  deal 
far  more  effectual  blows  tbroiiuh  tlie  airency  of 
Tiiili'iiic  banils.  ...  As  a  Fri'nrh  prince,  he 
juiiinl  with  other  French  prinifs  to  nut  limits 
on  llie  power  of  the  Cniwn,  arui  to  divide  tlie 
kingdom  Into  gnat  feudal  holdings,  aa  nearly 
Imlcpeudent  as  might  be  of  the  common  over- 
liinl.  As  a  French  prince,  he  plavotl  his  part  In 
the  Warcf  the  Public  Weal  [see  Framci:  A.  D. 
14<1-146(*].  and  insisted,  as  s  main  object  of 
his  policy,  on  the  estnblishmrnt  of  tlie  King's 
bnitlirr  Bsanall  but  indeiH'udcnt  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy. The  object  of  Ia'wIs  was  to  make 
Friiiio  a  compact  monarchy;  the  oliji'ct  of 
C'hurlt'S  and  his  fellows  was  to  kicp  France  aa 
marly  as  might  be  In  the  same  stnteas(]<'rmany. 
But,  when  the  other  French  princt-s  liad  Imtu 
grailiially  conquered,  won  over,  or  ^"t  rid  of  in 
sonic  way  or  other  by  the  crafiy  jHilicy  of  Lewis, 
Cliarles  remained  no  longer  the  chief  of  a 
coalition  of  French  princea,  but  the  personal 
rival,  the  deadly  enemy,  of  the  Frencn  Kini». 
.  .  .  ClirKnologically  and  gi-ogmphitully  alike. 
Cliarli'!!  and  his  Uucliy  form  tin-  ^rcat  harrier,  or 
the  ^-reat  ainnecting  'link,  whichever  we  chfMwo 
to  call  it,  lietween  the  nuin  divisions  of  Kuro- 
rifan  history  and  Euroix-an  g<-<ignphy.  The 
Iiuki's  iif  Burgundy  of  the  I(oui)>>  iif  \  ah>ls  form 
a  Hirt  (if  bridge  lM>tweeu  the  later  Middle  Age 
smi  the  period  of  ttic  Kenalimtnoe  ami  tlie 
Iti  fiirinatioii.  They  omnect  tlnwe  two  jx-riiMU 
liy  forming  the  kernel  of  the  vuHt  dominion  of 
that  .Vustrian  House  which  became  their  heir,  and 
whi<'li,  mainly  by  virtue  of  that  heirship  fllisi 
•ui'h  a  space  In  the  history  of  the  IBth  auti  irih 
(viiliirii's.  Buttheduminlonsof  the  Hurgundiaii 
Ihiki-s  hold  a  still  higher  historkiil  position. 
Tlii'V  may  be  said  to  bind  together  tlie  whole  of 
Euni(iran  history  for  the  last  tliousand  yearn. 
Kroni  the  9th  century  to  the  llhli.  the  |><>liticii  of 
Eiirc.|ie  have  largely  gatlu-n-d  riuiiid  Ihi'  rivalry 
tielwcin  the  EasU'm  and  the  Wi-stern  Kiiigdi>nia 
—  ill  iiioili'm  language,  between  IJermanv  and 
Fniiice.  From  the  Ihh  century  to  tiie  I'lHh,  a 
Binitssion  of  efforts  liave  been  niaile  to  estubUHli, 
ill  niK-  shaiH)  or  another,  a  mkldle  siiite  lietwej'n 
ilic  iwii.  Over  and  over  again  during  that  long 
|iiri.«l  havi'  mtn  niriven  to  make  the  whoU;  or 
»iin,'  (Hirtlun  of  the  fmnller  lands  streU-hing 
(nm,  till!  iiiiiuth  of  the  Ithine  to  the  mouth  of  the 
lih.mi'  Into  an  iii<lf|iendeiit  barrier  alute.  .  .  . 
T!i:il  olij.ct  was  never  more  distinrtly  aiiniil  at, 
anil  it  never  sctiiieil  nearer  toil*  ai-roiiipllHliment, 
Slum  w Inn  ('liHrliii the  ilolil aitiially  reignni  fMni 
Uic  /.iiiclir  Zee  to  tlie  Ijike  of  Neufi-htti'l.  ami 
»»»  mil  without  ho|ies  of  exteniling  bin  fmnller 
tn  111,.  (;i,lf  of  Lyons.  .  .  .  liohllng.  as  lie  dt<l. 
imnn  iif  iilit  Ixitharinghi  and  parla  of  old  Riir- 
guiiily.  there  can  be  nodoulitthul  heaimeil  at  the 
n- intalillshment  of  a  great  Middle  Kingdom, 
Willi  h  sliiiuld  Uke  In  allthat  had  ever  been  liur- 
gundisn  or  Ixitbaringian  ground.  He  alnii'd,  In 
shurt,  aa  utbcrt  have  aiiDetl  before  and  since,  at 


the  fonnatlnn  of  a  aUta  which  should  hold  aoen- 
trul  position  lietween  France,  Oermany  and  luly 
—  a  state  which  should  discharge,  with  Inanitely 
greater  ativngth,  all  the  duties  which  our  own 
age  has  endeavoured  to  throw  on  Switzerland, 
Uelgium  and  8«voy.  .  .  .  Undoubtedly  it  would 
have  lieen  for  the  permanent  interest  of  Europ* 
If  he  had  succeeded  In  hia  attempt."— EX  A. 
Freenuui,  CkarUt  th»  BoU  (UutoriaU  E—af,  ls( 
laie;  no.  11). 

A.  D.  1467-1468.— The  w«r  of  Charlea  tha 
Bold  with  the  Lieceoia  ud  his  troubles  with 
Lonia  XI.— "8oon  after  the  pacillcation  of  the 
troulilea  of  France  faee  Frakce  :  A.  li.  1461- 
146H],  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  began  a  war 
against  the  Llegeoia,  which  lasted  Tor  several 
years;  and  whenever  the  king  of  France  [I.,uuia 
aI.]  bad  a  mind  to  Interrupt  him,  he  attempted 
some  new  action  against  the  Bretons,  and,  in  the 
meantime,  supported  the  Liegcois  underliund; 
upon  which  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  turned 
against  him  to  succour  his  alliea,  or  else  they 
came  to  some  treaty  or  truce  among  themselves. 
.  .  .  During  theae  wara,  and  ever  since,  secret 
and  freah  intriguea  were  carried  on  by  tlie 
princea.  The  king  was  so  exceedingly  exasper- 
ated against  the  Dukes  of  Bretague  and  Bur- 
gundy that  it  waa  wonderful.  .  .  .  The  king  of 
France's  aim.  In  the  meantime,  was  cliietly  to 
carry  his  design  against  the  province  of  Bn-tagne, 
and  he  looked  upon  it  aa  a  more  feaiiible  attempt, 
and  likelier  to  give  him  lesi  resisbinre  than  the 
house  of  Burgundy.  Besides,  the  lintons  wire 
the  people  who  protected  and  culi-rtaineil  all  his 
malcontents;  aa  his  brother,  and  otlien,  whose 
Interest  and  intelligence  were  great  in  his  king- 
dom; for  this  cause  heendeavoiikHl  vorv  eanuntry 
with  (.  harles,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  )iy  several 
advantageous  offers  and  proiMWaU,  to  prevail 
with  him  to  deaert  them,  promising  that  u|ion 
tlioHe  terms  be  also  would  abandon  the  Lii-geois, 
and  give  no  further  pnitection  to  his  malcoiittuts. 
The  Duke  of  Burgundy  would  by  no  means 
consent  to  it,  but  again  made  preparations  fur 
war  against  the  Liegeois,  who  hiul  bMken  the 
ixace."  This  waa  In  (><tobir,  1467.  The  Duke 
(Clmrlea  the  Bold)  attacked  St.  Trim,  which  waa 
held  bjr  a  garrison  of  8,000  of  the  men  of  l,iegc. 
The  I.,ief;euis,  8U.000  strong,  came  Ui  the  relief  of 
the  iK-siegiii  town,  and  were  rouleil,  leaving 
6.000  slain  on  the  fle'd.  St.  Tron  and  Tongrea 
were  Imth  surrenderetl,  and  Liege,  itself,  alu;r 
considerable  strife  among  its  citizens,  o|ie!ied  its 
gall's  to  the  Duke,  who  entered  in  triumph  (Nov. 
17,  l4A7)aod  hanged  haifa  dozen  for  his  moder- 
ate saliafaclloti.  In  the  i-ourae  of  the  next  sum- 
mer the  French  king  opened  war  afresh  upon 
the  Duke  of  Bn-UKne  and  fimiil  him  into  a 
treaty,  before  tlie  Duke  of  Burgundy,  his  ally, 
could  take  the  lii'ld.  The  king,  then  lieing 
extri'mely  anxious  to  pacify  the  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, took  the  extraonlinary  step  of  \isitiug 
the  hitter  at  Pennine,  without  any  guani,  trusting 
himoelf  wholly  to  the  honor  of  his  enemy.  But 
it  happi'ned  unfortunately,  during  the  king's 
stay  at  Peronne,  that  a  feriicious  revolt  oeeuri*d 
at  Lii'ge,  which  was  traceii  tieyond  denial  to  the 
intrigues  of  two  agents  whom  king  Louis  had 
si'nl  thither  not  longlM'fore,  for  !:iisihief  making 
piiriioaes.  The  Duke,  in  his  wnitli.  wan  not 
vM\\y  restraintil  from  doing  some  vinlenre  to  tha 
king;  but  the  royal  trickster  cM'a|Hil  tri>m  his 
grave  predicament  by  giving  up  the  unhappy 


S43 


-il 


!l 


BCRaUNDT,  14C7-14<e. 

Liegeoii  to  the  reiifteuiM  of  Duke  Charles  uid 
peraonallv   usiRting    the   Utter    to   Inflict   it 
After  the  conclusioii  of  the  peace  [dictated  by 
Charles  at  Peronne  and  dgned  ■ubmiwivelr  by 
Louis]  the  King  and  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  set 
out  the  next  morning  [Oct  18.  14«8]  for  Cam- 
bray,  and  from  thence  towards  the  country  of 
Lioge:  it  was  the  beginning  of  winter  and  the 
wrather  was  very  bad.    The  king  had  with  him 
only  hu  8cot=h  guards  and  a  small  body  of  bis 
stimimg  forces:  but  he  ordered  800  of  his  men- 
at  arms  to  Join  him."    LMge  was  invested,  and. 
notnithstandingiu  walla  had  been  thrown  dowi 
the  nrevioiis  year,  it  made  a  stubborn  defense. 
During  a  siege  of  a  fortnight,  several  desperate 
sallies  were  rajde,  by  the  Ust  one  of  which  both 
the  Duke  and  the  King  were  brought  into  neat 
personal  perU.    Exhausted  by  thfi  final  effort, 
the  LiegeoU  were  unprepared  to  wpel  a  grand 
assault  which  the  besieging  forces  made  upon  the 
town   the   next    morning— Sunday,    Oct    80. 
Ll#ge  was  taken  that  day  almost  without  resist- 
ance, the  miserable  inhabitanU  flying  acnw  the 
Maes  into  the  forest  of  Ardennes,  abandoning 
their  homes  to  pllUge.    The  Duke  of  Burgundy 
now  permitted  King  Loais  to  return  home,  whlto 

-k!*?  v.™^  '  '*T  "y!  """f"  *"  deioUte  U«ge, 
which  his  flerce  hatred  had  doomed.  "  Befon 
the  Duke  left  the  city,  a  great  number  of  those 
poor  creatures  who  liad  hid  themselves  in  the 
bouses  when  the  town  was  taken,  and  were  after- 
wards made  prisoners,  were  drowned.  He  also 
resolved  to  bum  the  city,  which  had  always  been 
very  populous;  and  orders  were  given  for  Bring 
It  in  three  different  places,  and  8.  WW  or  4,000  foot 
of  the  country  of  Limbourg  (who  were  their 
nelgbboura,  and  used  the  same  habit  and  lan- 

Cuage),  were  commanded  to  effect  this  desolation 
ut  to  secure  the  churches.  .  .  .  All  things  beini 
thus  ordered,  the  Duke  began  his  marehlnto  the 
country  of  Pranchemont:  he  was  no  sooner  out 
of  town,  but  Immediately  we  saw  a  great  number 
or  bouses  on  Are  beyond  the  river;  the  duke  lay 
that  night  four  leagues  from  the  city,  yet  we 
Muld  hear  the  noise  u  dUtinctly  as  (f  we  had 
been  upon  Uie  spot;  but  whether  It  was  the  wind 
which  lay  that  way,  or  our  quartering  upon  the 
river,  that  was  the  cause  of  ft,  I  know  not.  The 
next  day  the  Duke  marcheo  on,  and  th.ise  who 
were  left  In  the  town  continued  the  conflagration 
accord  ng  to  his  orden;  but  all  the  churches 
(except  some  few)  were  preserved,  a.  .1  above 
•BO  houses  belonging  to  the  priesU  and  ofllcere  of 
^inh^SUirS'"'*''' '?  't"  ^-"^  "  »•«  «>  soon 
the  priesU.  "--Philip  as  Commlncs,jr»mfl,>,.  it  » 


BUBOUIIDT,  UTt-HTt. 

of  Burgundy  tried  means  to  Uke  away  Lorratoe 
from  the  voung  Sent.    That  province  was  ne^ 

S^L'^K   "'•.*°  "r*"  ^  i"^  *^  northern  eStoi 
with  thoK  In   the  south.     The  conquest  wm 

KMh;  but  it  was  reserved  for  a  small  oeoDle 
f^'  celebrated  for  their  heroic  valour  and  by 
i^^!^"  °' "»>e'ty.  to  beat  this  powerful  muL 
Irritated  agaiiut  the  Swiss,  who  had  braved  him' 
ChsjrlM  crossed  over  the  Jura,  besteged  the  litili 
town  of  Gnnson,  and,  in  despite  of  a  capitu'a- 
tion,  caused  aU  the  defendere  to  be  hanged  or 
^wned.  At  this  news  the  eight  cantons  which 
then  composed  the  Helvetian  rSpubllc  arose  and 

i^^S^I^' t^  ""'"y  they  attacked  the  Duke 
and  dispersed  his  troops  [March  8,  11781  Some 
month,  later  [June  £],'  supported  b^  you?| 
Ren«  of  Lorraine  despoUed  of  his  inhirftan. ,? 
they  exterminated  a  second  Burgundian  army 
SSST.mS'*-  *^'^1"^  vanouisEed,  reaasem- 
Wed  a  third  ar^,  and  marched  in  the  midst  of 

i^^^^^^"^\  7"<*  •»«»  '""en  into  the 
huMUoftheSwtaaandLorralners.  It  was  there 
th«he  perished  [Jan.  8,  UV]  betrayed  by  1^ 
mwcenary  soldiery  and  overpownna  by  bum- 
AtTi  Z^^.??^^-  ^**-  '^  ^»«.  »  1. 

T^,^  A."»^'»ble  out-load  of  sheep  skins  that 
the  Count  of  Romoot  had  taken  ftonithe  Swlssi 


Also  ih:  J.  P,  ifirk.  But.  of  Chart,,  thi  BoU 
f.  1,  M  7-B;  M.  ».-<•.  F.  W^llerCni  A.W 
I^M  Jr;:-8ir.  W.  Scott.  ««»<.;  Dun,a?d.l 
Bee,  also.  DiNAirr. 

A,  D.  Ufi-un.  -CiMriss  the  Bold  ud  the 
•wlM—HJs  ds/eats  and  his  death -Tha 
^.  c.f  hia  fall.-" Sovereign  of  t~  "i.l.y  of 
Burgundy,  of  the  Free  County,  of  Halnaut  of 
'•T-lrrs  of  Holland,  and  of  ^ueldreThsrl^ 
wlshe.l,hy  Joining  to  it  Lorrelne,  a  piortion  of 
Bwlt«^|,.„,|.  an-lth.  Inheritance 'of  dd   King 

d^Sfk?,!'^?'  "'  i>^".  ««  «*o»po«<  the  an' 
clent  kingiiom  of  Lorraine,  such  as  It  had  exUled 
under  the  Carlovlnglan  dynasty;  and  flattered 
hi.u»lf  that  by  offertn,  his  daughter  t^SK? 
milUn  mm  of  |(S*derick"in. ,  he  wUuid  obitlnxha 
tiUe  of  king.    Oeodved  la  hla  hopes,  th«  DuU 


844 


Almighty  haf  not  f  onaken  the  Duke  of  Burgundy 
M».!?f?*  «»ceiTable  he  would  have  expoaeS 
Umself  to  such  areat  dangers  upon  so  Sinalland 

Sl^.f°a'S*T"i   "PecUlly  considering  the 
offers  the  Svriss  had  made  him,  and  that  his  con- 
2^J       "k  "*  enemies  would  yield  him  neither 
profit  nor  honour;  for  at  that  Ume  the  Swiss  wc:» 
not  in  such  esteem  as  now,  and  no  peopl..  in  the 
world  could  be  poorer. "   At  QransoT' •  the  |.,»r 
M^  rT.     "n  J"'«^"^  enr  ched  by  the  plun.l.'r  of 
hU[the  Duke  of  Burgiody's]  camp     At  tint 
they  did  not  understand  the  value  of  the  treasure 
Ifl  r'"'r>'""i°"u  °'j  especially  the  coininon 
soldiers.    One  of  the  richest  and  most  maguifl- 
cent  tents  in  the  world  was  cut  into  pi,,*! 
There  were  some  of  them  that  sold  quantities  of 
dishes  and  plates  of  silver  for  about  two  sous  of 
our  money    suppodng  they  had  been  ne-ri«r. 
His  great  diamond,  .     .  wfth  a  large  p.  .r,  fl,ed 
to  it  was  Uken  up  by  a  Swiss,  put  up  again 
Into  the  case,  thrown  under  a  wamn,  Uk.n  up 
again  by  the  same  soUier,  and  after  all  omn-.l  li 
a  priest  for  a  florin  who  bought  it  and  sent  it 
to  the  magistrates  of  that  country,  who  returned 
bim  throe  francs  as  a  sufllcient  reward.    I  This 
was  long  suppos^  to  be  the  famous  iiuicy 
diamond ;  but  Ilr.  Streeter  thinks  that  the  tnidl- 
tlon  which  BO  connects  it  Is  totally  dlsprovnl] 
They  also  took  three  very  rich  Jewels  .iilhd  the 
inree  Urothers,  another  large  ruby  calli^l  U 
Hatle,  and  another  called  the  Ball  of  Flandrrs, 
wh  ch  were  the  fairest  and  richest  in  the  W(.rl.l; 
Je»™es  a  prrxllgious  quantity  of  other  giw-ls," 
In  hU  last  battle,  near  Nancy,  the  Duke  had  lea 
•ban  4,000  men,  ••  and  of  that  number  not  sl^ve 
IJOO  were  lo  a  ooodltion  to  fight."    He  en(^.un 
tered  on  this  oooaakm  a  powt^ul  army  of  Swl« 
and  Chrmana,  which  the  Duke  of  LorraUio  had 
been  able  to  ouUeot,  with  the  help  of  the  king  of 
mnoe  and  others.    It  was  against  the  s<l  vin.  of 
V}  J»«.o?«»™ello«  that  tbs  beadatrang,  Ulf  mal 
Duke  Ctwrlet  dwbed  to  fittis  aniiy  afiiia  (bit 


BUROUNDT,  1478-1477. 


BCHOUNDT.  1477. 


(mter  one,  and  be  paid  the  penalty.    It  was 
broken  at  the  first  shock,  and  the  Uuke  was  killed 
la  the  confused  rout  without  being  known.    His 
body,  stripped  naked  by  the  pillagers  and  mangled 
br  wolves  or  dogs,  was  found  frozen  fast  in  a 
ditch.     "Icanunteasilydetermlne  towards  whom 
Ood  Almighty  showed  his  anger  most,  whether 
towards  him  who  died  suddenly,  without  pain 
or  sickness  In  the  field  of  battle,  or  towards  his 
subjects,  whoneTerenjoyedpeaceafterhisdeath, 
but  wers  continually  involved  in  wars  against 
which  they  were  not  able  to  maintain  themselves, 
upon  account  of  the  civil  dissensions  and  cruel 
animosities  that  arose  among  them.  ...  As  I 
bad  seen  these  princes  puissant,  rich  and  honour- 
able, so  itfarea  with  their  subjects:  for  I  think 
I  have  seen  and   known  the  greatest  part  of 
Europe,  yet  I  never  knew  any  province  or  country, 
though  of  a  larser  extent,  so  abounding  in  money, 
so  extravagantly  fine  in  their  furniture,  so  sump- 
tuous in  their  buildings,  so  profuse  in  th«<' 
expenses,  so  luxurious  m  their  feasts  and  enter- 
tainments and  so  prodigal  in  all  respects,  as  the 
subjects  of  these  princes  !n  my  time;  and  if  any 
think  I  have  exaggerated,  others  who  lived  in 
my  time  will  be  of  opinion  that  I  have  rather 
laid  too  little.  ...  In  short,  I  have  seen  this 
family  in  all  respects  the  most  flourishing  and 
celebrated  of  anv  in  Christendom:  and  then,  in 
a  short  space  of  time,  it  was  quite  ruined  and 
turned  upside  down,  and  left  the  most  desolate 
and  miserable  of  any  house  in  Europe,  as  regards 
boiA  prince  and  subjects.  "—Philip  de  Commines, 
Memoiri,  bk.  8,  eh.  1-8. — "The  popular  concep- 
tion of  this  war  [between  Charles  the  Bold  and 
the  Swiss]  is  simply  that  Charles,  a  powerful 
and  encroaching  prince,  was  overthrown  in  tiiree 
great  battles  by  the  petty  commonwealths  which 
he  had  expected  eaafly  to  attach  to  his  dominion. 
Grandson  and  Morat  are  placed  side  by  side  with 
MorKsrten  and  Bempach.    Such  a  view  as  this 
implk-s  complete  ignorance  of  the  histciv ;  it  im- 
plies ignorance  of  the  fact  that  it  was  the  Swiss 
who  made  war  upon  Charlea,  and  not  Charles 
who  made  war  upoa  the  Swiss;  it  Implies  ignor- 
ance uf  the  fact  that  Charles's  army  never  set 
foot  on  proper  SwiM  territory  at  all,  that  Orand- 
son  and  Mont  were  at  the  beginning  of  the  war 
no  part  of  the  possessions  of  the  Confederation. 
.  .  .  The  mere  politioal  accident  that  the  country 
which  formed  the  chief  seat  of  war  now  forms 
pan  of  the  Swiss  Confederation  has  been  with 
m.iny  people  enough  to  determine  their  estimate 
of  the  quarrel.  Grandson  and  Mont  are  in  Swiu- 
erlaml;  Burgundiaa  troops  appeared  tad  were 
defeHU'd  at  Grandson  and  Mont:  therefore  Charles 
must  have  been  an  invader  of  Switzerland,  and 
the  warfare  on  the  Swiss  side  must  have  been  a 
warfare  of  purely  defennive  heroism.    The  sim- 
ple fact  that  it  was  only  through  the  result  of 
the  Burgundtan  war  that  Onndson  itnil  Mnnt 
ever  became  Swiia  territory  at  once  (llspones  of 
IhU  Una  of  argument.  .  .  .  The  plain  facu  of 
the  raae  are  that  the  Burgundian  wnr  wu  a  war 
dwUnnI  by  Bwitierliind  against  Burgumiy  .  .  . 
sii'l  tUiit  In  the  campaigns  of  Grandson  and  Morat 
the  Duke  of  Burgundv  was  simply  spelling  and 
avenging  Swiss  Invasions  of  his  own  territory 
anil  the  territory  of  bis  allies.  "-E.  A.  Fneman. 
Uularieal  Asom,  ».  1.  no.  U. 

Also  in:  J.  T.  Kirk,  Bit.  tf  Chnrltt  t**  BM, 
«.  8.-L.  8.  Costello.  iltmttn  «f  Jfoi*  </  i»i»r- 
;a«%,  ei,  14-S7. 


A.  D,  1477.— Pcnnmocntlj  restored  to  tkt 
French  crown.— Louis  XI.  of  France,  who  had 
been  eagerly  watchhig  while  Charles  the  Bold 
shattered  his  armies  and  exhausted  his  strength 
in  Switzerland,  received  early  news  of  the  death 
of  the  self-willed  Duke.     'WTille  the  panic  and 
confusion  which  it  caused  still  prevailed,  th« 
king  lost  DO  time  in  taking  possession  of  the 
duchy  of  BurguLdy,  as  an  appanage  which  had 
reverted  to  the  crown,  through  default  of  mala 
heirs.    The  legality  of  his  claim  has  been  much 
in  dispute.     "Charles  left  an  only  daughter,  un- 
doubted heiress  of  Flanders  and  Artob,  aa  well 
as  of  his  dominions  out  of  France,   but  whose 
right  of  succession  to  the  duchy  of  Burgundy 
was  more  questionable.     Originally  the  great 
fiefs  of  the  crown  des<«nded  to  females,  ana  this 
was  the  case  with  respect  to  the  two  first  men- 
tioned.   But  John  had  granted  Burgundy  to  his 
M>n  Philip  by  way  of  appanage ;  and  it  was  con- 
tended thjkt  the  appanages  reverted  to  the  crown 
In  default  of  male  heirs.    In  the  form  of  Philip't 
investiture,  the  duchy  was  granted  tu  him  uui 
his  lawful  hein,   without  designation  of  sex. 
The  construction,  therefore,  must  be  left  to  the 
established  course  of  law.    This,  however,  was 
by  no  means  acknowledged  by  Alary,  Charles's 
daughter,  who  maintained  both  that  no  general 
law  restricted  appanages  to  male  heirs,  and  that 
Burgundy  had  always  been    considered   as   a 
feminine  fief,  John  himself  having  poswssed  it, 
not  bv  reversion  as  king  (for  descendants  of  the 
first  dukes  were  then  living),  but  by  Inheritance 
derived  through  females.    Such  was  this  ques- 
tion of  succession  between  Louis  XI.  and  Mary 
of  Burgundy,  upon  the  merits  of  whose  preten- 
sions I  will  not  pretend  altogether  to  decide,  but 
shall  onl  V  observe  that,  if  Charles  had  conceived 
his  daughter  to  be  excluded  from  this  part  of 
his  inheritance,  he  would  probably,  at  Cfonflans 
or  Peronne,  where  he  treated  upon  the  vantage 
ground,  have  attempted  at  least  to  obtain  a  re- 
nunciation of  Louis's  claim.      There  was  one 
obvious  mode  of  preventing  all  further  contest, 
and  of  aggrandizing  the  French  monarchy  far 
mire  than  by  the  reunion  of  Burgundy.     This 
was  the  marriage  of  Mary  with  the  dauphin, 
which  was  ardentiv  wished  in  France."    The 
dauphin  was  a  child  of  seven  years;   Mary  of 
Burgundy  a  masculine-minded  young  woman  of 
twenty.    Probably  Louis  despaired  of  reconcil- 
ing the  latter  to  auch  a  marriage.    At  all  events, 
while  be  talked  of  It  occasionally,  he  proceeded 
actively  In  despoiling  the  young  duchess,  seizing 
Artois  and  Francbe  Comli,  and   laying  hands 
upon  the  frontier  towns  which  were  exposed  to 
his  arms.     He  embittered  her  natural  enmity  to 
him  by  various  acts  of  meanness  and  treachery. 
"Thus  the  French  alliance  becoming  odious  in 
Flanders,  this  princess  married  MHxImilian   of 
Austria,  son  of  the  Emperor  Frederic— a  con- 
nexion which  Louis  strove  to  prevent,  though  it 
was  impossible  then  to  foresee  that  it  was  or- 
dained to  retard  the  growth  and  to  bias  the  fate 
of  Europe  during  three  hundred  years.    This 
war  huted  till  after  the  death  of  Mary,  who  left 
one  son  Philip  and  one  daughter  Margaret"— U. 
Hallam,  Tht  ViddU  Aga.  eh.  1,  pi.  9— "The 
king  [Louis  XI.  1  had  reason  to  bo  more  than 
nrdinarilv  pleased  at  the  death  of  that  duke  [of 
Burgun(ly],  and  he  triumphed  more  in  his  ruin 
than  in  tliat  of  all  the  rest  of  bis  enemies,  as  he 
thought  that  nobody,  for  liw  futuri),  sitiutr  of 


846 


i 


**ii 


'« 


i 
il 


^ji 


BURQUNDT,  1477. 

hii  own  gubjccta,  or  his  neighbours,  wouM  be 
able  to  uppose  him,  or  disturb  the  tranquillity  of 
his  rclgn.  .  .  .  Although   God    Almighty    has 
shown,  and  docs  still  shiw,  that  his  determina- 
tion is  to  punish  the  family  of  Burgundy  sevrrely, 
not  only  in  the  person  of  the  duke,  but  In  thei. 
•ubjecu  and  estates;  yet  I  think  the  king  our 
master  did  not  take  right  measures  to  that  end. 
For,  if  he  had  acted  prudently,  inateRd  of  pre- 
tending to  conquer  them,  he  should  rather  have 
endeavoured  to  annex  all  those  large  territories, 
to  which  he  had  no  Just  title,  to  the  crown  of 
France  by  some  treaty  of  marriage ;  or  to  have 
gained  the  hearts  and  affections  of  the  people, 
and  so  have  brought  them  over  to  his  interest, 
which  he  might,  without  any  great  difflcultv, 
have  effected,  considering  how  their  late  alflfc- 
tions  had  impoverished  and  dejected  them.    If 
he  had  acted  after  that  manner,  he  would  not 
only  have  prevented  their  ruin  and  destruction, 
b'lt  extended  and  strengthened  his  own  kingdom, 
•nd  established  them  all  in  a  firm  and  lasting 
peace."— Philip  de  Commines,  iiemnirt,  bk.  6,  eh. 
18.—"  He  [Louis  XI.J  reassured,  caressed,  com- 
forted the  duchy  of  Burguadv,  gave  it  a  parlia- 
ment, visited  bis  good  city  of  Dijon,  swore  in 
8t   Benignus'  church  to   respect   all   the   old 
privileges  and  customs  that  could  be  sworn  to, 
and  bound  his  successors  to  do  the  same  on  their 
accession.    Burgundv  was  a  land  of  nobles;  and 
the  king  raised  a  bridge  of  eold  for  all  the  great 
lords  to  come  over  to  him.^'— J.  Michelet,  Btrt 
^(fFrana.bk.\^.eh.^-^. 

A.  D.  1477-I4«a.-Reign  of  the  Burgnndian 
htiresa  in  the  Netherlandt.— Her  marrian 
with  Maximilian  of  Anttria.  See  Nrhsr- 
IJUIDS:  A.  D.  1477. 

A.  D.  tsia.— FormatioD  of  the  Cirelt.    See 
Gcrmany:  A.  D.  1498-1819. 
^A  ?•  J544.-Renttnciation  of  the  Claim*  of 
Charlet  V.     See  France:  A.  D.  1888-1547. 


BURH,  The.    See  BonocoH. 

BURI,  The.— A  Suevic  clsn  of  Germans 
whose  settlements  were  anciently  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  mo.lem  Cracow,— Tacitus,  Otmany 
traru.  hfi  Church  and  Hrmtrihl).     Oemj  notet 

BURKE,  Edmund,  and  the  American  Rt*o- 
Intion.    See  United  States  or  Am.  :   A    I) 

1775  (Jawuakt— March) And  the  French 

RtTOlution.    See  Enoland-  A.  I),  1793-IT96 
-.T^^k^'O"'  ^o""-  •"<•  *>«•  "ip*  of  Queen 

aSnS.yi'PA'SI  CHINESE  EMBASSY 
AND  TREATIEa    See  China:  A.  D.  1857- 

BURMA :  Risaof  th«  kinrdora.— First  war 
with  tht  English  (18j4.18a6K-Ces.lon  of  a" 
■mm  and  Aracan.    Bee  India:  A.  D.  1833-]f33 

A.  D.  i8sa.— SMood  war  with  tha  Earllih! 
~k??iJ//.;C-..?*'«''"'lA:  A.  D.  1858. 
A."D"?r-?8?0^''°"''^»-    «~«coT.,x,„: 

BURNSIDE,  Canaral  Anbrea*  E.-B>p«. 

AM. :  A.  O.  18«8(Jani'aiit— Apiiil:  North  Car- 
ouRA),  .Command  of  tht  Annr  of  tha  Poto- 
,fffL  **  Un'"°  »tatwi  op  Am.  :  A.  D.  1868 

((Mtorcr-Dbckmbkr:    ViRoratA) RMira- 

mtnt  (rem  command  of  tht  Armr  of  the  Poto- 
mac.   S«  Inited  States  or  Am.  :  A  D  1888 

•f   Saat    ToaatMM.    Sea    Uitmo    fSm 


BX7TLER. 

or    Am.:   A.    D.   1868   Acotwr— Ssfxeitber' 

TKXNBsen) Defenae    of  KnosTille.     iSee 

Usited  States  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  1863  (OcTonER- 

December:   TEifNEssEE) At  the  siege  of 

Peterabttrg.  Bee  Uotted  States  or  Am.  :  A.  D 
1864  (JtrxE:  ViKGiinA),  (Jolt:  VlRoufiA).       , 

BURR,  Aaron.  See  United  States  or  Am  • 
A.  D.  1800-1801,  and  1806-1807. 

BURSCHENSCHAFT,  The.  See  Gem- 
MANY  :  A.  D.  1817-1820. 

BURU.    See  Malax  Aiicbipxlaoo. 

BUSHMEN,  The.  See  Afkica:  The  ih. 
HABrriNa  races. 

BUSHWHACKERS.— A  name  commnnlv 
given  to  the  rebel  guerrilla*  or  half-bandits  of 
the  southwest,  in  the  American  Civil  War  —  J  0 
Nicolay  and  J.  Hay,  Abraham  Lincoln,  t.  6,  p. 

BUSIRIS.— DtstroTtd  by  Diocletian.  See 
Alexandria:  A.  D.  296. 

BUSSORAH  AND  KUFA,  The  rise    jd 
impertaace  oC— In  the  first  yean  of  their  con- 
quest and  occupation  of  MesopoUmU  and  the 
Delta  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris— as  early  as 
A.   D.  688  — the  Moslems  founded  two  cities 
which  acquired  importance  hi  Mahometan  his- 
tory.   In  both  cases,  these  cities  appear  to  have 
ariara  out  of  the  need  felt  by  the  Arabs  for  more 
salubrious  sites  of  residence  than  their  predecps- 
■o™  *"  ^  .mcient  country  had  been  contented 
with.     Of   Bussorah,    or    Baasorah,    the   r'lv 
founded  in  the  Delta,  the  site  is  said  to  have  Utn 
changed  three  time*.     Kufa  was  built  on  a  plain 
very  near  to  the  neglected  city  of  Hita,  on  the 
Euphrates.     '  Kufa  and  Bussorah  .  .  .  had  a 
singular  influence  oa  the  destinies  of  the  Caliph 
ate  and  of  Islam  itself.    The  vast  majoritv  nf 
the  population  come  from   the  Peninsula 'and 
were  of  pure  Arabian  blood.    The  tribes  wlilrh 
with  their  families,  scenting  from  afar  the  prey 
of  Perala,  kept  streamhig  hito  Clmldaja  from 
every  comer  of  ArebU,  settled  chiefly  In  thrso 
two  cities.    At  Kufa,  the  races  from  Yemen  and 
the  south  predominated ;  at  Bussorah,  from  the 
north.     Rapidly  they  grew  into  two  great  and 
luxuriouscapitals,  with  an  Arab  population  .w  li 
of  from  180,000  to  800,000  souls.     On  the  lit.™ 
ture,  theology,  and  politics  of  Islam,  these  liiips 
had  a  gieater  Influence  than  the  whole  Moslem 
world  besides.  ...  The  people  became  petulant 
and  factious,  and  both  cities  grew  Into  hoil^'ds 
of  turbulence  and  sedition.    The  Bedouin  ilc 
•.nent,  conscious  of  its  strength,  was  jealmn  of 
the  Coreish,  and  Impatient  olf  whatever  clif<  keil 
ita  capricious  humour.    Thus  factions  spranir 
"P  T'hleh.  controlled  by  the  strong  and  wl.*-  ami 
of  Omar,  broke  loose  under  the  weaker  Calipli«, 
eventually  rent  tha  unity  of  Islam,  and  bKiU|.'lit 
on  diaaatroua  daya"— Sir  W.  Muir,  Annal,  ,f 
thtSartf  0aUiMl4,  eh.  IH.-Bee,  also,  Maiiomk 
TAN  Comodkot:  a.  D.  689-681. 
BUTAbA,Tke.    See  Phti-a 
BUTB'SAbMINISTRATION.    SecE.xo 
hAim:  A.  D.  1760-1768. 

BUTLBR,  Ceaeral  BeiHamio  F.— In  com- 
maad  at  Baltiorare.    See  UNrnto  Statks  or 
Am.  ;  A.  D.  1861  (Apbil-Mat:  Martland! 
UceauMaiatPortrtaaMowoe.    SeeUNiTKU 
BTATnorAM:  A.  D  1881  (Mat).....  The  Hat- 


BUTLER 


BYZANTINE  EMPIRE.  A.  D.  717. 


ten*  Bzpeditioa.    See  Unitrd  States  of  Am.  : 

A.   D.   1861  (AcouBT;    North  Carolina) 

Commajid  at  New  Orleans.  See  United 
States  OP  Am.  :  A.  D.  1883  (.May— December: 

LociuAMA) Command  of  the  Army  of  the 

Jamei.  See  Unitbo  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D. 
1864  (May:  VraonnA). 

BUTI.ER,  Walter,  and  the  Tory  and  In- 
dian partisans  of  the  American  Rerotution. 
See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1778  (Junk 
— NovE.UBEn).  and  (July). 

BUTTERNUTS.  See  Boys  in  Blue;  also 
United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1884  (October). 

BUXAR.OR  BAXAR,  OR  BAKSAR,  Bat- 
tle of  (1764).    See  India:  A.  D.  17.'57-1778. 

BYNG,  Admiral  John,  Esacutioa  ot  Bee 
Minorca  :  A.  D.  1738. 

BYRON,  Lord,  in  Greece.  See  Gruecx: 
A.  D.  1821-1829. 

BYRSA.— The  citadel  of  Carthace.  See 
Carthaoe,  The  Dominion  or. 

BYTOWN.    See  Ottawa. 

BYZACIUM.  See  Carthagb,  The  Domin- 
ion OF. 

BYZANTINE  EMPIRE.  — The  Eas-.cm 
Roman  Kmpire,  having;  its  capital  at  Byzantium 
(modem  Constantinople),  the  earlier  history  of 
which  will  be  found  sketched  under  the  caption 
Rome:   A.   D.   8t>4h-895,   to  717-«00,   has  been 

Sken.  in  its  later  years,  the  name  of  the  Byzan- 
ne  Empire.  The  propriety  of  this  designation 
Is  questioned  by  some  historians,  and  tlie  time 
when  it  l)egins  to  be  appropriate  is  likewise  a 
subject  of  debate.  For  some  discussion  of  these 
questions,  see  Romb:  A.  D.  717-800. 

Its  part  in  history.— Its  defence  of  Europe. 
— Its  ciTilising  influence.— "The  later  Roman 
Empire  was  the  bulwark  of  E'lrone  airalnst  the 
oriental  danger;  Hauricr  and  .'.jracfiui'.  Con- 
■tantine  IV.  and  Leo  die  I>  jrian  ^erc  Cue  suc- 
cessors of  Themistocles  and  AfHcunus.  .  .  . 
Until  the  days  o'  the  crusailcs,  the  Qermnn 
nations  did  not  combine  with  the  Empire  against 
the  common  foe.  Nor  did  the  Teutons,  by 
themselves,  achiere  any  successof  ecumenical  Im- 
portance against  .lon-Arvan  races.  I  may  be 
reminded  that  Charles  the  Orent  exterminated 
the  Avars;  but  that  was  after  they  had  cease<l  to 
I*  really  dangerous.  When  there  existed  a 
tnily  fnrmtdablc  Avar  monarchy  It  was  the 
Roman  Kmpire  that  bore  tlie  brunt;  and  yet 
while  most  people  who  read  history  know  of  the 
Avar  war  of  Charles,  how  few  there  arc  who 
have  ever  hrard  of  Priscus,  the  gcmml  who  k<i 
bravely  warned  against  the  Avars  in  the  rrlgn  of 
Maurice.  I  may  bo  remimU'd  that  Charles  Mnrtcl 
won  a  great  name  by  victories  in  southern  Gaul 
over  the  Saracens;  yet  those  successes  sink  Into 
Insignificance  by  the  side  of  tho  achievement  of 
bit  contemporary,  the  tlilnl  Lj-o,  who  held  the 
gate  of  eastern  Europe  against  all  the  forces 
which  the  Saracen  pow<  r,  then  at  lu  height, 
cnuld  mutter.  Every  oiif  knows  about  the  ex- 
ploits of  the  Prank;  it  is  almost  Incredible  how 
little  Is  known  of  the  Roman  Emperor's  defence 
of  the  greatest  city  of  Christian  Europe,  In  the 
quarter  where  the  real  danger  Uy.  .  .  .  The  Em- 
pire was  much  more  than  the  mtliury  guard  of 
the  Asiatic  frontier;  it  not  only  defended  Imt 
sito  kept  alive  the  trwllllons  of  Greek  and 
Homsii  culture.  We  cannot  orer-estimate  the 
Importance  of  the  presence  of  a  highly  clvlllsul 
■•••  lor  ■  system  of  aatlons  whicli  were  as  vet 


only  beginning  to  be  civilised.  The  constant, 
intercourse  of  tho  Empire  with  Italy,  which 
until  the  eleventh  century  was  partly  imperial, 
and  with  southern  Qaul  and  Spain,  had  an  in- 
calculable intiuence  on  the  development  of 
the  West.  Venice,  which  contributed  so  much 
to  the  growth  of  western  culture,  was  for  a  long 
time  actually,  and  for  a  much  longer  time  nomi- 
nally, a  city  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  learned 
what  it  taught  from  Byzantium.  The  Byzan- 
tine was  the  mother  of  the  Italian  school  of 
painting,  as  Greece  in  the  old  days  had  been  the 
mistress  of  Rome  in  the  fine  arts ;  and  the  Byzan- 
tine style  J  architecture  has  had  perhaps  a 
wider  influence  than  any  other.  It  was  to  New 
Rome  that  the  Teutonic  kings  applied  when 
they  needed  men  of  learning,  and  thither  stu- 
dents from  western  countries,  who  desired  a 
university  education,  repaired.  ...  It  was. 
moreover.  In  the  lands  ruled  by  New  Rome  that 
old  Hellenic  culture  and  the  monuments  of  Hel- 
lenic literature  were  preserved,  as  in  a  secure 
storehouse,  to  be  given  at  length  to  the  '  wild 
nations '  when  they  had  been  sufSciently  tamed. 
And  in  their  taming  New  Rome  played  an  in- 
dispensable part.  The  Justinian  law,  which 
still  interpenetrates  European  civilisation,  was  a 
product  of  New  Rome.  In  the  third  place  the 
Roman  Empire  for  many  centuries  entirely 
maintained  European  commerce.  This  was  a 
circumstance  of  the  greatest  Importance;  but 
unfortunately  It  is  one  of  those  facts  concerning 
which  contemporary  historians  did  not  think  oT 
leaving  records  to  posterity.  The  fact  that  the 
coins  of  the  Roman  Emperors  were  used  through- 
out Europe  hi  the  Midole  Ages  speaks  for  itself. 
...  In  the  fourth  place,  the  Roman  Empire 
preserved  a  great  idea  which  induenced  the 
whole  course  of  western  Europeon  history  do'vn 
to  the  present  day— the  idea  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire itself.  If  we  look  at  the  ecumenical  event 
of  800  A.  D.  from  a  wide  point  of  view,  it  really 
resolves  itself  into  this:  New  Rome  bestowed 
upon  the  western  nations  a  great  idea,  which 
moulded  and  ordered  their  future  history;  she 
gave  back  to  Old  Rome  the  idea  which  Old 
Rome  bestowed  upon  her  five  centuries  before. 
.  .  .  If  Cons(antinople  and  the  Empire  bad 
fallen,  the  imperial  idea  would  have  been  lost  in 
the  whirl  of  the  '  wild  natlo"t. '  It  Is  to  New 
Rome  that  Europeans  really  owe  thanks  for  the 
establishment  of  the  principle  and  tho  system 
which  brought  law  and  order  Into  the  political 
relations  of  the  West"— J.  B.  Bury,  Hittory  0} 
the  Littr  Roman  Empire.     S(>e  TiunE. 

A.  D.  7x7.— Us  organisation  br  Lm  th« 
Isaurian. — "  The  nccessinn  of  Leo  the  Issurian 
to  the  throne  of  Coniiti'.itiiiople  suddenly  opened 
a  new  era  In  the  history  of  the  Eastern  Empire. 
.  .  .  When  Leo  III.  was  proclaimed  emperor 
[A.  D.  717],  It  seemed  as  ft  no  human  nowtr 
could  save  Constantinople  from  falling  as  Roma 
had  fallen.  The  Saracens  considered  the  sov- 
ereignty of  every  land,  in  which  any  remains  of 
R'  man  civilization  survived,  as  within  their 
grasp.  Leo.  an  Isaurian,  and  an  Iconoclast,  con- 
sequently a  foreigner  and  a  heretic,  ascended  the 
throne  of  Constantine  and  arrested  the  victorious 
career  of  the  Mohammedans.  He  then  reorgan- 
ized the  whole  administration  so  completely  hi 
acconlance  with  the  new  exigencies  of  Biastem 
society  that  the  reformed  empire  oulllvetl  for 
many  cent-:ri«s  every  government  cuntemporary 


847 


-sM 


?; 


BYZANTINE  KMPIHE.  A.  D.  717. 

with  iti  ntabllghment.  The  Enstern  Roman 
Empire,  thus  refonned,  ii  called  by  ii:odeni  hi8- 
toriangthe  Byzantine  Empire:  and  the  term  is 
well  devised  to  mark  the  changes  effected  in  the 
government,  after  the  extinction  of  the  last 
tncesof  the  military  monarehy  of  ancient  Rome. 
.  .  .  The  provincial  divisions  of  tlie  Roman 
Empire  had  fallen  into  oblivion.  A  new 
geographical  arrangement  into  Themes  appeara 
to  have  been  established  by  Heraclius,  when  he 
recovered  the  As<atic  provinces  from  the  Per- 
sians; it  was  reorganized  by  Leo,  and  endured 
as  long  as  the  Byzantine  government.  The 
number  of  themes  varied  at  different  periods. 
The  Emperor  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus, 
writing  about  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century, 
counts  sixteen  in  the  Asiatic  portion  of  toe 
Empire  and  twelve  in  the  European.  .  .  .  The 
European  provinces  were  divided  into  eight  con- 
ttneDtal  and  five  insular  or  transmarine  tfaemea, 
until  the  loss  of  the  exarehate  of  Ravenna  re- 
duced the  number  to  twelve.  Venice  and 
Naples,  though  they  acknowledged  the  suzer- 
ainty of  the  Eastern  Empire,  acted  generally  as 
independent  cities.  .  .  ,  When  Leo  was  raised  to 
the  throne  the  Empire  was  threatened  with  Im- 
mediate ruin.  .  .  .  Every  army  assembled  to 
-ncounter  the  Saracens  broke  out  into  rebellion, 
.'he  Bulgarians  and  Sclavonians  wasted  Europe 
up  to  the  walls  of  Constantinople;  t!'e  Saracens 
ravaged  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor  to  the  shores 
of  the  Bosphorus."— O.  FInlay,  JIM.  <ff  tkt 
Bjfiantint  Empire,  bk.  1,  eh.  I. 

Also  -»:  E.  W.  Brooks,  Tht  Emptror  Zenon 
andthe /iaunaruiEnolUh Hitt.  lin.,  April,  1898). 

A.  D.  717-797.— The  Isaurian  dynMfy.— The 
dynasty  founded  by  Leo  the  Isaurian  held  the 
throne  until  the  dethronement  of  Constantine  VL 
by  his  mother,  Irene,  A.  D.  797,  and  her  de- 
thronement, in  turn  by  NIcephorus  I.,  A.  D.  802. 
It  embnici-d  the  following  reigns:  Constantine 
v.,  called  Copronymus,  A  D.  741-775;  Leo  IV., 
77.'i-780;  Constantine  VL,  780-797;   Irene,  797- 

ana. 

A.  D.  736-751.— The  Iconoclaatic  Contro- 
▼ersr.— Rupture  with  the  West.— Fall  of  the 
Exarchate  of  RaTenna.- End  of  anthority  in 
Italy.  See  Iconoclastic  Co.ntrovirsy,  and 
Papacy  :  A.  D.  738-774. 

A.  D.  Soa-Saa— Emperors :  Nicpbonis  L, 
A.  D.  80a-«ll ;  SUaracius,  A  D.  811;  Michael 
I.,  A.  D.  811-818;  Lto  v.,  A.  D.  813-820. 

A.  D.  S03.— Treaty  with  Charlemagne,  fix- 
inr  bouadariet.     See  Vknicb:  A.  D.  897-810. 

A.  D.  830-1057.- The  Amorianand  Baailian 
or  Macedonian  dynaatict.— MIrhacI,  the 
Amnrian  (820-829)  so  named  from  his  hirth-place, 
Amorium,  in  Phry  gia,  was  a  soldier,  raised  to  the 
throne  by  a  revolution  which  deposed  and 
anaaslnated  his  friend  and  patron,  the  Emperor 
Leo  V.  Michael  transmitted  the  crown  to  his 
son  (Theonhilus.  829-843)  and  grandson.  The 
Utter,  caltaHi  Mirlmel  the  Drunkard,  was  con- 
snired  against  and  killed  by  one  of  the  companions 
01  hU drunken orL'te»(887),  Basil  the  Macedonian, 
who  liHd  t)een  In  early  life  a  groom.  Basil 
founik'd  a  dynasty  whicD  reigned,  with  several 
InK-rruptlnns,  from  A.  D.  887  to  10."S7  — a  period 
rovtriiig  tlie  following  reigns:  Basil  I..  A  D 
B«7-HKe;  Leo  VI..  A.  D.  8*V-91I;  Constantine 
VII.  (I'orphyrogenltus).  A.  D.  911-9.V);  Komanus 
I  (Colleague),  A  D.  919-944:  Constantino  VIII. 
tUoUeague),  ▲.   D.  944;   Rumaous  IL,  A.  D. 


BYZANTINB  EMPIRE,  1087-1081. 

989-983;  Nicephom*  II.,  A.  D.  988-989;  John 
Zimisces,  A.  D.  969-978;  Basil  IL,  A.  D.  96»- 
1028;  Constantine  IX.,  A.  D.  988-1028;  Romanus 
IIL,  A.  D.  1028-1084;  Michael  IV.,  A.  D.  1034- 
1041;  Michael  V.,  A.  D.  1041-1042;  Zoe  and 
Theodora,  A.  D.  1042-1088;  Constantine  X 
A.  D.  1042-1054;  Michael  VL,  A.  D.  1056-1057 

A.  D.  865-1043. —  Wars,  commerce  and 
Church  Connection  with  the  Rusaians.  See 
Rdbsiavb:  a.  D.  885-900;  alsoCONBTAUTiNoPLZ- 
A.  D.  868  and  907-1048. 

A.  D.  870-1016.— Fresh  acquisitions  in  South- 
ern Italy.  See  Italy  (SotrrHXBii):  A.  D.  800- 
1018. 

A.  D.  963-1035.- Recovery  of  prestige  and 
territory. — "Amidst  all  the  r-lmcs  and  revolu- 
tions of  the  Byzantine  govi,  nent  — and  its 
history  is  but  a  series  of  crimes  and  revolutions 
—  it  was  never  dismembered  by  Intestine  war. 
A  sedition  in  the  army,  a  tumult  in  the  theatre, 
a  conspiracy  in  tBe  palace,  precipitated  a  mon- 
arch from  the  throne;  but  the  allegiance  of  Con- 
stantinople was  instantly  transferred  to  his  suc- 
cessor, and  the  provinces  implicitly  obeyed  the 
voice  of  the  capital.  The  custom,  too,  of  parti- 
tion, so  baneful  to  the  Latin  kingdoms,  and 
which  was  not  altogether  unknown  to  the  Sara- 
cens, never  prevailed  in  the  Greek  Empire.  It 
stood  In  the  middle  of  tlie  tenth  century,  as 
vicious  Indeed  and  cowardly,  but  more  wealthy, 
more  enlightened,  and  far  more  secure  from  its 
enemies  than  under  the  flret  successors  of  Herac- 
lius. For  about  one  hundred  yean  preceding 
there  had  been  only  p&rtial  wars  with  the  Mo- 
hammedan potentates;  and  in  these  the  emperors 
seem  gradually  to  have  gained  the  advantage, 
and  to  have  i>eoome  more  frequently  the  aggres- 
sors. But  the  increasing  distractions  nf  the  East 
encourage)  iwo  brave  usurpers,  NIcephorus 
Phocas  ana  John  Zimisces,  to  attempt  tta 
actual  recovery  of  the  lost  provinces.  .Tjey 
carried  the  Roman  arms  (one  may  use  the  term 
with  less  reluctance  than  usual)  over  Syria; 
Antioch  and  Aleppo  were  taken  by  storm; 
Damascus  submltt.Hl ;  even  the  cities  of  Mesopo- 
tamia, beyond  the  ancient  boundary  of  the 
Euphrates,  were  added  to  the  trophies  of  Zim- 
isces, who  unwillingly  spare<l  tlie  capital  of  the 
Kli»llfate.  From  such  distant  conquests  It  wu 
expedient,  and  indeed  necessary  to  wlllulraw; 
but  Cilicla  and  Antioch  were  pprmancnlly  re- 
stored to  the  Empire.  At  the  close  of  tlio  tenth 
century  the  empcrore  of  Constantinople  pos- 
sessed the  best  aud  greatest  portion  of  the 
modem  kingdom  of  Naples,  a  part  of  Sicily,  the 
whole  [present]  European  dominions  ot  the 
Ottomans,  the  province  of  Anatolia  or  Asia 
Minor,  with  some  port  of  Syria  and  Armenia."— 
H.  Hallam,  Tht  MiddU  Age;  eh.  8. 

A.D.  970-IUI4.— RscovetTafBnlgaria.  See 
Const ahtikoplb:   A.   D.  907-1043;  also  Bcl- 

OAHIA,  and  ACBKIDA. 

A.  O.  1054.— Ecclesiastical  divlslea  of  the 
Bssttm  from  ths  Roman  Church.  See  Fii.i- 
OQtnt  CoimtovERsv,  and  OnxHODOx  CiirRCH. 

A.  D.  loS7-ioSt.— Between  the  Basilian  and 
ths  Comosaiaa  dynasties.— A  dark  period.- 
"  The  moment  that  the  last  of  the  MiicpilnnlHn 
dynasty  was  gone,  the  elements  of  diTDrl 
seemea  unchained,  and  the  double  i<coiiri;i'  nf 
civil  war  and  foreign  invasion  begsn  to  Htfll'  t 
the  empire.  In  the  twenty  four  yesrs  t»'iwiin 
1087  add  1061  were  prBsaud  more  disast«n  than 


348 


BTZANTINE  EMPIRE,  1057-108t 

kid  been  leen  in  any  other  period  of  East  Roman 
histoiT.  ure  perhaps  the  leign  of  Heraclius. 
.  .  .  The  aged  Theodora  had  named  as  her  suc- 
cessor on  the  throne  Michael  Stratlocus,  a  con- 
temporary of  her  own  who  had  been  an  able 
soldier  25  years  back.  But  Michael  VI.  was 
grown  aged  and  incompetent,  and  the  empire 
was  full  of  ambitious  generals,  who  would  not 
tolerate  a  dotard  on  the  throne.  Before  a  year 
had  piused  a  band  of  great  Asiatic  nobles  en- 
tered into  a  conspiracy  to  overturn  Michael,  and 
replace  him  by  Isaac  Comnenus,  the  chief  of  one 
of  the  ancient  Cappadocian  houses,  and  the  most 
popular  general  of  the  East.  Isaac  Comnenus 
tnd  bis  friends  took  arms,  and  dispossessed  the 
aged  Michael  of  his  throne  with  little  difficulty. 
But  a  curse  seemed  to  rest  upon  the  usurpation; 
Isaac  WKS  stricken  down  by  disease  when  he  had 
been  little  more  than  a  year  on  the  throne,  and 
retired  to  a  monastery  to  die.  'His  crown  was 
transferred  to  Constantine  Ducas,  another  Cap- 
padocian noble,"  who  reigned  for  seven  troubled 
years.  His  three  immediate  successors  were 
Roraanus  IV.,  A.  D.  1087-1071;  Micliael  VII 
A.  U.  1071-1078;  Nicephonis  III.,  A.  D.  Um^ 
1081.— C.  W.  C.  Oman,  The  Story  of  the  SJitan- 
tiiu  Enpiri,  eh.  80. 

A.  D.  io63-i09a.— DiiMtera  in  AbU  Minor. 
See  TiHKS  (Skuuks):  A.  D.  1063-1073 ;  and 
A.  D.  1075-1098. 

A.  D.  1064.— Grc  .t  rerlTal  of  pilarinuufes 
from  Weitem  Europe  to  tho  Holy  LutdTSee 
Crcbapes:  Causes,  etc. 

A.  D.  1081.— The  enthronement  of  the 
Cemnenian  Dyiuety.    See   Const antisoplk  • 

A.  a  losi. 

A.  D.  1081-10(5.— Attempted  Norman  con- 
ouest  from  Southern  Italy.—  Itobcrt  Ouiscard 
the  Norman  adventurer  who  had  carved  for  him- 
self a  principality  in  eouthem  Italy  and  acquired 
the  title  of  Duke  of  Apulia,—  his  duchy  coincid- 
ing with  the  subsequent  Norman  kingdom  of 
Naples  —  conceived  the  ambitious  design  of  add- 
ing the  Byzantine  Empire  to  his  estate.  His 
conqiieaU  in  Italy  had  been  mostly  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  Byzantine  dominions,  and  he  be- 
ilcveil  that  he  had  measured  the  strength  of  tlie 
degenerate  Roman  Greeks.  He  was  encouraged 
moreover,  by  Uie  successive  revolutions  which 
tossed  the  imperial  crown  from  hand  to  hand 
Slid  which  had  Just  given  It  to  the  Comnenian, 
Alexius  I.  Beyond  ail,  he  had  a  claim  of  right 
to  Interfere  in  the  affair*  of  the  Empire;  for  his 
young  il.iughtcr  was  betrotlii-d  to  the  heirex- 
pemnt  whose  expectations  were  now  vanishing 
snd  had  actually  been  sent  to  ConsUntinople  to 
receive  her  education  for  the  throne.  To  pro- 
mote Ills  bold  underUking,  Robert  obtained  the 
apim.vBl  of  the  pope,  and  an  absolution  for  all 
who  would  join  his  ranks.  Thus  sDiritually 
equipped,  the  Norman  duke  Invaded  (freece  in 
thesuinmerof  1081,  with  150  ships  and  30.000 
men  .Miiking  himself  master,  on  the  way.  of 
thcls.mi.i  of  Corcyra  (Corfu),  and  taking  several 
port*  on  the  mainland,  he  laid  siege  to  Dyrra- 
.hlum,  ...id  found  it  a  most  obsttante  fo-tidcatlon 
to  red.ie...    It,  massive  ancient  wallc  delicd  the 

1^ ,'  J^  K  f^  Ouiscard  gained  possession  of 
k-  u,»n  bv  the  tr«ichery  of  one  of  It.  .lefend- 
'.N  Mciii  tinu;  the  Noi  mans  had  routed  an.|  soat- 
1^.^  on,,  large  army,  which  the  Emper,,r  Al«!ril., 
W  ia  prrsua  to  ih«  ttlM  of  Dyrmmiumi  but 


849 


BYZANTINE  EIhPIRE,  U4«. 

the  fortified  towns  In  Illyrla  and  Epirua  delayed 
their  advance  toward  Constantinople.  Robert 
was  called  home  to  Italy  by  important  affairs  and 
J  Is  *""  ^hemund  (the  subsequent  Crusader 
and  Prince  of  Antioch),  in  command.  Bohemund 
defeated  Alexius  again  in  the  spring  of  1083,  and 
rtill  a  third  time  the  following  autumn.  AU 
Epirus  was  overrun  and  Macedonia  and  Thesaaly 
invaded;  but  the  Normans,  while  besieging 
Larlisa,  were  undone  by  a  stratagem,  lost  theS 
camp  and  found  It  necessary  to  retreat  Robert 
was  then  just  reentering  the  field,  in  person,  and 
had  won  an  important  naval  battle  at  Corfu 
over  the  combined  Greeks  and  Venetians,  wheii 
he  died  (July,  1085),  and  hia  project  of  conquest 
in  Greece  ended  with  him.  Twenty  years  after- 
wards, his  son  Bohemund,  when  Prince  of  An- 
tioch, and  quarreling  with  the  Byzanttaes, 
gathered  a  crusading  army  in  Prance  and  Italy 
to  lead  it  against  Constantinople;  but  it  was 
stepped  by  stubborn  Dyrrachium,  and  jever  got 
beyond.  Alexius  had  recovered  that  strong 
coast  defence  shortly  after  Robert  Ouiscard  1 
death,  with  the  help  of  the  Venetians  and  Amal- 
flans.  B>  way  of  reward,  those  merchant  alliea 
received  important  commercial  privileges,  and 
the  title  of  Venice  to  the  sovereig-.ity  01  Dalma- 
tia  and  Croatia  was  recognized.  ' '  From  this  time 
the  doge  appears  to  have  styled  himself  lord  of 
the  kingdoms  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia."— G 
Finlay,  HiH.  of  the  Bymntine  and  Greek  Empire*. 
it.  8,  eh.  a,  tet.X. 

A.  D.  to8i-i  185.— The  Comnenian  emperor*. 
—  Alexius  I.,  A.  D.  1081-1118;  John  II.,  A.  D. 
1118-1143;  Manuel  I.,  A.  D.  1143-1181;  Alexius 
II.,  A.  D.  1181-1188;  Andronicus  I.,  A.  D.  1188- 

A.  D.  1096.1097.— The  pusag*  of  the  firrt 
Crutadert.    See  Crusades:  A.  D.  1099-lOW. 

A.  D.  1146.— DeatnictiTe  iuTaaion  of  Rorer- 
king:  of  Sidly.— Sack  of  Thebee  and  Corinio. 
—When  Roger,  king  of  Sicily,  united  the  Nor- 
man possessions  in  Southern  Italy  to  his  Sicilian 
realm  he  became  ambitious,  in  his  turn,  tft 
acquire  some  part  of  the  Byzantine  possessions. 
His  single  attack,  however,  made  simultaneously 
with  the  second  crusading  movement  (A.  D. 
1146),  amounted  to  no  more  than  a  great  and 
destructive  plundering  raid  in  Greece.  An 
insurrection  in  Corfu  gave  that  island  to  him, 
after  which  his  fleet  rav.igcd  the  coastaof  Euboea 
and  Attica,  Acamanii  and  jElalla.  "It  then 
entered  the  gulf  of  Oorinlh,  and  debarked  a  body 
of  troops  at  Criasa.  This  force  niart;hed  through 
the  country  to  Thebes,  plundering  every  town 
and  village  on  the  wav.  Thebes  offered  no 
resistance,  and  was  plundered  in  the  most  deliber- 
ate and  barbarous  macner.  The  inhabitanU 
were  numerous  and  wealthy.  The  soil  of 
B<votia  is  extremely  productive,  and  numerous 
manufactures  establigbe<i  in  the  city  c .  Thebes 
gave  additional  value  to  the  abundant  produce 
of  agricultural  Industry.  .  .  .  All  military  spiri* 
was  now  dead,  and  the  Thcbans  had  so  long 
lived  without  any  fear  of  invasion  tliat  tliey  had 
not  even  adopted  any  effectual  measures  to 
secure  or  conceal  their  movable  nrop<.'rty.  The 
conquerora,  ar^un  against  all  danger  of  Inter- 
ruption, plundered  Thelies  at  their  Visure.  .  .  . 
Whe,.  all  ordinwr  means  of  collecting  booty 
were  exhausted,  the  citizens  were  compellod  to 
take  an  oath  on  the  Hnlv  Serintur; « that  they 
had  n^t  cononaled  any  ponion  of  tiwir  pivpvtgr 


It! 


'li 


BTZANmrSBMratB,  1146. 

jet  many  of  the  wealthiest  were  dragged  away 
captive,  in  oriltr  to  profit  by  their  ratuom;  and 
m.my  of  the  most  sltilful  workmen  in  the  silk- 
manufuctories,  for  which  Thebes  had  long  been 
famous,  were  pressed  on  board  the  fleet  to  labour 
at  the  our.  .  .  .  B<.-njamin  of  Tudcla,  who  visited 
1  hcbcs  about  twenty  years  later,  or  perhaps  in 
1161,  speaks  of  it  as  then  a  large  city,  with  two 
thousand  Jewish  Inhabitaute,  who  were  the  most 
eminent  manufacturers  of  silk  and  purple  cloth 
n  all  Greece.     The  silks  of  Thebes  continued  to 
be  celebrated  as  of  superior  quality  after  this 
invasion.  .  .  .  From  Boeotia  the  army  passed  to 
Corinth.  .  .  .  Corinth  was  sacked  as  cruelly  as 
Thebes;  men  of  rank,   beautiful  women,   and 
skilful  artisans,  with  their  wives  and  families 
were  carried    away   into   captivity.  .  .  .  This 
Invarion  of  Greece  was  conducted  entirely  as  a 
plundering  expedition.  .  .  .  Corfu  was  the  only 
conquest  of  which  Roger  retained  possession ; 
yet  this  passing  Invasion  Is  the  period  ftom  which 
tlie  decline  of  Byzantine  Greece  Is  to  be  dated. 
The  century  and-a-half  which  preceded  this  dis- 
aster had  passed  In  uninterrupted  tranuuiUity. 
and  the  Greek  people  bad  increased  rapidly  In 
numbers  and  wealth.    The  power  of  the  Scln- 
vonlan  population  sank  with  the  ruin  of  the 
kingdom  of  Achridaj  and  the  ScUvonians  who 
now  dwelt  In  Greece  were  peaceable  cultlvatore 
of  the  soil  or  graziers.    The  Greek  population, 
on  the  other   hand,   was  in    possession  of   an 
extensive  commerce  and  many  flourishing  manu- 
fivctures.     The  ruin  of  this  commetxa  and  of 
these  manufactures  has  been  ascribed   to  the 
tnmsferenco  of  the  silk  trade  from  Thebes  and 
Corinth  to  Palermo,  under  the  Judicious  pro- 
tection It  n-celved  from  Rc^'er;  but  It  would  be 
more   correct  to  eay  that  the  Injudicious  and 
oppressive  financial  administration  of  the  Byzan- 
tine Emperors  destroyed  the  commercial  pros- 
perity and  manufacturing  Industry  (  '  the  Greeks  • 
while  the  wise  liberality  and   intelligent  pro- 
tection of  the  Norman  kings  extended  the  com- 
merce and  Increased  the  Industry  of  the  Sicilians 
When  the  Sicilian  fleet  returned  to  Palermo 
Kogcr  determined  to  employ  all  the  silk-manu- 
facturers In  their  original  occupations.    He  con- 
sequently collected  all  their  families  together 
and  settled  them  at  Palermo,  supplying  them 
with  the  means  of  exercising  their  Industry  with 
profit  to  themselves,  and  inducing  thorn  to  teach 
his  own  subjccu  to   manufacture  the  richest 
brocades,  and  to  rival  the  rarest  productions  of 
the  East  ...  It  Is  not  remarkable   that  the 
commerce  and   manufactures  of   Greece   were 
transferred  in  the  course  of  another  century  to 

and  Greek  Emri'-t,  from  716  to  1458,  4*.  8,  eh.  2 

^P-  "47:J«4»— Tronbit  with  th«  Gcraum 
f, .,  ,f?i?'"  Cru«»d«rfc  See  Crusades:  A.  D 
1147-1149 


BTZAN-nni!  EMPIRE,  1808-1204 

oratemmlble  m  before  his  coronation,  and 

received  no  tlutiure  of  manliness  or  virtue  from 
that  ceremony.    In  the  second  year  of  his  reiT 

wtiif  "EiF'"    ""t  •^°"l  "'  '"  Bulgarian  4d 
Wallachlan    provinces  by  a  successful  revolt 
In  the  ten^  year  (A.  D.  1193),  Isaac  was  pushed 
from  his  ttrone,  deprived  of  sight  and  shut  ud 
in  a  dungeon,  by  a  brother  of  equal  worthless- 
ness,   who   styled   himself  Alexius  III.     The 
latter  neglected,  however,  to  secure  the  person 
2;.n«      ^  "on  Aiexjua.  who  escaped  fmnVCoD- 
^  mP'®  »"<*  mxie  Jjls  way  to  his  sister,  wife 
of  Philip,  the  German  King  and  cUim.-iiit  of 
the  western  hnpcrial  crown.    Philip  theriMinon 
plotted  with  the  Venetians  to  divert  the  giZ 
crusading  expedition,  then  assembling  to  take 
ship  at  Venice,  and  to  employ  It  for  the  Rstora 
Won  of  young  Alexius  aiul  his  father  laiac  to 
the  Byzantine  throne.    The  cunning  and  ner- 
moxia   means   by   which   tiiat  divlrsion  V'a 
brought  about  are  relatcnl  In  another  place  fsee 
Crusades:  A.  D  1801-1808).    The  ^at  £ 
of  the  crusading  fliibustere  arrived  In  the  Ros- 
phorui  near  the  end  of  June,  1803.    The  arn-v 
which  It  bore  was  landed  first  on  the  A  .iatf- 
side  of  the  strait,  opposite  the  Imperial  city 
After  ten  days  of  parley  and  preparation  It  wis 
conveyed  across  the  water  and  began  Us  attack. 
^e  towers  gua-ding  the  entrance  to  the  Golden 
Horn  — the    harbor   of   Constantinople  —  were 
captured    the  chain  removed,  the  harlmr  occu- 
pied, and  the  Imperial  fleet  seized  or  destroyed 
On  Uie  1  .th  of  July  a  combined  as,sault  by  laud 
and  water  was  made  on  the  walls  of  the  city  at 
their  northwest  corner,  near  the  Blaehera  palace 
where  they  presentetl  one  face  to  the  Horn  and 
Mother  to  the  land.    The  land-attack  failed 
I  he  Venetians,  from  their  ships,  stormed  twenty- 
five  towers,  gained  possession  of  a  long  stretch 
or  the  wall,  and  pushed  into  the  city  far  euough 
to  start  a  conflagration  which  spread  ruin  over 
an  extensive  district.    They  could  not  hold  tlielr 
ground,  and  withdrew  ;  but  the  result  was  a 
victory.    The  cowardly  Emperor,  Alexius  III 
fled  from  the  city  that  nigiit,  and  blind  old  Isajic 
Ajg  lus  was  restored  to  the  throne.    He  was 
ready  to  associate  his  son  In  the  sovereipniv.  and 
to  fulfill,  If  he  could,  the  contracU  whic'li  the 
tatter  had  made  with  Venetians  and  Cru^ulers. 
These  invaders  had  now  no  present  excuse  for 
making  war  on  Constantinople  any  further.    But 
the  excuse  was  soon  found.    Money  to  pay  their 
heavy  claims  could  not  bo  raised,  and  tli<ir  hato- 
fulness  to  the  Greeks  was  Increased  b-  the  in- 
solence of  their  demeanor.     A  serious  "collision 
occurred  at  length,  provoked  by  the  plumlc  ring 
°'  ■  S^nomctan  mosijuc  which  the  Byziiutinea 


A.  D.  Ii8s-ia04.— The  Annll.— laaac  II 

1808;  Altxini  IV.,  A.  I».  1203-1804. 

A.  p.  iao3-iao4.-Iti  orerthrew  by  the 
VtBetiana  ana  Crus«deri.-S«ek  of  CoBttaa- 
tinople.— The  lastof  the  Comnenlan  Emperors 

J  K  J"?'*Ji'?'-'''«  •'"''»'  Andronlcus  I.— 
Sl«w  i'"*"^.''  y. '?,  *  '■"■'  iMurrectlon  at  Con- 
stantinople which  his  tyranny  provoked.  A.   D. 

.11,  -I  Jli*!!"*?"':  ^"""^  Angelas,   collater- 
My  leUted  to  ths  Imperial  JjoSse,  bad  been  a 


had  tolerated  In  their  capital.  Once  "mor.',  on 
this  occasion,  the  splendid  city  was  fired  liy  the 
ruthless  invaders,  and  an  immense  district  lu  the 
richest  and  most  populous  part  was  desiroved, 
while  many  of  the  Inhabitants  perished.  'The 
'"»  '"•«d  two  days  and  nights,  sweeping  a 
wide  belt  from  the  harlxir  to  the  Marmora.  The 
suburU  of  Constantinople  were  pillaged  and 
ruined  by  the  Latin  soldiery,  and  muve  and 
more  It  became  Impossible  for  the  two  n^tnred 
eoiperors  to  raise  money  for  paying  the  claiiru  of 
the  Crusadcn  who  bad  champlomil  them.  Their 
subjecu  bated  them  and  were  clespcraio  At 
Jut,  In  January,  1804,  the  public  feeling  of 
Oonstutlnople  flamed  out  In  a  revolution  which 
crowuMd  a  new  emperor,— one  Alexis  Uucss, 


If 


350 


BTZAirmn:  empire,  1203-1204. 

nicknamed  Mourtzophloa,  on  account  of  bli  eye- 
brows, which  met    A  few  days  afterwards,  witli 
suspicious   opportuneness,   Isaac   and   Alexius 
died.    Then  both  sides  entered  upon  active  pre- 
parotioDs  for  serious  war;  but  it  was  not  until 
April  Otii  tliat  the  Crusaders  and  Venetians  were 
Kiuiy  to  assail  the  walls  once  more.    The  first 
assault  was  repelled,  with  heavy  loa<  to  the  be- 
siugcrs.    They  rested  two  days  and  repeated  the 
attack  on  the  12tb  with  irresistible  resolution 
and  fury.    The  towers  were  taken,  the  gates 
were  bmkcn  down,  knights  and  soldiers  poured 
into  the  fatc<l  city,  killing  without  mercy,  burning 
witlinutscniple— atartingatliirdappailingconlla- 
Kration  which  Uid  another  wide  district  in  ruins. 
The  new  emperor  fled,  the  tmops  laid  down 
their  irms,— Constantinople  was  couqucred  and 
prostrate.    ' '  Then  began  the  plunder  of  the  city. 
The   imperial   treasurr    and  the  arsenal  wct« 
placed  under  guard  ;  but  with  these  exceptions 
the  rigl't  to  plunder  was  given  indiscriminately 
to  the  troops  and  sailors.    Never  in  Europe  was 
a   work   of   pillage    more  systematically  and 
shamelessly  carried  out.    Never  by  the  army  of 
a  Christian  state  was  there  a  more  barbarous 
sack  of  a  city  than  that  perpetrated  by  these 
soldiers  of  Chr^t,  sworn  to  chastity,  pledged  be- 
fore God  not  til  sheu  Christian  blood,  and  bearing 
upon  them  the  emblem  of  the  Prince  of  Peace. 
.  .  .  'Never  since  the  world  was  created,' says 
the  .Marshal  [Villehnrdouin] '  was  there  so  much 
booty  gained  in  one  city.    Each  man  took  the 
liouse  which  pleased  him,  and  there  were  enough 
for  all.    Those  who  were  poor  found  themselves 
luddenly  rich.     There  was  captured  an  immense 
supply  of  gold  and  silver,  of  plate  aud  of  precious 
Hones,  of  satins  and  «f  silk,  of  furs  and  of  every 
kind  of  wealth  ever  found  upon  tlic  earth.' .  .  . 
riie  Greek  eye-witness  [Xiccliis]  gives  the  com- 
plement of  the  picture  of  Viiielianlouin.    The 
lust  of  the  army  spared  neither  maiden  nor  the 
virgin  dedicated  to  God.    Violence  and  debauch- 
ery were  everywhere  present .  cries  and  liimen- 
tations  and  the  groiius  of  the  victims  were  heard 
throughout  the   city  ;  for  everywhere   -pillage 
"•••'    ed.  .  .  .  A 
^  in  the 
ise.  .  .  . 
-  .nt-.-rend 
'ii?  were 
..     Mc-y 
M  obtair     Ue 
adorned.      .  ho 


was  unrestrained  and  Ir 

large  part  of  the  booty  h 

tim'e  ihurches  designate 

The  distribution  was  n-  ■ 

of  April.    Many  work: 

sent  to  the  meltiog-po. 

statues  were  broken  up 

metals   with  which  they    ....^  .„.>,.„™ 

eimquerors  knew  nothing  and  cared  nothiu-.  for 

the  art  which  liad  added  value  to  the  metal  "— 

t.  Pears,  T/it  Fall  of  CoiutantinopU,  ch.  14-15 

Also  in:  O.  Fiulay,  Ilirt.  of  the  Bytantine  and 
(imk  hmptret,  fivm  716  to  14a'3,  hk.  8  cA.  8 
tet.  ;).  •  I         . 

A.  D.  lJ04.-Relfii  or  Al»iut  V. 

A.  D.  tao4-iaos.— Th«  partitioniiu:  of  tht 

»'','"   1  "■*  Crusaders  sad  the  VenctiAn*.— 

Uifore  the  crusaders  made  their  last  successful 
altmli  on  Constantinople,  they  concluded  a  treaty 
Piirtitmumg  the  Byzantine  empire  and  dividing 
tlie  plumier  of  the  capital.  .  .  .  This  treaty  wm 
entered  into  by  the  Frank  crusaders  on  the  one 
part  and  the  citizens  of  the  Venetian  republic 
™  the  oilier,  for  tlie  purpose  of  nrcventing  dis- 
P  t,s  and  preserving  unity  in  tte  expedition." 
1  he  treaty  lurther  provided  for  the  creation  of 
Sii  fcmpire  of  Itomauia,  to  take  the  place  of  the 
Bytaaime  Empire,  and  for  the  el^  oVaS 


BTZANTINE  EMPIRE,  1804-1205. 

Emperor  to  reif^  over  it    Tlie  arrangements  of 
the  treaty  in  tliis  latter  respwt  were  carried  out, 
not  long  after  the  taking  of  the  city  by  the  elec- 
tion of  Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders,  the  most 
esteemed   and    the   most   popular   among   the 
princes  of   the  crusade,   and    he  received  the 
imperial  crown  of  the  new  Empire  of  Romania 
at  the  hands  of  the  legate  of  the  pope.     "Meas- 
ures were  Immediately  taken  after  the  coronation 
of  Baldwin  to  carry  into  execution  the  act  of 
partition  as  arranged  by  tlic  joint  consent  of  the 
Frank  and  Venetian  commissioners.     But  their 
Ignorance   of    geograpliy,    and    the   resistance 
offered  by  the  Greeks  In  Asia  Minor,  and  by  the 
Vallachians   and  Albanians   in  Europe,  threw 
innumerable  difflculties  in  tlie  way  of  the  pro- 
posed distribution  of  fiefs.    The  quarter  of  the 
Empire  that  formed  the  portion  of  Baldwin  con- 
sisted of  the  city  "f  Constantinople,   with  the 
country  in  its  ImineJiate  vicinity,  as  far  as  Bizya 
and  Tzouroulos  in  Europe  and  Nicomedia  in 
Asia.     Beyond  the  territory  around  Constanti- 
nople, Baldwin  possessed  districts  extending  as 
far  as  the  Strymon  in  Europe  and  the  Sangarius 
In  Asia;  but  bis  possessions  were  intermingled 
with  those  of  the  Venetians  aud  the  vassals  of 
the  Empire.    Prokounesos,  Lesbos,  Chios,  Lem- 
nos,  Skyros,  and  several  smaller  islands,  also  fell 
to  his  share."— O.  Finlay,  IIi»t.  of  Gretee  from 
iti  Commat  by  Vie  Crumden,  eh.  4,  tect.  1-2.—"  In 
the  division  of  the  Greek  provinces  the  slmre  of 
the  Venetians  was  more  ample  than  that  of  the 
Latin  emperor.     No  more  than  one  fourth  was 
appropriated  to  his  domain ;  n  clear  moiety  of  the 
remainder  was  reserved  for  Venice  and  the  other 
moiety  was  distributed  among  tlie  adventurers 
of  France  and  Lombardy.    The  venerable  Dan- 
dolo  was  proclaimed   Despot  of  Romania,  and 
was  invested,  after  the  Greek  fashion,  with  the 
purple  buskins.     He  ended  at  Constantinople  his 
long  and  glorious  life;  an.:  if  the  prerogative 
was  personal,  the  title  was  used  by  his  successors 
till  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  with 
the  singular,  though  true,  addition  of  •  tords  of 
one  fourth  and  a  half  of  the  Roman  Empire  ' 
.  .  .  They  possessed  three  of  the  eight  quaitera 
of  the  city.  .  .  .  They  had  rashly  accepted  the 
dominion  and  defence  of  Adrianoplc:  but  it  was 
the  more  reasonable  aim  of  their  policy  to  form 
a  chain  of  factories  and  cities  and  islands  along 
the  maritime  coast,  from  the  ucigbUmrhood  of 
Ragusa  to  the  Hellespont  and  the  Bospliorus. 
.  ,  .  For  the  price  of  10,000  marks  the  republic 
purohascd   of   the  marquis  of   Montferrat  the 
fertile  island  of  Crete  or  Candia  with  the  ruins 
of  a  hundred  cities.  ...  In  the  moiety  of  tlie 
adventurers  the  Marquis  Boniface  [of  Montferrat] 
mi^iit  claim    the    most    liberal    reward;    and 
besides  tlie  isle  of  Crete,  his  exclusion  from  tlie 
throne  [for  which    he   had   been   a   candidate 
against  Baldwin  of  Fiandere]  was  compensated 
bv  the  royal  title  and  the  provinces  bevond  the 
Hellespont.     But  he  prudently  exchanged  that 
distant  and  ditflcult  conquest  for  tlie  kingdom 
of   Thessalonica   or   Macedonia,   twelve    davs' 
Journey  from  the  capital,  where  he  might  'be 
supported  by  tlie  neighbouring  powers  of  his 
brother-in-law,  tlic  king  of  Hungary.  .  .  .  The 
lots  of   the  Latin  pilgrims  were  regulated  by 
chance  or  choice  or  snbseduent  exchange. 
At  the  lieail  of  his  kni;lit«  and  archers  each 
baron  mouLled  on  horseback  to  secure  the  pos- 
■estion  of  hi*  share,  and  their  first  efforts  were 


361 


n\ 


'1f 


'  t  i 


I' 

«■ 

i 
t 


BYZANTINE  EMPIHE,  1204-iaos. 

fcncmlly  succcMful    But  the  public  force  wu 
wenkencd  by  their  dUpcrslon ;  and  a  thousand 
quarrels  must  arise  under  a  law  ami  among  men 
whose  sole  umpire  was  the  Bwonl,"— E.  Qibbon 
Dteliiu!  and  FnU  of  the  Roman  Em,.irt.  eh.  61. 


A.  D.  iao4-iao<.— The  political  ahaping  of 
the  frapnenti.  See  Romania.  Thk  Empire: 
Obkkk  Empire  or  Nicjia;  Thebizond;  Epirus; 
Naxos,  TnE  Mediaval  Dukedom:  Achaia: 
A.    D.   1805-1887;  Athens:   A.   D.  1S0S-14M: 

BALOMKl. 

A.D.  »26i.i453._The  Greek  reitoration.— 
t"*  >tny[K>e  with  the  Turks  and  final  orer- 
throw.— Tlie  story  of  the  shadowy  restoration 
of  a  Greek  Empire  ist  Constantinople,  its  hut 
struggle  with  the  Turks,  and  ita  fall  te  told  else- 
where-.—See  Constantinople;  A.  D.  1261-1453, 
to  14.53.—"  Frcm  the  hour  of  her  foundation  to 
tliat  in  which  her  sun  finally  sank  fa  blood 
Christian  Constantinople  was  engaged  In  con- 
stant strugrles  against  successive  hordes  of  bar- 
barians. BTic  did  not  always  triumph  In  the 
strife,  but,  even  when  she  was  be8t<'n  she  did 
not  succumb,  but  carried  on  the  contest  still ; 
and  the  fact  tliat  she  was  able  to  do  sc  is  alone  a 
Bufflciug  proof  of  the  strength  and  vitality  of 
her  orgnnization.  ...  Of  tlio  seventy-six  em- 

Eerors  and  five  empresses   who   occupied   the 
lyzantinc  throne,  IS  were  put  to  death,  7  were 
blinded  or  otherwise  mutilated,  4  were  depose<l 
and  imprisoned  In  monasteries,  and    10   were 
comixlled  to  abdicate.    This   list,   comprising 
nearly  half  of  the  whole  numlKT,  is  suflicient  Iniir- 
cation  of  the  horrore  by  which  the  history  of  the 
empire  is  only  too  often  markcl,  and  it  may  be 
frankly  admitted  that  these  dark  stains,   dis- 
flguring  pages  which  but  for  them  would  be 
bright  witli  the  things  which  were  licautiful  and 
glorious,  go  some  way  to  excuse,  if  not  to  Jus- 
tify, the  obloquy  which  Western  writers  have 
been  so  prone  to  cast  upon  the  East.     But  it  is 
not  by  considering  the  evil  only,  any  more  thfcn 
the  good  only,  that  it  is  possil)le  to  form  a  just 
judgment  upon  an  historic  epoch.    To  judge 
the  Byzantine  Empire  only  by  the  crimes  which 
denied  the  palace  would  be  as  unjust  as  if  the 
French  people  were  to  be  estimaunl  by  nothing 
but  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  the  Reign 
of  Terror,   and    the   Commune   of  1871.    The 
dynastic  crimes  and  revolutions  of  New  Rome 
were  not  a  consUnt  feature  iu  her  history     On 
the  contrary,  the  times  of  trouble  and  anarchy 
were  epiwxles  between  long  |)erio<ls  of  peace 
They  arose  citlicr  from  quarrels  in  the  imperial 
family  itself,  which  degraded  the  dignity  of  the 
crown,  or  from  the  contentions  of   pretenders 
struggling  among  themselves  till  one  or  other 
hail  wors'   1  his  rivals  and  was  able  to  become 
the  founder  of  a  long  dynasty.  .  .  .  The  most 
deplorable  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  Byzantine 
tnip  re,  the  period  In  which  assiisslnntion  and 
mutilation  most  abounded,  was  that  in  which  it 
was  exposed  to  the  Influence  of  the  Crusadeni 
and  thus  brouj?ht  Into  contact  with  Western 
Eun)|X'.  .  .  .  The  Byzantine  people,  although 
in  every  respect  the  sup«rior8  of  their  contem- 
poraries, wore  unable  entirely  to  -scape  the  In- 
fiuencc  of  their  neighborhood.     As  the  guanlians 
of  classical  civilization,  they  strove  to  keep  almve 
the  deluge  of  barimriSm  by  which  the  rest  of  the 
world  was  tlien  inumlatcd.    But  it  was  a  flooti 
whose  waters  prevailed  eiceedlngly  upon  the 
Mftli,  aud  sumetiines  all  the  Ugh  biUs  were 


BTZANTIUM. 

ooTBTBd,  even  where  might  have  rested  the 
a.*  In  which  the  vraditions  of  ancient  culture 
were  being  preserve<l.  ...  The  Byzantine  Em- 
plre  was  predestinated  to  perform  in  espec  i«l  one 
great  work  in  human  history.    That  work  was 
to  preserve  civilization  during   the  period  of 
barbarism  which  we  call  the  Middle  Ages. 
Constantlncple  fell,  and  the  whole  Hellenic  world 
piMed  Into  Turkish  slavery.    Western  Eumiie 
looked  on  with  unconcern  at  the  appalling  ciit:ij. 
trophe      It  was  In  vain  that  the  last  of  the 
™alologoi  cried  to  them  for  help.     'ClirlstcD- 
rK^i'.f''/^"''*"''    'l^held  with   indilTeiincc 
the  fall  of  Constantinople.' ...  Up  to  her  last 
hour  she  bad  never  ceased,  for  more  than  a 
thousand  ychrs,  to  flght.     In  the  fourth  eenmrv 
she  fought  the  Goths;  In  the  fifth,  the  Huns  and 
Vandals;  in  the  sixth,  the  Slavs;  In  Oie  seventh 
the  Persians,  the  Avars,  and  the  Arabs:  In  the 
eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth,  the  Bulgars.  the  Mair- 
yars,   and  the  Russians;  In  the  eleventh    the 
Koumanol,  the  Petzenegol.  and  the  Sili  .I'lkiaa 
Turks;  in  the  twelfth,  thirteenth,   fiiiiuenth. 
imd  fifteenth,  the  Ottomans,  the  Normans,  tlie 
Cnisatlcrs,  the  Venetians,  and  the  Genoese     No 
wonder  that  at  last  slic  fell  exhausted'  Tlie 
wonder  Is,  how  she  could  keep  herself  alive  so 
long.    But  it  was  by  thb  long  battle  that  she 
8ucceede<l  In  saving  from  destruction,  amid  the 
u     'ersal    cnt«clysm   which   overwhelmed   the 
classical  worid,  the  clvilizition  of  the  ancients 
mojiifled  by  the  Christiau  religion.    The  moral 
and  inU'llectual  development  of  modem  Eumpe 
arc  owing  to  the  Byzantine  Empire,  if  it  he  true 
that  this  development  is  the  common  offsprinr 
of  antiquity  uiKin  the  one  hand  and  of  Chris- 
S?,°"}[   "•""'    "'"   otlier-"— Dcmetrios   Bikelas, 
The  Bytantine  Empire  (SeoUith  Rev.,  t.  8,  1888). 

BYZANTIUM,  BeglnBiajsot-The  ancient 
Greek  city  of  Byzantium,  which  occupied  part 
of  the  site  of  the  modem  city  of  Constantinople 
was  founde<l.  according  to  tradition.  Iiv  Mesa- 
rians,  in  the  seventh  century  a  C.  Its  situation 
on  the  Bosplionis  enabled  the  possessors  of  thu 
city  to  control  the  important  com  supply  wliicU 
cam*  from  the  Eiixme,  while  its  tunnv  tish- 
enes  were  renowned  sources  of  wealth,  'it  was 
to  the  latter  that  the  bay  called  the  GoMen 
Horn  was  said  to  owe  iU  name.  The  Persians, 
the  Laceihemonians,  the  Atlienlans  anil  the 
Macetionians  were  successive  masters  of  Hvzan- 
tlum,  before  the  lioman  day,  Athens  and  Spnrta 
having  taken  and  retaken  the  city  fn)in  one 
another  many  limes  duriug  tlieir  wai-s. 

B.  C.  478.— Taken  by  the  Greeks  from  the 
Persians.    See  Gukecb:  B.  C.  4TH-I77. 

B.  C.  440.— Unsuccessful  revolt  araiost 
Athens.    See  Athens:  B.  C.  440-41)7. 

B.  C.  408.— Revolt  ud  reduction  by  the 
Athenians.    See  Gheece:  B.  C.  411-407. 
..B-  C.  340-— Unsuccessful  siege  by  Philip  of 
Macedon.    See  Ohekck:  B.  C.  34(1. 

B.  C.  336.— AlUmnce  with  Alexander  the 
Great.    See  Gkeecb:  B.  C.  336-33.5. 

A.  D.  194.— Siege  by  Serems.  Sec  noint: 
A.  D  192-384. 

A.  D.  367,— Capture  by  the  Goths.  See 
OoTiis:  A.  I).  2,W-867. 

A.  D.  333.— Siege  by  Constantme.  See 
Rome:  A.  D.  SO.VSaa. 

A.  D.  330.— Tfansfonntd  Into  Coostastl* 
aopl*.    See  ComrAireuiopijL 


S52 


m^-m 


<;aira. 


CABIKBT. 


CA  IRA:  The  origin  of  the  cry  and  the  100^. 

_''  WTIicn  the  news  of  the  disastrous  retreat  [of 
Wasliington,  in  1776]  through  the  Jerseys  and 
the  mlssries  of  Valley  Forge  reached  Pr— ce, 
many  good  friends  to  America  began  to  tbiulc 
that  now  indeed  all  was  lost.  But  the  stout 
heart  of  Franklin  never  flinched.  'This  is  in- 
deed biul  news,'  said  he,  'but  ^  ire,  9a  ire 
[litemlly,  'this  will  go,  tills  will  go'],  it  will  all 
come  right  in  the  end.'  Old  aiplomnts  and 
courtiers,  amazed  at  his  confidence,  passed  about 
his  clicerlng  words.  They  were  taken  up  by 
the  newspapers ;  they  were  remembered  by  the 
people,  and,  in  the  dark  days  of  tlic  French 
KeTolution.  were  repeated  over  and  over  again 
on  every  side,  and  made  the  subject  of  a  stirring 
song  which,  till  the  Marseillaise  Hymn  appeared, 
had  no  equal  in  France." — J.  B.  >lcMa8ter,  JUitt. 
of  tlie  People  of  the  U.  &,  v.  2,  p.  89.— L.  Rosen- 
tlial,  Ameriea  and  fYanee,  p.  883. — "The 
original  words  (afterward  much  changed)  were 
by  i^&dre,  a  street  singer;  and  the  music  was  a 
mpular  dance  tune  of  the  time  compose<l  by 
Becourt,  a  drummer  of  the  Grand  Opem." — 
Century  Dieiionnry. — "  The  originr]  name  of  tlie 
tune  to  which  the  words  were  written  is 
'Le  Carilloa  National,'  and  it  is  a  remarkable 
circumstance  that  it  was  a  great  favourite  with 
the  unfortunate  Marie  Antoinette,  who  used  to 
phy  it  on  the  harpsichonl." — J.  Oxenford,  Book 
of  Frenrh  Sonr/t  {nnte  to  "  Ca  ira"). 

CAABA  AT  MECCA,  The.— "An  Arab 
legend  asserts  that  this  famous  temple  was  erected 
by  Abraham  and  his  son  Ishmael  wiih  the  aid  of 
thcanicl  Gabriel.  Mahomet  lent  his  authority 
to  the  lege.id  and  devoted  to  it  several  chanters 
in  tlie  Koran,  and  thus  it  became  one  of  tlii  Mus- 


sulman articles  of  faith.  Even  before  the  intro- 
duction of  Islamism  tills  story  was  current 
through  a  great  part  of  Arabia  and  spread  abroad 
in  proportion  as  the  Ishmaelitish  tribes  gained 
grouad.  .  .  This  temple,  wlio?c  name  '  snuare 
Iwuse '  indicates  its  form.  Is  still  l)resei-ve(l.  It 
was  very  small  and  of  very  rude  conitniition. 
It  was  not  till  comparatively  recent  •  that 

'lad  Ti  door  with  a  lock.  .  .  .  For ..  time 

I  •-■si.i- sacred  object  it  contained  wa-  a-je- 
bratcd  lilack  stone  hadjarel-aswad,  an  ..t-rolite, 
which  is  still  the  object  of  Mussulman  venera- 
tion. .  .  .  We  have  already  mentioned  Hobiil, 
tlie  first  anthroponiorphic  idol,  placed  in  tlie 
Canlm.  Tins  example  was  soon  copied.  .  .  . 
The  Caaba  thus  iK-oaiiie  s  sort  of  Arabian  Pan- 
tliccm.  and  even  the  Virgin  Mary,  with  her  child 
on  her  knees,  eventually  found  a  place  tliere."— 
F.  Lcnormant,  Manual  of  Ancient  Hut.  of  the 
But.  hk.  7,  th.  3. 

Also  IN:  Sir  W.  Muir,  Life  of  Mahomet,  eh.  8. 

CABAL,  The.  Sec  Cabinet,  The  Ekousii ; 
also.  Enoi-and:  A.  D.  1«7I. 

CABALA,  The.— "The  term  Cabala  is  usu- 
ally iipiilicd  to  tliat  wild  system  of  Oriental  plii- 
liwiphy  wiiich  was  introduced,  it  is  uncertain  at 
*liat  i«Tl(Ki,  Info  the  .lewUh  schools:  in  a  wider 
wnw  it  mmpridieiided  all  the  decisions  of  the 
Italiliiiijcal  courts  or  schools,  whether  on  re'.igious 
iir  civil  pnints."— II.  H.  Milman,  lli»t.  of  the  Jem. 
f.  2.  bk.  lH._"Thc  philosophic  Catwla  aspired 
Jo  be  a  more  sublime  and  transcendental  Rabbin- 
Mm.  It  was  a  myst<>rv  not  e.-icluslvc  of,  but 
stKivc  their  more  couunon  mystcdee;  •  eecret 

853 


more  profound  than  their  profoundest  secnti. 
It  claiini'<l  the  same  guaranty  of  antiquity,  of 
revelation,  of  tradition;  It  was  the  true,  occult, 
to  few  intelligible  sense  of  the  sacred  writings 
and  of  the  sayings  of  the  most  renowned  Wise 
Men :  the  inward  interpretation  of  the  genuine 
Interpretation  of  the  Law  and  the  Prophets. 
Men  went  on ;  they  advanced,  they  rose  from  the 
most  full  and  perfect  study  of  the  Talmuds  to 
the  high'  <■  f)r>ctrines,  to  the  more  divine  contem- 

C'  iona  'tht  Cabala.  And  the  Zoliar  was  the 
k  of  ihe  Cabala  which  soared  almost  above 
the  comprehecsion  of  the  wisest.  .  .  .  Tn  its  tradi- 
tional, no  doubt  unwritten  form,  the  Cabala,  at 
least  a  Cabala,  ascends  to  a  very  early  date,  the 
Captivity;  in  its  proper  and  more  mature  form, 
it  belongs  to  the  first  century,  and  reaches  down 
to  the  end  of  tlie  seventh  century  of  our  era. 
The  Sepber  Yetzira,  the  Book  of  Creation,  which 
boasts  itself  to  be  derived  from  Moses,  from 
Abraham,  if  not  from  Adam,  or  even  aspires 
higher,  belongs  to  the  earlier  period ;  the  Zohar, 
the  Light,  to  the  hiter.  The  remote  origin  of  the 
Cabala  belongs  to  that  period  when  the  Jewish 
mind,  during  the  Captivity,  became  30  deeply 
impregnated  with  Oriental  notions,  those  of  the 
Persian  or  Zoroastrian  re-ligion.  Some  of  the 
first  principles  of  tlic  Cabala,  as  well  as  many 
of  the  tenets,  still  more  of  the  superstitions,  of 
the  Talmud,  coincide  so  exactly  with  the  Zen- 
davesta  ...  as  to  leave  no  doubt  of  their  kin- 
dred and  afllllation."— H.  H.  Milman,  Uitt.  of 
theJettf.  bk.  30. 

CABILDO.  The.  See  Louisiana:  A.  D. 
1769. 

CABINET,  The  Amiriean.— "There  is  in 
the  govemncnt  of  the  United  Stau-s  no  such 
thing  as  a  Cabinet  In  the  English  sense  of  the 
term.  But  I  use  the  term,  not  only  because  it  is 
current  in  America  to  describe  the  chief  minis- 
ters of  the  President,  but  also  because  it  calls 
attention  to  the  remarkable  difference  which  ex- 
isM  between  the  great  officers  of  State  in  America 
and  the  similar  officers  In  the  free  countries  of 
Europe.  Almost  the  only  reference  in  the  Con- 
stitution to  the  ministers  of  the  I'resident  is  that 
contained  in  the  jiower  given  him  to  •  require  the 
opinion  in  writing  of  tlie  principal  officer  in  each 
of  the  executive  departments  upon  any  subject 
relating  to  tlie  duties  of  their  respective  offices.' 
W\  these  departments  have  been  created  bv  Acts 
of  Congress.  Washington  began  in  1786  with 
four  only,  at  the  head  of  whom  were  the  follow- 
ing four  officials:  Secretary  of  State,  S<'crelary 
of  the  Treasury,  Secretary  of  War,  Attorney 
General.  In  1798  there  was  added  a  Secretary 
of  the  Navy,  in  1829  a  Postmaster  General,  and 
in  1849  a  Secretarv  of  the  Interior.  .  .  .  Each 
receives  a  salary  of  $8,000  (£1,600).  All  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  President,  subj.-ct  to  the  con- 
sent of  the  Senate  (which  is  pmctically  never 
refused),  and  may  lie  removed  bv  the  Presiilent 
al'  '.  Nothiiiit  murks  them  off  from  uny  other 
of  als  who  inlglit  be  placed  in  charge  of  a  de- 
partment, except  that  tliey  arc  summnned  by 
the  President  to  his  pHvate  council.  None  of 
them  can  vot  n  Congress,  Art.  XI..  §6  of  the 
Constitution  ;  roviding  that  'no  person  holding 
any  office  under  the  United  States  shall  lie  a 
mcmlKT  of  either  House  during  his  cnniinuance 
in  office, '  "—J,  Bryoe,  The  Am.  QmtmonveeaUh,  eh. 


fi! 


tri 


ll-. 


iJliilJ 


ll  ■, 


CABINET. 

•  — "In  IMa  s  nporate  Department  of  Airricul- 
turewas  eatabliafied.  ...  In  1889  the  hSd  of 


CABINIT. 


r  r, —  --~™™"..  .  .  .  tu  loan  me  neaa  or 
tie  Department  becune  Secretary  ot  the  Depart- 
ment of  Aericulture  and  a  Cabinet  officer:  A 
Bureau  of  Labor  under  the  Ir>erior  Department 

m.bi^,.  L  »  iepwate  department,  but  did  not 
?.K.t  l"  ^  l  ^'*'^'  '""^  therefore  not  a 
tabinet  officer."  There  are  now  (1891)  elirht 
heads  of  departmenta  who  constitute  the  F  %i. 
denfs  Cabinet.  _W.  W.  and  W.  F.  WiUoughby, 
Oott.and  Admtnutrationoftlu  U.  S.  (JohniSmj. 

™..  M  .  *^'  ^*"  EnBh»h.-"Few  things  in 
our  history  are  more  cuiTous  than  the  origin  and 
growth  of   the  power   now  possessed  by  the 

F,  .'i«tH  h^.^  ""  *i"'J:  P*"^  '•'8  Kings  of 
t.''?^?  ^  *^''  »«'»ted  by  a  Privy  Council  to 
Tn  J"^  ^  - '?''  "SiP-ed  many  Importiit  f uncUons 
and  duties  [see  Pbivt  Councii.].    During  several 
T^'"^Vh  '"dy  dellbemtei  on  the*gnivSt 
Md  most  delicate  affairs.     But  by  deg^  lt« 
diaracter  changed.     It  became  too  large  for  des- 
patch and  secrecy.    The  rank  of  Privy  Councillor 
was  often  bestowed  as  aa  honorary  distinction 
Ml  persons  to  whom  nothing  was  confided,  and 
•ehose  opinion  was  never  asked.    The  soverelen. 
on  the  most  Important  occasions,  resorted  for 
advice  to  a  small  knot  of  leading  ministers.    The 
„,w°J^f fjf*  dlsadvantogcs  o1  thU  oourae  were 
early  pointed  out  by  Bacon  -vith  hU  usual  ludir- 
ment  and  sagacity:  but  li     as  not  tlU  after  the 
Restoration  that  the  Inter.       «uncll  began  to 
attract  general  notice.    During  many  jdn  old 
fash  oncd   politicians   continu^   to  reW  the 
Cabinet  as  an  unconsUtutional  and   dingerous 
board.    Nevertheless,  It  constantly  becami  more 
and  more  important.     It  at  length  drew  to  Itself 
the  chief  executive  power,  and  has  now  been 
regarded,  dunng  several  generations,  as  an  essen- 
;?>i  P"".-"'  ""'  P°'"y-    ^'<'*-  "range  to  say.  It 
f'"'  <:°°"""«8  to  be  altogether  unknown  to  the 
WW.    The  names  of  the  noblemen  and  gentlemen 
who  compose  it  are  never  officially  announced  to 
the  public     No  rc-cord  is  kept  if  ite  meetings 
and  resolutions;  nor  has  its  existence  ever  bein 
recognized  by  any  Act  of  Pariiament     During 
some  years  the  word  Cabal  was  populariv  used 
M  synonymous  with  Cabinet.    But  It  hapWd 
by  a  whims  ral   coincidence  that,  In  lehVthe 
Cabinet  consisted  of  five  persons  the  taitlai  let- 
nu„°L'"^°^  names  made  up  the  word  Cabal 
Clifford    Arlington,  Bucktagfiam.  Ashley    wd 

J^nH'^f,"'*-  ,3T  "'"Istfiraweri  therefore  m- 
phatically  called  the  Cabal;  and  they  soon  made 
that  appellation  so  Infamous  tha-  ft  has  n^r 
since  the  r  time  l.«en  used  except  as  a  tem  of 
"^^t^Vr}^'^  Slacaulay,  IRt^^of  Eng^di.  8 
—  Walpoleswork,  .  .  .  thecffectof  htaDolicv' 
iLh  ?hl'  r.lf."? "y  carried  through,  waS  K5: 
Ilsh  the  Cabinet  on  a  definite  foothig,  as  the  seat 
jnd  centre  of  the  execuUve  government,  to  mfln- 
toh^  he  executive  In  the  closest  relaUoS  with  the 
legfalature,  to  govern  through  the  leglstature, 

?^m-,'".'T'fJ  ""•  eoyefaod  authoifiy  of  tS 
Crown  to  the  House  of  Commons.  Some  writCTs 
have  held  that  the  first  Ministry  In  the  mXn 
•enae  was  that  combination  of  Wljlgs  whom  Wil- 
Uam  called  to  aid  him  In  govemSent  In  iSfli 
?}^ZTKr^  that  the  .i^nd  adrntalitratton 
ofLord  Rockingham,  which  came  Into  power  ta 

i^'lSi  wV^#'i"2P5r°'.""  Americii  colon: 
K^  tlie  faU  of  LoHi  North,  and  Ute  defeat  of 


854 


George  HI.,  waa  the  earliest  Ministry  of  the  tyn, 
of  to-day  A-  whatever  date  we  choose  first  to 
see  all  the  decisive  marks  of  that  roinarEbfe 

Initiative  in  the  executive,  with  the  possess!  onof 

i7trM%?!!!irr itTSxi 
:e"re"fit'fiT^t  p;'Sfar„,::;""io3f 

and  that  the  Cabinet  system  receive/ then„T,?i 
ston  that  it  bears  In  our  own  time.  .  .  I '"£ 
the  most  Important  of  all  the  dUtinctions  bit»4n 
the  Cabinet  In  Ite  rudimentary  stage  at  Z 
beginning  of  the  century  and  Ito"^  late?  pmai„ 
remains  to  be  noticed.      Queen  Anne  he-id  , 

n^llf.'  r*7  ^"""^y-  "  wWeh'he  was  Uer^lf 
present  Just  as  we  have  seen  that  she  was  pri 
ent  at  debates  to  the  House  of  Lords.  Whht 
doubtful  exception  In  the  time  of  George  III 

r^wJr  *°  ^  '^°  P"""'  •» »  "eetlng  uf  th'i 
Cabinet  since  Anne.  ...  ThU  vital  chan™  -.j 
probably  due  to  the  accident  that  Ann.li  sue 
cesser  did  not  understand  the  language  in  which 
Ito  deliberations  were  carried  on.  The  with 
drawal  of  -he  sovereign  from  Cabinet  Council, 
was  essential  to  the  momentous  change  which 
has  transferred  tha  whole  substance  of  authoritr 
and  power  from  the  Crown,  to  a  committei 

P-T"  K"^"  '»"°'*'  °'  "•«  »*o  H»"*a  of 
JKarUament    from  among  other  members.  . 

iilh      ru.?"°'?f  •■  i?  "•*  keystone  of  the  Cabhiet 
arch.    Although  to  Cabinet  all  ita  members  stand 
on  u  equal  foottog,  speak  with  equal  voice,  and 
on  the  rare  occasions  when  a  division  is  taken' 
are  counted  on  the  fraternal  principle  of  one  nian! 
one  vote,  yet  Uie  head  of  the  Cabinet  is  ■  primu. 
toter  pares,    and  occupies  a  position  which,  so 
long  as  It  lasts,  fa  ote  of  exceptional  and  peculiar 
authority.    It  Is  true  that  he  fa  In  foruT chosen 
by  the  Crown,  but  In  practice  the  choice  of  the 
Crown  fa  pretty  strictly  confined  to  the  man  who 
Is  designated  by  the  acclamation  of  a  party  ms- 
Jority.  .        The  Prime  Minfater,  once  appoinUKl, 
ch.X)ses  hfa  own  colleagues,  and  assigns  them  U> 
their  respective  offices.  ...  The  flexibility  of 
the  Cabinet  system  allows  the  Prim.-  Jlinister 
to  an  emergency  to  take  upon  himself  a  power 
not  Inferior  to  that  of  a  dictator,  provided  alwavj 
that  the  House  of  Commons  wfll  stand  by  hiib. 
In  ordtoary  cireumstonces,  he  leaves  the  heads 
of  departmenta  to  do  their  own  work  ij  tlieir 
own  way.  .      .Just  as  the  Cabinet   has  been 
described  as  being  the  regulator  of  relations  be- 
tween  Queen,  Lords  and  Commons,  so  is  the 
rame  Mtaister  the  regulator  of  relations  lietween 
the  Queen  and  her  servants.  .  .  .  Walpi.le  was 
to  practice  able  to  invest  himself  with  more  of 
the  functions  and  powers  of  a  Prime  -Minister 
tnao  any  of  hfa  successors,  and  yet  was  com- 
pelled by  the  fecltog  of  the  time  .■amcstly  and 
profuwiy  to  repudiate  both  the  name  and  title, 
and  i-ve'        -  of  the  pretensions  that  it  involves. 
the  (  instance  In  which  I  have  found  the 

..ead  of  lue  government  designated  as  the  Premier 
to  in  a  letter  to  the  Duke  of  Newcastle  from  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland  In  1746."— J.  Mori,  v,  Wai- 
vote,  ch.  7.— "In  theory  the  Cabinet  is  nothing 
but  8  committee  of  the  Privy  Council,  yet  with 
the  Council  It  has  In  reality  no  dealings;  and 
Jc"f  .r'8«"*"""l''™7  result  has  taken  nhice, 
that  the  Government  of  England  fa  in  the  iiandi 
or  men  whose  position  is  legally  undeflneii:  that 
while  the  Cabinet  fa  «  word  of  every-day  use,  n« 


OABraST. 


C.X8AR-AUQUSTA. 


kwrer  can  mt  wlut  •  Cabinet  b:  thu  while  n. 
oiduisiT  Xngiiihniaii  luiowi  who  the  Lord*  ot 
the  Council  an,  the  Church  of  England  prayt, 
Sunday  by  Sunday,  that  theie  Lordi  may  be 
'endued  with  wiidom  auii  undentandinfr ' !  that 
while  the  collective  responaibiiity  of  Miulsten  ia 
a  doctrine  appealed  to  by  i.^embera  of  the  Gov- 
eminent,  no  less  than  by  their  opponents,  it  ia 
more  than  doubtful  whether  such  responsibility 
could  be  enforced  by  any  legal  penalties:  that, 
to  sum  up  this  catalogue  of  contradictions,  the 
Privy  Council  lias  the  same  political  powen 
which  it  had  when  Henry  VIII.  ascended  the 
throne,  whilst  it  is  in  reality  composed  of  persons 
many  of  whom  never  have  taken  part  or  wished 
to  take  part  in  the  contests  of  political  life." — A. 
V.  Dic»y,  Tht  Privy  Council,  p.  148. 

CABINET,  The  Kitchen.  See  Uxited 
States  or  Ax. :  A.  D.  1828. 

CABOCHIENS,  The.  See  Fkance:  A.  D. 
1380-1415. 

CABOT,  John  and  Sebaatian.— Americui 
DiscoTeric*.  See  Ambkica  :  A.  D.  1497,  and  1498. 

CABUL :  A.  D.  1840-1841.— Occupation  by 
the  British.— Succeaaful  natire  riting. — Re- 
treat and  deitruction  of  the  Britiah  army.  See 
AroBAKWTAN:  A.  D.  1888-1842. 

A.  D.  1878-1880.— Murder  of  Major  Carag- 
nari,  the  Britieh  Reaident. — Second  occupation 
by  the  EoKUah.  See  Afohakutah:  A.  D.  186i^ 
1881. 

♦ 

CACIQUE.— "  Cacique,  lord  c'  vassals,  was 
the  name  by  which  the  natives  of  Cuba,  desig- 
nated their  chiefs.  Learning  this,  the  conquerors 
applied  the  name  generally  to  the  rulers  of  wild 
tribes,  although  in  none  of  the  dialects  of  the 
continent  is  the  word  found."— H.  H.  Bancroft, 
But.  of  the  Pbafie  Statet,  t.  1,  p.  210,  foot- note. 

CADOOAN  FAMILY,  The.  See  Ameri- 
can Aboriowes:  Pawnee  (Caddoan)  Family; 
also,  Texas:  The  ABORiomAL  inhabitants. 

CADE'S  REBELLION.  See  England: 
A.  D.  1450. 

CADESIA  (KADISIYEH),  Battle  of.— 
This  was  the  first  of  the  decisive  series  of  battles 
in  which  the  Arab  followers  of  Mohammed 
effected  the  overthrow  of  the  Persian  Empire 
(the  Sassannian)  and  the  conquest  of  its  domin- 
.  ins.  It  was  desperately  fought,  A.  D.  838, 
under  the  walls  of  the  fortified  town  of  Cadesia 
(Kadisiyeh  hi  the  .\rabic)  situated  near  the  Qea  of 
Nedjef,  between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Arabian 
desert.  The  Persians  numbered  120,000  men, 
under  Rustaro,  thek  beat  general.  "I'he  Arabs 
were  but  80,000  strong  at  first,  but  were  rein- 
forced the  second  day.  They  were  commanded 
by  Sa'ad  and  led  by  the  redoubtable  Kaled.  The 
battle  was  obstinately  prolonged  through  four 
days,  but  ended  in  the  complete  rout  of  the  Per- 
sians and  the  death  of  Rustam,  with  40,000  of 
hismea— 0.  Rawlin3on,  Seeentk  Great  Oriental 
M<mard,;i  rh.  26.— See,  alao,  Mahometan  Coh- 
•JDISt:  a.  1).  632-651. 

CADIZ  :  Origin.    See  Utica,  and  Oadeb. 

A.  D.  1506.— Taken  and  sacked  by  the 
English  and  Dutch.    See  Spain:  A.  P.  1596. 

A.  D.  170a.— Abortive  Engliah  and  Dutch 
expedition  against.    See  Spain:  A.  U.  1702. 

A.  D.  i8io-i8i(.— Siege  by  the  French. 
Bee  bPAis :  A.  D.  1810-1812. 

A.D.i8a3.— Siege,  bombardment  and  cap- 
lureby  the  French.    Bee  ISpain  :  A.  D.  1614-1827. 


CADMBA(KADMEIA),The.  SeeOnucB: 
B.  C  888. 
CADMEANS,    OR    KADMEIANS.    See 

BffiOTIA. 

CADURCI,  The.— TheCn  'iircl  were  one  of 
the  tribe*  of  ancient  Oaul  wl.  -.e  chief  pUce  was 
Divona,  now  Cahors  on  the  Xx)t.— Q.  Long,  De- 
cline of  the  Riman  Republic,  v.  4,  eh.  17. 

CADUSIANS,  The.— An  ancient  people  so- 
called  by  the  Greeks,  whose  territory  was  on 
the  south-western  border  of  the  Caspian  Sea,- 
the  district  of  modem  Persians  called  Ghilan  or 
Ohulan.  Their  native  name  was  "Gaels."- 
M.  Duncker,  Hiit.  of  Antiquity,  bk.  8,  eh.  1. 

CADWALLON,   De«th   ot    See    Gbven- 

FIELD,  BaTTLK  or  TBK. 

CALIAN  HILL,  The.  See  Se-  Hills 
or  RoMB. 

CAERLAVEROCK,  Siege  of.-  famous 
siege  and  reduction  of  the  Scott)'  .astle  of 
Cacrlaverock,  in  Dumfriesshire,  bv  ;^ward  I. 
A.  D.  1800. 

CAERLEOM.— "Caer,"like  the  "Ceaster" 
of  the  Saxons,  is  a  comiption  by  Celtic  tongues 
of  the  Roman  "  Castrum."  "  In  memory  of  the 
second  lesion,  which  had  been  so  long  established 
at  •''»  Silurian  Isca,  they  [the  Welsh]  gave 
to  ti-  rulna  of  that  city  the  name  of  Caer- 
Legi  J,  the  city  of  the  legion,  now  softened  to 
Caerleon."— T.  Wright,  Celt,  Soman  and  &am, 
eh.  5. 

C.SSAR,  JULIUS,  Career  and  death  oC 
See  Rome:  B.  C.  69-«8,  to  44;  Gaul:  B.  C.  6."- 
61;  and  Bmr.uN:  B.  C.  55-54. 

CiESAR,    The   title "Octavius  was   the 

adopted  heir  of  Julius  Cesar;  from  tlic  moment 
of  his  adoption  the  surname  Csesnr  became  ap- 
propriated to  him,  and  it  wns  by  this  name 
accordingly  that  he  was  most  familiarly  known 
to  his  own  contemporaries.  Modem  writers  for 
the  sake  of  distinction  have  agreed  for  tlie  most 
part  to  confine  this  Illustrious  title  to  the  first  of 
the  CiEsarian  dynasty;  but  wj  should  ''oubtless 
gain  a  clearer  conception  of  the  gradual  process 
by  which  the  idea  of  a  dynnstic  succession  fixe  ' 
tscif  in  the  miuds  of  the  .  "ins,  if  we  follow  . 
their  own  practice  in  this  pa.i.  :ular,  and  appl^ 
the  name  of  Cesar,  not  to  Augustus  only,  b  . 
also  to  his  adopted  son  Tiberius,  to  t  .'le  scions 
the  same  lineage  whci  succeeded  hi-  1,  ard  <jveu 
to  those  of  later  and  independi'  :i  ;!vn!istl  rf.  As 
late  indeed  as  the  reign  of  Diocletiw.,  h<>  iioman 
monarch  w  IS  still  eminently  the  C  r  It  vas 
not  till  the  close  of  i,-.  'hird  ecntur)  ■.'  ur  era 
that  tliat  illustriou.      i!     wa.1  dipos-il  from  its 

Sreeminence,  and  rr  id  to  a  seiflnuury  and 
eputed  authority.  Its  older  use  w.j  however 
revived  and  perpetuated,  though  less  exclusively, 
through  the  declining  ages  of  the  empire,  and 
has  survived  with  perhaps  unbroken  continuity 
even  to  our  own  days.  The  Austrian  Kaiser  still 
retains  the  name,  though  he  has  renounced  the 
succession,  of  the  Cesars  of  Rome,  while  the  Czar 
of  .Muscovy  pretends  to  derive  his  ai.tional  desig- 
nation by  direct  inheritance  from  tlie  Cesars  of 
Byzantium."— C.  Merivale,  Ilitt.  of  the  Sumant, 
ch.  31.— See,  also,  Rome:  B.  C.  31-A.  D.  14. 

C^SAR-AUGUSTA.— Oneof  the  fortified 
posts  established  in  Spain  by  the  Emperor 
Augustus,  B.  C.  27,  and  in  which  the  veterans 
of  the  legions  were  settled.  The  place  and  its 
name  (corrupted)  survive  in  modem  Saragosaik 
— C.  Uerivale,  £w<.  o/<A«  Somant    A  84. 


355 


C^SAREA  IN  CAPPADOCIA. 


Origin. 


C^SAREA  m  CAPPADOCIA 

Dee  Mazaca. 

A.  D.  3«o.— Capture,  massacre  and  pillan 
^at^r,  fang  of  Persia,    See  Pkmia  :   A^. 

CiESAREA  IN  PALESTINE:  MaMacn 
of  Jews.    See  Jews:  A.  D.  «»-70  ■•«>«■ 

lOO-Sia^**"**  «n-    See  CHHwruiriTT:  A.  D. 

C^SAROMAGUS     IN     BRITAIN.- A 

Roman  town  Wentifled.  generally,  with  modem 
Chelmsford. -T.  Wright,  OU.  Biman  and  Scuon, 

C.SSAROMAGUS    IN    GAUL.- Modem 

Beauvnis.    Sw  Beloa 

jgCj«SARS,  The  Twelve    See  Rom:  A.  D. 

j^CAESAR'S    TOWER.      See    Towkb    of 

CAFFA.    See  Oenoa:  A.  D.  1861-1290 
CAHORS :  Oririn.    See  Cadubci.  . .   .  A.  D 
I«o.-SieKe    and    capture     by    Henrr    of 
*•?.'? I5V,  ^*  !■  "axcb:  a.  D.  I6TO-1680. 
LAIkN.    See  Bakrow, 

-.S^"*°  •  ^-  °.-  *«'-Ori|C''".    See  Mahome- 
tan CoNyiEgT:  A.  D.  64(M(46. 

r.^„?:  9«7-"7i.-Capital  of  the  Patimite 
l.aliplis.      b(c    Mahometan   Conouest    ind 
Empire:  A.  I).  9(W-1171. 
^.  A.  D.  1517-— Capture,  sack  and  massacre  b» 
irSo        °"°  ''""''"■     '^  Turks:  A.  D.  1481- 

Bn^P.rJI^-Z^p"'*'**'  '*'.*''«  •'«»«*  "»<««' 
Bonapaxts.    Sw  Fr.\.nck:   A.  D.  1798  (May— 

tt^nr?'  l^~^"'*K  wppressed   by    the 
French.    Stc  France:  A.  D.  1800  (Jakcaby— 

JCNE). 

A.  D.  i8ei-i8oa.— Surrtndtr  to  the  Enclish 

im-Vm^""^"'^"'"^-  »«•*"«*««  .Tt.  I). 

,  d-  "•  i'°5-;»8"-Massacr»s  of  th«  Mame- 
lukes.    B<cL(iYiT:  A.  1).  1808-1811 
Hi~.^.i'.'i,'^/"3-ReTolt  against  the  Khe- 
fLV^?  t"°'*^V?  controL-Oceupatlon  by 


CAI^TRAVA  AND  BANTIAaO. 

^f."^  ^^  "*"  necessaries,  obtained  by 
ravaging  the  country  round  and  by  ahipment 
from  England."  Calita  held  out  for  a  yea?  and 
Migered  the  king  10  bv  ito  obstinacy  that  when  is 
August  1847,  starvation  forced  Its  people  tos^ 
render,  he  required  that  six  of  the  chief  burm»8M 

their  necks,  for  execution.  Eustache  St  Rem 
and  five  others  nobly  offered  themselves  for  the 
sacrifice,  and  It  was  only  by  the  weepinif  inter- 
cess^n  of  Queen  Phlllppa  that  E.lwlkl  was  in. 
duceH  to  spare  their  lives.  He  expelled  all  the 
nhabltants  who  refused  to  take  an^th  of  feahJ 
w  V°K  "P^OP^  the  town  with  Englishmen 
8.— «ee,  also.  France:  A.  D.  1887-1880 
8e^ST'L'a?»-'"•  ^'••"*  '"  =-«""«  '™'- 

F44'ieiSsrT'^'ll4^lf5Sf  •"  •» 

,i.^"      •  'S«4.— Pinal  surrender  of  Enrlish 
claims.    See  France:  A.  D.  156S-15W      * 

the  Spaniards.— Restoration  to  France    8™ 
Fbancb:  a.  D.  1598-1598.  '•™"-    Bee 


A.  U  "^'l*^**  Caligula,  Roman  Emperor, 

CAKCHIQUELS,  Tht.  See  American  Ado- 
«»"'NK»i  it  '"n"*.  «n<l  .MAYAa 

.1.71  r.?'^'  ''"'■'"•''•'■•'*»>•  name.-"Aftor 
the  l,ws  of  the  true  Cnlabria  [to  the  LombanNl 
the  vanllv  „f  the  Gr,H;ks  subitltiiU.l  that  name 
Instead  of  tlie  mom  iRnoble  appellation  of  Unit 

r.il'"'!.!}'  '1*  "]""''''  "PPt'O"  to  have  taken 
place  hefnn.  the  time  of  ( Charlemagne. "-E  Gib 

A.   D.   iota— Norman  duchy.     See  Italy 
(Southern):  A.  1).  1000-1090. 


t-E^h^B^l^AW*'".' W7-Slegt  and  cap- 
^. •*'.  ^'''••"*    III.— ImuMdUleiy   afur  IHs 

rJui  ii"-.  ';;'''  "''f"  «»  "'"  w^otf  Hty  „f 
"wMh  k'"  'n"l  "J"*"  "'  •""•  "'"nJ  the  rlly 
I.  ...  i^K  "«'"'■'''  •^^•*t"*''  tlio  Hold,'  and  laid 
Uout  with  a  market,  regular  .tr.*u  and  shop!, 
all  the  necessary  acrornmodatlrai  f,.r  .n 
•nny,  md  tillher  were  carried  in  vast  stoivs  of 


356 


of ^Vt^J^^^  AND  SANTIAGO,  Knights 
S;^  Y  was  to  repress  the  never-ceasing  incur. 
?L^?'  "''.Mohammedans,  as  weU  as  t.,  ntuni 
ttiese  Incurslcins  with  Interest,  tliat,  in  the  time  of 
rf„'^1'"*°  I*?'™?<'o  XL  of  the  early  .S  ,S 
kingdom  ol  Leon],  two  mllltory  orden,  th.«e  of 
Calatrava  and  Santl.™  [or  /t.  Jago_or  St 
iT?*  "/  Compostcllal,  were  InslitSu^.     The 
origin  of  the  former  order  was  owing  to  the 
^^.'""."U""  Cistercian  monks;  .St.  IfciymoDd 
abbot  of  Fitero,  and  hU  companion,  the    riw 
plego  V  elasquei.     These  Intrepid  men.  who  had 
iH^^^^^f""*  P"*"'""*  to  their  m„n.wtic  pro- 
fcsslon,  Indignant  at  the  cowardice  of  the  T.ran- 
ars,   who  resigned  into  the   king  of  (U»lile^ 
^^fll  "^  '?['?*;  "/  Calatrava,  wlilch  ha,|  been 
confided  to  their  defense  by  the  emperor  Alfonio 
proposed.  In  1158  to  the  regency  of  that  kiZi 
do  III,  to  preserve  that  position  against  the  as.sa!j. 
ants,      llie  proposal  was  readily  accented     The 
preaching  of  the  warlike  abUit  w,w  so  elll<,,d„us, 
that  In  a  short  time  he  assembli-,1  20  (KN)  niin 
whom  he  conducu-d  to  Culatrava.  and  immnii 
whom  were  not  a  few  of  his  own  monks.   Thoi; 
he  drew  up  the  institutions  of  the  <ir.ler.  which 
took  Its  name  from  the  place,  and  which  In  Its 
religious  government  long  followed  th.,(i,i,  n  iiin 
rule    and  wore  the  same  monastic  hal.it  -. 

??-*  Tk^.-'^.I  "^Pulary-  tUypoiw  IVtinllct 
AIIi.  the  habit  was  dispensed  with,  sihI  the 
knigjts  allowed  to  marry  ■.nee.'- A%.r,„,(,  1 
riie  other  onler  commence.!  In  1 161.  .S<pnie  Mb- 
bers  of  Leon,  tourh.'d  with  their  past  eni.niiltie., 
resolved  to  make  reparation  for  them,  l.y  il,  fiixl- 
Ing  the  frnnllers  against  the  liicumh.M  of  the 
Moliammedans.     Don  I'edro  Fernanda  -  if  iho 

^"Jl  .  i'm? "'  '*•"  •'•''*•'  •"  «**'»  "omilhliiK  liko 
respectability  to  the  origin -w,u  the  rhlef 
founder  of  the  onler  He  engaffcHl  the  Imlhrco 
to  assume  the  rule  of  8t.  Ausu.sline,  in  a,|.li:i..n 
to  the  ordinary  obligations  of  knightlu><>i.  Ilia 
military  and  monastic  fraU-mity  was  H|.pr..v,d 
t>y  king  Fernando;  at  whiwe  suiriteniinn  the 
knig  lU  chose  Santiago  as  their  piilron,  whi«e 
blo.«ly  Bwonl,  In  form  of  a  cr.w..  NTarno  Iheir 
pr<if.-«lnn3|  Bj.ribol.  Thrsfl  two  or,l.,,  »,re 
richly  endowed  by  sucoessive  Ungt  of  Uun  and 


CALAXaiVA  AND  SANTIAGO. 


CALENDAR 


Casttle,  until  their  pnsussioiu  became  Immenae." 
—8.  A.  Dunham,  Iiut.  of  Spain  and  Jhrtugal.'Uc. 
8.  tcet.  i,eh.l.  die.  2.  —In  1398  the  knighU  of 
the  order  of  St.  James  of  CorapoBt«lla  "  received 
permission  to  marry.  In  1493,  the  Grand  Master- 
ship was  united  to  the  crown  of  Spain."  In 
1933  tlie  right  of  nomination  to  the  Grand  Mas- 
tereliip  of  tlic  Order  of  Calatrava  was  transferred 
from  the  Pope  to  the  crown  of  Spain,  "and 
since  that  lime  the  order  has  gradually  merged 
into  a  court  institution.  The  state  dress  u  a 
white  robe,  with  a  red  cross  on  the  left  breast. 
The  permission  to  mnrry  has  been  enjoyed  since 
1.540."— F.  C.  Woodhouse,  Military  Beligiimt 
Orderi,  pt.  4. 

CALAURIA,  ConfederatioD  ot— A  naval 
confederation,  formed  at  a  very  early  period  of 
Greek  history,  by  tlic  seven  maritime  cities  of 
Orcbomenus,  Athens,  .Cgina,  Epidaunis,  Her- 
miune,  Praais  and  \auplla  against  the  kings 
of  Argoa.  The  island  of  Calauria,  off  the 
eastern  point  of  Argolis,  was  tlie  center  of  the 
confederacy. — K.  Curtius,  Uisl.  of  Orteee,  e.  1, 
hk.  1,  ch.  3. 

CALCINATO,  Battit  of  (1706).  See  Italt 
(Savoy  and  Piedmo.nt)  :  A.  D.  1701-1718. 

CALCUTTA :  A.  D.  1608.— The  feoadiac 
of  the  city.    See  I.ndi.v:  A.  D.  1600-1703. 

A.  0.  1756.— Capture  br  Suiajah  Dowlah.— 
The  traredy  of  the  Black  Hoi*.  See  India: 
A.  D.  175S-1757. 

• 

CALDERON,  Battle  oC    See  Muuco :  A.  D. 

181U-1819. 
CALEDONIA,  The  nam*.    See  Scotlamd, 

THK  NaMK. 

Ancient  Tribes.  SeeltRiTAiN,  Celtic  TaiBBi. 
Wars  of  the  Romans.    See  Bbitaim:  A.  D. 

78-M. 

» 

CALEDONIA  SYLVA.  See  BmiTAni,  Cel- 
tic Tin  IIKS. 

CALEDONII,  The.— One  of  the  wild  tribes 
which  (Hcupied  the  Ilighhinds  of  Scotland  when 
the  Hnmims  held  nrittiin,  and  wliose  name  they 
gave  ttniill.v  to  all  the  Highland  trilies  and  to  that 
part  of  liie  Island.— W.  P.  Skene.  Celtic  Seotland, 
t.  1— St  BRrrAiN.  Celtic  Tribes. 

CALENDAR,  The  French  RopnbUcan.  See 

Framk.:  a.  I).  i;U:l  (OCTOBER). 

CALENDAR,  Creeorian.— Grcforian  Era. 

—■'I his  wiu  a  i-orncilon  and  Improvement 
of  the.Iulian  [w-e  Cai.k.xdar,  Julian].  It  was 
(liRovercil  Ht  length,  by  more  accurate  astronomi- 
cal olwrviiliimi,  ihatlliu  true  si>  ir  or  tropical 
year  was  IKW  (lays,  .1  li..urs,  48  minutes,  and  57 
h'cimd!*;  whence  it  I.  J  short  of  the  Julian  or 
Egyptian  computation  of  ))6.1  days  and  Ohouraby 
aniiilcrvulof  It  minutes,  Ssecimds.  .  .  .which, 
in  the  loiirw  of  lao  years,  amounted  U>  a  whole 
(lay  .\i  the  end  of  1;I0  years,  therefore,  the 
tnipl<aiy,iir  Ix'sanaihiv  earlier  tlun  the  civil 
or  f<  II  hm  k  a  day  behind  It.  ...  In  the  time  of 
lopcdngnry  XIII.,  A.  D.  1889,  ...  the  [ver- 
nal|  equinox  wa»  found  to  be  on  tlie  Uth  of 
.Mure  h.  having  fallen  l.iick  ten  days.  In  order 
thinfore,  to  bring  it  forwanl  to  its  former  place 
or  the  •JNt,  h,.  |,.ft  out  ten  days  In  Octolicr,  call- 
ng  111..  .VI,  the  l.lih  day  of  tliat  month.  Whence 
in  thai  y,  !,r  of  confusion,  thn  2?.l  ilgy  nf  Deccm- 
Wi  l„-.aiiic  the  dmt  of  January.  A.  D.  1S88. 
Which  was  the  ilrst  ysu  of  tile  Ongorian  Era. 


In  making  this  correction,  he  was  principally 
assisted  by  the  celebrated  mathematician  Clavius. 
But  to  prevent  the  repetition  of  this  error  in 
future,  a  further  reformation  of  the  Julian  Calen- 
dar was  wanting.  Because  the  vernal  en  uinox  fell 
backwards  three  days  in  the  course  of  890  years, 
Gregory,  chiefly  by  the  assistance  of  Aioysius 
Lilllus,  decreed  that  three  days  should  be  omitted 
in  every  four  centuries:  namely,  that  every 
firat,  second  and  third  centurial  year,  whico 
would  otherwise  be  bissextile,  should  be  a  com- 
mon year;  but  that  every  fourth  centurial  year 
should  remain  bissextile.  Thus,  the  yeare  A  D. 
1700,  1800,  1900,  and  2100,  8300, 8800,  were  to  be 
common  yeare;  but  A.  D.  1600,  8000,  8400,  to 
remain  lean  yeare.  By  this  ingenious  reform, 
the  Julian  Calendar  Is  rendered  sufflcicntly  accu- 
rate for  all  the  purposes  of  chronology,  and  even 
of  astronomy,  for  6000  yeare  to  come.  .  .  .  The 
Gregorian  or  reformed  Julian  year  was  not 
adopted  in  England  until  A.  D.  1751,  when,  the 
deficiency  from  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Nice 
then  amounting  to  eleven  days,  this  number  was 
struck  out  of  the  month  of  September,  by  Act 
of  Parliament;  and  the  3d  day  was  counted  the 
14th,  In  that  year  of  confusion.  The  next  year 
A.  D.  1753,  was  the  first  of  the  new  style,  be- 

rlng  January  1,  histead  of  March  33."— 
Hales,  yea  Analyrii  of  Chronology,  r.  1, 
bk.  1.— The  change  from  Old  Style,  as  the  Julian 
Calendar,  and  dates  according  with  it,  now  came 
to  lie  called  to  New  Style,  or  the  reformed,  Gre- 
gorian Calendar,  was  made  in  Spain,  Portugal, 
part  of  Italy,  part  of  the  Netheriands,  France, 
Denmark,  and  Lorraine,  in  A.  D.  1.W3;  in  Poland 
in  1.586;  in  Hungary  in  l.W;  in  Catholic  Switzer- 
land In  1583;  in  Catholic  Germany  in  1584;  in 
most  parts  of  Protestant  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land In  1700  and  1701,  and,  lastly.  In  England,  in 
1751.  In  Kussia,  Greece,  and  the  East  generally, 
the  Old  Style  is  still  retained.— Sir  H.  Nicolas, 
Chmntiloai/  nf  Hintory. 

CALBi«DAR,  Julian.— Julian  Era.— 'The 
epoch  of  the  Julian  Era,  which  precedes  the  com- 
mim  or  Christian  Era  by  forty-flve  yeare,  is  the 
refonnation  of  the  Roman  caleuilar  by  Julius 
CiEsar.  who  ordained  that  the  Year  of  Home  707 
should  ronsist  of  15  months,  forming  altogether 
445  days ;  that  the  ensuing  year,  7U8,  should  be 
ciim|»ised  of  863 days;  and  that  every  fourth  year 
should  c<mtain  866  days,  the  additional  "day 
being  introduced  after  the  8tli  of  the  calends  of 
Manli,  I.  e.,  the  84th  of  February,  which  year 
he  called  Bissextile,  liecause  the  6tli"of  the  calindi 
of  Marrli  were  then  doubled.  Julius  Ca'sar  also 
divliled  the  innntiu  into  the  numherof  days  whicli 
they  at  present  contain.  The  Uoman  calendar, 
which  Wild  divided  into  calends,  nones  and  idea, 
was  used  In  most  pulillc  Instruments  throughout 
Eun>|)e  for  many  centuries.  .  .  .  The  caleud  ii 
the  Ist  day  of  each  month.  The  Ides  were  right 
days  in  each  month:  In  March,  May,  .luly  and  . 
OctolH'r  the  ides  commence  on  the  iSth,  and  In 
all  other  months  on  the  13th  day.  The  nonet 
are  the  5tli  day  of  each  month,  excepting  in 
March,  May,  July  and  Octola'r,  wlMsn  the  nonet 
fall  on  the  7th  day  The  ilayt  of  the  mimUl 
were  n-ckonisl  backwards  Instead  of  forwards:' 
thus,  the  3il  ralrnds  of  February  Is  the  iXllh  of 
January ;  the  4lh  calends  of  February  the  29th 
JaniLiry.  .  .  .  E![c-.!!!!ni'.r::!yai!!)  .\ii!r:i=t.  which 
were  uaninl  after  Julius  ami  Augustus  Ca'sar, 
having  been  called  l^uiutUia  and  Sextllts,  tlM 


857 


m; 


CALENDAR 

jXi.'Jwl*?  '"  «'jf»  after  the  dcth  of 
JuHui  C«i«r,  from  reckoning  eveiy  third  instead 
of  every  fourth  year  a  bi«?xUlo.  or  leap  y^ 

?Sl.  ■luJt""''"'?'"*^  88.5 days.  8 hours.  *^When 
^U  mUtake  was  detected,  thirteen  intercalations 
^n'J?^".ir^  iMtead  of  ten.  and  the  year  conse 
quent  y  began  three  days  too  Ute:  the  calendar 

deied  that  each  of   the  ensuing  twelve   years 

Should  not  be  any  leap  year  until  A.  U.  C.  760 

1     1  :  !•    ,V"""  **""  "">e  'he  years  have  been 

calcuUted  without  mistakes,  and  the  Roman  year 

^,^.h'^?P.^  '•y  ""  ^"ristian  nations,  though 

!^hLh%''"''a*".'"'>'.f''«i'  J*^"  t"  «J»'«  from 
^blrth  of  our  Saviour.  "-Sir  if  NlcoUs.  fflroa- 
o^y  of  Iluton/  p.  4.  -"  It  might  naturally  have 
been  expeeud  that  Julius  CsJu  would  havTso 
ordcrci  his  reformed  solar  year,  as  to  begin  on 
the  day  of  the  w  nter  soUtlce,  which.  In  the*  Year 

Sf  fh.  JH?'"",  f-  "■•  "'«  y*" '"  '"'"*  'he  error 
or  the  calendar  was  corrected]  was  supposed  to 
fall  on  Dec.  85.    But  he  chose  to  begin  Wnew 

on  that  day  the  moon  was  new.  or  hi  conjunc- 
tion with  the  sun.  at  7  hours.  <  mhiutes  and  8S 
•econds  after  noon.    By  thU  means  he  began  his 

?^".  n  ".T™'  ^'*<''  <"■  '•"'y  d'y  among  the^an 
cicnt  Dniids,  with  whose  liages  be  wai  well  ac- 
quainted, and  also  nia<le  his  new  year  the  first 

"J^rJZl.7tiT^'-  "'"»•  ^'^  ^'^'^  'f 

rJk^ir  v''  ^-  *'••'''••>*•  ^f**-  0/the  Soman*, 
H^;„  „>Th  ""■•"»=«";'""'  th.  subsequent  correc- 
tion of  the  Julian  calendar,  see  CxiiuDAB,  Gb«. 

rAi''Snr'?S-  A"  ^^■•«:'>"*".  J'  ".'AN. 

CALHOUN,  John  C,  and  the  War  of  i8m. 
»■>•  tj«:"KD  ^T.vrKH  or  Am.:  A.  I).  lSIO-1813. 
.  .    .His  Nullification  and  Pro-tUvcry  policr. 

^i'r  ih'^""  x'tJ,"?  "'  Am.:  A.  D.  luaTlUM, 
jM.-lN.tN,  and  1>M7. 

».E^''F°,'*'"^=    ■r'"*    aboriflnal    inbabi- 

N«m,?,«„«"'    ^"'^''  ^'"'    "•""   CAL,KOK«,A 

-i^i  ^-  "S,43-i7«i.-Ori»in  of  th«  namt.- 
T^'fa^^u-  e«ploration  and  Mttlement.- 
The  founding  of  ih«  Franciscan  missions.- 

ulThi*;,  *;'"'"'"■""  ",f  •''«  SpanUh  missionaries 
forniK  dau-  from  the  first  f.mndatlon  of  San  Diego 
m.«h  f  I""  ?;*»'"'«  that  were  lat.r  founded 
north  of  San  Dl.go  were,  with  the  original 
"^'•"'''■"'•■nf  "*lf.  f"r  a  time  known  merefy  by 
•om,.  colk^ctlve  name,  such  as  the  JfortLra 
Missions.  But  lat.r  the  name  California  alrea.lv 
tong  slncp  applM  u,  the  cuntry  of  th™  h^dIS 
ml«.lon.  „  th..  Southward.  w,i  exun.!...!  to  tt 
new  land,  with  various  prefixes  or  qualifying 

Tn^  .''i  .  ^  ''■''''■'  f^"'"""'!*  at  last  came,  Wng 
appllH  to  our  pn.s.1,1  country  durinir  the  whole 
p.ri,.i  of  ,h..  MeM,an  lUpibllcTn  *,"  ..^^ u';^ 
As  to  the  orlitln  of    ,h,.   ,.ame   California,   no 

J^.'*i';?^',^  r""?  '*"  "»'•  '•«»  to  a  portion  of 
U.wpr   (allforula,   was   derived    fn.rl,   an    old 

wh  I  I  1  *  "■•"•oovered  in  186a,  ami  tn,m 
For,  la  thJf  romance,  tb*  B«Be  Caafoniia  waa 


CALIFORNIA,  1S4S-1781. 

ISilSlJlS*'*'"  "*?  ■P.P""1 1"  »  fabulous  Island. 
de«»46ed  as  near  the  Indies  and  also  'very  nei 
the  Tenejtrial  Parmltae.  •  Colonlsu  whoiXiS 
brought  to  the  newly  discoveiwl  peninsula^ 
1585,  and  who  returned  the  next  yea%-  maT  ha« 
been  the  first  to  apply  the  name  t8  thU TupJZi 
Island,  on  which  they  had  been  for  a  tinr,^ 

vf.lL  J^^  "^^°*  UPP"  California"  :S^'i 
visited  during  the  vovace  of  the  p»nUr.  '  ,  ™ 
Cabrillo  m  ,52-48.  H^'yl^l  llndlng'^s' w  ,  'Z 
made  on  the  coast  and  on  the  Islfn.l,,  „  Z 
SanU    Barbara   region.  ...  In    1.57B    ri^.t 

IsnUi*"  "^^^^r  [«*  akkrica:  a'"^' 

sure  that  ie  did  not  en/^r'or  ob'irv'^'.hriS 
Gate,  and  that  be  got  no  sort  of  i.leao  ttS 
existence  of  the  QreSt  Bay.  .  .  .  This  result  „f 
the  examination  of  the  evidence  about  1  mki ! 

3X''r''/"'"j'''^"'"^P«*'J.  "IthmiZ-S 
peopfe  will  always  try  to  inai»t  that  DrakeX-' 
covered  our  Bay  of  San  Francisco.  The  Lme 
8u  Franctaoo  was  probably  ai.plied  to  a  port  on 
thl.  coast  for  the  first  timi  by  Cermefion'^who 
^SJ°^,T.  '"""/H"  Philippines  in  imZ 
RTvIf'  Z,  "P'?'<°«  the  c-st  mar  Po™ 
^yes.     It  is  now,  however,  perfectly  sure  thst 

wM^h^'"  'PP'i*^  *■>'*  '»"''•  •«  °"'  Pr.»™t  bsT 
^.^Hn^^rM"*  li^I^y  unknown  to  European 

yixcaino  conducted  a  Spanish  explorinir  exneZ 
tion  along  the  Callforara  oo«.,t  .  .  # rnSu 
voyage  a  little  more  knowledge  of  the  ch  "rac?" 

geographical  researches  in  the  region  „f  (all 
EJ'?i».5r'^.  '"f  »""'  a  rentury%nd  »  la) . 


868 


Wl.iT^^iJVi  1  '   "  reniury  and 

With  only  tliU  meagre  result  we  fvach  il,.  ,  r,,  „f 

misdons  of  the  peninsula  of  Lower  California 
fnT^i,'°i™';  by  the  expulsion  of  th,.  .l.Uit^ 
Into    the    hands  of    the  Vmndnrans;    „,„|  ,S 

tractcd  in  this  direction  l.y  the  rlmiii.'e.l  cnn- 

long-chcrished  plan  to  provi.le  the  Manilla  ship,, 
on  their  return  voyn^re.  with  go,»|  ports  ,.f 
supply  and  repairs,  and  to  occupy  tl, .  north 
west  land  u  a  safeguard  agali..V  Kussian  "r 

ynL?"^  XK  '"^'"'^fy  aii.1  sittleuienl  i„  ( „li 
lornla.  The  rurly  years  show  a  genenllv  rapil 
Drogres^  only  one  great  <li«Mt<T  .K-eiirrin,;'  -  l., 
aestructlon  of  San  Die«o  ,Mi,«i„„  i„  i;;-,  i,v 
•J^SjndlanB.     But  tl w.  w,ls  ,|,ii,  klv  r.:. 

founded  at  Monterey.  In  ITTi,  «  land  ,x,„,li 
J^uTY^""^  andCreM.I,  tlrst  e.vj.l,.r„t  the 
easum  shore  of  our  San  Kraiic  I.h<-o  lh\  in  an 
effort  u,  reach  by  lan.l  th,.  ,.|,1  I'ort  of  s.,,  iU 
«•  3.  .  .  .  AfU-r  1778,  il„   old  ,„i,„e  |„i..„nto 

thenceforth,  the  name  l'..rt  of  Han  ■Fru.i*,; 
means  what  we  now  mean  thenliy.  In  KM 
Lieutenant  Ayala  entered  the  new  liarlH.r  hv 
water  In  the  following  y,«r the  .MlsKi,.,,  „i  San 
Francisro  was  founded,  anil  in  « ».tol>,  r  it,  <  hurrh 
was  dedicate,!  ISot  only  iiil>«.ioiiH.  ho» .  v.  r.  hut 
Fk  ir,  '"''«''lted  by  Spanish  it.loni.ls.  lav  in 
the  odlclal  plan  of  the  new  ui.,l,rt«kinK«  Ylie 
flrst  of  tliese  to  be  establlah.-,!  wa«  .San  },m: 
foun<l.Hl  In  November,  1777.  The  next  «,«  I/« 
Angelee,  founded  In  H<'ptember  >'"<  "—J 
Koyoe.  Cai\/Qmta,  eh.  1,  tet  » 


CAUFORKU,  1548-1781. 

Auo  m:  H.  H.  Bancroft,  ffitl.of  the  Paeifle 
aatf.  e.  18  iOalifomia,  e.  1).— P.  W.  BUckmar, 
£^nM  IiutUutiimt  of  the  SmUhwat,  eh.  S-IS. 

A.  0.  1846-1847.— The  American  eonqueit 
■nd  its  unezplainr  1  prclodt.*.— "  Earlv  in  1846, 
the  Americans  in  CalUornIa  numbered  about  200, 
mostly  able-bodied  men,  and  who  In  tbeir 
tctivity,  enterprise,  and  audacity,  constituted 
quite  a  formidable  element  in  this  sparsel,  in- 
habited region.  The  population  of  California  at 
this  time  was  8,000  Mexicans  and  200,000  In- 
dians. We  now  come  to  a  period  in  the  history 
of  California  that  has  never  Deen  made  clear,  and 
respecting  which  there  are  conflicting  statements 
soa  opinions.  The  following  facts  were  ob- 
tained by  careful  inquiir  of  IntelUgent  parties 
who  lived  in  Califomh  during  the  period  men- 
tioned, and  who  participated  In  the  sr<  let  nar- 
rated. The  native  Callfomiana  appea>  u>  have 
entertained  no  very  strong  affection  for  tb  :;ir  own 

Sverament,  or,  rather,  they  felt  that  under  the 
luences  at  work  they  would  Inevitably,  and 
St  no  very  distant  period,  become  a  dismembered 
branch  of  the  Mexican  nation;  and  the  matter 
was  finally  narrowed  down  to  thla  contested 
point,  namelv,  whether  this  state  surgery  should 
be  performed  by  Americana  or  Engluh,  tiie  real 
struggle  being  between  then  two  nationalities. 
In  the  northern  part  of  the  territory,  such  native 
Califoraians  as  the  Vallejoa,  Caatna,  etc.,  with 
the  old  American  settlers,  Leese,  Larkin,  and 
others,  sympathized  with  the  United  States,  and 
desired  annexation  to  the  American  republic. 
In  the  south,  Pio  Pico,  then  governor  of  tlie  ter- 
ritory, snd  other  prominent  native  Callfomians, 
with  Jsmes  Alexander  Forbes,  the  English  con- 
sul, who  Bettle<l  in  Santa  Clara  in  1828,  were  ex- 
erting themselves  to  bring  the  country  under 
English  domination.  .  .  .  This  was  the  sute  of 
affairs  for  two  or  three  years  previous  to  the 
Mexican  War.  For  some  months  before  the  news 
that  hostilities  between  the  United  States  and 
Mexico  had  commenced  [see  Mexico:  A.  D. 
1848-1H47]  reached  California,  the  belief  that 
such  an  event  would  certainly  occur  was  uni- 
versal throughout  the  ti-rritory.  This  quickened 
the  impulses  of  all  parties,  and  stimulated  the 
two  rivals  — the  Ameriraii  and  English  —  in 
their  efforts  to  be  the  first  to  obtain  a  permanent 
hold  of  the  country.  The  United  States  govem- 
raent  had  sent  Colonel  Fremont  to  the  Pacific  on 
sncxiiluring  expedition.  Colonel  Fremont  had 
pas8*'il  through  California,  and  was  on  his  way 
tn  Oregon,  when,  in  March,  1848,  Lieutenant 
Olllesple,  of  the  United  SUtea  marine  service, 
wss  sent  fnim  Washington  with  dispatches  to 
Colonel  Fremont.  Lieutenant  Oillesple  went 
screws  Mexico  to  Msxatlan,  and  from  thence  by 
sea  to  Califomia.  He  finally  overtook  Fremont 
early  In  June.  1848,  a  aliort  distance  on  the  road 
to  (Ingon.  and  communicated  to  him  the  purport 
of  hla  (iJKpstches,  they  having  been  committed  to 
memory  and  the  papers  deatmyed  before  he  en- 
tered M,  xlct).  What  these  Instructions  author- 
lied  Cfijonel  Fremont  to  do  has  never  be«n  pro- 
muleaini,  hut  it  is  said  they  directed  him  to 
rrmain  in  rallfomia.  and  hold  himself  in  n-mll- 
neM  to  conp,.rate  with  the  United  SUtes  Act,  in 
caw'  war  with  Mexico  should  occur.  Fremont 
Imtiii.liately  returneil  to  Califomia,  and  camp.-d 
s  short  lime  on  Feather  River,  and  then  took  up 
tu  n..i.i4u«iler»  at  Gutter's  Fort.  A  few  days 
after,  ua  buaday,  Jiim  14U^  1841,  •  pMty  of 


OAUFORIOA,  1848-1847. 

fourteen  Americans,  under  no  apparent  com- 
mand, appeared  in  Sonoma,  captured  the  place, 
rwsed  the  Bear  flag,  proclaimcclthe  independence 
of  Califomfai,  and  carried  oS  to  Fremont's  head- 
quarters four  prominent  citizens,  namely,  the 
two  Vallejoa,  J.  P.  Leese,  and  Colonel  Prudhon. 
On  the  consummation  of  these  achievements,  one 
Merritt  wai  elected  captain.  This  was  a  rough 
party  of  revolutionista,  and  the  manner  in  which 
they  improvised  the  famous  Bear  flag  shows  upon 
what  alender  meana  nations  and  kingdoms  are 
sometimea  started.  From  an  estimable  old  hidy 
they  obtained  a  fragmentary  portion  of  her 
white  skirt,  on  which  they  painted  what  was  in- 
tended to  represent  a  grizzly  bear,  but  not  being 
artistic  in  their  work  ...  the  Mexicans,  with 
their  usual  happy  faculty  on  such  occasions, 
called  it  the  'Bandera  Colchis,' or  'Hog  Flag.' 
This  flag  now  ornaments  the  rooms  of  thcPioneer 
SocietyTn  San  Pranciaco.  On  the  18th  of  June, 
1848,  William  B.  Ide,  a  native  of  New  England, 
who  had  emigrated  to  California  the  year  pie- 
Tious,  issued  a  proclamation  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  fortress  of  Sonoma.  This  proclama- 
tion declared  the  purpose  to  overthrow  the 
existing  government,  and  establish  in  its  place 
the  republican  form.  .  .  .  General  Castro  now 
proposed  to  attack  the  feebly  manned  post  at 
Sonoma,  but  he  waa  frustrated  by  a  rapid  move- 
ment of  Fremont,  who,  on  the  4th  of  July, 
1848,  called  ameetingof  Americans  at  Sonoma; 
and  this  assembly,  acting  under  his  advice,  pro- 
claimed the  independence  of  the  country,  ap- 
pointed Fremont  Governor,  and  declared  war 
against  Mexico.  During  these  proceedings  at 
Sonoma,  a  flag  with  one  star  floated  over  the 
headouarters  of  Fremont  at  Sutter's  Fort.  The 
meaning  of  thla  lone-star  flag  no  one  seems  to 
have  understood.  .  .  .  Just  as  Fremont,  with 
his  company,  had  started  for  the  coast  to  con- 
front Castro,  and  act  on  the  aggressive  generally, 
he  was  suddenly  brought  to  a  sUnd  by  the  as- 
tounding intelligence  that  Commodore  Sloat  had 
arrived  at  Monterey,  and  that,  on  the  7th  of 
July,  1848,  he  had  raised  the  American  flag  and 
taken  possession  of  the  place;  also,  that,  bv  com- 
mand of  Commodore  Sloat,  Commander  "Mont- 
gomery, of  the  United  States  slixip-ofwar  Ports- 
mouth,  then  lying  in  San  Francisco  Bay,  had, 
on  the  8th  of  July,  taken  pos.scs.sion  of*  \vr\Mk 
Buena  and  raisetl  the  American  flag  on  the  plaza. 
This  of  course  settled  the  business  for  all  par- 
tica  The  Mexican  flag  and  the  Hear  flag  wg^ 
lowered,  and  in  due  time,  nolens  volens.  all  ac- 
quiesced in  the  flying  of  the  Stars  and  Slri|)ea. 
.  .  .  Commodore  Hloat  .  .  .  had  heard  of  the 
commencement  of  hostilities  on  the  Kio  Grande, 
.  .  .  sallwl  from  Mazathin  for  Califomia,  took 
possession  of  the  country  aril  raised  the  Ameri- 
can flag  on  hia  own  resiiimHlhlllly.  These  deci- 
sive steps  on  the  part  of  t'onuniKlore  Slont  were 
not  taken  a  moment  too  soon,  as  on  the  14th  of 
July  the  British  manofwur  ColllngwoiNl.  Sir 
George  Seymour  commimding,  arriviii  at  Moo- 
U-ny,"  Intending,  as  Sir  George  acknowledged, 
"to  take  poaaession  of  that  p<irti<m  of  the  coun- 
try." lu  August,  Comni.siore  Sloat  rellmiui.shed 
the  command  of  the  Pacitic  sqiimlron  to  Com- 
miKlore  Hliickton,  who  "imme<liaU>lr  instituted 
bohl  and  vigorous  measures  for  the  subjugation 
of  the  territory.  All  his  avnlUlile  foriw  fi>r  land 
operations  was  8SU  men  — sailors  and  marine*. 
But  io  impU  mmI  •klUul  were  StocktoB's  noTT 


869 


H  ? 


CALIFORNIA,  1846-1847. 

F^mA„?°^..^  efflcicnt  WM  the  coSpentlon  of 
Fremont  with  hta  small  troop.  th.tCaUfon.ta 
was  effectually  conquered  in  January  1847 
During  all  this  perioj  the  people  of  tK  CnH^ 
States  were  tenorant  of  what  was  transpiring  In 
California  anS  vice  versa.  But  the  ictlon  of 
Commodore  Sloat  „d  .  .  .   CommcSore 

thr^r^.,^B.  f  **  ^"'  anticipate  the  wishes  of 
June,  1846,  dispatched  General  Kearney  ac^es 
the  county  from  Fort  Leavenworth  [s^  Nkw 

I„^,.  lit".  *"  '"'"'""  CaUfomta.  and  whei 
Mnquere.1  to  assume  the  governorship  of  the 
tenftory  Ooneral  Kearney  arrived  In  cSliforSa 
jIaSan  PM,,,ml  with  greatly  diminished  forces. 
December,  1848,  a  few  weeli  before  «:M veTm- 
tary  operations  In  that  region  ceased."— £  E 
Dunbar,  The  Romance  of  Xh»  ^Tm.  2iM8 

Aate,.  t    17  (California,  t.  6).  A.  l-ll-JTc. 
Fremont,  Mhnotn  of  my  Ufi,  «.  l,  «*.  14.15. 

A.  p.  1848.— Cesaion  to  th*  Uaited  SUtM 
Bee  Mexico:  A.  D.  1848  •"»»"•  aim.vn. 

.-^.?:  ."48:i849._Th«  diMovMT  of  Gold 
»nd  the  immigration  of  the  Gold-honten  — 

„,"/»*, ''"™""  °'  •***^  "••  American  residents 
^L.i  . ',*i.  ?T'*^'''''«  Perhapa  2,000.  and 
mostly  established  near  San  rfar.riico  Bay 
f?^^~  °^^  *'""  '"'P«  "<»  confidence  to  thi 
.u.nTf  .•,'■'[  f"'^™™™*  held  secure  posses- 
J^on  of  the  whole  territory,  and  had  announced 
lis  p»rp.«e  to  hold  it  pehlunently.  "  It  » 
«;;f,iri'?  .I*""'  "/  t''i»Jln>e  one  It  the  leading 
S»^»-^i  K™?'  Anierican  InteresU  In  Califor- 
ta^e  f  n"''°  ■^V^""'*'-.  *  Swiss  by  his  paren- 
toge:  a  Qerman  by  tlic  place  of  £ls  birti.  ;n 
f w  r  •  m1  ^""T'™n  '">•  n-sldence  and  naturallza- 
Uon  in  Missouri;  and  a  Mexican  by  subsequent 

1830  he  had  settled  at  the  lunctlon  of  the  Sacni- 
menu.  and  American  Hvers.  near  Uie  site 
Ir,  t"'*"'    V''>'    "'    Sacmmento."     His 

ranclio     became     kn.wn     as    Sutter's     Fort. 

IPT  of  '.""S"""  ",n'**^'.*"  P'""""  'he  build, 
ing  of  a  flour-mill,  and  "partly  to  irrt  lum 
ber  f.,r  it,  he  d,  tem>ine.i  to  bulUd /saw-SSfl  iZ 
Since  there  was  no  g«xl  timber  in  the  vallev 
if.^  r!?,"!;"""  ""  '  ^  '"  "-e  mounuins.  Tfle 
Siflv2'  '/  V*  ";"'^'"^  ""y  J«""  W.  Marshall,  a 
native  of  New  Jersey,  a  skilful  wheelwright  by 
occupation     nclustri.ms.  honest,  genemus    blu 

^ZliJfA^^}^  '"'^'**'  "d  defmivehi' 
•ome  kinds  of  business  sense.  .  .      The  nlwn 

1.VK)  f„.t  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  45 

r.^'"  in"".  ^""""'  '^""'   '"""  '^b^  H  was 
am  ,.«ib  ,.  by  wagon  without  expense  for  roa. 

7^^::'  \  1  ^^'^' '"  "**'  "•"  -*  ">•"  *»•  n^iy 

the  nu-e  to  cairy  away  some  of  the  I.hhw  dirt 
and  gmv.l,  an.i  then  h,ul  bcrn  turned  o.T  again 
On  tl...„ft,.m.,.nof  M.mday,  the !Mth of  January 
Man,  mil  was  walki,,^  lo  ,he  tall.,«;e,  when  on 
Its  rot  .  n  «mnit..  b..d  nn-k  he  saw  some  vellow 
parti,  es  and  ,,i.  k«l  up  several  ofXm.^  Th^ 
largest  wer,.  aljout  the  .i»„  of  grain,  of  wheat 
.  .  .   lie  Ihmighl  lli.y  were  gold,  and  went  to 
''••"'"■   «"■";  he  told  the  men  that  he  hm 
fou.Ml  a  gol,i  mine      At  the  time,  little  import 
anee   w,,,  atta.  lio,i  to   hi,  sUle^nent.     iT  was 
rrifanl..,!  as  a  pn.jHr  ..ihject  for  ridl<iil»      Mar 
moll  liiwuKreU  his  new  metal  ud  found  It 


CAUFORNIA,  188*. 

malleable;  he  put  It  into  the  kitchen  flm  «i.,i 
observed  that  It  did  not  readily  melt  or  M 
discolored:  he  compared  Its  color  with  goldS 
and  themore  be  examined  It  the  more  1  e  wu 
convtaced  that  It  wa.  gold."  He  soon  fouml^ 
opportunity  to  show  his  discovery  to  8u  te7 
who  tested  the  metal  with  add  and  by  oarefui 
weighing,  and  utbfled  himself  that  Marsha  U 
oonclujion  wa.  correct.  In  the  spring  „f  1848 
w.^.5*^'  •  ""•««  "'  »hout  7(10  inhab? 
^T\y}^c>»?  nf*!p»Pe".  'he  '  Californiai' 
5  ^.  ^  ..5'"'°'^*'  *"•  hoth  weeklies.  The 
first  printed  mention  of  the  gold  discovery  was 

the  15th  of  Jtarch.  stating  that  a  gold  mine  l,ad 
been  found  at  Sutter's  Mill,  and  Siat  a  packsM 
of  the  metal  worth  |30  had  been  receVved  S 
t^r.^^w't.-  •  •  ^'0"'  'he  middle  of  Ju^ 
the  whole  tenrttorv  resounded  with  the  cry^ 

t£^  'r  •  •  ^'.y.*"  »he  men  hurrie.1  off  to 
tte     mines.    Worksliops,     stores,     dweiliosi 

for  a   time   to   take  care  of  themselves.  . 

ihe  reporto  of  the  discovery,  which  beiran  tn 
"»'h  the  Atlantic  States  In  8eptemCr%»° 
commanded  little  credence  there  liefore  January 
butthenew»of  theanlval  of  large  amounts  if 
Ck'L'^l'!';  VlP-™i«o.  P»nrm.,an,iNe°w' 
JnH  .  S^  ^^^  Pf"  °'  'he  winter,  put  sn 
end  to  all  doubt,  and  in  the  spring  there  was 
Buch  a  rush  of  peaceful  migration  is  the  worM 


SCO 


had  never  jeen.    In  1849,  2S,000-afcor,li„g  to 
one    authority    80,000-imm.grant8    w.ut   bv 

4^  00?^^  Mountains,  and  by  s..a  perhsn, 
4ii,(j)0  from  other  parta  of  the  worid.  .  Tlie 
gold  yield  of  1848  was  estimated  at  ^.smm- 
i^'n,2f  J^'J"  *W.»0O,0tK);  that  of  INW  a 
»'!O,0OO,OOO;  that  of  1858  at  »6.'..00(I.WIO  and 
tlien  came  the  decline  which  has  coiitiriii.Hi  until 

i^2R,'2?^i"'"*,f*2**].rh'-''  'he  Jl'l'l  is  atom 
•18  01)0,000  '^-J     8.    Hittell,    Thi  Dim.r^  of 

OM^tn  aUtfonua  (Oenturg  Magatine.  tV,nari, 

Also  nj:  E.  E.  Dunbar,  Ttu  Somnwf  nf  tht 

Age.  or  the  Diteotery  «f  O.M  in   <:■■  ^\i   \\ 

Bancroft.  Htet.  of  the  PMiJie  Slatee,  ,    IHiCali- 

fornta,  t.  «)  eK  3-4. 

/~-  5'  ;"50-— Aomiialon  to  tht  Union  as  t 

«?!J****T^*'!  Comproml...     8.e  I  mtkd 
States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  iR-x) 

A.  D.  (8s6.— The  San  Fruteiaco  Vigilaace 
r"*.?™  ^*J!?-~"^heass<Hiation  of  cili/.eM»lvnown 
as  the  vigilance  committee,  which  was  (.rcunlmi 
In  Han  Fnuiclaco  on  the  15th  of  Mav,  IK,I\  has 
nail  such  an  Influence  on  the  growth  arui  pms- 
perity  of  that  city  that  now  [1877).  at  th,' ,  ml  of 
ii  years,  a  true  account  of  the  origin  and  .»ul»e- 
quent  action  of  that  association  will  1m.  nail  with 
interest.     For  some  time  the  comipticiu  in  the 
courts  of  law,  the  Insei-urily  of  the  Imlint  Imi 
at  elretlons, and  the  Infamous cluinicter of  many 
of  the  public  offloials,  had  bi^en  the  kuI.j.tI  of 
complaint,   not    only    in    Han    Framiv,..    but 
throughout  the  Sla'.o  of  Callforola     it  \vi»  evi- 
dent  to  the  honest  and  respecial.!..  ,iii/ru«  of 
San  Francisco  that  ...  it  would   U-v>,m,-  the 
amy  of  the  people  to  protwt  ihiiii«Kr<  by 
refonning  the  courts  of  law.  and  bv  laliim;  the 
imllol  Imx    from    the    hands    of    "gr<.-.lv    and 
unprincipled  politicians. "    The  latter  w.  n'  n  pte- 
'^luJ  i^  °  nt^'Tspaprr  f4ii!.-.i  Ihe  Suinlui  Tirnt*. 
editiMl  by  one  James  1».  Casiy.    The  oi'ilnioo  of 


CALIFORNIA,  18M 


OALIFORNU,  18M. 


the  better  cliuaea  of  citizeiu  was  voiced  by  the 
Evening  Bulletin,  whoee  editor  was  James  King. 
On  the  Uth  of  May,  1856,  King  was  shot  by 
Cwey,  in  the  public  street,  receiving  a  wound 
from  which  he  died  six  days  Uter,  and  intense 
eicitement  of  feeling  in  the  city  was  produced. 
Casey  surrendered  himself  and  was  lodged  in 
jsiL  During  the  evening  of  the  14th  some  of 
the  members  of  a  vigilance  committee  which 
had  been  formed  in  1851,  and  which  bad  then 
checked  a  free  riot  of  crime  In  the  suddenly 
populate<l  and  unorganized  city,  by  trying  and 
executing  a  few  desperadoes,  came  together  and 
determined  the  organization  of  another  committee 
for  the  same  purpose.  "  The  nextday  (the  ISth) 
a  set  of  rules  and  regulations  were  drawn  up 
which  each  member  was  obliged  to  sign.  The 
committee  took  spacious  rooms,  and  su  citizens 
of  San  Francisco  having  the  welfare  of  the  city 
at  heart  were  invited  to  Join  the  association. 
Several  thousands  enrolled  themselves  in  a  few 
dsya.  .  .  .  The  members  of  the  vigilance  com- 
mittee were  divided  into  companies  cf  100, 
each  company  having  a  captain.  Early  on  Sun- 
day (tlie  18th)  orders  were  sent  to  the  different 
captains  to  appear  with  their  companies  ready 
for  duty  at  the  headquarters  of  the  committee, 
in  Sacramento  Street,  at  nine  o'clock.  When  all 
the  companies  had  arrived,  they  were  formed 
Into  one  body.  In  all  about  2,000  men.  Sixty 
picked  men  were  selected  as  a  guard  for  the 
executive  committee.  At  half-past  eleven  the 
whole  force  moved  in  the  direction  of  the  jail. 
A  large  number  of  spectators  had  collected,  but 
there  was  no  confusion,  no  noise.  They  mnrrhed 
through  the  city  to  Broadway,  and  there  f  rmed 
in  the  open  space  before  the  Jail.  .  .  .  The 
houses  opposite  the  jail  were  searched  for  men 
and  arms  secreted  there,  the  committee  wishing 
to  prevent  any  chance  of  a  collision  which  might 
lead  to  bloodslied.  A  cannon  was  then  brought 
forwTl  and  placed  in  front  of  the  Jail,  the 
muizi.  "vdnt^d  »t  the  door."  The  jailor  waa 
now  cttllwl  ujion  to  deliver  Casey  to  fhe  com- 
mittee, and  complied,  being  unable  to  resist. 
One  Charles  Cora,  who  had  killed  a  United  .States 
msniial  tlie  November  previous,  was  taken 
fmm  tlie  Jail  at  the  same  time.  The  two  prisim- 
ers  were  escorted  to  the  quarters  of  the  vigilance 
eomniiitev  and  them  conflned  under  guard. 
Two  days  afterwards  (May  80th)  Mr.  Kiug  died. 
Casey  nnci  Cora  were  put  on  trial  before  a  tribu- 
nal which  the  committt .  had  organized,  were 
condemned  to  death,  and  were  hanged,  with 
solemnity,  on  the  22d,  from  a  platform  erected  in 
front  of  the  building  on  Sacramento  Street. 
"The  executive  conii.iite«,  Undlng  that  the 
power  tney  held  was  petftrtly  under  control, 
anil  that  tliere  waa  no  dancer  of  any  popular 
exeesscs,  (Iet4>miined  to  continue  their  work  and 
rid  the  country  of  the  gang  of  ruffians  which  had 
for  SI)  long  a  time  managed  elecHiona  in  San  Fran- 
cisco and  its  vicUiit/.  These  men  were  all  well 
kn"\vn.  and  were  ordered  to  leave  San  Francisco. 
M;u:y  went  away.  Those  who  refused  to  go 
Were  arrested  and  taken  to  the  rooms  of  the 
^)mmiltee,  where  they  were  conflned  until 
optiorl  unities  offered  for  shipping  them  out  of 
the  country.  ...  The  governor  of  California  at 
this  lime  was  Mr.  J.  Neely  Johnson.  ,  .  .  The 
°?j"''  *(>lKn«l  of  the  secuod  division  of  swte 
militia  (which  Included  ♦  he  city  and  county  of 
Ban  Francisco)  was  Mr    WUIUoi  T.  Sberman 


[afterwards  well  known  In  the  world  as  Qeneral 
Sherman]  who  had  resigned  his  commission  in 
the  United  States  army  and  had  become  a  part- 
ner hi  the  banking  house  of  Lucas,  Turner  & 
Co.,  hi  San  Francisco.  .  .  .  Toward  the  end  of 
Mav,  Oovemor  Johnson  .  .  .  appealed  to  Gen- 
eral Sherman  for  advice  and  assistance  hi  putting 
a  stop  to  the  vigilance  committee.  At  tliis  time 
Oeneral  Wool  waa  In  command  of  the  United 
States  troops,  and  Commodore  Farragut  had 
charge  of  the  navy  -;-d."  Oeneral  Wool  was 
applied  to  for  arms,  and  Commodore  Farragut 
was  asked  to  station  a  vessel  of  war  at  anchor  off 
San  Francisco.  Both  officers  declined  to  at  as 
requested,  having  no  authority  to  do  so.  "  When 
Governor  Johnson  returned  to  ^cramento,  a 
writ  was  issued,  at  his  request,  by  Judge  Tenr 
of  the  supreme  court,  commanding  the  sheriff 
of  San  Francisco  to  bring  before  him  one  William 
Mulligan,  who  was  then  In  the  hands  of  the 
vigilance  committee."  The  vigiUnce  committee 
refused  to  surrender  their  prisoner  to  the  sheriff, 
and  Oener '  Sherman  was  ordered  to  call  out  the 
militU  of  hiS  division  to  support  that  officer.  At 
the  same  time  the  governor  issued  a  r  n>cIaiiiatlon 
declaring  tho  city  of  San  Franciac  a  state  of 
insurrection.  General  Sherman  fou  it  impossi- 
ble to  arm  his  militia  for  service,  a.  A  resigned 
the  command.  The  governor  sought  and  ob- 
tained arms  elsewhere;  but  the  schooner  which 
brought  them  was  soized  snd  the  arms  possessed 
by  tlie  committee.  On  attempting  to  arrest  the 
person  who  had  charge  of  the  schooner,  one  of 
the  vigilance  committee's  policemeu,  named  Hop- 
kl.  s,  was  stabbed  by  the  afterwards  notorious 
Juage  Terry,  who,  with  some  others,  had  under- 
taKen  to  protect  the  man.  "The  signal  for  a 
general  meeting  under  arms  was  soundc<l,  and  in 
a  short  time  1.500  men  wtro  reported  ready  for 
duty.  In  an  hour  4,000  meu  were  under  arms 
and  prepared  to  act  against  the  so-called  law- 
and-order  party,  who  were  collected  in  force  at 
the  different  armories.  These  armories  were 
surrounded."  Judee  Terry  was  demanded  and 
delivered  up,  and  all  the  arms  and  ammunition 
in  the  armories  were  removed.  "In  this  way 
was  settled  the  question  of  power  between  the 
vigilance  committee,  who  wished  to  restore 
order  and  were  working  to  establish  an  honest 
judiciary  and  a  pure  ballot,  and  their  opiKiuents, 
the  law-and-order  party,  who  wlslnil  to  uphold 
the  dignitv  of  the  law  by  means  of  a  butcher's 
'^nlfe  in  the  hands  of  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court.  Althougli  the  committee  were  masters  in 
San  Francisco,  their  position  was  made  nu-re 
precarious  by  the  very  fact  of  thi'r  having  dis- 
armed their  opponents.  The  attention  of  the 
whole  Union  was  attrac*.>d  to  the  state  of  thir.gs 
in  California,  aud  it  'm  nimored  that  instruc- 
tions hsd  been  ac.  trum  Washington  to  all  the 
United  States  vessels  In  the  I'uclflc  to  pniceed  at 
once  to  San  Francisco ;  and  tliat  onlers  were  on 
the  way.  placing  the  Unit<il  States  military 
force  in'  California  at  the  disp(>.oal  of  Oovornor 
Johnson.  The  committee  went  i>u  niinilily  witii 
their  work.  ...  All  the  important  cliangcs 
which  they  had  undertaken  had  been  r«rried 
out  successi'ully,  and  they  would  gladly  have 
given  up  the  responsibility  they  had  assumed  had 
ft  not  iH-en  for  the  lase  of  Judge  Terry.  ...  At 
last  the  ntiystctans  announced  that  Hopkins  waa 
out  of  danger,  and  on  the  7th  of  August  Judge 
Terry  waa  released.   .   .  .  lUvlof  got  rid  of 


861 


CAUTORMIA.  IVt. 

th7  wH^     "  "  • 'T-  "x'  "°  tlie  18th  of  August 
the  whole   aasotmtion,   numberinir   over  8  (XX) 

fn  a„    "»"^'»co.  returned  to  their  he«dqu8rtcr» 

In  L%T  '""y  fr'^'^  ""<"'«1  'n>m  duty.  T  . 
In  the  following  Novembor  thero  waa  an  elertion 
of  city  and  county  officer..     Eve" ^Ingwen" 
on   .   ry  quietly.     A  -people's  t'cket\  Kie 
wL^Z  °' /''°:r"8'5'y  "jrustworthV  cmJena! 
m^i^'Jfr     *  f.  P"f  J'-  '""  elected  by  a  larn 
majority  and  for  the  last  20  years  San  Franc)»?o 
^.•"•d  the  reputation  of  being  one  of^*ete«? 
Srv    '^/'i"'  '^""' .  ^'°''"'  States.  "-T.  O 
(.iltMnrii;  Monthly,  Dee.  1877) 
«,^tof"«?«rr.;v  "'*"C"'ft,  JWrf.  o/(»,  fli«7fc 
Sherman,  Memnn.  ch.  4  (el)         ^>""-  "•  »• 

^«.n  .„  in  18  <  7  a  meeting  was  called  in  San  Fren- 
«tT«^t^£Rrf  *y"lP«thr  with  the  men  then  on 
ftiii^t  i'  "ttsburg  In  Pennsylvania.  .  .  .  Some 
strong  language  used  at  thft  meeting,  and  ex- 
nggerated  by  the  newspapers,   frigfiened  Uie 

KbVLV'f  •"  '°™'lf » -^t  of Slt^ 

iL5  ."''  **'^-ty-  •  •  •  The  chief  result  of  the 
incident  was  furtlier  irritation  of   the    poore? 

witi^  tT™ ''  Sh"":  ""=  ,^''P««^  to  deal  ha«hly 
m M„l,  inT"  -?'""«'y  •ff^r  c«me  an  election  of 

Satur,.  T?"  """^  •""•"*"  "'  the  State 
legisiatun-.     The  contest,  as  Is  the  custom  in 

^'.nSVn"'"'^'"  '!""  "'"  «  numSr"o?°c?u  "s 
and  otlier  organizations,  purporting  to  represent 

I?l^^  »■;!?"  '',';.'^'!-">"'  of  apart},  and  am^g 
tH,""  I'^-.'y.^J'l^f,  't^V". '  The  Working  men* 


CAUFORNIA.  1877-1880. 

poiltlon  wai  flnally  usuivd  bv  hi.  \^i 
along  with  several  other  siSen  an«,t„Y„"!i 
prosecuted  on  a  charg.  of  riot  fn  r^^.^ 'fT 
Bammatory  speeches  delivered  at  T^xSni  '"" 
the  top  o(Nob  Hill,  one  of  the  Mc^d  ^iilf 
which  n»ke  San  Fhuictoco  the  most  pirt,  S ,,' 
^American  cities.  The  prosecution  fail"  U^' 
Kearney  was  a  popular  tero.  Clerks  an  i  t^ 
better  class  of  citliens  now  began  to  at?^n  ' 
meetings,  thooirh  in.nv^  -.,,.   PXl   _  A"^" 


_  .  ,„,    iia,.,,    jne  worklnir  men  9 

Tra.le  ami  Ubor  fnion.'  the  Secretary  of  w^iicl' 

was'  ov%"  k"  ^'"'^  ^T'^T'  ^'•^''  ti  cimlon 
W«  imi„„'  K™rnoy  declared  that  he  would  keen 
Ws  tmion  going,  and  form  a  working  man'f  party 

Wm  to  ai;;'^';'  "'«"^"  '?  *?''■  t°  h<»ve  a^t  t^ei 

clur™^ui  M*  ?""'""'  "t  »  8-mdny  debating 
Club  called  ilie  I.yceum  of  Self  Culture 
Kearneys  tongue,  loud  and  abusive  soiin 
CrrJ  ""  "'""'■''"•  ""  the  west  side  of  &^S 
L7^~ar/."?h'"""  the  peninsula  from  tlm 
.\1^1  '"wards  the  ocean,  there  is  (or  the,  wi.5) 
vpM^.mV'"''  "P"""'   ""^  °"t  for  building,  but  n 

«^h.^  f  •  '/'■""  *'"'  ""h  had  been  wont  to 
Mrtv  ^rr  "r^''^'"  ?^**™''?  formed  hU 
l^n  f.nt  oL  J  l^  ''?*'  ""^'^  '"ga^wnds  to  lis- 
1dm  un  T?  """.  '""^  ''"t  newspapers  took 
M  LiJ^  n  T'""*  ')*"■  "'«  Chronicle  and  the 
m  r  «,^„?  'a  T.r  '"  ""•"  ""^'y-  •■«'  "'e  for 
golniri^he«,l  m.  '  1^  "'""•"ent  a  chance  of 
matter  .„M  I  "'"'■','"'  T'""""'  "'th  tenMllonal 
mtn  went  In  hot  an.T  strong  for  the'sand  Lot 
?irl/«v'.Ki  K"''r"'*"'*"t  which  the  Chro- 
°'h",,*f^*  hlin  bv  its  report,  and  article.,  and 

»«e  1^  soon  made  him  •  penoDage;  and  his 


862 


President      .  .  The  Sand  l>.t  party  rfre-^f 

M  m  the  East,  have  the  larger  share  of  tS 
P.™'Ki.*'™'*Jt'  '^'e  "■"  "''••■  unwelcome  o  ,h! 
weauea  their  old  opponents:  while  »h»  tJz^ 

?™S'  ""f?*  "'"'S'^y  to  'capture  U%^ve^ 
feeble  resistance.  Thus  it  «rew  thn  ?,,<,,.  ! 
»on  began  to  run  a  tlck'et  ofTown  a'"'  i', '  '^ 
1^-^^"^^°^  "  ""^e^  """t  of  the  c  ty  ft,^ 
^nZ'"'K  .'?*  ^"""tion  was  submlttci  to  to 
people  whether  a  new  Constitution  shouH  (^ 
framed  for  California,  it  threw  i  vot^  in  L^r 
of  having  one  and  prevailed.  .  .  Next  <^° 
n  the  summer  of  18^8,  the  choice  of  delcraS 

stitution.  The  Working  mans  Party  ol.t  linivl  . 
substantial  representation  in  the  convent  ,mw 
^nominees  were  ignorant  men,  witi  out  „ 
perience  or  constructive  ideas.  .  .  .  h,,'"; 
the  working  men's  delegates,  to«.th;r  w  th  S 

excen?toi^fit'"rK  '""'""f  't  "ttle  ,u„lK?ri,; 
except  to  cartr  out  by  statutes  the  provi.,i„ns  ot 

hL^r"!')"""-  't  make,  •lobbying  ie 
r,"Plf^tio'i  of  a  legislator,  felony.  3.  It  fcrhids 
fXf^  leglBtature  or  local  ...tliorities  t,  incur 
?.„^"i*y??''  •.•*ftaln  limit,  taxes  uncultivS 
land  equally  with  cultivated,  makes  s.i ,  V  due 
"f  ™°«g»P  taxable  In  the  distri.'t  wC     o 

of  e'v^vh^^."  '  "'«'■'?  '"luli.ltorial  ..  ruliny 

Clare,  thaf  .hi  s?  .  u'*  *»»«rin«  of  «,„  k, ' dc 
~,~,J_  ,"'*S  "^tf  •""  Po*"  to  pfvcrt  cor- 
P?„7Hn^/r""  "'"''rtinB  their  busin.s,  snaMo 

nanle?  ^L^^^t^,"^  teleimpf,  ,„,|  g^,  com 

^ln„   «."'"'""  V.'t''?"''""  to  fix  the  tn,n«p„r. 

^kS  «h".^'".  ""."^•**  ■""'  examine  the 
books  and  •«»unt.  of  „,  transportation  mm- 

£?S  ?h.i-  "  ^°^^  all  cornorBti.>n«  to .  nploy 
fShM?  KT-  '^"^^  them  from  the  milTrU. 
«m^..ii"''  ^P'oyytnton  any  pul.li.-  worts 
?hLy.a.^'.~'"r^  for -coolie  labour.'  dimt. 
the  legislature  to  provide  for  the  punishn,. m  of 
anycompany  which  shall  Import  Cliii.,  m-.  to 
IniT*  "^"""t'oM  on  the  residence  of  ihin.*, 
andto  cause  their  removal  if  thev  fail  to  .  h«.  rve 

nn  .H-.^  'ij""yi\"*  •  '«g*'  'l*^'  work  on  .11 
public  worka.    When  the  Constitution  came  to 


■'      1 


M 


CAUFORNU,  1S77-188C. 


CAMBORICUM. 


te  submitted  to  the  Tote  of  the  people,  to  Hay 
1879,  it  WM  vehemently  opposed  by  the  monled 
men.  .  .  .  The  stru-jgle  was  severe,  but  the 
Gnrnger  party  commanded  so  many  rural  votes, 
and  the  Sand  Lot  party  so  many  in  San  Francisco 
(whose  population  is  nearly  a  third  of  that  of  the 
entire  State)  that  the  Constitution  was  carried, 
thoug)  jy  a  small  majority,  only  11,000  out  of 
s  toUl  of  145,000  citizens  voting.  .  .  .  The  next 
thing  was  to  choose  a  legislature  to  cany  out 
the  Constitution.  1 1  id  the  same  Influences  pre- 
vailed in  this  election  as  prevailed  in  that  of  the 
Constitutional  Convention,  the  results  might  have 
been  serious.  But  fortunately  there  was  a  slight 
reaction.  ...  A  series  of  Statutes  was  passed 
which  gave  effect  to  the  provisions  of  the  Con- 
stitution In  a  form  perhaps  as  little  harmful  a* 
coulii  •>!!  contrived,  and  certainly  less  harmful 
than  '  J. '.  been  feared  when  the  Constitution  was 
put  to  the  vote.  Many  bad  bills,  particularly 
those  aimed  at  the  Cliinese,  were  defeated,  and 
one  may  say  generally  that  the  expectations  of 
the  Sand  Lot  men  were  grievously  disappointed. 
While  all  this  was  passing,  Kearney  had  more 
and  more  declined  in  fame  and  powck.  He  did 
not  sit  either  In  the  Constitutional  Convention  or 
in  the  legislature  of  1880.  The  mob  had  tired  of 
his  harangues,  especially  as  little  seemed  to  come 
of  them,  and  as  the  candidates  of  the  W.  P.  C.  had 
behaved  no  better  in  ofllce  than  those  of  the  old 
parties.  He  had  quarreled  with  the  Chronicle. 
He  was,  moreover,  quite  unfitted  by  knowledge 
or  training  to  argue  tiie  legal,  econondcal,  and 
political  questions  Involved  in  the  new  Constitu- 
tion so  that  tiie  prominence  of  tliese  questions 
tliriw  him  into  the  baclcground.  .  .  .  Since  1^ 
he  lias  played  no  part  in  Califomian  politics."— 
J.  Bryce.  The  Amerimi  Commmu'tallh,  eh.  90 
{r  2).  atui  app.  to  e.  1  (containing  the  text  of  the 
Vnnt.ofCnl.). 

CALIFORNIA,  Unirertity  of.   SeeEDCt.A- 

TIUN,  HODEBN  :  AXEBICA  :  A.  D.  1868, 
» 

CALIGULA.    SeeCAics. 

CALIPH,  The  Title.— The  title  Caliph,  or 
Khalifa,  simply  signifies  in  the  Arabic  language 
'■  Successor. ''  The  Caliphs  were  the  succeswrs 
of  Mulinmet. 

CALIPHATE,  The.    See  Mahometan  Cos- 

(JCEBT. 

CALIPHS,  The  Turkish  Snltao  become! 
successor  to  the.    See  Baot>ad;  A.  D.  1858. 

CALISCH,  OR  KALISCH,  Treaty  of.  See 
Gekm.\nt;  a.  I).  1813-1818. 

CALIXTINES,  The.  See  Bohemia  ;  A.  D. 
U19-I434. 

CALLAO:  Sie^e,  t8a5-i8a6.  See  Pkro: 
A.  1).  1820-1826. 

A.  D.  i866.— Repulse  of  the  Spanish  Beet. 
SwPehu:  \.  D.  1826-1876. 

CALLEVA.— One  of  the  /rreater  towns  of 
Roman  nrttain,  the  walls  of  wlilcli,  found  at  811- 
fhfsifr  enclose  an  area  of  tliree  miles  in  circuit. 
— T.  Wright.  Vdt,  Romnn  and  Hum,  eh.  8. 
,  CALLIAS,  Peace  of.    See  Athens:  B.  C. 

CALLINICUS,  Battle  of.— Fought  In  the 
wars  of  tlie  Homsns  with  the  Persians,  on  the 
h»nli»  of  the  Euphrates,  Kaster  Eve,  A.  r  ^gl 
The  Koinana.  commanded  hv  R/-!|ai)riu«  s  ered 
au  apparent  defeat,  but  they  checked  an  intended 
advance  of  the  Persians  on  Antloch.— O.  RawUo- 
ion,  Severn  Unat  Onental  ManarOf,  eh.  It. 


CALLISTUS  II.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1110-1184. 

. . .  .Caltistna  III.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1  vm>-i158. 

CALHAR,  The  Union  ot    See  Scakdina- 
▼lAN  States;  A.  D.  1018-1807,  ejid  1897-1527. 

CALPULALPAM,    Battle  of  (i860).    Bee 
Mexico:  A.  D.  1848-1861. 

CALPURNIAN  LAW,  The.— "In  this  year, 
B.  C.  149,  the  tribune  L.  Calpumius  Piso  Frugl, 
who  was  one  of  the  Roman  writers  of  annals, 
proposed  and  carried  a  Lex  Calpumia,  which 
made  a  great  change  In  the  Roman  criminal 
procedure.  Before  this  time  and  to  the  third 
Piuiic  war,  when  a  maglstratus  had  misconducted 
hii;  self  In  h's  foreign  administr .  ion  by  oppres- 
sive acts  and  spoliation,  tliere  were  several  ways 
of  Inquiring  Into  his  offetice.  .  .  .  but  these 
modes  of  procedure  were  insufficient  to  protect 
the  Btib<ects  of  Rome  agt.'nst  bad  maglstratus. 
.  .  .  liie  remedy  for  these  .>v{l8  was  tiic  establish- 
ment of  a  court  under  the  name  of  Quaestio  Per- 
petua  de  pecuniis  repetu  idis,  the  first  regular 
criminal  court  that  existed  at  Rome.  Courts 
similarly  constituted  wer  afterwards  established 
for  the  trial  of  persons  charged  with  other 
offences.  The  Lex  Calpumia  defined  the  offence 
of  RepetundK,  as  It  was  briefly  named,  to  be 
the  taking  of  money  by  irregular  means  for  the 
use  of  a  governor.  The  name  Repetunds  was 
given  to  this  offence,  because  the  object  of  the 
procedure  was  to  compel  the  governor  to  make 
restitution.  .  .  .  The  court  consisted  of  a  pre- 
siding judge  ...  and  o''  a  -<xly  of  Judiccs  or 
Jurymen  annually  appointed.  The  numlwr  of 
tlih  body  of  judlces  Is  not  known,  but  they  were 
all  si-nators.  Tlie  Judge  and  a  jury  taken  from 
the  body  of  the  judiccs  tried  all  tiie  cases  wliich 
came  before  them  during  one  year;  and  lionce 
<  m.c  the  name  Quaestio  Perpetua  or  stan  Ung 
court,  ill  opposition  to  the  extrnoniinary  coi>  ds- 
slons  whic'i  had  hitherto  been  appointed  ih  tlie 
occasion  ai  y;.'  We  do  not  know  that  the  Lex 
Cainumia  tuntalncd  any  penalties.  As  far  as  the 
evidence  shows.  It  simply  enabled  the  complain- 
ants to  obtain  satisfaction."— O.  Long,  Decline 
of  the  liuman  Rtpublic,  ch.  2. 

CALUSA,  The.  See  American  Adorioi.nes: 
TiMlQl-ANAN  Familt. 

CALVE  N,  Batth  of  (1400).  Sec  Switzer- 
land: A.  D.  1396-1499. 

CALVIN  AND  THE  REFORMATION. 
See  P.\p.*rY:  V.  D.  1821-ir)33;  and  Ge.neva; 
A   D.  1536-l,'S64. 

CAMARCUM.— The  ancient  name  of  the 
town  of  Cambral. 

CAMARILLA. —  A  circle  of  irresponsil)le 
chamber  counsellors  —courtiers  —  surrounding 
a  sovereign  with  Influences  superior  to  tiiose  of 
his  responsible  ministers. 

CAMBALU.ORCAMBALEC.  SceCuiNA: 
A.  D.  12.'S!>-12»4. 

CAMBAS,  OR  CAMPA,  OR  CAMPO.The. 
See  Bolivia:  AnoRtoiNAi.  inhabitants. 

CAMBOJA.    See  Tonkin. 

CAMBORICUM.— A  Roman  town  in  Bri- 
tain.—"  Camborlcum  was  without  doubt  «.  very 
important  town,  which  commnnde<l  tlic  southern 
fens.  It  had  tliree  forts  or  citadels,  the  principal 
of  which  occupied  the  district  called  the  Cnstle- 
eiid.in  the  modem  town  of  Cambridge.nnd  np|>eara 
tn  liavr  h.vl  a  hrtdgp  m-orthe  Cnm,  -"T  Orsirita; 
of  the  others,  one  stood  below  the  town,  at  Cliee- 
terton,  and  the  other  above  It,  at  Oranchester. 
Numerous  ruadi  branched  off  from  this  tow& 


863 


CAUBORICnit 

«."-;  ?*^Si**!!*  *''*  »epre»ent«tlve  of  Cambori- 
cum,  ta  hl«  time,  a  'llttte  deierted  city.'  and 

coffin  for  their  wtatly  abbeM,  EtheWreda.  they 
^h.?**  '  brajutlful  Kulptured  taiSSus  o^ 
white  marble  outside  the  dty  walbof  the 
|^^J"J'»-"-T.  Wright.   Cto,   Baman  and 

ri£^^-il^o^^  D;  iS«x.-Un«ucce»»luI 
SSKe'l' D.  T^!!«?l  ''•™^    8"  ^"""«- 

|»rernorBalH:nl.-S»e|;e  «ad  captnriby  the 

«n».    SeeFBAKCE:  A.  D.  1SS8-1S96. 
wiL?"  **77--T«ken  by  Looia   XIV.    See 
MBTHaRLAin]e(HoLL.u<D):  A.  D.  1874-1678 

n'^&T*'**'**'  *•  Fiance.    See  NncK- 


CAMPBELLITSa 


ttUKir,  Tbk  nuCB  OR 


iim-ff^''  **•■"  "•'    **  ^'*^'=  ^  °- 

CAMBRIA.— The  early  name  of  Walca.    See 
»ra«Y,  and  Cumbria  ;  also.  BRiTAUf :  tfrn  Ckn- 

O^ilfc^i^^^'   ^"-^  °^  «•'•    See 

«5t"'|?'J?<^='   »•••— The  ant   aettle- 

CAMBRIDGE,  Platform.  The.    See  MAasA- 
CHi-SETTs:  A.  D.  1646-1651/ 

CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY.   SeeEou- 

CATION. 

CAMDEN,  Battle  of.    See  United  States 

,-!P.**'^'*ONIAN  REGIMENT,  The.-In 
lfti».  when  ClaTerhoiise  was  raisinir  the  Hiirh- 

«n,   clans  in  favor  of  .lames  U..  "  William  Cle- 

,  n  ,"'"",'"'  '<!"?'" with  distinguished  bravery 
at  Botliwell,  and  was  one  of  the  few  men  whom 
Clavpj-house  feared,  made  an  offer  to  the  [Scot- 
tish I  hstates  to  raise  a  regiment  among  the  Cam- 
eronians,  under  the  colonelcy  of  the  Earl  of 
Angus,  and  the  offer  was  acccpti'd.  Such  was 
the  origin  of  the  Csmeronian  regiment  Its  first 
heutenant-olonel  was  Cleland  :  its  arst  chaplain 
was  Shields.  Its  courage  was  first  tried  at  bun- 
keld.  where  these  800  Covenanted  warriors  rolled 
b,.,  k  the  tide  of  Celtic  invasion ;  and  since  tlaV 
nn.l.gencrate  though  changed,  it  has  won  trol 
pill,  s  ill  every  quarter  of  the  world."_J.  Gun- 

F»^Am°?f03r,%'-»  -  "».      See 

..,9A»<0RRA,  OR  CAMORRISTI.  Th..- 

avi^fuiv  .L";'^"'"  "»"«>'*"«»  know'n  to  tnd 
avowed  by  the  law  .  .  .  there  existed  under  tlm 
Bour.Hu,  rule  at  Naples  [pverthmwn  by '^riUim 
I  _!.,  J^  *  self  const  tut«(  BUthoritv  mom 
terrible  than  either.    It  wa.  not  rasy  LK 

wL^;^?:ttne"^n^srrn•t'!;f\TC 

^BV^i^U''^%X^l}l^^        CAMPBELI..SirC 


rejealed  ftelr  exUtence  by  the  orders  which 
they  issued.  This  secret  influence  was  that  S 
tMn  St™-,  r  Camorristi,  a  sort  of^mS„t 
ttonof  the  violence  of  the  middle  ages,  of  tto 
trades  union  tyranny  of  Sheffield,  and  of  Z 

were  a  body  of  unknown  IndivlduaU  who  suS 
sistol  on  tlie  public,  especially  on  the  small, 
tradespeople.  A  man  effecU-d  a  lale  of  his  warr 
as  Uie  customer  left  his  shop  a  manof  the  til 
would  enter  and  demand  the  tax  on  the  saT?o 
the  Camorra.  None  could  escape  from  th, 
SS?"*  ^TSSy-  I'  ^"  Impal^ble  to  Z 
S?  m^»r  ^^.  ""'  ?"'/°«  itself  tTthe  Imlus  ?, 
?hJ"Tl'^H*"?i!°S-  It  i^ued  Its  orders.  When 
f^f.^'^'jS  P"""™"!  Imposed  stamp  duti« 
that  aenaiblv  increased  the  cf..t  of  litigation  h« 
Indtapenaable  luxury  of  the  Neapolitan.,  tte 
advocatM  received  letters  warning  thtm  to  cease 
a^  practice  In  the  courts  so  longit,  Uiese  ,S 
dutfea  were  enforced.  'Otherwise,'  continued 
^e  mandate,  •  we  shall  take  an  early  onp,«u„"i^ 
of  arranging  your  affaire.'  SigJeJ  by  ■t^ 
C™>°n»  ot  the  avvocatl.'  ThramZment 
hinted  at  was  to  be  made  by  the  knife  Th. 

Italian  government,  much  to  Its  credit,  made  s 
great  onslaught  on  the  Camorrlstl.  Many  were 
arrested.  Imprisoned  or  -!xile<l.  some  even  killed 

o?l??^i5t,  P^f  ?•  .  ^"  ""^  *<"»'  <'™'li'-»tioa 
of  «)  terrible  a  soctal  vice  mutt  be  [published  in 

i^  J.  '  ^"i.°',.ff<*'  difficulty,  liemverai." 

CAMP  OF  REFUGE  AT  ELY     See  Pm 

land:  A.  D.  106l»-107i:     "*'"-"•    »<«  £sa. 
CAMPAGNA,  OR  CAMPANIA.-'  The 

name  of  Campania.'  says  Pelligrinl.  '  which  »m 

tended  Itself  by  successive  rc-aningcnunti  of 
iLlv  L^  provinces  over  a  great  part  of  (.Vnini: 
i,I?A'i'.  *SL^^  gradually  shrank  back  si'ain 

J^„  .Jr".^'","'  ?°?  city  only.  Naples,  and  that 
one  of  the  least  Importance  In  Italy  What 
naturally  followed  was  the  total  disu^  of  the 
^  \^i  y^"  **""  Campania,  theivfon.,  be- 
came obsolete  except  in  the  writings  of  a  few 
mediaeval  authore  whose  statemeiits  cnatrf 
some  confusion  by  their  ignorance  of  the  different 
senses  In  which  it  bed  at  .lifferent  tini.s  liofB 
U8c<l,  An  Impression  seems,  however,  to  have 
prevailed  that  the  district  of  Capua  Im.l  Inrn  so 
named  on  account  of  iu  flat  and  fertile  natui* 
and  hence  every  similar  tract  of  plain  cumtrv 
{?„"1?  ^  ■*  rS?"'^  *  campagns  iu  the  Italian 
SffnTj  .Tlio^  exact  tinio  when  the  name, 
which  had  thus  become  a  mere  appellative,  was 
applied  to  the  Roman  Cnmpngna  is  not  aiciiralelr 

Mcertalned It  will  "hv  sc-en  that  the  tenn 

itpman  tampagna  Is  not  a  geographical  ilctiiiiiion 
of  any  district  or  province  with  clearly  ti.<ed 
llmlU,  but  that  it  Is  a  name  Iixisely  emnloved  in 
speaking  of  the  tract  which  lies  niund  tlie  city 
of  Home.  — H.  Burn,  Jime  and  tlui  fammgna, 
eh.  14,  note  at  end. 
Also  in:  Sir  W.  Oell.  Top,,/;,  of  Ibmr  r  1 

*  S^¥J^^°"*°'  °*'»1«  ^    See  FLoitE.-(n!: 
A.  u,  1380, 

^  CAMPANIANS,  Tho.    See  Sabines  ,  slio, 

CAMPBELL,  Sir  Colin,  The  Indian  Cam- 

"""''     ""  ' A.  D.  l«,5:-lN.Vs 

Sec  Uisciri.i'.s. 


364 


CAMPBELL'S  STATION. 


CANADA. 


CAMPBELL'S  STATION,  BMUe  et  See 
Chiteo  Btatm  op  Am.  :  A.  D.  1808  (OcTOBBBr— 
DiCEXBKR :  Tjantmaa). 

CAMPERDOWN,  tttmil  tetUe  ot  See 
Emolasd  :  A.  D.  17OT. 

CAMPO-FORIIIO,  Peace  o£  SeeFRAHca: 
A  D.  1797  (Mat— OcTOBBR). 

CAHPO  SANTO,  Battle  of  (1743).  See 
ITALT  :  A.  D.  1741-1748. 

CAMPO-TENESE,  Battle  of  (1806).  See 
Fbamce:  a.  D.   1805-1806  (December— Sbp- 

TEMBER). 

CAMPUS  MARTIUS  AT  ROME,  The. 

—"The  history  of  the  Campus  Martius  presents 
us  with  a  series  of  striking  contrasts.  It  lias 
been  covered  in  successive  ans,  first  by  the 
comDelds  of  the  Tarqulnian  dynasty,  then  by 
tiie  parade  ground  of  the  great  military  repub- 
lic, next  by  a  forest  of  marble  colonnades  and 
porticoes,  and,  lastly,  by  a  confused  mass  of 
mean  and  filthy  streets,  clustering  round  vast 
mansinns,  and  innumerable  cliurclies  of  every 
size  and  description.  .  .  .  During  the  time  of 
the  Republic,  the  whole  Campus  seems  to  have 
been  considered  state  property  and  was  used  as 
s  military  and  athletic  exercise  ground  and  a 
place  of  meeting  for  the  comitia  centuriata. " — 
it.  Bum,  Home  nnd  the  Campagna,  ch.  13,  pt.  1. 
—"We  have  hitherto  employed  tliis  name  to 
designate  the  whole  of  the  meadow  land  bounded 
by  the  Tiber  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other  by  the 
Collis  Hortulorum,  the  Quirinal  and  the  Cupito- 
line.  .  .  .  But  the  Campus  Hartius,  strictly  speak- 
big,  Yin  that  portion  only  of  the  fiat  ground 


which  llei  in  the  angle  formed  hj  the  bend  of 
the  stream.  According  to  the  narrative  of  Livy, 
It  wa»  the  property  of  the  Tarquins,  and  upon 
their  expulsion  was  confiscated,  and  then  conse- 
crated to  Mars;  but  Dionysius  asserts  that  it  had 
been  previously  set  apart  to  the  god  and  sacri- 
legiously appropriated  by  the  tvrant  .  .  .  During 
the  republic  the  Campus  Martius  was  employed 
specially  for  two  purposes.  (1.)  As  a  pUce  for 
holding  the  oonstitutional  assemblies  (comitia) 
especially  the  Comitia  Centuriata.  and  also  for 
ordinary  public  meetings  (concioues).  (3.)  For 
gymnastic  and  warlike  sports.  For  seven  cen- 
turies it  remained  almost  entirely  open.  ...  In 
the  Comitia,  the  citizens,  when  their  votes  were 
taken,  passed  into  enclosures  termed  septa,  or 
ovilia,  which  were,  for  a  long  period,  temporary 
wooden  erections.  "—W.  Ramsay,  Manual  of 
llomaa  AiUig.,  eh.  1. 

CAMULODUNUM.  See  Coujbbcteb,  Ori- 
gin OK. 

CAMUNI,  The.    See  Rh.«tians. 

CANAAN.  —  CANAANITES.  —  "  Canaan 
signifies  'the  lowlands,'  and  was  primarily  the 
name  of  the  coast  on  which  the  great  cities  of 
Phoenicia  were  built.  Aj>,  however,  the  inland 
parts  of  the  country  wer  j  inhabited  by  a  kindred 
population,  the  name  tame  to  be  extended  to 
designate  the  whole  of  Palestine,  just  as  Pales- 
tine itself  meant  originally  only  the  small  territory 
of  the  Philistines.'— A.  11.  Sayce.  fWMJi  Light 
from  the  Ancient  Mmumentt,  eh.  2. — See  PiiosNi- 
ci.\K8;  Oriqin  and  early  HISTORY;  also,  Jews: 
The  £arlt  Hebrew  History,  and  HAMiTsa. 


CANADA. 

(NEW  FRANCS.t 


Namei.— "The  year  after  the  failure  of  Ver- 
razano's  last  enterprise,  1S25,  Stefano  Oomez 
sailed  from  Spain  for  Cuba  and  Florida ;  thence 
he  steered  northward  in  search  of  the  long  hoped- 
for  passage  to  India,  till  he  reached  Cape  Race, 
on  the  southeastern  extremity  of  Newfoundland. 
The  further  details  of  his  voyage  remain  un- 
known, but  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that  he 
entered  the  Oulf  of  St.  Lawience  and  traded 
upon  iu  shores.  An  ancient  Costilinn  tradition 
existed  that  the  Spaniards  visited  these  coasts 
before  the  French,  and  having  perceived  no  ap- 
pearance of  mines  or  riches,  they  exclaimed 
frequently  "Aca  nada'  [signifying  'here  is 
nothing 'T;  the  natives  caught  up  the  sound,  and 
when  other  Europeans  airived,  repeated  it  to 
them.  The  strangers  concluded  that  these  words 
were  a  designation,  and  f  mm  that  time  this  mag- 
nificent country  bore  the  name  of  Canada.  .  .  . 
Father  Hennepin  asserts  that  the  Spaniards  were 
the  first  discoverers  of  Canada,  and  that,  finding 
nothing  there  to  gratify  their  extensive  desires 
for  gold,  thev  bestowed  upon  it  the  appellation 
of  Capo  di  Nada,  'Cape  Nothing,'  whence  by 
corruption  iu  present  name.  ...  La  Potherls 
gives  the  same  derivation.  .  .  .  This  derivation 
would  reconcile  the  different  assertions  of  the 
early  discoverers,  some  of  whom  rive  the  name 
of  Canada  to  the  whole  valley  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence; others,  cuuaily  worlli>  of  credit,  confine 
it  to  a  small  district  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
attdacona  (now  <)ueb«<4  .  ,  ,  Dupunceau,  in 


the  Transactions  of  the  [American]  Philosophical 
Soficty,  of  Philadelphia,  founds  his  conjecture 
of  the  Indian  origin  of  the  name  of  Canada  upon 
the  fact  that,  in  the  translation  of  the  Qospel  of 
St.  Slatthew  into  the  Mohawk  tongue,  mule  by 
Brandt,  the  Indian  chief,  the  word  Canada  U 
always  used  to  signify  a  village.  The  mistake 
of  the  early  discoverers,  in  taking  the  name  of  a 
part  for  that  of  tiie  whole,  is  very  pardonable  in 
persona  ignorant  of  the  Indian  language.  .  .  . 
The  natural  conc'usion  ...  is,  that  the  word 
Canada  was  a  mere  local  appellation,  without 
reference  to  the  country;  that  each  tribe  had 
their  own  Canada,  or  collection  of  huts,  which 
shifted  its  position  acoording  to  their  migra- 
tions. " —  E.  Warburton,  The  Comreit  of  Canada, 
c.  1,  eh.  1,  and  foot-note. — "  Canada  was  the  name 
which  Cartier  found  attached  to  the  land  and 
there  is  no  evidence  that  he  attempted  to  displace 
it  .  .  .  Nor  did  Roberval  attempt  to  name  the 
country,  while  the  commission  given  him  by  the 
king  does  not  associate  the  name  of  Francis  or 
any  new  name  therewith.  .  .  .  There  seems  to 
liave  been  a  belief  in  New  England,  at  a  later 
(lay,  that  Canada  was  derived  from  William  and 
Emery  de  Caen  (Cane,  as  the  English  spelled  it), 
who  were  in  New  France  in  1881,  and  later. 
Cf.  Morton's  'New  English  Canaan,'  Adam's  edi- 
tion, p.  283,  and  Josselyn's  'Rarities.'  p.  S:  also, 
J.  Reude,  iu  iiis  iiiatory  of  geogranhical  names 
in  Canada,  printed  in  New  Dominion  Monthly, 
It.  844."— B.  S.  De  Costa,  Jaequu  Carti*r  and 


865 


CAKADA. 


\i 


„i^  *7^'  ^l"  "'  £"«»«•'  He  oonflnl.  the 
name  of  Canada  to  a  dUtrict  extending  from  the 
Isle  am  Coudrea  In  the  St  Lawrence  to  a  Vint 
at  lome  distance  above  the  site  of  Quebec,  ^he 
country  below,  he  adds,  was  call^  bVthe  In 
dians  Saguenar.  and  that  above,  Hochelsga.  In 
the  m»p  of  (Jerard  Mercator  (15<W)  the  name 

P,^,  „*„'!k^'!S°  ^S  ^T°'  ''**  «"  adjacent  dU- 
trlct,  on  the  river  Stadln  (St.  Charles).    Lescar- 

h^fh  M  *'',Tu'*'!,''-  t"""*  "»'  ^0  country  on 
both  sides  of  the  8t  Uwrence.  from  Hochelaga 
to  iU  mouth,  bore  the  name  of  Canada.  In  the 
^??i.,"o"''xr°'  0««»"».  PublUhed  about  the 
Si^m'P'. ?'"'/'?"«'•  Nova  FrancU  is  thus 
.ij»'l'"iii^'°2**"'»'*'*"^=""' ""St  Lawrence 


PaundMotf 


CANADA.  laOS-iaOBL 


.h,.„.Vi,'„Di      o  "'  •"'"inCTonineDt.  Lawrence 
f^  Inl^  ?ir'^'«".*°?y  '• '  CUlagaVHochelaga), 
the  angle  between  the  OtUwa  and  t^e  St  Liw- 
rence;    Saguenai,'  a  dUtrict  below  the  river  of 
that  name  ■  'Mo«»«a,' south  of  the  .<  Lawrence 
!Sh  *^.'K°^'te  ^'^*'"  I^cheUeu;  'Avacal.'  west 
Md  south  of  Moscoea;  •  Norumbega,'  Maine  and 
New  Brunswick;   'Apalachen,' VTrginU,  Penn- 
?teJ!-.^'.  'Terra   Cortereaiur  Ubrador; 
Flonda,  Misriaeippi,  AUbama,  Florida.    Mer- 
«tor  confines  the  name  of  New  France  to  districu 
bordering  on  the  St.  Lawrence.     Others  give  it 
•  much  broader  application.     The  use  of  thU 
name,  or  the  nearly  allied  names  of  Francisca 
and    La    Franciscaue.   dates   back,   to  sar  the 
least,  as  far  as  1,525.  and  the  Dutoh  geographers 
are  especially  free  in  their  use  of  it,  out  of  spite 
to  the  Spaniards.    The  derivation  of  the  name  of 
Canada  has  been  a  point  of  discussion.    It  is 
without  doubt,  not  Spanish,   but  Indian.  .      ' 
Lescarbot  alllrms  that  Canada  is  simply  an  In- 
dian proper  immc,  of  which  it  U  vain  to  seek  a 
meaning.     Belleforest  also  calls   It  an  Indian 
word,   but  translates   it   'Terre,'  as  docs  also 
iS.7?i:  T:^- P»'''"?»n,A<»K»rso//>on«i»«A« 
Tu     »      '  C'Aow/'Wn.  cA.  1,/oot-mh 
The  Aborigfinai  inbabitanti.    See  American 

ABOHIOINES:     AloOJCQUIAN    FAMILY;    HUBONS; 

Ojibwavs;     SiocAJC    Familt;     Athapascan 
Family,  akd  Eskimauan  Family. 

r.wT'  '3'?'»*9'"^"»»*  diacoTerie.  of  the 
Cahota.    See  America    A.  D.  1497  and  1498 

A.  D.  X500.— Cortereal  on  the  coaat.    See 
America:  A.  D.  1500. 

b™;„°b'?"''5'M -Portnpieae,  Norman  and 
Breton  fiihermen  on  the  Newfoundland  banks 
Bee  >E»ifocNDLAND:  A.  D.  1501-1578. 

A.  D.  1534.— The  coasting  Tojare  of  Ver- 
razano.    See  America.  A.  O.  1528-1534 

A.  D.  1534.1535. —PoaaeMion  taken  by 
Jacques  Cartier  for  the  King  of  France.  See 
America:  A.  I).  1534-1533.  ' 
„A  °:  .»54»-j6o3.-Jac5uea  Cartic.'a  laat 
nndertaking.-UnsuccessSil  French  attempts 
"bo? °    ""*"°°'    ^"^  America:   A.   D.   1541- 

„,^-  ,D- 1603.160s.-The  BeriDninr  of  Cham- 
plains  Career  in  the  New  \frorid.icoloniza- 
tiou  at  Port  Royal.-Exploration  of  the  New 

ift«i  ..^  ''?"^  [»ee  America:  L  D,  1541- 
J!^J'..^.^"r'  ""^  Champlaln,  acaptoln  in  the 
navv  accepted  a  command  ...  at  the  reniipst 
of  6e  Chatte  [or  De  Chastes] ;  he  w„a"S 
of  Haintr.nge,  and  had  lately  rclurned  to  Fmncc 
from  the  ^e»t  Indlep,,  wUe«  he  hS  galn^^ 


366 


high  name  for  boldness  and  skill.    Under  th. 

successful  elforu  were  made  to  found  a  dm 
manent  settlement  in  the  magnificent  provfc. 
of  Canada  and  the  stain  of  the  errors  and  dSwen 
of  more  than  seventy  yean  was  at  lenRth  wiwi) 
away.    Pontgray*^ J  Champlain  saile    for?^ 
~  .^'1*2'*,*°  *'^-    "Plored  it  as  far  m  Z 
rapids  of  St.  Louis,  uid  then  returned  to  Fmnce 
They  found  that  the  patron  of  their  undcrtakhiB 
De  Chastes.  was  dead.    -  Piene  du  Ouast  S 
^!.  J"""^  J^  succeeded  to  the  powera  and 
privileges  of  the  deceased,  with  eveia  more  e, 
tensive  commission.    De  Honts  was  a  Calvlnta 
and  had  obtained  from  the  king  the  freedom  of 
religious  faith  for  himself  an/ hia  fonowe™  ?n 
America,  but  under  the  engamment  th«t  th. 
Ronutn  Catholic  worship  sho^f  Ss"  tlM 
among  the  natives.  ...  The  tradinir  mmn^ni 
T^^"  ^F  ^  ^'"''«  was%o'2j!K37 
a  Id  De  Honts  waa  enabled  to  fit  out  a  more  co™ 
plete  armament  than    had   ever  hitherto  been 
engaged  inCanadlan  commerce.    He  miled  from 
Havre  on  Uie  7th  of   March.  1004.  wHh  fo° 
vessels.    Of   these,   two   under  his  Immediate 

h«wSTP',°-  """y  other  volunteera,%m. 
barked  their  fortunes  with  him.  purposlnn  to 
cast  their  future  lot  in  the  New  Worid.  A  tirf 
Sto7n  '««P«'«''«1  "nder  Pontgrave  to  ,h1 
Stra  t  of  Canso.  to  protect  the  exclusive  trading 

?o^  tX?  "'  "'."  ^"'P'''/-    The  fourth  8tecref 

by  the  Indian  hunters  from  the  dreary  wihls  of 
the  Saguenay.  On  the  6th  of  May  D«  Mont^ 
I  reacheJa  harbor  on  the  coast  of  Acmiia  "  but 
for  some  reason  not  to  be  undcrsUnxl.  his  pro^ 
jected  colony  was  quartered  on  the  little  iskt  of 
ftt.  Croix  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  tliat 
name,  which  became  subsequently  the  bouodarr 
between  Alalne  and  New  B^Jmswick.  Meantim? 
Port  Kn^V^^T  An^Po"'.  then  named 
™  .»?^*'v  ""^  '^''  discovered,  and  was 
fk^M^',.*.  \?_'?,''«*  surrounding  territory,  by 
De  Moots  to  De  Poutrincourt,  who  pm]m^  to 
».^tle  upon  it  M  ito  feudal  proprieto'r  and  lord 
The  colony  at  St.  CroU  havfng  been  hou.,cd  and 
put  in  order,  De  Poutrincourt  sailed  for  France 

?^L>     K        "°J'*'-,    ^  *'<""»•  Chaniplain.  and 
hose  who  remained,  suffered  a  winter  of  terrible 
hardships,  and   thirty-five  died  before  spring. 
De  Monte  now  resolved  to  seek  a  better  site  for 
his   Infant   settlement,   and,   finding   no  other 
^™?  I    ."u?"??  ^^  resumed  possession  of  that 
most  desirable  Port  Royal  which  he  had  granted 
^M?!?  '°  Poutrincourt  and  removed  his  colony 
7  i/rfi    Champlaln,  meanwhile.  In  the  summer 
of  1805  had  explored  the  coast  southward  far 
down  the  future  home  of  the  English  Puritans, 
ooWng  Into  MaasachusctU  Bav,  Uking  shelter 
in  Plymoiitli  harbor  and  naming  it  Port  St. 
I^uis  doubl  ng  Cape  Cod  (which  he  called  Cap 
Ulanc),  turning  back  at  Nausctt  Harlior,  and 
jfiuning  on  the  whole  a  remarkable  knowledge 
■>f  the  country  and  its  coast.     Soon  after  Chain- 
plain  a    return    from    this     coasting     voyage, 
I>e  Monts  was  called  home  to  France,  by  newt 
of  machinations  that  were  threatening  to  ex- 
tinguish his  patent,  and  Por,tgrsv4  waa  left  Is 
comnuind  of  the  colony  at  Port  Royal— E  War 
burton,  Tht  CbnjMM  ^  Canada,  r.  1,  ch.  a-I- 


CANADA,  1608-iaOS. 


Mxptontiont. 


CANADA.  i6oe-mi. 


De  Monti'  petitkHi  to  the  Unr  for  leave  to  colo- 
nize Acadia  Uist  region  wu  defined  "  as  extend- 
bg  from  the  40tb  to  the  4Atb  degree  of  north 
latitude,  or  from  Philadelphia  to  oeyood  Mon- 
treal"—F.  Parkman,  PioMen  ef  Frajwt  tit  tha 
Sat  World:  Chanaiain,  eh.  a 

Alio  ra:  E.  F.  Slafter,  Mtmoir  pr^.  to 
••VoyagttofSamutl  de  Champlaiii"  (Prince  8oe., 
1880),  eh.  1-5. 

A.   D.    1606-1608.— The    fortbuet    of   the 
Acadian  colony.— "I>e  Monts  found  his  path- 
way in  France  surrounded  with  diillcultiea.    The 
Boclielle  merchants  who  were  partners  iu  the 
enterprise  desired  a  return  for  their  investments. 
Ilie    Baron   de   Poutrincourt,    who   was   still 
possessed  with  the  desire  to   make  the   New 
World  his  home,  proved  of  assistance  to  De 
Monts.     De  Poutrincourt  returned   to  Acadia 
and  encouraged  the  colonists,  who  were  on  the 
verie  of  deserting  Port  Royal.    With  De  Pou- 
trincc  a-t   emigrated    at  this   time   a   Parisian 
advocate,  named  Mark  Leacarbot,  who  was  of 
great  service  to  the  colony.    During  the  absence 
of  De  Poutrincourt  on  an  exploring  expedition 
down  the  coast,  l«scarbot  drained  and  repaired 
the  colonists'  fort,  and  made  a  number  of  ad- 
ministrative changes,  much  improving  the  con- 
dition of  the  settlers.    The  following  winter  wss 
one  of  comfort,   indeed  of  enjoyment.  ...  In 
May,  however,  the  sad  news  r^Cfaed  the  colony 
that  the  company  of  the  merchants  on  whom  it 
depended  had  been  broken  up.     Their  depen- 
dence beinir  gone,  on  the  80th  of  July  most  of 
the  colonists  left  Acadia  for  France  In  vessels 
sent  out  for  them.    For  two  vears  the  empty 
buildings  of  Port  Royal  stood,   a  melancboly 
sight,  with  not  a  white  person  in  tlicm,   but 
under  the  safe  protection  of  Memberton,   the 
Micmak  chief,  who  proved  a  tnisty  friend  to  the 
French.     The  opposition  to  the  company   of 
Rochelle  arose  from  various  causes.     In  addition 
to  its  financial  difficulues  the  fact  of  De  Moots 
being  a  Protestant  was  seized  on  as  the  reason 
why  nothing  was  being  done  in  the  colony  to 
chnatianize  the  Indians.    Accordingly  when  De 
Monts,  fired  with  a  new  scheme  for  exploring 
the  northwest  passage,  turned   over  the  man- 
agement of  Acadian  affairs  to  De  Poutrincourt, 
who  was  a  sincere  Catholic,  some  of  the  diffi- 
culties disappeared.     It  was  not,  however,  till 
two  years  later  that  arrangements  were  made  for 
s  new  Acadian  expedition.  "—O.  Brycc,  Short 
HM.  of  the  Canadian  People,  eh.  4,  teet.  1. 
Alm  in:  J.  Hannay,  Biet.  .  '  Aeadia.  eh.  4 
A  D.   1608-1611.— Champ>    ^'»  third   and 
fourth  expeditions.— Hit  settlen.ent  at  Que- 
bec, discovery  of  Lake  Champlain,  and  first 
wars  with  the  .  -oquoia. — "De  iilonts  in  no 
way  loBt  heart,  and  he  resolved  to  continue  in 
the  career  of  exploration  for  settlement.     A  new 
ejp(Hlitloa  was  determined  on,  and   De  MonU 
scleck-d  the  Saint  Lawrence  as  the  spot  where 
the  .ilort  sliould  be  made.    ChampUin  coun- 
selled the  chance.    In  Nova  Scotia  and  on  tlie 
cast  of  New  Bri-nswick  and  Maine  he  had  been 
struck  by  the  number  of  ports  affording  protec- 
tion to  vessels  from  sea.  and  by  the  small  number 
or  Indians  whom  he  had  met.    In  Nova  Scotia 
he  would  b^  exposed  to  rival  attempto  at  setUe- 
iwnt  Mil  at  ihc  same  time  he  could  not  see  the 
possihiiity  of  obtaining  Indian  allies.    In  Canada 
Uie  full  control  would  remain  with  those  who 
lint  made  a  aetUement  on  the  Saint  Lawrence, 


and  Cham  plain  counted  Um  natlva   tribes  ■■ 
powerful  instruments  in  carrying  out  his  policy. 
We  have  the  key  here  to  his  coMuct  in  assisting 
the  Hurons  in  their  wars.  ...  In  1606  Cham- 
plain  started  for  the  St  Lawrence.    Pootgrevi 
was  with  the  expedition.     A  settlement  wai 
made  at  Quebec,  as  ^he  most  suitable  place. 
Some  ground  was  cleared,  buildings  were  com- 
menced,  when   a   conspiracy   was   discovered. 
The  ringleader  was  hanged  and  three  of  those 
actively  implicated  were  sent  back  to  France 
with  Pontgrav£  on  his  return  in  the  autuma 
Matters  now  went  peaceably  on.    The  summer 
was  passed  in  completing  the  '  Abitation  de  Que- 
bec,' of  which  Champlahi  has  left  us  a  sketch. 
It  was  situated  in  the  present  Lower  Town  on  the 
river  bank,  in  the  comer  where  Notre  Dame 
Street  meeu  Sous  le  Fort  Street    It  was  here 
Champhin  laid  the  foundation  for  the  future 
city.     Winter  came,  the   scurvy  carrying  off 
twenty   of  their  number.  ...  In  June,  Des 
Maraia,  Pontgravi's  son-in-Uw,  arrived,  telling 
him  that  Pontgravi  was  at  Tadouiac    Cham- 
plain  proceeded  thither.    The  question  had  then 
to  be  discussed,  what  policy  should  be  follower 
with  the  Indiana  T    Should  they  be  be  aided  by 
what  force  Champlain  could  command,  in  the 
expedition  which  they  had  resolved   to  make 
against  the  Iroquois  T    It  is  plain  that  no  advance 
in  discovery  could  have  been  made  without  their 
assistance,  and  that  this  assistance  could   only 
have  been  obtained  by  rendering  them  service. 
.  .  .  With  the  view   of   making   explorations 
be>ond  the  points  then  known  by  Europeans, 
Champlain  in  the  middle  of  June  ascendeti  the 
St.  Lawrence.    About  a  league  and  a  half  west 
of  the  river  Saint  Anne,  they  were  joined  by  a 
party  of  Algonquins  who  were  to  form  a  part  of 
the  expedition.      Cliamplain   tdls  us  of   their 
mortal  feud  with  the  Iroquois,  a  proof  that  in  no 
way  he  created  it.    They  all  returned  to  Quebec, 
where  there  was  festivity  for  some  days.     It  was 
brought  to  a  close  and  the  war  parties  started; 
Champlain  with  nine  men,  Des  Marais  and  a 
pilot,  joined  it  [them  ?].    With  his  Indian  allies 
be  ascended   the  Richelieu  and   reached    Lake 
ChampUin,   the  first  white  man  who  saw  ita 
waters:  subsequently  for  165  yehis  to  be  the 
scene  of  contest  between  the  Indian  and  white 
man,    the   French   and   English,   the  revolted 
Colonies   and   the    Mother   Country.  .  .  .  The 
advance  up  Lake  Champlain  was  niade  only  by 
night    They  reached  Crown  Point    They  were 
then  in  the  Iroquois  domain ;  very  shortly  they 
knew  of  the  presence  of  the  enemy."    On  the 
80th  of  July  the  invaders  fought  a  battle  with 
the  Iroquois,  who  fled  in  terror  before  the  arque- 
buse  of  Champlain,  which  killed  two  of  their 
chiefs  and  wounded  a  third.     Soon  after  hia 
return  to  Quebec    from   this  expedition  —  the 
beginnidg  of  the  long  war  of  the  French  with 
the  Iroquois  —  Champlain  was   summoned    to 
France.    The  patent  of  De  Monts  had  been  re- 
voked   and    ho    could   not  obtain  its  renewal 
"Nevertheless,   De  Moots,  with  his  associates 
decided  to  continue  tlieir  efforts,  and,  in  March, 
1610,   Champlain   again   started    for  Canada." 
After  reaching  Quebec  his  stay  this  time  was 
short     lie  joined  hLs  Indian  allieii  in  anntlier 
expedition  of  war,   and   helped    them  to   win 
another  victory  over  the  Iroquois,  at  a  place 
on  the  Richelieu,  one  league  above  Sorel.    On 
returning  be  gut  news  of  t)<p  assassination  of 


367 


CAKADA,  l«»-18n. 


XiulM  aiiaek  m 
Jfov-'  - 


SmMlD-trt 


CANADA.  1910-181& 


'*     ■ 


Henry  rV.MdiUrtedat  once  for  France.    "The 
clefttli  of  Henry  IV.  exercbed  great  influence  on 
the    fortune,  of   Caoida.    He  bad    penonally 
taken  Interest  in  Champlain'a  voyageT  and  hb 
energetic  mind  wai  well  quallflctl  tS  direct  the 
fortunes  of  a  growing  colony.    Louis  XHI.  was 
not  then  ten  years  old.    Jiary  of  Mcdcci.  was 
under  the  control  of   her  favourites,   Leonora 
Galigni,    and    her   husband.   Conclno   Concinl. 
Klclielleu  had  not  then  appeared  on  the  scene. 
.  .      The  Jesuiu  were  becoming  all-powerful  at 
^  •  •  '^'*°<*  was  unsettled  auddisordeied. 
.Jf  ""f«»'^'»;  not  without  provocation,  were 
acting  with  passion  and  without  judgment.    The 
aMassinatlon  of  the  King  had  alarmed  them. 
The  whole  kingdom  was  threatened  with  con- 
vulslor  and  anarchy,  and  Canada  was  to  pass 
out  of  the  notice  of  those  in  power:  and.  In  the 
sense  of  giving  aid,  half  a  century  was  to  elapse 
before  the  French  Go-   ,-nment  ^uld  comp^* 
bend  tlje  duty  of  taking  part  In  the  defence  of 
Jh^J"H''fy'  ,""l°^  Protecthig  the  penons  of 
those  living  In  New  Trance.     The  gSund  was 

JLw7.'?'"?*'^.;''"P.''L"»*  «eW  to?  the  active 
trader,  side  by  side  with  Uie  devoted  missionary 
Thus  the  Government  fell  virtually  under  the 
control  of  tlie  Jesuiu,  who,  impatient  of  contra- 
.1  S'.'"'"^-,  °J'^y  »'  ""i  establUhment  of  their 
authoritv,  which  was  to  bring  the  colony  to  the 
verge  of  destructioa"  Champlaln  returned  to 
his  colony  in  the  spring  of  IflU,  fachig  its  pros- 
pects  with  such  courage  as  he  found  In  hU  own 
Tm  a^Tfl)^"  ^'"S"^""''  ^^-  of  Canada.  4* 

"aijo  ix:'  E.  B.  O'Callaghan.  ed..   Doe.  Sit. 
of  ^1.  r.,  t.  3,  pp.  1-9. 

A.  D.  1610-1613.— The  Acadian  colony  re- 
-ll?f '  '*p*j'n'"7"'  V  ""  English  of  Vifw 
*  u  ^^T*^""^  '*°y*'  *"*  '«f'  uninhabited  tUl  1610 
when  Poutrincourt  returned  at  the  Instance  of 
the  king  to  make  the  new  settlement  a  centnl 
station  for  the  ronvcrsion  of  tlic  Indians,— a  work 
which  made  some  Jesuit  missionaries  prominent 
ni^  ^^^7,."'  •.''.«  New  World.  H&  son  fol- 
lowed  in  1611,  with  ff.thers  Pierre  Blard,  and 
Knemond  Mass*.  Madame  la  Marquii  de 
Gui-rchevi He.   a   ■  ious   Catholic,   to  wlom  De 

whom  afterwards  the  French  king  granted  the 
whole  territory  now  covered  by  the  United 
Btatts,  was  the  chief  patroness  of  these  voyages, 
pesirmg  to  make  anoUier  settlement,  she  S 
DatchefTa  vewel  in  1618  with  two  more  Jesuits, 
lather  Quentin  and  Gilbert  Du  Thet.  and  forty, 
eight  men  under  U  Saussaye.      "When  they 

sons-fathera  Blard  and  Masse,  their  servknt 
the  apothecary  Hebert.  and  another.  All  the 
rest  were  absent,  either   hunting  or   trading 

Xn^Ii'"?";*^-"'*  <*"*«°'*  •"««'  tS  Hubert,  wifo 
represented  Biencourt  in  lite  absence,  and  taking 
the  two  Jesuits,  with  their  servant  and  luggage 

nu.^  hJ  *.'^^'''u"  Pentflg-'et.  which  father 
2i  n™^  m'"^  ""'J^"  P"=''fou».  IJUt  when 
w,S?  .*''°.''°  »  *'•'«=''  '"«  came  on.  which 
asted  for  two  days,  and  when  It  became  clear, 

MnLf  "L'"  -  't  ^'^''  "^  "'«  extern  side  of 
Mount  Desert  IsUnd,   m  Maine.     The  harbor 

r,^  if*Pr.  ■«:"";  Md  oommodloua,  and  they 
Judged  this  would  be  a  favorable  sitTfor  the 
colony,  and  named  the  pUce  Su  Sauvour 
La  SauMiye  was  adviied  by  the  ptindptl  ookn- 


868 


Isu  to  erect  a  sufficient  fortification  before  con 
menciag  to  cult  vate  the  soil,  but  he  disre^sJSS 
tliU  advice  and  nothing  was  compleJlTthi 
f[  of  lofence.  except  the  rateiug  of  a  snlSl 
palisaded  structure,  when  a  storm*  bum  S 
the  colony    which  was  litUe  expecttd  bylS 

chants  bul  founded  a  colony  on  tlie  Jam.-,  li"" 
II  Vi'-gfnia,  wher.,  after  suffering  greatly  from 
the  insalubrity  of  Uie  climate  an!  wnt  ^f  T 
visions,  they  had  attained  a  considerable  deC 

vessels  to  tish  on  the  coast  of  Aca.lla,  convovS 
by  an  armed  vessel  under  the  command  of  C^^ 
tain  Samuel .' jgal,  who  had  been  conn«;u.d  wS 
the  CO  ony  since  1609.  Argal  was  ourof  tho« 
adventurers  formed  In  the  Khool  of  Drake  wbS 
made  a  trade  of  olracy,  but  confined  tl"„^7m 
to  the  robbery  o/^those  who  were  so  unfortTnlu 
M  not  to  be  their  own  countrymen.  wC 

Argal  arrived  at  Mount  Desert,  he  was  toW  b? 

Wli^'*l"Sf  "'"'  "■,«  ^"^  "««  there  in  itj 
harbor  with  a  vessel.  Leanitag  that  thev  wm 
not  very  numerous,  he  at  once  ^Ived  to  at^k 

^Jl.  ^ii  "■"  ^'^^  "««  •"«'™  when  S 
approached  except  ten  men,  most  of  whom  wire 
unacquainted  with  the  working  of  a  sliip  ArcS 
auacked  the  French  with  muiketry.  and  aV  Uie 
second  discharge  Gilbert  Du  Thet  Si  back  Z 
tally  wounded;  four  others  were  severely  in- 
iHIT^v''"''  'wo  young  men.  named  Leiioino 
ri^»;i?'"»-J'""'^  overboard  and  were 
drowned     Having  taken  pouKssion  of  tlie  ve.- 

f£aA^^'  T*"'  "T"™  "d  informed  La  Saussaye 
that  the  pl«;e  where   thev   were  was  English 

i'n^'rT'.r''  '"=""*«•  *"  ^^  charter  of  VirJnI. 
and  that  they  must  remove;  but,  if  they  Luld 
prove  to  him  that  they  were  there  under  a  com- 
mbsion  from  the  crown  of  France,  he  would 
treat  them  tenderly.   He  then  asked  La  Saussaye 
^n^i'^iH'i!;  .""I  <»"'n'f»ion;but,  as  Argal,  w4 
unparalle  ed  indecenry.  had  abstracted  it  from  bU 
chest  while  the  vessel  was  being  plundered  by  bis 
'■"■■'■  the  unhappy  governor  was  of  couine  unable 
to  produce  It.    Argal  then  assumed  a  very  lofty 
Y"^\\i.-  ^?*°  ■*'■«["'  •"f'^cd  in  VirgiuJa,  he 
found  that  hi?  perfidious  theft  of  the  French 
governors  commission  was  likely  to  caise  hu 
prisonere  to  be  treated  as  pirates.    Tliey  were 
put  into  prison  and  in  a  fair  way  of  being  exe- 
cuted   in  spite  of  Argal's  remonstrances,  untU 
struck  with  sliamc  and  remorse,  he  prorluwd 
the  wunmission  which  he  hatl  so  dishonestly 
filched  from  them,  and  the  prisoners  were  set 
wi    ,""'    .*  production  of  this  document, 
while  it  saved  the  lives  of  one  set  of  FrenibiiKn, 
brought  ruin  upon  all  the  others  who  remained 
in  Acadia.    The  Virginta  colonists  .  .  .  resolved 
to  send  Argal  to  destroy  all  the  French  settle- 
menu  hi  AcadU,  and  erase  all  traces  of  tbeir 
power.  .  .  .  The  only  excuse  offered   for  tbU 
piratical  outrage  of  Argal  — which  was  com- 
mltteil  during  a  period  of  profound  u(  ace -was 
the  claim  which  was  made  by  Knglaml  to  tbe 
whole  continent  of  North  America,  founded  on 
the  dtecovenes  of  the  Cabote  more  than  a  cen- 
tury before.    That  claim  might,  perhaps,  liave 
been  of  some  value  if  followed  by  imrae<ilat« 
occupancy,  as  was  the  case  with  the  SpanianU 
In  the  South,  but  that  not  having  tiorr  i!r.DP, 
and  the  French  colony  being  the  oldest,  it  was 
entitled  to,  at  leut.  as  much  consideration  at 
that  of  VirglnU.     Singularly  enough,  this  act 


OAKADA,  leio-iais. 


.iHaakmtt* 


CANADA,  1611-1618. 


produced  no  mnonttimnce  from   lYuoe."— J. 
BuDsj,  Biit.  o/Aeadia,  eh.  S. 

Also  ni:  W.  C.  Bryan'  and  8.  H.  G»r,  Apu- 
lar  IIM.  oftKtU.  8.,t>.  1,  ck.  13. 

A.  D.  1611-1616.— The  feundiac  of  Montreal. 
— whamplain'a  invaaion  of  the  Iroquoia  in  New 
York.— '  In  1611  Champlain  again  returned  to 
America  .  .  .  and  on  tbe  SStli  of  May  proceeded 
In  search  of  hii  alliea,  wliom  he  was  tu  meet  by 
appointment  Not  flndinc  them  be  employed 
LU  time  in  chooaing  a  aite  for  a  new  settlement, 
liiglier  up  the  river  than  Quebec.  After  a  care- 
ful survey,  he  fixed  upon  an  eligible  spot  in  the 
vicinity  of  Mont  Royal.  His  choice  has  been 
amply  justified  by  the  great  prosperity  to  which 
this  place,  under  the  name  of  Montreal,  has  sub- 
■equently  risen.  Having  cleared  a  considerable 
apace  of  ground,  he  fenced  it  in  by  an  earthen 
ditch  and  planted  grain  in  the  enclosure.  At 
length,  on  the  18th  of  June,  three  weeka  after 
the  time  appointed,  a  party  of  his  Indibn  friends 
appeared.  .  .  .  As  an  evidence  of  their  good  will 
they  imparted  much  valuable  information  respect- 
ing tbe  geography  of  this  continent,  with  which 
they  seemed  to  be  tolerablv  well  acquainted  as 
far  south  as  the  Oulf  of  Mexico.  They  readily 
agreed  to  his  proposal  to  return  shortly  with  40 
or  SO  of  his  people  to  prosecute  discoveries  and 
form  settlements  in  their  country  if  he  thought 
proper.  Tliey  even  made  a  request  that  a  French 
youth  should  sccompauy  them,  and  make  obser- 
vations upon  their  territory  and  tribe.  Cham- 
plain  again  returned  to  France,  with  a  view  of 
making  arrap^.ments  for  more  extensive  opera- 
t^'-ns ;  out  this  object  was  now  of  very  difficult 
.  .^mplishment.  De  Monts,  who  had  been  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Saintonge,  was  no  longer 
Inclined  to  take  the  lead  in  measures  of  this  kind, 
and  excused  himself  from  going  to  court  by  stat^ 
ing  tlie  uriency  of  his  own  affairs.  He  therefore 
committed  the  whole  conduct  of  the  settlement 
to  Champlahi,  advising  him,  at  the  same  time 
to  seek  some  powerful  protector,  whose  influence 
would  overcome  any  opposition  which  might  be 
made  to  bis  pUns.  The  latter  was  so  fortunate 
as  to  win  over,  almost  Immediately,  the  Count 
de  Soissons  to  aid  him  in  bis  designs  This 
nobleman  nhtained  the  title  of  lieutenant-general 
of  ^ew  France;  and.  by  a  formal  agreement, 
transferred  to  Champlain  all  tlie  functions  of  that 
high  office.  The  Count  died  soon  after  but 
Champlain  found  a  still  more  influential  friend 
In  ilie  I»nnce  of  Conde.  who  succeeded  to  all  the 
privileges  of  the  deceased,  and  transferred  Uiem 
to  him  in  a  manner  equally  ample.  These  privi- 
leges, including  a  monopoly  of  the  fur  trade, 
gave  great  dissatisfaction  to  the  merchanto ;  but 
thamplain  endeavored  to  remove  their  principal 
objection,  by  perndtting  as  manv  of  thsm  ai 
cLose  to  accompany  him  to  the  New  World,  and 
to  engage  in  this  traffic.  In  consequence  of  this 
f.^l!' »  .;  ""eamerchanl,  from  Normandy,  one 
;  TJ^''*"*,:,"''"*  °"e  '"""  St  Malo,  accom- 
panied him.  They  were  allowed  the  privUeges 
LfJT  '"1*  °°  <»ntributing  six  men  each  to 
f^„  ..'?,  P'?-f?cf  o'  discovery,  and  giving  one- 
twentieth  of  their  profit*  towards  defraying  the 
Mi^'r?.2!i?«  ""'ement.  In  the  begibniSg  of 
March  [1813]  the  expediUon  sailed   Lm  Har- 

fZ1*?1  "°  *■**  '"*  »'  *'»>'  ""*«!  »t  Quebec. 
Champlain  now  engaged  In  a  new  project"  Hl« 

ftrll»r't?'  '"Ji  I°f  »«•  "^  exploration  up  the 
Ottawa  Paver,  which  be  MoompUsbed  with  greai 

**  369 


difficulty,  through  the  aid  of  hit  Indian  alliet, 
but  from  which  ne  returned  disappointed  in  the 
hope  he  bad  entertained  of  discovering  the  north- 
em  sea  and  a  way  'o  India  thereby.    The  next 
lummer  found  Champlain  again  in  France,  where 
"  matters  still  continued  favorable  for  the  col- 
ony.   The  Prince  of  Conderetalned  his  influence 
at  Court,  and  no  difficulty  was  conseqtiently 
found  in  equipping  a  small  fleet,  to  carry  out 
settlers  and  supplies  from  Rouen  and  St  Malo. 
On  board  of  this  fleet  came  four  fathen  of  the 
order  of   the  RecoUets,  whose  benevolence  in- 
duced them  to  desire  the  conversion  of  the  In- 
dians to  Christianity.  These  were  the  first  priests 
who  settled  in  Canada.  Champlain  arrive»l  safely, 
on  the  2Sth  of  May,  at  Tadousaac,  whence  he  im- 
mediately pushed  forward  to  Quebec,  and  sub- 
sequently to  the  usual  place  of  Indian  rendez- 
vous, at  the  Lachine  Rapids.    Hi.  •e  he  found  bis 
Algonquin  and  Humn  allies  full  of  projects  of 
war  against  the  Iroquois,  whom  they  now  pro- 
posed to  assail  among  the  lakes  to  the  westward, 
with  a  force  of  2,W0  fighting  men."— J.  Mac- 
Mullen,  Hitt.  of  Canada,  eh.  1.—"  Champlain 
found  the  Hurons  and  their  allies  preparing  for 
an  expedition  against  their  ancient  enemies,  the 
Iroquois.    Anxious  to  reconnoitre  the  hostile  ter- 
ritory, and  also  to  secure  the  friendship  of  the 
Canadian  savages,  the   gallant  Frenchman    re- 
solved to  accompany  their  warriors.    After  visit- 
ing the  tribes  at  tlie  head  waters  of  the  Ottawa, 
and  discovering  Lake  Huron  [at  Georgian  Bay], 
which,  because  of  iu  'great  extent,'  he  named 
'  La  Mer  Douce,  'Champlain,  attended  by  an  armed 
party  of  ten  Frenchmen,   accordi'^gly  set  out 
toward  the  south,  with  his  Indian  allies.    Enrap- 
tured with  the  'very  beautiful  and    pleasant 
country '  through  which  they  passed,  and  amusing 
themselves  with  fishing  una  hux'-'jg,  as  they 
descended  the  chain  of  'Shallow  uikes,'  which 
discharge  their  waters  through  the  River  Trent, 
the  expedition  reached  the  banks  of  Lake  Ontario. 
Crossing  the  end  of  the  lake,   '  at  the  outlet  of 
the  great  River  of  Saint  Lawrence.'  am!  pass- 
Ing  by  many  beautiful  Islands  on  the  way,  the 
Invaders  followed  the  easten  shore  of  Ontario 
for  fourteen  leagues,  toward  their  enemy's  c     n- 
try.  .  .  .  Leaving  the  shores  of  the  lake.  t<      .>- 
vaders  continued  their  route  inland  *o  the  south- 
ward, for  85  or  80 leagues.''    After  a  journey  of 
five  days,   "the  expedition  arrived  before   the 
fortified  village  of  the  Irmiuois,  on  tl    nortlicm 
bank  of  the  Onondaga  Lake,  near  the  site  of  the 
present  town  of  Liverpool.    The  village  was  iu- 
rloeed  by  four  rows  of  palisades,  made  of  large 
pieces  of  timber  closely  intcrlc ced.     The  stock- 
ado  was  80  1     ,  high,  with    galleries  running 
around  like   a  parapet"     In  the   siege  wliich 
followed  tlie  Iroquois  were  dismayed  by  the  fire- 
arms of  Champlain  and  his  men,   and  by  the 
operation  of  a  moveable  tower  with  which  he  ad- 
vanced to  their  stockade  and  set  fire  to  it    But 
his  Indian  allies  proved  incapable  of  acting  in 
any  rational  or  efficient  way,  or  to  submit  to  the 
least  direction,  and  the  attack  was  a)x>rtive. 
After  a  few  days  the  invading  force  retreated, 
carrying  Chimpiain  with  them  and  foreing  him 
to  remain  in  the  Huron  country  until  the  follow- 
ing spring  (1616),  when  he  made  his  way  back  to 
Montreal.— J.  R.  Brodhcad,  Hist,  of  the  Stau  of 
yew  York,  v.  1,  eh.  8. — The  above  account,  which 
fixes  on  Onondaga  Lake  the  site  of  the  Iroquois 
fort  to  which  CumpUin  penetrated,  does  not 


i  t 


li  I 


CANADA.  16U-161flL 


IV  Humdrtt 


CANADA.  1818-1828. 


•gwe  with  the  vlewi  of  Pftrkmsn,  O'Callachan 
•nd  some  other  historiang.  who  trace  Cliamplain'a 
loute  farther  westward  in  New  Vork;  but  it  ac- 
cepts the  concluaioM  reached  by  O.  H.  Marshall 
J.  V.  H.  Clark,  and  other  careful  studenu  of  the 
question.  Mr.  MacMuUen,  in  the  "HIatory  of 
Canada  ouoted  above,  finds  an  extraordinary 
route  for  the  expe<lition  vU  Ukes  Huron  and 
Bt.  Clair,  to  the  vicinity  of  Detroit-J.  V.  H. 
Clark,  /«.(.  of  Otiondaga. 

A,'-'", '"=   O-  H-  Marshall,   Champlain't  Ba,. 
(Pnrwe  Sk.).   I880.-E.    B.    OtalUghan,  X 

-I^Hf^^^'"  fi"t  Je'urt  miisioii.-CreatioB 
of  the  Corapany  of  the  Hundred  AiM>ciatet. 

—    I  lie  exploration  In  the  disUnt  Indian  terri- 
tories which  we  have  Just  described  in  the  pre- 
wdinir  pages  was  the  last  made  by  Champlata. 
He  hud  plans  for  the  Bur\ey  of  other  regions  yet 
unexplored,  but  the  favorable  opportunity  did 
not  occur     Henceforth  he  directed  his  attention 
more  exclusively  than  he  had  hitherto  done  to 
tte  enlargement  and  strengthening  of  his  colonial 
plantation,    without   such    success,   we    regret 
to  say,  as  his  zeal,  devotion  and  labors  fitly  de- 
served.    The  obstacles  that  lay  In  his  way  were 
tosurmounublc.    The  establishment  or  factory 
we  OHO  hardly  call  It  a  plantation,  at  QuebM* 
was  the  creature  of  a  company  of  men:hants. 
Tiny  had  Invested  considerable  sums  In  ship- 
plug,  buildings,  and  in  the  employment  of  men 
to  onler  to  carry  on  a  trade  in  furs  and  peltry 
wiUi  the   Indians,    and   fliey  naturally  di-sircd 
remunerative  returns.     This  was  the   limit  of 
their  purpose  in  making  the  Investment    . 
ln(ler  tlu-se  circiimstauci'S,  Chnmplain  struggiwi 
on  for  years  against  a  cum-nt  which  be  could 
barely  direct,   but  by  no  means  control 
He  i*iiece,Hled  at  length  In  exu.rting  from  the 
company  a  p.  jmisc  to  enlarge  the  eslablisliment 
I"  w  (arsons,  with  suitable  eqiilpmeiiU,  farmlni 
Implements,   all  kinds  of  sce.is,   and  domestiS 
sjiimnlH,  including  cattle  and  sheep.     But  when 
the  ti„,„  came    this  promise  was  not  fulfllle<l. 
UIITerrnces.  bickerings  and  feuds  sprang  up  in 
the  companv.     8om..  «»nU-.l   one    thing,   and 
si   le  wanUii  another      Tlic  Catholics  wislied  to 
extend  tiie  faith  of  their  church  Int4)  the  wilds  of 
t«ua<ia,  while  the  Huguenola  denlnxl  to  prevent 
,  •  .",'■ "'  '*^'.""' '"  P">"i'>te  il  by  their  own  rontrl. 
bullona.     The  company,  in»plre.l  by  avarice  an<l  a 
<l'«  r,'   to  restrict  the  eslabllHlnnent  to  a  mere 
tnwiing  post,  raiwil  an  issue  to  diiun-dit  Cham 
J?„.  ".     ■  .  "'»?  K™''«-ly  I>ro|M«ed  tliat  he  should 
dc»..  o  himself  exclusively  U)  exploration,   and 
thst  the  govemiiient  and  trade  .  .ould  henceforth 
b*   under  the  din^ction    and    control    of    Pont 
Orave      But  Chamnlaln  .  .  .  obuiued  a  decree 
ord.  ring  that  he  sfiouhl  liavc  the  command  st 
UuelMc,    ami  at  all  Mher  settlements  In  New 
rrance,   and  that  the  company  shoul.l  almlnin 
from  any   nterrrn'm-e  with  l.lni  in  the  dU.l..rgo 
Of  the  .  utUH  nf  hi,  offlee.  ■     I„  |6»)  the  I>rln?n 
ae  tomlf  M>ld  his  vieeroyallv  U)  the  Duke  de 
M(.ntn«>r<ney,  il«.n  high  ailinfral  of  France,  who 
commisaiond  Chamnlai,,  anew,  as  his  lleuten 
ant  and  supporUKi  him  vigomusly     Champlain 
ha.1  iiia<le  voyages  to  Canada  in  1817  and  1818 
»nd   1M.W    in   llao,   h«   i.|.-:^«i  u:    hi.  p.-^; 

kn?ui     ^l  H""'*".''*   **«»"  lmm«<llately  the 
buikUoc  •!  •  Jurt.  wliidi  Iw  aUM  fort  St  LouS; 


370 


^e  company  of  lasodates  oppw^d  this  wnrti 
and  so  provoked  the  Duke  of  .M.mtmor..nry  bv 
their  comluct  that  "In  the  spring  of  w^  Z 
summarily  dissolved  the  ass.K.iat1on  nf  ^  " 
chants,  which  he  denominated  the  •Comn.my  „. 
Rouen  and  8t.  Malp,'  u>d  esubllshed  an,rtl7r  I 
IW  pUre.     He  continued  Chamjilain  In  the   ffl„ 

?-!,~H'*.TJ!m"'  «l"""lt'«l  »11  matters  relaC 
to  trade  to  William  de  Caen,  a  merchant  otS 
standing,  and  to  fcneric  de  Caen,  the  ■• phew  «f 
the  former    a   good    naval   captain."    In   the 

fn  on^  °  !*/^I~""?  f  "Panle*  we™  con«,li,la,o,| 
l.JiSV,^'"'"'?*'"  ""n"'""!  »t  Quel,™  f„ur 
years  before  again  returning  to  France  hl. 
time  was  divided  between  many  local  enterprises 

riven  to  advancing  the  work  on  the  unttnislieU 

;hrh™,n"'r  *"  ?""'^i}°  'S*'"'  Incursion,  of 
the  hostile  Iroquois  who  at  one  time  approached 

tbe  St.  Charies.  In  the  summer  of  1624  (ham 
plain  returne<l  again  to  Prance,  where  the  Duke 
de  Montmorency  was  Just  sellhig.  or  h«,i  s.,ld 
his  vicerovalty    to    the    Duke    de    Ventadour. 

mlJXt.A.H^^"!  '  i^P'y  religious  cist  of 
mind,  had  taken  holy  orders,  and  his  chi.f  pur- 
pose  In  obtaining  the  v|.,royalty  «„,  to 
encourage  the  planting  of  C«lliolic  nii5.si,.n«  in 
New  France.  As  his  spiritual  dlrect,>rs  «,.re 
Jesuito,  he  naturally  committed  the  work  to 
them.  Three  faUicra  and  two  lay  I.rotl„r,  of 
this  on    •  were  sent  to  Canada  In  Wi\  imH  mhers 

subsequent  yjoined  them Chanipl.ii,,  «," 

reappointcil  Ifeii.enant,  but  remained  In  Fmnre 
two  years.  Hetimilng  to  Quebec  In. Inlv  PiM 
he  found,  as  usual,  that  everything  Im't  ihule 
had  suffered  neglret  In  his  absence.  Nor  was  le 
able  during  the  following  year,  to  imiimve 
much  the  prospecta  of  the  colony.  As  a  <  ,'l„in- 
•  It  had  never  prospered.  The  averape  :iuml»  r 
ccimposing  it  had  not  exceeded  aliout  Wl  intvihs. 
At  this  time  It  may  have  Iieen  somewlmt  nion- 
but  did  not  reach  a  hundred.  A  single  fiimilv 
only  appeara  to  Imve  sulwisted  by  the  culiKatlua 
of  the  soil.  The  rest  were  sustalneil  by  sofplics 
sent  from  Prance.  ...  The  company  a«  ,,  mrre 
trading  association,  was  dmibtless  KU.irwful 
•  .  .  he  large  dividends  that  thev  w,r.'  «M,. 
to  make,  intlmattii  by  {'hamplaln  to  l«  n..t  far 
from  forty  per  centum  v.nrly.  were,  of  (..iirse 
highly  Hittisfactorv  to  the  cmipany  Veirlv 

twenty  years  hail  elapsed  sime  the  f.mn.iinir  nf 
[  QueUr.  and  it  still  piissesseil  only  the  rlrirnitfr 
of  a  trailing  post,    and   not  thai  of  a  c  .l,.nial 
pi' nlation.     This     progress      was    »nilsf,„torT 
nether  to  Champlain,  to  the  VIihtov,  iiorlo  the 
t  ouneil  of  Htnu,..     In  the  view  of  ihcne  wv,ral 
lnten.»ted  parties,  the  time  had  eonie  f<.r  a  la.ll 
cat  elmnge  in  the  organization  of  the  lonipanr. 
t  annual  de  Ulchelleu  hail  risen  hv  his  eMnionll 
nary  ahillty  as  a  stau-sman,  a  "short  time  an 
tertor  to  this,  into  sukn-niu  aiithorilv.  ...  He 
lost  no  iln<e  in  organUing  measims;  .  .  .  The 
cnnipnny  of  merrhanta  wIhmc  llnan. .  ■«  hn.l  In'en 
8(1  skilfully  managiKl  by  the  Caena  «  i-  l.y  him 
at  once  diaMilveit.     A  new  one  wa«  form.  ,1  de- 
mimlnated    'U    Com|Mgnle    de    ht    Noin.lle 
r  ranop, '  consisting  of  a  hundre<t  or  more  nirro 
Irrn.  and  niniiriohly  kuowu  as  the  (  oniiiniiv  of 
the    llundretl    Assoclalei.      It  was    under   i lis 
oualrul  ana  oHUMfMHat  <rf  BidieUeu  kimsslt 


CAKADA,  1616-1638. 


r\tiea/tkt 
ttlim 


Jnuit  iHmiotu. 


CANADA,  1684-18SI. 


Iti  memben  wete  Urnlj  gentlemen  in  olBdal 
positions.  ...  Its  authoritjr  extended  over  tlie 
wliole  domain  of  New  France  and  Florida.  .  .  . 
It  entered  into  an  obli^tion  .  .  .  witliin  the 
■pace  of  15  yean  to  transport  4.000  colonists  to 
New  France.  .  .  .  Tbe  organization  of  tlie  com- 
pany .  .  .  was  ratified  by  the  Council  of  State 
on  the  tthofMay.  1628."— E.  F.  Slafter,  Memoir 
ffChampUun  {iogaget:  Prinu  Soe.,  1880,  e.  1). 
ch.  9. 

Also   ik:     PJre   CharleToix,    flirt,   of  JVete 
finnte,  tmru.  kg  J.  0.  Shea,  bk.  4  (e.  2). 

A.  D.  i6a8-t635.— Conquest  and  brief  ocen- 
pation  by  the  English.— Restoration  to  France. 
—"The  first  care  of  the  new  Company  was  to 
succor  QuebPC,  whose  inmates  were  on  the  verge 
of  starvatioL.    Four  armed  vessels,  with  a  fleet 
of  transports  commanded  by  Itoquemont,  one  of 
the  associates,  sailed  from  Dieppe  with  colonists 
and  supplies  in  April,  1628;  but  nearly  at  the 
nme  time  another  squadron,  destined  also  for 
Quebec,  was  sailing  from  an  English  port.    War 
had  at  length  brolten  out  In  Prance.   The  Hugue- 
not revolt  had  come  to  a  head.     Rochelle  was  in 
armssgninst  the  king;  and  Richelieu,  with  his 
royal  ward,  was  beleaguering  it  with  the  whole 
Btrenglh  of  the  kingdom.    Charles  I.  of  England, 
urjrwi  liy  the  heated  passions  of  Buckingham, 
had  declared  himself  lor  the  rebels,  and  sent  a 
flret  to  their  aid.    .    .    .    The  attempts  of  Sir 
William  Alexander  to  colonize  Acailia  had  of 
late  turned  attention  in  England  towards  the 
New  World  ;  and.  on  the  breaking  out  of  the 
war,  an  expedition  was  set  on  foot,  under  the 
auspices  of  that  singular  personage,  to  scire  on 
tlie  Fnnrh  pussemlons  in  North  America.     It 
was  a  private  enterprise,  undertaken  by  London 
menhaiitx,  prominent  among  whom  was  Oervose 
Kirke.  an  Engli.ihman  of  Derbyshire,  who  had 
long  lived  at  Dieppe,  and  ha<l  there  married  a 
Frenchwoman.    Oervose  Klrke  and  his  associates 
(Itted  out  three  small  armed  ships,  commanded 
rwpwtively    by    his    sons    David.    Lewis    and 
Tlicimaii     letters  of  marque  were  obtained  from 
the  king,  and  the  adventuren  were  authorized  to 
drive  out  the  French  from  Acadia  and  Canailn. 
Manv  Ilujruenot  refugees  were  among  the  crews 
Hsving  lieen   expelled    from    New    France    as 
•■tiler*,  the  persecuted  sect  were  returning  as 
piiiinles. "    The  Kirkes  reached  the  St.  Lawrence 
lu  Hilvnnre  of  Ro<|uemont's  stipply  ships,  Inter- 
o  pted  I  he  latter  and  captured  or  sunk  the  whole 
Till  V  then  sailed   back  to   Knitland  with  their 
sp"iM,  ami  it  was  not  until  the  following  summer 
thit  they  returned  to  complete  their  conquest 
M.  »!itime.  the  small  larrison  and  population  at 
tjiiciiec  were  redue<>d  to  sUrvation,  and  were 
»uh«i»ting  on  acorns  and  roots  when,  In  July 
1H'.»,  Adinirel  David  Klrke,  with  his  thtve  ships 
«IM";nred  Iwfore  the  place,     riiamplaln  could  do 
n-lhiuK  hut  arrange  a  (llgnltltHl  surrender     For 
time  years  f.dlowin?,  Quelwc  and  New  Franco 
rrmalneil  under  the  control  of  the  English     Thi-y 
wen-  tlun  restored,  un.hr  a  treaty  stipulation  to 
rranee      "U   long   remained   n   mystery    why 
hsrlM  ciisenttKl  to  a  Mipulnllon  wKich  plctlged 
lam  to  rtsiirn  so  important  a  «muuest.    The 
my.  ery  i,  „pl,|n,.,|  \,j  ^\„  „.,,p„,  discovery  of 

!..;..r  I"""  '.'''  .'''"K  "'  S'f  •""«  Wake,  his 

yuein  I  enrietla  Maria,  amounting  to  800,000 
crown.,  hiid  been  but  half  pal.l  by  the  Frfich 
lovsrameut,  and  Charles,  then  at  Ihu«  w'u»  bis 


371 


Parliament  and  In  desperate  need  of  money 
'?«'™ct»  bis  ambassador  that,  when  he  receives 
the  balance  due,  and  not  before,  he  is  to  give  up 
to  the  French  both  Quebec  and  Port  lioyaf 
which  had  also  been  captured  by  Kirke.  The 
letter  was  accompanied  by  'solemn  instrumenU 
under  our  hand  and  seal '  to  make  good  the  trans- 
fer on  fulfilment  of  the  condition.  It  was  for 
a  sum  equal  to  about  $340,000  that  Charles 
entailed  on  Great  Briuin  and  her  colonies  a 
century  of  bloody  wore.  The  Kirkes  and  their 
associates,  who  liad  made  the  conquest  at  their 
own  cost,  under  the  royal  authority,  were  never 
reimbursed,  Uiough  David  Kirke  received  the 
honor  of  knighthood,  which  cost  the  king 
nothing  •— and  also  the  grant  of  NcwfouudlaniE 
On  the  8th  of  Julv,  1689,  Quebec  was  delivered 
up  by  Thomas  Kirke  to  Emery  de  Caen,  com- 
missioned  by  the  French  king  to  reclaim  the 
place.  The  latter  held  command  for  one  year 
with  a  monopoly  of  the  fur  trade;  then  Cliam- 
plaln  resumed  the  government,  on  behalf  of  the 
Hundred  Associates,  continuing  in  it  until  his 
<le«tb,  which  occurred  on  Christmas  Day,  1685 

■^Tr  •.?"?""''•  ^""«r"  0/  France  in  the  Xev 
World:  Champiain,  eh.  16-17, 

Also  IN:  CiUendar  of  State  Ftiperi:  Colonial 
^net,    1574-1660.    np.    96-143.— D.    Brymncr. 
Bept.  on  Canadian  AreMeet.  pp.  xi-iit,  and  note 
O—U  Kirke,  firtt  Knulith  Oonqueet  of  Canada. 
—See,  also,  Newfoundland,  A.  D.  1610^1655 
.wA*  ?1  '*%:'*5,'-The  Jesuit  missions  and 
their  fate.— The  tirst  of  the  .Jesuit  mlsgionaries 
came  to  Quetwc  in  1825,  as  state<l  above,  but  It 
was  not  until  nearly  seven  yeara  later  that  they 
made  their  way  into  the  heart  of  the  Indian 
country  and  began  there  their  devoted   work. 
"The  Father  Superior  of  the  Mission  was  Paul 
le  Jeuue.  a  man  devoted  In  every  fibre  of  mind 
and  heart  to  the  work  on  which  he  had  come 
He  utieriy  8CT)me<l  difiiculty  and  poin.     He  had 
received  the  order  to  depart  for  Canada  'with 
Inexpressible  ioy  at  the  prospect  of  a  living  or 
dying  mailyrdom.'    Among  his  companions  wa« 
Jean  de  Brebosuf,   a  man  noble  in   birth    and 
aspect,  of  strong  Intellect  and  will,  of  Heal  which 
knew   no  limit,  and  recognized  no  olwtaclc  in 
the  path  of  duty.  ...  Par  in  the  west,  beside  a 
{treat  lake  of  which  the  Jesuits  had   vaguely 
heanl,    dwelt    the  Humns,  a  powerful   nation 
with  many  kindred  Irilies  over  which  they  ex- 
ercised Intiucnce.    The  Jesiiiu  resolved  to  fiiund 
a  mission  among  the  Hunms.    Once  In  every 
year  a  lleet  of  canoes  come  down  the  great  river, 
bearing  six  or  seven  hundred   Huron  warriora' 
who   visited  Quebec  to  dlsiKvie  of  their  fun  to 
gamble  ami  to  steal.     nrC'txpuf  and  two  com- 
panions U)ok  paasaee  [IBW]  with  the  returning 
fleet,  and  set  out  for  the  ilreary  scj'ne  of  thelt 
new  aposlolate.  .  .  .  The  Hun>n»  received  with 
hospitable  welcome  the  hlackrolied  strangen 
The  priests  wer   able  to  repay  the  kindness  with 
services   of   high   value.      They  taught   more 
effective   methiala   of   fortifying  the  U)wn   in 
which  they  live.1.     They  promiae<l  the  help  of  a 
few  French   musketeen  against  an  impinding 
stuck  by  the  Iro<|uols.    They  cured  diwaars' 
they  bound  up  woumls.     They  gave  simple  In' 
StructtoQ  to  the  vounir.   and  irnlned  ilw  h^ana 
of  their  pupils  liy  gifts  of  Uads  and  raUlna 
The  elden  of  the  p<-ople  came  to  have  tbe  faith 
ezplalnot  to  them:  they  readily  owned  that  It 
was  a  guud  faith  fur  the  French,  but  thej  oouid 


11; 


nu 


' 


CAKASA,  1684-188a. 


in  M«  ITmI. 


CANADA,  16S4-1878. 


not  be  pentuded  that  It  was  suitable  for  the  red 
man.  The  fathers  labound  in  hope  and  the 
•avagei  learned  to  love  them.  .  .  .  Some  of 
their  methods  of  conTersion  were  exceedingly 
rude.  A  letter  from  Father  Gamier  has  been 
preserred  In  which  pictures  are  ordered  from 
*-ranc8  for  the  spiritual  improvement  of  the 
Jndians.  Many  representotions  of  souls  in  per- 
dition am  required  with  appropriate  accompioi. 
ment  of  flames,  and  triumphant  demons  tearinii 
them  with  pincere.  One  picture  of  saved  souls 
would  suffice,  and  'a  picture  of  Christ  without 
?K  K  ■.■  "''7  .r*."  consumed  by  a  leal  for 
the  baptism  of  little  chUdren.  At  the  outset 
the  Indians  welcomed  this  ceremonial,  believini: 
that  it  was  a  charm  to  avert  sickness  and  death 
wut  when  epidemics  wasted  them  they  charired 
the  calamity  against  the  mysterious  operations 

H.^®  ^Tlv""^  "■'"'"l  »»''  to  PennI'  bap- 
h^M  K^luf "  recognized  the  hand  of  Satan 
to  tils  prohibition,  and  refused  to  submit  to  it. 
They  baptized  by  stealth.  ...  In  time,  the 
patient,  selfnlenying  labour  of  the  fathers  miirht 
have  won  those  discouraging  savages  to  the  crc«s ; 
but  a  fata^  interruption  was  at  hand.  A  po« .  r- 
rul  and  relentless  enemy,  bent  on  exterminatiou 
was  about  to  sweep  ov.  r  the  Huron  territory, 
Involving  the  savages  u  ;il  their  teachers  in  one 
common  ruhi.  Thirty-two  yearn  had  passed 
r'UfL  f  /^  i"i'"'^  expeditions  in  which 
Cbamplain  had  g^vcu  help  to  the  Hurons  against 
the   Iroquois.    The   unforgiving   savage?  hiid 

[1643-164i»]  attacked  in  overwhelming  foree  the 
towns  of  their  Huron  enemies;  forced  the  Inmle- 
quale  defences;  burned  the  palisades  and  wo<xl,n 
huts;  slaughtered  with  indescribable  tortures 
t^ie  wretched  Inhabitants.  In  oneof  these  towns 
Uiey  found  Breba;.if  and  one  of  his  companion.... 
They  bound  the  illfaud  missionaries  to  sUkes 
they  hung  around  their  necks  collars  of  red-hot 
ron;  they  poured  boiling  water  on  their  heads; 
hev  cut  stripes  of  fli-sh  from  their  aulverinJ 
limbs  and  ate  them  In  their  sight.  To  the  last 
Breb,euf  cheered  with  hopes*  of  heaven  the 
native  converts  who  shared  his  agony.     And 

whTh'^.^.f'*'?'^  "'*  T"""  "'  martyjljom  for 
whkh  in  die  fervour  of  their  enthusiim,  these 
good  men  had  long  ycnnied.  In  a  few  years  the 
Huron  nation  was  extinct ;  famine  and  small-p<>x 
swept  off  those  whom  the  Iroquois  spared.     The 

Uie  nice  for  whom  It  was  founded.  Many  of  the 
misslouttrios  perishcl;  «,n,e  returne<<  to  f-rance 
Their  laUmr  sicmcil  t..  have  Ihk^u  in  vain  ■  th.  Ir 
yea™  of  toll  and  sulTorinir  left  no  trace.' "-U 

■•  W  itl.  the  fall  of  the  Ilurr.u.,  fel/rhe  S«^ti,H! 
of  the  Canadian  minion.  They,  and  the  stable 
and  populous  cnmiunllles  around  them,  bad 
«;'n.i  .  '"'I''  n"",^r'»'  'f»m  '"••Ich  the  Jesuit 
w  uld  have  formed  his  Christian  empire  in  the 
wllderuess;  hut.  one  by  one,  these  kindred  p.... 
pl.-«  were  upr,«.lec|  and  swept  away,  while  the 
neighboring  Algonqulns,  to  whom  lliey  had  hein 
»  Imlwark,  were  lnv„|vi,|  with  them  In  a  common 
wi.'  •  '"  •  >""«ure,  the  occupation  of  the 
-Ti}*^  gone.  Some  of  them  went  hom... 
rem™  Tlr*^'  "?'"■"'«'  Father  Superior,  to 
n,.!^.^  Wierombat  at  the  first  sound  oi  the 
^1^\  ■  *^";  •-'  ""^  "^  remsiBrd,  about 
twenty  lo  number,  several  soon  fell  rlrtlm,  to 
(aaiM,  Urdtiiip  and   Um   IroquoJs.     iTf.w 


872 


yejm  more,  and  Canada  ceased  to  be  a  mIssloiL 
political  and  commereial  Interests  graduaUv  2: 

Ar«>   IK ;  Father  Charlevoix,    But.  of  V« 
^W.  tr.  by  Shea.  bk.  6-1   {v.  8  .-J    6  She? 

ttteandCntuttlllM.  of  Am.,  e.  4,  M  6) 

f«n:»°Bi'*^''*'*rNicolet.-Marau.tte.- 
JoUet.-Pioneer  exDloration  in  the  West  ud 
dlic«»T«i7  of  the  rfia.ia.ippi._When  ChaSr 
plain  gave  up  hU  work,  the  map  of  New  FnZ 
wasb&nk  beyond  Lake  Ontario  an,l  7}fI,S 
BV-  Th«  flnt  of  the  French  explores  whS 
wdened  it  far  westward  was  a  Noi?nan  "amcd 
Jean  Mcolet,  who  came  to  America  in  1618  and 

^rvice.  "After  dwelling  some  time  amonfr  the 
NIpissings  he  vUited  the' Far  West;  seimfnX 
between  the  years  1834  and  1640.  In  a  bS 
Dark  canoe,  3  bave  Norman  voyageur  crossed 
or  coasted  Lake  Huron,  entered  thf  St  S 
River,  and,  first  of  white  men,  8too<i  at  the  strait 
now  called  Sault  Ste  Marie.  Ho  does  not  «?m 
to  hav.  known  of  Lake  Superior,  but  ntunied 
dowu  .  ,e  St.  Mary's  River,  passed  fron.  uS 
Huron  through  the  western  detour  to  Jlieliill 
macklnac,  and  entered  another  fresh-water  se« 
MItchlgannon  or  Michigan,  also  afterwa^; 
known  as  the  Lake  of  the  Illinois,   Luke  St 

Lake.     Here  he  visited  the  Mcnomonee  tribe  of 
Indians,  and  sfu-r  them  the  WUinlbag.ies 
The  fierce   wrath  of  the  IroquoU  had  "driren 
ntimbera  of  the  Hurons,  Ottawas,  and  aevpnii 
minor      Algonquin     tribes     westward.      Tlie 

..12."°.  '.'"'*  *  **.''«^*'  """^  »P'"  ""-■  n"«hem 
tribes  tato  east  and  west.    Sault  Ste  Murie  be- 
came  a   central    point  for   tlie  refue.e.*. 
i^oUier  gathering  place  for  the  fugitives  had 
been  found  very  near  the  south-west  corner  .)f  this 
great  lake     This  was  U  I'ointe,  one  of   ti,e 
Apostle  Islands,  near  the  present  town  of  .Vsh- 
land  in  Wisconsin.    The  JcsuiU  took  nii  tlu« 
two  points  as  mission  centres.  ...  In  11W9  the 
rathera  Dablon  and  Marquette,  with  tli.ir  men 
hail  erected  a  palisaded  fort,  enclo.sing  a  elmi«  1 
and  house  at  Sault  Ste  Marie.     In  the  same  year 
Father  Allmiez  had  begun  a  mission  at  Cma 
Hay.    In  16.0  an  intnpld  explon-r,  St  I.usson 
under  onlers  from  Intcndant  Talon,  c.mie  west 
searching    for   coj.pcrmines.    He  was  .le.om- 
pnnletl    by  the  afterwards   well  known  Jeiiel. 
When  this  party  arrived  at  Sault  .Sie  Jllurie  tlie 
Indians  were"  gathered  together  In  gnnt  num- 
hers,  and  with  imposing  ceremonies  .St.  Lusson 
took  possession  of  •Sshito  Slario  du  Saut,  a.  tisn 
of  Lakes  Huron  and  Superior,   the   Ul.ind  ef 
Manetoulln,  and  ail  countries,  rivers,  lak, »,  anj 
streams    contiguous   and    adjacent  tlien^uiiw.' 
.  .  ,  It  was  undoubtedly  the  pressing  d.sin.^  of 
the  Jesuit   fatliera  to  vLit  the  couiitrv  of  tba 
Illinois  and  their  great  rlvrr  that  le.1  to  the  dis- 
covery   of    the    'Father    of    Wal.rs.'     latliir 
Alloucz  Indwil  had  already  as.iii.l.'<|  tin-  V»i 
HIver  from  Lake  Michigan,  and  seen  tlie  m  intliT 
lake  which  U  the  head  of  a  trlhuurv  ..f  ili« 
MIsslMippl.     At    last    on  June  4ih.    f(i:.'.   ilie 
IT-euUi  luinUU'r,  Coiliert,  wrote  to  Talon     'Al 
after  the  Increase  of  the  colony  there  is  ri.tLIng 
monlntportut  for  tlw  outuny  tLaa  the  discovery 


CANADA,  1884-1S7S. 


CANADA,  1O37-10S7. 


of  a  paaage  to  the  South  Sea,  hit  Msjetty  wiihes 
jou  to  give  It  your  attention.'    Tills  meaaagc  to 
tlie  iDtendsntcame  as  he  was  leaving  for  France, 
and  he  reoommended  the  scheme  and  the  explorer 
he  had  in  view  for  carrying  it  out  to  the  notice 
of  the   Governor,    Frontenac,    who   had    just 
Bfrived.    Governor  Frontenac  approved  and  the 
explorer  started.    The  man  chosen  for  the  enter- 
prise was  Louis  Jollet,  who  had  already  been  at 
Sault  8t«  Marie.     He  was  of  humble  birth,  and 
was  a  native  of  New  France.  .  .  .  The  French 
Canadian  explorer  was  acceptable  to  the  mis- 
sionaries, and  Immediately  journeyed  west  to 
meet  Marquette,  who  was  to  accompany  him. 
.  .  .  M.   Jollet   met  the   priest   Marquette  at 
St  Ignace  Mission,  Mlchilimackinac.    Jacques 
Marquette,  of  whom  we  have  already  heard, 
was  bom   in   1637    at   Laon,   Champagne,    ir 
France.    He   sprang   of   an    ancient  and   dis- 
tinguished  family.  ...  On    May    17th,   1678, 
with  deepest  religious  emotion,  the  trader  and 
missionary  launched  forth  on  Lake  Michigan 
their  two  canoes,  containing  seven  Frenchmen  in 
all,  to  make  the  greatest  discovery  of  the  time. 
Tliev  hastened  to  Green  Pay,  followed  the  course 
of  Father  Allouez  up  thf  Fox  River,  and  reached 
the  tribe  of  the  Masci  tins  or  Fire  Nation  on 
tills  river.    These  weiv  new  Indians  to  the  ex- 
plorers.   Thev  were  peaceful,  and  helped  the 
voyagers  on  their  way.     With  guides  furnished, 
the  two  canoes  were  transported  for  2,700  paces, 
and  the  bead   wateis  of   the  Wisconsin  were 
reached.    After  an  easy  descent  of  80  or  40 
loaeups,  on  June  17th,  1678,  the  feat  was  accom- 
Vlisbfd,  the  Misslasippl  was  discovered  by  white 
men,  and  the  canoes  shot  out  upon  Its  surface  in 
latitude  43°.    Sailing  down  the  great  river  for  a 
month,  the  party  n-ached  the  village  of  Akansea 
on  the  Arkansas  HIver,  In  latitude  84^  and  on 
July  lith  began  their  retumjoumey.     It  is  but 
Just  to  say  that  some  of  the  Recollet  fathers,  be- 
tween whom  and  the  Jesuits  Jealousy  existed 
have  disputed  the  fact  of  Jollet  and  Marquette 
ever  reaching  this  point.    The  evidence  here 
wrms  entirely  in  favour  of  the  explore™.    On 
lliHr  return  journey  the  party  turned  from  the 
Mississippi  Into  a  triliulary  river  In  latitude  88' 
Tins  was   the    Illinois.     Ascending   this,    the 
Indian  town  of   Kaskaskla  was   reached    and 


here  for  a  time  Fatiier   Mar<|uetto"pernBliKT 
d  IjIs   party  passed  ou,"  arriving   at 


Jollet  and  ....  p„.,,  ,,„«, 
Montreal  In  due  time,  but  !,  <ing  lUl  tlielr  Mpers 
In  the  rapl.U  of  the  St.  I  ,  m  ,,co.  Father  Slar- 
qtictte  established  a  mission  among  the  Illinois 
Inilians,  but  his  labors  were  cut  sliort.  Ho  died 
will  e  on  a  journey  to  Orecn  Huv,  May  18.  167.'5. 
i  igh  enrcjmluma  of  Father  Mnrijuclto  fill  — 
«n.l  (l™  rvedly  so—  he  'Jesuit  Helatlotis.'  Wo 
have  his  autograph  map  of  the  Mississippi. 
This  gnat  sln-am  lie  desired  to  call  'f.mceptlon 
Kivcr  luit  the  name,  like  ihowof  'Colliert'  and 
Uuaile  (the  family  name  of  fount  Fnintenac] 
wiilih  wire  N.th  bestowed  upon  It,  have  failed 
totiilie  til.,  place  of  the  muslral  Indian  name." 
-^l  llrrcf  tihvrt  Hut.  of  tu  C<i«a«<iun  F*opU, 

Also  i^.  F  Parkman,  La  R^.Ue  and  the  Di, 
•wnrc/Me  (rr,rt.  UV.»,  eh.  S-5.-C.  W.  Bulter- 
»■'''■,  .""'    i'f.  '}*  IH'c«ftry  „f  tht  X  W.   by 

jV  l(,  u_s.  I  Hehberd^/L.  J^WU^T^ 


873 


A.  D.  lfi37-i«S7 — The  Snlpician  MttlcBMt 
or  Montreal  and  religious  activity  at  Quebec. 
— Lhamplain  was  succeeded  as  governor  of  New 
mnce  by  M.  de  ChSteaufort,  of  whose  brief 
administration  little  is  known,  and  the  latter 
was  followed  by  M.  de  Montmngny,  out  of  the 
translation  of  whose  name  the  Indians  formed 
.1*  ,V"t  Onontio,   signifying    "Great    Moun- 
teln,    which  they  afterwards  applied  to  all  the 
irnncb  gOTcmors.    Montmagny   entered    with 
real  into  the  plans  of  Champlain,  "but  difficul- 
ties accumulated  on  all  sidca     Men  and  money 
were  wanting,  trade  languished,  and  the  Asso- 
ciated Company  in  France  were  daily  becoming 
indifferent  to  the  success  of  the  colony.    Some 
few  merchants  and  inhabitants  of  the  outposts, 
ndeed,   were  enriched  by  the  profitable  deal- 
ings of  the  fur-trade,  but  tlieir  suddenly -acquired 
wealth  excited  the  Jealousj  rather  than  increased 
the    general    prosperity   of   the   settle™.    The 
work  of  religious  Institutions  was  alone  pureued 
wiUi  vigor  and  success  in  those  times  of  failure 
and  discouragement.     At   Sillery,    one    league 
froni  Quebec,  an  establishment  was  founded  for 
the  Instruction  of  the  s.ivages  and  the  diffusion 
of   Christian    light    [16371     The   Hotel    Dieu 
owed  iu  existence  to  the  Uuchesse  d'Alguillon 
two  vea™  afterward,  and  the  convent  of   the 
Lreulines  was  founded  by  the  pious  and  high- 
born Madame  de  la  Pcltric.    The  partial  suiceas 
and  subficquent  failure  of  Champlain  and  his 
Indian  allies  in  their  encounte™  with  the  Iro- 
quois had  emboldened  these  brave  and  politic 
savages.    They  now  captured    several    canoes 
belonging  to  the  Hurons,  laden  with  fura,  which 
that  friendly  people  were  conveying  to  Quebec. 
Montmagny's  miliUry  force  was  too  small  to 
allow  of  his  avenging  tills  Insult;  he,  however, 
zealously  promoted  an  enterprise  to  build  a  fort 
and  effect  a  settlement  on  the  Island  of  Montreal 
which  he  fondly  hoped  would  curb  the  audacity 
of  hit  savage  foes.     The  Associated  Company 
would  render  no  aid  whatever  to  this  impnrt.mt 
plan,  but  the  religious  zeal  of  the  Abh6  Olivier 
oje^ame  all  difficulties.    He  obtained  a  grant 
of  Montreal  from  the  king,  and  dispatch.d  the 
bleur  de  Malsonneuve  and  othe™  to  tako  '  -isses- 
sion.     On  the  17th  of  .May,  IWl,  the  p  .       les- 
tineil  for  the  settlement  w-as  consecra'cii         the 
superior  of  the  Jesuits.    At  the  same  tinio  the 
g()vern(.r  erected  a  fort  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Klver  Richelieu,"  which  to  far  rhi-cked  th<'  Iro- 
quois tli.1t  they  entered  in!)  a  tn^aty  of  peace 
and  respected  It  for  a  brief  i  itIihI.— E.  M  nrbur- 
ton.  T/if  Omfuftt  of  CamnU,  r.  1,  ch.  12— The 
settlement  of  Montreal  was  undertaken  bv   an 
association  of  thirty  five  rich  and  Inllueniiuf  [wr- 
tout  In  I  ranee,  among  whom  was  tlie  Duke  de 
Liiincourt  de  la  R<K-lie  Ouyon.     "  This  company 
obtnlneil  n  concession  of  the  Island  in  1640,  and 
a  member  of  the  asw: 'lall.m  arrived  at  Quebec 
from  Fmiue  witli  tcv.nil  Immigrating  faniilies, 
tome  loliliers,  and  an  armainent  valued  at  8.1,000 
piastres,'    In   1041    "a   rliiforccment  of   colo- 
nlils  arrived.  led  by  M.  d'Ailleln.ust  de  Mu.wau. 
During  (he  following  year,  a  teconil  party  came. 
At  thia  tlmetlic  European  population  resilient  In 
Canada  ilid  not  exceed  200  touls.     The  immi- 
grants will)  now  entftrnd  {t  had  been  aclecird 
with  tlie  utmost  cere,  "—A.  Ikll,  Ih$t' .if  l\tn„da, 
hk.   8,    eh.    1  (»,    D— In  1«,57  the  selgnlority  of 
Montreal  was  ceded  to  the  Seminary  of  8t  Sul- 
pica  in  Paris,  where  the  rriot  of  Its  |overnm«il 


CANADA,  l«87-ia87. 


Kavagn  of 


tktlri 


CANADA,  1S63-1674 


i 

were  held  until  1898.— Father  Charlevoix,  Eitt 
efli'ea  Franet,  Irani,  by  Shea,  e.  8  p  i!8 

Also  in:   P.  Parkman,  Thi  JemiU  in  Xorth 
Am.,  eh.  13-16. 

A.  D.  I64O-I70O.— The  wan  with  the  Iro- 
?",S*'~  '    """  *'^"'  ^^  ?*""■  '•*<'  to  the  year 
1<  00  a  constant  warfare  was  maintained  between 
the  Iroquois  and  the  French,  interrupted  occa- 
sionally by  negotiations  and  brief  Intervals  of 
peace.    As  the  f  rmer  possessed  both  banks  of 
thebt  Lawrenc,  and  thecirculUof  lakes  Erie 
■™  u    '       '    *''*y  intercepted  the  fur  trade, 
which  the  Frcnci  were  anxious  to  maintain  with 
the  western  nations.  .  .  .  The  war  parties  of  the 
League  ranped  through  these  territories  so  con- 
stant y  that  it  was  impassible  for  the  French  to 
S ass  in  safety  through  the  lakes,  or  even  up  tlie 
t  Lawrcnre  above  Montreal.  .  .  .  Bo  great  was 
the  fear  ( f  these  sudden  attacks,  that  both  the 
trailcra   aud  the  missionaries  were  obliged  to 
ascend  the  Ottawa  river  to  ner.r  ita  source,  and 
from  thence  to  cross  over  to  the  Sault  St  Marie, 
and  tlic  shores  of  Lake  Superior.  .  .  .  To  retali- 
ate for  these  frequent  Inroads,  and  to  prevent 
tlieir  recurrence,  the  coimtry  of  the  Iroquois  was 
often  invaded  by  the  French.  .  .  .  In  1665   M. 
Courcclles,  governor  of  Canada,   led  a  strong 
party  into  the  country  of  the  Moliawks;  but  the 
hardships  they  encountered  rendered  it  necessary 
for  them  to  return  without  accomplishing  their 
purpose.     The  next  year,  M.  de  Tracy,  Viceroy 
of  ^ew  Prance,  with  1,200  French  and  600  In- 
dians, renewed  the  invasion  with  better  success 
He  captured  Tctt-ton-tald  ga.  one  of  the  princi- 
pal villages  of  the  Mohawks,   situated  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Schoharie  Creek ;  but  after  destroy- 
ing the  town,  and  the  stores  of  com,  which  tliny 
found  in  csrlics,   they  were  obliged  to  retire 
without  mi    mg  an  opposing  force.     Again,  hi 
18(«.  SI.  I),     a  Burre,  then  governor  of  Canada 
entered  the  .ountry    of   the  Onondagss,    with 

■'»"»  '■*'•' en.     Having  readied  Hungry  Bav. 

on  th.  simre  of  lake  Ontario,  a  conference 

was  iM  with  a  delegation  of  Iroquois  clilefs. 
...  A  species  of  armistice  was  finally  agreed 
upon,  and  thus  the  expe<lltlon  ended.    A  more 
successful  enterprise  was  projected  and  carried 
Into  execution  m  16S7  by  M.  De  Nonvllle,  then 
K:!"^"°'S'''':-'i^-  ,"«»'Dg  raised  a  force  of 
2.0(Kt  French  and  600  Indians,  he  emlwkcd  them 
in  n  fleet  of  200  bateau,  and  as  many  bircli  bark 
Cannes.    After  coasting  lake  Ontario  from  KltiKx 
ton  to  Irondeqiioit  bay,  iu  the  territory  of  tlie 
B.iircnK  he  landed  at  the  head  of  this  bay,  and 
found  liln.s.'  f  within  a  few  miles  of  the  principal 
vill.i^-es  of  tlie  Senecas,  which  were  then  in  the 
counties  of  Ontario  and  Monroe."    Aftc'  one 
battle  w  th  about  OOO  of  the  Senecas.  the  latter 
retreiile.1  Into  the  Interior,  and  the  *  rench  de- 
ilroyed  four  of  their  villages,  together  with  the 
siirrj-undlng  liehLs  of  grr)wing  com.    "  To  retali- 
ate f..r  this  Invasion,  a  formidable  party  of  the 
Iroqiiom    in  the  fall  of  the  same  year,  made  a 
sudden  .lescent  upon  Fort  Chambly,  on  the  SonI 
Kiver,   iiriir  .Monlnal.     Cnal.le  to  capture  the 
fort,  which  wns  resolutely  defended  by  the  gar 
n     ri,  Hoy  r>ivngedihes<atlementa»dlHcent,niid 
reiiimeil  with  a  numlier  of  cnptlves      Alwiit  the 
same  time,  a  party  of  SOO  aitacke<l  Frontenac 
on  the  site  of  Kinirston.  aud  de>in>vn|  »"•!  i»<! 
jHnte  the  Clnniat ions  and  estalillshments  of  the 
French  without   the   fortification.     In  Julr  of 
Um  coiuluc  yew  u«,  French  wen  made  to  feel 


874 


•till  more  sensibly  the  power  of  their  revenm. 
A  band  of  1.200  warriors,   animated  with  the 
fiercest  resentment,   made  a  descent  upon  the 
taUndof  Montre»l,  ...  All  that  were  wlthom 
the  fortifications  fell  under  the  rifle  or  the  relent 
leu  tomahawk.   Their  hcus<.s  were  burned  thdr 
plantation!  ravaged,  and  the  whole  Island  cov- 
ered  with  desolation.   About  1,000  of  the  French. 
according  to  some  writers,  perished  in  this  Inva 
slon,  or  were  carried  into  captivity.  .        Over 
whelmed  br  this  sudden  disaster,  the  French  de 
stroyed  their  forts  at  Niagara  and  Frontenac  and 
thus  yielded  the  whole  country  west  of  Montreal 
to  the  possession  of  the  Iroquois.     At  this  criti 
cal  period  Count  Frontenac  again  became  gov 

l7°u,^''"^5\''P'^  '',!i"''*f  *''«  *'"'«  n^sidue  of 
hU  life  devoted  himself,  with  untiring  eneri?r 
to  restore  lu  declining  proaporify. "_  L  H  Mor' 
gan.  League  of  the  Iroqnai;  bk.  \,  rh  \ 

Also  ra:  Vf.  Kingsford,  IIM.  of  Canada  bk 
2-4  (r.  l-iJ).-E.  B.  OTallaphan,  A.,  IhTilui 
"L?  Ja  \}:  «i-  .*r^-i'**-J-   «•  Broclhead; 

O.  H.  Manh».n,Emed.oftheMarguudeAonTilU 
as  el  the  Seneeae  (Iliil.  Writinfft,  pp.  123-1N8> 

A.  D.  iMo-t688.— French  encroachments 
»nd  Engrhah  concettione  in  Newfoundland. 
See  N-vpodwdland:  A.  D.  1660-1 BS8 

pii'?i"j'*7*-i^"/*«'*  •>'  Colbert  into  a 
5?'^  f  ™'*"«--Brief  career  of  the  French 
West  India  Company.— "In  18(1:1  the  nrocceil- 
Ings  of  the  company  [of  the  hundn'd  ii»,wi.iti»l 
beoime  so  obnoxious  that  the  king  of  France 
decided  upon  the  Immediate  resumption  of  hii 
rights,  and  the  erecting  of  Canada  Into  a  rmal 
government:  Monsieur  de  Mfeiy  was  anpoiniid 
govemor,  and  proceeded  from  France  to  (Juekc 
with  400  regular  troops,   and   100  families  as 
settlers,  with  cattle,  horses  and  implenunta  of 
agriculture.     Under  the  royal  jurisdiction,  tlie 
governor,  a  king's  commissioner,  an  iipostolical 
vicar,   and  four  other  gentlemen,  were  fomiid 
Into  a  sovereign  council,  to  whom  wen:  eonfidni 
the  powers  of  cognl/ance  in  all  cauaoa,  civil  and 
criminal,  t    Judj^e  in  the  last  resort  acenrdinK  to 
the  laws  and  ordinances  of  France,  and  the  prac- 
tice of   the  Pariii.ment  of  Paris,  reserving  the 
generaj  legislativt  powers  of  the  Crown,  In  Iw 
applied  according  t(  circumstnnoes.    This  ('diin- 
cil  was  further  luvested  with  the  regiil.itic.n  uf 
commerce,  the  ex;)cndilure  of  the  piihlic  ninnies 
and  the  establishment  of  inferior  courts  at  Three 
Rivers  and  Montreal.      This  cli.iiige  of  lanaila 
from  an  ecclesiastlcnl  mission  to  a  secuhir  tnvcrn- 
ment  was  owing  to  the  great  {'olbert.  whn  was 
animated  by  the  example  of  (Jreat  Hrilain.  to 
Improve  the  navigation  and  cominerre  of  hli 
country  by  colonial  establishments.    The  eiillt'lit- 
ene<l  policy  of  this  renowned  finaneial  ininistcr 
of  Louis  XIV.  was  followed  by  the  suceeas  which 
It  di «irved.     To  a  regulated  civil  gnvcmment 
was  added  Increased  mllltarv  proti'dinn  ai;aiiift 
the  Iroquois  Indians;  the  eiiilgratlon  of  Knnch 
settle™  to  New  France  was  pfom-Mcd  l-y  cvi  rv 
possible  means,  and  a  martini  spirit  was  Liiprirtcl 
to  the  population,  bv  the  locntlnn  In  tlir  ("Innv 
of  the  disbanded  sofdicrs  of  the  Cnpiiriian  nti- 
ment  .    .    .   and   other   troops,    wh.iai'   (iiIIhts 
became  the  principal  Seigneurs  of  lli<M(.limv,  on 
mn.-!ltinn  of  niiikicg  rcasions  .-.i  ir.nd  ur,.;.  f  ;ho 
feudal  tenure,  as  It  still  exists,  to  the  s«l.llc|si  and 
other  InhabltanU.'    The  ambitious  pr.JKia  of 
Louis  XIV.  MOD  led,  however,  to  a  new  measun 


CANADA,  1663-1674. 


Meliorations  0/ 
LaaalU. 


CANADA,  1669-1IJ87. 


which  prnved  Icsa  ntisfactorr  in  Its  working. 

"The  French  West  India  Companr  was  re- 
modelled [1664],  and  Canada  added  to  their 
posBCSslong,  lubordinatc  to  the  crown  o(  France, 
with  powers  controlled  by  his  Majesty's  govern- 
ors and  Intendanta  In  the  different  colonies." 
The  domain  of  the  company  embraced  all  the 
possessions  of  France  In  the  New  World  and  its 
{glands  and  on  the  African  coast.  "The  com- 
pany was  to  enioy  a  monopoly  of  the  territories 
and  the  trade  of  the  colonies  thus  conceded  for 
40  years;  it  was  not  only  to  enjoy  the  exclusive 
nsvleation,  but  his  Majesty  conferred  a  bounty 
of  SO  livres  on  every  ton  of  goods  exported  to 
Franre,  .  .  .  The  company  was  not  only  endowed 
as  St'lgncur  with  all  unconceded  lands,  but 
Invested  with  the  right  of  cxtins;uishlDg  the  titles 
o(  seigniories  granted  or  sold  by  previous  com 
panics,  on  condition  of  reimbursing  the  gmntees 
and  purchasers  fortheir  costs  and  improvenn  nts." 
The  West  India  Company's  management  soon 
showed  evil  effects,  and  came  to  an  end  after  ten 
years  of  unsatisfactory  trial.  "Monsieur  De 
Talon,  the  Intendant,  a  man  of  profound  views, 
.  .  .  perreived  that  It  was  the  natural  Interest 
o(  the  Company  to  discourage  colonization.  He 
represented  to  the  minister  Colbert  the  absolute 
nwessity  of  the  total  resumption  of  the  rights  of 
the  crown;  !rcw  his  attention  to  the  means  of 
ibtalning  al)  lulance  of  warlike  Instruments  and 

aval  stores  within  the  colony  .  .  .  and,  In  fact 
at  last  prevailed ;  so  that,  in  1674,  the  king  of 
France  resumed  his  rights  to  all  the  territories 
conceded  to  the  West  India  Cimipany,  assumed 
their  debu  and  the  current  value  of  their  stock, 
and  nppointe<l  a  governor,  council  and  judges 
for  the  direction  of  the  Canadian  colonies.  .  .  . 
From  this  period  (1674).  when  the  population, 
enihraeing  converte<l  Indians,  did  not  exceed 
f),(m.  the  French  settlement  in  Canada  rapidly 
prngrrswd,  and  as  it  rose  in  power,  and  assumed 
offensive  (iperations  on  the  New  England  frontier 
the  jealousy  of  the  British  colonies  became 
roused,  and  Iwtii  parties,  aided  alternately  by  the 
Indians,  carried  on  a  destructive  and  harassing 
border  wnrrjre."—H.  M.  Martin,  Uiit.  of  Upper 
and  irtif.      .inarfrt,  eh.  1. 

Also  i  A.  Ikll,  Jlitt.  of  Canada,  bt.  8,  eh.  8 
(r  1).-K.  I'arkmau,  TU  Old  Rtgime  in  Canada. 
ell  1(1-17.  '  ' 

A.  p.  i669-i687.-La  Salle  and  the  acqnisi- 
tion  of  Louisiana.—"  Second  only  to  Champlain 
among  the  heroes  of  Canadian  "history  stands 
Rokrt  Cavelier  de  la  Salle  — a  man  of  Iron  If 
ever  then  waaone— a  man  austere  and  cold  in 
manner,  jijid  endowed  with  such  IndomiUble 
pluek  and  persevemnce  as  have  never  been  sur- 
passed In  this  world.  Hedid  more  than  any  other 
niiin  to  extend  the  dominion  of  France  In  the 
P>ew  World.  As  Champlain  had  founded  the 
colony  of  Canada  and  opened  the  way  to  tlie 
great  lakes,  so  La  Salle  completed  the  discovery 
of  the  Mississippi,  and  added  to  the  French  poe- 
T^h"  l'"-:,''^'  Pf 'vli'cc  of  Ixiuisiana.  .  .  !ln 
im  Iji  Salle  made  his  first  journey  to  the  west. 
Hoping  to  flml  a  northwest  passage  to  China,  but 
.^^7.."",'^  '.'"^"*"  *•""'  ""»  •■xpeditlon,  except 
that  the  Ohio  niver  was  discovered,  and  perhaps 
»l»o  the  Illinois.  U  Salle's  fcu.lal  doSTsIn  "f 
S'  ^.||^lic«,  aoine  eight  miles  from  Montreal, 
Dear,  today  Oie  name  of  U  Chine,  or  China, 
wuich  is  said  to  have  been  applied  to  It  In  derision 
f>I  this  fruitlais  ex|wdltloii.    J-  '«7S  tli*  ptim 


876 


Marquette  and  the    fur-trader   Joliet  netually 
reached  the  Mississippi  by  way  of  the  Wiscon- 
Sin,  and  sailed  down  the  great  river  as  far  «s  the 
mouth  of  the  Arkansas;  and  now  the  life-work 
or  La  Salle  began  In  earnest.     He  formed  a  grand 
project  for  exploring  the  Mississippi  to  its  mouth 
''?'l,"^,'i'™  "'"8  '■hetlier  it  flowed  into  the  Oulf 
of  California  or  tlie  Gulf  of  Mexico.     The  ad- 
''!^'7  of  Spain  on  the  side  of  Mexico  was  to  be 
checked  forever,  the  English  were  to  be  confined 
to  the  e.ist  of  the  Alleghanies,  and  such  military 
posts  were  to  be  established  as  would  effce.ually 
confirm  the  authority  of  Louis  XIV.  thrr>ughout 
the  centre  of  this  coiitinent.    La  Salle  had  but 
little  ready  money,  and  was  surrounded  bv  rivals 
and  enemies;  but  he  had  a  powerful  friend  in 
Count  Frontenac,  the  Viceroy  of  Canada.  .  . 
At  length,  after  surmounting  InnumeraMe  diffi- 
culties, a  vessel  [the  Griffon  or  Qriffln]  was  built 
and  launched  on  the  Niagara  Kivcr  [1679]     a 
small  party  of  80  or  40  men  were  gathered  to- 
gether, and  La  Salle,  having  just  recovered  from 
a  treacherous  dose  of  poison,  embarked  on  his 
great  enterprise.    His  departure  was  clouded  by 
the  news  that  his  Impatient  creditors  had  laid 
hands  upon  his  Canadian  estates;  but   nothing 
daunted,  ho  pushed  on  through  Lakes  Erie  and 
Huron,  and   after  many  disasters  readied  the 
southern  extremity  of  Lake  Michigan.  The  vessel 
was  now  sent  back,  with  half  tlie  party,  to  Ni- 
agara, carrying  furs  to  appease  the  crtHiltors  and 
purchase  additional  supplies  for  the  remainder 
of  the  journey,  while  La  Salle  with  his  diminished 
company  pushed  on  to  the  Illinois,  where  a  fort 
was  built,  and  appropriately  named  Fort  Cr*ve- 
OTur,  or  as  we  might  translate  it,  the  •  fort  of 
the  breaking  heart.  ^  Here,  amid  perils  of  famine 
mutiny,  and  Indian  attack,  and  exposed  to  death 
froin  the  wintry  cold,  they  walteil  until  it  liecame 
evident  to  all  that  their  vessel  must  have  perish-  d 
She  never  was  heard  from  again,  and  most  likely 
had  foundered  on  her  perilous  voyage.    To  add 
to  the  trouble.  La  Salle  was  again  poisoned ;  hut 
his  iron  constitution,  aided  by  some  lucky  anti- 
dote, again  carried  liim  safely  through  theorlcal 
and  alHiut  the  1st  of  March,   1680,  he  started  oil 
foot  for  Montreal.     Leaving  Fort  CrirvavuT  and 
its  tiny  garrison  under  command  of  his      Ithful 
lieutenant,  Tonty,  be  set  out  with  four  »  rench- 
men  an.l  one  Mohegan  guide.  .  .  .  They  made 
their  way  for  a  thousand    niles  acro.«s  Michigan 
and  Western  Canada  to       igara,  and  so  on  to 
Montreal.  ...  At  Ni.,  ,  Salle  l.arneil  that 

a  ship  from  France,  fr  r  him  wiih  a  cargo 

worth  more  thru  20, i*  hud  bten  wrecked 

In  the  Gulf  of  St.  La  .  and  nothing  had 

been  saved.  In  spite  oi  ..s  dreadful  Mow  he 
contrived  tr  get  together  supplies  and  reenforce- 
menta  at  Mumrcn,.  and  had  retumeil  to  Fort 
Frontenac,  at  tlie  lower  end  of  Lake  Ontario, 
when  still  more  woful  tidings  were  received. 
Here,  toward  the  end  of  July,  a  message  came 
from  the  fortress  so  well  named  t'ri  vecn^ur.  The 
garrison  had  mutinied  and  deal  roved  the  fort, 
and  made  their  way  back  through  Michigan  " 
Tlie  indomitable  La'Saile  promptly  hunted  ihiwn 
the  deserters,  and  sent  them  in  chains  to  yuelwc. 
He  then  "proceeded  again  to  the  Illinois  to  re- 
eonstru.  t  hU  fort,  sr..-!  -=cuf .  if  rn.i;ri!,K-.  hh 
lieutenant  Tonty  and  the  few  faithful  follciwen 
who  had  survived  the  mutiny.  This  llti  le  party. 
abandoned  In  the  wilder  less,  bed  found  shelter 
MBon;  tbe  UUooli  ladlUM;  but  durtiig  the  lum- 


^t^^^^^Bs 

'i 

^^^^■^    'M 

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CAl^ADA,  1069-1687. ' 

mer  of  1680  the  gre»t  Tillage  or  town  of  the  mi- 
Doia  wu  destroyed  by  the  IivquoU,  and  the  hard- 
presaed  Freachmen  retreated  up  the  western  shore 
of  Lake  Michigan  to  Oreen  Bay.     On  anlTing  at 
the  Illinois    therefore,  La  Salle  found  nothing 
but  th:  terrible  traces  of  fire  and  maaaacre  and 
cannibal  orgies ;  but  he  apent  the  following  win- 
ter to  good  purpose  In  aecuring  the  friendship  of 
the  western  Indians,  and  in  making  an  alliance 
with  them  against  tlie  Iroquois.    Then,  In  May, 
1681,  he  set  out  again  (or  Canada,  to  look  after 
bis  creditors  and  obtain  new  resources.    On  the 
way  home,  at  the  outlet  of  Lake  Michigan,  he 
met  his  friend  Tonty,  and  together  they  paddled 
their  canoes  a  thousand  miles  and  came  to  Fort 
Frontcnac.    So,  after  all  this  hardship  and  dis- 
aster, the  work  was  to  be  begun  anew;  and  the 
enemies  of  the  great  explorer  were  exulting  in 
what  they  imagined  must  '<e  his  despair.    But 
that  was  a  word  of  which  Lu  Salle  knew  not  the 
meaning,  and  now  his  fortunes  began  to  dumge. 
In  Mr.  Parkman's  words,  '  Fate  at  length  seemed 
tired  of  the  conflict  with  so  jtubbom  an  adver- 
sary.'    At  this  third  venture  everything  went 
smoothly.    The  little  fleet  paaaed  up  the  great 
lakes,  from  the  outlet  of  Ontario  to  the  head  of 
Michigan,  and  gakicd  the  Chicago  River.    Cross- 
ing the  narrow  portage,  they  descended  the  Illin- 
ois and  the  Mississippi,  till  they  came  out  upon  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico;  and  on  the  9th  of  April,  1683, 
the  fler.rs-de-lis  were  planted  at  the  mouth  of  the 
grtat  river,  and  all  the  country  drained  by  lu 
tributaries,  from  the  Allcghanlcs  to  the  Rocky 
Jlouutains,  was  fornmlly  declared  to  be  the  prop- 
erty of  the  king  of  France,  and  named  after  him 
Louisiana.     Roturung  up  the  river  after  his 
triumph.  La  Salle  founded  a  station  or  small  col- 
ony on  the  Illinois,  which  he  called  St.  Louis, 
and  leaving  Tonty  in  command,  kept  on  to  Can- 
ada, and  crossid  to  France  for  means  to  circum- 
vent his  enemies  and  complete  his  far-reaching 
schemes.     A  colony  was  to  be  founded  at  tlw 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi,    and  military  statio;. . 
were  to  connect  this  with  the  French  settlements 
in  Canada.    At  the  French  court  La  Salle  was 
treated  like  a  hero,  and  a  fine  expedition  was  soon 
fitted  out,  but  everything  was  ruined  by  jealousy 
and  lllwill  between  La  Salle  and  the  naval  com- 
mander, Beaujeu.    The  fleet  sailed  beyond  the 
mouth  of  the  Jli:i(.l8«ippi,  the  colony  was  thrown 
upon  the  coast  of  Texas,  some  of  the  vessels  were 
wrecked,  and  Bi^uii  ji  u  —  tliough  apparently  with- 
out sinister  design      Railed  away  with  the  rest 
and  two  y<ars  of  lerrilile  suffering  followed.    At 
lust,  in  Jlii'\:h,  16NT,  La  Salle  started  to  find  the 
Mississippi,  hopi:ii{  to  astend  It  to  Tontv  »  fort 
on  the  Illinois,  and  obtain  relief  for  his  foflowers. 
But  lie  Imd  scarcely  set  out  on  this  desperate  en- 
•erpii.«>  when  two  or  three  mutinous  wretches  of 
his  piirty  laid  an  ambush  for  him  In  the  forest, 
and  shot  him  dead      Thus,  at  the  early  age  of 
forty  three,  peri.^Iieil  thisextraordiuary  man,  with 
his  iifeworli  but  half  accomplislieif.     Yet  his 
labors  had  done  nuuli  towards  building  up  the 
lm|)()sin)f  dominion  with  which  New  Franee  con- 
frontecl  New  Knjrlatid  in  the  following  century  " 
— J.    FIske,    Tlie  Jinnuiiue  of  thd  Spanith  and 
JiWncA  ExplvriTi  [Harper  $  Mag.,  t.  64,  pp.  446. 

AL8o  in;  F.  Parkman,  La  SalU  and  the  Dit- 
ffl«nr=/  Ih^  t!r,.,!  n-.*f  _f!ie¥al!.-r  ToDti,  Ac.-'t 
^.V.dela  SitU'i  li,t  Krp.  (X.  T.  Ilitt.  ."*«.  GAi; 
*.  8).— J.  a.  Shea,  Diioovtry  andEipl.  qfth4  Hit- 


CANADA,  1689-1690. 

iMfpiJaaey.-C.  Le  Clereq.Kr.^  EOaHMmt, 
cf  th4  finth  in  J\r.  Franee,  tr.  by  Shea,  ch.  21-i, 

,.^  P^^^^f!f^•—'^*  fi"'  Inter-ColonitI 
War  (King  WiuSun't  V^ar):  The  SchenectaS 
Muucre.— Montreal  threatened,  Quebec  at- 

*'S-'E*''vf"'' ,'*">'*  '*"7"1 1**""  ^  the  English. 
—The  Revolution  of  1688,  In  England,  which 
drove  Jamea  IL  from  the  throne,  and  called  to  it 
jiU  daughter  Mary  with  her  able  husband,  AVil- 
llam  of  Orange,  produced  war  between  England 
and  France  (see  Fbauce:  A.  D.  16in  I690).  The 
French  and  Engliah  coloniea  in        .rica  were 
soon  involved  in  the  contest,  an..  »o  far  as  It 
troubled   American    history,   It  bears  in  New 
England    annals  the  name  of  King  Willlam'i 
War.     "If  the  issue  had  depended  on  the  con- 
dition of  the   colonies.   It   could  hardly   have 
seemed  doubtful      The  French  census  for  the 
North  American  continent,  In  1888,  showed  but 
11,249  peisons,  scarcely  a  tenth  part  of  the  Eng- 
lish population  on  its  frontiers ;  about  a  twentietii 
part  of  Engllah  North  America.    West  of  Mon- 
treal, the  principal  French  posts,  and  those  but 
inconsiderable  ones,  were  at  Frontenac,  at  Macki- 
naw, and  on  the  Illinois.      At   Niagara,  there 
waa  a  wavering  purpoae  of  maintaining  a  post, 
but  no  permanent  occupation.    So  weak  wore 
the  garrisons  that  English  traders,  with  an  escort 
of  Indians,    had   ventured  even  to  Maeliinaw, 
.  .  .  France,  bounding  its  territory  ne.xt  New 
England  by  the  Kennebec,  claimed  the  whole 
eastern  coast.  Nova  Scotia,  Cape  Bret<in,  Xcw- 
foundland,  Labrador,  and  Hudson's  Hay ;  and  to 
assert  and  defend  this  boundless  region,  Acadia 
and  lu  -dependencies  counted  but  9<)()  French 
inhabitants.      The   missionaries,    swaying  the 
mhids  of  the  Abenakis,  were  the  sole  source  of 
hope.     On  the  declaration  of  war  by  France 
against  England,  Count  Frontenac,  onre  mare 
governor  of  Canada,    was  charged  to  nonviT 
Hudson's  Bay;  to  protect  Acadia;   ami.   by  a 
descent   from    Canada,   to   assist  a  fleet  fmm 
France  In  making  conquest  of  New  York.    Of 
that  province  De  Callieres  was,  in  advance,  ap. 
pohited  Bovemor;  the  English  Catholics  wire  to 
be  permitted  to  remain,— other  inhabitants  to  be 
sent  into  Pennsylvania  or  New  Eujjlaii.l.  .  .  . 
In  the  east,  blood  waa  first  shed  at  Cxheco, 
where,  thirteen  veara  before',   an   uiisuspiciiug 
party  of  850  Indians  had  U^en  taken  pris<iner» 
and  shipped  for  Boston,  to  be  sold  into  f..aii;n 
slavery.     The  memory  of  the  tn'oelierv  w:i3  fn- 
dellblc,   and  the    lodiaa   endssaries   lif   faslin 
easily  excited  the  tribe  of  Penueook  to  rcvincc 
On  the  evening  of  the  STtU  of  June  [KW'.i]  two 
sijuaws  repaired  to  tlie  house  of  Uicliarl  Walii- 
ron,  and  tlie  o<-togenarian  magistrate  tiaile  thcra 
lodge  on  the  floor.    At  night,  they  riv,  unliar 
the  gates,  and  summon  their  companions,  "  who 
tortured  the  aged  Waldron  until  he  died      "The 
Indians,  burning  his  house  and  others  that  stood 
near  It,  having  klll«l  tlirecandtweiitv.  rciurncd 
to  the  wildemess  with  89  cnptlves."   lu  Augiibt, 
the  stockade  at    Pomaquld   was  taki  n  hv'  100 
Indians  from  the  French  mission  on  ilie  IVnob- 
acot.     "Other  inroada  were  nimle  In  ilie  I'lnob 
scot  and  9t  John  Indiana,  ao  that  the  setileracna 
eaat  of  Falmouth  were  dcarrted.     In  Scpiiinber, 
commlaaioners  from  New  England  held  a  con- 
ference ulth  the  Molmwks  Hi  AIliHiiv.  ^.';i>ilin^ 
an  alliance.     'We  have  burned  Montnil.' saia 


they;  '  we  are  the  allies  of  the  English;  wu  will 


376 


CANADA,  168»-1«S0. 


CANADA,  160S-1697. 


keep  the  Atia  unbroken.'  But  they  refiued  to 
iDTode  the  Abenakia.  .  .  .  Frontenac  .  .  .  now 
used  every  effort  to  win  the  Five  Nations  [the 
Iroquois]  to  neutrality  or  to  friendship.  To  re- 
cover esteem  in  their  eyes;  to  secure  to  Duran- 
taye,  the  commander  at  Mackinaw,  the  means  of 
treating  with  the  Hurons  and  tlie  Ottawas;  it 
was  resolved  by  Frontenac  to  make  a  triple 
descent  into  the  English  provinces.  From  Mon- 
treal, a  party  of  110,  composed  of  French  and  of 
the  Christian  Iroquois, — having  De  Mantet  and 
Bainte  Hclene  as  leaders  ...  — for  two  and 
twenty  days  waded  through  snows  and  morasses, 
through  forests  and  across  rivers,  to  Schenectady. 
The  village  had  given  itself  calmly  to  slumber : 
through  open  and  unguarded  gates  the  invaders 
entett'd  silently  [Feb.  8,  1690],  and  having,  just 
before  midnight,  reached  its  heart,  the  war- 
whoop  was  raised  (dreadful  sound  to  the  mother* 
of  that  place  and  tlieir  children  I),  and  the  dwell- 
ings set  on  Are.  Of  the  inhabitants,  some,  half 
clad,  fled  through  the  snows  to  Aib-uiy ;  60  were 
massacred,  of  whom  17  were  children  and  10 
were  Africans.  .  .  .  The  party  from  Three  Rivers, 
led  by  Hertel,  and  consisting  of  but  63  persons 
.  .  .  surprised  the  settlement  at  Salmon  Falls, 
on  the  Plscataqua,  and,  after  a  bloody  engage- 
ment, burned  houses,  bams,  and  cattle  in  the 
stalls,  and  took  54  prisoners,  chiefly  women  and 
cbiidren.  .  .  .  Returning  from  this  expedition, 
Hertc'l  met  the  war  party,  under  Portneuf,  from 
Quebec,  and,  with  them  and  a  reSnforcement 
from  Castin,  made  a  successful  attack  on  the  fort 
and  settlement  in  Casco  Bay.  Meantime,  danger 
taught  the  colonies  the  necessity  of  union,  and, 
on  Uic  1st  day  of  May,  1690,  New  York  beheld 
the  momentous  example  of  an  American  congress 
[see  I'siTKD  STATEa  OF  Am.  :  A.  D.  1690].  .  .  . 
At  that  congress  it  was  resolved  to  attempt  the 
conquist  of  Canada  bv  marrhing  an  army,  by 
way  of  Lake  Champlam,  against  Montreal,"while 
Massurkusetts  should,  with  a  Hect,  attack  Que- 
bec. "-0.  Bancroft, //i»(.  oftlie  r.  S.,  eh.  31  (r.  8), 
(p(.  3,  eh.  11.  t.  2,  i'»  the  "Author'B  last  Re- 
rmon"),— Before  the  end  of  the  month  in  which 
the  ciiii(.'re88  was  held.  Port  lioyal  and  the  whole 
of  Acadia  had  nhtmly  been  cimquered,  having 
Bumnilered  to  im  expedition  scut  out  by  Mossa- 
chusitts,  in  eight  small  vessels,  under  Sir  Wil- 
liam Phips.  The  larger  fleet  (consisting  of  S3 
ships  ami  carrying  3,UU0  men)  directed  against 
Quebec,  sailed  in  August  from  Nastasket,  and 
was,  likewise,  commanded  by  Phips.  "The 
plan  of  the  campaign  contemplated  a  diversion 
til  bv  made  by  an  assault  on  Montreal,  by  a 
forci-  ciiniposi'd  of  English  from  Connecticut  and 
Xew  York,  and  of  Iroquois  Indians,  at  the  same 
time  with  the  attack  on  Quelicc  by  the  fleet. 
And  a  mciind  expcditiim  into  Maine  under  Cap- 
tain { hurch  was  to  threaten  tlie  Eastern  trilws 
wkdiic  iiKursicins  had,  during  the  last  summer, 
been  m  disostroua  ...  As  is  so  apt  to  happen 
when  u  plan  involves  the  simultaneous  action  of 
distant  parties,  the  conilitiiin  of  success  fallwl, 
The  mnvcnicnt  of  Church,  who  had  with  him 
but  3m  nun,  proved  incllective  as  to  any  con- 
tribuiiim  to  the  descent  upon  Canada.  ...  It 
was  not  till  after  a  voyage  of  mope  than  six 
weeks  that  the  fleet  fiiim  Boston  cast  anchor 
•xl:'.:i-  th»  iiK-tith  v!  Ihc  river  St.  Lairrrncc.  aiiil 
meanwhile  the  overland  expedition  against  Mon- 
treal Imd  miscarriifd.  The  commanders  respec- 
Hvcly  of  the  Connecticut  and  the  Now  York  troop* 


had  difiagieed,  and  could  not  act  effectively  to- 
gether. .  .  .  The  supply,  both  of  boats  and  of 
provisions,  was  found  to  be  insufticieut.  The 
disastrous  result  was  that  a  retreat  was  ordered, 
without  so  much  as  an  embarkation  of  tlie 
troops  on  Lake  Champlain.  Frontenac  was  at 
Montreal,  whither  he  had  gone  to  superintend 
the  defence,  when  the  intelligence,  so  unex- 
pected, reached  him  from  Quebec ;  and  presently 
after  came  the  tidings  of  Phips's  fleet  being  in 
the  St.  Lawrence.  Nothing  could  have  been 
more  opportune  than  this  coincidence,   which 

fave  the  Governor  liberty  to  hasten  down  to 
Irect  his  little  force  of  200  soldiers  at  the 
capital  The  French  historian  says  that,  if  he 
had  been  three  days  later,  or  if  the  English  fleet 
had  not  been  delayed  by  contrary  winds,  or  had 
had  better  pilots  in  the  river,  wher«  it  was  nearly 
a  fortnight  more  in  making  its  slow  way,  Fron- 
tenac would  have  come  down  from  the  upper 
country  only  to  find  the  English  commander  in 
his  citadel.  As  it  was,  there  ensued  a  crushing 
mcrtiflcation  and  sorrow  to  Massachusetts.  Nf  w 
France  was  mode  much  more  formidable  than 
ever."  The  fleet  arrived  before  Quebec  Oct.  6, 
and  retreated  on  the  11th,  after  considerable 
cannonading  and  an  assault  which  the  French 
repelled.  It  suffered  storms  and  disasters  on  the 
return  voyage,  and  lost  altogether  some  200 
men.— J.  G.  Palfrey,  Iliat.  ofXew  Eng.,  bk.  4,  A, 
2  (r.  4). 

Also  in:  F.  Parkman,  Count  Prontenae  emd 
Xeie  PraTiee  under  Lmit  XIV.,  eh.  10-13.— Doe. 
nut.  ofX  r.,  t>.  1-2.— F.  Bowin,  I'fe  of  SirW. 
Phipn  {Library  of  Am.  Biog.,t.  7),  eh.  2-3.— J.  R 
Bro<lliead,/7M(.  oftht  State  of  N.  I'.,  t.  2,  eh.  13. 
— J.  Pearson,  et  al,  IIi»t.  of  the  SchentftaJy  Pat- 
ent, eh.  »-10. 

A.  D.  1693-1607.— The  first  Inter-Colonial 
War  (King  William'*  War):  Abortive  plant 
of  invaaioo  on  both  sides.— French  recovery  of 
Acadia.—"  The  defeat  of  the  ex])e<litiiin  of  109O 
was  probably  attributable  to  the  want  of  concert 
on  the  part  of  the  troops  from  Connecticut  and 
New  '^ork  and  those  from  ^lassucliusetts.  and 
the  failure  of  the  supplies  which  were  6<iught 
from  England.  .  .  .  But  there  was  iiiisniuiiage- 
ment  on  all  hands  in  the  conduct  of  the  expedi- 
tion; and  it  seems  to  have  been  predestinated 
that  New  England  should  not  Iks  delivered  from 
the  presence  of  the  French  at  the  north,  until 
time  had  wrought  the  ne<^es.siiry  changes  which 
were  to  render  the  conquest  of  that  country 
available  for  the  promotion  of  still  more  impor- 
tant ends.  Hence  a  new  expedition,  projected 
two  years  later,  and  resolved  to  be  jirosecuted  in 
the  following  year  [1693].  was  atteiuled  with  the 
like  circumstances  of  mortitieation  and  defeat. 
England  herself  participated  in  this  enterprise, 
and  ...  the  government  was  Informed  that  It 
had  '  pleased  the  king,  out  of  liis  great  goodness 
and  disposition  for  the  welfari'  of  all  his  subjects, 
to  send  a  considerable  strength  of  ships  anil  men 
into  the  SVest  Indies,  and  to  direct  Sir  Francis 
Wheeler,  the  admiral,  to  &i\\\  to  New  England 
from  the  Caribbce  Islands,  so  us  to  be  there  bv  the 
last  of  May  or  the  mliUlle  of  June  at  furthest, 
with  a  strength  sullicient  to  overcome  the  enemy, 
if  joined  and  seconded  by  the  forces  of  New 
Eiislaut!.' .  .  .  UiifortUiKtlrSy  fnr  t!ie  suttv-ss  of 
these  plans,  the  letter,  which  shoulil  ha\en»elied 
Boston  by  the  first  of  April,  did  not  arrive  until 
July;  and  the  mortality  which  prevailed  in  the 


377 


CANADA,  1893-1607. 


CAKADA,  1700-1785. 


:! 


Sif       »■      iS  ! 


fleet  during  iu  stay  in  the  Weit  Indies  wu  m 

freat  that,   when  the  commander-in-chief.  Sir 
riiucia    Wheeler,    anchored   off   Xantaaket. — 
briuging   hiinself  the   news  of   the   projected 
invasion.—  he  liad  lost  1,800  out  of  3,100  sailors, 
ami  1,800  out  of  3,400  soldiers.    Ail  tboughU  of 
reducing  Canada  were  therefore  abandoned ;  but 
a  plan  for  another  year  was  settled  with  the 
governor,   the  details  of  which  were  that  2,000 
land  force  a  should  be  sent  from   England  to 
Ciinseau  by  the  first  of  June,  to  be  joined  by 
2,000  irom  the  colonies,  and  that  the  whole  force 
should    go  up  the  St.   Lawrence,   divide   and 
simultaneously  attack    Montreal  and   Quebec. 
Changes  in  the  government  of   the  province, 
however,  and  other  causes,  prevented  the  execu- 
tion of  this  plan,  whose  success  was  problem- 
atical even  if  it  had  been  attempted.    But  if  the 
plans  of  the  English  for  the  reduction  of  Canada 
were  doomed  to  disappointment,  tlie  plans  of  the 
French  for  the  recovery  of  Acadia  were  more 
successful.     For  the  first  year  after  the  conquest 
of  that  country,   indeed,   the  French  were  as 
little  concerned  to  regain,  as  the  English  were  »j 
retain,  the  possession  of  its  territory;  nor  was 
Massachusetts   able   to   bear  the  charge  of   a 
sulticit-nt  military  force  to  keep  its  inhabitants  in 
subjection,   though  she  issued  commissions  to 
judges  aud  other  officers,  and  required  the  ad- 
ministrntion  of  the  oath  of   fidelity.      In  the 
course  of  that  year  [1691],  authority  was  given  to 
Mr,  John  Ni'lson,  of  Boston,  who  had  taken  an 
active  part  in  the  overthrow  of  Andros,  and  who 
was  bi.unu  thither  on  a  trading  voyage,  to  be 
commaudtT-in-cliicf  of  Acadia;  but  as  he  neared 
the  mnuth  of  the  8t,  John's,  he  was  taken  by 
Jlonsieur  VillelK)n,  who,  under  a  commission 
from   the  French  king,   had  touched  at   Port 
Roval,  onci  Drdcred  the  English  flag  to  be  struck, 
and  the  French   flag  to  be  raised  in  iU  place. 
The  next  year  an  attempt  was  made  to  dislodge 
Villebon,    but    without    success.  .  ,  .  In    the 
summer  of   1096,  Pemaquid  was  taken  by  tlie 
French,  under  D'Iberville  and  Castine,  and  the 
frontier  of  the  dominion  of  France  was  extended 
Into  Maine :  aud  by  the  treaty  of  the  following 
vear  A<a(ila  was  receded   to   France,  and   the 
English  relinquished  their  claims  to  the  country. 
The  last  year  of  King  William's  War,  as  it  was 
long  termed  in  New  England,  was  a  year  of 
especial  alarm  to  the  province  piassacliusetts] 
and  rumors  were  rife  that  the  French  were  on 
tiie  eve  of  fitting  out  a  formidable  fleet  for  the 
invasion  of  tlie  colonies  and  the  conquest  of  New 
York."    ArcordUig  to  the  plan  of  the  French 
undertaking,  a  powerful  fleet  from  France  was 
to  lie  jciincd  by  a  force  oi  1,500  men,  raised  by 
Count  Knintenac,  hi  Canada,  and  make,  first,  a 
concjuest  of  Boston.      "  When  that  town  was 
taken,  llipy  were  to  range  the  coast  to  Piscataqua, 
destniyitii;  the  settlements  as  far  back  into  the 
country  aa  possible.    Should  there  be  time  for 
furtlicr  Hciiulsitlons,   they  were  next  to  go  to 
New  York,  and  upon  its  reduction  the  Canadian 
troops  wire  to  march  overUnd  to  Quebec,  laying 
waste  llie  country  as  they    proceedeti."     This 
project  wa.s  frustntcd  by  happenings  much  the 
same  in  kind  as  those  which  thwarteef  the  designs 
of  the  English  «,(alnst  Quebec.     The  fleet  was 
delHved  \>v  contrary  wlmf»,  and  hy  rr-rtain  bot 
less  uudiTtiikings  in  Newfoundland,  until  the 
season  was  too  far  advanced  for  the  enterprise 
oonteuiplutcd,     "The  ...«c«  of  Ryswlck,  which 


878 


•OOQ  foOowed,  led  to  a  temporary  suspension  of 
hostilities.  France,  anxious  to  secure  as  larm  a 
share  of  territory  in  America  as  possible,  retained 
the  whole  coast  and  adjacent  Islands  from  Maine 
to  Labrador  and  Hudson's  Bay,  with  Canada. 
and  the  VaUey  of  the  Mississippi.  The  posset 
sions  of  England  were  southward  from  the  St 
Croix.  But  the  bounds  between  the  nations 
were  imperfectly  defined,  and  were,  for  a  lon/t 
time,  a  subject  of  dispute  and  negotiation  "—J 
a  Barry,  But.  <^M<u$.,  v.  8.  cA.  4.  ' 

„.^"£  ™-  *"•  Psrl^an.  Omnt  Frmtenat  and 
Neu  France  under  Louii  XIV.,  eh.  16-19— j 
Hannay,  Hitt.  of  Acadia,  eh.  14— See,  also 
Nbwtoundland:  A.  D,  1694-1697. 

A.  0. 1696.— Frontenac's  expedition  against 
the  Iroquois.— The  war  with  the  "Bastonnais" 
or  "Bostonnais,"  as  he  called  the  New  England- 
ers,  did  not  divert  Frontenac's  attention  from 
"the  grand  castigation  which  at  last  lie  was 
planning  for  the  Iroquois.    He  had  suwcedMi 
in  1694,  in  inducing  them  to  meet  him  in  pLnera! 
council  at  Quebec,  and  had  framed  the  lundi- 
tions  of  a  truce;   but  the  English  at  Albany 
Intrigued  to  prevent  the  fulfilment,  ami  war  was 
again  imminent.    Both  sides  were  emlcavoring 
to  secure  the  alliance  of  the  tribes  of  the  uppi? 
Ukes.    These  wavered,  and  Frontenac  saw  the 
peril  and  the  remedy.     His  recourse  was  to  at 
tack  the  iroouois  in  their  villages  at  ni.cc,  and 
conquer  on  the  Mohawk  the  [K'ace  hi-  nicili.l  at 
Michilimackinac.     It  was  Frontenac  s  last  cam- 
paign.    Early  in  July  [1090]  he  lift  .Mi.ntreal 
with  2,200  men.     He  went  by    way    uf  Fort 
Frontenac,    crossed    Lake    Ontario,  "lamhd   at 
Oswego,  and  struggled   up  its  stream,  and  at 
last  set  sails  to  his  canoes  on  Lake  Onondaga. 
Then  his  iorce  marched  again,  and  Fruntcnaoi 
enfeebled  by  his  years,  was  liome  ahini,'  in  an 
arm-chair.     Eight  or  nine  miles  and   a  day's 
work  brought  them  to  the  Oiiomiagu   village; 
but   its    inhabitants    had    burned    it  and  fled. 
Vaudreuil  was  sent  with  a  detachiiunt  which 
destroyed  the  town  of  the  Oneidas.     .Vft<r com- 
mitting all   the  devastation  of  crops    that   he 
could,  in  hopes  that  famine  would  help  him, 
Frontenac  began  his  homeward  march  txfnre  the 
English  at  Albany  were  aroused  at  all     The 
effect  was   what  Frontenac  wished,     'ihe  Iro- 
quois ceased  their  negotiations  with  the  western 
tribes,  and  sued   for  peace."— G.  Stewart,  Jr, 
limUmax  and  hit  Timet  (Narratin  and  Critiail 
UiU.  ofAm.,v.  4,  eh.  7). 

Also  in:  F.  Parkinan.  Omnt  Front, wc  and 
yew  France  under  lMui«  XIV.,  ch.  1H-1!I. 

A.  D.  1698-1710.— Colonization  of  Louisiana 
and  the  organization  of  its  separate  govem- 
meat.    Sc-  Loiikiana;  A.  D.  Ifl9»-17r,>. 

A.  D.  1700-1735.— The  spread  of  French 
occupation  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  on 
the  Lakes.-"  From  the  time  of  La  Salh  i  visit 
in  1670,  we  can  trace  a  enntiuuous  French  occu- 
pation of  Illinois.  .  .  .  He  planted  his  citadel  of 
St.  Louis  on  the  summit  of  '  Starved  I!(Hk,'  pro- 
posing to  make  that  the  centre  of  his  colony. 
.  .  .  At  first  his  colony  wasexctH'din^iIv  IVcblc, 
but  it  was  never  diseonllnued.  '.lout.l  I mnd  a 
garrison  at  Fort  .St.  Louis  ...  in  lii>^;,  :ind  in 
1689  La  Uontun  bears  testimony  that  ii  »iill  con- 
tinued. In  1696  a  public  docunrrnt  jirrivcs  its 
existence;  and  when  Tonty,  in  17U0,  apain  de- 
scended the  Mississippi,  lie  was  attcuilcd  by 
twenty   Canadians,   residents   on    the  Illinois.' 


CANADA,  1700-1780.' 


CANADA,  1711-1711. 


Eren  whik  the  wan  named  after  King  William 
lod  Queen  Anne  were  going  on,  the  French  set- 
tlement* were  growing  in  numbers  and  iocreaa- 
ing  in  size :  thoae  wars  over,  they  made  still  more 
rapid  progreat.  Missions  grew  into  settlements 
ind  parishes.  Old  Easkaskla  was  begun  in 
what  hi  Salle  called  the  'terrestrial  paradise' 
before  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
Tbe  Wabash  Valley  was  occupied  about  1700, 
the  first  settlers  entering  it  by  the  portage  lead- 
bg  from  the  Kankakee.  Later  the  voyageun 
found  a  shorter  route  to  the  fertile  valley.  .  .  . 
lie  French  located  their  principal  missions  and 
posts  with  admirable  judgment.  There  is  not 
one  of  them  in  which  we  cannot  see  the  wisdom 
of  the  priest,  of  the  soldier,  and  the  trader  com- 
bined. The  triple  alliance  worked  for  an  im- 
mediate end,  but  the  sites  that  they  chose  are  as 
important  to-day  as  they  were  when  they  chose 
them.  ...  La  Salle's  colony  of  8t.  Louis  was 
planted  in  one  of  the  gardens  of  the  world,  in 
tbe  midst  of  a  numerous  Indian  population,  on 
the  great  line  of  travel  bet^i-een  Lake  Michigan 
and  the  Mississippi  River.  Kaskaskia  and  the 
neighboring  settlements  held  the  centre  of  the 
long  line  extending  from  Cannda  to  Louisiana. 
Tbe  Wabash  colony  commanded  that  valley  and 
tbe  Lower  Ohio.  Detroit  was  a  position  so  im- 
portant tliat,  securely  held  by  the  French,  it 
practically  banished  from  the  £ngligh  mind  for 
nfty  years  the  thought  of  acquiring  the  North- 
west. .  .  .  Then  how  unerringly  were  the 
French  guided  to  the  carrying  places  lietween  the 
Northern  and  the  Southern  waters,  viz..  Green 
Bay,  Fox  River,  and  the  Wisconsin;  the  Chi- 
cago River  and  the  Illinois;  the  St  Joseph  and 
the  Kankakve;  the  St.  Joseph  and  the  Wabash; 
tbe  Mauniee  and  the  Wabash ;  and,  later,  on  the 
ere  of  the  war  that  gave  New  France  to  Eng- 
Itnd,  tbe  Cliuutauqua  and  French  Creek  routes 
from  Lake  Erie  to  the  Ohio.  ...  In  due  time 
tbe  French  began  to  establish  themselves  on  the 
Northern  frontier  of  the  British  colonies.  They 
built  Fort  Niagara  m  1726,  four  years  after  the 
English  built  Fort  Oswego.  Following  the 
early  footsteps  of  Champlam,  they  ascended  to 
the  bead  of  the  lake  that  bears  liis  name,  where 
they  fortiflwi  Crown  Point  ta  1727,  and  Ticon- 
dtroga  in  17.31.  Presque  Isle,  th«  present  site 
of  the  city  of  Erie,  was  cccupied  »'pout  the  time 
that  VInronncs  w.,s  founded  In  the  Wabasli  Val- 
ley [ITSaJ.  Finally,  just  on  the  eve  of  the  Ust 
itruggle  between  England  and  France,  the 
Frencli  pnnsed  into  the  valleys  of  the  Alleghany 
and  the  Oliiii,  at  the  same  time  that  the  Kuglish 
also  btgan  to  enter  them."— B.  A.  Hinsdale  The 
Old  XortliiFf^t,  cli.  4. 

A.  D.  X702-1710.— The  Second  Inter-Colo- 
nial  War  (Queen  Anne's  War) :  Border  r»T«- 
«•  in  New  England  and  Acadia.— English 
Conquest  of  Acadia.  SecNEwJiNULAKD:  A.  D. 
17U4-I7IO. 

A.  D.  1711-1713.— The  Second  Inter-Colo- 
nial  War.-Walker'»  Expedition  against 
Quebec- Massacre  of  Fox  Indians.— The 
gtace  of  Utrecht.—  After  the  rwiuctiou  of  Port 
Ku.vul.  wlii.li  was  practically  tlie  ciuiquest  of 
Acadia,  Colonel  Nicholson,  who  bore  the  honors 
Of  that  mliievenient,  repaired  to  England  and 
prfTdlltil  with  the  govtruimul  to  fit  out  au  ade- 
jiuste  expedition  for  the  Conquest  of  Cana<la. 

The  llirt,  conalstlnB  of  l.'i  Hliips  of  war  and  4<> 
muisport*,  was  placed  under  the  command  of 


Sir  HoTenden  Walker;  seven  veteran  regiment* 
from  Marlborough's  army    with  a  battalion  of 
marines,  were  hitrusted  to  Mrs.  Maaham's  second 
brother,   whom  the  queen  had  pensioned  and 
made  a  brigadier-general,  whom  his  bottle  com- 
panions called  honest  Jack  HUl.  .  .  .  From  June 
25th  to  tbe  80th  day  of  July  1711,  the  fleet  lay 
•t  Boston,  taking  In  supplies  and  the  colonial 
forces.    At  the  same  time,  an  army  of  men  from 
Connecticut,  New  Jersey,  and  New  York,  Pala- 
tine emigranU,  and  about  600  Iroquois,  assem- 
bling at  Albany,  prepared  to  burst  upon  Mon- 
treal ;  while  in  Wisconsin  the  English  had  allies 
in  the  Foxes,  who  were  always  wishing  to  expel 
the  French  from  Michigan.    In  Quebec,  meas- 
ures of  defence  began  by  a  renewal  of  friend- 
ship with  the  Indians.    To  deputies  from  the 
Onondaf^as  and  Senccas,  the  governor  spoke  of 
the  fidelity  with  which  the  French  had  kept  their 
treaty ;  and  he  reminded  them  of  their  promise 
to  remain  oulet  upon  their  mats.    A  war  festival 
was  next  held,  at  which  were  present  all  the 
savages  domiciliated  near  the  French  stntlements, 
and  all  the  delegates  of  their  allies  who  had  come 
down  to  Montreal.   In  the  presence  of  700  or  800 
warriors,  the  war  song  was  sung  and  the  hatchet 
uplifted.    The  savages  of  the  remote  west  were 
wavering,  till  twenty  Ilurous  from  Detroit  took 
up  the  hatchet,  and  swayed  all  the  rest  by  their 
example.    By  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits  over 
the  natives,  an  alliance  extending  to  the  Ojib- 
ways  constituted  the  defence  of  Jlontrccl.     De- 
scending to  Quebec,  Vaudreui^  found  Abenaki 
volunteers  assembling  for  his  protectiim.     Meas- 
ures for  resistance  had  been  adopted  with  hearti- 
ness; the  fortifications  were  strengthcncii ;  Beau- 
port    was   garrisoned;   and    the    people    were 
resolute  and  confiding;  even  women  were  ready 
to  labor  for  the  common  defence.    Toward  the 
last  of  August,   it  was  said  that  peasants  at 
Matanes  had  descried  90  or  96  vessels  with  the 
English  flag.   Yet  September  came,  and  still  from 
the  heights  of  Cape  Diamond  no  eye  caught  one 
sail  of  the  expected  enemy.    The  English  squad- 
ion,  leaving  Boston  on  the  80th  of  July  [1711], 
after  loitering  near  the  bay  of  Gasn6,  at  last  be- 
gan to  ascenil  the  St.  Lawrence,  while  SirHoven- 
den  Walker  puzzled  himself  with  contriving  how 
he  would  secure  his  vessels  during  the  winter  at 
Quebec."    At  the  same  time,  the  present  and 
actual  difficulties  of  the  expedition  wore  so  heed- 
lessly and  ignorantly  dealt  with  that  eight  ships 
of  the  fleet  were  wrecked  among  the  rocks  and 
shoals  near  the  Egg  Islands,  and  884  men  were 
drowned.    The  enterprise  was  then  abandoned. 
"  'Had  we  arrived  safe  at  Quelw,'  wrote  the 
admiral,  '  ten  or  twelve  thousanil  men  must  have 
been  left  to  perish  of  cold  and  hunger:  by  the 
loss  of  a  part,  i'rovidence  saved  all   the  rest.' 
Such  was  the  issue  of  hostilities  In  the  north-east. 
Their    total    failure  left    the    expt<liti(m    from 
Albany  no  option  but  to  return,  and  Montreal 
was  unmolested.     Detroit,  in  1713,  almost  fell 
before  the  Valor  of  a  party  of  the  Ottai,'iiniie8,  or 
Foxes.  .  .  .  Itiwdving    to    bum   Detroit,    they 
pitched  Uieir  lodgings  near  the  fort,  wliidi  Du 
Buisson,  witli  but  twenty  Frenchmen,  defended. 
Aware  of  their  inU-nlion,  he  summoned  his  In- 
dian allies  from  the  eha«';  and.  nl>out  the  middle 
of  May.  Oitawas  and  ilurons  and  Pottawotta- 
mlea,    with  one    branch  of    the   8;irs.    Illinois, 
Munomnnics,   and  even  Osages  and    Missotiris, 
each  nation  with  its  own  ensign,  came  to  liia  re- 


879 


CANADA,  i7u-ina. 


Oitputn. 


{     •     ^ 


lief.    So  wide  wm  the  influence  of  the  mlaion- 
•riee  In  the  Weet  .  .  .  The  wurlort  of  the  Fez 
nation,  far  from  deetroying  Detroit,  were  them- 
selTea  besieged,  and  at  last  were  compelled  to 
■urrender  at  diicretlon.    Thoae  who  bore  arm* 
were  ruthleaelv  murdered;  the  rebt  distributed 
among  the  confederates,  to  be  enslaved  or  massa- 
cred at  the  will  of  their  masters.   Cherished  as  ihe 
loveliest  spot  in  Canada,  the  possession  of  De- 
troit secured  for  Quebec  a  great  highway  to  the 
upper  Indian  tribes  and  to  the  Mississippi.  .  .  . 
In  the  meantime,  the  preliminaries  of  a  treaty 
had  been  signed  between  France  and  England; 
and  the  war  .  .  .  was  suspended  by  negotiations 
that  were  soon  followed  by  the  uncertain  peace 
of  Utrecht  fApril  11,  1718].  .  .  .  England,  by 
the  peace  of  Utrecht,  obtained  from  France  large 
concessions  of  territory  in  America.    The  as- 
sembly of  New  York  had  addressed  the  queen 
against  French  settlements  in  the  West;  William 
Penn  advised  to  establish  the  St.  Lawrence  as 
the  boundary  on  the  north,  and  to  include  in  our 
colonies  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi.     '  It  will 
make  a  glorious  country';  such  were  his  pro- 
phetic words.  .  .  .  The  colony  of  Louisiana  ex- 
cited in  Saint-John  '  apprehensions  of  the  future 
undertakings  of  the  French  in  North  America.' 
The  occupation  of  the  Mississippi  valley  had 
been    proposed  to  Queen   inne;   yet,    at    the 
peace,  that  immense  region  remained  to  France. 
But  England  obtained  the  bay  of  Hudson  and  its 
borders;  Newfoundland,  subject  to  the  rights  of 
France  in  its  fisheries :  and  all  Nova  Scotia,  or 
Acadia,  according  to  its  ancient  boundaries.    It 
was  agreed  that '  France  should  never  molest  the 
Five  Nations  subject  to  the  dominion  of  Great  Bri- 
tain. '    But  Louiitiana,  according  to  French  ideas. 
Included  both  banks  of  the  Mississippi.    Did  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht  assen',  to  such  an  extension  of 
French  territory?    And  what  were  the  ancient 
limits  of  Acadia  t    Did  It  include  all  that  is  now 
New  Brunswick  T  or  had  France  still  a  large  ter- 
ritory on    the    Atlantic   between   Acadia   and 
Maine  T    And  what  were  the  bounds  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  ^'ive  Nations,  which  the  treaty  ap- 
S eared  to  recognize  as  a  part  of  the  English 
oininions?    Tlitae  were  questions  which  wei» 
never  to  be  adjusted  amicably. "— O.  Bancroft, 
Hut.  of  the  U.  S.  (Author't  Latt  Bninon),  pt.  8, 
eA.  12  (r.  2).— With  reference  to  the  destruction  of 
the  Fox  Indians  at  Detroit,  a  recent  writer  says: 
"The  French  official  reports  pretend  that  tlie 
Wisconsin  Indians,  being  in  secret  alliance  with 
the  Iroiiuols  and  tlie  English,  had  come  to  De- 
troit with  the  express  purpose  of  besieging  the 
fort  and  reducing  it  to  ruins;  and  thtir  state- 
ment has  henliifore    been   unsuspectingly  ac- 
cepted by  all  historians.   But  there  is  little  doubt 
that  the  charge  is  a  shameful  falsehood.    The 
Fox  Indians  liad  rendered  themselves  very  ob- 
noxious to  the  French.     Firmly  lodged  on  the 
Fox  Uiver,  they  controlled  the  chluf  highway 
to  the  West;   a  liaughty,  independent  and  in- 
tracuible    people,   they    could    not    be    cajoled 
into  vossjilage.     It  was  necessary  for  the  suc- 
cess of    the   French    policy   to  get    them    out 
of  the  way.     Tlicy  were  enticecf  to  Detroit  in 
order  that  they  might  be  slaughtered. '— S,  8. 
Uebberd,  Ilitt.  of  U'u.  vnder  tlu  dominion  of 
Franct.  eh.  5-6. 

Also  ra :  Hu.  Ilitt  Sif.  Cvll:,v.  5.— W.  Kings- 
fOBl,  IIi§t.  of  Cnruuln,  bk.  8,  eh.  6-fl  (r.  8)  —II 
Brown,  UUt.  oflht  Jtland  </  Cap,  Brtton,  Utt»r$ 


CANADA,  ITSO-ITBH. 


8-».— fl«e.  alio,  Utbbcrt:  A.  D.  1712-17:4  sad 
NBWrODKDLAIlD:  A.  D.  1718. 

A.  D.  i7aa— Th«  fottifjrinK  of  Lonisbosrr 
See  Caps  Bkbtor:  A.  D.  17>P174S.  ^^" 
«,^  D;X744-i74«— The  Third  Inter^olonisJ 
\y  w(Klni:  GeorK*'*  War).— Loss  and  recovery 
of  LoniabonTK  aad  Cape  Breton.  See  New 
Ekouuto:  a.  D.  1744;  1745;  and  1745-1748 

A.  D.  1748-1754.— Active  measures  to  fortifr 
petaeaaioii  of  the  Ohio  Valley  and  the  West 
Bee  Ohio  (VALUty):  A.  D.  174*-17.'54. 

A.  D.  1750-1753.— Bonndarics  dispntes  with 
England.— FotiTenegotiationsat  Paris,— "For 
the  past  thret   years  [1750-1758]  the  commij- 
siooen  appointed  under  the  treaty  of  Ali  It- 
Chapelle  to  se.tle  the  question  of  boundaries 
between  Francj  and  England  in  America  had 
been  in  leaaira  at  Paris,  waging  Intermliuble 
war  on  paper;  La  Oalissoni^ru  and  Silhouette  for 
France,  Shirlev  and  Mildmuy  for  England    By 
the   treaty   of    Utrecht,    Aciidia   belonged  to 
England ;  but  what  was  Acadia  t    Acconling  to 
the  £nglish  com'uissloners,  it  comprised  not  onlv 
the  peninsula  called  Nova  Scotia,  but  all  the 
immense  tract  of  land  between  the  River  St. 
Lawrence  on  the  north,  the  Gulf  of  the  aame 
name  on  the  east,  the  Atlantic  on  the  south  and 
New  England  on  the  west.    The  French  commU- 
sioners,  on  their  part,  maintained  that  the  name 
Acadia  belonged  of  right  only  to  about  a  twen. 
tieth  part  of  this  territory,  and  that  it  did  not 
even  cover  the  whole  of  the  Acadian  pciilnsuU, 
but  only  its  southern  coast,  with  an  adjoining 
belt  of  barren  wilderness.     When  the  French 
owned  Acadia,  they  gave  it  boundaries  as  com- 
prehensive as  those  claimed  for  it  by  the  English 
commissionaries ;  now  that  it  belonged  to  a  rival, 
they  cut  It  down  to  a  paririg  of  its  former  kK. 
.  .  .  Four  censuses  of  Acadia  while  it  bilonged 
to  the  French  had  recognized  the  mainland  as 
included  in  It;  and  so  do  also  the  early  French 
maps.    Its  prodigious  shrinkage  was  simplj-  the 
consequence  of  its  possession  by  an  alien.    Other 
questions  of  limits,  more  important  and  equally 
perilous,  called  loudly  for  solution.     Wlwt  line 
should  separate  Canada  and  her  western  (le]iendcn- 
cies  from  the  British  colonies  f    Various  prin- 
ciples of  demarcation  were  suggested,  of  which 
the  most  prominent  was  a  peograpliieal  one.    KM 
countries  watered  by  streams  falling  into  the  St 
Lawrence,  the  Great  Lakes,  and  tlie  Mississippi 
were  to  belong  to  her.     This  would  have  pliinted 
her  in  the  heart  of  New  York  and  nloin;  the 
crests  of    the  Alleghanies,    giving   her  all  the 
interior  of  the  continent,  and  leaving  nothing  to 
England  but  a  strip  of  sea  const.     Vet  in  view 
of  what  France  had  achieved;  of  the  patient 
gallantry  of  her  explorers,  the  zeal  of  hi-r  mis- 
sionaries,   the   adventurous    hanlih<HHl  of  her 
bushrangers,  revealing  to  civilized  mankind  the 
existence  of    this  wilderness  world,    wliile  her 
rivals  plodded  at  their  workshops,  tlieir  farms, 
or  their  fisheries,  —  In  view  of  all  this,  h  r  pre- 
tensions were  moderate  and  reasonnWe loinpared 
with  those  of  England.     The  tPMlvof  I  irecht 
hail  declared  the  Inxiuois,  or  Five  N'aticms,  to  be 
British  subjects;   therefore  it  was  insisttd  that 
all  countries  conquered  by  them  helon^rc  .1  to  the 
British  Crown.     But  what  vmis  an  iroiiuoia con- 
quest?   The  Imquois  rerply  .i.-,-\ii>-;-.l  t h"- r.-.-.m- 
tries  they  overrun.  .  .  .  But  the  ranLreif  thiir 
war-parties  was  prodigious:  and  the  Knu'lish  laid 
claim  to  every  mountaiu,  forest  or  prairie  wlien 


880 


CANADA,  17S0-175S. 


CAKADA.  1755. 


in  Iroquol*  had  teken  •  iCLlp.  Thii  would  slTe 
tbem  not  only  the  oountrr  between  the  Alle- 
fhuiesand  the  Miiiiiiippl,  but  alio  that  between 
Lake  Huron  and  the  Ottawa,  thua  reducing 
Cuada  to  the  patch  on  the  American  map  now 
repreaented  by  the  province  of  Quebec,— or 
ntber  by  a  part  of  it,  alnoe  tiie  eztenaion  of  Acadia 
to  the  St.  Lawrence  would  cut  oif  the  preeent 
couotiet  of  Qaapi,  Rimouald  and  Boaaventure. 
Indeed,  among  the  adrocatea  of  Britiah  chdma 
there  were  thoae  who  denied  that  France  had 
uy  rights  whatever  on  the  aovf  'Me  of  tite  St 
Lawrence.    Such  being  the  of  the  two 

untestanta,  it  waa  pUin  then  ,.  «8  uu  resort  but 
the  lut  argument  of  kings.  Peace  must  be  won 
with  the  sword."— F.  Parkman,  Mmtealm  and 
Wotfe.ch.6{t.t). 

Also  m:  T.  C.  Hallburton,  Aeeaunt  of  Ifeta 
Seotia,  t.t.pp.  14S-14B.— See,  also.  Nova  Scotu  : 
A.  D.  l'4l>-17Sr  —Relative  to  the  very  dubious 
English  claim  based  on  treatlea  with  the  Iroquois, 
aee  N'ew  Tobk:  A.  D.  1684,  and  17M. 

A.  D.  1755  (April).— Plans  of  the  Encllah 
agaiaitthe  F  ich. — "While  the  negotiations 
[between  En  .^i  and  France,  at  Puis]  were 
pending.  Bra  lock  M  ived  in  the  Chesapeake. 
In  March  [17M]  he  reached  Williamsburgb,  and 
visited  Annapolis;  on  the  14th  of  April,  he,  with 
Commodore  Keppel,  held  a  congrosa  at  Alex- 
andria. There  were  present,  of  the  American 
gorernors,  Shirley,  next  to  Braddock  in  military 
ranli;  Dclancey,  of  New  York;  Morris,  of 
Pennsylvania;  Sharpe,  of  Maryland;  and  Din- 
widdle, of  Virginia.  .  .  .  Between  England  and 
France  peace  existed  under  ratified  treaties;  it 
was  proposed  not  to  invade  Canada,  but  to  repel 
encroaclimeuts  on  the  frontier.  For  this  end, 
{our  expeditions  were  concerted  by  Braiddock  at 
Aleiamlria.  Lawrence,  the  lieutenaot-govenior 
of  Kova  Scotia,  was  to  reduce  that  province 
according  to  the  English  interprptation  of  its 
boundaries;  Johnson  [afterwards  Sir  William 
Johnson,  of  New  York]  from  his  long  acquaint- 
ance with  the  Six  Nations,  was  selected  to  enroll 
3Iohawli  warriors  in  British  pay  and  lead  them 
with  provincial  militia  against  Crown  Point; 
Shirley  proposed  to  drive  the  French  from 
Niagara;  the  commander-in-chief  was  to  recover 
the  Oliio  valley."— O.  Bancroft,  But.  tf  th» 
V.  8.  [AutKor't  iait  reeition),  e.  i,  pp.  41»-41l>. 

A-  D.  1755  (Jnne)-— French  disaster  at  Sea. 
—Frustrated  attempt  againat  Nora  Scotia.— 
The  arrival  of  Dieskan  at  Quebec- "  In  17M. 
France  fully  awakened  to  the  fact  that  England 
not  only  intended  to  maintain  her  position  in  the 
wilds  of  America,  but  likewise  by  sea.  She 
equipped  an  srmament  under  the  command  of 
admirals  Macnam  J«  and  Bola  de  la  Mothe,  of  18 
ships  of  the  line  and  0  frigates,  having  on  board, 
ostensibly  for  Canada,  eleven  battalions  of  troops 
under  Ocncml  Dieskau,  an  'ajve'  of  Marshal 
Saie.  England,  apprisil  of  this  force  being 
sent,  despatched  Vice- Ai 'miral  Boscawen  with 
11  ships  <if  the  line  and  one  frigate  to  Intercept 
it  en  mute.  Both  sailed  about  the  same  time, 
the  22d  iif  April,  1755.  The  French  ambassador 
at  London  being  duly  notiflcd,  replied:  'That 
nls  royal  master  would  consider  the  first  gun 
nreil  at  sea  in  8  hostile  manner  to  be  a  declaration 
of  K.ir  ■  The  esoteric  instructions  of  the  French 
fleet  «crr  to  rendezvous  at  Chebiictou  Harbour, 
destmy  Halifax,  and  then  proceed  to  Annapolis 
for  the  same  purpose.    While  the  instructions 


were  of  neeeaalty  secret.  It  waa  well  known  In 
Acadia  that  an  attempt  would  be  made  by 
France  to  recover  possession  of  the  province. 
It  waa  thia  fleet,  so  eagerlv  expected  by  the 
Acadians,  that  gave  rise  to  the  insolent  manner 
In  which  they  addressed  the  Council  at  Halifax, 
and  which  led  to  an  immedUte  removal  of  their 
arms  and  subsequent  dispersal.  Owing  to  mis- 
adventure, some  of  the  French  fleet  under 
Macnam^ra  had  to  put  back  to  Brest;  the  re- 
mainder met  the  English  oS  the  coast  of  New- 
foundUnd  [June  8]  in  a  dense  fog;  avoiding  an 
engagement,  aeveral  of  them  escaped  by  taking 
the  northern  route  via  Bellelsle  .  .  .  success- 
fully reaching  their  'harbour  of  refuge,'  Louls- 
bourg.  The  '  Lys '  and  the  '  Alcyde '  were  suf- 
ficiently unfortunate  to  be  compelled  to  face  the 
guna  of  the  English  frigates  '  Dunkirk '  and 
'  Defiance, 'and  after  five  hours  close  engagemeut 
the  '  Lys '  struck  its  colors  .  .  .  followed  by  the 
'  Alcyae,'  when  Hocquart  in  command  became 
Boscawen's  prisoner  by  sea  for  the  third  time, 
together  wltli  £76,000  sterling  in  money,  eight 
companies  of  soldiers  and  several  officers  and 
engineers.  The  unexpected  rencontre  with  Bos- 
cawen's fleet,  the  loss  of  two  of  their  vessels,  and 
the  kno  .viedge  that  the  garrison  at  Halifax  was 
considerably  reinforced  by  tht  forces  brought  out 
by  Boscawen,  caused  the  abandonment  of  all 
attempts  to  recover  Acadia.  Dieskau,  after 
landing  a  few  regiments  at  Loulsbourg,  pro- 
ceeded to  Quebec."— O.  E.  Hart,  The  FiM  «/ 
AVte  Fhtrtee,  pp.  51-54. 

Also  c«:  J.  Campbell,  Natal  But.  of  Qreat 
Britain,  e.  5,  pp.  104-106. 

A.  D.  1755  (Inly).- Defeat  of  Braddock'a 
Expedition  anuut  Fort  Duqnesae.  See  Omo 
(Vallbt):  A.1).  1755. 

A.  D.  1755  (Annst— October) :  The  abortive 
expedition  aninat  Niagara.— According  to 
the  English  plan  of  campaign,  concerted  with 
Braddock  at  Alexandria,  Governor  Shirley  was 
to  lead  an  army  for  the  conquest  of  Niagara; 
but  his  march  westward  ended  at  Oswego. 
"Colonel  Philip  Schuyler  led  the  first  regiment 
of  the  expedition.  Boats  were  built  at  (%wego 
to  convey  600  men  by  lake.  Shirley  followed 
by  way  of  the  Mohawk,  and  reached  Oswego 
August  St.  He  was  delayed  from  various 
causes,  and  in  October  a  council  of  war  decided 
that  the  attack  on  Niagaia  should  be  postponed 
for  a  year.  Shirley  was  to  have  met  Braddock 
In  victory  at  Niagara.  Both  branches  of  the 
plan  haa  been  shattered.  The  great  western 
scheme  sank  to  a  mere  strengthening  of  the 
defences  of  Oswego.  Colonc!  Mercer  was  left  in 
command  of  a  garrison  of  700  men,  with  instruc- 
tions to  build  two  new  forts,  acid  Oeneral  Shirley 
took  the  remainder  of  his  force  back  to  Albany. 
The  pitiful  failure  led  to  recriminations  relative 
to  the  causes  of  the  fatal  delays." — E.  H. 
Roberts,  Ann  York,  t.  1,  eh.  20. 

Also  a:  R  Uildreth,  Bitt.  o/(A<  t7.  £,  M.  26 
(».  8). 

A.  D.  1755  (September).— The  Battle  of 
Lake  George  and  defeat  of  Dieskau.— "  Tho 
expedition  against  Crnwu  Point  on  Lake  Cham- 
plain,  had  been  intrusted  to  Qeneral  William 
Johnson.  His  troops  were  drawn  principally 
from  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut;  a  regiment 
from  New  Hampshire  joined  them  at  Albany. 
At  the  head  of  boat  navigation  on  the  Hudson,  a 
fort  waa  buUt  which,  Ui  honor  of  their  com- 


S81 


CANADA,  175S. 


BMxler,  whom  thny  nrenBoed  u  '»  bnre  uh) 
Tirtuoui  m»n,'  the  loldien  Mined  Fort  LTnuui. 
But  when  Johntoo  Htumed  the  command  he 
ungenerouily  chmnged  the  name  to  Fort  Edwaid 

rffj*  V*  '  riHi*"'  *"  '•''»  '<»*■  Johnwn  moTed 
with  about  5.000  men  to  the  head  of  Lake  Oeorn 
and  there  formed  a  oamp,  intendini  to  deacnid 
Into  Lake  Champlain.  Hendrick,  the  celebrated 
Mohawk  chUf.  with  hia  wairioi;,  were  am«S 
theae  troopa.  larael  Putnam,  too,  wa*  there,  u 
a  captain,  and  John  Stark  aa  a  lieutenant,  each 
J?i  '^*,i*^?* '"  ''"*>™-  The  French  were  not 
idle;  the  diatrict  of  Montreal  made  the  mott 
•trenuoua  exertlona  to  meet  the  invading  foe 
All  the  men  who  were  able  to  bear  anna  were 
called  Into  active  aervlce;  lo  that,  to  gather  in 
the  harvest,  their  places  were  supplied  by  men 
from  other  dUtricts.  ""he  energetic  Baron  Dies- 
kau  re«o.ved,  by  f  attack,  to  terrify  the 

inva(»-r».    Taking  wit    him  800  reguhui,  and 
aboL   1,800  Canadiana  aL  '  Indiana,  iSlietout  to 
capture  Fort  Edward;  but,  aa  he  drew  near,  the 
IndUns  heard  that  it  was  defended  by  cannon 
which  they  greatly  dreaded,  and  they  refused  to 
advance.    He  now  changed  his  plan,  and  rewjlved 
to  attack  Johnson's  camp,  which  wassuppoaed  to 
be    without    cannon.      Meantime    scouU   had 
reported  to  Johnson  that  they  had  seen  roads 
made  through  the  woods  in  the  direction  of  Fort 
iaward.     Not  knowing  the  movements  of  Dies- 
t^i."  *  ae'Kl'raent  of  1,000  men,  under  Colonel 
tphralm  Williams,  of  Massachusetts,  and  800 
Mohawks,  under  Hendrick,  marched  to  relieve 
that  poet    The  French  had  information  of  their 
approach  and  placed   themselves   In   ambush 
They  were  concealed  among  the  thick  bushes  of 
a  swamp,  on  the  one  rje,  and  rocks  and  trees  on 
the  oUier     The  English  recklessly  marehed  into 
fs!  .   »i''-  ..  T^^'   *'"    vimrously  attacked 
ISept.  5]  and  thrown  into  confusion.    Hendrick 
was  almost  instantly  killed,  and  in  a  short  time 
WUIiams  fell  also.    The  detachment  commenced 
to  retreat,   occasionally  halting  to  check  their 
pursues    The  firing  was  hear^  in  the  camp;  as 
the  sound  drew  nearer  and  nearer,  it  was  evident 
the  detuchment  was  retreating.     The  drums  beat 
to  arms,   trees  were  hastily  felled  and  thrown 
together  to  form  a  breastwork,    upon    which 
were  place>.  a  few  cannon,  just  arrived  from  the 
Hudson.    Scarcely  were  these  preparations  made 
When  the  panting  fugitives  appeared  in  sight, 
hotly   pursued    by    the   French   and    Indians. 
Intending  to  enter  the  camp  with  the  fugitives 
pieskau  urged  forward  his  men  with  the  neatest 
impetuosity.     T'     "moment  the  fugiUvis  were 
past  the  muzz'  uon  they  opened  with 

fh.'tr^'i?^";  "•  ''hlcTscattered 

w  ^^^^  f""  "^  ""«  Canadians, 

w.n.,T''"?.''K  -^tenntaed  con: 

test  ensued,  which  ,«   un,ii  .i,. 

IT  r"  "f,™  "^'i^I  J''  e  the  Indians 

and  Canadians  did  but  little  execution;  thev 
remained  at  a  respectful  distance  among  the 

.n!f'.K  »  '  '™*"'  H**  '"^"y  **8""  to  retnat, 
«Dd  the  Americans  leaped  over  the  breastworks 
and  pur8ue<l  them  with  great  vigor.  That  same 
evening,  after  the  pursuit  ha^  ceased,  aa  Se 
fff  °tl.'^*,^  retreating,  they  were  suddenly 
attocked  with  great  spirit  by  the  New  Hamp- 
shire regiment,  which  was  on  iu  way  from  Fort 
iiawara.  fhey  were  so  panic  stricken  by  thU 
new  assault  that  they  abandoned  everythtag  and 
fl*l  tor  Uieir  Uve*    Dieskau  had  bee£  wowided 


Artdsqf 


CANADA,  ITU 


onee  or  twlM  at  the  eommenoement  of  (he  batfls^ 
but  be  never  left  hia  post  ...  He  was  ukS 
P'^~^'  ^Ji^'y  tt«ilennd  sent  to  E^guS 
where  he  died.  Johnson  wa«  sllghUy  wouDdrf 
at  the  commaioement  of  the  battle,  and  prudenSr 
retired  from  danger  ToGenetmlLvmanbeirn 
the  honor  of  the  rictory,  yet  Johnson  in  iS, 
report  of  the  battle,  dia  not  even  mention  S 
name.  Johnson,  for  his  exertions  on  that  djT 
was  made  a  baronet,   and  rect-lved  fn,,,,  royii 

*"-  t  "V"  °'  •*«•"*'•  He  had  frien,!,  .t 
TOUrt,  but  Lvman  was  unknown.  Col.  Ephralm 
WUltoms,  wto  feU  In  this  battle,  whUe  p^«Z 

SSSl!?S.t^^7'  ^^^^^'^  **  precaution  t? 
make  Tils  will,  in  which  he  bequeatlied  property 
to  found  a  free  s^ool  in  wcsurn  MassachiiMtti 
That  school  hM  since  grown  hito  WllliamaCoI. 

Auo  ni:  W.  L.  Stone,  J^fi  and  Time:  of  &> 

A.  p.t7«  (Oetob«r-N<»»emb«r).-Remonl 
ud  lUapenroa  in  e>Ue  of  the  French  Acadian 
See  Nova  Scotia:  A.  D.  1765. 
.i.^.."??  «7SA.— FornuU  dcclarmtiona  of  war- 
f.*"!     ^"X-f?  ^ar  "  of  Europe,  calledth, 

French aad  Indian  War"  in  Brit^h  Americi 
— MontcaJn  Mnt  from  France.— "  On  tlie  18Ui 

tmty,  at  length  declared  war.  She  had  attsclied 
France  by  land  and  sea,  turned  loose  her  sliipi 
toprey  on  French  commerce,  and  brouglit  some 
800  prizes  into  her  ports.  It  was  the  act  of  s 
weak  government,  supplying  by  spasms  of  vlo- 
^ce  what  it  lacked  in  conslclerate  resolution. 


382 


..  .-.,-^„  .„  >^iiiuii<;ntie  n'.soiuuon. 

*>ance,  no  match  for  her  amphibious  enemy  is 
Uie  game  of  marine  depredation,  cried  out  ia 
horror;  and  to  emphasize  her  complaints  and 
slmalize  a  pretended  good  faith  wliich  hir  acts 
hadbelied,ostenUUou8lyreleasedaBrltlshfriirata 
captured  by  her  cruisers.  She  in  her  turn  de- 
clared  war  on  the  9th  of  June:  and  now  begun 
the  most  terrible  conflict  of  the  18tH  cen"  -v  one 
that  convulsed  Europe  and  shook  ^Lueii  i  !;'iilia, 
the  coasU  of  Africa,  and  the  islands  of  the  ses 
[see  Enolahd:  A.  D.  1754-1755,  and  after  alio 

Gkbmakt:    >L  D.    1755-1756,  and   after] 

Henceforth  France  was  to   turn  her  strenrth 
against  her  European  foes;  and  the  American 
war,  the  occasion  of  the  universal  outbreak  was 
to  hold  in  her  eyes  a  second  phtce.  .  .     Still 
something  must  be  done  for  the  American  war; 
at  least  there  must  be  a  new  general  to  replace 
Ulesksu.    None  of  the  court  favorites  wanted  a 
command  in  the  backwoods,  and  the  minister  of 
war  was  free  to  choose  whom  he  would.    Hfa 
choice  fell  on  Louis  Joseph,  Marquis  de  Mont- 
calm-Gozon  de  Saint  Vfiran.  .  .  .  The  Chevalier 
de   Levis,  afterwards  Marshal  of  France,  wai 
named  as  his  second  In  command.   ...   The 
troops  destined  for  Canada  were  only  two  battal- 
ions, one  belonging  to  the  regiment  of  La  Sarre, 
and  the  other  to  that  of  Royal  Rousslllon.   Louli 
aV.  and  Pompadour  sent  100,000  men  to  fight 
the  battles  of  Austria*  and  could  spare  but  1.200 
to   reinforce   New  France."     Montcalm,  who 
reached  Quebec  in  May,  was  placed  in  difficult 
relations  with  the  governor-general,  Va'^JreuU, 
by  the  fact  that  the  latter  held  eomitiawl  v!  the 
colonial  troops.    The  forces  in  New  Franc  e,  were 
of  three  kinds, — "the  '  troupes  de  terre,' troops 
of  the  line,  or  regulan  from  Ftanoe ;  the  '  troupes 


OAKADA.  175C 


I%i"r^r*iKhm>d 


CANADA,  1780-1757. 


d»  U  muliM,'  or  oolonr  recuUn;  and  laitly  the 
militis.  The  flnt  coiuMted  nf  the  four  battalion* 
that  had  come  over  with  Dieakuu  and  the  two 
that  liad  come  with  Montcalm,  comprising  In  all 
a  little  leaa  than  8,000  men.  Beaidea  theae,  the 
InttalioDS  of  Artoia  and  Bourgogne,  to  the  num- 
tier  of  1 ,  100  men,  were  in  garrison  at  Louisbourg. " 
This  constituted  Montcalm's  command,  "nie 
colony  reguUra  and  the  militia  remained  subject 
to  the  orders  of  the  governor,  who  manifeatea  an 
early  Jealousy  of  Montcalm.  The  former  troops 
numbered  less  than  2,000  men.  "  All  the  effective 
male  population  of  Canada,  from  15  rears  to  40, 
was  enrolled  in  the  militia.  ...  In  17S0  the 
militia  of  all  ranka  counted  about  18,000;  and 
eight  years  later  the  number  had  increaaed  to 
about  15,000.  Until  the  Ust  two  years  of  the 
war,  those  employed  in  actual  warfare  were  but 
few,  ...  To  the  white  fighting  force  of  the 
colony  are  to  be  added  the  red  men.  .  .  .  The 
mili'rirT  situation  was  somewhat  perplexing. 
Iroquois  spies  had  brought  reporta  of  great  pre- 
parations on  the  part  of  the  English.  Aa  neither 
party  dared  offend  these  wavering  tribes,  their 
warriors  could  pass  with  impunity  from  one  to 
the  other,  and  were  paid  by  each  for  bringing  in- 
formation, not  always  trusts  orthy.  They  de- 
clared that  the  English  were  gathering  in  force 
to  renew  the  attempt  made  by  Johnson  the 
year  before  against  Crown  Pomt  and  Ticon- 
deroga,  as  well  aa  that  made  by  Shirley  against 
Forta  Frontenac  and  Niagara.  VaudreuTi  bad 
spared  no  effort  to  meet  the  double  danger. 
Lotbiniire,  a  Canadian  engineer,  had  been  busied 
during  the  winter  in  fortifying  Ticonderoga, 
while  Pouchot,  a  captain  in  the  battalion  of 
Beam,  had  rebuilt  Niagara,  and  two  French 
engineers  were  at  work  in  strengthening  the 
defences  of  Frontenac.  .  .  .  Indiiuia  presently 
brought  word  that  10,000  Endiah  were  coming 
to  attack  Ticonderoga."  Both  Montcalm  and 
Levis,  with  troops,  "  hastened  to  the  supposed 
scene  of  danger  .  .  .  and  reached  Ticonderoga 
at  the  end  of  June.  They  found  the  fort 
.  .  .  advanced  towardscompie'lon.  It  stood  on 
the  crown  of  the  promontory.  .  .  .  The  rampart 
consisted  of  two  parallel  walls  ten  feet  apart, 
built  of  the  trunks  of  trees,  and  held  together  by 
transverse  logs  dovetailed  at  both  ends,  the  space 
between  being  filled  with  earth  and  gravel  well 
packed.  Such  was  the  first  Fort  Ticonderoga, 
orCarillon,— a  structure  quite  distinct  from  the 
later  fort  of  which  the  ruins  still  stand  on  the 
same  spot  .  .  .  Ticonderoga  was  now  the  most 
advanced  position  of  the  French,  and  Crown 
Point,  which  had  before  held  that  perilous  honor, 
was  in  the  second  line.  .  .  .  The  danger  from 
the  English  proved  to  be  still  remote.  .  .  .  Mean- 
while, at  the  head  of  Lake  George,  the  raw  bands 
of  ever-active  New  England,  were  mustcrhig  for 
the  fray."— P.  Parkman,  Montealm  and  Wolfe, 
f.  1,  eh.  11. 

Aim  in:  W.  Klngsford,  flirt,  of  Canada,  bk. 
U,  eh.  9  (e.  8). 

«.^1  °-  '7S6-I7S7-  — Prench  •nccetaes.— 
Capture  of  Oswego  and  Fort  William  Henry. 
-Bloodv  work  of  the  sarage  alliea.— On  the 
death  of  Braddock,  Gov.  Shirley  became  com- 
mander In-chief  of  the  British  lort-n  in  Amprirs 
"a  position  for  which  he  was  not  adapted  by 
mUltary  knowledge.  ...  His  mlllUry  schemes 
for  the  season  of  1766  were  crand  in  conception 
aod  theotr,  but  diiastrous  ftUuies  in  practice. 


Ten  thouaand  men  were  to  advaDce  agaioil 
Crown  Point  — e,000  for  aenrlce  on  Lake  On- 
tario, 8,000  for  an  attack  on  Fort  Duquesne, 
and  9,000  to  advance  up  the  tiver  Kennebec, 
destroy  the  settlement  adloining  the  Cbaudlira 
and  descending  the  mouth  of  that  river  within 
three  uii>es  of  Quebec,  keep  all  that  part  of 
Canada  tn  alarm.  While  each  of  these  armies 
wa*  being  put  into  motion,  the  season  had  be- 
come too  far  advanced  for  action  at  any  one 
point.  Moreover,  the  British  Government,  dls- 
aatlsfled  with  a  Provincial  officer  being  at  the 
head  of  its  army  in  America,  determined  upon 
sending  out  General  Lord  Loudoun.  While 
Shirley  was  preparing,  Montcalm  advanced 
againat  the  three  forta  at  Oswego,  the  terror  of 
the  French  In  the  Iroquois  countir  and  which  it 
had  been  their  desire  to  destroy  for  many  yean 
back;  they  likewise  commanded  the  entrance  to 
Lake  Ontario.  The  English  had  a  garrison  of 
1,800  men  in  theae  divided  between  Fort  Ontario 
.  .  .  Fort  Oswego  .  .  .  and  Port  George,  or 
Rascal  .  .  ■wut  a  mile  distant  from  each 
other."  M  aim  'ook  all  three  of  the  forta 
without  m  difficulty,  and  demolished  them. 
"Shiriey  wu  jiuch  bUmed  for  this  defeat  and 
the  failure  of  his  projecU,  and  lost  both   hi* 

Jovenunent  and  command,  being  succeeded  by 
ohn  Campbell,  fourth  Earl  of  Loudoun,  Baron 
Mauchlaw,  one  of  the  sixteen  peers  of  Scotland, 
with  General  Abercromby  as  second  In  command 
—  both  notorious  for  previous  incompetency. 
.  .  .  They  were  sent  out  with  considerable  rein- 
forcements, and  had  transferred  to  them  by 
Shirley  16,000  men  in  the  field,  of  whom  6,000 
were  regulars;  but,  with  that  masterty  inactivity 
and  indecision  for  which  Loudoun  was  most 
renowned,  no  further  movement  was  made  this 
year.  The  year  1757  waa  not  distinguished  by 
any  miiitaiy  movements  of  much  moment. 
An  intended  attack  on  Louisbourg  was  postponed 
because  of  news  that  a  powerful  French  fleet 
held    possession  of    its  harbor   and    that    the 

garrison  was  very  strong.  "Montcalm,  finding 
imself  f.ee  from  attack,  penetrated  with  his 
armr  ft  7,606  men  to  Fort  William  Henry,  at 
the  head  of  Lake  George.  Included  were  2,000 
Indians.  The  fort  was  garrisoned  by  2,264 
regulars  under  Colonel  Munroe  of  the  35th  Regi- 
ment, and  in  the  neighborhood  there  was  an 
additional  force  of  4,600  men  under  General 
Webb.  On  the  8d  of  August  the  fort  was  In- 
vested and,  after  a  summons  to  surrender  was 
rejected,  the  attack  was  begun  and  continued 
with  undiminished  fervor  until  the  9th  at  noon, 
when  a  capitulation  was  signed.  General  Webb 
did  not  join  Munroe,  as  he  was  instructed  to  do 
by  Abercrombjf's  plans,  some  cowardice  being 
attributed  to  him  by  contemporary  writers.  An 
incident  of  the  war  which  has  given  rise  to  a 

Seat  deal  of  controversy  and  iir-fecling  up  to 
e  present  moment,  waa  the  so-called  n  ^vacn 
at  Port  William  Henry,  the  outcon'-  '  the 
numerous  horde  of  savages  the  F.or  i.  allies 
had  in  the  engagement.  ...  On  the  morning 
following  the  surrender,  the  garripin  na.'  to 
march  out  under  a  proper  escort  t-  r  feci  them 
from  injury  at  the  hands  of  the  Indians.  The 
evacuatfon  na-i  tarelreommeDa.il,  wht-ua  repeti- 
tion of  the  looting  of  the  day  previous,  which  en- 
sued immediately  after  the  capitulation  had  been 
signed,  was  attempted.  An  effort  being  made 
by  the  escort  to  stop  it,  some  dnmken  Indiaai 


883 


CANADA,  n9»-1787. 


IM  r 


>«i 


ittocke'l  the  defile,  which  resulted  In  the  murder 
tnK  »nd  acalning  of  some  «)  or  70  of  the 
prisoners;  mBltreatlng  and  robbing  s  large  num- 
ber of  otiie.s.  Upon  a  careful  Investigation  of 
the  contemporary  authorities,  no  blame  whatever 
can  be  attached  to  the  good  fame  of  the  brave 
and  humane  Montcalm  or  De  Levis.  .  .  ,  Fort 
Oeorurc,  or  William  Henry,  as  It  was  Indifferently 
called,  like  its  compeer  Port  Oswego,  was  raied 
to  the  ground  and  the  army  retreated  Into  their 
winter  quarters  at  Montreal.  The  termination 
of  the  year  left  the  French  masters  of  Lakes 
Champlain  and  George,  together  with  the  chain 
of  great  lakes  connecting  the  8t  Lawrence  with 
the  Mississippi;  also  the  undisturbed  posaewton 
ef  all  the  country  In  dispute  west  of  the  Alle- 
fhanv  Mounuins."— O.  E.  Hart,  TIU  FcM  of 
Aeie  franee,  pp.  70-70. 

Also  in:  e!  Warburton,  Ommuit  of  Qinada. 
».  8.  cA.  a-8.  "•        J 

A.  p.  1758.— The  Iota  of  Lonisbonrr  and 
Fort  DuQuenie.— Bloody  defeat  of  the  Ene- 
Mth  at  Ticonderoca.— "  The  affairs  of  Or«at 
Britain  In  North  America  wore  a  more  gloomy 
Bipect,  at  the  close  of  the  campaign  of  1757, 
than  at  any  former  period.  By  the  acquisition 
of  fort  William  Henry,  the  French  had  obuloed 
complete  possession  of  the  lakes  Champlain,  and 
George.  By  the  destnictlon  of  Oswego,  they 
had  acquired  the  dominion  of  those  lakes  which 
ronnect  the  8t  Lawrence  with  the  waters  of  the 

'■  '    '         wd  unite  Canada  to  Louisiana.     By 


LouUhowTD 
amd  TIamderoga, 


CANADA.  1758. 


Missiiis! 
means  < 
ascenil 
turlH' 
Allegi, 
were  dr 
of  the 


. By 

*'i  QuCsne,  they  maintained  their 
the  Indians,  and  held  undls- 
n  of  the  country  west  of  the 
.tains;  while  the  English  settlers 
I  the  blue  ridge.     The  great  object 
-    'n   tliat  quarter  was  gained,    anil 
J  ranee  held  the  country  for  which  hostilities  had 
been  toimneneed.  ,  .  .  But  this  Inglorious  scene 
was  liU.iit  to  Ik)  sucoee<le<l  by  one  of  unrivalled 
brillianty.         ,  The  brightest  era  of  British  his- 
tory was  to  commenoc.  .  .  .  The  public  voice 
bud.  «t  length,  made  its  way  to  tlie  throne,  and 
hiul  forced,  on  the  unwilling  mimareh.  a  minister 
who  hiis  h((  11  justly  deemed  one  of  the  greatest 
men  of  tlie  »^e  |n  which  he  liveil.  ...  In  the 
summer  of  17.17,  an  administration  was  formed 
which  (orniliate.!  the  great  contending  interests 
In  parliament;  and  Mr.   Pitt  was  plaii-d  at  iu 
heiiil.      .      PosMtwIng     the     public    contldencc 
wlihcMit   limitation,   he  commanded  all  the  re- 
aources  of  the  nation,  and  drrw  liberally  frtim 
the  puMie  purse.  .      .  In  no  part  of  his  majesty's 
dominions  was  the    new   ailminislration    more 
populiir    than    in  his   American    colonies 
The  ein  ular  letter  of  Mr.  Pitt  aasureil  the  several 
governors  that,  to  repidr  tli.'  losses  and  dlsap- 
poinliuenta  of  the  last  inactive  campaign    the 
cabinet    was  determined  to  send  a  fnmddable 
tnrve.  to  oi>erate  by  sea  and  land,  against  the 
French  in  America;  ami  he  called  upon  them  to 
raise   as  large  Ixnlles  of  men.   within  their  re- 
spective governmeuta,  as  the  number  of  Inhabit- 
ants might  allow.  .  .  .  The  legislature  of  Mas- 
aachuwttji  agreed  to  furnish  7.000  men;  Connec- 
Ocul   ft.OIH):    and  New    llam|>ahire  S.OOO.  . 
Three  eipeditions  wei«  pro|Mne<l.     The  first  was 
against  r,<)uish()urg ;  the  si'<t>nd  against  TIcon- 
aeri>ga  and  Crown  Point;  anil  tlm  thlnl  against 
fort   I>u   qu«sne.     Ihe  army  deeUued   against 
LouUhourg,  (■oosistlDg  of  U,000  men,  wai  00m- 
nanded  by  major  general  Amhent    [The  aipe- 


dltlon  wa«  successful  and  Loulsbourg  fell  J.ii, 
26,   1758.-8ee  Capk   Breton  Island    A   tf 
VmS-nOO.]  .  .  .  The  expedition  against  Tioo„; 
deroga  and  Crovn  Point  was  conducteil  bv  cm 
eral  Abercromblc  In  person.     His  army  corisiM 
tng  of  near  la.OtX)  effectives,   of  wliom  8  000 
were  provincials.  » as  attended  by  a  fonnidahl. 
train  of  artillery,  r.nd  possessed  every  rinuisite 
to   ensure    success.    On  the    6th   of  July  he 
embarked  on  lake  George,  and  reached  the  land- 
ing place  early  the  next  morning.     A  dlsembarJ! 
atlon    being    effected    without    oppositi.m    the 
troops  were  Immediately  formed  In  fourcolumnj 
the  British  In  the  centre,  and  the  provimialg  oii 
the  flanks;  In  which  order  they  marcheil  towarti 
the  advanced  guard  of  the  French,  composed  of 
one  battalion  posted  In  a  log  camp,  whioh  on 
the  approach  of  the  English,  made  a  precipi'ute 
retreat.     Abetcrombie  continued  his  nmnh  to- 
wards TIconderoga,  with  the  Intention  of  invest 
Ing  that  place;  but,  the  woods  being  thick  and 
the  guides  unskilful,  his  columns  weie  thrown 
Into  confusion,  and.  In  some  measure,  entangled 
with  each  other.     In  this  situation  lord  Howe  at 
the  head  of  the  right  centre  column,  fell  in  with 
a  part  of  the  advanced  guard  of  the  French  ■ 
which.  In  retreating  from  lake  George,  was  like-' 
wise  lost  In  tho  wood.     He  Immediately  attacked 
and  dispersed  them ;  killing  several,  and  liikine 
148  prisoners,  among  whom  were  five  offlcers 
This  small  ailvantage  was  purchaseil  at  a  dear 
rata.     Though  only  two  ofllcers,  on  the  side  of 
the  Britiah,  were  killed,  one  of  thesi-  was  lord 
Howe  himself,  who  fell  on  the  first  tire     Tliis 
gallant  young  nobleman  had  cndcand  iiimsejf 
to  the  whole  army.  .  .  .  Without  farther  oiiixi. 
sitlon,  the  English  army  took  piM».ssinu  of  the 
post    at    the  Saw   Mills,  within  two  iniles  of 
TIconderoga.     This  fortress  Icalled  Carillnn  by 
the  French],  which  commands  the  cnninuinlca- 
tlon  between  the  two  lakes,  is  enconipaiisid  on 
three  sides  by  water,  and  secureil  In  front  hv  a 
"••J™"-     The  ordinary  garrison  amoiiniini?' to 
4,000  men,  was  sUtioned  under  the  cannnu  of 
the  place,  and  covered  by  a  breastwork,  the  an- 
proaih  to  which  had  been  reiidcn-d  cxinnu'lv 
diflicult  by  trees  felled    In    fMnt,    wiih    Ihur 
branches  outward,  many  of  which  wen-  «harp- 
eneil  so  as  to  answer  the  purpose  of  cluvnndf- 
friie.    This  body  of  tniops  was  rendereiU  ,lltmire 
formidable  by  Iu  general  than  by  it.s  |.-»iti,.n 
It  was  commamled  by  the  marquis' de  .Montcalm. 
Having  learned  from  his  prisoners  Ihe  strcnitth 
of  the  army   under  the  walls  of  Th  ondcrot-a, 
and  that  a  reinforcement  of  a.(HKI  men  »a«  daily 
exiMHteil,   general   Abercromble  thoiijjht  It  ad- 
visable to  storm  the  place  before  tlila  niiiforfe- 
ment  should  arrive.     The  troops  man  hiil  lo  Hip 
assault  witli  great  Intrepldit'-;  but  tlnir  m.-mmt 
efforts  couhl  make  no  Impression  on  the  worki 
.  .  .  After  a  coldest  of  near  four  hours,  and 
several  repeaUil  attacks,  general   Alien  runihie 
onlervd  a  retreat.     The  army  rellrwl  to  the  canin 
from  which  It  had  marcheil  In  the  momliiL-;  sml. 
the  next  day,  reaunml  its  fomier  jiosithm  on  ilif 
south  side  of  lake  George.     In  this  rash  niiimpt. 
the  killed  and  wounded  of  the  Eugliah  anKioiliHl 
to  near  U.OOO  men,  of  whom  not  quite  4i«i  wire 
provincials.     The  French  were  covcnii  (lurinf 
the  wholR    sr!i.--.n,   swi    tfsrif    I--^    5^i=    i---t-i- 
siderable.     Entirely  disooncerteil  by  this  unei' 
|>ecleil  and  bloody  repulse,  general  Al»  '•  n>nibl< 
rtllnqulebed  his  deslgua   sfainat   Ticuuderup 


384 


CANADA,  1788. 


ot 


(sd  Crown  Point  Seaiching  however  for  the 
means  of  repairing  the  miifortune,  if  not  the 
disgrace,  sustained  by  his  arras,  he  readily  ac- 
ceded to  a  proposition  made  by  colonel  Brad- 
■trcet,  for  an  expedition  against  fort  Fmntignac. 
This  fortress  stands  on  the  nortli  side  of  On- 
tario. .  .  .  Colonel  Bradstreet  embarked  on  the 
Ontario  at  Oswego,  and  on  the  2Sth  of  Auiust, 
landed  within  one  mile  of  the  fort.  In  two  days, 
his  batteries  were  opened  at  so  short  a  distan-."* 
that  almost  every  shell  took  effect ;  and  the  •■ - 
emor,  finding  the  place  absolutely  untcn.  ■•'..:, 
lurrenderctl  at  discretion.  .  .  .  After  destrc  ing 
the  fort  and  vessels,  and  such  xtores  as  coul  m  ( 
be  bmuglit  off,  colonel  Bmdstri'et  return*  '  to 
the  army  which  undertook  nothing  fartherdu  "  -i 
the  campaign.  The  demolition  of  fort  Frontig 
nac  and  of  the  stores  which  had  been  collects 
there,  contributed  materially  tu  the  success  of 
the  expedition  against  fort  Du  Qutfsnc.  The 
conduct  of  this  enterprise  had  Xxxn  entrusted  to 
general  Forbes,  who  marched  from  Philadelphia, 
about  the  beginning  of  July,  at  the  head  of  the 
main  boily  of  the  army,  destined  for  this  service, 
In  order  to  join  colonel  Bouquet  at  Rayatown. 
go  much  time  was  employe*!  in  preparing  to 
move  from  this  place,  that  the  Virginia  regulara, 
commanded  by  colonel  AVaahington,  were  not 
ordered  to  join  the  British  troops  until  the  month 
of  September.  .  .  .  Early  in  Octolwr  general 
Forbi's  moved  from  Kaystown ;  but  the  olmtruc- 
tioDS  to  his  march  were  so  ^reat  that  he  did  not 
reach  fort  Du  QuCsne  until  late  in  November. 
The  garrison,  being  deserte<l  by  the  Indians,  and 
too  weak  to  inaintAln  the  place  aj.iiin8t  the  formid- 
able iimiy  which  was  ajiproaj'liing,  nl-indoned 
the  fiTl  the  evening  tielorc  th<!  arrival  of  the 
Brilisli.  and  escaped  iiown  the  Ohio  in  lH>ats.  The 
English  placed  a  garrison  in  it.  and  changed  its 
Dame  to  l*itliiburg,  in  compliment  to  their  popular 
minister.  The  acquisition  of  this  post  was  of 
great  importance  to  Pennsylvania,  Mnrvland, 
ao'l  Virginia." — J.  Marshall,  Life  of  H'<u/iin;(<>n, 
».  1.  th.  IS. 

A1.W1  n:  W.  C  Bryant  and  S.  H.  Gay,  Pnp. 
Hi't.  oflh  r.  «.  r.  a,  M.  11.— B.  Fernow,  JU 
Ohi.,  Ullryin  Oiioniat  IMm.  rh.  7.— Major  H. 
Hogm,  .Umrnatt,  ed.  hp  llnugh,  pp.  11,V133. — 
W,  Ir\ing.  Life  nf  WtuhimjVm,  e.  1,  rh.  24. — 
N  B.  Craig,  th*  (Men  Time,  t.   1,  pp.  177-200. 

A.  D.  175a  (June— September).— The  Fall  of 
Quebec.— "Wolfe's  name  stood  high  in  the 
eslei  ni  ot  all  who  were  qualified  to  judge,  brt, 
at  the  Mine  lime.  It  stood  low  in  the  column  of 
colonels  In  the  Army  List.  The  great  minister 
|Piil|  ihought  that  the  former  counlvrbulanced 
the  liitlir    .  .  .  One  of  the  last  gazetles  in  the 

J  ear  17."iH  aimounixtl  tlie  promotlim  <>f  Colonel 
ames  Wolfe  to  the  rank  of  majorgeneml,  and 
his  sjipointiiient  to  the  chief  cimimand  of  the 
eipediiion  against  Quebec.  About  the  middle 
of  Krl>nmry,  17.W,  the  squadron  sailed  from 
Enitliuid  to  Ixiuisbourg,  where  the  whole  of  the 
BriliKh  force  destined  for  the  Hlver  8t  Ijiwrence 
wasonlirnd  to  assemble.  .  .  .  Twenty-two  ships 
of  the  line.  Ave  frigates,  and  ninelwii  smaller 
vem.  U  of  war.  with  a  crowd  of  transports,  were 
musund  under  the  orders  of  the  admirul  [8aun- 
dfnj.  ami  ailplachnirnt  nt  artllterT  sod enstseers. 
anil  iin  Imltallima  of  infantry,  with  six  companies 
of  Ksnjers,  formetl  Wolfe's  command;  the  right 
(bnk  roniranles  of  the  three  rrglnwoM  which  still 
fanixiQcU  liBultlwurf  MMM  •(!»  Joioed  tka 

385 


CANADA,  17(». 


army,  and  were  formed  Into  a  corps  called  the 
LouUbourg  Orenadiers.  The  total  of  the  land 
forces  emlwrked  were  somewhat  under  8,000." — 
E.  Warburton,  >.anqu€tt  (^Canada,  e.  2,  eh.  9. — 
"Wolfe,  with  his  8,000  men,  ascended  the  St 
Lawrence  in  the  fleet  in  the  month  of  June. 
With  him  came  Brigadiers  Honckton,  Towns- 
hend  and  Hurray,  youthful  and  brave  like 
'dmself,  and,  like  himself,  already  schooled  to 
.nt;s.  .  The  Orenadiers  of  the  army  were 
aju'ipauuec?  hv  Colonel  Guy  Carleton,  and  part 
of  the  ligl.i  '• .»  itry  by  Lieutenant-Colonel  Wil- 
liam Howe,  h-  <  h  destined  to  celebrity  In  after 
years,  in  :he  1  unals  of  the  American  revolution. 
Colonel  ilorf  was  brother  of  the  gallant  Lord 
^lowi  whoF  .J  fall  in  the  pTeceding  year  was  so 
Kt.ui.:.-'>  li.mented.  Among  the  olBceraof  the 
fleet  was  ^ervis,  the  future  admiral,  and  ulti- 
mately Earl  St  Vincent ;  and  the  master  of  one 
of  the  ships  was  James  Cook,  afterwards  re- 
nowned as  a  discoverer.  About  the  end  of  June, 
the  troops  debarked  on  the  large,  populous,  and 
well-cultivated  Isle  of  Orleans,  a  little  below 
Quebec,  and  encamped  in  Its  fertile  fields. 
Quebec,  Cue  citadel  of  Canada,  was  strong  by 
nature.  It  was  built  round  the  point  of  a  rocky 
promontoi-y,  and  flanked  by  precipices.  ,  .  .  The 
place  waa  tolerably  fortified,  but  art  had  not  yet 
rendered  it,  a<  at  the  present  day,  Impregnable. 
Montcalm  commanded  the  post  His  troops 
were  more  numerous  than  the  assailants:  but 
the  greater  part  of  them  were  Canadians,  many 
of  them  inhabitants  of  Quebec;  and  be  bad  a 
host  of  savages.  His  forces  were  drawn  out 
along  the  northern  shore  below  the  city,  from 
the  River  St.  Charles  to  the  Falls  of  Montmorency, 
and  their  position  was  secured  by  deep  intr»'nch- 
ments.  .  .  .  After  much  resistance,  Wolfe  estab- 
lished batteries  at  the  west  point  of  the  Isle  ot 
Orleans,  and  at  Point  Levi,  on  the  right  (or 
soutli)  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  within  cannon 
range  of  the  city.  .  .  .  Many  houses  were  set  on 
fire  in  the  upper  town,  the  lower  town  was 
reduced  to  rubbish;  the  main  fort,  however, 
remained  unharmed.  Anxious  for  a  decisive 
action,  Wolfe,  on  the  (hh  of  July,  crossed  over 
in  boats  from  the  Isle  of  Orleans  to  the  north 
bank  of  the  8t.  Lawrence,  and  encamped  below 
the  Montmorency.  It  was  an  ill- judgeil  position. 
.  .  .  On  the  18th  of  July,  Wolfe  made  a  recon- 
nolterlng  expedition  up  the  river,  with  two 
armed  sloops,  and  two  transports  with  troops. 
He  passed  Quebec  unharmed  and  carefully 
notea  the  shores  aliove  it  Rugged  clifls  rose 
almost  from  the  water's  edge.  ...  He  returned 
to  Montmorency  disappointed,  and  resolved  to 
attack  Montrairo  in  his  camp,  however  dlHIcult 
to  be  approached,  and  however  strongly  posted. 
Townshend  and  Murray,  with  their  brigades, 
were  to  cross  the  Montmorvncy  at  low  tide, 
below  the  falls,  and  storm  the  miouht  thrown  up 
In  trmit  of  tlie  fimi.  Moiicktim.  at  the  same  time, 
was  to  cross,  with  part  of  his  brigade  in  boau 
from  Point  Levi.  ...  As  usual  In  compliealed 
orders,  part  were  mlsundentood.  or  neglected, 
and  confusion  was  the  consequence.'  The 
assault  waa  repellnl  and  Wolfe  fell  back  across 
the  river,  having  lost  four  hundred  men,  with 
two  vessels,  which  ran  azroued  and  were  burned- 
lie  felt  the  failure  deeply,  and  his  chagrin  waa 
increased  by  news  of  the  suooesMs  of  bis  coadju- 
tors at  Ticimderoga  and  Niagara.  "The  dfffl. 
cultlsa  multiplylag  wouad  bim,  and  tba  delajr  of 


f 


CAKADA,  17S0. 


Qmen.\  Ambent  in  hMtening  to  hia  aid,  preyed 
incewantly  on  bis  iplrits.  ...  The  agitatlcn  of 
bU  mind,  and  his  acute  sensibility,  brought  on  a 
rejer,  which  for  some  time  incapacitated  him 
ftom  taking  the  field.     In  the  midst  of  hU  illness 
be  called  a  council  of  war,  in  which  the  whole 
plan  of  operations  was  altered.    It  was  deter- 
mined to  courtj  troops  aboye  the  town,  and 
endeayor  to  make  a  diyersion  in  that  direction, 
or  draw  Montcalm  into  the  open  field.  .  .  .  The 
brief  Canadian  summer  was  oyer;  they  were  in 
the  month  of  September.    The  camp  at  Mont- 
morency was   broken  up.      The   troops   were 
transported  to  Point  Levi,  leaying  a  sufficient 
number  to  man  the    batteries  on  the   Isle  of 
Orleans.    On  the  5th  and  6th  of  September  tbe 
embarkation  took   place  aboye  Point  Leyi    in 
tran.sporU  which  had    been  sent  for  the  pur- 
P<»e^    Montcalm  detached  De  Bougalnyille  with 
1,500  men  to  keep  along  the  nortK  shore  aboye 
the  town,  watch  the  movements  of  the  squadron 
and  prevent  a  landing.    To  deceive  him.  Admiral 
Holmes  moved  with  the  ships  of   war   three 
leagues  beyond  the  place  where  the  landing  was 
to  be  attempted.    He  was  to  drop  down,  how- 
ever, in  the  night,  and  protect  'He  landing 
The  descent  was  made  In  flat-bottomed  boau" 
past  midnight,  on  tbe  18th  of  September     Thev 
dropped  down  silently,  with  the  swift  current 
Qui  va  la  f '  (who  goes  there  t)  cried  a  sentinel 
from  the  Bhore.     '  La  France,'  replied  a  capUIn 
In  the  first  boat,  who  understood  the  French 
language.     •  A  ouel  regiment  T '  was  the  demand. 
I)e  Is  Heine    (llie  queen  s)  replied  the  captain, 
knowing  that  regiment  was  In  De  Bougainville's 
detichment.    Fortunately,  aeonvoy  of  provisions 
was  einected    down   fn)m    De  Bougainville's 
which  the  sentinel  supposed  this  to  lie.     •  Paaw  ' 
CTleji  he.  and  the  boats  glided  on  without  furtlu'r 
challenge      The  landing  t<H)k  place  in  a  ove 
near  Cape  Diamond,    which  still  bears  Wolfe's 
name.     He  had  marked  it  In  reconnoltering,  and 
S^.K     .."i  ?.'»«»?1  .?»">  "ragKl'd  up  from  it 
to  the  Il.igbts  of  Abraham,  which  might  be 
climl...;    though    with   difficulty,   and   that   it 
appeared  to  lie  slightly  guarded  at  top.     Wolfe 
was  among  the  first  tluit  landed  and  ascended  up 
the  sleep  and  narrow  path,  where  not  more  than 
two   could   go    abreast,   and    which  had  been 
broken  up  by  crass  ditches.    Colonel  Howe  at 
the  same  lime,  with  the  light  Infantry  and  Hlirh- 
Und-n,   s<-rambled   up   the  woody  preclpia* 
helnmg  themselves  by  the  rooU  and  branches 
and  putting  to  flight  a  sergeant's  guard  posted 
at   he  summit     Wolfe  drew  up  the  men  liorder 
as  they  mounte.1 ;  and  bv  the  break  of  day  found 
hlmstjf  in  possession  of  the  fateful   Plains  of 
Aliraham.     Montcalm  was  thumlerstruck  when 
woM  was  brought  to  him  In  bis  camp  that  the 
English   were   on   the   helgbu  threaUmlng  the 
weakest  part   of    the  town.      Abaii.lonini  his 
inmmhmenU,  be  ha*t«no<l  across  the  river  8t 
Charles  and  aaccmled  the  heights,  which  slope  up 
gnuiusllv  from  iu  banks     TlU  force  was  equal 
in  numlwr  to  that  of  th..  English,  but  a  great 
part  was  ma<ie  up  of  colony  trooM  and  savaites 
When  he  saw  tlie  formidable  host  of  regulars  bo 
hail  to  <ouU-,id  with,  he  s.nt off  swift  mSMengeri 


I>tatk<if 

wov*: 


CANADA,  im. 


memorable  battle  which  ensued,  Wolfe  »l,n  i-j 
the  English  line,  received,  first,' aluskerw;'?^ 
Ws  wrist,  and  soon  afterward  was  struck  bv. 
second  in  the  breast.  He  was  borne  morSlJ 
wounded  to  the  rear,  and  lived  just  long  ,.„3 
to  hear  a  cry  from  those  around  him  tb.uT 
enemy  ran.     Giving  a  quick  order  f..r  \\\w, 

Ri»er  bridge  and  there  obstruct  tlio  French 
^il??''  ^'  ^"™*^  "P""  '"'»  »''le,  saving  •■  Now 
God  be  praised,  I  will  die  in  peace,'' a,u„S 
In  the  meantime  the  French  c<m,man,l,.r  W 
<»lm  had  received  hU  death-wound.  X. 
striving  to  rally  his  flying  tr«op,.  Th,.  virtoi 
of  the  English  was  complete,  and  they  h^S 
to  fortify  their  position  on  the  Plains  of  .U  rS 
preparing  to  attack  the  citadel.  But,  M.,  ,i2 
aying  of  his  wound  the  following  niominrn" 
furUicr  defence  of  the  place  was  undortakon  It 
was  surrendered  on  the  17th  of  Sepu.mbiT  t..  Gen- 
eral Tow-nshend,  who  had  succeedt^d  to  il,e  com. 
mand.-W.  Irving,  l(feofWa,Mngton.  ,.  l  mm 

^-23-— Lord^  Malion   (Earl  Stanhope), 


\i-'. 


— ,""" "' "^  "KMi  Bwiii  meiaenffers 

tosiimmnn  De  Houirsinville  with  hi,dctachiSent 
to  his  aid;  an<l  IK,  Vaiidreil  to  reinforce  him  with 
i.v..!  nist-,  frrrfi,  -trcainp.     in  the  [ii.-ituiliiie  be 

P"!!!*^''  "'  "'"b  ""■  '""  "'  "">  English  line  and 
rorcc  tbem  to  the  opposite  prsdploM."    In  the 


Ena  1713-1-783:  mTV  U'iy-^rSmA'l 
of  Canada,  t.  \,  eh.  t.S.  Knox,  mioricalj Jr. 
nal  T.  1,  pp.  2J.va80;  e.  3,  pp.  l-Vi> 

Vi.U°'   '•?"  <J««ly-Ang:u.t).-The    fall  of 
Nugara,   Ticonderon  and   Crown  Point - 
For  the  campaign  o7  175«  the  Briii>l,  i'„rlia. 
mentvotejl  liberal  supplies  of  men  and  monov 
ana  the  American  colonies,  encouniijinl  hv  the 
successes  of  the  preceding  year,  raiscllaw  num- 
bers of  troops.   Amherst 8Ui)ersedtKi  .Vlkrcmmbie 
as  commander  In-chief     "The  pl.in  for  tlie  year 
emlimccKi  thri-cextMHiitlons;  Fort  Xi„g„m  wksto 
be  attacked  by  Pri.ieaux,  asslsU^I  by  Sir  William 
Johnson ;  Amheret  was  to  march  his  f,>n  <■  ssaiurt 
Tlcondiniga  and  Crown  Point;  and  Ou,  Nt  wu 
to  Ix-  assailed  by  an  army  under  Wolf,-  hh.I  a  tim 
un.,  r  Saunders.     I'ridoam  and  AmhciM    afltr 
th.      ipturt  of  the  forU,  were  to  dewriul  the  Sl 
Lawrence, take  Montreal,  and  join  th..  anny  \w!on 
VJuehec.  .  .  .  Vaudreull,  the  Ooveni.ir,  liavinir 
received  warning  from  France  of  the  iuleiiti„ns  of 
the  English,  sent  a  small  force  to  Xia^'ara  under 
the  entfiniH!r  Poucbot,  not  exiiecling  to  be  abl« 
to  hold  the  post,  and  not  wishing  to  sacriflcs 
many  men,  or  to  spare  tlie  troops  fnim  the  more 
Important polnU.    Poucbot repaln-d tlietbf. pci* 
and  when  the  alarm  was  given  thai  the  l.-i  'lish 
were  near,   sent   for  men   from    \'ti-».in    Uk 
Venango,  and  Di-troU.    Prideaux,  in  e..nun.ni,l  of 
two   British    retflmrnU,  a    battalbm  .,f    ll,v»l 
Americans,  two  liatullons  from  .New  York  and 
a  train  of  artillery,  was  jolne.1  bv  John-  ui  iviili 
a  detachment  of    Indians.     They   \hxmi  ilieir 
march  from  8<lienertaily  on  tlie'SOili  ..f  .Mar, 
and,  after  a  difficult  journey,  n-arhed  o-wpiio. 
where  a  detachment  under 'Coloml  llr  iuianJ 
was  left  U>  take  jMmseaalou  and  fnnn  a  |. -i  and 
the  remainder  of  the  forces  einlrarl,e.l  ..ii  Uke 
Ontario,  and  on  the  1st  of  July  laml.tl  wiiliout 
opfkisitliiu  aUiutsix  miles  east  (.f  tlii.  nicuihof 
the  Niagara.   .  ,  .   Prideaux  liegan  his  mmtin 
on  the  loth,  and  im  the  llth  a  sallv  wa*  in*l« 
fp<m  the  fort ;  but  the  Enxlista  plaoHl  ib,  in*  Ives 
iu  line  of  liattle,  and  the  Pri'mli  wire oblu-nl  t.) 
retire.     l*rideaux    wu    •ii<iti)||v  ailt-gii.ih;  ii)a 
work  .  .  .   when,  on  ibe  IWh.  tin  was  kiilnl  br 
the  bunting  of  a  shell  from  a  Coehorn  iii^mr  In 
oos  of  (he  trsDcbea,  wbarv  be  bad  gone  to  iisus 


386 


CANADA.  17M. 


n<  JVtndk 
aurnndmr. 


CANADA,  1780. 


Olden.  Amhent  appointed  Qeneml  Oage  to 
■ucceed  him,  but  before  tlie  arrival  of  Oage  tlie 
command  devolved  upon  Qeneral  Johnaon,  who 
carried  on  the  siege  according  t  '  the  plana  of 
Prideaux."  On  the  34th  a  consii  rable  force  of 
French  and  Indians,  about  1,600  trong,  sent  to 
tlie  relief  of  tlie  beleaguered  fort,  waa  inter- 
cepted and  routed,  most  of  the  French  officers 
and  men  Iwing  slain  or  captured.  This  took  from 
Poucli<)t  his  last  hope,  and  he  surrendered  the 
fuUawtni;  day.  "  As  the  stations  tieyond  Niagani 
were  unw  completely  cut  off  from  communica- 
tion with  the  east,  and  had  given  up  a  Urge  part 
of  ihi'ir  men  to  join  D'Aubry  [in  the  attempt  to 
relieve  Niagara],  they  were  no  longer  capable  of 
resistance.  Presqu'  Isle,  Venango,  and  Le  BcEuf 
were  easily  taken  by  Colonel  Bouquet,  who  had 
been  sent  to  summon  them  to  surrender. "  The 
detachment  left  at  Oswego,  in  charge  of  stores, 
was  attacked  by  a  body  of  French  and  Indians 
from  La  Presentation  (Ogdensburg),  but  the  at- 
tack fnilcd.  "  For  the  reduction  of  the  forts  at 
TiconcliToga  and  Crown  Point,  Amherst  lukd 
iuraewli.'it  more  than  11,000  men.  He  began 
preparations  early  in  May  at  Albany,  preparing 
Dosts,  gathering  stores,  and  dittciplining  the  new 
recruits. "  In  June  he  readied  Lake  George  with 
his  army,  but  it  was  not  until  late  in  July  that 
"  the  uriny  moved  down  the  lake  in  four  columns, 
in  a  fleet  of  whale-boats,  bateaux,  and  artillery 
rafts,  viry  much  as  Abercroniby's  men  liad  gone 
to  tlieir  defeat  the  year  Ixfore,  and  left  the  U)ats 
nearly  opposite  the  former  landing-place,  Tiie 
vungu^iril,  pushing  on  rapidly  over  tlie  rood  to 
tlie  falls,  met  a  detachment  of  French  and  In- 
dians, whom  they  overpowered  and  scattenil 
after  a  slight  skirmish,  and  the  main  btxly 
pressed  on  au<l  took  a  position  at  the  saw  mills. 
Friim  prisoners  it  was  learned  that  liourlnmaquu 
commanded  at  TIconderoga  with  8,400  men. 
Montculm  was  at  Quebec.  The  French  witli- 
drew  fnim  their  outer  lines  Into  the  fort,  and 

made  a  sliow  of  resistance  for  several  da- lile 

they  evacuated  the  place.    An  explosi  " 

the  nli;lit  of  the  2.*ith  of  July,  "and  tl 
the  burning  works,  assured  the  Engli 
reti^stof  the  Flench,  of  which  they  bau 
heari  from  a  deserter,  and  Colonel  Ilavlla  .  puf- 
■ued  them  down  the  lake  with  a  few  troops,  and 
look  siiteen  prisoners  and  some  l>i>au  laden  with 
powdrf.  .  .  .  AftertheHames«.recxtlngulahcil, 
AmhiTsI,  who  had  I'Mt  about  73  men,  went  to 
work  to  repair  the  fortiacations  and  complete  the 
rmil  from  the  lake.  8<>me  sunken  French  boats 
Win-  ralwl.  and  a  brig  was  buili.  Amherst  was 
ilowlv  prc(iariiig  to  attack  Crown  I>oint,  ami 
sent  llouerswilh  his  rsngrrsto  reconnoitre.  But 
on  the  Urst  of  August  they  learned  that  the 
rnmh  lia<t aliandoned  that  fijrtalso:  and  on  the 
lUtli  that  Ilourlaiiiai)ue's  men  were  ercamosd  on 
the  Me  aux  Nolx,  at  the  northern  extremitv  of 
Lake  I'Immplain,  comiiiaiiillrg  the  entrance  to 
the  Itii  h.lifu.  They  had  lieen  Joined  by  some 
•mall  •|.(m  limenta,  and  numtx'ri'd  alwut  8.500 
men.  AitiliersI  spent  his  time  in  fortifying  Crown 
Point,  ami  ImiMiug  boaU  and  rafts,"  until  "It 
Was  too  l.ii,.  to  deM'enil  U)  .Montreal  anil  go  to  the 
help  of  \\,,|f|.;  the  time  for  that  bail  been  passed 
111  elslHirate  and  useless  pn'|>ar>tionB."— R  John- 
r-it.  Ir.-^.  r,j  thi  h.mJi   War.  oA.   18. 

AisiiiM;  F..  Warhurton,  OmmtMt  of  dtnada,  t. 
2  M  l»-_W    L.  Huine,  Lif,  and  JYium  ^  Sr 


A.  D.  1760.— The  completion  of  the  EiufUtk 
conquest.— The  end  of"  New  France."— "Not- 
withstanding the  successes  of  1759,  Canada  waa 
not  yet  completely  conquered.    If  Amherst  had 
moved  on  faster  and  taken  Montreal,  the  work 
would  have  been  finished ;  but  his  failure  to  do 
80  gave  the  French  forces  an  opportunity  to 
rally,  and  the  indefatigable  De  Levis,  who  had 
succeeded  Montcalm,  gathered  what  remained  of 
the  army  at  Montreal,   and  made  preparations 
for   attempting  the  recovery  of  Quebec.  .  .  . 
After  several  fruitless  attacks  had  been  made  on 
the  British  outposts  during  the  winter,  De  Levis 
refitted  all  the  vessels  yet  remaining  early  in  the 
spring  and  gathered  the  stores  still  left  at  the 
forts  on  the  lUchclieu.    On  the  17th  of  April,  he 
left  Montreal  with  all  his  force  and  descended 
the  river,  gathering  up  the  detached  troops  on 
the  way;  the  whole  amounting  to  more   than 
10,000  men.    Quebec  had  been  left  in  charge  of 
Murray,  with  7,000  men,  a  supply  of  heavy  ar- 
tillery, and  stores  of  ammunition  and  provisions; 
but  the  number  of  men  had  been  much  reduced 
by  sickness  and  by  hardship    encounte'cd    in 
1   bringing  fuel  to  the  city  from  forests,  some  as 
I   far  as  ten  miles  away.    Their  position,  however, 
j   had  been  very  mucii  strengthened.  .  .  .  De  Levis 
encamped  at  St.  Foy,  and  on  the  27th  advanced 
to  within  three  miles  of  the  city."— R.  Johnson, 
I   Hint,  of  thi  French  M'ar.  eh.  21.— "On  the  2«th 
I  of  April,  Murray,  marching  out  from  the  citv, 
left  the  advantageous  ground   which    he    first 
!  occupied,  and  hazariled  an  attack  near  Sillery 
Wood.  The  ndvanoe-guard,  under  Uoiirlamaque, 
^   rctuincd  it  with  ardor     In  danger  of  In-iiig  sur- 
rounded, Murray  was  obligeil  to  lly,  leaving  '  his 
!    very  fine  trainof  artillery,  and  losing  1,000  men. 
I  The   Fr«'nch  appear  to    have    lost    about   800, 
i   though  Murray's  report  increased  it  more  than 
j  eightfold.      During  the  next   two   days,   Levi 
j   [Levis]  opened  trenches  against  the  town;  but 
!  the  frost  delayed  the  work's     The  English  gar- 
I   rison,  reduced  to  2,200  effective  men,  labored 
i   with  alacrity;  women,  and  even  cripples  were 
!  set  to  light  work.     In  the  French  army,  not  a 
i   word  would  be  listened  to  of  the  possilillity  of 
I   failure.     But  IMtt  had  foreseen  and  prepared  for 
!  all.     A  fleet  at  his  bidding  went  to  relieve  the 
city;  and  to  bis  wife  he  was  able  to  write  In 
!  June:  'Join,  my  love,  with  me.  In  most  hiiiiible 
and  grateful  thanks  to  the  Almighty.     Swaiiton 
j   arrived  at  Quelxc  In  the  VanguanI  on  the  15th 
'  of  May,  and  destroyed  all  the  Fri'iiiii  sliipping, 
six  or  seven  in  numlier,     The  sieire  wis  raisj'd 
on  the   17th,    with  every   liappv   circumstance. 
:  Tlie  enemy  left  their  caiiip  sumling:  abandoned 
40  piece!  of  cannon.     Hajipy,  happy  day  I    My 
I  Joy  and  hurry  are  ineipn^ible.       When  the 
,  spring  openea,  .\mherst   had  no  dildciilllKa  to 
:  encounter  In  taking  pos.si'ssii>n  of  Canada  but 
I   such  as  he  himself  sliould  create.     A   country 
suffering  from  a  four   yean'  scarcity,   a    dis- 
heartened peasantry,  five  orsix  battailous, wasted 
I  by  Incrediljlc  services  and  not  recruited  from 
I   France,  offered  no  op|x>sltion.     .\mherst  led  the 
;   main  army  of  10.(K)0  men  by  way  of  Oswego; 
'  though  the  laNir  of  getting  there  was  greater 
^   than  that  of  nroceeiling  directly  uiMin  .Montreal. 
i   He  desrended  the  St.  Lawn-nre  cautiously,  fak- 
ing  piMM-asioii  of  the  feeiiie  works  at  t'gdens- 
burg.      Treating  the  helples*   Canaillans  with 
humanity,  and  with  no  loss  of  lives  except  In 
paasiuK  the  niplda,  on  the  7th  of  September,  17flU, 


387 


CANADA,  nao. 


lU 


I  Qmtw 


CANADA,  17»-m4. 


he  met  before  Montreal  the  amy  of  Murmy. 
The  next  day  Haviland  arrived  with  forces  irom 
Crown  Point;  and,   in  the  view  of   the    tiree 
armies    the  flag  of  St  George  was  raisod  In 
triumph  over  the  gate  of  Montreal.  ...    The 
capitulation  [.signed  by  the  Marquis  deVaiMreuil 
governor  against  Uic  protest  of  U.i»j  included 
all  Canada,  which  was  said  to  eitend  to  the  crest 
of  land  dividing  branches  of  Lakes  Erie  and 
J  1  *^'"i,(™"'  "'"^  "'  ""«  Miami,  the  Wabash 
Si.       '.'T'1  ^l""-     Pnyerty  and  religioi 
were  cared  for  In  the  terms  of  surrender;  but  for 
civil  liberty  no  stipulation  was  thought  of 
On  the  fifth  day  after  the  capltuUtlon,  Romrs 
departed  with  2i)o  rangers  to  ciny  English  6^ 
nersto  the  upper  posts.  .  .  .  -nie  iSdians  on 
the  lak.a  were  at  peace,  united  under  PontUM;, 
the  great  chief  of  the  Ottawas,   happy  In    a 
country  fruitful  of  com  and  abounding  In  game. 
The  Americans  were  met  at  the  mouth  of  a  river 
by  a  deputation  of  Ottowas.   •  PonUac,'  said  they 
IS  the  chief  and  lord  of  the  country  you  are  In- 
wait  till  he  can  see  you.'    When  Pontlac  and 
Kogers  met,  the  savage  chieftain  asked:  'How 
have  you  dared  to  enter  my  country  without  mv 

■  til        \  ?'"*'•■  '?P""'  "'^   £"«"»»»  agent, 
with  no  design  against  the  Indians,  but  Ut  re- 
move the  French.  •^'    Pontiac,  after  some  delay, 
smoked  the  calumet  with  Itogers  and  consented 
to  his  mission.    The  latter  then  proceeded  to 
take  possession  of  Detroit.     In  the  following 
spring  ho  went  on  to  the  French  posu  in  the 
noithwest-0.    Bancroft.    /fi,t.    oftht    U   8. 
{Author  M  Uut  rention).  r.  2,  pn  522-534. 
.J"}^  '.?•  W.  Smith,  nut.  of  Canada,  1. 1,  M.  7 
(giving  the  Articles  of  Capitulation  In  full)  — P 
l-arkman,  .Vonlnilm  and  Wolfe,  eh  59-80  (c  2) 
-r,^-  P-  ,'Z'3.-Cede<l   to    En    and    by   the 
Treaty  cf  ^aris.    See  Seveji  \  bars  Wxk. 
,ri;»5i'  '''*|-'774— The  ProTince  of  Quebec 
Oh      a       7°  '""  "*'  military  nileT-The 


Quebec  Act  of  W^.-E.tension  of  QuebSI 
ProTince  to  the  6Woand  the  MitaJtJfppi!!: 

/  V":?  J'''*"  "f'^'f  »li«  conquest,  the  govem- 
nient  of  taniula  was  entrusted  to  military  chiefs 
•tatlon«  at  (Juebec.  Montn-al  and  Three  Rivera 
the  "^eadquartersof  thethn'c  departments  Inui 
whlcu  General  Amherst  di  decf  the  coun'-y 
Military  councils  were  esUbllshed  to  adminisUT 

^  :..  k"","','  "?"'t'  ""=  I^P'**!'-!  not  resort 
to  such  tribunaU,  but  settled  their  difflcultics 
among  ,l„.ms..lvea  In  1783.  the  king.  O^rgo 
III.,  Isauwi  a  proclamation  esubllshlng  four  new 
governments,  of  which  Quebec  wu  Soe.  Lab- 
rador, fnini  8t.  John's  River  to  Hudson's  Bav 
Antlco.ll,  and  the  Magdalen  Islands,  were  place,! 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  NVwf.mndland  aiil  the 
Island,  of  &t,  John  (or  Prince  Edward  liCd  „ 
U  was  afterward,  called),  and  Cape  Breton  (ile 
Royale  with  tlie  smaller  islan.l.  ..Ijacent  tl,er..u' 
were  added  to  the  government  of  Nova  Soolla' 

.h!LT.f  P"""  ^"^  «''■'■"  ^  "'"  8'>''emors,  In 
the  l.t ten.  patent  by  which  these  govcmmenU 
were  .•..,«titut«l,  to  summon  general  ««emhli", 
with  iJio  advice  and  cmw'nt  of  His  Majostv's 
Council,  n  such  manner  and  form  a*  was  usial 
n  tlH«,.».l,,nies8n.l  provimc.  which  were  under 
the  King  .  imnicliate  government'.  .  .  No  as- 
,«^  £■  '"'"•"•'f-  o""  ""•t.  a.  the  FrenchUana- 
dlao  popuIaUnn  were  unwilHng  Ix.  take  Hje  t^jt 

^iSj""*  "T  ,»<'r«™ment  of  the  province  was 
OMTled  on  solily  by  the  governor  general,  with 
tbo  aMiitaoce  of  an  execuUve  oouna,  ocapoMd 


388 


In  the  first  instance  of  the  tw-  lieutenant  «.. 

i^h/*V.."'*  surveyor  general  of  custom,  .^j 
eight  others  chosen  from  the  leading  re,i,  , V  b 

^n-«!^^av!^'-uS,S'^t!''S;'£ 

p'^'tX-w^^  ""'"^iie-'ri  ii 

cWion  of  1763.  In  1774,  PariUment  fn  "rveS 
for  the  first  time  ■ .  Oanadlan  affaln.  ,.mi  „  . 
Importontconstitu.:.nal7han^  T^e'  Ivr'' 
constitution  had  been  creatSHy  IXZ^Z 
under  the  great  ««1  of  Qtf^i  Britain,  in  tl  Hi 
^l^i;?.K'"JV""°°"S,«'"«l  "nJisp-iUd  pre. 
of  the  old    possessions  of   Great  Britain    now 

XT.r/h'"'  ''°"*^  ^'•'«""  America,  had  thej 
origin  In  the  same  way.  But  In  J774  a  svS 
of  government  was  granted  to  Canada  liV  thS 
express  authority  of  Parilament  This  eon^titu 
tlon  was  known  as  the  Quebec  Act,  and  giSuv 
extended  the   boundaries  of   the    pTvi^^i? 

8n'„^'.f ''V'?"'^'''  "■"  P'oclamatFon  ,!  7:m 
On  one  ride,  the  province  extended  to  tl,e  (ma- 
tier,  of  New  England,  Pennsylvania  New  York 
prpvU.ce,  the  ollo,  and   the  left  bankT.f  tfe 

Territory  Labrador,  and  the  Islands  ann.x,5w 
Newfoundland  by  the  proclamation  of  ITti)  were 
^^f^ti,!'*  "•*  Pro'flnce  of  QueW-c.  The 

Act  of  1774  was  excee<lingly  unpopul«  i,  E„i 
^i^t '"  "'°  English-syaking  Llcni'  ,  Thfo 
at  the  commencement  of  tlie  Revoluti.m     Pa, 

hJ°lf  °H«.'~  ?"•  5PP<«"  *"  '""'e  been  int)u,.nced 
by  a  derire  to  adjust  the  gov  .rnm.nt  of  the 
provtace  so  as  to  concilUte  tSe  majori?  ■ ::;  ,"'e' 
F^P .  A  •  ■.  ^"^  "ew  eoustitutiim  ciimi.  into 
;«"*'"  O't^h*'.  j"4.  The  Act  sets  forth  amu„g 
U^e  reasons  for   legUlation  that  the   pr„vi,S 

nH™hX"'f^P'^'"™«"™'"  "88  wire    i„,^ 
pi  cable  to  the  state  and  cireumstanivs  ,if  the 
said  province,  the  inhabitanU  where„f  »„,„uuted 
?l..nl?h"''T''   «°  «'«ve  65,000  |H.r».nu  pro- 
feaaing  the  religion  of  the  Church  of  R.,,,,,,  ^^i 
enjoying  an  ostablishe.!  form  of  constltiilinn  and 
!S^r?'J"*''  ''y  "hieh  their  persons  «m,I  |m)p. 
erty  had  been  protect^l  jpjvernci.  «„d  „r.|,r^ 
for  a  long  series  of  years,  from  tlie  tlrst  eslalilUh- 
Ti,^?l  .  »P'^'^''"^'    Cons<-qii..ntlv,  it  is  pro- 
.lu*!..^' ."?'™'?  ^^'"•'olirs  should  b..  no  Innjer 
.    fi^*"  take  the  tost  mth,  but  onlv  the  oath 
of  allegUnce.    The  government  of  the  province 
was  entrusted  to  a  governor  an<l  .  legislative 
roundl    appointed  by  the  Crown,  i.iasmuch  u 
11  '"•""Mlent  to  call  in  asseinhlv  '    This 
council  was  to  compriM  not  more  tliaii"  iwetily- 
three  and  not  leas  than  ievcnt«'cn  iiienilx  r<  sod 
hail  the  power,  with  the  conwnt  of  the  m.v.mor 
or  commander-in-chief  for  the  time  Uing.  i,,  make 
oMlnance.    for   the    peace,    welfan.,   aiul  good 
g-vemmenl  of  the  province.     They  h  .,i  no  su- 
lh.irity,  however,  to  lay  on  any  tales  or  .iutlet 
"o  ?J"  '"?\"  "">  InhabltanU  ol  anv  town  or 
district  might  be  authoriie<l  w  asse;^  or  levv 
within  lu  proclncu  for  roads  and  or-liimrv  locsl 
servloea.    No  ordinance  could  lie  (laMiit  Ijcepi 
by  a  majority  of  the  council,  and  everv  .'mi.  IH 
to  t«  irmiaiiii i  i„i  within  six  month* afle'r  lueimrt- 
ment  to  His  Majesty  for  approval  or  .lisallow. 
ance.    It  was  also  enacted  that  In  all  matteni  of 
controTeny,  relatlre  lo  property  and  civil  tight., 


lii 


L^ 


CANADA,  1788-1T74. 


Amitriea» 
ImvailOK. 


CANADA,  1775-1776. 


ncoune  ihoulu  be  bad  to  the  French  dvil  pro- 
cedure, whilst  the  criminal  law  of  England  should 
obtain  to  the  exclusion  of  eTerv  other  criminal 
code  which  might  have  prevailed  before  1764. 
.  .  .  Roman  Catholics  were  permitted  to  observe 
their  religion  with  perfect  freedom,  and  their 
clergy  were  to  enjoy  their  '  accustomed  dues  and 
rigbu'  with  respect  to  such  persons  as  profesred 
that  creed.  Consequently,  the  Roman  Catholic 
population  of  Canada  were  relieved  of  tlieir  (Us- 
abilities many  years  before  people  of  the  same 
belirf  in  Orrat  Britain  and  Ireland  received 
iimilar  privileges.  The  new  constitution  was 
inauguratcdby  Major  Oeneral  Carleton,  after- 
wards I,ord  Lorchester,  who  nominated  a  legts- 
e  council  of  twenty-three  members,  of  whom 
t.Lu.  were  Roman  Catholics."— J.  O.  Bourinot, 
Manuiil  of  Oaiut.  Jliit.  of  Canada,  eh.  3-3. 
Also  m:    W.  Houston,  DoeumenU  lUuttratite 

(ff  the  Canadian  Conttitution,  pp.  90-96 See 

also,  Unitkd  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1774  (March 
— Apbil). 

A.  D.  1775-1776-— loTuioa  by  the  rcToitinr 
American  colooiits.— Lois  and  recoTeir  01 
Montreal.— Succeiaful  defence  of  Quebec— 
At  tuo  beginning  of  the  revolt  of  the  thirteen 
colonies  which  subseoucntly  formed,  by  their 
separation  from  Great  Britain,  the  United  States 
of  America,  it  was  believed  among  them  that 
Canada  would  join  their  movement  if  the  British 
troops  which  occupied  the  country  were  driven 
out.  Acting  on  tliis  belief,  the  Continentil  Con- 
gress at  Philadelphia,  In  June,  1775.  adoptc<l  a 
rcsolutiim  instructing  Urncml  Schuyler  to  n-pair 
without  delay  to  Ticonderoga  (which  had  been 
jurprisi'd  and  taken  a  few  weeks  l)oforc  by  Ethan 
Allen  and  his  "  Orcen  Mountain  Buys  "),  and  "If 
he  found  it  practicable,  and  it  would  not  be  dis- 
agntalile  to  the  Canadians,  immediately  to  take 
pos3cs.sion  of  St.  Jiihn's  and  Montreal,  and  pursue 
any  otlicr  mea.«Hn>s  in  Canada  which  might  have 
a  U'mleniy  Id  promote  the  peace  and  8<'curity  of 
these  col.inies."  Oeneral  Schuyler  founcl  it 
dilHcult  to  gather  tnxips  and  supplies  for  the 
projiiled  expedition,  and  it  was  the  middle  of 
August  iK'fore  he  was  prepared  to  move.  Ilia 
chief  »iil>ordlnate  ollirerwas  Oen.  Ricliard  Mont- 
(toiiKTv,  an  Irishman,  formerly  in  the  British 
8.rvur,  liut  wttled  latterly  in  New  York ■   and 


he  was  1,1  lie  »iippi)rted  bv  a  cooiiemtiVo  i'nm"e 
"    le<l    by   Ik>ne<llct    Arnold 


ment    planned    aiid 

tHiHial  .Montiroiiiery,  with  3,(X)0  men.  would 
go  down  I,:ike  Clmmiduin  and  attjick  Montreal- 
while  (iimml  Ariiohl.  with  1,300,  was  to  seek 
the  hemlWHters  of  Kennebec  Hiver,  cross  the 
heijtlit  of  laud,  ami  dtiwx'nd  the  Chaudicre  to  tho 
very  gates  of  l^udiec.  The  brave  Ch'n.'ral 
tarlei.in.  who  Imd  lK.<.n  with  Wolfe  at  Quetiec 
was  How  ill  coimuaiid  of  the  forces  of  Canada  — 
If  Hio  Ilntish  regulars  and  a  few  hundrtnl  militia 
mlghi  Ik  »o  ilenoiiiiiiated.  No  doubt  Oovcmor 
(.arliMu  with  his  small  army  undertook  too 
murh  lli».uglit  to  defend  the  wav  to  Montreal 
by  ho  ,|,nu'  Korl  St.  John,  and  that  io  (iuclicc  by 
J.  finding'  Clianil.ly.  Both  these  places  fell  be- 
low the  Americans.  General  Montgomery 
puHied  o„  ,|„w„  the  Hivcr  lUchelleu  and  occu- 
r~~''  '^'      j'"'"*'»ff    forcci   across    the    St 

Laws-:;:'    :in;j  .-rfT.nl  'laltmrs  On  ildlfa  >i,lv«    l<> 

pn'Mni  inicriourwi  Ix-twwn  Montreal  and 
(^uehjc  .Montreal,  iiuw  '  ■fenccli«,  was  com- 
pelle.1  to  ,„rr,.n,ler  on  the  itfth  of  November,  and 
u  Brtiish  Vessels  were  jlron  up  to  tile  eoMDy 


It  WM  r»ally  s  dark  hour  for  Canada.  General 
j^arleton  has  been  severely  criticized  for  dividing 
his  fonws.    The  truth  is,  the  attack  was  so  un- 

"lE^.  •  ""*  *°  '°°°  *'*«'  "•«  outbreak  of  the 
rebelUon,  that  no  plan  of  defence  for  Canada 
had  been  Uid.  .  .  .  General  Carleton  escaped 
irora  Montreal,  and,  in  a  boat,  passed  the  Sorel 
batteries  with  muffled  oars  under  cover  of  night 
The  general  had  but  reached  Quebec  in  time. 
The  expedition  of  Arnold  had  already  gamed  the 
Bt.  Lawrence  on  the  side  opposite  the  'Ancient 
Capitol.  The  energy  displayed  by  Arnold's 
men  was  remarkable.  The  Kennebec  b  a  series 
of  rapids.  lu  swift  current  hurrie-  over  dan- 
gerous rocks  at  every  turn.  The  highUnds 
when  reached  consist  of  swamps  and  rocky 
ridges  covered  with  forest.  The  Chaudiere 
proved  worse  than  the  Kennebec,  and  the 
current  being  with  the  boaU,  dashed  them  to 
pieces  on  the  rocks.  Arnold's  men,  on  their  six 
weeks  march,  had  run  short  of  food,  and  were 
impelled  to  eat  the  dogs  which  had  accompanied 
them.  Not  much  more  than  half  of  ^mold's 
army  reached  the  St.  Lawrence.  Arnold's  fores 
crossed  the  St.  Lawrence,  htndcd  at  Wolfe's 
Cove,  and  built  huts  for  themselves  on  the  Plain* 
of  Abraham.     On  the  5th  of   December  Mout- 

fomery  joined  the  Kennebec  men  before  Quebec 
he  united  force  was  of  some  8,000  men  sup- 
ported by  about  a  dozen  light  guns.     Carieton 
had,  for  the  defence  of  Quebec,  only  one  com- 
pany of  regulars  and  a  few  seamen  and  marines 
of  a  sloop  of  war  at  Queliec.     The  popuUritv  of 
the  governor  was  such  that  he  easily  prevailed 
upon  the  citizens,  both  French  and  English   to 
enroll  themselves  In  companies  for  the  defence 
of  their  homea.    He  was  atile  to  count  upon 
about  1,600  bayoneU.     The  defeuces  of  Quebec 
were,  however,  too  strong  for  the  Americans 
On  the  night  of    Dcceinlier  Slst,   a  desoerate 
effort  was  made  to  take  the  citv  by  escalade. 
Four  attacks  were  maile  simiiltaneimsly.     Arnold 
sought  to  enter  hv  the  St.  Charles,  on  the  north 
side  of  Quebec,  and  Jlontgomery  liy  the  t..>uth, 
bt'tween  Cape  Diamond  and  the  St.  I^wreiice. 
Two  feints  were  to  be  matle  on  the  side  towards 
the  Plains  of  Abraham.     The  liopc  of  the  com- 
manders was  to  have  forced  the  gates  from  the 
lower  to  the  upper  town  in  botli  cu.ses.      Arnold 
falletl  to  reach  the  lower  town,  and  in  a  sortie 
the  defenders  cut  off  nearly  the  whole  of  his 
column.     He  escaped  wounded.      Montgomery 
was  killed  at  the  second  entrenchment  of  the 
lower  town,  and  his  triMips  retired  in  confusion. 
The  American  generals  have  been  criticised  by 
experU  for  not  making  their  chief  atUiek  on  the 
wail  facing   on    the   Plains  of   Abraham 
General  Arnold  remaineil  N'fore  Uueliei'.  tiiougb 
his  troops  had    bi-come    reiiuiiHl  to  WK)  men. 
General  Carieton   pursued  a   policy  of    acting 
strictly  on  the  defensive.     If  he  retained  Quebec 
it  would  bo  his  greaU'st  sueivss.     General  Arnold 
sought  to  gain  the  «vin(i8tliy  of   the  French 
Canadian  seigniora  snd  iHHiple.  but  witliout  any 
success.     Three  thousauit  triMips.  however,  came 
to  reinforce  Amolil  early  in  the  vear,  and  4  000 
ow'upled   Montreal.   St.    Johns,  and   Cham'bly. 
Hut  on  the  61I1  of  Mav  relief  came  from  Kng- 
iaud;    men  of  war  anil  trantporta,  with  three 
brigades  of  infantry  besides  artillery,  stores,  and 
an  .nunltloM,     The  ,\inericans  withdrew  to  Sorel. 
''he  British  tniops  followed  them,  and  a  brigade 
encampeu  at  Three  lUvera.    The  Americwu  n- 


889 


CAXADA,  1775-1776. 


IV  nnntfir 


CANADA,  1830-1887. 


H^,^. 


tempted  to  lurpiiae  the  force  at  Three  River-, 
but  were  repulsed  with  heavy  lou.  The  Ameri- 
cans now  fell  back  from  Montreal,  deserted  all 
the  posts  down  to  Lake  Champlain,  and  Oovemor 
Carlcton  had  the  pleasure  of  occupying  Ie'3-aux- 
Noix  as  the  outpost,  leaving  Canada  as  it  had 
been  Ix-fore  the  first  attack  in  the  year  before. " 
— G.  Bryce,  Short  Hitt.  0/  tht  Canadian  P^pU, 
eh.  6,  leet.  8. 

A1.8O  iH:  B.  J.  Lossing,  Life  and  Timet  of 
Philip  Sehuyler.  v.  1,  eh.  lfr-29,  and  v.  3,  eh.  1-4. 
—J.  Sparks,  Life  and  Trr<i») n of  Benedict  ArmtUl, 
eh.  8-5  (Library  of  Am.  Biog.,  v.  8).— J.  Ann- 
strong,  Life  of  Bieharti  Montgomery  (Lib.  of  Am. 
Biog.,  V.  1).— C.  H.  Jones,  Hitt.  of  the  Campaign 
for  the  Conquestof  Canada  in  1776.— J.  J.  Henry, 
AmoUl't  Campaign  against  Quebec. 

A.  D.  1776.— General  Carleton'a  unauc- 
ceaafu!  advance  against  Ticonderora.  See 
United  States  op  Am.  :  A.  I).  1776-1777. 

A.  D.  1777.— Burgorne'a  diaaatroua  inTaaion 
of  New  York.  8«'e  U.nitkd  States  of  Am.  : 
A.  D.  1777  (July— October). 

A.  D  1783.— Settlement  of  bouodariea  in 
the  Treaty  of  Peace  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States.  See  Uniteo  States  or 
Am.  :  A.  D.  1783  (Septembkhi. 

A.  D.  1783-1784.— Influx  of  the  "United 
Empire  Loyaliats"  from  the  United  Statea. 
See  Tories  op  the  American  Revolution. 

A.  D.  1791— .The  Constitutional  Act.— Di- 
Tiaion  of  the  province  into  Upper  and  Lower 
Canada. — "  In  1791  a  bill  was  introduced  by 
Pitt  dividing  the  Province  into  Upper  and  Lower 
Canada,  the  line  of  division  being  so  drawn  as  to 
give  a  grfitt  nuiJDrity  to  the  British  element  in 
Upper  CaiuKlii  unci  a  ureal  majority  to  tlie  French 
settlers  in  I»wer  Canada.  The  measure  was 
strongly  opposed  by  F(ix,  who  urged  that  the 
separation  of  the  English  and  French  inhabitants 
was  most  undesinihle.  .  .  .  The  act  was  passed, 
and  is  known  as  the  Constitutional  Act  of  1791. 
...  In  each  pmvincc  the  legislature  was  to 
consist  if  the  (Sovemor,  a  Legislative  Council 
and  a  I-egislativc  Assembly.  The  Governor  liad 
power  to  give  or  withhold  the  royal  assent  to 
bi'ls  or  to  reserve  them  for  conslderatioM  by  the 
Crown.  He  could  summon,  prorogue,  or  dis- 
aolve  the  lejfislature,  but  was  required  to  con- 
vene the  legLilature  at  least  once  a  year.  The 
Legislative  Council  in  Up|)er  Canada  consisted  of 
not  less  than  7,  and  in  Lower  Canada  of  not  less 
than  15  members,  chosen  by  the  King  for  life  the 
Siieakerlieing  appoint  d  by  theOovemor-Oeneral. 
The  U'gislative  As-scmblv  was  in  counties  elected 
by  VH.  freeholders,  aiicf  in  towns  by  owners  of 
houses  of  £.1  yeiirly  value  and  by  icslifent  inhabit- 
ants paving  i'lO  yearly  rent.  The  number  and 
limits  of  eleetond  distrii'ts  were  fixed  by  the  Gov- 
ernor-tJenenil  Lower  Canada  had  50  members. 
Upper  Canada  18  memt)ers,  assigned  to  tlieir 
respective 'egislalures.  TlienewCunstUutiondid 
not  prove  a  sueeess.  Serious  diftcreuces  arose 
Jietween  the  Legi.slative  Council  and  th-  I  cgislat- 
Ive  Assembly  in  n'gani  to  the  control  of  the 
revenue  and  supplies,  differences  which  were 
aggravated  by  the  conflict  that  ■till  went  on 
between  the  Fr-nch  and  English  races.  .  .  .  The 
dlscimtent  ri-su  twl  in  the  retM>llion  of  18S7-8."— 
J  E.  C'.  Munni.  7"A<  Vonitilutionof  Canmla,  eh.  i. 
Al.rO  IS:  W.  Houston,  Dnci.  lUiittfMite  uf 
Vu  Canadian  Const.,  pp.  118-188.— O.  Brvmoer, 
Btft.  en  Canadian  Archiva,  1880,  i^ip.  B. 


890 


A.  D.  i8i»-i8is.— The  War  of  Great  Britaia 
with  the  United  States.  Bee  United  .States 
OP  Am.  :  A.  D.  1813  (June— October),  to  IS15 
(Jasuart). 

A.  D.  1818. —  Convention  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  relating  to 
Fiaheriea,  etc.  See  Fibiiebies,  North  Amehi- 
can:  a.  D.  1S14-1818. 

A.  D.  1830-1837.— The  Family  Compact.- 
"  The  Family  Compact  manifestly  grew  cmi  of 
the  principles  of  the  U.  E.  Loyalists.  It  wiu  the 
union  of  the  leaders  of  the  loyalists  witli  oihers 
of  kindred  spirit,  to  rule  Upper  Canada,  heedless 
of  the  rights  or  wishes  of  its  people.  We  have 
admired  the  patriotic,  heroic  ami  seiiiiinental 
side  of  U.  E.  loyiilism;  but  plainly,  as  related  to 
civil  government,  its  political  doctrines  and 
pmctices  were  tyrannical.  Its  prominent  mem- 
bers belonged  to  the  class  which  in  the  American 
colonies,  in  the  persons  of  Governors  Hemard 
and  Hutchinson,  and  many  others  of  hij;li  office 
and  standing,  had  plotted  todestmy  the  lilierties 
of  the  people  and  had  hastened  the  American 
revolution.  ...  By  the  years  1818  or  IWO  s 
junto  or  cabal  had  been  formed,  deflnitc  in  its 
alma  and  flrmly  combined  together,  known  ss 
the  Family  Compact,  not  to  its  l)est  leaders 
seeming  an  embodiment  of  scltishnes.s,  but  mther 
set  for  patriotic  defence  and  hallowed  with  the 
name  of  religion. "— G.  Bryce,  ."ih-jrl  lli,t.  „fiU 
Cana^an  People,  eh.  10,  sect.  2.— •Upper 
Canada  .  .  .  luis  long  l)ecn  entirely  goveim-d  by 
a  party  commonly  dcsignaU-d  throufrlumt  the 
Province  as  tlie  'Family  Compact,' a  name  oot 
much  more  appropriate  than  party  desiLMiatious 
usually  are,  inasmuch  as  tlicre  l.s,"in  trutli.  very 
little  of  family  connection  among  the  pirsons 
thus  united.  For  a  long  time  this  hoily  of  men, 
readying  at  times  accessions  to  its  memlKTs.  pos- 
sessed almost  all  the  highest  puMii  oiliies.  by 
means  of  which,  and  of  its  induinee  in  tbe 
Executive  Cotmcil,  It  wielded  all  the  pow.  rs  of 

{[ovemment;  it  maintained  iidluence  in  tbe  liirfs- 
ature  by  means  of  its  predondnnnee  in  tbe  Leg- 
islative Council ;  and  it  disposed  of  a  l,iri,'e  num- 
ber of  petty  post*  which  arc  in  the  patrimniie  of 
the  Government  all  over  the  Province.  Succes- 
sive Governors,  as  they  came  in  their  turn,  iire 
Siiid  to  have  either  submitttHi  (piietly  to  its  inllu- 
ence,  or,  after  a  short  and  unavailini;  siruci;le. 
to  have  yielded  to  this  well  organizcl  luriv  the 
real  conduct  of  affairs.  The  Innch,  the  rMiigis- 
tracy,  the  high  olllces  of  the  Episcopal  (  burrh, 
and  a  great  part  of  the  legal  profession,  nrc  tilled 
bv  the  adherents  of  this  party :  by  gninl  or  pur- 
chase, tliey  have  acnuired  ni  ;irlv  the  wliole  of 
tlie  waste  lands  of  the  PnivincV;  tbiv  ore  all 
powerful  In  the  charu-ml  lianks.  and.  till  bitelv. 
shared  among  themselves  almost  exilusin  iv  all 
oRlcea  of  trust  and  profit.  The  bulk  of  1  bi^  purty 
couslsts,  for  the  most  part,  of  native  Ixirn  inljublt- 
ants  of  the  colony,  or  of  emlgnini.s  h  bo  willed 
In  it  before  the  last  war  with  the  I'niiid  Slates; 
the  principal  members  of  it  btdong  to  llic  cburch 
of  England,  and  the  mainti/iiam e  of  ibc  ilaims 
of  that  church  has  always  been  one  of  in  dis- 
tinguishing characteristics."— Earl  of  Durham, 
Hrpt.  on  the  Affaire  of  Hritith  .V.  Am.  p.  lOV- 
"  The  tnfiuemrs  which  pn>duce<l  ibe  Fimily 
Compact  were  not  contlneil  to  Upix'r  Ciniida. 
lu  the  Lower  Province,  as  well  asin^ovn  .>-nli» 
and  New  Brunswhk,  similar  raUMW  led  tosniillsr 
resulta,  and  the  tenn  Family  Compact  has  at  out 


CANADA.  1880-1887.  ^ 

time  or  auotber  been  a  famtlUr  one  In  all  the 
liritisli  North  American  coloniea.  .  .  .  The  des- 
ignation Family  Compact,  liowever,  did  not  owe 
iw  orisrin  to  any  combination  of  North  American 
colonists,  but  was  borrowed  from  the  diplomatic 
history  of  Europe."— J.  C.  Dent,  The  8tory  of 
tht  V'i'ptr  Canadian  StbelUon,  ch.  8. 

A.  D.  1837.— The  Causes  of  discontent  which 
ptoduced  rebellion.—"  It  was  in  Lower  Canada 
that  the  greatest  difficulties  arose.     A  constant 
antagonism  grew  up  between  the  majority  of 
the  Ipgislative  council,  who  were  nominees  of 
the  Crown,  and  the  majority  of  the  representa- 
tive assembly,  who  were  elected  by  the  popula- 
tion of  the  province  [see  above;  A.  D.  1791]. 
The  home  Government  encouraged  and  indeed 
kept  up  that  most  odious  and  dfangerous  of  all 
instnimenu  for  the  supposed  management  of  a 
colony— a  'British   party'  devoted  to  the  so- 
called  interestsof  the  mother  country,  and  obedi- 
ent to  the  word  of  command  from  their  masters 
and  patrons  at  home.     The  majority  in  the  legis- 
lative council   constantly  thwarted  the  resolu- 
ti,    ■  of  t  he  vast  majority  of  the  popular  assembly. 
Disputes  arose  as  to  the  voting  of  supplies.     The 
Government  retained  in  their   service  officials 
whom    the    representative    assembly   had    con- 
demned, and  insisted  on  the  right  to  pay  them  their 
salaries  out  of  certain  funds  of  the  colony.    The 
representative    assembly  took   to  stopping    the 
supplies,  and  the  Government  chilmcd  the  right 
to  counteract  this  measure  by  appropriating  to 
the  purpose  such  public  moneys  as  happened  to 
be  within  their  reach  at  the  time.    The  colony  — 
for  iiiilecd  on  these  subjocta  the  population  of 
Lower  Cauada,  right  or  wrong,  was  so  near  to 
being  of  one  mind  tliat  we  may  take  the  declara- 
tions of  public  meetings  as  representing  the  col- 
onv  —  ik'uianded    that    the    legislative    council 
slif'uM  l)e  made  elective,  and  that  the  colonial 
giivirnnu'ut  should  not  be  allowed  to  dispose  of 
tlie  mnnevs  of  the  cohmy  at  their  pleasure.     The 
Ilousi'  .if "Commons  and  the  Government  herere- 
iliid  liy  refusing  to  listen  to  the  proposal.  .  .  . 
.t  is  not  necessary  to  suppose  that  in  all  these 
disputes  the  popular  majority  were  In  the  right 
sml  thi'  officials  in  the  wrong.     No  one  can  doubt 
that  there  wtis  much  bitterness  of  feeling  arising 
out  of  the  mere  differences  of  race.  ...  At  last 
the  npreseniative  assembly  refused  to  vote  any 
furthtr  supplies  or  to  carry  on  any  further  busi- 
ness.   They  formulated  their  grievances  against 
the  home  (lovirnment.     Their  complaints  were 
o(  srliitniry  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  governors ; 
intdleralile  composition  of  the  legislative  council, 
whieh  they  iusisteil  ought  to  be  elective;  illegal 
iippr>l>riaiion  of  the  public  money,  and  violent 
IiMn.i.Mtlnn  of  the  provincial  parliament.     One 
of  llie  Ic'ailing  men  In  the  movement  which  after- 
variU  liecame  ri'tM'ilidn  in  Lower  Canada  wa*  Hr. 
Loais  .IiiHcph  Papineau.    This  man  had  risen  to 
high  position  by  his  talents,  hU  energy,  and  his 
uniliiibtedly  lionouralile  character,     lie  had  rep- 
rescnteii  Montreal  in  the  representative  Assembly 
of  1.0  ver  Canada,  and   he  afterwards  became 
Speaker  of  the  House.     He  made  himself  leader 
of  the  iiioveiuent  to  protest  against  the  policy  of 
the  governom.  and  that  of  the  Government  by 
whom  ihfy  were  sustained.     Ho  held  a  series  of 
mee'iUL'5.  si  ^sime  nt  wlilrh  iinstnuhtpilly  rather 
itrniiir  laiiKua;;ii  was  used.  .  .  .   Lord  Clotford, 
the  iT'ivemor,  tH'ian  hr  dismissing  lereiml  mllltta 
oflcers  wl'u  had  takeo  part  In  lome  of    ' 


iXmmtmt 


t 


CANADA,  1887. 


demonstrations;  Mr.   Papineau  himself  was   an 
officer  of  this  force.    "Then  the  governor  issued 
warrants  for  the  apprehension  of  many  memljers 
of  the  popular  Assembly  on  the  charge  of  high 
treason.     Some  of  these  at  once  left  the  country ; 
others  against  whom  warrantu  were  issued  were 
arrested,  and  a  sudden  resistance  was  made  by 
their  friends  and  supporters.    Then,  in  a  manner 
familiar  to  all  who  have  rc»  I  anything  of  the 
history  of  revolutionary  movements,  the  resistance 
to  a  capture  of  prisoners  suddenly  transformed 
itself  into  open  rebellion." — J.  .McCarthy,  Hitt. 
of  our  own  Timet,  t.  1,  cA.  3. — Among  the  griev- 
ances which  gave  rise  to  discontent  in  both  Upper 
and  Lower  Canada,  "first  of  all  there  was  the 
cb    nic  grievance  of  the  Clergy  Reserves  [which 
wt     public  lands  set  apart  by  the  Act  of  1791 
for  Jie  support  of  tlie  Protestant  Clergy],  com- 
mon both  to  British  and  French,  to  Upper  and  to 
Lower  Canada.    In  Upper  Canada  these  reserves 
^.nountcd  to  2,500,000  acres,  being  one-seventh 
of  the  lands  in  the  Province.    Three  objections 
were  made  against  continuing  these  Reserves  for 
the  purpose  for  which  they  Imd  been  set  apart 
The  fir.t  objection  arose  from  the  way  In  which 
the  Executive  Council  wislied  to  apply  the  rev- 
enues accruing  from  these  lauds.     According  to 
the  Act  they  were  to  be  applied  for  '  maintaining 
the  Protestant  religion  In  Canada' ;  and  the  Execu- 
tive Council  interpreted  this  us  meaning  too  ex- 
clusively the  Church  of  England,  wliich  was  es- 
tablished by  law  In  the  mother-country.     But  the 
objectors  claimed  a  right  for   all  Protestant  de- 
nominations to  share  In  the  Reserves.    Tlie  second 
objection  was  that  the  amount  of  these  lands  was 
too  large  for  the  purpose  in  view:  and  the  third 
referred  to  the  way  fa  which  the  Reserves  were 
selected.     These  2,500,000  acn-s  did  not  lie  in  a 
block,  but,  when  the  early  surveys  were  made, 
every  seventh  lot  was  reserved ;  and  as  thesi'  lots 
were  not  cleared  for  years  the  people  complained 
that  they  were  not  utilizetl,  and  so  became  incon- 
venient barriers  to  uniform  (civilization.     With 
the  Roman  Catholics,  both  priests  and  people, 
the  Clergy  Reserves  were  naturally  unpopular. 
.  .  .  Anadditionalsourceof complaint wasfound 
in  the  fact  that  the  government  of  Ui)per  and 
Lower  Canada  had  fouml  its  wny  into  tlie  hands 
of  a  few  powerful  families  luimliil  together  by  a 
Family  Compact  Imx  above:  A.  I).  l«2()-lt«i7]. 
.  .  .  But  the  Constitutional  dilllinilty  was,  after 
all,  the  great  one,  and  It  lay  at  the  bottom  of  the 
whole  dispute.  .  .  .  Altogether  the  issues  were 
viry  complicated  In  the  St.    Lawrence  Valley 
I'rovlnces  and  the  Maritime  Pniviuces  .  .  ,  and 
to  it  Is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  some  should 
Interpret  the  rebellion  as  a  class,   and  perhaps 
semi-religious,  contest   rather  than  a  race-con- 
flict.   The  constitutional  deadliK-k, however,  wa« 
tolerably  clear  to  tlK«c  who  lixikeil  beneath  the 
surface.  .  .  .  The  main  desire  of  all  was  to  be 
freeil  of  the  bunlen  of  Executive  Councils,  nom- 
inated at  home  and  kept  in  olllce  with  or  without 
the  wish  of  the  people.      In  Up|)er   Canada, 
William  Lyon  .Hackenrle,  aiul  In  Uiwer  Canada. 
Louis  Papineau  and  Dr.  Wolfred  Nelson,  agitated 
for  independence.  "—W.  P.  Oreswell,  ]Iiit.  afths 
Dominion  of  Canaiki,  ch.  18. 

At*)  in:  J.  McMullcn.  Jlitt.  of  Canatia,  c\. 
19-20. —Earl  of  Durham.  «•/>?  <""(  PitiutitJuM. 
— 81r  F.  B.  Head,  Xarratirt.—Hei't.  «f  Cmirt.  ap- 
pointed to  inquire  into  tht  qritmncetnmiiUitnfda) 
inU!»trCanaiia(UKUtl^Oimmi>n:  Ftb.  20, 1887> 


il   i 


391 


II 


CANADA,  1887-1888. 


Ihintliitf  of 


CANADA,  184U-184L 


z 


A.  D.  i837-i838,— The  rebel'  n  nnder  Papi- 
neau  and  Itackciuie,  and  it  ppraMion. — 
The  Burninr  of  the  Carolinr  immediately 
on  the  breaking  out  o{  the  a,  the  con- 

stitution of  Lower  Canada  -  spended;  the 

revolt  was  put  down  at  or  J  with  little 

dilHculty.    Though  the  out  i  Upper  Can- 

ada showed  that  a  compar  small  portion 

of  the  population  was  disal'  .  to  the  gorem- 
ment,  there  were  some  sha  .irmlshes  before 
the  smouldering  Are  was  coii  ,  u.'ly  trodden  out. 
...  On  the  night  of  the  4tU  of  December,  1837, 
when  alt  Toronto  was  asleep,  except  the  police- 
men who  stood  sentries  over  the  arms  in  the  city 
hall,  and  a  few  gentlemen  who  sat  up  to  watch 
out  the  night  with  the  Adjutant-General  of 
Militia  in  the  Pa,  iment  House,  the  alarm  came 
that  the  rebels  were  upon  the  city.  They  were 
under  the  command  of  a  newspaper  editor  named 
Mackenzie,  whose  grotesque  figure  was  until 
lately  [this  was  published  in  1865]  familiar  to 
the  frequenters  of  the  Canadian  House  of  As- 
sembly. Rumours  had  been  rife  for  some  days 
last  of  arming  and  drilling  among  the  disaffected 
the  Home  and  London  districts.  .  .  .  The 
ahirm  threw  Toronto  into  commotion.  .  .  The 
volunteers  were  formed  in  the  market  square 
during  the  night  and  well  irmed.  In  point  of 
discipline,  even  in  the  first  instance,  they  were 
Dot  wholly  deficient,  many  of  them  being  retired 
offlcers  and  discharged  men  from  both  the  naval 
and  military  services.  .  .  .  Towards  morning 
news  came  of  a  smart  skirmish  which  had 
occurred  during  the  night,  in  which  a  party  of 
the  rebels  were  driven  l>ack  and  their  leader 
killed.  During  the  succeeding  day  and  night, 
loyal  yeomen  kept  pouring  in  to  act  in  liefence 
of  the  crown.  Sir  Allan,  tien  Colonel,  Macoab, 
the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Assembly  .  .  . 
raised  a  body  of  liis  friends  and  adherents  in  the 
course  of  the  night  and  following  day,  and, 
seizing  a  vessel  in  the  harbour  at  Hamilton, 
hurried  to  Toronto.  .  .  .  The  rebels  were  de- 
feated and  dispersed  next  day,  at  a  place  some 
two  miles  from  Toronto.  In  this  action,  the 
Speaker  took  the  commsiKi  of  the  Volunteers, 
which  he  kept  during  the  subsequent  campaign 
on  the  Niagara  frontier,  and  till  all  danger  was 
over.  .  .  .  Mackenzie  soon  rallied  his  scattered 
adherents,  and  seized  Navy  Island,  iust  above 
Kiuiriira  Falls,  where  he  was  joiuca  by  large 
nuinlKTs  of  American  'sympathizers.'  who  came 
to  the  flpot  on  the  rliance  of  a  qtiarrel  with  the 
Engli.sh.  On  receipt  of  this  intelligenrc.  the 
Speaker  hanteneil  fn)m  the  neighbourhood  of 
Rranifonl  (where  he  liad  just  dispersed  a  liand 
of  insuri;enM  under  the  command  of  a  doctor 
nathi'ii  Diiiuiinitx)  t»)  reinforce  Colonel  Cameron, 
forniirly  of  the  T9th,  who  hail  taken  up  a  iHmi- 
tion  lit  ('lii|i|N'wa.     Xavy  Island,  an  eyott  some 

?|uarter  of  a  mile  in  length,  lies  In  the  Niagara 
{iver  within  musket -shot  of  the  Canailian  bank. 
The  current  runs  patit  the  IsUnd  on  both  sides 
with  gn-Ht  velocity  and,  immediately  below  ir, 
hurries  over  tlie  twi^  mill's  of  rocks  and  rapiils 
that  prvceile  its  tn^'  iK^ms  leap.  The  rcbeU 
llirvw  up  wiirkx  on  the  »l<le  facing  the  Cana- 
dinnn.  They  drew  their  supplies  frtmi  Fort 
Sf'hiixwer,  an  Anierirau  work  nearly  opiHisite  the 
villjiiriMif  ChitiiM-wii  "  A  Miiall  ati'iimtMuit  nnnied 
the  C^aniline.  Iiail  li<>en  securiKl  by  the  Insurgents 
Slid  wan  piving  between  Kurt  Hcliloaser  anil 
Navy  Islauu.     She  "had  bruught  over  ^vcral 


fleld-piecea  and  other  military  stores ;  it  theiefois 
became  necessary  to  decide  whether  it  was  not 
expedient  for  the  safety  of  Canada  to  destroy 
her.  Qrcat  Britain  was  not  at  war  with  the 
United  States,  and  to  cut  out  an  American 
steamer  from  an  American  port  was  to  incur  a 
heavy  responsibility.  Nevertheless  Colonel  .Mac- 
nab  determined  to  assume  it."  A  party  sent 
over  in  boats  at  night  to  Fort  Schlosser  surpriaed 
the  Caroline  at  her  wharf,  fired  her  and  u'nt  her 
adrift  in  the  river,  to  be  carried  over  the  Falls. 
—Viscount  Burr,  Exodtuoftht  HV»^>,.  Sniiant, 
e.  8,  eh.  12. — "On  all  sides  the  insui^mta  were 
crushed,  jails  were  filled  with  their  leaders,  and 
180  were  sentenced  to  be  hanged.  Some  of  them 
were  executed  and  some  were  banished  to  Van 
Dieman's  Land,  while  others  were  pardoned  on 
account  of  their  youtli.  But  there  was  a  gteat 
revulsion  of  fcelmg  In  England,  and  after  a  few 
years,  pardons  were  extended  to  slriost  all. 
Even  Papineau  and  Mackenzie,  the  leaders  of 
the  rebellion,  were  allowed  to  come  hack,  and. 
strange  to  say,  both  were  elected  to  si'ats  in  the 
Canadian  Assembly.  "—W.  P.  Orcswell,  UM.vj 
tite  Domininn  of  Canada,  eh.  16,  tect.  Ij.— On  Hic 
American  bonier  the  Canadian  relx'llion  «f  i»3;. 
88  was  very  commonly  called  "the  Patriot  War." 

Also  in  :  C.  Lindsey,  Life  and  Tiimi  nf  Wm. 
Lyon  Maeluntie,  e.  2.— J.  C.  Dent,  ISIory  ,if  tU 
If.  Canada  Heiellion. 

A.  D.  1840-184 1.— International  Imbroglio 
conseauent  on  the  buminr  of  the  Caroline— 
The  McLeod  Case.— The  bunilng  nf  the 
steamer  Caroline  (see,  above,    A.    I).    ;H:iT-183b) 

gave  rise  to  a  serious  question  between  Urcat 
ritain  and  the  United  States.  "In  the  fray 
which  occurred,  an  American  naiiied  Uurfrce 
was  killed.  The  British  govemnieiit  avowed 
this  invasion  to  be  a  public  act  and  a  necessary 
measure  of  self-defence;  but  it  was  a  question 
when  Mr.  Van  Buren  [I'resident  of  the  liiited 
States]  went  out  of  otnce  whether  this  avowal 
had  been  made  in  an  authentic  manner.  ...  In 
November,  1840,  one  Alexander  McLeml  lamo 
from  Canada  to'  New  York,  where  he  boasted 
that  he  was  the  slayer  of  Durfree,  and  thereupon 
was  at  once  arrested  on  a  charge  of  niun'er  and 
thrown  into  prison.  This  aroused  gnat  ani^ 
in  EngUnd,  and  the  conviction  of  .McLeod  was 
all  that  was  needed  to  cause  immediate  war.  .  .  . 
Our  [the  American]  "ovemmcnt  was,  of  course, 
greatly  hampemi  1;  action  .  .  .  by  tliefaritliat 
McLeod  was  within  the  Jurisdiction  and  in  the 
power  of  the  New  York  courts,  and  win  illy  out 
reach  of  those  of  the  Unite<i  SlaU's.  .  .  .  Mr. 
Webster  [who  became  Secretary  of  State  under 
President  Taylor]  .  .  .  was  fmrdly  in  office 
tiefore  he  received  a  demand  from  .Sir  F11.X  for 
the  release  of  Mcljcod.  iu  which  full  avowal  was 
made  th^l  the  burning  of  the  Caroline  was  a 
public  act.  M..  Webster  determinul  that  .  .  . 
the  only  way  to  dispose  of  McLcixt  was  to  get 
him  out  of  prison,  separate  him,  diplmnaiically 
speaking,  from  the  affair  of  the  (.'art'line,  and 
tlien  take  that  up  as  a  liistinct  matter  fur  nei'O. 
tiation  with  tlic  British  goveninient.  .  .  .  His 
first  step  was  to  instruct  tlie  AttoriK  y  Cii  neralto 

finxxed  to  Lockport,  where  McLuhI  was 
mprisoned,  and  comniuni<ate  witli  tlie  counsel 
for  the  defence,  fumi^sliiu^  them  with  aiiiliintic 
information  that  the  destruction  of  lli.  (  amllno 
was  a  public  act,  and  that  therefore  Mcl/eod 
could  nut  be  held  responsible.  .  .  .  TLi^i  threw 


198 


CANADA.  1840-1841. 


Clear  OriU 
(md  OmMrmMvM. 


CANADA,  1800-1871. 


the  reapoiulbility  for  HcLeod,  and  for  eonaequent 
peace  or  war,  where  it  belonged,  on  the  Mew 
York  authoritiea,  who  aeemed,  however,  but 
little  inclined  to  aaaist  the  general  goTemment. 
McLood  came  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  New 
York  in  July,  on  a  writ  of  babeaa  corpus,  but 
they  refused  to  leleaie  him  on  the  grounds  set 
torth  in  Mr.  Welnter's  instructions  to  the  Attor- 
iiey-G«neral,  and  he  was  remanded  for  trial  in 
October,  which  was  highly  embarassing  to  our 
govcrriaent,  as  it  k<!pt  this  dangerous  affair 
open."  But  when  McLeod  came  to  trial  in 
October,  1841,  it  appeared  tliat  he  was  a  mere 
braggart  who  had  not  even  been  present  when 
Durf  iw  was  killed.  His  acquittal  happily  ended 
he  case,  and  smoothed  the  way  to  the  negoti- 
ation of  the  Ashburton  treaty,  which  opened  at 
Washington  linon  afterwards  and  which  settled 
all  questions  uetween  England  and  the  United 
States.— H.  C.  Lodge,  DanM  Webtter  a\.  8. 

Also  ra:  W.  H.  Seward,  Worfa,  e. .,,  pp.  647- 
688. -D.  Webster.  Workt,  t.  «,  m.  247-288. 

A.  D.  1840-1867.— Reunion  o(  the  piorincet. 
—The  opposition  of  races. — Clear  Grits  and 
Conserratives. — "  The  reunion  of  the  two  Pro- 
vinces had  been  projected  before:  it  was  greatly 
desired  by  the  British  of  the  Lower  Province ; 
and  in  1823  a  bill  for  the  purpose  had  actually 
been  brought  into  the  Impcrisl  Parliament,  but 
the  French  being  bitterly  opposed  to  it,  the  Bill 
bad  been  dropped.  The  French  were  as  much 
opposed  to  reunion  as  ever,  clearly  seeing,  what 
the  author  of  the  policy  [Lord  Durham]  had 
avowed,  that  the  measure  was  directed  against 
their  nationality.  But  since  the  Rebellion  they 
were  prostrate.  Their  Constitution  had  been 
superseded  by  a  Provisional  Council  sitting 
under  the  protection  of  Imperial  bayonets,  and 
this  Council  consented  to  the  union.  The  two 
Provinces  were  now  [July,  1840]  placed  under  a 
Oovemor-Oeneral  with  a  single  legislature,  con- 
sisting, like  the  legislatures  of  the  two  Provinces 
before,  of  an  Upper  House  nominated  by  the 
Crown  and  a  Lower  House  elected  by  the  people. 
Each  province  was  to  have  the  same  number  of 
representatives,  although  the  pii]>ulatloa  of  the 
Frenrli  Province  was  at  that  time  much  larger 
than  tliat  of  the  British  Province.  The  French 
language  was  proscribed  in  official  proceedings. 
Frenih  nationality  was  thus  sent,  constitutionally, 
undir  the  yoke.  But  to  leave  it  its  votes, 
necessary  and  right  as  that  might  b-  was  ^t 
leave  it  the  only  weapon  which  puts  the  I'ak  on 
a  level  with  the  strong,  and  even  gives  tlicm  the 
advantage,  since  the  weak  are  the  most  likely  to 
hold  together  and  to  submit  to  the  discipline  of 
organised  party.  .  .  .  The  French  .  .  .  'had 
the  wisdom.'  as  their  manual  of  history  .  .  . 
complii»'ntIy  observes,  '  to  remain  united  among 
themselves,  and  by  that  union  were  able  to 
exercise  a  happy  influence  on  the  Legislature  and 
the  Gdvcmment."  Instead  of  being  politically 
tuppr('SM>d,  they  soon,  thanks  to  their  compact- 
ness OS  an  interest  and  their  docile  jbedlence  to 
their  liiulers,  became  politically  dominant.  The 
Britisli  factions  began  to  bid  against  each  other 
for  their  support,  and  were  presently  at  their 
feet.  .  .  .  The  statute  proscribing  the  use  of  the 
Frenrh  language  in  official  proceedings  was 
fp^s'-i.  sad  the  Canadian  Legislature  was 
made  lii  lingtial.  The  Premiership  wai  divided 
betWKH  the  English  and  the  Frendi  lewier,  and 
the  Hiniatries  were  deaigiutted   by  Uie  doable 


name — 'the  Lafontalne-Baldwin,'  or  'the  Mac- 
donald-Tach£.'  The  French  got  their  full  ahare 
of  seats  in  the  Cabinet  and  of  patronage;  of 
public  funds  they  got  more  than  their  full  share, 
especially  as  being  small  consumers  of  imported 
goods  they  contributed  far  less  than  their  quota 
to  the  public  revenue.  By  their  aid  the  Roman 
Catholics  of  the  Upper  Province  obtained  the 
privilege  of  Separate  School  in  contraventior. 
of  the  principle  of  religious  equality  and 
severance  of  the  Church  from  the  State.  In  time 
it  was  recognized  as  a  rule  that  s  Ministry  to 
retain  power  must  have  a  majority  from  each 
section  of  the  Province.  This  practically  almost 
reduced  the  Union  to  a  federation,  under  which 
French  nationality  was  more  securely  entrenched 
than  ever.  Qradually  the  French  and  their 
clergy  became,  as  they  have  ever  since  been,  the 
basis  of  what  styles  Itself  a  Conservative  party, 
playing  for  French  support,  by  defending 
clencal  privilege,  by  protecting  French  nation- 
ality, and,  not  least,  by  allowing  the  French 
Province  to  dip  her  hand  deep  in  the  common 
treasury.  On  the  other  hand,  a  secession  of 
thorough-going  Reformers  from  the  Moderates 
.  .  .  gave  birth  to  the  partv  of  the  '  Clear  Qrits, ' 
the  leader  of  which  was  Sir.  George  Brown,  a 
Scotch  Presbyterian,  and  which  having  first 
insisted  on  the  secularization  of  the  Clergy 
Reserves,  became,  when  that  question  was  out 
of  the  way,  a  party  of  general  opposition  to 
French  and  Roman  Catholic  influence.  ...  A 
change  had  thus  come  o<'er  the  character  and 
relations  of  parties.  French  Canada,  so  lately 
the  seat  of  disaffection,  became  the  basis  of  tho 
Conservative  party.  British  Canada  became  the 
stronghold  of  the  Liberals.  ...  A  period  of 
tricky  combinations,  perfidious  alliances,  and 
selisn  intrigues  now  commenced,  and  a  series  of 
weaK  and  ephemeral  governments  was  its  fruit. " 
— Ooldwin  Smith,  Canada  and  the  CaTtadian 
Qittttivn,  eh.  7. 

Also  is:  W.  Houston,  Doe».  llluttratiTe  oftht 
Canadian  Omtt.,  pp.  149-185.— J.  O.  Bourinot, 
Manual  of  the  Conii.  HUt.  of  Canada,  eh.  S. 

A.  D.  1843. — Settlement  of  boundary  dit- 
putea  with  the  United  SUtea  by  the  Ash- 
burton Treaty,  See  UNrrsD  States  or  Ax. : 
A.  D.  1843. 

A.  D.  18M-1M6.— The  Reciprocity  Treaty 
with  the  United  States  and  its  abrogation. 
See  Tariff  Lioibiation  (United  States  akd 
Canada):  A.  D.  18.54-1866. 

A.  D.  1864.— The  St.  Albans  Raid.  See 
United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1864  (October). 

A.  D.  1866-1871.— Fenian  invasions.— The 
Fenian  movement  (see  Ireland:  D.  1858- 
1867)  had  its  most  serious  outer  in  an  at- 
tempted invasion  of  Canada  fr<  the  United 
States,  which  took  place  In  IHi  "Canadian 
volunteers  were  under  amis  all  ly  on  the  17th 
of  March,  1866,  expecting  a  Finiiin  invasion,  but 
it  was  not  made:  in  April  an  insignificant  attack 
was  made  upon  New  Brunswick.  About  900 
men,  under  Col.  O'Neil.  crossed  from  Buffalo  to 
Fort  Erie  on  the  night  of  May  3l!t.  Moving 
westward,  this  body  aimed  at  dcs  roying  the 
Welland  Canal,  when  they  were  met  by  the 
Queen's  Own  Volunteer  Regiment  of  Toronto, 
ami  the  13th  battalion  of  Hamilton  Militia,  near 
the  village  of  Rldgeway.  Here,  after  a  eonliict 
of  two  hours,  in  wnlch  for  a  time  the  Volunteers 
drove   the  enemy  before   tbem,  the  Canadian 


-*il 


893 


CANADA,  1866-1871. 


mmraUm  of 


CANAi^ii,  1867. 


f orcet  retirea  to  Ridgew»,  ud  thence  to  Port 
Colborne,  irlth  a  lou  of  nine  killed  and  80 
wounded.  Col  Peacock,  in  charge  of  a  body  of 
reguUrs,  wa.<)  marching  to  meet  the  volunteers, 
so  that  O'Neil  wai  compelled  to  flee  to  Fort  Erie, 
and,  crossing  to  the  United  States  with  his  men, 
was  arrested,  but  afterwards  liberated.  The  day 
after  the  skirmish  the  regulars  and  volunteers 
encampi  '  it  B'ort  Erie,  and  the  langer  on  the 
Niagiii  ronlier  was  past  A  i'enian  expedi- 
tion till  .lened  Prescott,  aimhig  at  reaching  the 
capital  at  Ottawa,  and  another  band  o'.  marauders 
crossed  the  borltr  from  St.  Albans,  Vermont, 
but  both  were  easily  driven  back.  The  Fenian 
troubles  roused  strong  feeling  in  Canada  against 
the  American  authorities.  ...  A  Fenian  attack 
was  led  by  Col.  O'Neil  on  the  Lower  Canadian 
frontier,  in  1870,  but  it  was  easily  met,  and  the 
United  States  authorities  were  moved  to  arrest 
the  repulsed  fugitives.  A  foolish  movement  was 
again  made  in  1871  by  the  same  leader,  through 
Minnesota,  against  Manitoba.  Through  the 
prompt  action  of  the  friendly  American  com- 
mander at  Fort  Pembina,  the  United  States  troops 
followed  the  Fenians  across  the  border,  arrested 
their  leader,  and,  though  he  was  liberated  after 
a  trial  at  St.  Paul,  Uinnesota,  the  expedition 
ended  as  a  miserable  and  laughable  failure. 
These  movements  of  the  Fenian  Society,  though 
trifling  in  elTect,  yet  involved  Canada  in  a  con- 
siderable expense  from  the  mainterance  of  bodies 
of  the  Active  Militia  at  different  points  along 
the  frontier.  The  training  of  a  useful  force  of 
citizen  soldiery  however  resulted.  '  -O.  Bryce, 
8hori  Sut.  of  the  Cartadian  People,  pp.  468- 
470. 

Also  IK :  O.  T.  Denlson,  Jr.,  The  Fenian  Raid 
on  fVrt  Erie.—Corr.  relating  t  the  Fenian  In- 
tation.—OJtU-ial  Report  of  Gen.  »         yXeiU. 

A.  D.  1867.— Federatior  of  1  ■  .ovince*  of 
British  North  .imerioi  in  tL>  i^ominion  of 
Canada.— The  constitution  of  the  Dominion. 
— "  The  Union  between  Upper  and  Lower  Canada 
lasted  until  1S67,  when  the  provinces  of  British 
North  Ameriea  were  brought  more  closely  to- 

g ether  in  a  federation  and  entered  on  a  new  era 
1  their  constitutional  history.  For  many  years 
previous  to  1865,  the  administration  of  govern- 
ment in  Caniida  had  become  surrounded  with 
political  difflculties  of  a  very  perplexiug  charac- 
ter. ..  .  Piirties  at  last  were  so  equally  bulanccd 
on  account  of  the  antagonism  between  the  two 
Bc  ;  )ns,  that  the  vote  of  one  member  might 
dec.ue  the  fate  of  an  administration,  and  the 
course  of  legislation  for  a  year  or  a  series  of 
years.  From  the  3l8t  of  May,  1882,  to  the  end 
of  June,  1864,  there  were  no  less  than  five  dif- 
ferent ministries  in  charge  of  the  public  busi- 
ness. Legislation,  in  fact,  was  at  last  practi- 
cally at  a  dead-lock.  ...  It  was  at  thte  critical 
Juncture  of  affairs  that  the  leaders  of  tlie  govern- 
ment and  opposition.  In  the  session  of  1864,  came 
to  a  mutual  understanding,  after  the  most  ma- 
ture consideration  of  the  whole  question.  A 
coalition  government  was  formed  on  the  basis  of 
a  federal  union  of  all  the  British  American 
provinces,  or  of  the  two  Canadas,  in  case  of  the 
lailure  of  the  larger  scheme.  .  .  .  It  was  a  happy 
coincidence  tliat  tlie  legislatures  of  the  lower 
provinces  were  about  considering  a  maritime 
union  at  the  time  the  leadUig  statesmen  of 
Canada  had  combined  to  mature  a  plan  of  set- 
tling their  political  dlfflcultiei.    The  Canadiao 


394 


ministry  at  once  availed  themselves  of  this  fact 
to  meet  the  maritime  delegates  at  their  conven 
tion  In  Charlottetown,  and  the  result  was  tht 
decision  to  consider  the  question  of  the  Urirer 
union  at  Quebec.  Accordhigly,  on  the  loth 
of  October,  1864,  delegates  from  all  the  British 
North  American  provinces  assembled  in  confer- 
ence, in  'the  ancient  capital,'  and  after  very 
"nple  deliberations  during  eighteen  days  serced 
to  78  resolutions,  which  form  the  basis  uf  the 
Act  of  Union.  These  resolutions  were  formallv 
submitted  to  the  legislature  of  Canada  in  Janu- 
ary, 1885,  and  after  an  elaborate  debate,  which 
extended  from  the  8d  of  February  to  the  Ulh  of 
March,  both  houses  agreed  by  very  iar^re  majori- 
ties to  an  address  to  her  Majesty  pravinc  lier  to 
submit  a  measure  to  the  Imperial  Purliament 
'  for  the  piirpoae  of  uniting  the  provinces  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  provisions  of  the  Quebec 
resolutions.'  Some  time,  however,  had  to  elapse 
before  the  Union  could  be  consummated,  in  con- 
seq  jence  of  the  strong  opposition  that  very  soon 
exhibited  Itself  in  the  maritime  provinces,  moi» 
especially  to  the  financial  terms  of  the  scheme  " 
Certain  modifications  of  the  terms  of  the  Quebec 
resolutiODS  wer*  acccordingly  made,  and  "the 

grovinces  of  Janada,   Nova  Scotia,  and  New 
runswick,  beUig  at  htst  in  full  accord,  through 
the  action  of  their  respective  legislatures    the 
plan  of  union  was  submitted  on  the  12th  of 'Peb- 
niary,  1807,  to  the  Imperial  Parliament,  where 
it  met  with  the  warm  support  of  the  statesmto 
of  all  parties,  and  passed  without  amendment  In 
the  course  of  a  few  weeks,   the  royal   assent 
being  given  on  the  29th  of  March.    Tlie  new 
constitution  came  into  force  on  the  First  of  July 
[annually  celebrated  since,  as  '  Dominion  Day  ] 
1867,   and  the  first  parliament  of   the   united 
provinces  met  on  November  of  the  same  year. 
.  .  .  The  confederation,  as  hiaugurated  in  1867, 
consisted  only  of  the  four  provinces  of  Onurio 
[Upper  Canada],  Quebec  [Lower  Canacia],  Novs 
ScoUa,  and  New  Brunswick.    By  the  Udth  sec- 
tion of  the  Act  of  Union,  provision  was  made 
for  the  admission  of  other  colonies  on  addresses 
from  the  parllameut  of  Canada,  and  fr.im  the 
respective  legislatures  of  Newfoundland,  Prince 
Edward  Island,  and  British  Columbia,    itnpert  s 
Land  and  the  North-west  Territory  miglit  also 
at  any  time  be  admitted  into  the  Union  on  the 
address  of  the  Canadian  Parliaincnt.  ...  The 
title  of  Dominion  did  not  appear  in  the  Quebec 
resolutions.    The  7l8t  lies,  j  to  the  ellect  that 
'  Her  Majesty  be  solicited  to  determine  tlie  mnit 
and    name    of    the   federated  Provinces.'    The 
name  [•  The  Dominion  of  Canada  'J  was  arranged 
at  the  conference  held  in  London  in  IHWl,  when 
the  union  bill  was  finally  drafted.  "—.J.  tJ.  Iliuri- 
uot,  Manual  of  Oonet.  llitt.  of  Oinwh.  rh.  6-7 
('?*^  foot- »»*()■—"  T^e  Federal  ('(instituiion  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada  is  contiiiiHd  in  the 
British  North  America  Act,  1867,  a  statute  of 
the  British  Parliament  (30  Vict.,  c.  3).    1  note  a 
few  of  the  many  points  in  which  it  desi  ti\  to 
be  compared  with  that  01  tlie   United  States.' 
The  Federal  or  Dominion  Oovernnicnt  is  con- 
ducted on  the    so-called   'Cabiuet  system'  of 
England,  L  e.,  the  Ministry  sit  in  I'arliament, 
and  hold  office  at  the  pleasure  of  the  House  of 
Commons.     The   Govertior  Genera!    [:i[:;uiateJ 
by  the  Crown]  is  in  the  position  of  an  imspon- 
stole  and  permanent  executive  similar  In  tliat  of 
the  Crown  of  Great  Briutn,  acting  on  the  advice 


CANADA,  1867. 


ne  Dominttm 
of  Canada, 


CANADA,  1669-1878. 


of  reipoiuible  minbten.  He  can  dlnolve  Par- 
liament. The  Upper  House  or  Senate,  is  com- 
poc-^  of  78  pereons,  nominated  for  life  by  the 
Govcmor-Gcaeral,  i.  e.,  the  Mintotry.  The 
House  of  Commons  has  at  present  210  members, 
who  are  elected  for  five  years.  Both  senators 
tod  members  receive  salaries.  The  Senate  has 
very  little  power  or  inQuence.  The  Oovemor- 
Oeneral  has  a  veto  but  rarely  exercises  it,  and 
may  reserve  a  bill  for  the  Queen's  pleasure. 
The  judges,  not  only  of  the  Feacm'  or  Dominion 
Courts,  but  also  of  the  provinces  re  appointed 
by  the  Crown,  i  e.,  by  the  Domiuion  Ministry, 
and  hold  for  good  behaviour.  Kach  of  the 
Frovinces,  at  present  [1888]  seven  in  number, 
has  a  legislature  of  its  own,  which,  however, 
consists  in  Ontario,  British  Columbia,  and  Mani- 
toba, of  one  House  only,  and  a  LieTitenant- 
Oovemor,  with  a  right  of  veto  on  the  acts  of  the 
legislature,  which  he  seldom  exercises.  Mem- 
bers of  the  Dominion  Parliament  cannot  sit  in  a 
Provincial  leKisUture.  The  Qovemor-Oeneral 
has  a  right  of  disallowing  acts  of  a  ProTlnclal 
legislatute,  and  sometimes  exerts  it,  especially 
when  ft  legislature  is  deemed  to  have  exceeded 
its  constitutional  competence.  In  each  of  the 
Provinces  there  is  a  responsible  Ministry,  work- 
ing on  the  Cabinet  system  of  England.  The 
distribution  of  matters  within  the  competence  of 
the  Dominion  Parliament  and  of  the  Provincial 
legislatures  respectively,  bears  a  general  resem- 
blance to  that  existing  in  the  United  States;  but 
there  is  this  remarkable  distinction,  that  whereas 
in  the  United  States,  Congress  has  only  the 
powers  actually  granted  to  it,  the  State  legisla- 
tures retaining  all  such  powers  as  have  not  been 
taken  from  them,  the  Dominion  Parliament  has 
a  gpneral  power  of  legislation,  restricted  only 
by  the  grant  of  certain  specific  and  exclusive 
powers  to  the  Provincial  Icgi  jtures.  Criminal 
law  is  reserved  for  the  Dominion  Parliament, 
and  no  Province  has  the  right  to  maintain  a 
military  force.  Questions  as  to  the  constitu- 
tionality of  a  statute,  whether  of  the  Dominion 
Psriiamcnt  or  of  a  Provincial  legislature,  come 
before  the  courts  in  the  ordinary  way,  and  if  ap- 
pealed, beforj  the  Jv-licial  Committee  of  the  Privy 
Council  In  England.  The  Constitution  of  the 
Dominion  was  never  submitted  to  a  popular  vote, 
sad  can  be  altered  only  by  the  British  Parliament, 
except  as  regards  certain  points  left  to  its  own 
legislature.  .  .  .  There  exists  no  power  of  amend- 
ing the  Provincial  constitutions  bv  popular  vote 
similar  to  that  which  the  peoples' or  the  several 
States  "xcrdse  to  the  United  States.  "—J.  Bryce, 
T>u  American  Commonwealth,  t.  1,  app  ,  mie 
(B)  to  eh.  80.— See  Cohstitction  op  Cahada. 

Also  nc  J.  E.  C.  Munro,  The  Const,  of 
(Mmda  (irilh  text  of  Aet  in  app.}— Pari.  Debate 
on  Confidf ration.  M  Sem.,  Sth  Prm.  Pari,  of 
Oiwirfd.— W.  Houston,  Doei.  Illiutrative  of  the 
Canadinn  Contt,  pp.  186-224. 

A"  S-  '5?9"'*73-— Acqniiltion  of  the  Hnd- 
B  ".  •  rV  T*""«'y— AamiMion  of  Manitoba, 
r1l'"L*'''''"°'''*  •"<•  Prince  Edward's  Is'  i 
tothe  Dominion.— "In  1869  .  .  .  the  Do.  u 
was  enlarged  by  the  acquisition  of  the  famous 
Hudson  8  Bay  -rerritory.  When  the  charter  of 
we  Hudson  8  Bay  Company  expired  in  1869, 
Lnrrl  Oranvllie,  then  Colonial  Secrelnry  pro- 
{^  ."•"  the  chief  part   of   the  Coini)any'8 


f^7'f'^jl''!>;t'j""'''>.'™"''«"'«'  ^  **  DoiSinfon 
lor  ijw.ooo;  and  tite  proposition  wm  agned  to 


on  both  sides.    The  Hudson's  BayCharter  dated 
from  the  reign  of  Charles  II.    "The  region  to 
which  it  referred  carries  some  of  its  history  im- 
printed in  its  names.    Prince  Rupert  was  at  the 
head   of   the   association   incorporated  by  the 
Charter  tato  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.    The 
name  of  Rupert's  Land  perpetuates  his  memory. 
.  .  .  The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  obtatoed  from 
King  Charles,  by  virtue  of  the  Charter  in  1670, 
the  sole  and  absolute  government  of  the  vast 
wat<"«hed  of  Hudson's  Bay,  the  Rupert's  Land 
of  t..-  Charter,  on  condition  of  paying  yearly  to 
the  King  and  his  successors  'two  elks  and  two 
black  beavers,'  '  whensoever  and  as  often  as  we, 
our  heirs  and  successors,  shall  happen  to  enter 
into  the  said  countries,  territories  and  leeions.' 
The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  was  opposed  by  the 
North  West  Fur  Company  m  1783,  which  fought 
them  for  a  long  time  with  Indians  and  law,  with 
the  tomahawk  of  the  red  man  and  the  legal 
judgment  of  a  Romilly  or  a  Keating.     In  1818 
Lord  Selkirk  founded  the  Red  River  Company. 
This  toterloper  on  the  battle  field  was  harassed 
by  the  North  West  Company,  and  It  was  not 
until  1821,  when  the  Hudson's  Bay  and  North 
West  Companies-  Impoverished  bv  their  long 
warfare— amalg  uiated  their  interests,  that  the 
Red  River  sett'   s  were  able  to  reap  their  har- 
vesu  to   peace,   disturbed   only  by  occ&«iona! 
plagues  of  locusts  and  blackbirds.     In  18.S^  on 
Lord  Selkirk's  death,  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
bought  the  settlement  from  his  executors.     It 
had  been  under  their  sway  before  that,  having 
been  committed  to  their  care  by  Lord  Selkirk 
during  his  lifetime.    The  privilege  of  extiusive 
trading  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountatos  was  con- 
ferred by  Royal  license  for  twenty -one  years  In 
Moy  1888,  and  some  ten  years  iater  the  Company 
received  a  grant  of  Vancouver's  Island  for  tlie 
term  of  ten  years  from  1849  to  lSo9.     The  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company  were  always  careful  to  foster 
the  idea  that  their  territory  wat;  chiefly  wilder- 
ness, and  discountenanced  the  reports  of  Its  fer- 
tility and  fitness  for  colonisation  which  were  from 
time  to  time  brought  to  the  ears  of  the  English 
Government.      In  1857,  at  the  tostance  of"  Mr. 
Labouthere,  a  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of 
Commons  was  appointed  to  enquire  into  the 
state  of  the  British  possessions  under  the  Com- 
pany's  administration.      Various    Oo.emment 
expeditions,  and  the  publication  of  many  Blue 
Books,  enlightened  the  public  mind  os  to  tlie  real 
nature  of  those  tracts  of  land  which  tlie  council 
from  the  Fenchurch  Street  house  declared  to  be 
so  desolate.  .  .  .  During  the  sittings  of  the  Com- 
mittce  there  was  cited  in  evidence  a  petition  from 
575  Red  River  settlers  to  the  Legislative  As-sem- 
bly    of  Canada  demanding  British  protection. 
This  appeal  was  a  proceeding  curiously  at  varl- 
ance  with  the  later  action  of   the  settlement 
When  In  1889  the  chief  part  of  the  territories 
was  transferred  to  Canada,  on  the  proposition  oT 
Earl  Granville,  the  .Red  River  country  rose  in 
rebellion,  and  rclused  to  receive  the  new  Gov- 
ernor.   Louis  Riel,  the  lusurpent  chief,  seized  on 
Fort  Garry  and  the  Company's  treasury,   and 
pre:'...  med  the  independence  of  tlie  settfcment 
Sir  Garnet,  then  Colonel.  Woiseley,  was  siMit  to 
command  of  an  expedition  which  reached  Fort 
Garry  on  Augu,st  28,  whei  tlie  insu'?ents  sub- 
mltt-d  without  resistance,  and  the  district  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Manitoba." — J.  McCarthy, 
Mitt,  of  our  own  Timet,  eh.  55  (t.  4). — Jfanitou 


896 


CANADA,  18W-187S. 

and  the  Korthweit  Tcrritoriet  were  admitted  to 
the  DominioD  Confederation  May  12, 1870;  British 
Columbia,  July  30, 1871 ;  Priooe  Edwanl  Ulani, 
July  1,  1873.— J.  HcCoun,  Maniteba  and  tkt 
Ortat  North  Wut. 

Also  di:  O.  H.  Adam,  The  Canadian  North- 
teat,  eh.  1-18.— G.  L.  Huyshe,  1%»  iM  Biter 
Sipedition.—yi.  P.  Ores  well,  JSiW.  if  tht  Do- 
minion of  Canada,  p.  813.— J.  E.  C.  Hunro, 
The  Oontitution  >f  Canada,  eh.  i.—Q.  E.  Ellis, 
The  Hudton  Bay  Company  (Ifarratite  and  Crit- 
ical met.  cjj  Am.,  V.  8).— See,   also,    British 


CAK0S8A. 

CotuMsiA:  A.  D.  18{»-187l   and  Nobthwiw 
Terbitobiks  or  Canada. 

A.  D.  t87i.-The  Treaty  of  Wathin«on. 
See  Alabama  Claims:  A.  D.  1871. 

A.  D.  1877.— The  HalUax  Fishery  Award. 
Bee  FiSHUUBS,  Nobth  Amkhican:  A.  D.  1877- 
1888. 

A.  D,  i8Ss-i8>8.— Termination  of  the  Fish- 
ery articles  of  the  Treaty  of  Washington.- 
Renewtd  coatroreraie*.— The  rejected  TreatT 
See  FisHBBUs,  North  Ambricah:  A.  D.  IS'n- 
188a 


CANAI,  The    See  Amxbicak  Abobigihes: 
Aloonqciak  Familt. 

CANARES,  The.    See  Eccaoor:  Thx  abo- 
rioinal  nfRABiTAirrsL 

CANARY  ISLANDS,  Diacercry  of  the.— 
The  first  great  step  in  African  exploration  "was 
the  discovery  of  the  Canary  Islands.  These  were 
the  '  Elysian  fields '  and  '  Fortunate  islands '  rf  an- 
tiquity. Perhaps  there  is  no  country  in  the 
world  that  has  been  so  many  times  discovered, 
conquered,  and  invaded,  or  so  much  fabled 
about,  as  these  islands.  There  is  scarcely  a 
nation  upon  earth  of  anv  maritime  repute  that 
ha*  not  had  to  do  with  them.  Phoenicians,  Ov- 
thaginians,  Romans,  Hoore,  Qenoese,  Normans, 
Portuguese,  and  Spaniards  of  every  province 
(Aragonesn,  Castilians,  Oalltcians,  Biscayans, 
Andaludans)  have  all  made  their  appearance  iu 
these  islands.  The  Carthaginians  are  said  to 
have  discovered  them,  and  to  have  reserved  tlicm 
as  an  asvlum  in  case  of  extreme  danger  to  the 
state.  SertoriuB,  the  lioman  general  who  par- 
took the  fallen  fortunes  of  Manus  Is  said  to  have 
meditated  retreat  to  these  '  islands  of  the  biased, ' 
and  by  some  writers  is  supposed  to  have  gone 
there.  Juba,  the  Mauritanian  prince,  son  of  the 
Juba  celebrated  by  Sallust,  sent  ships  to  examine 
them,  and  has  left  a  description  of  them.  Then 
came  the  death  of  empires,  and  darkness  fell 
upon  the  human  race,  at  least  upon  the  records 
of  their  history.  When  the  world  revived,  and 
especially  when  the  use  of  the  loadstone  began 
to  be  known  among  mariners,  the  Canary  Islands 
were  again  discovered.  Petrarch  is  referred  to 
by  VIera  to  prove  that  the  Genoese  sent  out  an 
expedition  to  these  islands.  Lat  Caaas  mentions 
that  an  English  or  French  vessel  bound  from 
France  or  England  to  Spain  was  driven  by  con- 
trary winds  to  the  Canary  Islands,  and  on  its 
return  spread  abroad  In  France  an  account  of  the 
Toyage.  — A.  Helps,  Spanith  Omqutet,  bk.  1,  eA.  1. 
Also  IN:  £.  H.  Bunbury,  HiM.  of  Ancient 
Otog.,  eh.  30,  noU  E. 
CAN  AS,  The.    See  Pkbc:  Thr  aborioinal 

DIBABITANTa. 

CANCELLARIUS.    See  Chancellor. 

CANDAHAR.— Siese  and  reUefof  Easlish 
forces  (1880).  See  Apobanistan:  A.  D.  VM9- 
1881. 

CANDIA.— This  is  the  name  of  the  principal 
town  in  the  Island  of  Crete,  but  has  been  often 
applied  to  Crete  itself.  See  Turks:  A.  D.  Ifi^"!- 
1W9.  where  an  account  is  given  of  the  so-called 
"  War  of  Candia";  also  Crete:  A.  D.  888. 

CANDLEMAS.    See  Q|7artbr  Days. 

CANDRACUPTA,  The  tmpire  of.  See 
iNDrA  :  B.  C.  327-8U,  and  313 . 

CANCI,  The.— A  tribe  in  earlv  Britain  whldi 
occupied  the  westerly  part  of  Hodem  Camarvon- 
shire.    See  Britain,  Celtic  Tbibbs. 


CANN.«,   Battles  ot     See  Punic  TVas- 
Tbb  Second  :  and  Rome  :  B.  C.  90-«>8 

CANNING,  Lord,  The  Indian  administra- 
tion ot  A.  D.  1830-1863. 

CANNING  MINISTRY,  The.  See  Eso- 
LAND:  A.  D.  1830-1837. 

CANON  LAW.-"  The  Canon  Law  In  Its 
widest  sense  consists  of  Holy  Scripture  the  cus- 
tomary laws  and  usages  of  the  Church,  and  of 
constitutions  comprising  the  decrees  and  de- 
cretals  of  the  Popes,  the  canons  of  c( .  ncils, 
sod.  to  a  limited  extent,  the  writings  of  the 
Fathers. "-J.  Dodd,  A  Bittory  of  Canon  U« 
p.  15I— In  a  more  restricted  sense  it  is  dcscribtd 
by  Blackstone  as  being  "  a  body  of  Romsn  eccle- 
siastical law,  relative  to  such  matters  as  that 
church  either  has,  or  pretends  to  have  the 
p:-oper  Jurisdiction  over.  This  is  compiled  from 
the  opinions  of  the  ancient  Latin  fatli.  r»  the 
decrees  of  general  councils,  and  the  decretal 
epistles  and  Dulls  of  the  Holy  See  " 

CANOPUS,  Decree  of.— An  important  In- 
scribed stone  found  in  188S  at  San,  or  Tanis,  in 
Egypt,  which  is  a  monument  of  the  reign  of 
Ptolemy  Euergetes,  who  osccndi'd  the  tiirone  in 
346  B.  C.  It  gives  "  in  hieroglyphics  an.  I  Greek 
(the  demotic  vereion  is  on  the  edge)  a  d.iree  of 
the  priests  assembled  at  Canopus  for  their  yearly 
saluution  of  the  king.  When  they  were  so 
assembled,  in  Ills  ninth  year,  his  infant  daughter 
Berenice,  fell  sick  and  died,  and  there  w:is  great 
lamentaUon  over  her.  The  decree  first  recounts 
the  generous  conduct  and  prowess  of  t  lie  king, 
who  had  conquered  all  his  enemies  uliniiui,  and 
had  brought  back  from  Persia  all  the  stutues  of 
the  gods  carried  off  in  old  time  fn)m  E^-vpt  by 
foreign  kings.  He  had  also,  in  a  great  tliVeatcn- 
ing  of  famine,  when  the  Nil.'  had  failed  to  rise  to 
its  full  amount,  imported  vast  quantities  of  corn 
from  Cyprus,  Phcenicia,  ikc,  and  fed  his  [leople. 
Consequently  divine  honours  are  to  be  paid  to 
him  and  his  queen  as  •  Benefactor  Oodt '  in  all 
the  temples  of  Egypt,  and  feasts  are  to  be  held 
in  their  honour.  .  .  .  This  great  inscription,  far 
more  perfect  and  considerably  older  than  the 
Rosetta  Stone,  can  now  be  cited  as  the  clearest 
proof  of  Champolliou's  rvading  of  the  hiero- 
glyphic*. "—J.  P.  }A»iaSy,  tHoryofAkiarukfi 
Empire,  eh.  1.5,  note. 

CANOSSA,  Henry  IV.  at.- In  the  conflict 
which  arose  between  the  Qcmian  Emperor, 
Henry  IV.  (then  crowned  onlv  as  King  of  the 
Romansil  and  Pope  Gregory  VII.  (the  intiexible 
Hildebnind),  the  former  was  place<l  at  a  great 
disadvantage  by  revolts  and  discontents  in  his 
own  Germanic  dominions.  Wlicn,  therefore,  on 
the  83d  of  February,  A.  D.  1076,  the  audacious 

SontiS  proaouuoc-d  aguiuiil  Uie  kiug  Uh,  Ixuiiu- 
ou*  (entence,  not  only  of  excommunication,  but 
of    deposition,    releaalng   all  Christiaus   from 


S86 


CANOSSA. 

ilkghnce  to  bim,  he  addreued  a  large  party, 
both  in  Gennaiiy  ond  Italy,  who  were  more  than 
willing  to  accept  an  cxcuav  for  depriving  Henry 
of  Ilia  crown.  Tliis  party  controlled  a  diet  held 
at  Tribur,  In  October,  which  declared  timt  his 
forfeiture  of  the  throne  would  be  made  Irre- 
vocable If  he  did  not  procure  tmn  the  pope  a 
release  from  hisexcommuniealion  U-forc  the  com- 
ing anniversary  of  its  pronunciation,  in  February. 
A  diet  to  be  held  then  at  Augsburg,  under  the 
presidency  of  the  pope,  would  determire  the 
affairs  of  the  Empire.  With  characteristic 
energy,  Henry  resolved  to  make  his  way  to  the 
pope,  in  person,  and  to  become  reconciled  with 
bim,  liefore  the  Augsburg  meeting.  Accom- 
panied by  the  queen,  her  child,  and  a  few 
attendants,  he  crossed  the  Alps,  with  great  hard- 
thip  and  danger.  In  the  midst  of  an  uncom- 
monly cold  and  snowy  winter.  Meantime,  the 
pope'had  started  upon  his  Journey  to  Augsburg. 
Hearing  on  tlie  way  of  llenry's  movement  to 
meet  bim,  not  desiring  the  encounier,  and  dis- 
trusting, moreover,  the  intentions  of  Ids  enemy, 
he  took  refuge  in  the  strong  fortress  of  Canosaa, 
liigh  U(i  in  the  rocky  recesses  of  the  Apennines. 
To  thiit  mountain  retreat  tlie  desperate  king 
pressed  his  way.  "It  was  January  21,  '077, 
when  Henry  arrived  at  Canosaa;  tlie  cold  was 
severe  ond  the  snow  lay  deep.     H-  V    ged 

at  the  fcKit  of  the  castle-steep,  and  Inter- 

view with  the  countess  Matiliia  [i.  11  .'the 
castle,  iiud  devoted  friend  of  the  rlugli. 

abbot  (if  Clugny,  and  others,  in  ,  (^liapul  of 
St.  Niiiilas,  of  which  no  traces  now  remain. 
Three  days  were  spent  in  debating  terms  of 
reconciliation;  Matilda  and  Hugh  interce<led 
with  the  pope  on  the  king's  behalf,  but  Gregory 
WH3  inexorable;  unless  Ilcnry  surren<lered  tlie 
crown  into  the  pope's  hands  tlie  bitii  should  not 
be  takin  off.  Henry  i>nild  not  stiKip  so  low  as 
this,  liiit  he  made  tip  his  mind  to  play  the  part 
of  a  iK'ultent  suppliant.  Early  on  the  moniing 
of  Jauuarv  2.'i  he  mounted  the  winding,  rocky 
path,  until  he  reached  the  upperiiiust  of  the 
Umx  Wttll.H,  the  one  which  enclosetl  the  ca.stlc 
yard.  And  here,  before  the  gateway  which  still 
exists,  and  perpetuates  in  its  name,  '  Porta  di 
penitcn^u,'  the  memory  of  this  strange  event, 
the  king,  barefoot,  and  clad  in  a  coarse  woohu 
uliirt,  «rii<Kl  knocking  for  admit'., nee.  But  lie 
kwnkcd  in  vain:  from  morning  till  evening  the 
heir  of  tlie  Itoman  Empire  sIimhI  shivering  out- 
siile  the  fast  closed  diKir.  Two  more  days  he 
rlimlH-d  tlie  rugged  path  and  sto<Kl  weeping  and 
iraploriiig  to  lie  ailinitted."  At  last,  the  Iron 
willeil  pmitill  consented  to  a  parley,  and  an  agree- 
mint  w;i9  briuight  almut  by  which  Henry  was 
rc'leiiMd  friim  e.\communication,  but  the  question 
of  his  crown  was  left  for  future  settlement.  In 
theeiul  be  gaiiiwl  nothing  by  his  extraordinary 
abaseiucnt  of  himself.  Slany  of  his  supporters 
Were  iilieiialed  by  it;  a  rival  king  was  elected. 
Gathering  nil  bis  energies,  Henry  tlien  sttxjd  bis 
ground  and  made  a  fight  In  which  even  Gregory 
fled  before  him;  but  It  was  all  to  no  avail. 
The  triiiinph  remamed  with  the  priesU.— W. 
R.  W.  Stephens,  llildebrand  and  Uu  Time$,  eh. 
11-1.5. 

Aiw  IN:  A.  P.  Villemain,  Ltfe  of  Gregory 
nr.  y-  .>;— See,  also,  P.\P.«Y:  A.  D.  1056- 
1122;  iiUi  UoME:  1081-I0S4. 

CANTABRIA,  Becomes  BardtiUaud  Cu- 
tu«.    S.e  OPAIA;  A.  U.  102ft-1280. 


CAPE  BRETON  ISLAKD. 

CANTABRIANS  AND  ASTURIANS, 
The. — The  Cantabrians  »  ere  an  ancient  people  in 
the  north  of  Spain,  inhabiting  a  region  to  tlic  west 
of  the  Asturians.  They  were  not  conquered  by 
tlie  Romans  until  the  reign  of  Augustus,  who  led 
an  expedition  against  them  in  persim,  B.  C.  27, 
but  was  forced  by  illness  to  commit  the  campaign 
to  his  lieutenants.  The  Cantabrians  submitted 
soon  after  being  defeated  in  a  great  battle  at 
Vellica,  near  tlie  sources  of  the  Ebro;  but  in  Hi 
B.  C.  they  joined  the  Asturians  In  a  desperate 
revolt,  which  was  not  sulidued  until  three  years 
later.— C.  Merivale,  Uitt.  of  the  Homunt,  eh.  84. 

Also  is:  T.  Mommsen,  Bist.  of  lionu,  bk.  8, 
eh.  2. — See  Appendix  A,  voi  8. 

CKHTJE,  The.—  A  tribe  In  aiiclent  Cale- 
donia.   See  Britain,  Celtic  Thibet 

CANTERBURY.— The  murder  of  Becket 
(1170).     SeeENOLANO:  A.  D.  1164-1170. 

CANTERBURY  PRIMACY,  Ortcin  of 
the.    See  England:  A.  D.  5»7-6*5. 

CANTII,  The.— The  tribe  of  ancient  Britons 
which  occupied  the  region  of  Kent.  See  Britain, 
Celtic  Tribes. 

CANTON:  A.  D.  1839-1842.— The  Opium 
War.— Ransom  of  the  city  from  English  as- 
sault.—Its  port  opened  to  British  trade.  See 
China:  A.  D.  183ft-1842. 

A.  D.  1856-1857.— Bombardment  br  the 
English,- Capture  by  the  English  and  French. 
See  China:  A.  D.  1856-1880. 


CANTONS,  Latin.    Sec  Gens,  Roman:  also 
Ai.n.i. 
CANTONS,    Swiss,     see     Switzerland: 

A.  1).  184I^1B90. 

CANULEIAN    LAW,    The.     See    Rome: 

B.  C.   44,1i-400L 

CANUTE,  OR  CNUT,  King  of  England, 
A.  1).  1(117-1035,  and  King  of  Denmark,  A.  D. 

1018-103.'; Canute  II.,  King  of  Denmark, 

A.  I).  lOdO-loae Canute  Ilf,  King  of  Den- 
mark, K.  D.  1147-11.')6 Canute  IV.,  King 

of  Denmark,  A.  D.  llS2-r2in>. 

CANZACA.    Sec  Ecihtasa. 

CANZACA,  OR  SHIZ,  Battle  of.-A  battle 
fought  A.  D.  591,  by  the  Romans,  under  Narses, 
supporting  the  caust'  of  Chosroes  II.  king  of  Per- 
siii,  against  a  usurper  Uahram,  who  had  driven 
him  from  his  throne.  Baliram  was  defeated  and 
l'liosn*8  restored. — G.  Kiiwiinson,  HeKnth  Oreat 
Oriental  Munareht/,  eh.  'i'.i. 

CAP  OF  LIBERTY,  The.  Sec  Libeiitt 
Cap. 

CAPE  BRETON  ISLAND :  A.  D.  1497.— 
Discovety  by  John  Cabot.  See  America  :  A.  D. 
U«7. 

A.  D.  1504.— Named  by  the  fishermen  from 
Brittany.  See  NKWP0tSDL.\ND:  A.  D.  1501- 
1578. 

A.  D.  1713.  —  Possession  confirmed  to 
France.     See  Newfoixdi.and:  A.  D.  1713. 

A.  D.  1730-1745.— The  fortification  of  Louis- 
bourg.  —  After  the  surrender  of  Placentia  or 
Plaisance,  in  Newfoundland,  to  England,  imder 
the  treaty  of  l.trccht(5ceXEWPorNDLAND:  A.  D. 
1713),  the  French  government  determined  to 
fortify  strongly  some  suitable  harbor  on  the 
iitlanti  of  Cape  Breton  for  a  naval  station,  and 
especially  for  the  protection  of  the  fisheries  of 
France  on  the  neighboring  coasts.  The  harbor 
known  previously  as  Havre  i  Y  Anglois  was 
chosen   for  ihe  ptirpose.     "When  the  French 


•■1 


397 


IJ  ■■ 


CAPB  BRETON  ISLAND. 

gOTemment  dedded  In  favour  of  IIaTi«  il'  An- 
glois  iu  name  was  changrd  to  LouiiU>urg,  in 
honour  of  the  king;  and,  to  murk  the  value  §et 
upon  Cape  Bret  >n  it  waa  called  Ule  Royalc, 
■which  it  retained  until  iU  final  conquest  in  1758, 
when  iu  ancient  name  was  resumed."    In  1780 
the  fortiflcatioDS  were  commenced,  and  the  work 
of  their  construction  was  prosecuted  with  energy 
and  with  unstinted  liberality  for  more  than  twenty 
years.     "Even  the  English  colonies  contributed 
a  great  proportion  of  the  niaU  iHuls  used  In  their 
construction.     When  Messrs.  Newton  and  Brad- 
street,  who  were  sent  to  confer  with  M.  de  8t. 
Ovide  [to  remonMrate  against  the  supplying  of 
arms  to  the  ludi.Hns  in  Nova  Scotia]  .  .  .  re- 
turned to  Annapolis,  they  reported  that  during 
their  short  sUiv  at  Louislwurg,  in  17S5,  fourteen 
colonial  vessels,  belonging  chieflv  to  New  Eng- 
land, arrived  there  with  cargoes  of  Iwards,  timber 
and  bricks.  .  .  .  Loulsbourg  [described,  with  a 
plan,  in  the  work  here  miotedj  .  .  .  had,  between 
the  years  1720  and  1745.  cost  the  French  nation 
the  enormous  sum  of  80.000,000  livres,  or  £1,- 
800,000  sterling;  nevertheless,  as  Dussieux  in- 
forms us,  the  fortiflcations  were  still  unfinished, 
and  likely  to  remain  so,  because  the  cost  had  far 
excowied  the  estimates;  and  it  waa  found  such  a 
large  garrison  would  be  renulrcd  for  their  defence 
that  the  covemraent  had  alnndoned  the  Idea  of 
completing   tlicm  aceordiug  u>  the  original  de- 
sign. "—U.   Brown.   Hint,  uf  Iht  Island  of  Ciiiu 
Jirtton,  Utttr$  9-11.— "The  fort  waa  built  of 
•tone,  with  walls  more  timn  30  feet  high,  and  a 
ditch  80  feet  wide,  over  which  was  a  conmiunica 
tlon  with  the  town  hv  a  drawbriilge.     It  had  six 
bastions  and  three  bat  I.  ties,  with  platforms  for 
148  ciuinon  and  six  niorl«rs.    On  an  Islet,  which 
was  tliuikril  on  one  side  by  a  shoal,  a  battery  of 
80  guns.  28  p<iimders,  defended  tlio  entrance  of 
the  liarlior,  which  waa  almut  400  yards  wide,  and 
was  also  commande<l  from  within  liy  the  Omnd  or 
Royal  Battery,  mounting  as  many  guns,  of  the 
calibre  of  42  pounds.     The  fort  .  .  .   waa  a  safe 
rendezvous  and  refuge  for    French   fleets   and 

firlvaUH'rs,  sailing  in  the  Western  Ileml-Hpliere. 
t  commanded  the  maritime  way  InUi  Caiiiida 
and  It  wutchol  the  Englisli  settlements  all  along 
the  coast.  It  was  a  stjiiiding  threat  to  the  great 
business  of  New  Encl.in.l  seamen,  which  w.is 
the  fishery  on  the  lianks."— J.  (i.  l"alfr<'y,  llUt 
of  S.  Kiig.,  bk.  5,  eh.  U  (r  H).—--  'So  gn'at  was 
Its  strength  that  It  wii.t  called  lliv  Dunkirk  of 
America.  It  had  nunnerii-sai.d  paUces,  tirraces 
and  ganlens.  That  such  a  city  rose  upon  a  low 
and  di-soUle  Island  In  the  inlancy  of  American 
colonization  apiM'am  imndihle;  explaustlou  Is 
nhiiie  fiMiud  In  the  nsliing  enthusiasm  of  tin- 
P<;n;"l  "— f  H  tllioti,  7  he  C.  S.  aiuUhr  \.  f 
rishtnta,  yi,  18. 

A.  D.  i744.-Outbreak  of  the  Third  Inter- 
colonial War.     Mir   .Nkw  England 
1744. 

A,   O. 


A     II 


A,  D.  1745.— Conqueit  by  the  New  Enr- 

laodcra.— Fall  of  Louisbourc.    »•«  Nkw  E.s" 
I  »NI«    .\    1>.   I74,V  :in,|  E.^ulanii:  A.  I».  174.V 

A.  D.  1748.— Reitored  to  France.  See  Aix 
i..*»  lui-Ki.i.K,  TifK  i  <»ouicHs,  and  N«w  E.n<i. 
L*Ni>    A.  It   IT4.'>-174'< 

A.  D.  i75«-».r«o.-The    final  capture  and 


dcstnictioo  of  Lou.ibuurf,  by  the  Enrhsh.- 

■  in  .Mav.  1.,1H  Muring  the  Siveii  Veen  War  — 

•«■   Casaua:   a.  I).    17SO-175a   and   aflcrj'  a 


CAPITOLIint  HILL  AT  ROME. 

powerful   fleet,    under  command  of    Admin] 
Boecawen,  arrived  at  Halifax  for  the  purpose  of 
recapturing  a  place  [Loulsbourg]  which  ouirlit 
never  to  have  been  given  up.     The  fleet  con- 
slated  of   88  ships  of   the  line  and  18  frigates. 
besides  transporta,  and  when  it  left  Halifax  It 
numbered    157   vessels.    With    It   was   a  land 
force,  under   Jeffery    Amherst,  of   upward  of 
12,000  men.    The  French  forces  at  Louishourg 
were  much  Inferior,  and  consisted  of  only  SsliiiS 
of  the  line  and  S  frigates,  and  of  about  4  000 
aoldlen.    The  English  fleet  set  sail  from  Halifax 
on  the  98th  of  Mav,  and  on  the  8th  of  June  a 
landing  was  effecU"d  in  Uabarus  Bay.     The  neit 
day  the  attack  began,  and  after  a  sha'"  ivjflict 
the    French     abandoned    and    destroy^il    two 
ImporUnt  batteries.     The  siege  waa  then  puslied 
by  regular  approaches;  but  it  was  not  until  tlie 
26th  of  Julv  that  the  garrison  capitulated.    By 
the  terms  of  surrender  the  whole  garrison  were 
to  become  prisoners  of  war  and  to  tw  s<'nt  to 
England,  and  the  English  acquired  218  cannon 
and  18  mortars,  Iieside  great  quantities  of  arnmu. 
nition    and  military  storea.     All  the  vessels  of 
war  had  bi-eu  captured  or  destroyed;  but  their 
crews,  to  the  number  of  upwani  of  i.m)  men 
were  Included  In  the  capitulation.     Two  yi^ari 
later,  at  the  beginning  of  1780,  orders  »,re  sent 
from  England  to  demolish  the  fortress    render 
the    harbor    Impracticable,    and    transp'„rt    tlie 
garrison  and   stores  to  Halifax.     Tlicw  orrlits 
were  carried  out  so  effectually  that  fev  1    <•,.$ 
of  Ita    fortillcntions    remain,    and    llie    phue  Ii 
inhablte<l  only  by  fishermen.  "—C.  C.  Sniilli   Tfn 
Wiirs  on  <lu  Henboard  (Xarratitt  aiui  Cnlieai 
Hill,  of  Am.,  r,  5,  cA.  7). 

Also  in:  F.  I'arkman,  Montralm  nml  \y„lft, 
eh.  19  (p.  2).— 8if,  also,  Cajiai>a  (Nkw  KuAMt)' 
A.  D.  1738. 

A.  D.  1763.— Ceded  to  England  by  the 
Treaty  of  Parie,    Set-  .Sbvkn  Yeakh  Waii 

A.  D.  1763.— Added  to  the  government  of 
Nova  Scotia.    See  Canada:  A.   I).   I7i»-1T74. 

CAPE  COLONY.    8ee  Sorxii  Arm.  a 

CAPE  ST.  VINCENT,  Naval  battle  ot 
See  Enulami:  A.  I>.  1797. 

CAPETIANS,  Origin  and  crowning  of  tht. 
Sec  France:  A.  t).  ml,  and  877-987 

CAPHARSALAMA,  Batt:.  of.-Oiu  of  the 
vIcUirlcsof  the  Jewlsli  patriot,  Juilns  .Miicialmus 
over  the  Syrian  general  .Mctinor.  H  t'  1(13.— 
Josenhus.  Aiilii/.  uf  the  Jnr;  hk    12.  rh.  1(1 

CAPHTOR.— An  ancient  Ph<eiii, ian  Mttle- 
ment  on  the  ciwst  of  the  .Nile  Dilia  '  Krnm  an 
early  peri(«l  the  whole  of  this  distriit  li i.|  l«ru 
e<>lonise<l  by  the  riiienlcluns.  and  as  I'li.iiiliia 
Itai'lf  was  ealh-il  Keft  by  the  Eg\  ii'iaiir  tin-  |.:.rt 
of  Egypt  In  whhh  they  had  settled  w,  111  livllie 
name  of  Keft  ur.  or '(Iniilcr  I'honiiia  '— .V 
H.  Hayce,  AW«A  l.iahl  fr,;n  Iht  .\iin.i,l  V>n'i- 
menU,eh  2.— On  the  otiier  hand.  Kn.iM  sud 
other  writers  say  that  'the  I'hiliMidiH  mme 
friMn  Caplitor,"  aiHl  lliat  "  this  now  i.l»...lete 
niiiiie  pmhHlily  designated  either  the  whole  or  a 
|iart  of  Cri'le.  "  ( 

CAPHYiC.  Battle   of. -Fought   II    r    t» 
IsMwien  llie  Arhieiui  ami  .!•;(. ili..,ii  I.,  ,,mi,-, 
CAPITAL    PUNISHMENT.     >.,    I.vw, 

ChiMINAI..   .V     ll     IMSI    nnd  llUIO-JM-.XI 

CAPITOLINE   HILL  AT   ROME   -The 

Capital.—    Ill   pri'historie    times  ilij«  l.ill   nss 
called  the  .Mons  Suiuriiius,  see  Varrvj,  i,iu.  Lat, 


S'JS 


cAPrrouMX  hul  at  bohk. 


CABAFFA. 


T.  41 ;  it!  luune  being  ooonected  wtth  that  legm- 
duT  'golden  age'  when  Saturn  htnuelf 
reigned  In  Italr.  .  .  .  Tbii  bill,  which,  like  the 
other  hills  of  Rome,  liaa  had  Ita  contour  much 
altered  by  cutting  away  and  levelling,  consUta 
of  a  nusi  of  tufa  rock  harder  in  structure  than 
that  of  the  Palatine  hilL  It  appears  once  to 
hare  been  surrounded  by  cliffs,  very  steep  at 
ni(wt  place*,  and  bad  only  approaches  on  one 
aide  — that  towards  the  Forum.  .  .  .  The  top  of 
the  hill  is  shaped  into  two  peaks  of  airaut  equal 
height,  one  of  which  was  known  as  the  Capi- 
toliuin,  and  the  other  as  the  An,  or  Citadel.  .  .  . 
The  Capitolium  was  also  in  early  time  known  as 
the  'Mens  Tarpeius,'  so  called  from  the  familiar 
legend  of  the  treachery  of  Tarpeia.  .  .  .  In  later 
times  the  name  '  rupe*  Tarpeia '  was  applied,  not 
to  the  whole  peak,  but  to  a  part  of  its  cliff  which 
faced  towards  the  'VIcus  Jugarius'  and  the 
'Forum  Magnum.'  The  identification  of  that 
part  of  the  Tarpeian  rock,  which  was  used  for 
the  exeruticm  of  criminals,  according  to  a  very 
primitive  custom,  is  now  almost  impossible.  At 
one  place  the  cliff  of  the  Capitolium  is  quite 
perpcniiicular,  and  haa  been  cut  very  carefully 
Into  an  upright  even  surface;  a  deep  groove, 
about  a  foot  wide,  runa  up  the  face  of  thia 
cuttini!.  and  there  are  many  rock-cut  chambers 
eicaviili'd  in  this  part  of  the  cliff,  some  openings 
into  wliicli  apiicar  in  the  face  of  the  rock.  This 
is  popularly  though  erroneously  known  as  the 
Tarpeian  rork.  .  .  .  The  perpendicular  cliff  was 
on«'  very  much  higlirr  than  it  is  at  present,  aa 
then-  it  a  great  acrumulation  of  rubl)isli  at  ita 

foot That  tills  cliff  cannot  be  the  Tarpeian 

rork  where  criminals  were  executed  Is  shown  by 
Dionyaiiu  (vili.  78,  and  vii.  89),  who  expressly 
u,v>  that  this  took  place  in  the  sight  of  p^ple  In 
the  Fonim  Magnum,  so  that  the  popular  Rupcs 
Tsrpeia  u  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  hill.  "—J.  tl. 
Middlr^on,  Anrient  Bom*  in  1885,  ch.  7. — 8ce. 
also.  »>Kvr.:<  Hills  or  Rome,  and  QcMS,  Komaji. 

CAPITULARIES.— "  It  Is  commonly  sup- 
pooeil  that  the  term  capitularies  applies  only  to 
the  laws  of  Charlemagne;  this  is  a  mistake. 
The  wohl  'capitula,'  'little  chapters,'  equally 
spplliD  to  all  tlie  laws  of  the  Frank  kings.  .  .  . 
Charlemagne,  In  hla  capitularies,  did  anything 
but  li'ifiaJHte.  Capitularies  are,  properly  speak- 
ing, tlie  whole  acta  of  his  government,  public 
seta  of  all  kinds  by  which  he  manifested  his 
suthority."— F.  Ouiiot,  Ilut.  <^  Cintimtion, 
Itrl  il, 

.\i.M>i<i:  E.  F.  Ilenderaon,  Sritet  UM.  Don. 
^11;    Vi'MU  A<in,  **  i. 

CAPITULATION  OF  CHARLES  V.  Sea 
Otiititw:  A    U.  |.VJU-IS3t. 

CAPO  O'ISTRIA,  Count,  Tha  AtMSila*- 
tioaof.    H,v  Ohkkce:  a.  I).  i830-i8<M. 

CAPPADOCIA.    See  MirnKintTic  Wam. 

CAPS,  Party  of  th*.  »<•«  M(  andinaviah 
•tukxSwkdkk):  a.  I).  17»M71«. 

CAPTAL.— A  title,  derived  fn>m  ' '  capiulls,  " 
wiirhiiiny  ei|ulv.ilrnt  to  count,  and  ancirntjy 
li  Tiic  liy  wvcral  lorils  In  Aquitaine.  "Towanis 
thr  llih  irnlurv  there  were  no  more  than  two 
oipi»l»a.limiwln|grd.  that  of  Huch  a"d  that  of 
Priiir    -  ProiMart  (Johnea),  CArowWw,  Mr.   1, 

M    IV      „„lr 

C  TiViTY,  Priac«  «r  tU.  Bee  ivm*. 
A.  I>  im^iiM 

CAPTIVITY  OP  THE  JEWS,  Tfc«.  »e« 
iift  B.  C.  604-M6. 


CAPUA.— Capua,  originally  an  Etruscan 
city,  called  Vultumum,  was  taken  by  the  Sam- 
nitea,  B.  C.  424,  and  waa  afterwards  a  city  in 
which  Etruscan  and  neighboring  Oreek  influences 
were  mixed  in  their  effect  on  a  barbarous  new 
population.  "Capua  became  by  its  commerce 
and  agriculture  the  second  city  in  Italy  in  point 
of  size  —  the  first  in  point  of  wealth  and  luxury. 
The  deep  demoralization  in  which,  according  to 
the  accounts  of  the  ancients,  that  city  surpassed 
all  others  in  Italy,  ia  especially  reflected  in  the 
mercenary  recruiting  and  in  the  gladiatorial 
sports,  both  of  which  pre-eminently  flourished  in 
Capua.  Nowhere  did  recruiting  officers  find  so 
niunerous  a  concourse  aa  in  this  metropolis  of 
demoimliied  civiltzation.  .  .  .  The  gladiatorial 
sporta  ...  if  they  did  not  originate,  were  at 
any  rate  carried  to  perfection  in  Capua.  'There, 
seta  of  gladiators  made  their  appearance  even 
during  banqueta"—T.  Mommaen,  Hi$t.  of  Borne, 
bk.  «,  eA.  5. 

B.  C.  343.— Snrrendar  to  tbo  Romaaa.  See 
Rom:  b7C.  848-290. 

B.  C.  ai6-aii.— Welcom*  to  Hannibal.- 
SicKO  and  capture  by  the  Romaa*.— Th*  city 
repeoplad,    l»ee  Pmic  War,  The  Second. 

A.  D.  aoo-ioi6.— Th*  Lombard  principalitj. 
See  Italy  (SournERN):  A  O.  800-1016. 

A.  D.  1501.— Captor*,  sack  and  maiaacr* 
by  th*  Fr*ach.    See  Italy:  A  D.  13U1-1504. 


CAPUCHINS,  The.- "The  Capuchins  were 
only  a  branch  of  the  great  Franciscan  order,  and 
their  mode  of  life  a  modification  of  its  Itule. 
Among  the  Franciscans  the  severity  of  their 
Rule  lud  early  become  a  subject  of  discuiwion, 
which  finally  led  to  a  secession  of  some  of  the 
members,  of  whom  Hatteo  de'  Bassi.  of  the  con- 
vent of  Muntefalcone  was  the  leading  spirit 
These  were  the  rigorists  who  desired  to  restore 
the  primitive  austerities  of  the  Order.  They 
liegaa  by  a  change  of  dress,  adding  to  the  usual 
roonaatic  habit  a  'cappuccio,' or  pointed  hood, 
which  Matteo  claimed  was  of  the  same  pattern 
aa  that  worn  br  St.  Franria  By  the  bull 
'Religionk  zelus  (1S28),  Matteo  obtained  from 
Pope  Clement  VII.  leave  for  hinwlf  and  his 
companions  to  wear  thia  peculiar  dresa;  to  allow 
their  Iteards  to  grow;  to  live  in  hermitngea, 
according  to  Uie  rule  of  St.  Francis,  and  to  itevote 
themselves  chiefly  to  the  reclaiming  of  i^rcat 
sinners.  Paul  111.  afterwards  gave  thin  iwr- 
mission  to  settle  wheresoever  they  like<l.  1  on- 
sislently  with  the  austerity  of  their  professions, 
their  churches  were  unadorned,  and  their  ron- 
venta  built  in  the  simplest  style.  They  benime 
very  servlreal)le  lo  the  I'hurch.  and  tlieir  fear- 
lessness and  HMiduity  in  wailing  upon  the  sick 
during  the  plague  which  ravagiil  the  wli<i|«  of 
Italy,  maile  them  extremely  popular." — J.  .\lzng, 
MiinuiU  iif  I'liinrmU  C/'urfh  Ifirt  ,  r.  8,  n.  4M. 

CAPUCHONS,    OR    CAPUTIATI.     See 

WlllTK  IliHlim  (IK  PRANrB. 

CARABOBO,  Battles  of  (iRai-tiM).  See 
Coi.niiBIA!«  St\TK8:  a    1>   18IH-l8;l<t. 

CARACALLA,    Roman   Emperor,    A. 
211-217. 

CARACCAS :  A.  D.  ilia.-Deitmction 
•arthqnake.    8ee  C01.0MHIAII    Htatm:    .\. 

CARAPPA,  CardiMU  (Pop«  Paul  IV.)  and 
th*  Counter  Rtformatioa.    See  Papact:  A.  U. 

1387-1303,  and  I53^I(HX). 


8U8 


f 


! 


if 

Iff. 


fir 


CARA& 

CARAS,  OR  CARANS,  OR  CARANQUIS, 

The.    See  Eccadok. 

CARAUSIUS,   Rerolt   of.    See   BRiTAni: 
A.  D.  288-897. 

CARAVELS.  — CALEONS,    Etc.  — "The 
term  csrevel   wu    originally    given    to   ships 
Mvigsted  wholly  by  uTii  u  distinguished  from 
the   galley    propelled    by   oars.     It    has  been 
applied  to  a  great  variety  of  veweh  of  different 
•lie  and  conitructton.    The  caravels  of  the  New 
World  discoverer*  may  be  generally  described  as 
lonfc  narrow  boats  of  from  20  to  100  tons  burden, 
with  three  or  four  mast*  of  about  equal  height 
carrying  sometimes  square  and  sometimes  lateen 
•ails,  the  fourth  mast  set  at  the  heel  of  the  bow- 
sprit carrying  square  sails.    They  were  usually 
naif-decked,  and  adorned  with  the  lofty  forecastle 
and  loftier  poop  of  the  day.     The  latter  con- 
•titute<i  over  that  part  of  the  vessel  a  double  or 
tri'lile  deck,  which  was  pierced  for  cannon.  .  .  . 
The-  ealera  was  a  vessel  of  low  bulwarks,  navi- 
gatetf  by  sails  and  oars,  usually  twenty  or  thirty 
oars  on  either  side,  four  or  five  oarsmen  to  a 
bench.  .  .  .  The  galeaza  was  the  Urgest  class  of 
galera,  or  craft  propelled  wliolly  or  In  part  by 
nam.  ...  A  galeota  was  a  Bmall  galem.  Iiaving 
only  IS  or  30  oarsmen  on  a  side,  and  two  mtists. 
The  galcon  was  a  large  armed  merchant  vessel 
with  high  bulwark!,  tliree  or  four  decks,  with  two 
or  three  mnsts,  square  rigged,  spreading  courst-s 
and  top  sails,  and  sometimi's  tup-gnllaut  sails. 
.  .  .  Those  which  fplled  between  Arapuico  and 
Mimila  wi're  from  1,200  to  3.000  tons  bunlen.     A 
galconclllo  WHS  a  small  galcon.    The  carao  was 
•  Inrge    carrying    vessel,   the  one  lntcnde<l    for 
Columbus' sti-ond  voyage  being  1,2JJ0  tonelcsor 
I,*!*)  tons.     A  nao,  or  navlo,  was  a  large  ship 
with  hitfh  bulwarks  and  three  masts.    A  nave 
WHS  a  vessfl   with  deck  and  sails,  the   former 
dlMinguishlngit  from  the  l)arc«,  and  the  absence 
of  ours  from  a  galera.     The  bergnntin,  or  brig, 
had  low  bulwarks.  .  .  .  The   name  brigantine 
WHS  npplii'd    In  America  also  to  an  opi-n  Hat- 
botliiini'd  lH)at,  which  usually  carrio<l  one  sail  and 
from  H  to  18  men.'— U   It.  ftancmft,  Hitl.  uftht 
Ptififif  Stilt,*,  t.  1,  p.  187,  /«)<-Bofe.— See,  also 
Amf.kica:  a.  n.  1403. 

CARBERRY,  Marr  Stuart'*  (nrreodtr  at. 
See  SriiTLAND;  A.  D.  l.'Ml-l.WS. 

CARBONARI,  Origin  and  character  of  the. 
Sci'  1tai.v(8oittbe«»):  A.  I).  1H08-1809. 
CARCHEMISH.    See  IIittitrs.  Tub. 
CARCHEMISH,  Battle  of— Fought,  B.  C 
604.  between  the  armies  of  Neclio,  the  Egyptian 
Pharaoh,  and  Xibuchadnezzar,  then  crown  prince 
of  Habylon.     N.rho,  lieing  ilefeatcd,  was  driven 
bark  u>  Egypt  and  strippe.1  ..f  all  hi*  Syrian 
conquesta.— K.    I^normant,   Mjnual  of  Antirnt 
I  lint  «f  thf  Kul,  hk.  a,  eh.  4. 
CAROAOEN,  Battle  ofdSol).    Bee  Spain: 

A.   I>    l*W-18(H»(r>l«KMnKII-MAIlCB). 

CARDINAL  INFANT,  The.    SeeXmnn 
^:  A    I)    1(B.V1(WH. 

RDINALS,  Cellefe  eC    8«  CtTiiA,  Tii« 
i>      >■«  (I'AfAi.),  and  Hahmt:  A.  D.  103». 
r.'-,*''P.V*^"''   The.-     flouth   of    the   Ukc 
[Ijike.if  \«n.  In  Asia  M   ...r]  lay  the  Canlufhl 
wlmm  the  later  Greeks    all  the  Oortlywaiis  and 
OonlyeiiM;  but  anwmg  the  Armenians  Ihev  were 
known  as  Kortlii,  iiinoni;  th.j  !4vrURft  oa  K:trTi;} 
Thrse  an-  I  he  anceslors  of  the  mixlem  Kurds  a 
nation  bImi  of  the  Aryan  st«xk.  "— M.  Duncker 
Uitt.   </  Antiquitt),  hk.   2,   eA.   12,— 8ee,   abo,' 


CARL 

OoBDTKWE.— Under  Saladin  and  the  Ayonbite 
dynasty  the  Kurds  playe<l  an  imporUnt  part  la 
inediaivHl  history.    See  Salaoin.  Empirr  of 

CARGILLITES,     The.      See    Scotland 
A.  I).  1681-1689. 

CARHAM,  Battle  ot— Fought  and  won  hy 
an  army  of  ScoU,  under  King  Malcolm,  invad- 
ing the  then  English  earldom  of  Bemlcin  K  D 
1018,  and  securing  the  annexation  of  Ixitiilan  to 
the  Scottish  kingdom.    The  battlefield  was  near 
that  on  which  Ffodden  was  afterwards  fou^rht,— 
E.  A.  Freeman,  Norman  G>nque»t,  eh.  6  tret  i 
CARIANS,  The.— "The   Carians   may  be 
calleil  the  doubles  of  the  Lieleges.    They  are 
tctmied  the  '  speakeis  of  a  barbarous  tongue  '  snj 
yet,  on  the  other  band,  Apollo  is  said  to  have 
spoken  Cariaa     Aa  a  people  of  plraU's  elml  in 
bronze  they  once  upon  a  time  had  their  dny  in 
'he  Archipelago,  and,  like  the  Normans  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  iwoopcd  down  from  the  sea  to 
desolate  the  coaiU;   but  their  real  home  was  In 
Asia  Minor,  where  their  settlements  lay  between 
those  of   Phrygians   and   Pisidlans,  and  ei>m 
munlty  of  religion  united  them  with  the  Lydians 
and  Myslana.' — E.  Curtius,  Uitt.  of  Qrttee.  hk  I 
«A.   2.  — The  country  of   the  Carians  was  the 
mountainous  district  in  the  southwesU-m  ancle 
of  Asia  Minor,  the  coast  of  which  is  Indented 
with   gulfs   and    frayed   with    longprojwtine 
rocky  promontories.    The  ishind  of  lUuiilini  llej 
close  to  it  on  the  south.      The  Carians  were  sub- 
jugated by  the  Lydlan  King  Cnpsus,  sn.l  afier- 
wanls  passed    under  the   Persian   yoke.    Tlie 
Persians  permitted  the  establishment  of  a  vassal 
kingdom,    under    a    dynasty    which    tiled   its 
capluil  at  Halicamaasus,  ana  made  that  ritv  une 
of  the  splendid  Asktic  outposts  of  (irp<'k  art  and 
civilization,  though  always  falthfullv  Persian  in 
Its  politics.     It  was  to  the  memory  oY  one  of  the 
C^arlan  kings  at  Ilalicamassus,  Mausolu'i.  Ilist 
tho  famous  sepulchral  monumuiit,  wliieh  jruve 
Ita  name  to  all  similar  edifia-s,  and  wljieh  ilic 
ancients  counted  among  the  seven  woniiers  of 
the  World,   was  ervcttxl  by  his  widi>w.     ||«|i 
carnassus  offered  an  olwtlnatc  reslstame  to  Alex- 
ander the  Ureat  and  was  destniytnl  liy  thai  ruth- 
less conqueror  afu-r  it   had  BuccuniUil  to  his 
siege.     Subsequently  rebuilt.  It  never  gained  im- 
porunce  again.    The  Turkish  town  of  llmlrura 
now  occupies  the  site.— C.  T.  Newton.   Tr.mt* 
nml  Ditemeriei  in  the  Ijentnt,  r.  3.— ,St,  al»o, 
ItAMmcs  and  Dorians  and  Ionian*. 

CARIAY,  The.  See  Amkrican  AnoHiiii.<iiM: 
Oi'cit  OK  Coco  Oroit 

CARIBBEAN      ISLANDS,      The.     See 

AmtHicA:    A.  D.  149»-14X6,  an.l  Wkst  Isnrit*. 

CARIBS,  The.    See  Amuhcan  Ahoh.oimu. 

CARtHa. 

CARILLON.— The  French  name  of  F.itt 
Ticonderoga.  See  Canada  (Skw  Fhasck) 
A.  I).  K.Vt. 

CARINTHIA,  Bariy  mediaeval  history. 
See  Hi.AvoNio  PcoruM:  6tii-7tii  I'KNTi  Hilts, 
and  Uf.iim\nv:  .K.  D.  H4a-9«3 

CARINUS,  Reman  Emperor,    A.  I>  >:)- 

CARIPUNA,  The.  See  Amerk  an  Aimiii 
OINKS:  Oi'iK  OH  Coco  Oriii-p. 

CARtSBROOK  CASTLE,  The  flight  a( 
Kln{  Charles  to.  Sec  EsqIwUco;  \.  v.  ioi? 
(Ai'iirsT— Drtkwrkr). 

CARIZMIAN8.    See  Khcarezm 

CARL,ORKARL.   SeeEntKU-KTHKLna 


400 


'iw4' 


CAxusoa. 

CARLINGS.     See  Fiuiiks  (CABl/>Tniaux 
ExriRE):  A.  D.  768-814. 
CARLISLE,  Orifin  o£    See  LvanvALuuK. 
CARLISTS   AND  CHRISTINOS.     See 

Spain:  A.  D.  183S-1846,  tod  1878-18aV 

CARLOM AN,  Kinc  of  the  Franka  (EMt 
Franks— Germanj— in  aaaociatioa  with  Louis 
III.),  A.  D.  876-881 ;  (BurpindTaod  Aq  Mtainc), 

A.  1).  879-«94 Carloman,  Duke  and  Priace 

of  the  Franks,  A.  D.  741-747. 

CARLOS.    See  Craruu. 

CARLOVINGIANS.  See  Fraxxb  (Cabo- 
LDiaiAii  Em-iiuc):  A.  D.  768-814. 

CARLOWITZ,  Peac*  ot  See  Hdhoabt: 
A.  I>.  1688-1680. 

CARLSBAD,  Congrtsa  oL  See  Qbkkaxt: 
A.  D.  IH14-l«iO. 

CARMAGNOLE.  See  Framck:  A.  D.  1798 
(Pkbkiart— April). 

CARMANIANS,  The— "The  GermanUn» 
of  Ilorodutus  are  the  Carmaniaiu  of  the  later 
Orci-lu,  who  also  passed  with  them  as  a  separate 
nation,  though  closely  allied  to  the  Persians  and 
Medvs.  They  wandered  to  and  fro  to  the  east  of 
Penis  in  the  district  now  called  Kirman.  '— M. 
Dunckcr,  IIM.  <^  Antiqutty,  v.  S,  bk.  8.  ch.  8. 

CARMATHIANS,  Tht.— "In  the  277th 
Tear  of  the  Hegira  [A.  D.  890],  and  in  the  nelgh- 
butirfaood  of  Cufa,  an  Arabian  preacher  of  the 
name  uf  Carmath  assumed  tlic  lofty  ami  tncom- 
pruliensl'i'.e  style  of  tlie  Qutde,  tlie  Director,  tlie 
Ik-monatration,  the  Word,  the  Hiily  Gliost,  tlie 
Camel,  tlic  Herald  of  the  Mi'ssiah,  who  hiul  cci- 
Terwil  with  him  in  a  human  sliape,  ami  the 
rfpri'mntatire  of  Mohammed  the  son  of  All,  of 
St.  Jiilin  tlic  Itiiptist,  and  of  the  Aniti'l  tliibrii-l," 
t'annalli  »ii»  one  of  the  eastern  priwi'lviig  of  tlie 

K.Tt  of  tlic  Uliiiutileans  or  Ishmailites—  tlie  same  _ 

fMm  wlilcli  sprang  tlie  k'rrible  secret  order  of  ]   heim,  InUituU*  of  EecUtiiulieal  Uuton 
the  Awiusiua     He  foL  -Ipd  another  branch  of  '  etnt'g  12,  pt.  8,  eh.  8,  tett  21 

the  Uliiiiailcans,  which,  tailing  his  name,  were  ~    '      '  ~ 

callctl  the  Carmathians.  The  s<'ct  made  rajiid 
fiaiu.*  among  the  Bedouins  and  were  su<>n  a  for- 
Miidalile  and  uncontrollable  bixly.  "After  a 
liliK«iy  conflict  they  prevailed  In  tlie  province  of 
Bahrein,  alimg  the  PersUn  Oulf  Fur  and  wide 
tlic  tribes  of  tlic  desert  were  subject  to  tlie 
Kvptre,  or  rather  to  the  swurd,  of  Abu  Said  and 
liiHMin  AbuTaher;  and  these  ri'brliioiis  imams 
ci.iiKl  iiiurtcr  In  the  field  107,000  fanatics.  .  .  . 
TliiM'lliesof  Itucca  and  Baulliec,  of  Cufa  an<l 
Bawirali.  were  taken  and  pillaged ;  Bagdad  was 
fliltil  with  conateniation :  and  tlie  caliph  trembliil 
btliiiul  tlie  veiU  of  hi*  palace.  .  .  .  The  rapine 
of  the  Carmathians  was  unnctlfled  by  their  aver- 
ilea  U>  the  worahip  of  Mecca.  They  robbed  a 
caravan  of  pilgrluia,  and  aO.iKM)  devout  Moalems 
Wire  abnmiiiiiwl  on  the  burning  sands  t«  a  death 
iif  ImuKi  r  ami  thirat.  Anotlicr  yi'nr  |A.  I).  Bilt) 
lliey  nitfcriKl  the  pilgriiiw  to  pmccihI  without 
liitemiptiiin;  but,  in  the  festival  of  devotion. 
Aim  I'iiher  stormed  the  holy  city  and  trampld 
on  ilic-  mmt  venerable  rt'lics  of  the  Mahometan 
failJi.  Thirty  thouaaihl  clll/.em  ami  sirangcra 
wer»-  put  to  the  swoni;  the  saeml  precincts 
were  |>„l|utc.|  by  the  burial  of  8,0(10  dead  Uidk'S; 
the  Well  (if  Zemzen  overflowed  with  blood ;  the 
giiMen  ii|<,iut  was  forced  from  lU  place;  llic 
veil  of  tlie  Caalis  was  divided  among  Uu-se  Ini. 
[.i..ui.  m-iurirs:  and  tlie  black  stone,  the  nr»t 
Bionunient  of  the  nation,  was  heme  away  In 
Wumph  to  their  capiul.  After  this  deed  of 
Mcrlli  gc  and  cruelty  they  ountlaued  lo  lufaat  the 


CARNOT. 

confines  of  Irak,  Syria  and  Egypt;  but  the  vital 
principle  of  enthusiasm  had  withered  at  the  root 
.  .  .  It  Is  needless  to  enquire  into  what  factions 
they  were  broken,  or  by  whose  swords  they  were 
finally  extirpated.  The  sect  of  the  Carmathians 
may  be  coDsidered  as  the  second  visible  cause  of 
the  decline  and  fall  of  the  empire  of  the  cidiphs." 
— E.  Gibbon,  Dtdint  and  fiiU  of  the  Homan  Em- 
pin,  eh.  58,  and  note  by  Dr.  Ant'tA.— See,  also, 

AsSASaiNBk 

CARMELITE  FRIARS.- "About  the 
middle  of  the  ri2th]  century,  one  Berthold,  a  Cala- 
brian,  with  a  few  companions,  migrated  to  Mount 
Carmel  [Palestine],  and  in  the  place  where  the 
prophet  Ellas  of  old  is  said  to  have  hid  himself, 
built  a  humble  cottage  with  a  chapel.  In  which 
he  and  his  associates  led  a  laborious  and  solitary 
life.  As  othera  continued  to  unite  themselves 
with  these  residenU  on  Mount  Carmel,  Albert  the 
patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  near  the  commencement 
of  the  next  century,  prescribed  for  them  a  rule 
of  life;  which  the  pontiffs  afterwards  sanctinned 
by  their  authority,  and  also  changed  in  various 
Teapects,  and  when  it  was  found  too  rigorous 
and  burdensome,  mitigated  considerably.  Such 
waa  the  origin  of  the  celebrated  order  of  Car- 
melites, or  as  It  is  commonly  called  the  order  of 
St  Mary  of  Mount  Carmel  [and  known  iu  Eng- 
land as  the  White  Friars] ;  »  hich  subseiiucntly 
passed  from  Syria  into  Europe,  and  became  one 
of  the  prlncliNtl  mendicant  oniera.  The  Carmel- 
ites themselves  reject  with  disdain  this  account 
of  their  origin,  and  most  strenuously  contend  tliat 
tlie  holy  prophet  Eliiis  of  the  M  Testament, 
waa  the  parent  and  founder  of  tlieir  society. 
But  they  were  able  to  persuade  very  few,  (or 
rather  none  out  of  their  society),  that  their  origin 
was  so  ancient  and  Illustrious.  "—J.  L,  von  .>Io»- 

Ik.  8. 
.en.  »,  tett.  'i\. 

Al.«ora:  G.  Wiiddlngton,  //i»*.  of  the  Churth, 
eh.  to,  tect.  8.— J.  Alzog,  Manual  of  UmtyrmU 
Church  Ilitt.,  net.  344  (r.  2).— E.  L.  Cutts,  Seen** 
and  Charaelert  of  tlie  .Viitdle  Agee,  eh.  5. 

CARMICNANO,  Battle  of  (1796).  See 
France:  A.  D.  170)1-1797  (October— .\piiil). 

CARNABII,  OR  CORNABII,  The.  See 
Bhitaim,  Celtic  TuBEa 

CARNAC.    See  Ahirt. 

CARNATIC.    8<'e  Karnatic. 

CARNEIAN  FESTIVAL.  The.-A  Spar 
tan  festival,  said  to  Imvc  been  institutiii  11.  C. 
676.  "  The  Cameian  festival  fell  in  the  i^paitan 
month  Camrius,  the  Athenian  Metageituon.  cor- 
resnomling  nearly  to  our  August.  It  was  held 
in  honour  of  A|iollo  Carneius.  a  deity  worshipped 
from  very  ancient  times  in  the  Pclo|Hiiiiiese, 
especially  at  Amvclte.  ...  It  wa;  of  a  warlike 
character,  like  the  Athenian  HoedrOmla. "— U, 
lUwllnson,  Sotr  to  l/rnmli'liit,  bi.  7. 

Also  IN :  E.  Curtlus,  ;/■•(.  of  Orrtre,  bk.  2,  ch.  1. 

CARNIANS,  The.    H.>e  [(ilktians. 

CARNIFEX  FERRY,  Balllt  of.  Sec 
UifiTEu  States  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  ISOl  (Aiofsr- 
Dbckkrer:  West  Viruiniai. 

CARNONACA,  Th«.  See  Britaik,  Celth: 
Tribes. 

CARNOT,  Lasara  N.  M.,  and  the  French 
|(a*9hitiM|,  H<-t>  KuAMrg:  A.  L>  17<>!<  (JcyE— 
OiToiiKR),  to  17V7  (Septembkh),  and  IHOl^-1801 
(May— Februaht). 

CARNOT,  Prasldtat,  Assaaaioatloa  oC 
8et^  Fiu.'^iK ;  A.  U   i'*ili-18«j. 


401 


»Ti 


CARNTTTEa 

CARNUTES,  The.  A  tribe  who  occupied 
•  region  siippnaed  to  be  the  center  of  Gaul.  The 
modern  city  of  Chartrcg  stands  In  the  midit  of 
Jt.  —  Q.  Lonp,  Ikrlint  of  the  Honmn  Bepublie,  ». 
8,  rA.  S2.— Sec.  also,  Veneti  or  WBaTERN  Qavl. 

CAROLINA  GRANTS.  See  Axbrica: 
A.  I).  1639;  and  NoBTB  Caboldia:  A.  D.  lt»- 
167(). 

CAROLINAS,  The.    See  North  Caboliha, 

■nd  S<H'TH  CAROLtSA. 

CAROLINE,  Qaeea,  Trial  oC    See  Eko- 
LAND:  A.  D.  1820-1827. 
CAROLINE,   The   Buning:  of  tb*.    See 

Cakada:  a.  O.  1887-1838.  and  1640-1841. 

CAROLINE  BOOKS,  The.— A  work  put 
forth  hv  ClmrlcniHgnc  a^lngt  imnire- worship. 

CAROLINE  ISLANDS.-An  extenalTe 
group  of  sniiill  isliinils  in  the  Pacific,  lying  aouth- 
eastWiinllv  from  the  Pliilippines,  were  first  called 
the  New  Philippines,  but  afterwards  named  the 
Carolines,  in  honor  of  Charles  tl.  of  Spain.  The 
Islets  are  some  .lOO  in  number,  but  their  total 
population  is  only  20,000  or  .'»,(KX),  mostly  con- 
taineil  in  the  three  Isrtrer  islands,  Ruk,  or  tlouk, 
Poimpe,  an<l  Yap,  or  Qnap.  That  some  of  them 
were  onee  inhnbiU>d  by  a  race  capable  of  great 
works  is  shown  by  the  existence  of  ruins,  con- 
strurti'd  of  enormous  basalt  blocks.  The  ei- 
Istina;  natives  are  Polynesian.  The  Carolines 
were  (li<eovere<l  by  the  Portuguese,  in  1527, 
Their  possesion  was  long  in  dispute  between 
Spain  and  (Ji-rmany,  but  settled,  by  papal  arbi- 
tration, in  favor  of  the  former,  In  1885, 

CAROLINGIANS.  See  Praito  (Caro 
IINOIAN  Kmpihk);  a.  D.  768-814 

CARPFT-BAGCERS.  See  Vnmo  States 
OP  .\M  :   A    I)    1H66-1871. 

CARK  .-ilKE.— A  Koman  work  In  Britain, 
formed  t.  1  the  draining  of  the  Lincolnshire 
Fens,  :iiii;  iiml,  also,  as  a  road.— II.  M.  Scarth, 
Bomiin  Rritnin,  eh.  16. 

CARRACKS,  OR  CARACS.-"A  large 
spwies  of  merchant  vessel,  principally  used  In 
coasting  trade. "  among  the  Spsnianls  of  the  15th 
and  Iflth  centuries.— W.  Irving,  life  and  Vof/agm 
ef  lUnm/mt,  A*.  «,  M.  1  (r.  1),  /x/t-nofe.  —  See, 
also.  Caravri.s. 

CARRARA  FAMILY,  The:  Its  rias  to 
aoTsreipitr  at  Padua  and  its  atrunl*  with 
the  Visconti  of  Milan.  See  Verona;  A,  D. 
l*8i»-|.t:iH.  and  Milan:  A.  I)    1277-1447 

n  *;A?-''.*1*'  ^"!;»  "'  '"•  C-  S3).   See  Ro¥« : 
^^„'y-W (A.  D.  »97).    See  Pbrsia:  A.  D. 

Ca'rRICK'SFORO,  BattlaoC  See  United 

8TATK«nrAM.  :    A.  I).  18ei(JuNB_j0LT:    WbsT 
VlRlllNHV 

CARROCCIO.  Th».-"The  militia  of  eTerr 
rity  |Im  Lonilmnly,  or  northern  luly,  elerenth 
and  iwi  lull  rentiirles)  wasdivldnl  Into  separate 
bodim,  a(  i-ortllnjf  to  IihsI  partitions,  each  fed  by 
a  O<mfalonlere,  or  slandar<l-lM>an>r.  They  fought 
on  f'Mit.  anil  Hnwinhled  niund  the  camKilo  a 
heavy  car  drawn  hy  oxen,  and  covere<l  with  the 
flap  ami  annorlal  la-nrings  of  the  clly  A  high 
pole  nw  ill  ilie  niiildle  of  this  car,  iH^aring  tfic 
<x>louri  anil  a  Clulsl  which  siTmed  to  bless  tlie 
army,  wiili  Imtli  amis  rxtendeti.  A  prlmi  said 
dally  inaxs  at  an  alt«r  plaiid  In  the  fn>nt  of  the 
Mr  T!h'  trmnpeter!!  -.^f  tUr  r:-jr.R,!5r,j?y  w^fa.) 
on  Hip  \mk  part,  aoiiiKle.)  Hh'  charge  ami  the 
retreat  It  was  llerihert,  arriiblahop  of  Milan 
toBlemporary  of  Cammi  itm  Salic,  wlw  ioTealwi 


1897, 
Eiro- 


OAirTHAO,u,. 

this  car  In  Imitation  of  the  ark  of  allUnce  sm) 
caused  It  to  be  adopted  at  Milan.  All  the  free 
cities  of  Italy  followed  the  example:  this  sacred 
car,  Intrusted  to  the  guardianship  of  the  militia, 

gave  them  weight  and  confidence."— J.  C.  L  de 
Ismondl,  ITitt.af  the  Italian  Remibliet.  eh  i 
CARTERET,    Sir  George,   The 
Grant  to.    See  New  Jbbset:  A.  D,  V 
tJ  1688-1738, 

CARTERET'S   MINISTRY.     See 
lAND:  A.  D.  1742-1745. 

CARTHAGE,  The  foanding:  ot-Ethb»al 
or  Ithobaal,  a  priest  of  Astsrte,  acquired  possejl 
slon  of  the  throne  of  Tyre  B.  C.  917,  deixisine 
and  putting  to  death  the  legitimate  prince  a 
descendant  of  Hiram,  Solomon  a  ally  and  friend 
The  Jezebel  of  Jewish  history,    who  married 
Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  was  the  daughter  of  this 
king  Ethbaal.     "  Ethbaal  was  succceiled  bv  hii 
son  Balezor  (885-877  B.  C).     After  eight  years 
Balezor  left  two  sons,  Mutton  and  Sicluirhaal 
both  under  age,  ,  .  ,  Mutton  died  in  the  yenr 
858  B.  C.  and  again  left  a  son  nine  Tears  old 
Pygmalion,  and  a  daughter,  Eliasa.  a  few  ycirj 
older,   whom  he  ha<i  married  to   his   hmihor 
SIcharbaal,  the  priest  of  the  temple  of  Melkarth 
Mutton  had  intended  that  Elissa  and  IVirnialiiin 
should  ri'ign   together,  and  tlms  the  power  n>iillv 
passed  into  the  liands  of  SIcharbaal,  tliehuKlpiind 
of   Elissa.      When  Pygmalion  reached  \x\n  six. 
tcenth  year  the  people  transferred  tn  him  the 
sovereignly  of  Tyre,  and  he  put  Slcliarliii:il  his 
uncle,  to  death  ,  ,  .  (tweB.C).    Elissa  (,.r  liiio, 
as  she  was  also  cslle<l]  fled  from  Tvte  Nfiin-  her 
brother,  as  we  are  told,  with  others  who  would 
not  submit  to  the  tvtsnny  of  Pygmalion.    Th« 
exiles  ...  are  said  ,  ,  ,  to  liave  laniiwl  on  ihe 
const  of  Africa.  In  the  neigh Nmrhood  of  Ityke 
the  old  colony  of  the   Phenlcians.  and  then''  to 
have  bought  as  much  land  of  the  Libvanj  u 
could   be  covered  by  the  skin  of  an  lix.    Br 
diviiling  this  Into  very  thin  strips  they  ohtaineii 
a  ph-ce  of  land  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  build 
a  fortress.     This  nr>w  dwelling-place,  or  the  ilty 
which  grew  up  round  this  fortress,  the  waniler- 
ers  callwl.  In  reference  to  their  old  home,  Knr- 
thada  (Karta  hadasha),   1.   e.,   "the  new  cliy,' 
the   Karrhedon  of  the  Qm-ks,  the  Carth.iire  of 
the  liomans.      The   legend  of  the  punlmsi'  of 
the  soli  mav   have  arisen  fmm  the  fait  that 
the  settlers  for  a  long  time  paid  tribute  to  the 
ancient    population,    the    Maxvsns,    for   iliilr 
soil."— M.    Duncker,    llitl.  of  Antimit),  hk.  3, 
eh.  II. 

Al«oi^:  J.  Kenrirk,  Phnemria  :  Iti'l.i'h.  1 
Divisions,  Sin  and  Population,— "Hii'  iliv 
pmiHT,  at  the  time  at  whirh  It  Is  liest  known  let 
us,  the  per'  I  of  the  Punic  wars,  eon»istii|  nf 
the  Hyrsa  or  Citadel  quarter,  a  (Jnik  w.inl 
corruivleil  from  the  Canaanltiah  Uorra.  orIl.«tni. 
that  (s,  a  fort,  ami  of  the  Cotliim  or  h.irliour 
quarter,  so  Important  in  Hie  history  of  thi'  final 
siege.  To  the  north  and  wmt  of  tlii«i.  iiml 
occupying  all  the  vast  -pace  belmeen  IImmi  nnil 
the  Isthmus  Is'liind,  wini  the  Megara  (iirlm'ir, 
Mairurim),  that  Is,  the  suburbs  and  i:<ir>li'ii«  of 
Carthage,  which,  with  the  city  pM|'iT,  mvireil 
an  an'a  of  211  mile*  In  clrcii-nferemiv  \\*  |«i|mi- 
lation  must  have  lieen  fuiiy  pn>piirlh>netl  loiu 
siir.  Just  hrfnrc  the  third  Punic  w.ir,  whrn  ia 
strength  had  lieen  drained  ...  It  contained 
IM.im  inhabitants."— a  B  Bmltb,  CirtKaft 
ami  th»  QirthagiHiani,  eh.  I. 


402 


cabtha6b. 


CARTHAOE. 


C&rthafeBl«a  Commerce, 

CIEXT. 

The  Dominion  ot— "  AH  our  podtlre  Infor- 
mation, scanty  u  it  la,  about  Carthage  and  her 
institutions,    relates    to  the    fourth,   third,   or 
second  centuries  B.  C. ;  ret  it  may  lie  held  to 
justify  presumptive  conclusions  as  to  the  fifth 
centurr  B.   C,  especially  in  refei.   m  to  the 
general  system  pursued.    The  maximum  of  her 
power  was  attained  before  her  first  war  with 
Rome,  which  began  in  2«4  B.  C. ;  the  first  and 
H'cnnd  Punic  wars  both  of  them  greatly  reducc<i 
bcr  strength  and  dominion.     Yetln  spite  of  such 
mlurtion  wo  Icam  that  alMut  ISO  B.  C.  shortly 
bcfnrc  the  third  Punic  war,  which  ended  in  the 
captun'  and  depopulation  of  the  city,  not  less 
than  700.000  souls  were  computed  in  It,  as  occu- 
pants of  a  fortified  circumference  of  above  twenty 
miles,  covering  a  peninsula  with  Its  isthmus. 
Upon  this  Isthmus  its  ciMMlel  Byrsa  was  situated, 
surmunded  by  a  triple  wall  of  Its  oiwn,   and 
crowned  at  its  summit  by  a  magnificent  temple 
of  ^cuiapius.    The  numerous  population  Is  the 
more  remarkable,   since   Utica  (a   cnnsiderahic 
city,  nilonlzcd  from  Phoenicia  more  anciently 
than  even  Carthage  itself,  and  always  indci>en<l- 
cnt  >i  the  Cartliaginians,  though  In  the  condition 
of  an  inferior  nncldiscontenteu  ally)  was  within 
the  (lislanre  of  seven  mHcs  from  Cartilage  on  tlic 
one  side,  and  Tunis  si.-emingly  not  much  further 
nil  (in  Ihe  other.     I, ten  at  that  time,   too,  the 
Canli:is;iiiians  arc  tv.ul  to  have   |M>sse8Scd   3iK) 
tributjiry  cities  in   Libya.    Yet  tliis  wim  but  a 
smiill  fraction  of  tlie  prodigious  empire  wlilrli 
luid  iH'liinged  to  them  certainly  in  the  fourth 
cinturv  II  C.  and  in  all  probability  iilso lietwecri 
tHO-410  U.  C.     TImt  empire  extended  eastward 
as  fur  M  the  AUiirs  of  the  Philieiii,  near  the 
Cwit  Syrlis.— westward,  all  along  tlie  const  to 
the  I'illiirs  of  Herakles  and  the  western  const  of 
MdrtKii)     Tlie  line  of  roast  soutlieost  of  Car- 
tbaire.  lu  fur  as  the  bay  called  tlie  Lesser  Syrtls, 
was  proverbial  (under  tiic  name  of  Byzacium 
ami  tlie  Emporia)  fur  Its  fertility.     Along  this 
Mtensive    line     were    dislribukil     Indigenous 
I.lliyiin    tribes,   living    by  agriculture;    and    a 
mlxeil  population  called  Liby-Pha-nician.  .  .  . 
Of  Ihe  Llhy  i'hiciiician  towns  the  niimU'r  Is  not 
kniiwn  to  us.  but  it  must  liave  been  pnxllgioiisly 
gn'.it.  .  .  .  A  few  of  tlie  towns  niimg  the  coast. 
—  Hippo,  Utica,  Adrumctuin,  Thapsus,  Leptis, 
*c.— were  colonies  from  Tyre,   like  Cartliago 
Itself  .  .  .  Vet  the  Carthaginlnns  contrived  in 
time  to  rcnilcr  every  town  tributary,  with  the 
e«',.pti„n  of  Utica,  ...  At  one  time,  immedl- 
auly  after  the  first  Punic  war,  they  took  tnm 
the  mnil  cultivators  as  much  as  one-half  of  their 
proliiie.  and  doubled  at  one  stnike  the  tribute 
levliHl  upon  tlie  towns.  .  .  .  The  native  Cartlm- 
ginlan»,  iliough  encouragnl  by  honorary  marks 
to  iiinleriake  .  .  .  military  service  ytvn  gener- 
ally avirwj  to  it.  and  sparingly  employed. 
A   eh.«in    divlHioo  of   »,,V)0  cilisens,   men  of 
wenUl,  ,111.1  fmnlly.  formed  what  was  calltJ  the 
Nneml  Uuiid  of  Cartilage  distingtiialii'.l  f.>r  tin  ir 
liranrv  in  the  flelil  as  well  as  li>r  the  splemtoiir 
or  ihi  Ir  arms,   and   tlie  gold  anil  silver  plate 
»h Ml  f-rniHi  part  of  their  Iwggagc.     We  shall 
tlml  il„«.  ,iti,.,.n  troops  occaaionally  omphiynl 
•--•  -  • .  :t-  :n  ainiy ;  but  moat  iwrl  of  llw  Caniia- 
Itlnlaii  ,rmy  ronslaU  of  OhiiIs,  Ilierians,  Liby- 
ans. A,  ,  «  minghNl  host  got  fogetlier  for  ifio 
owssion,  ili»tordanl  In  koguage  u  well  as  lu 


See  Tbadc,  As-  [  enstoms."— O.  Orote,  But.  of  Oruee.  pi.  2 

81.  J  r       . 


eh. 


of  Syracuse.    See  Stra- 


See  Sicily: 


^3;. C.  4>0.— Invasion  of  Sicily.— Great  defeat 
•t  Utmen.    Sec  Sicily:  B.  C.  480 

«*•  C.  409-40$.— I'.vasions  of  Sicily.— De- 
struction of  Sehnus,  Himera  and  AKriMntum. 
See  Sicily:  B.  C.  409-40.5. 

B.  C.  3J«.— Siei 
oubb:  B.  C.  897-3S 

B.  C.  383.- War  with  Syracnte, 
B.  C,  888. 

B.  C.  3<o-30«.— Invasion  by  AKathokle*. 
See  Syracuse:  B.  C.  317--W0. 

B.  C.  a«4-34i.— The  first  war  with  Rome.— 
Expnlsion  from  Sicily.— Loss  of  maritime 
•npremacy.    See  Pisic  W.\n,  Tuk  Pihot. 

B.  C.  a4i-338.-ReT0lt  of  the  mercenaries. 
—At  the  clo»e  of  the  First  Punic  War,  the  vet- 
eran army  of  mercenaries  with  which  Hamilcar 
Barca  had  maintaine<l  himself  so  long  in  Sicily— 
a  motley  gathering  of  Greeks,  LIgurians,  Qauls, 
Ilierians,  Libyans  and  others  —  was  sent  over  to 
Carthage  for  the  long  arrears  of  pay  due  them 
and  for  their  discharge.    Tlie  party  in  power  in 
Cartilage,  being  liotli  incapable  and  mean,  and 
being  also  embarrassed  by  an  empty  treasury, 
exasperated    this   dangerous  body  of  men  by 
delays  and  by  attempts  nt  bargaining  with  tliem 
for  a  reduction  of  their  claims,  until  a  genenl 
mutiny  was  pn>vi>ked.     The  mercenaries,  20.001) 
strong,   with  Speiidiiis.  a  runaway  Campanian 
slave,  .Matlio,  an  African,  and  Autaritus,  a  Gaul, 
for  their  leaders,  mareluil  from  the  town  of  Sicca, 
where  they  were  quartered,   and  campeil  near 
Tunis,  tiireatening  Carthaec.    The  government 
becaiiio  panic-stricken    and    took    no  measures 
which  did    not    einlKilden    the    mutineers    and 
Increase  their  demands.     All  Ihe  oppressed  Afri- 
Gin  peoples  in  tlie  Carthaginian  iloinain  rose  to 
Join  the  revolt,  and  pounnl  into  the  hands  of  the 
mercenaries  tlie  tribute  money  which  (,'arthage 
would  have  wrung  from  them.     The  latter  was 
soon  brought  to  n  state  of  sore  distress,  without 
an  army,  witlmu-  ships,  and  with  Ita  supplies  of 
fooil  mostly  rut  olT.     The  neighboring  cities  of 
Utlra  and   Hippo  Zarytiis  were  besiegeil.      At 
length  the  Cartliaglnian  government,  roiitrollcd 
by  a  party  liiMtilu  to  llainilrar,  was  oliligcil  to 
call  hlni  to  tlie  command,  but  assoeiateiT  wllh 
him  ilanno,  his  liilten'<t  personal  enemy  and  the 
most  Incompetent  leadiT  nf  the  ruling  faction. 
Hamilcar  Hucceeileil.  after  a  despemto  and  limg 
struggle,  in  destroying  the  mutineers  to  almost 
tl     last  man,  and  In  saving  Carthage.     But  tlio 
war,  which  lasted  more  than  three  years  (U.  C. 
941-3;W),  was  mercilevi  and  horrilile  beyond  de- 
scription.    It  was  known  to  the  ancients  as  the 
" Truceless  War "  and  tlio   "Inexpiablo  War." 
The  nvnct  ami  circiini<tanccs  of  it  have  lieen  ex- 
tnionliiiarily  piciureii  in  KlaulH-rt's  " tSaiammlio, " 
whiili  is  one  of  the  most  revolting  but  moat 
powerful  of  historical  romances.— it.  B.  Smith, 
Carthiigt  ami  thf  Cirlhii'/ininiu,  M   8. 
Also  i.\  :  W    lime,  //,W.  of  llmw.  hk.  4,  M,  4. 
B.  C.  337-aoa. -Hamilcar  in   Spain.— The 
second  war  with  Rome.— Hannibal  in   ItalT 
and  Sicilr.- Scipio  in  Africa.— The  rreat  de- 
feat at  Zaraa.— Loss  of  naval  dominion  and 
of  Spain.    See  I'fMc  War.  Tii«  .SKrovn 

B.  C.  146.— Osstructioa  by  Scipio.— Cat 
tliaife  exisu-d  by  Kimian  sufferance  for  fifty 
years  after  the  endlnij  of  the  Second  Punic  War, 
aud  even  rwxivun.'d  some  considerable  prosperity 


408 


m 


CARTHAGE. 

In  tnde,  though  Rome  took  care  that  her  chances 
for  recovery  sLniild  be  slight.    When  Hannibal 
gave  signs  of  bt'ing  able  to  reform  the  govern- 
ment of  the  city  and  to  distinguish  himself  in 
(tatesnunship  as  he  had  Immortalized  himself  in 
war,  Kome  denuuide<l  him,  and  be  escaped  her 
chains  only    by   Higlit.     When,  even    without 
Ilannibal,  Carthage  slowly  repaired  the  broken 
fortunes  of  her  merchants,  there  was  an  enemy 
at  her  door  always  ready,  at  tlie  bidding  of 
Itome,  to  plunder  them  afresh.    This  was  Mas- 
sinissa,  the  Numldian  prince,  client  and  obedient 
servant  of  the  Roman  state.    Again  and  again 
the  helpless  Carthaginians  appealetl  to  Rome  to 
protect  them  from  his  depredations,  and  finally 
they  ventureil  to  attempt  the  protection  of  them- 
sel  ves.    Then  the  patient  perfidy  of  Roman  state- 
craft grasped  iu  reward.     It  had  waited  many 
years  for  the  provocations  of  Massinlssa  to  work 
their  effect;    the  maddened  Carthaginians  had 
broken,  at  last,  the  hard  letter  of  the  treaty  of  201 
by  assailing  the  friend  and  ally  of  Rome.     The 
pretext  suHlced  for  a  new  declaration  of  war,  with 
the  fixed  purpose  of  pressing  It  to  the  last  ex- 
treme.   Old  Cato,  who  had  lieen  crying  in  the 
e.irs  of  the  Senate,    "Cartliago   delemla   est," 
should    have   his   will.    Tlie   doomed    Cartha- 
cinians  were  kept   in   Ignonmce   of    the    fule 
decrecil,  until  they  hud  been  foully  tricked  into 
the  surrender  of  their  arms  and  the  whole  arma- 
ment (if  their  city.     But  wlien  they  knew  the 
dreadful  truth,  they  tli'ew  off  all  cowardice  and 
rose  to  such  a  majestv  of  spirt  as  had  never 
been  exhibited  in  their  liislory  bi'foro.     Without 
Weapons,  or  engines  or  ships,  until  they  made 
them  anew,  they  shut  their  gates  and  kept  the 
Human  armies  out  for  more  than  two  years.     It 
was  another  Selpio,  adoptetl  grandson  and  name- 
sake of  the  conquiTtir  of  Hannibal,  who  finally 
entrred  Cartlwge  (B.  C.  146),  fought  his  way  to 
iu  eitodei.  sireet  by  street,  and,  against  his  own 
wish,  by  command  of  the  Implacable  senate  at 
Rome,  levelli-d  its  last  building  to  the  earth, 
after  sending  the  inhabitants  who  survived  to  be 
sold  as  slaves.— R   B.  Smith,  Cart/iagt  arul  tin 
Cartluigiiiiuru,  eh.  20. 
Alko  in:  11.  O.  Liddell.  ITitt.  of  Rome,  ch.  4«. 
B.  C.  44.— Restoratioa  br  Casar.— 'A  sit- 
tlement  named  Junonia,  had  Uen  miulc  at  Car- 
thage   by    C.    Oracclius   [which  furnislu-d    his 
eiiuinics  one  of  thi'ir  weapons  against  him.  be- 
I'ause.  Ilicy  said,  he  liiul  itmwn    in  himsi'lf  the 
curse  of  »( iplo]  and  it  appears  that  the  city  of 
Gracchus  s:ill  existed.    Caesar  restored  the  old 
name,  and,  as  Strabo  savs,    rebuilt  the  place: 
many  Ihimaiis  who  preferred  Carthage  to  IJoiuo 
wcrest-nt  there,  ami  some  soldiers :  and  It  Is  now, 
adds  Straho  [reign  of  Augustus)  more  populous 
than  any  town  in  Lilya.  "—(i.  Long,  Ikelinf  uf  tin 
Jiiiodii  liiiiulilii;  t.  6.  M.  32. 

ad-4th  Ctnturies.— The  Christimn  Church. 
Sei'CiiiiisriAXiTV:  A.  I).  1(I(.-312. 

A.  D.  439.-T«ken  by  th*  Vandalt.- 
( artliagc  wiw  surpriwl  and  captured  bv  the 
VamlaU  on  tlie  Uth  of  Dei.,  A.  D.  4:)9,— nine 
years  after  the  conquest  ami  deailruetlon  of  the 
African  provinrcs  by  Oinseric  hi-gaii.— ,VH 
years  afUT  the  ancient  Carthaire  was  destniyiil 
by  Selpio.  "A  new  city  ha.!  risen  fn>m  its 
rulBs.  with  the  Uth-  „f  a  r;..!...ny;  gthi  tlh.ug!, 
Cartilage  might  yield  to  tlie  niyal  prerogallvt-s 


CARTHAOE. 

maintained  the  seconl  rank  in  the  West— u  the 
Rome  (if  we  may  use  the  style  of  contemporariesi 
of  the  African  world.  .  .  .  The  buildhigs  of  Car- 
thage were  uniform  and  magnificent.  A  sbadr 
grove  was  planted  in  the  midst  of  the  capital- 
le  new  port,  a  secure  and  capacious  harbour' 
was  subservient  to  the  eommereial  industry  of 
citizens  and  strangers;  and  the  splendid  gameaof 
the  circus  and  theatre  were  exhibited  almost  hi 
the  presence  of  the  barbarians.  The  repuutlon 
of  the  Carthaginians  was  not  equal  to  tliat  of 
their  country,  and  the  reproach  of  Punic  faith 
still  adhered  to  their  subtle  and  faithless  charac 
ter.  The  habits  of  trade  and  the  abuse  of 
luxury  had  corrupted  their  manners.  .  .  The 
King  of  the  Vandals  severely  reformed  the  vices 
of  a  voluptuous  people.  .  .  .  The  lands  of  the 
proconsular  province,  which  formed  the  Im- 
mediate district  of  Carthage,  were  aecirately 
measured  and  divided  among  the  barbarians  • 
•-E.  OlUmn.  Dedine  and  fhU  of  tlie  Ihmin 
Bmpin,  cA.  83.— See,  also,  yAHDAi,8:  A.  D.  429- 
439. 

A.   D.   533 — Taken    by   Bclisarius.     See 
Vandals.  A.  D.  583-334. 

A.  D.  531-SS».-The  TroWnce  of  Africa 
after  Justmian^s  conquest.— "Suecc8.sive  ln- 
riHids  [of  the  Moorish  trib<-s]  had  reslucHl  the 
province  of  Africa  to  onetliini  of  the  n-caoure 
of  Italy;  yet  the  Roman  emperors  conthiuwl  to 
reign  aUive  a  century  over  Cartilage  unci  the 
fruitful  coast  of  the  MMllterrauean.  But  the 
victories  and  the  Iosskw  of  Justinian  were  alike 
pernicious  to  mankind;  and  such  was  the  dcsiila- 
tion  of  A'rica  that  a  stranger  might  wander  whole 
days  without  meeting  the  face  either  of  a  friend 
or  an  enemy.  The  nstion  of  the  Van.  hi  Is  liad 
disappeare<l.  .  .  .  Their  numbers  were  inliniiiiv 
surpassed  by  tiie  number  of  the  Moorish  fiiniiliii 
extirpated  in  a  relentless  war;  and  the  same 
destruction  waa  retaliate*!  on  the  Romans  and 
their  allies,  who  perished  by  the  ,.llinaU'.  their 
mutual  quarrels,  and  the  rage  of  the  barliariana. 
When  Procopius  first  landed  [with  lleh^urius, 
A.  D.  533]  lie  oumireil  tlio  impulousneis  of  ilie 
cities  and  country,  strenuou.sly  exereised  in  tlie 
labours  of  commerce  and  agriculture.  In  le« 
than  twenty  years  that  busy  scene  was  converted 
into  a  silent  8<ilitude;  the  wealthy  ciil/ein 
escaped  Ui  .Sicily  and  Constantinople ;  and  the 
secret  historian  has  confidently  afflrmed  thai  tlui 
millions  of  Africans  were  c<msuir.e<l  hv  tin'  wars 
and  government  of  the  Emperor  Justiiiian  '  -E. 
Olbbon,  Dteliiu  and  Wi«  „/  th»  Itaman  h'miiire, 
cA.  43.  '^ 

A.  D.  A98.— Oestrjction  by  the  Arabs.-"  In 
the  77lh  year  of  the  Hegira  \.\..  I).  HW]  .  .  . 
.Alxralmalec  [thoCalliih]  sent  llossan  Ibn  An- 
uo'man,  at  the  lieail  of  4I).0UU  choice  tniiipn.  to 
carry  out  the  scheme  of  African  fonquest  [wlilth 
hail  Iniiguished  for  some  yiiars,  during  the  civil 
wars  among  the  Moslems].  That  genenil  pressed 
forwani  at  onci'  with  his  triMips  against  theciiv 
of  Carthage,  which,  though  deillnei!  fnmi  lis 
ancient  might  and  glory,  was  still  an  ln.|.irtaiit 
seaport,  forlillcil  wlili  lofty  walls.  Imuglitj  i.iwtn 
ami  iMJwerfiil    bulwarks,   and  had  a  numoiDus 


garrisiHi  of  (ii-eeks  and  other  Christians.     lluasHa 
proceeded  acconllng  to  the  old  Arab  moii.-;  he- 
Inigucrinff  and  ri.iuelitg  it  by  a  twUH  »h)(e.  tw 
Zri<.'Z'2i'.^','i^"^\'~"'i"'  "r  '"■'"'  H""*""""      <hcn  Bssallcil  It  bv  storm,  scaled  Us  hifiv  wsilt 
ll.^3^   rirl*'.^L  »  .P*'""!"  ««,the  traite  of      with  tadih  ™,  and'  inailo  hlmsi'ir  masteruf  tl,.. 
Aieuwlria  or  Uie  splUMluur  of  Aiiiioeli,  site  stUl     plaoe.    Mwy  of  the  UUutblUuiU  fcU  by  the  vtigt 


404 


CABTHAQE. 


CARTOUCHE. 


of  the  sword ;  many  eicaped  by  sea  to  Sicily  and 
gpain.  The  walU  were  then  demolished ;  the 
citywas  given  up  to  be  plundered  by  the  aol- 
dierr,  the  meanest  of  whom  was  enriched  by 
tnoty.  .  ■  ■  The  triumph  of  the  Hotlem  host 
was  suddenly  interrupted.  While  they  were 
tevelling  in  the  ravaged  palaces  of  Carthage,  a 
fleet  appeared  before  the  port ;  snapped  the  strong 
chsin  which  guarded  the  entrance,  and  sailed 
hito  the  harbor.  It  was  a  combined  force  of  ships 
and  troops  from  Constantinople  and  Sicily ;  re- 
infora'd  by  Ooths  from  Spain ;  all  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  prefect  John,  a  patrician  eeneral  of 
great  valor  and  experience.  Hosaan  felt  himself 
unable  to  cope  with  such  a  force;  he  withdrew, 
however  in  good  order,  and  conducted  his  troops 
laden  wiUi  spoils  to  Tripoli  and  Caerwan,  and, 
iiaving  strongly  posted  them,  he  awaited  rein- 
forcemenU  from  the  Caliph.  Theae  arrived  in 
course  of  time  by  sea  and  land.  Hoisan  again 
took  the  field ;  encountered  the  prefect  John,  not 
far  from  Utica,  defeated  him  in  a  pitclied  Iwttle 
and  drove  him  to  embark  the  wrecks  of  his  army 
and  make  all  sail  for  Constantinople.  Carthage 
was  again  assailed  by  the  victora,  and  now  its 
desolatiim  was  complete,  for  the  vengeance  of 
the  Moslems  gave  that  majestic  city  to  the  flames. 
A  hcup  of  ruins  and  the  remains  of  a  noble  aque- 
duct are  all  the  relics  of  a  metropolis  that  once 
valiantly  contended  for  dominion  with  Rome." 
— W  Irving,  Mahomet  and  hit  Sueet—an,  t.  2, 
cA.  M. 

Also  i!«:  N.  Davis,  Carthage  and  Her  tlemain*. 
— S«',  ilso,  Mahometak  Cosr^cMT;  A.  D.  647- 
709. 

CARTHAGE,  Mo.,  Battle  of.  See  United 
States  or  Am.  :  A.  1).  1891  (JtXT— Sbpibmbeb: 

Miesoi'Ri). 
CARTHAGENA  (NEW  CARTHACt  .- 

The  founding  of  the  city.— Ilasdrubal.son  .  law 
am!  sunt-ssor  of  Ilamilcar  Rarca  In  Si>ain,  founded 
New  Ci,  rthage — modem  Carthagena — some  t  ime 
between  229  and  231  B.  0.  to  be  the  capital  of 
the  C'artliadnian  dominion  in  the  Spanish  pcuin- 
>ula.-ll.  B.  Smith,  Carthage  and  the  Cartlia- 
ffinMns,  eh.  9. 

Captor*  by  Scipio.  See  Ptmic  Wab.  Tnx 
Skcosd. 

Settlement  of  the  Alaat  in.  See  Spagi: 
A  D.  4U»-414. 

CARTHAGENA  (S.Am.):  A.  D.  1697.- 
Taken  and  sacked  by  the  French.—  One  of  the 

la«t  enterprliK'S  uf  the  French  In  the  war  which 
was  cKwed  by  Hie  I'cacu  of  Uyawick  —  under- 
taken. In  fact,  while  the  negotiations  at  liyswick 
were  in  progress —  waa  the  storming  and  aacking 
nf  Carthagena  by  a  privateer  squadron,  from 
Brest,  commanded  by  ruar-admintl  Vointis,  April, 
16U7.  "The  inhabitants  were  allowed  to  carry 
uwar  their  effects;  but  all  the  gold,  silver,  and 
priciiius  Ktoucs  were  the  prey  01  tlu  conqueror. 
I'«iiiii«  .  .  .  reentrn?<l  Brest  safe  and  sound. 
I>r<iii;ing  Imck  to  his  sliipowncrs  more  than  ten 
milliiiuH.  Tlie  nWccrs  of  the  squailron  and  the 
privHt -ers hail  well  provldwl  for  themselves  be- 
>i<les,  ami  the  Hpuniards  hail  pmliably  lost  more 
tlian  twentv  milliona"— It.  Martin.  J/itt.  of 
fUnft:  .ijo  of  LmUXt  V.  (<r.  »*  31 ' L.  Booth), 
r  i.  rh  i 

A.  D.  1741.— Attack  and  repulM  of  the 
Sii(lish.    ik-«  EauuaxD:  A.  1).  17S9-1741. 


A.  D.  iSlS.— Siege  and  capture  by  the 
Spaniarda.  See  Colombian  States:  A.  D.  1819- 
1819. 

CARTHUSIAN  ORDER.- La  Grande 
Chartreuse.—"  8t.  Bruno,  once  a  canon  of  St. 
Cunlbert's,  at  Cologne,  and  afterward  chan- 
cellor of  the  metiopolitan  church  of  Rheims,  fol- 
lowed by  six  companions,  founded  a  monastery 
near  Orenoble,  amid  the  bleak  and  rugged 
mountains  of  the  desert  of  Cliartreuse  (A.  D. 
1084).  The  rule  given  bv  St.  Bruno  to  his  disci- 
ples waa  founded  upon  that  of  St.  Iknedict,  but 
with  such  modiflcatlons  as  almost  to  make  of  It 
a  new  and  particular  one.  The  Carthusians  were 
very  nearly  akin  to  the  monks  of  Vallis-Umbrosa 
and  Camaldoll ;  they  led  the  same  kind  of  life  — 
the  eremitical  Joined  to  the  cenobltlc.  Each  re- 
ligious had  his  own  cell,  where  ho  spent  the  week 
in  solitude,  and  met  the  community  only  on  Sun- 
day. .  .  .  Never,  perhaps,  had  the  monastic  life 
surroimded  itself  with  such  rigors  and  holy  aus- 
terities. .  .  .  The  religious  were  bound  to  a  life- 
long silence,  having  renounced  the  world  to  hold 
converse  with  Heaven  alone.  Like  the  solitaries 
of  Thebals  they  never  eat  meat,  and  their  dress, 
as  an  additional  penance,  consisted  only  of  a 
sack-cloth  garment.  Manual  labors,  broken  only 
by  the  exercise  of  common  prayer;  a  board  on 
the  bare  earth  for  a  couch ;  a  narrow  cell,  where 
the  religious  twice  a  day  receives  his  slight 
allowance  of  boiled  herbs; — such  Is  the  life  of 
pious  austerities  of  which  the  world  knows  not 
the  heavenly  sweetness.  For  800  years  has  this 
order  continued  to  edify  and  to  serve  the  Cliurrh 
by  the  practice  of  the  most  sublime  virtue ;  and 
Its  very  rigor  seems  to  hold  out  a  mysterious 
attraction  to  pious  souls.  A  congregation  of 
women  has  embraced  the  primitive  rule." —  J.  E. 
Dartas,  Uitt  of  the  falhUie  Chureh,  t.  3,  eh.  4, 
yxir.  26,  and  ai.  10,  ;«r.  11. — From  the  acoouvt 
of  a  visit  to  the  Grande  Chartreuse,  the  jiareut 
monastery,  near  Grenoble,  made  In  1667,  by 
Dom  Claude  Lancelot,  of  Port  Royal,  the  follow- 
ing Is  taken:  "  All  I  had  heard  of  this  astonish- 
ing seclusion  falls  infinitely  short  of  the  reality. 
No  adequate  description  can  be  given  of  the 
awful  magnificence  of  this  dreary  solitude.  .  .  . 
The  desert  of  the  Chartreuse  la  wholly  iuacces- 
sible  but  by  one  exceedingly  narn)w  detllc.  This 
pass,  whicli  is  only  a  few  feet  wide,  ii  indeed 
truly  tremeiidous.  It  winds  Ix'tweiMi  stupeiniiius 
granite  rorka,  which  overlmng  aliovc.  .  .  .  Tlie 
mouaatcry  itself  Is  as  striking  as  the  approach. 
...  On  tlie  west  .  .  .  there  is  a  little  .'pnce 
which  ...  is  occupieil  by  a  dark  grove  of  pine 
trees;  on  every  otlier  side  the  rocks,  wliidi  are 
as  sleep  as  so  many  walls,  are  not  more  than  ten 
ya'  ds  from  the  convent.  By  this  means  a  dim 
and  gloomy  twilight  perpetually  reigns  within." 
— M.  A.  Schimmelpenninck.  A  ("«r  i(»  AUt  and 
La  Orantle  Clifirtrr'ine.  r.  1.  />/).  6-13. 

CARTIER,  Jacques,  Exploration  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  by.— ^XT  AMbiiicA :  .V.  I).  1.>34-I5;i5, 
ami  1.M1    I6oa. 

CARTOUCHE.—"  It  is  impiMsible  to  travel 
in  UpiH'r  Egypt  without  knowing  what  i»  meant 
by  u  cartouche.  .V  cartouche  Is  that  eliHiir:ited 
oval  tennlnutnl  by  a  straight  line  which  i:*  to  be 
seen  on  every  wall  of  llie  Egyptian  liiiiplea.  and 
of  which  other  monuments  also  alTonl  us 
numerous  examples.  The  cartouche  always 
coutaios  the  luuue  uf  a  king  or  of  a  queeu,  ur  u 


405 


yv 


CABTOrCHK. 

•ome  CMM  the  names  of  royal  prlneeaacii.  To 
dMignate  a  king  there  are  mo*t  frequently  two 
car»«uche«  aide  by  side.    The  first  Ig  callc-d  the 

Srsnomen,  the  second  the  nomcn. "— A.  Biarictte, 
hnumenU  of  Upper  Egypt,  p.  43. 

CARTWRIGHT'S  POWER  LOOM,  The 
iaventioa  oC    See  Cotton  Manufactcre 

CARUCATB.    See  HiDB  OF  Land. 

CARUS,  Roman  Emperor,  A.  D.  283-283. 
.„9,*?A  "ATA,  Battle ot  See  Mexico:  A.  D. 
1847  (Harcu— September). 

CASALE:  A.  D.  i6a8T63i.— Siege  by  the 
Imperialists.— Final  acquiaition  by  France. 
See  Italy:  A.  D.  1687-1631. 

A.  D.  1640.— Unsueceasfnl  siece  by  the 
Spaniards.    See  Italy:  A.  D.  1635-1680 

A.  D.  1697.— Ceded  to  the  Dnke  of  Savoy. 
See  Savoy  and  Pieomont:  A.  D.  1380-1713 


See 


CASALSECCO,   Battle    of   (14J7). 
Italy:  A.  D.  1412-1447. 

CASAS,  Bartolom<  de  las,  The  humane 
labors  oC  See  Slavery:  Modern— of  the 
Imoians. 

CASOIM.    See  Babtix>nia.  PRiurm"',. 

CASENA,  Maasacre  at.  See  Italy:  A.  D. 
1343-1393. 

CASHEL,  Psalter  of.    See  Tara,  The  Hill 

AKD  THE  PeIS  OP. 

.CASHEL,  Synad  of.  See  Ireland:  A.  D. 
1169-1173. 

CASHGAR.    See  TcnKKsTAN. 

CASHMERE.  See  Kaaumir;  alao,  Siebi. 
and  I.ndia:  A.  D.  184.VlS4fl 

,nlFu^^'**J'*  .'••  *?'"«  "'  Poland,  A.  D.  1037- 
J?~  ;.«;*^"'2""  "••  °"^«  »'  Poland,  A.  D. 
11.. -1194         Casimjr  III.  (called  The  Great), 

King  of  Poland,  A.  I).  1333-1370 Casimir 

IV.,   Kinr  of  Poland,   A.   D.   144JV-1492 
Caiimir,  John,  King  of  Poland,  A.  D.  1648- 

CASIMIR-PERIER,  Presidency  of     See 
Pranie  :  A.  D.  lHfl4-l«)5. 
^CASKET  GIRLS,  The.    See  Louisiana r 

A.'i^lS^^TsJ^^^"'*^''^--  «-«cotland: 
CASPIAN  GATES  (PYLiE  CASPIiE).- 

An  iinporUnt  iihss  in  the  Ellmrz  Mouotoitis  so 
called  by  the  Greeks.     It  Is  iilentiflcd  witli  the 
puns  known  to  tlie  modern  PtTslans  as  the  Ointnni 
Sunliir-ali,  some  fifty  miles  or  more  easlwunl 
or   n.irthpnatwanl,   from    Ti'liomn.     "Throuirli 
this  \nua  alone  can  armii's  proofed  from  Armenfii 
Mnlm.  or  Persia  eastwanl,  or  from  Turkestan 
Khonisan  and  Afirhanigun  inu>  the  more  western 
parts  of  Asia.    Tlie  ponition  ig  tlierefore  one  of 

Rrlniary  iniimrUncc.  It  was  to  guard  It  that 
liajtfs  was  Imllt  so  near  to  the  eastern  end  of  iu 
territor}-. '  — O.  liawlinson,  tiitth  Gnat  Oriental 
Moiutrchji,  eh.  4. 

Also  in:  Same,  Fitt  Ormt  Uonarrkin:  Me<Ua, 
cA.  I. 

CASSANDER,  and  the  wars  of  the  Dia- 
dochi.  N'c.Macki>onia:  H.  Caaa-SietoSUT-iiw- 
alw.  Orivcr:  B.  f.  821-312. 

CASSANO,  Battles  of  (170J  and  I7M).  S.'c 
Itait-  a  n.  170}-!7i3.  aud  France,  a"  "TW 
(Apnii. — Septemher). 

CASSEL:  A.  D.  isSL-Hnnied  by  the 
Frtack.    SeeFLaNDBRS:  A.  U.  lan. 


CASTE  SYSTEM  OF  IXDIA. 

CASSEL,  Battles  of  (13*8  and  1677)  Rm 
Flanders:  A.  D.  1828,  and  NETHERLANustHoT 
LAND):  A.  D.  1674-1878. 

CASSIAN  ROAD.— One  of  the  great  H  uian 
roads  of  antiquity,  which  ran  from  Hon «  bv 
way  of  Sutriiim  and  Cliisium  to  Amtium'ana 
Florentla.— T.  Mommsen,  Ui*t.  of  Home,  bk  4 
ck.  11.  •      •    » 

CASSII,  The.— A  tribe  of  ancient  Britoni 
whose  territory  was  near  the  Thames.  8«;  11=, 
TAIN,  Celtic  Tribes. 

CASSITERIDES,  The.-The  "  tin  Islands." 
from  whicli  tlie  Phopnicians  and  Cartlin-iniain 
obtained  their  supply  of  tin.  Some  arclino|.jLM«. 
identify  them  with  the  British  islands,  m\w  with 
the  Scilly  islands,  and  some  with  the  islands  In 
Vigo  Bay,  on  the  coast  of  Spain.— Charles  Elton. 
OngtruofEng.  Ilitt.  ^ 

Also  in:  J.  Rliys,  Celtie  Britain. 

CASSOPIANS.    SeeEpiRis. 

.  ^!^?*^^}*^^  SPRING.-A  sprinp  which 
Usued  from  between  two  peaks  or  cliffs  of  Mount 
Parnassus  and  flowed  down-,  inl  in  a  cool  stream 
past  the  temple  of  AdoUo  at  Delphi. 

CASTE  SYSTEM  OF  ihoiA,  The.- 
•' The  caste  system  of  India  is  not  base.1  uiwo  an 
exclusive  descent  as  involving  n  differencv  of  rank 
and  culture,  but  u|K>nan  exclusive  dcacmi  as  in- 
volving purit V  of  blood.  In  the  old  materialistic 
religion  which  prevailed  so  Inrgelv  in  the  ancient 
world,  and  was  closely  associatjHl  wiih  scxuaj 
ideas,  the  maintenance  of  puritv  of  hl()(«l  was 
regarded  as  a  sacred  duty.  The  "indivi,;ual  had 
no  existence  independent  of  the  faiiiilv  Mala 
or  female,  the  individual  was  but  a  link  in  the 
life  of  the  family:  and  any  inu-rmixtun.  would 
be  followed  by  the  separathm  of  the  impure 
branch  from  tlie  parent  stem.  \r  a  wnni  caste 
was  the  religion  of  the  sexes,  and  as  sucli'.xisu 
1.1  Ind  a  to  tills  day.  .  .  .  The  HimliiH  arc  di- 
vided into  an  infinite  numlier  of  castes  nccord- 
ing  to  their  hereditary  trades  and  prof.siiions; 
but  In  the  present  day  they  are  nearly  all  ora- 
prehended  in  U  -  great  castes,  namelv  the 
Ilralimans,  or  prii  Kshalriyas,  or  soldiers- 

thc\ai8va8,  or  merchi.   ,   ;  and  the  Siidms.  or 
wrvilc  clasg.     The  Bralimans  are  the  iti.Miih  of 
Brahma ;  ti.e  Rshatriyas  are  his  arms ;  tli.-  Vaisras 
are  his  thighs;  and  the  Siidrus  are  his  fi.t,    the 
three  first  castes  of  priests,   soldiers,  and  nicr- 
chants,  are  distinguished  from  the  fourtli  ea«lo 
of  Siidras  by  the  thread,  or  paita,  which  is  worn 
depending  from  the  left  shoulder  and  restinit  on 
flic  right  side  below  the  loins.      The  Investiture 
usuallv   takes    place   between   the  eiirhtli   and 
tw<  Ifth  year.andls  known  as  the  second  liirlh  and 
thosewho  are  invested  are  termed  the    twice 
bom.     It  is  ditncult  to  say  whether  the  thread  in- 
dicates a  separation  between  the  compiin.rs  and 
the  conquered ;  or  whether  it  origlnali-d  iu  a  re- 
ligious investiture  from  which  the  Siiilm.s  were 
excluded."— J.  T.  Wheeler,  Ilitt.  of  liuli.i.  e.  3, 
pp.  114  and  64. — "Among  tlic  delusions  atiout 
modem  Indhi  which  itwTiiis  impoBsibie  l.>  tiiil.ihe 
jielief  still  survives  tliat,  allhciugh    llirre  have 
lieen  many  changes  in  the  system  of  caste  it  re- 
mains true  that  the  Hindu  |xipulath>n  is  dinded 
Into  the  four  great  classes  dewrllK-ii  by  Mauu: 
BmlimHns,  Kshatrivas.  Vaisvas.  aim  Sudris.    In 
India  iuieif  this  no'tion  Is  fostemt  hv  thi-  mors 
learned  among  the  Urahinans,  who  hive  lo  make 
themselves  and  others  believe  in  the  cnntinuoui 
eiUtcnce  of  a  divinely  constituted  orgauizatiua 


406 


CASTE  SYSTEM  OF  INDIA. 


CASTLE  ST.  ANOELO. 


To  what  extent  the  rcligloas  and  Mcial  mtemi 
iludowcd  forth  In  the  ancient  Bralimnntcal  litera- 
ture hiiil  an  actual  existence  It  is  ditncult  to  say, 
but  it  is  certain  that  little  remains  of  them  now. 
The  Bralimans  maintain  their  exceptional  posi- 
tion- but  no  one  can  lilscera  the  other  great  castes 
whicli  Manu  described.     Excluding  the  Brah- 
mans.  caste  means  for  the  most  part  hereditary 
occupation,  but  it  also  often  signlfles  a  common 
oridn  of  tribe  or  race.    India,  in  the  words  of 
Sir  Honry  Maine,  is  divided  into  a  vast  number 
of   independent,    self-acting,    organised   social 
groups— trading,    manufacturing,  cultivating, 
•in  the  enormous  majority  of  Instances,  caste  Is 
only  tlie  name  for  a  numiier  of  practices  which 
are  followctl  by  each  one  of  a  multitude  of  groups 
of  min,  whether  such  a  group  be  ancient  and 
natural  or  modem  and  artificial.    As  a  rule,  every 
trade,  every  profession,  every  guild,  every  tribe, 
every  class,  is  also  a  caste:  and  the  i  lemuets  of 
a  caste  not  only  have  their  speciui  objects  of 
worship,  selected  from  the  Hindu  Pantheon,  or 
adoplfl  into  it,  but  tliey  exclusively  eat  together, 
and  exclusively  intermarry."    Mr.  Kltts,  In  his 
Intensting  "Compendium  of  the  Castes  and  Tribes 
of  India,"  compiled  from  the  Indian  Census  re- 
ports of  1881.  enumerates  192«  different  castes. 
Forty-seven  of  "licse  have  each  more  than  1,000,- 
000  mcmlx-rs;  twenty  one  Inve  2,000,000 and  up- 
wards.   The  Bralimans,  Kunbis  (agriculturists), 
and  Cliuinars  (workcre  in  leather),  are  the  only 
tlirec  ntstfs  each  of  which  has  more  than  10,- 
000  OOO;  nearly  15  percent,  of  the  InhabitanU  of 
India  are  included  In  these  three  castes.     The 
dl8tin<tions  and  sulMlivisions  of  caste  are    in- 
nuim  rahic,  and  even  the  Brahmans,  who  have 
this  in  common,  that  t'.iey  are  reverence<l  by  the 
mcmlKTs  of  all  other  castes,  are  as  much  divided 
anion)?  iliimst'Ivcs  as  the  rest.    There  are  nearly 
li000.0<IO  Urahmnns;  according  to  Mr.  Shcrring, 
to  his  wnrlj  on  "  Hindu  Tribes  and  Castes,"  tlierc 
are  m'ire  than  1,800  Brahmanical  subdivisions: 
and  it  cipiistantly  happens  that  to  a  Brahman  of 
some  particular  class  nr  dUtrict  the  pollution  of 
callna  with  other  Bralimans  would  ue  nitnous. 
.  .  .  Tlie  Bralimans  have  become  so  numerous 
tlul  only  a  small  proportion  can  be  employed  in 
aacrnlotal  funi-tiuns,  and  the  charity  which  it  Is 
a  dutv  tn  bestow  upon  them  could  not,  however 
profu'st.  be  sufliclent  for  their  support    They 
are  found  in  almost  every  occupation.    They  are 
soldiirs,  cultivators,  tnulers.  and  servants:  they 
were  vi  rv  numerous  In  the  old  Sep.iy  anny,  and 
the  nami'of  one  of  their  sulidlviaions,  'Pandc,' 
liccami'  the  generic  term  by  which  the  mutlneera 
of  iC'iT  were  commonly  known  by  the  English 
In  Inlia.  ...  Mr.  Ibtietaon,  in  his  rejKirt  on  the 
census  in  the  Punjab,  shows  how  completely  It 
is  tnic  thiit  castu  is  a  social  and  not  a  religious 
institutiim.    Conversion  to  Mohammedanism,  for 
tostancc.  does  not  necessarily  affect  the  caste  of 
the  convert." — .Sir  J.  Strachev,  Iruiin,  leet.  8. 

Aisors:  M.  Williams.  RtUgiotit  Thought  and 
Life  in  Imliii,  rh.  18.— Sir  A.  C.  Lyall,  Atintie 
Sluriif.  eh.  7.  — 8ir  II.  8.  Maine,  nilage  Gmmuni- 
tia,  rh.  J. 
CASTEL.  See  MoooicTlAcrM. 
CASTELAR  AND  REPUBLICANISM 
IN  SPAIN.  Sec  SrAix;  A.  D.  1966-1373,  and 
1B7S-1HRV 

CASTELFIDARDO,  Battle  of  (iltoX    See 
Italy:  a.  I).  18S«>-18«1. 
CASTELLANO.    See  SPAinn  Coon. 


CASTIGLIONE,  Battle  of.    See  Fiuircx: 
A.  D.  1706  (April— October). 
CASTILE,    Early     inhabitants    oC     See 

CEI.TIBEniANS. 

A.  D.  7I3-I330.— Oripn  and  rise  of  the 
kingdom.    See  Spain:  A.  D.  713-737,  and  1026- 

vm. 

A.  D.  1 140.— Separation  of  Portugal  at  an 
independent  kinsdom.  See  Poktl'ual:  A.  D. 
109.V1825. 

A.  D.  1 169. —The  first  Cortes.— The  old 
monarchical  constitution.    Sec  Cortes. 

A.  D.  1312-1338. — Progress  of  arms.— Per- 
manent nion  of  the  crown  with  that  of  Leon. 
— Conquest  of  Cordova. — Vassalage  imposed 
on  Granada  and  Murcia.  See  Spain:  A.  D. 
1212-1238. 

A.  O.  1348-1350.— Reigns  of  St.  Ferdinand, 
Alfonso  the  Learned,  and  their  three  succes- 
sor*.   See  Spain:  A.  D.  1248-13.50. 

A.  D.  l366-t36o.— Pedro  the  Cruel  and  the 
inTasion  of  the  English  Black  Prince.  See 
Spain  (Castile):  A.  D.  1:16«  1369. 

A.  D.  1368-1476.— Under  the  house  of  Traa- 
tamare.— Discord  and  citU  war. — The  triumph 
of  Queen  Isabella  and  her  marriage  to  Ferdi- 
nand of  Aragon.    See  Sp.un:  A.  I  >.   1368-1479. 

A.  D.  1515. — Inr  -  poration  of  Navarre  with 
the  kingdom.    Sec  Navarre:  A.  D.  144'i-l,'>21. 

A.  D.  1516.— The  crown  united  with  that  o( 
Aragon,  by  Joanna,  mother  of  Charles  V.  See 
Spain:  A.  O.  1496-1517. 


^ 


CASTILLA  DEL  ORO.  See  America: 
A.  D.  1509-1511. 

CASTILLON, Battle  01(1450).  See Francr: 
A.  D.  1431-1453. 

CASTLE  ST.  ANGELO.— The  Mausoleum 
of  Hadrian,  begun  by  tlie  emperor  Hadrian,  A.  D. 
135,  and  probably  completed  by  Aut<minu8  Viva, 
"owes  Its  preservation  entirely  to  the  peculiar 
fitness  of  its  site  and  shape  for  the  purjMtses  of 
a  fortress,  which  it  has  served  since  the  time  of 
Bclisariua.  .  .  .  After  the  burial  of  Marcus 
Aurelius,  the  tomb  was  closed  until  the  sack  of 
Rome  by  Alaric  in  410  A.  D.,  when  his  barba- 
rian soldiers  probably  broke  it  open  in  scareh  of 
treasure,  and  scattered  the  ashes  of  the  .\ntonines 
to  the  winds.  From  this  time,  for  a  hundred 
years,  the  tomb  was  turned  into  a  fortress,  the 
possession  of  which  became  the  object  of  many 
struggles  in  the  wars  of  the  Qoths  under  Vitlges 
(M7A.  D.)and  Totllas  (killed  5.V2).  From  the 
end  of  the  sixth  century,  when  flregory  the 
Great  saw  on  its  summit  a  vision  of  St.  Michael 
sheathing  his  sword,  in  token  timt  the  prayers 
of  the  Romans  for  preservation  from  the  plague 
were  heard,  the  Mausoleum  of  Hudriun  was 
considered  as  a  consecrated  building,  under  the 
name  of  '8.  Angelus  inter  NuIk's.'  '  l.'sque  ad 
Cnflo8,'or  "Inter  Cffilos,'  until  It  was  seizetl  In 
923  A.  D.  by  Alberic,  Count  of  Tusculum,  and  the 
infamous  Marozla.  and  again  N'oame  the  scene 
of  the  fierce  struitKles  t)ctwc»'n  Popes,  F.mperors, 
and  reckless  adventurers  which  marked  those 
miserable  times.  The  last  Iniuries  appear  to  have 
been  Inflicted  upon  the  building  In  the  contest 
between  the  French  Pope  Clemens  VII.  and  the 
Itilmti  P-r-*;  Urban  VlII  [=r<>  Papact:  A  !>. 
1377-1417J.  The  exterior  was  then  finally  dis- 
mantled andstripped.  Partial additionsand  resto- 
rations soon  began  to  take  phice.  Boniface  IX.. 
Id  the  beginning  of  the  fltteentb  century,  erected 


407 


CASTLE  ST.  ANOELO. 

new  battlemenu  and  fortillcatioiu  on  and  anund 
the  buUdlug ;  aud  since  his  time  it  liai  remained 
in  the  poKseiwidn  of  tlie  Papal  government.  Tlie 
atrange  medley  of  Papal  reception  rooms,  dun- 
geons and  miliUry  mafnzines  which  now  en- 
cumUirs  the  top,  was  chiefly  built  by  Paul  III 
The  corridor  connecting  it  with  the  Vatican 
dates  from  the  time  of  Alexander  Borgia  (1494 
A.  D.),  and  the  bronze  statue  of  St.  Michael  on 
the  summit,  which  replaci-d  an  older  marble 
statue,  from  the  reign  of  Benedict  XIV."— R. 
Bum,  Ronuaiul  ,7i«  Campagm,  eh.  11. 

CASTLENAUDARI,  Battle  of  (i^).    See 
FliANCB:  A.  D.  1830-1638. 
CASTLEREAGH,  Lord,  and  the  union  of 

A'lTniw-l^*'""  ="'^°-  ^  J«'"^°= 

C ASTC  a  WAR  "i.— "  Durobrivian  or  Castor 
ware,  as  it  is  variously  called.  Is  the  production 
of  the  extensive  Roinano-Britteh  potteries  on  the 
Klver  Aen  in  Northamptonshire  aud  Hunting- 
donshire, wliich,  with  settlements,  are  compuu-d 
to  Iiave  covered  a  district  of  some  twenty  square 
miles  in  extent.  .  .  .  There  are  several  varieties 
.  .  .  and  two  especially  have  been  remarked: 
.„  .  /•  ''''"'•  •"'  8'«te-coIoured,  the  other 
reddish-brown,  or  of  a  darli  copper  colour  "— L 
Jewett,  6'/vipe  Mmindt,  p.  158. 

CASTRA,  Roman. — "  When  a  Roman  army 
was  In  the  held  it  never  halted,  even  for  a  single 
night  without  throwing  up  nn  entrenchment 
capable  of  conuiining  the  whole  of  the  troops 
and  their  bngpige.  Tills  field-work  was  termed 
taslni.  .  .  .  The  formof  thecampwasas<iunre 
each  siilc  of  which  was  8,017  Roman  feet  in 
length.  The  defences  consisted  of  a  ditch 
(fossa,)  the  earth  dug  out,  being  thrown  Inwards 
tons  to  form  a  rampart,  (agger,)  ujwn  the  sum- 
mit of  which  a  palisjide  (vallum)  was  erected  of 
»_0(xlen  Slakes,  (valli  —  sudcs,)  a  certain  number 
or  which  were  carrie<l  by  each  soldier,  alonir  with 
his eiitrem-hing  tools."— W.  Ramsay,  Manual  of 
Komitn  Aiiliii^.  ch.  13. 
.Sf^^TJ'CUM.    Battle   ot     See   Fkancb; 

A.   I).    1i!I9(SkITE.MBER— OCTOBEH) 

,.fo*.^J..'*'°'^S'  ''■''*•    SeeALBAKiAKs:  A.  D. 

l44t)-i4Di. 

CASTRUCCIO  CASTRACANI,  The  dea- 

•^i.'!^  »;-i;'.''J^^''^'=  ^-  D-  131»-1330. 

CAT  NATION,  The.     See  American  Abo- 
Bioi.NEs:    lIiHoNs,    &Q.,    aud    Ihoouois   Con- 

FEOKRACY:  TllEIR  Co.N<JUE8TS,  &c 

CATACOMBS  OF  ROME,  The.-'The 
Jtoman  Catacombs  — a  name consecratitl  bylonK 
usage,  but  having  no  etymological  ineauini,  and 
not  a  very  .htcriiilnate  geographical  one  — are  a 
va-st  labyrinth  of  galleries  excavated  In  the 
bowels  of  the  earth  in  the  hills  around  the 
Eternal  tity;  not  in  the  hills  on  v.hieh  the  city 
Itself  was  built,  out  in  those  beyond  tlif  walls 
Their  extent  Is  tnormous,  not  as  to  the  amount 
of  superticlal  »oll  which  thty  un  Icriie.  for  they 
rarely,  if  ever,  pass  U-yond  the  third  milestone 
from  the  city,  but  In  the  actual  'ength  of  their 
gallirics;  for  these  are  often  excavated  on 
various  levels,  or  plani,  three,  f-ir,  or  even  five 
one  above  the  other,  and  the\  jss  and  lecniss 
one  another,  some  time*  at  i;  t  Intervals,  on 
each  of  thrs..  levels:  so  th.it,  on  the  whole  there 
«e  certainly  not  less  that  830  miles  of  them: 
that  8  to  say.  If  stretched  out  In  one  continuous 
line,  they  would  extend  the  whole  length  of  Italy 


CATALAN  GRAND  COMPANY. 


408 


jticlf.  The  galleries  are  from  two  to  four  fwt 
in  width  anJ  vary  in  height  acconling  to  S. 
nature  of  the  rock  in  whicE  they  are  dug  The 
wa  Is  on  both  sides  are  pierced  with  h,,rizonul 
niches,  like  shelves  in  a  book-case,  or  bertlis  to, 
steamer,  and  every  niche  once  contained  one  or 
more   dead    bodies.    At  various  intervals  t!ii« 

succession  of  shelve*  Is  interrupted  foraniiment 
t»t  roor    Toay  be  made  for  a  doorway  oiunlo,; 
Into  a  uuall  chamber;   and  the  wall,  „f  th«! 
chamber,  are  generally  pierced  with  gmvesin 
the  *ame  way  a*  the  gafterics.    These  vast  ei 
cavaUon*   once    formed   the   ancient  Chriatlan 
cemeterie*   of    Rome;    they    were    beL-un    in 
apMtolic  times,  and  continued  to  be  used  as 
burial-place*  of  the  faithful  until  the  capture  o 
the  city  by  Alaric  in  the  year  410.    In  tl  e  tl. W 
oenlury.  tiie  Roman  Churoh  numbere.1  twen  v! 
five  or  twenty-six  of  them,  corresponding  to  t£o 
number  of  her  titles  or  parislies  witlilii  the  dtr 
and  bes  de*  these,  there  are  about  twenty  oilien.' 
of  «maller  dimensions.  Isolated  monununu  of 
special  martyr*,  or  belonging  to  this  or  tb»t 
private  faudly     Originally  thev  all  belonged  to 
private   families  or  individuals,   the  villas  or 
garden*  in  which   they  were  dug   being  the 
property  of  wralUiy  citizens  who  had  eml.raced 
Uie  faith  of  Christ,  and  devoted  of  their  sulistance 
to  His  service.     Hence  their  most  anciiiit  titles 
were  taken  merely  from  the  names  of  tli.  ir  l«w- 
ful  owners,  many  of  which  still  survive 
It  has  always  been  agreed  among  nun  of  learn- 
ing who  have  had  an  opportunity  of  exaiiiiniuj 
tliese  exravatlons,  that  they  were  used  exclusively 
by  the  Christian*  as  places  of  burial  and  of  hol.i- 
Ing  religious  assemblies.      Jlotiem  researih  bat 
placed    t  beyond  a  doubt,  that  they  wire  also 
originally  designed  for  this  purpose  and  for  no 
other.  -J.  8.  Northcote  and  W.  U.  Bro»nlo», 
Roma  Sotterranea,  At.  1,  dt.  1. 

Al^  Ut:  A.  P.  Stanley,  C/irutian /mtitulion,, 
Cn,  IS. 

CATALAN  GRAND  COMPANY,  The.- 
The  Catatan  Grand  Company  was  a  formidable 
oprty  of  miliUry  adventurers  — merceuarv  sol- 
diers—formed in  .Sicily  during  the  twcutv'viara 
"'war   that   followed    the    Sicilian    Vrajiera. 

High  pay  and  great  license  drew  ihi^  bwt 
sinews  in  Catalonia  and  Aragon  into  iiicrcen- 
arv  battalions  of  Sicily  and  ind'  :  •li,m  to 
submit  to  the  severest  disciplhin  ;],„  con- 
elusion  of  peace  in  1802  Uirew  tiii  ni.d  army 
out  of  employment,  and  the  gre  '  pan  of  iu 
members  were  enlis'ed  in  tlie  sit*  ■  of  Aiulrooi- 
cus  II.,  of  the  restored  Greek  empire  at  t•|p|l^tauti■ 
nople.  They  were  under  the  coniiiiaml  ..f  one 
Roger  de  Flor,  who  had  been  a  T.rnpliir,  de- 
graded from  his  knighthoo<i  for  ci.sirtinu.  and 
afterwards  a  pirate ;  but  wliosc  niililarv  lalcuu 
were  undoubtwl.  The  Grand  (Oinpanv  soon 
quarrelled  with  the  Greek  emperor:  it.-. 'Uailir 
wa*  assassinatwl,  aud  open  war  dei  land.  Tin' 
Greek  army  was  terribly  defeated  in  a  Imttle  ul 
Apros,  A.  D.  1307,  and  the  t'aulans  pluiidired 
Thnice  for  two  years  without  resistaiicr.  Galli- 
pot.  their  headquarters,  to  which  tiny  linnigbt 
their  cantlves,  became  one  of  the  gnat  slave 
Diarts  of  Europe.  In  1310  they  niarihi-.|  Into 
the  heart  of  Greece,  and  were  engaged  in  the 
service  of  Walur  da  Brieuiie.  Duke  of  .\iiitns 
He,  too,  found  them  dangerous  wrvants. 
Quarrel*  were  followed  by  war:  tin  Duke 
perished  In  a  battle  (A.  D.  1311)  with  his  CatslsJi 


CATALAN  GRAND  COMPANT. 

netenuries  on  the  Ixuilu  of  the  CephiMUi;  bit 
dakedom.  embracing  Attics  and  BoeotUi,  wu  the 
nrlM  of  their  victory.  The  widows  and  daugh- 
ters of  the  Greek  noble*  who  had  fallen  were 
forced  to  marrv  the  olflcen  of  the  Catalans,  who 
thus  settled  tnemselves  in  familv  as  well  as 
esttte.  They  elected  a  Duke  of  Athens;  but 
nf<)ceeded  afterwaids  to  make  the  duchy  an 
sppansge  of  the  House  of  Aragon.  The  title 
wu  held  by  sons  of  the  Angoneae  kings  of 
SIcilv  until  1377,  when  it  pasaedto  AlphonaoV., 
king'  of  Aragna,  and  was  retained  by  the  kings 
of  Spain  aftrr  the  union  of  the  crowns  of 
Aragon  and  Castile.  The  tituhir  dukes  were 
represented  at  Athens  by  regents.  "  During  the 
period  the  duchy  of  Athens  was  poaseased  by 
the  Sicilian  branch  of  the  house  of  Aragon,  the 
Catalans  were  incessantly  engaged  In  wars  with 
all  their  neighbours."  But,  gradually,  their 
militarr  vigor  and  discipline  were  loat,  and  their 
name  aaJ  power  in  Greece  disappeared  about 
138«,  when  Athens  and  most  of  the  territory  of 
its  duchy  was  conquered  by  Nero  Acciainoll,  a 
rich  and  powerful  Florentine,  who  had  become 
governor  of  Corinth,  but  acted  aa  an  independent 
prince,  and  who  founded  a  new  ducal  family. — 
6.  Finlay,  Hut.  of  tht  Bymntine  and  Greek 
Empiret,  bk.  4,  eA.  2,  leet.  8. 

Also  in  :  Same,  Hiit.  of  OreeeefYam  itt  Onui. 
by  thfCnundert,  eh.  7,  ««■.  8.— E.  Gibbon,  Dteiine 
and  Full  of  the  Roman  Empire,  eh.  63. 

CATALANS :  A.  D.  1 151.— The  Cotinty  of 
Barcelona  united  by  marrUce  to  Aragon. 
See  Spun:  A.  D.  lOSS-lSM. 

A.  D.  lath-isth  Centuries.— Commercial 
importance  and  municipal  freedom  of  Barce- 
lona.   See  B.^RCELON.v;  12th-16th  CESTCRtES. 

A.  D.  1461-1473.— Long  but  unaucceaaful 
revolt  against  jonn  II.  of  Aragon.  See  Spain  : 
A.  D.  i;W«-14TU. 

A.  D.  1630-1640.— Causea  of  diaalfection 
and  revolt.    See  Spain  :  A.  D.  1837-1640. 

A.  D.  1640-1653.— Revolt.— Renunciation  of 
allegiance  to  the  Spanish  crown.— Annexation 
to  France  offered  and  accepted.— Re-sabiec- 
tion  to  Spain.  See  Spao:  A.  D.  1640-1642; 
1644-1646;  164&-16.W. 

A.  D.  1705.- Adhesion  to  the  Alliea  in  the 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succeaaion.  See  Spain: 
A.D.  1:0.5. 

A.  D.  1713-1714.— Betrayed  anddeaerted  by 
the  Allies.    See  Spain:  A.  D.  1713-1714 


Bee  Hens: 


CATALAUNIAN  PLAINS. 

A  D.  4.M. 

CATALONIA.    See  Catalans. 

CATANA,  OR  KATANA,  Battle  of,  See 
SvHAdsK:  B.  C.  397-396. 

CATANIA. — Storming  and  eaptnre  by 
King  Ferdinand  (1849).     See  Italy:    A.   D. 

1«HN-1H4». 

CATAPAN.    See  lTALT(3o0THKaH):  A.  D. 

800-1(11(1. 

CATAWBAS,  The.     See  Aioeiucan  Abo- 

BIOISKS:   SlOlAN  FaMILT. 

CATEAU-CAMBRESIS,  Treaty  oC  See 
Fr.\N(K:  a.  1).  1547-l.>->«. 

CATERANS,— "In  l-ia^  an  art  wi=  passed 
[hy  the  Scntili  pHrliament]  for  the  nuppreaaion  of 
nmstirfdl  pliinilerers,  who  get  in  tl::  stjt'ite  their 
Hlfthliinil  immo  of  'cateran.' .  .  .  This  is  the 
flnt  uf  a  long  succeaaion  of  penal  and  denuncla- 


0ATH0LIC3. 

tory  laws  against  the  Highlanders."— J.  H.  Bur- 
ton, niU.  of  Smtland.  t.  8.  eh.  27. 
CATHARISTS,  OR  PATARENES.— 

"Among  all  the  sects  of  the  Middle  Ages,  very 
far  the  most  Important  In  numbers  and  in  radical 
antagonism  to  the  Church,  were  the  Catlmri,  or 
the  Pure,  aa  with  characteristic  sectarian 
assumption  they  styled  themselves.  Albigenses 
they  were  called  in  Langueduc;  Patartnes  in 
North  Italy ;  Good  Hen  by  themselves.  Stretch- 
ing through  central  Europe  to  Thrace  and 
Bulgaria,  they  Joined  hands  with  the  Pauliclana 
of  the  liaat  and  shared  their  errors.  Whether 
these  Catharl  stood  In  lineal  historical  descent 
from  the  old  ManichKans,  or  had  generated  a 
dualistic  scheme  of  their  own,  is  a  question  bard 
to  answer,  and  which  has  been  answered  in  very 
different  ways.  This  much,  however,  is  certain, 
that  in  all  essentials  they  agreed  with  them." — 
R  C.  Trench,  Leett.  on  Mediimtl  Church  llitt., 
Ifft.  15. — "In  Italy,  men  supposeil  to  hold  the 
same  belief  [as  that  of  the  Paiilicinns,  Albigenses, 
etc.  ]  went  by  the  name  of  the  Paterini,  a  word  of 
uncertain  derivation,  perhaps  arisini;  from  their 
willingness  meekly  to  submit  to  all  sufferings 
for  Christ's  sake  (patl),  perhaps  from  a  quarter 
in  tlie  city  of  Milan  named  '  I'utaria ' ;  and  more 
lately  by  that  of  Catharl  (the  Pure,  Puritans), 
whicli  was  soon  corrupted  into  Oaiuiri,  whence 
the  Ucrman  'Ketzer,'  the  general  worU  for  a 
heretic." — L.  Marintti,  Fri  DoMno  and  hi* 
IXmn,  eh.  1. — See,  also,  Paclicians,  and  Ai.bi- 

OENSEa 

CATHAY,    See  China:  The  Names  op  thb 

COCNTRT. 

CATHELINEAU  AND,  THE  INSUR- 
RECTION IN  LA  VENDEE.  See  Fk.vnce: 
A.  D.  1793  (Mabch— April;;  (June);  and(jDLT 

— D      ^MBEB). 

f     .'HERINEII.,of  Ruaaia.    SeeRusBTA 

A.       1761-1762,  and  1762-1  T9« Catherint 

of  Aragon.     See  England  :  A.    D.  I.'i27-1.'>34, 

1.'i36-15«) Catherine     de     Medici.       See 

Francb:  A.  D.  1882-1547. 

CATHOLIC  ASSOCIATION.  See  Ibb- 
LAND :  A.  D.  lSll-1829. 

CATHOLIC  DEFENDERS.  See  Ireland: 
A.  D.  1780-1798. 

CATHOLIC  LEAGUES.  See  Papacy  : 
A.  D.  1580-1581 ;  and  France  :  A.  D.  1578-1585, 
and  after. 

CATHOLIC  REACTION.  Sec  Pap.\ct  : 
A.  D.  1.5.14-1540,  to  l.WS-lfti;!. 

CATHOLIC  UNIVERSITY.  See  F.nuCA- 
TiON,  Modern;  America;  A.  D.  1 769-1  hk4 

CATHOLICS  (England):  A.  D.  iS73-i679. 
—Persecutions.  Si*  England:  A.  I).  1572- 
1603;  158.5-1587;  1587-1588;  1678-1679. 

(Ireland) :  A.  D.  1691-1782.— Oppression  of 
the  Penai  Laws.  Sec  Ireland:  A.  1).  1691- 
1782. 

(England):  A.  D.  1778-1780.— Repeal  of 
Penal  lawa.- No-Popery  Riota.  See  E.vo- 
land:  a.  I).  1778-1780. 

(Ireland):  A.  D.  1795-1796.— Peraecution  by 
Protestant  mobs.— Formation  of  the  Orange 
Society.     See  Ireland:  A.  I).  lT»r>-179<i. 

(Ireland):  A.  D.  1801.  —  Pitt'a  promises 
broken  by  the  King,  S.r  K.vs;:  ^nh  a  i>, 
1801-1806. 

(England  and  Ireland):  A.  D.  1829.— Eman- 
cipation from  civil  disabilitiea.  bee  Ikklamo^ 
A.  D.  1811-1S29. 


mmi 


409 


CATHOUC-. 


ft.    Pafact:   a.  D. 


CATHOLICS,  Old. 

1860-1870. 

D  SAL'^"*^' TheCoMpiracy ot    SeeRoioc 

IS.  L.  60. 

£^IL'"a.T''*'    ^^  BHiTAnj,  Oi.LTic  Tbibes. 
CATO   THE    YOUNGER   a«d  the   iMt 

CATO   STREET   CONSi  IRACV,   The. 

See  En(.i,am):  A.  D.  1830-1827. 

CATRAIL,  The.— An  ancient  ra  t  ; .wt,  the 
renuma  of  which  are  found  la  f,-  •,  1  tj  Scot- 
land, runniDjf  from  the  aom  ;  .1  ,  ner  of 
PeubleMhire  to  the  south  aide  >:   Llduew,  le      It 


la  supposed  to  have  marli. 
betwrvn  the  old  Ani^lian  '.-.'u 
and  the  territory  of  the  Briiu' 
(Dumbarton).— W.  P.  Sket 

CATTANl.-  VASSAL  i. 
SERVI.— The  feudal  baron  ;    . 
wca-  culled  Catunl.    In  the  1  kro" 
"many  of  these  Cattani,  aft*"      i.»\iti 


ih**  IxiL  ndary 
;■•  '  o;  Bi  nicia 
I'  01  ,'  luith 
..tt,  ,i>tU,.\  .  e.  1. 
-MASNA  J.V— 
It'  nor  :  (■■•n  taly 
■r  ory, 
.11  iub- 


dued  and  made  citizens  of  VLx-,.,j;'  u,'  i,y,„. 
tained  their  feudal  followi!.i;  , -■a  wer  n*u,; '. 
attended  by  troops  of  retalrer-.  Ijiif  >lives   1    ' 
freeilmeu.  called  '  UominI  &  M-.sr..  d^,' '  ■'.     \l 
certain   possessions  of  thfi.    ,  ,      h,    ;.  .1.,. 
military    service,    took   oaUii     ,f    adel  •       •  iO 
appear  to  have  included  every  t  ok  of  pi  -^. ,   :i 
the  dilTerent    Italian   states   a<i  irdinif 
qualitv  of  the  chief;  but  with. .iit  any  detn  .;.• 
tion  of  character  i»  ini;  attacht,!  to  =wh  tmpl.n-- 

distill,  I  lon  isnmde  between  tlie  •  Vassl,"  who  are 
Bupp..>,d  K.  have  been  vassal  of  the  crown,  and 

S^U  T^  ■  ■  v''"  *'''^"  ""  '■'^'»  «f  Freat 
lords.  Ih.  Vavasours'  were  the  vassals  of 
great  vjissmU.  .  Ii,«i,ii.g  ,i„.sp  niilitary  Vil- 
lains, wl,.,  w.re  also  called  'Fedeli,'  there  were 
two  other  kiiiu,  of  slaves  amonftst  the  early 
Italians,  imniely  prisoners  of  war  and  the  labour- 
ers iittHchfd  to  the  soil,  who  were  considered  ns 
catt  le  111  every  resp.-.'t  except  that  of  t  heir  superior 
utility  and  value.  The  former  species  of  slavery 
disappear. d    much    earlier    than   the  latter"-- 

r  A  •rT'i""T/ '■"■'»""''"■  ^'""ni,  r-  1.  p.  dU. 
i,.A  I  TI,  The.     See  C'ihtti 

CAUCASUS,  The  R.cet  of  the.-'One  „f 
the    most     remarkable    characteristics    of    tin- 
C  uumsus  IS  that,  while  it  has  acted  as  a  barri.r 
iHtween  the  north  and  the  somb,  stoppin.^  niul 
tumiiii;  aside  the  niovemenU  of  populuti..n    it 
has  also  preserved  within  its  sh.'ltered  r..i4ea 
fragments  of  the  different  pcopk-s  wl,„   from 
time  to  time  have  pa.ssed  by  it,  or  who  have  been 
driven    by    conquest    Into    it  from    the    lower 
eounlry       Thus   it   is  a  kind    of    ethnolojricul 
miiseiim,    where    specimens   may   be  found    of 
count  iss  races  and   lanjtuages,  some  of  whi.h 
probably  belong  to  the  eariy  ages  of  the  world  ■ 
races  that  s<eni  to  have  little  affinity  with  their 
r)res..nt    njlghbours,   and  of   whose  history  w,- 
know  nothin.L'  ex<,.pt  what  comparative  piiilol. 
pgy  can  revear     Even  before  the  ('hristian  era 
It  was  famous  for  the  variety  of  Its  p<'oples 
>o  more   mappropriHte  ethnologl<^8l  name  was 
ever  pn-rounded  than  tliat  of  Caucasian  for  a 
rwtclnl  :::•.  ;.sinn  of  tti.  human  family,  the  cream 
Of  nmnkin<l,  from  which  the  civiliz^  peoples  of 
Europe  are  8upp>.ed  to  have  spri.ng.     For  the 
Caucasus  is  to  day,  as  it  wa«  in  Strabo'a  lime 


CAlTCASrS. 

full  of  imoef  differing  In  religion,  langug« 
Mpect,  maonert,  character."— J.  Brvce  TVoiT 
eauetma  atid  Ararat,  eh.  i.  •  '^w- 

Th«  Circsaaiani.  —  Th«  Ruuian  Co. 
qnert.— "The  Caucasus  has  always  i».,*««i 
a  certain  fascination  not  for  the  Kussl!„i,otJv^ 
but  also  for  western  nations,  and  is  i^thI 
larly  rid,  In  historical  traditions,  and  in  Cm 
ories  of  ancient  times  and  ancient  imtio™ 
Here,  to  the  rocks  of  Elbruz,  Promelh,  ™Tat 
chained;  and  to  Colchis,  where  the  VhZ 
flowed  towards  the  sea.  through  ev,  r  •!„.„ 
woods,     came    the     Argonauts.     The    ..rl^f., 

which,  iu  the  sacred  grove  of  Ares,  hung  tlie 
golden  fleece.  The  gold  mines  which  the  Uus- 
sians  discovered  in  1*4  were  apparenth  I- »,Sn, 
to  the  Greeks,  whose  colony.  Dioscuria-  w,. 
an  assemblage  of  800  diverse  natimmlities 

Black  Sea  arose  the  famous  Pontine  k.i,a,l,  ni  [see 
MtTHHiDATic  Wars!  which  in  spite  ..f  its  valE 
-I^T  under  MIthridates,    fell  »  victim  t,, 

;(■'  ggression.      Along  the  rivers  Kunsnd 

.  u,...  ;an  the  old  commercial  road  fr  ,„  Kur  i*  tu 
Asia,    which  enrichij  the  Venwan.s  1,1      the 
Genoese  In  the  middle  ages.     Up  to  ree.nt  limes 
this  trade  consisted  not  only  of  all  sorts  of  ,itlnr 
merchandise,  but  of  slaves;  numberless  eirls  iiul 
women  were  conveyed  to  Turkish  In.rems  aud 
there  exercised  an  Important  intlueii.e  on  Uie 
narat-U.T  of  the  TarUr  and  Mongol  niees     In 
the  iniddle  ages  the  Caucasus  was  the  r.ute  bv 
wiich     the    wild     Asiatic   honles,    tlu-    (Jotlis 
hhasars,   Huns,   Avars,   Mongols,    Tartars    and 
Arabs  crossed  from  Asia  inUj  Eumim^    and  con- 
sequently its  secluded  valleys  couuin  a  n,.i.uU- 
tlon  compose*!  of  more  different  ami   distinct 
races  than  any  other  district  In  the  wi.rld 
It  was  in  the  16th  century,  umler  Ivan  the  Ter- 
rible, that  Russia  first  turned  her  attention  to 
•If  ?2?5"**'  °'  *''*  Caucasus;  but  it  ->a»  not 
till   1859  that  the  defeat  and  capture  ef   tl-e 
famous  Schamyl  brought  about  the  final  subiu- 
gallon  of  the  country.  ...  In   nsr,  [afu  r  the 
partial  conquest  of   1784— sw   Tlkks:  A    D. 
1776-1792]  the  mountaineers  had  been  incited  to 
take  arms  by  a  so-called  prophet  Scheii  k  Man- 
sur,  but  he  was  seized  and  banisheil  toSoli.vctsk, 
on  the  White  Sea.     In  1820  a  Mollali,  Kasi  by 
name,  made  his  appearance  in  Dagli.sl.w    and 
began  to  preach  the  '  Kasawat,'  tliat  is,  I,  .iv  »«r 
against  the  Russians.     To  him  succeed.-.!  aii.itlier 
equally  fanatical  a.h  I'liturer,  llamsel  llei;     Tlie 
wijrk  which  they  h:i.l  begun  was  carri.  .1  .m  bv 
Schamyl,  who  far  surpaasetl  his  pn-dee.sxire  ii 
all   the   qualities    which   make   ui>  a  su.icssfi,: 
guerilla  chief,  an.l  who  maintaiue.l  the  iineiiusi 
conHict  against  the  enemies  of  his  .-ouiiirv  for  'A5 
years  with  singular  good   fortun.-,   miriauntr.1 
courage,     untiring    energy,     ami     c<iiis|.i.utws 
ability.     He  was  of  the  trifie  of  the  Us^'liiaos  iu 
I^ghestan.  and  was  bom  in  179«.  in  the  \i\UK 
of  Oimri,  of  poor  shepherd  parents     In  -;  ^r  of 
Ills  humble  origin  he  raisjKl  himsill  t.i  ih.   rinJi 
of  an  Imaum,  surroumlnl  himself  with  1  -tnmg 
body-guard    of    devoted    aiiturents.    wii.iii   he 
named  Muridcs,  and  succeedeil  in  Liiiiiiii;:  tos 
flame  the  patriotic  ardour  a!  his  fe!!i:v.      :;:;>.-v 
men.     The  capture  of  the  mouiitaiu  I.tMii.ss'.if 
Achulgo  in  1839  seemed  to  lie  the  ili-ailiM..«-  .it 
Schamyl's  caU8<-.  for  it  brought  alniut  tin  !.«.  of 
the  whole  of  Uaghcstan.  the  very  focus  vl  •Jus 


410 


CAUCASUS  AXD  THE  CIRCASSUNS. 

lluridcs'  actirity.  Schamyl  barely  escaped 
lKi3g  nuule  a  priaooer,  and  wa«  forced  to  yield 
up  Ills  >on.  Djammel-Edden,  only  nine  yean  of 
age  M  a  hostage.  The  boy  was  sent  to  St. 
P«tt.T»burg  and  placed  in  a  cadet  corps,  which 
be  left  at  the  conclusion  of  his  military  educa- 
tion somewhere  about  1850  and  returned  to  Ida 
uaiive  country  in  I(*5i  where  lir  died  a  few 
Tims  later.  In  HM  the  Tchctchcns,  who  had 
pn-viously  been  pa<  ided,  row  in  urnig  once  more, 
sad  Daghestan  and  other  parts  of  the  country 
followed  their  example.  The  country  of  tlie 
Tcbctcbens  wiu  a  specially  favourable  theatre 
for  the  conflict  with  the  Ruaaians;  its  long 
mountain  chains,  roclty  fastneases,  impenetrable 
foresta,  and  wild  precipices  and  gorges  rendered 
imbuscades  and  surprises  of  constant  and,  to 
the  Russians,  fatal  occurrence.  During  the 
earlier  stages  of  the  war,  Russia  had  ransomed 
the  officers  taken  prisoners  by  the  mountaineers, 
but,  aubsequcntlv,  no  quarter  wiui  given  on 
either  side.  At  lust,  by  means  of  a  great  con- 
centration of  troops  on  all  the  threatened  points, 
by  furtifyinff  the  chief  central  stations,  and  by 
funning  brtwd  military  roads  throughout  the 
district,  the  Russians  succeeded  in  breaUnK 
down  Schamyl's  resistauce.  He  now  suffered 
one  reverse  after  another.  His  chief  fastnesses, 
Dargo,  Weden,  and  Ouui  were  successively 
stormed  and  destroyed;  and,  Anally,  he  himself 
and  his  family  were  taken  prisoners.  He  was 
astonished  aud,  it  is  naid,  not  altogether  grati- 
fied to  llnd  that  a  violent  death  was  not  to  close 
bis  romantic  career.  He  aud  his  family  were  at 
first  intermtl  at  Kaluga  in  Russia,  both  .1  house 
anil  a  coasiiltrable  sum  of  n.oney  for  his  mutnte- 
luuee  bein.  .issigned  to  hini.  But  after  a  few 
years  he  was  allowed  to  remove  to  Mecca,  where 
be  died.  His  sons  and  grandsons,  who  have  en- 
tirely adop  id  the  manm-s  the  Russians,  are 
otfic'LTs  ill  the  Circassian  guard.  In  lti64  the 
paritiiatiun  of  the  whole  country  was  accum- 
pli^Mol.  and  a  few  years  later  the  abolition  of 
serfiloni  «:is  proclaiiued  at  Titlis.  After  the  sub- 
jugation of  the  various  mountain  tribes,  the 
Circassians  hal  lUe  choice  giv<  11  them  by  the 
Goverunient  .f  tiling  on  the  low  country  ali>ng 
the  Kuban,  or  (migrating  to  Turkey.  The 
lalttr  ciHirse  wa.**  >  hosen  by  the  bulk  of  the 
nati 'H,  UfLid,  therct4),  in  great  measure,  by  en- 
voy- fMm  Turkey.  As  many  as  4OU.0O0  are  said 
tu  liave  (i)ine  to  the  ports,  where  the  Sultan  liad 
pnnuisetl  to  send  vesscU  to  receive  them:  but 
detuts  took  place,  and  a  large  number  died  of 
want  aud  disease  Those  who  reached  Turkey 
were  settled  nn  the  west  coasts  of  tlie  Black  .'^. 
in  Buiiraria  and  near  Varna,  and  proved  tlii  , 
selve-  most  truulilesomc  and  tmruly  subjecis. 
Most  f  those  who  at  first  remained  in  Circasaia 
folKm.d  their  f' llow-countrymen  in  1874." — 
H.  M.  llirster,  limna,  eh.  1«. 

Ai*)  l^  F.  Mavne.  Life 'if  Xiehtiltu  /,  pt.  1, 
eh.  11  .1(1./  11.— S.  M.  Hchmucker  Life  and  tki/rn 
0/  MfhJ.u  I .  eh   21. 

CAUr ASUS, The  Indian.—  The re»l  Cauca- 
sus »  IS  the  most  lofty  rau|?e  of  mountains  known 
lo  tin-  Greeks  Ix-fori;  lAlcxandcrs  conouestsj 
sad  they  were  ({eneralK  reganl.t!  as  the  highest 

m-juntairis  m  !)■,,.  w.-.-!-f      '-X-- \.ta  ih-  ursET 

o(  Alexander  came  in  sight  i.f  liic  vast  mountain 
barrier  [of  tlie  Hindoo  Koosli]  iliat  roa<-  ivfore 
them  as  they  advanced  northward  from  Aracho- 
■a,  they  seem  lo  have  at  once  conclud^  that 


CECROPIA. 

this  could  be  no  other  than  the  Caucasus. ' 
Hence  the  name  Caucasus  given  by  the  Qreeka 
to  those  mountains;  "for  the  name  of  HiudiMi 
Koosh.  by  which  they  an  still  known,  is  nothintr 
more  than  a  corruption  of  the  Indian  Caucasus. 
— £.  R  Bunbury,  Hitt.  of  Ancient  Qtog.,  eh.  13, 

CAUCI,  The.  Sec  Ibbiju(d,  Tribes  or 
Earlt  Csltic  Inbabitants. 

CAUCUS.— In  1634  — the  fourth  year  of  the 
colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay  —  the  freemen  of 
the  colony  chose  Dudley  instead  of  Winthrop 
for  governor.  The  next  year  they  "followed 
up  the  doctrine  of  rott  ^n  in  office  by  choosing 
Haynes  as  governor,  a  choice  agreea  upon  bv 
deputies  from  the  towns,  who  came  together  for 
that  purpose  previously  to  the  meeting  of  the 
court  —  the  first  instance  of  '  the  caucus  system ' 
on  record."— R.  HiWreth,  Iliet.  of  the  V.  S.,  e.  1, 
p.  234. — See,  also,  Conoress  or  the  United 
States. 

CAUOINE  FORKS,  Tha  Ronuuia  at  the. 
See  Rome:  B.  C.  »43-30O. 

CAUSENNiE,  OR  ISIN.£.— A  town  of 
some  importance  in  Roman  Britain.  "Them 
can  lie  no  doubt  that  this  town  occupied  the  siUi 
of  the  modem  Ancaster,  which  has  been  cele- 
brated for  its  Roman  antiquities  since  the  time 
of  Leload."— T.  Wright,  CM,  Honuin  and  Sojeon, 
ch.  5. 

CAVALIERS,  The  party  of  the.  See  Eno- 
.asd:    .V     L).    1641  (October);    also,    Roik-w 

llEADS. 

CAVE  DWELLERS.— "We  find  a  hunting 
ami  lishing  race  of  cav«  iivellers,  in  the  remote 
pleistocene  age,  in  dob.-'  sion  of  France,  Bel- 
gium, Germany,  and  Brrain,  probably  of  the 
same  stock  as  the  Eskimio,  living  and  forming 

f>art  of  a  fauna  in  which  northern  ami  southern^ 
iving  and  extinct,  species  are  strangeiy  minified 
with  those  now  living  in  Europe.  In  the  neolitUic 
age  caves  were  inhabited,  and  used  for  tombs,  bv 
men  of  the  Iberian  or  Bosque  race,  which  is  still 
represented  by  the  small  dark-haired  peoples 
of  Europe." — W.  B.  Dawkins,  face  U'-ting, 
p.  4;Ji>. 

CAVE    OF    ADULLAM.    .S.e    A  vm. 

Cave  op. 

CAVOUR,  Count,  id  the  unificativi.  of 
Italy.  See  Italy:  A.  !>.  18M  .M,  and  l-jj»- 
1861. 

CAVOUR,  Treaty  of  (1561  .-^e.  Savov 
A.  D    15.'5ft— 1580 

CAWNPUR.  OR  CAWNPORE  A.  D 
1857.— Sie«  by  the  Sepoy  mutinee  — Sur 
render  and  massacre  of  the  E  ;^i  a.  See 
IsuiA     A.  D.  1857  i.M.w— Ai  (H>       aud  1H57- 

1«.)8  (JCLV— JCNE' 

CAXTON  PRfcSS,  Th'  -ee  Pri>  :so 
a:4D  the  Press:  A   i     UTil 

CAYENNE,  Colontzatto  n.  :-.  e  Guiasa: 
A.  D   I.VIO-I.SU. 

CAYUGAS.   The,      "*•■<      vsraRi'-VM    Abo- 

BIOI^KS:    IroijI'OIS  Cli        Kl«       »lV. 

CEADAS,  The.    .--     li      vrimiii. 
CEBRENES   The.    ?•-<  Thoja. 


CECIL.  Si         illiam 
the  retni  of  iteth. 

155.-  iolfcS. 

CECORA.  Bat    >■ 
A.  1»    159()-1'  4«. 

CECROP    i.-CECROPIAN  HILL.— The 
Acropolis  of       iien        Si     \iTieA. 


Lord  Burleigh),  and 

•e  r.  so  LAND:  A.  D. 

1621  .     See  PouuiO: 


411 


'i«'* 


C£DAR  CREEK. 

CEDAR  CREEK,  Battle  of.  8m  CirmD 
9TATB8  or  Ax.:  A.  0. 1864  (Acoubt— Octobbb  ■ 

ViKdINIA). 

CEDAR  MOUNTAIN  OR  CEDAR  RUN, 
Battle  ot  Skk  Unitkd  Htateh  or  Am.:  A.  V. 
1868  (JuLT— August  :  VinoiNu). 

CELEBES.— Tba  eilniordlnary   conforma- 
tion of  the  inland  of  CVIc-bca  (situated  east  of 
Born<\))  gives  it  a  coast  line  of  no  less  tban 
8,.VI0  miles,  though  iu  area  is  but  75,000  square 
niilcM     In  other   words,  "although  little  over 
oiiethlnl  the  size  of  France,  It  has  a  seaboard 
ciiiml   in   exu-nt  to  that   of    France    and   the 
Iberinn    tVnInsiilii    taken   together.  .  .  .   Were 
it  as  densely    uei.plwl  as  Java,  it  would  have 
a  population  of  some  thirty  millions,  whereaa, 
according    to    tlie    approximate  estimates,    the 
•ctual   impulatlon  is  little  over  three-quark-ra 
of  a  million.     Hut,  alllmugh  nominallv  under  the 
Dutrh  rule,  most  of  the  iiilerior  is  still  occupied 
by  Alfurus.  timt  is.  wllil  tribes  for  the  moat  part 
living  in  Isolated  and  hostile  groups.     Nor  was 
the   l)utch  iKvupation  elTecttd  without   many 
sanguinary  struggles,  not  always  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  lnva<lers.     The  Europeans  appeared 
Orst  as  guests,  and  the  early  conHlcts  were  con- 
nected with  iguestions  of  Iraile  rights.     Then  the 
Dutch  pri'si'ntixl  themselvefi  as  rivals  of  the  Por- 
tuguese in  1860,   when  they  seized  the  fort  of 
MacHHsar,  long  their  only  piHuession  on  tlie  coast 
Later  they  conclude<i  a  treaty  of  alliance  and 
a  prou-ctomte  with  several  iietty  statra  In  the 
south  went  em    peninsula,   and  since    that   time 
thev  have  emitted  no  occasion  of  strengthening 
their  ixmition  in  the  island      Yet  in  nuMt  of  the 
inland  «UU'S  they  are  still  unrepresenu-d  by  any 
omciuls.  anil  even  the  coast  districts  are  visited 
only  at  long  int.rvals,     «VleU-s  has  not  v.-t  been 
ciimplettly  explontl,  and  some  part*  are  known 
only  iu  H  ginenil  way.  .  .  .  The  native  p<ipula- 
t  ons  nr.'  usually  classed  as  Malavs  ami  Alfurus, 
the  Inland   wild  tribes  .  .  .  Ilwingl    Indiscrim- 
inately groiipiil   as  Alfurus'— K.   Keclus,    Tk* 
Rirllt  anil  iu  Inhnhilanti:  ttftanii-a  rh  8 
CELESTIAL  EMPIRE.    H.i.  China 
CELESTINE   II.,  Pope.  A  I)  IIM^UW. 

.. .  .CeleetiBe  III.,  Pope.  A  n  lUl-liw 

Celestine  IV.,  Pope,  A  1).  mi Celettine 

CELESTINES.   or   CELESTINIAN8. 

—A  rligtous  onler  foundinl  by  the  hermit.  IH-U'r 
of  .M.iMne.  who  sfterwsnls.  In  tSM,  became 
I'.JH-.  snd  1.1. .k  the  name  Celestine  V. 

i-  r.S'-7"'^^''.l**'S'  T"*— ■■  The  appellation 
t eltllN-rians  indicHte*  that  In  the  northeastern 
part  .if  the  p.  ninsula  frtpain]  there  was  a  mix 
tore  .if  Celt-  bihI  Ib.rtans.'-W    Ihne,  t/ul    „f 

i^'ci  T«  ■J.'l  "•  "^'-«>'<'  NfHANTiAN  War 
CELTS,  The.-'The  Celts  form  a  branch  of 
Ihi'  gr»'«t  family  of  nations  which  has  twen 
Tnri.Hniv  calliil  Aryan,  IihK.  Kuropisn,  Imlo- 
Oermunlc,  Indo  Celtic  and  Japhetic  .  .  The 
(  .It.  nf  antiquity  who  appeare.1  first  and  often- 
«•«  In  hLtiirv  were  Ih.Meof  Oallia.  which,  liaving 
Nrn  made  (iv  tl,,  ».>e,^h  Into  Haule,  we  »<.nn 
««ul  ThiCililrfsmllT.  sofarback  a*  we 

can  tra<T  it  into  the  darkncMi  ..f  anllqultv.  c-on 
»\*u>\  iif  iwii  gr»u|M  or  branches,  with  llngidstic 
fiaturi..  iif  their  own  whlrh  marked  them  off 
from  line  snolher  To  the  one  U'lnnmil  th.-  an 
rj  itiirs  ,.r  th.  p.-..pi,-  »l«i.iM.,k  liiM-lir  in  Irelmid. 
the  I.le  iif  Man  sn.1  the  IlighlaiHU  of  the  Niwth. 
.  .  The  iMljimal  rume  which  the  members  of 


CENSORS. 

a.  one  knows,  is  that  ol  Oaidhel,   pronouioS 
ami  spelt  in  Engliri,  Uael.  but  forinerlVTnS 

by  thenuelTo.  Qoidel The  other-  cmuDi! 

repreeented  In  point  of  speech  by  the  ,,'.  pe  5 
WfalM^dthefiretona  .  .  .  The  natio  ,»l "^  L»e 

Briton ;  but.  slnre  that  word  has  now  i,.,  |,r,T|„ 
meaning,  we  take  the  Welsh  f.irm  ,.f  it.  «  ,"^'^ 
BiylJ)on,  and  call  this  groun  Hrythoim  and  Brr 
thonic,  whenever  It  is  need/ul  Ui  Ix-  cxa,  i  tI, 
ancient  Oaidsmurt  also  be  classili..d  wi,|,  ,h,B, ' 
—J.  Ithys,  CtlUc  lintain,  eh.  !.—«<,.,.  also  A» 
TAR»,  and  AprK.Miix  A,  vol.  5. 

"  Who  were  the  heltie  of  Sp«ln  7  tlie  p Uaikm 

whose  name  o<rura  In  the  woni  (VI  i.i  JS 
Ce  "berl,  Keltic  Ibirians  or  Iln^riun  K, ItL, 

LI  *^"'•f  "'""«*  u««l  to  deii.,niinat«t'|w 
tribe  and  nations  allied  to  the  Gauln.  it  lilif  wort 

a*  little  native  as  WelA  is  British.  ,  ]  thlU 
i?L??°'*'.  ""'  "  *"  •  *°"1  belonging  t,i  U,; 
Iberian  language,  applied,  until  the  time  of 
Cesar    at  least,  to  Iberic  p<ipiilatl.iii«.  u 

other  words,  the  Iberian  name  for  an  Il,,.ri,n 
popuUtlon  was  first  adopted  by  the  (i^rk,  ,, 
the  name  for  all  the  inhabitants  of  south  w,.,tf" 
Oaul,  aitd  It  was  then  extended  by  the  IlimsM 
so  as  to  Include  all  the  populations  of  (lallis  « 
cepttheBelntandAquftaniana'-a,  a.  Uihsm, 
Sthnotoff  of  Bun.pt,  r*.  8.  ^^ 

.  ^?}'J^'~.A  "*""' "f*""'"  «mong8rih,r.iln)[lit« 
to  certain  prehistoric  Imphni.nls,  IhhIi  st.,i„.»nd 
bronze  of  the  wedge,  chisel,  and  axe  kind  It 
has  evidently  no  connecUon  with  tlie  »,>r,l  Cll 
used  ethnological  ly. 

CELVDDON,  Foreit  of  (or  Coed  Celrdtw), 
See  BaiTAi!.,  Ckltic  Thihks.  '     '^ 

CENABUM.    H<-e  ORNAniM 

CENSORS,    The    Roman.-TI riiiiisl 

business  of  the  lioman  censors  na«  ti.  p  .-isicrtlie 
citizens  and  their  pn.|M.rty.    They     ■ma.l.niil 
the  returns  of  tlie  free  popiilatiiin  ,  Imt  i|„.vdi,| 
more;  they  divided  it  ac<unllng  to  it.  .  ivil  ilii- 
tlnctlons,  and  drew  up  a  lint  of  th.  »,  t,„i„r.  s 
list  of  the  e»iiiin»,  ■  list  of  the  ni.  nil«  r.  ..f  '  r 
several  trilws,  or  of  those  clllzi-ns  »li..  .hjovmI 
the  right  of  viMlng.  and  a  il.t  ..f  i),,.  ararinr- 
conslstliiB  of  those  freedm.h.  naliinill/Ml  nmr 
gets,  and  othen,  who.  iK-lngeim.ll.il  in  i).,M. 
poes«'Sjed  DO  vote  in  theconiitia.  Imi  -till  1  ii]..vr.| 
all  the  private  rights  of  H.iiimn  ,iii„„„     s'„w 
the  lists  thus  drawn  up  by  lli.  .. n~.n.  »,•:,■  „■■ 
garded  ai  legal  evj.lence  ".if  a  nmn  .  .,,iMlill.«i. 
.   .       From    thence    the     traiiHilliui    un.    >ii,r 
•cconling  In  Konan  nolLms.  t.i  th.  .1.  <  i.i.^,  ;,f 
questions  of  right;    such  as  win  id.  r  u  .ititm 
was  really  worthy  of  retaining  his  riit.li  If 

»  man  behaved  tyrannically  tn  hi^  «if.  ..r  chil 
drMi,  If  ha  was  guilty  of  eii-iwiv.'  cni,  liv  i-nn 
'.".  ,*''*'^-  "  *"  negle<t«|  bin  I,u„|  if  w  in 
ilulge.1  Id  habits  of  extravagant  .  »pi  "-< .  "f  fnl 
IowmI  any  calling  which  wan  ni:anl.il  a>  ilf 
(trailing,  the  olTince  was  Jii«llv  nui.il  hy  thi- 
ornsora,  arl  the  offender  »a»  strmk  ..IT  frim Un- 
list  of  senatora.  If  his  rank  was  xi  hl|ili ;  "r  If  bp 
wofN  an  onliRarr  :  !!!s"r.,  h^  w-h  -li-"-!  fr-a 
his  Irilie,  an.l  r«lii<tKl  to  the  elKsaof  ih.  amrlsm  ' 
-T  AmoU,  U,M  «/  lime,  <-h  17  -M.v,  sian 
Li;tTHinc 


412 


CENSORSHIP. 


CENTRAL  A3IERICA. 


CENSORSHIP  OF  THE  PRESS,  ia  Bag> 
UodaadGcnamax.  SMFkorraaAmiFBMii 
A.  D.  1«W. 

CENTRAL  AMERICA:  Roiaaofuciaot 
civilintioa,  Sm  Aximcait  Adomoinu: 
Matai.  (D(I  Qcicim:  alao,  Maxico,  Ahcicrt. 

DitcoTcrr  aad  carlj  ttttlcmcat.  See  Amu- 
l-.»    A   D.  149S-tiW9:  1509-1511;  18ia-1517. 

A.  D.  iBai-1871.— Scpantien  from  Spala. 
■od  Independtnce. — Attempted  Mcntioa  sad 
it!  hitaret.— Wan  aad  rerolotioaa  of  the  Sve 
Republics.— "  The  centnti  part  of  the  American 
cnniini'nt.  cxtpiulinf;  fmm  the  louthem  boundary 
of  Mdim  to  tlie  Isthmus  nf  Panama,  cnnaiited 
In  tlie  olil  colooini  time*  of  M-veral  Intendanclet, 
all  of  which  were  uuitvil  in  the  Captaincy-Oen- 
ctil  of  Qualetnala.  Lilte  tlie  Weel  Indian 
Island!,  It  was  a  neglected  part  of  the  Spanbh 
Empire.  .  .  .  Centnti  America  has  no  hiatoiy  up 
to  the  epoch  of  independence.  ...  It  was  not 
until  the  succeaa  of  the  Uevolutlon  had  beoome 
certain  on  both  aide*  of  tlicm.  both  in  Mexico 
and  New  Oranada,  that  the  intendanciet  which 
made  up  the  Captaincy-Oencral  of  Ouatamala 
dcrlarrd  tbemselre*  also  independent  of  SpaliL 
The  erf  of  liberty  had  indrcd  been  railed  in 
CoetaRica  in  1818,  and  in  Nicaragua  in  1818; 
but  the  Rerolution  waa  poatpnncd  for  six  yean 
loam.    OuateraaU,    the  irat  of  gOTemment, 

Rublisbed  Its  declaration  in  September,  18S1,  and 
I  example  waa  apeediiy  followed  by  San  Salva- 
dor and  Honduraa  NhsraKua,  on  prochklmini; 
its  independence,  together  with  one  of  tlie  depart- 
ment* of  Ouatemaia,  declared  its  adhesion  to 
what  was  known  In  :.<jxicn  as  the  plan  of  Iruala 
[see  Mkxk%>:  A.  D.  183O-1H30].  >!<  there  were 
DO  Sponish  troops  In  Ceiitml  Amer.  i  the  recu- 
sant HiNuiisli  otHolal  party  could  mske  no  resist- 
uuv  to  the  popular  movrmcnt;  and  many  nf 
Ihrm  crossed  the  sen  to  Culm  or  rptumod  to 
Spain.  .  .  .  Tlie  Revolution  of  Central  America 
thut  stands  alone  in  the  history  of  Independence, 
K  hiiTing  been  accompliahed  without  the  slied- 
(llnj  nf  blood."  During  the  brief  empire  of 
Ilurtiiile  In  Mexico  [see  as  above)  the  Central 
Aim'rlran  states  were  aanexe<l  to  It,  though 
Willi  stning  resistance  on  the  part  of  all  exrept 
Gu^trinaln.  "On  the  proclamation  of  the  Ped- 
rnl  llcpiilillc  in  Mexico  [IH'.M).  the  whole  of 
Central  Anuriia,  except  the  district  of  Chiapas, 
wlilxlrrw  fnim  the  alliance,  and  drove  out  the 
Mctlcao  offlcials  aa  only  a  year  before  they  had 
Irivcn  out  the  HpaiiUh  officials.  The  people  uow 
hail  to  face  the  task  of  forming  a  government 
for  thomwlres:  anil  .  .  .  they  now  resolved  on 
mmhinint  in  a  fe<leration,  in  Imiution  of  the 
irtrnt  Initwl  Sutea  of  North  America.  Perhaps 
DO  aiAirs  were  ever  less  suited  to  form  a  federal 
unhm  The  petlr  terriuirlea  of  Central  America 
He  im twixHTuns.  are  divi<le<i  by  lofty  mountains, 
ind  bare  srarrrly  any  communtcatfon  with  each 
other,  anil  the  citlsena  of  each  have  scarcely  any 
innimiin  Inirrest.  A  Central  Ameriraa  fedt-m- 
lim,  hiiw..v.-r.  was  an  imposing  idi-a,  and  llio 
P"'|>le  rliinjf  h>  ll  with  grcnl  pertinacity.  The 
lirxl  rffiirt  for  fitlrralkin  w,is  made  under  the 
iliririlon  nf  (Wnrral  Flliaitia  All  llie  IntemUn 
i-i" » n.nililniil  In  one  aovrn-iftn  state;  flnil  under 
III-  mim.'  i.f  tin-  lnlte.1  IVorloces,'  afterwards 
^  •-'nixr  52.  1*63;  iiH.i*r  llwl  of  Ilia  '  Federal 
Ibinilillr  of  Central  America.  .  ,  .  A  ooMlltu- 
tion  „1  tv  nHMt  llbeml  kiwi  was  votad.  This 
oiHuUiiiilua  Is  rciMTkabl*  fur  havtog  b««  Ik* 


first  which  abolished  slavery  at  onoe  and  abso- 
lutely and  declared  the  slave  trade  to  be  piracy. 
.  .  .  The  clerical  and  oligarchic  partv  set  their 
faces  stubbornly  against  the  execution  of  the 
constitution,  and  began  the  revolt  at  Leon  in 
Nicaragua.  The  union  broke  down  in  1830.  and 
though  Morazan  [of  Honduras]  ruoonstituted  it 
in  1|J2»,  its  hisuiry  la  a  record  of  continual  re- 
bellion and  reaction  on  the  part  of  the  Quate- 
nuUtec  oligarchy.  Of  all  South  American  con- 
servative parties  this  oligarchy  wiu  iierliaps  the 
most  despicable.  They  sank  U)  tliclr  lowest 
when  they  raised  the  Spanish  tin?  in  1«33.  But 
in  doing  this  they  went  too  fur.  Morazan's 
successes  date  from  this  time,  and  liavingbeaten 
'he  Oualemalteca,  ha  transfcntHl    the   Federal 

Kvemment  in  1884  to  San  Salvador.  But  the 
deral  Republic  of  Central  America  dragged 
on  a  procanous  existence  until  18.18,  when  it  was 
overthrown  by  the  revolt  of  Carrcra  in  Ouate- 
maia. From  the  first  the  influence  of  the  Fvd- 
eialists  in  the  capital  began  to  decay,  and  It  was 
soon  apparent  that  they  had  little  power  except 
in  Hoodurss,  San  Salvador  and  Nicaragua.  Tlie 
Costa  Ricaos,  a  thriving  commercial  community, 
but  of  no  great  political  Importance,  and  sepa- 
rated by  mountainoua  wastes  from  all  the  rest, 
soon  ceased  to  take  any  p;irt  In  pulilic  business. 
A  second  Folenil  Republic,  excluding  Costa 
Rica,  was  agreed  to  in  184J;  but  It  fiin-il  no 
better  timn  the  first.  The  chief  n<pn-wnt<itlve 
of  tiie  FiilcTftllat  principle  in  Ci-ntnil  America 
waa  .Morazan.  of  Ilomlunui.  from  wIioik;  govern- 
ment Carrem  had  revolted  in  IWM.  On  the  fail- 
ure  of  the  Fe<lcration  M  )raz.in  iiai  n.d  to  Chile, 
and  on  his  return  to  Cmta  Kicn  lie  w.is  shot  at 
San  Jose  liy  the  (,'iimTlsM,  This  was  n  gn-at 
blow  to  the  LiliemU,  and  it  was  not  until  1847 
th.'it  H  thinl  Federation,  consisting  of  llomluras, 
8iL  .><:ilvmlc)r,  and  Nicaragua,  was  nr).'anized. 
For  some  years  llnndiirw,  at  tiie  lieml  <f  tiiesa 
states.  carrie<l  on  a  war  iit.'.'iinst  (luaii  nmla  to 
C(Mn|»l  It  to  Jola  the  union  (iuatemalu  was  fur 
more  than  their  miitch;  Su;.  Salvaiior  ami  Nica- 
ragua soim  fiih^l  In  tlic  struggh;,  and  left  Hon- 
(lur\a  to  carry  on  the  wnr  almu.'.  Under  Ueneral 
Carnra  Guatemala  completely  defeatt'tl  Its  rival ; 
and  to  his  successes  are  due  tlie  rvvivnl  of  the 
Conservattva  or  Clerical  party  all  over  Centnii 
America.  .  .  .  The  government  of  each  state 
became  weaker  and  weaker:  revolutions  were 
everywhere  frequent:  ami  ultimately  ...  the 
whole  country  was  near  falling  Into  the  hands  of 
a  North  American  a<lventiin'r  [see  NlcARAorA: 
A  D.  18.WlH(i()].  In  former  times  the  Kngliah 
government  had  maintained  some  coonertioa 
with  the  country  [originating  with  the  bucca- 
neen  and  inatie  Imporiunt  by  the  maiioganv  cut- 
ting] through  the  iu<te|ieiident  IiidUiM  of  tlio 
MiMi|iiitii  coast,  over  whom,  for  the  pur|HMesof 
their  trade  with  Jamaica,  it  lia<l  iiiaiiitalneii  a 
protectumte :  and  even  a  amall  Kngllsli  coiiimer- 
eial  loltmy.  called  Oreytown,  had  Tieen  foiindi'd 
on  tills  riuKt  at  the  nioiuh  of  the  river  Mnii  Jii.ni. 
Towanis  the  rhw  of  Cirn-ms  aaieiHUncv  lliU 
ONUt  was  nslgmil  to  Nimragiia.  uuii  llie  Ikiy 
Islands,  which  lleoiT  the  const,  to  lloiiilunw.  iiiul 
Kiigiand  thiun'taliiiil  nothing  In  lliecoimtrv  hut 
Ute  old  settlement  of  liritlth  Honduras,  wli'li  its 
utiiitai,  ileiisr  Alu>r<  iirr<'ra'i>i4iis<li  III  I'Ot^.  tiie 
Ubeial  party  tiegan  Ui  n-wm-rt  itjvlf  ami  in  |n;i 
there  was  a  I.llieral  revolution  iu  tiunlcmnU  It- 
mU."  -E  J.  Payne,  Uul  u/Hurvy^  CUva  s, isA. ii. 


4ia 


CENTRAL  AMERICA. 


CENTRAL  AMERICA. 


.:;( ■  k 


I       ' 


A.  O.  iS7i-i88s.— Atctndsncjr  of  BaitIm 
in  GuatcmaU.— Hia  eOtartt  to  ratttablith  • 
Central  American  Union. — The  reTolutiou  of 
lt»7l,  lu  Uiiatemala.  eatabliihed  a  goTemment 
under  tbe  control  of  tlio  Liberal*,  with  Mimel 
Garcia  Qraoadoa  a*  proviiional  pnsidfuL   "Tbe 
new  administration  had  hardly  initiated  reforms 
when  an  insurrection  broke  out  tn  Santa  Roai, 
promoted  by  the  prieau  ami  their  aristocratic 
alilea     It  does  not  appear  that  Garcia  Granado* 
bid  at  first  intended  open  hostility  to  tlie  re- 
ligious orders.  .  .  .  Tbe  priesU  would  nut  rest 
cuntented  with  tbe  loss  of  their  former  high 
staniling.  .  .  .  The  new  riiime  now  resolred  to 
cut  looDe  [fnim]  the  eccleslastiral  incubus,  and 
t<)  cstabllab  tbe  supremacy  of  the  riril  authority 
in  the  state  on  a  firm  lusis.     Its  tlrsl  step  was  to 
carry  out  a  decree  ...  to  cxpol  the  Society  of 
Ji'sus  forever  from  the  repul)lic.     This  was  not 
elTccted  without  some  scaiuial  and  disturbance 
from  the  sealous  portlaans  of  the  '>rder.  Seventy- 
three  Jesuits,  must  of  whom  vere  foreigners, 
were   sent   away  on   an  American  steamship, 
Ihitind  at  Panama."    The  expelled  Jesuiu  were 
allowed  to  land  in  Nicaragua,  where  they  re- 
Diained  until  IHHl.    They  were  Uien  accused  of 
instlnatin-  an  insurrection,  and  wen  driven  from 
that  state.     In  Guatemala  the  expuWoo  of  the 
Jesuits  was  followed,    tn  18iS^,  by   the  sup- 
pression   of  tithes,  the  extinction  of  religioiu 
c< immunities  of  men,  and  'be  decreeing  of  free- 
diim  of  worsliip.  with  toleration  for  all  religious 
Si  eta     The  proTlsiounl  pn-aUlent  was  succenled 
in  June,  18*9,  by  Justo  Riifluo  Barrios,  electeii 
liy   iMipular  vote.     Barrios,  who  bad  been  the 
liiiiling  spirit  of  the  revolution,  was  a  resolute 
ami  energetic  man.     His  government  was  vigor- 
it  isly,   often    violently,    maintained,   during   a 
pfesiilency  of  twelve  ymrs.     Among  bis  early 
arts  was  one  which  llnlalieii  Uie  liiHuolutlon  of  the 
ri'ligiiiiis  houses,   by  op<>ning  the  convents  of 
women,  and  mailing  a  public  allowance  of  mimey 
to  tlie  departing  nuns.    The  chief  aim  of  Bar- 
rios, throughout  his  career,  was  to  bring  alnut 
toe    long-sought    union    of    Centr  J    Ameriran 
statea     To  that  end,  he  seems  to  have  nasiilii 
ously  interfere<i  in  tbepoliticsuf  themlgliburing 
n>piiblli'a      Hy  fom-  of  anus,  lie  estiilili>-he<l  a 
government  iii  Halvaalor  ttiat  was  favorable  to 
nis    views,  and    he  ai-nimpllsh«<i   the  ume  in 
Honduras  by  pmniotlng  a  revolution.     In  Nica- 
ragua and  I'iMM  KIca  lie  hail  lex*  sui-ci-sa     In 
ltin>  a  new  conslitulion  was  ntlopliit  in  liuate- 
mala,  and  BarriiM  was  electeii  umier  It.  iu  INNO. 
for  a  further  terra  of  six  yeara     Tlie  eountry   i 
enjoyetl  a  lime  of  great  pnwpiTiiy.  ami  HarrinK. 
after    visiting   Kunipe  anil   tlif    I'liitiii   Slal<-«. 
i<n>|i<iae<l.  In  IHN3,  to  n'sl^n      lie  was  peisiiailiil. 
liipwi'Ver.  to  n-iiiiiin  in  offlre.  iiiit  Ills  efToris  fi>r 
the   union  of  M«ti<«   wire   ri's  inieil      Tliey  en 
(ountenil    so    mil'  li    oppwitliai    that    he'   lust 
patli'iice,  and  mslily  iiiHlirtiink.  in  \m^.  tn  sr. 
timipliitli  till-  ijiiineatliin  i.f  (  intral  AnHTJra  liv 
force      Bv  :i  d.-i  fee   Isnii-tl  mi  IIh<  IWlh  of  Keb- 
ruary  In  tlia!  vmr   !«■  |l^«•jllra«!  tbe  omsulltla- 
tion   of  the  live  utates  inln  i«<'   repiilillr.     The 
'.■'ivirnment   of   liiii»liir»a  assenliil  .    ihi-   other 
lliret-  mates  fiinneii  an  allianrein  resist      HarriiM 
niarrheil  an  iirmv  li,iiir«alvail<ir,  and  Inst  his  life 
in  llie  flglitiiK  Ihnt  eiisueil.  —  H     H.   Rani-Mft. 
//iW"V  "f ''*'   /"'"•/"  SittlHi,  r  rt,  cA,  do-i2l. 

A.    D.  iM6-il«4. -C*aliffa«4    alrnffKliag 
(sr  Ualea,  aad  coJttaMd  r**«liitiMHU7  Cm- 


fliet*.— Not  loog  after  the  fkll  of  Barrloa  th^ 
(OTemuMDt  of  Salvador  itself  proposed  a  con- 
greia  to  arrsoge  terms  of  union ;  but  the  propo- 
sition failed.     Nicaragua,  always  looking  for- 
ward  to  tbe  probable  construction  of  an  Istlimlaii 
canal  within  her  border,  and  ambitlaus  to  enlny 
the   great   posMvion   alone,    continued   aloof 
CosU  Rica,  having  some  share  in  the  same  am- 
bition, dM  likewise.     Yet  the    unionists,  who 
seem  to  have  been  always  numerous,  kept  the 
project  alive,  and  were  able,  in  April,  1»H7,  to 
bring  about  a  preliminary  treaty  between  the 
five  republics,  "to  establish  an  intimate  relation- 
ship between  them,  ami,  by  making  the  cmitiDU- 
ance  of  peace  certain,  to  provide  for  their  funire 
final  fiisluQ  in  one  country."     In  the  next  year 
President  Soto,  of  Ci».ta  KIca,  urged  the  bmpdi- 
bling  of  a  diet,  to  establish  the  uuion.  piiKlinit 
which  Costa  Kican  citizenship  was  ixliuileil  m 
the  citixens  of  the  other  repulillca.     The iliii  nut 
In  September  of  that  year,  but  the  de^ir<sl  union 
was   not   achieved.      In    Noveiiiln-r,   Imn».  th,. 
three  states  of  Honduras,  Guatemala,  and  Sulla- 
dor  took  another  step.  Joining  in  a  treaty  which 
contemplated  a  nrovUlunal  confederatinn  fur  im 
yeara,  after  which,  if  it  proved  salisfuiinrv,  » 
more  perfec;  and  permanent  union  sljuiilii'  u- 
farmed;  but  Nicaragua  and  C'onta  Kim  wmilil 
not  take  parL    In  Salvaitor,  mon-over,  ihe  ami 
unkniata  rallied,  and  a  conflict  Miiirn-il  iintu:, 
In  which  the  government  was  overlhniwii,  the 
president  killed,  and  liie  opimnents  of  union  n 
tabliibed  a  provisional  c.ivemnieni,  wiih  (icn 
KzeU   at    lu    bead.      Then    the    pnsiil.  a  nf 
Guatemala,  Manuel  Barillaa,  who  hail  ■min  .^lid 
Barrios,  interfered,  and  Guatemala  ami  Nilimht 
went  flert !  ly  to  war.    The  Hulvaiiurinnii  hwl  tW 
beat  of  It  in  most  of  the  fighting,  ami  Ikrillun 
was  bard  pmaed  bv  revnlutioiUHtH  at  home    luil 
he  kept  bis  power  In  (iiiaU-iiiala,  iIuhiWi  Ih'  li.il 
not  succeed  In  suppressing  Kxela  anil  hin  |>;iriv 
in  Salvador.     One  incktent  <>iiine<'li-t|  wlih  ihi  »c 
events  caused  excitement  and  ciHiiruvi>r«i  m  the 
United  Statea.    A  Guatemalan  exile.  Ii;iinin<lii 
took   passage  from  Mexico,  on  a  i'tuitii   .Ma;; 
steamer,  for  Salvador,  to  enlist  in  the  hih      I  l,e 
steamer  touched  at  a  port  in  Guatemaln.  whirr 
the  auiiiorities  undertook  to  arrent  him     Ttu 
captain  refused  to  give  bis  passenger  up     hut 
neither  the  United  Sutea   niliiiitiir   nor  hhmiI 
olBcers  present  in  the  imrt  could  liml  iiiiili  riu 
to  sustain  the  captain's   refusal,  ami  tin    liii:<r 
was  farced    to   yield.      Barrumihi  n«iMi.|  ilie 
arreat,  and  was  shot.     While  tlH-  i>|i|i<'nini»  .>: 
union  triumpheil  In   Halvsiiiir,  iliey  l:\iM  in  s 
desperate  attempt   at   revi<liillon   In   liuh.l  n.n 
IVsldent  liogran,  in  tiial   state,  n)aiti'a>iii''l  lilt 
authority,  ant  '  as  siicretiliHl  at  the  i  liw  .  (  hi« 
conatltiiiiunal      r-n.  in  l<*Vi,  by  (ieiH'r:il  l.uiii. 
In    IMM,  tbe  (MVemmeiit  of  Leiva  hik  "mi 
thrown    tiy   insurgent   Lilierala  ami    i'wliiarpn 
Boullla  made  president.  uihIit  a  ni  »    imii.iiiu 
tliin.     .Vi-aiilime.  alTuirs  in  MearagiiN  hi;i!  ^uiha 
dor  were  e<|ualiy  l>>nipesliious.  l*nf  i>h  i;i  Nmua, 
In  the  furuirr,  was  rmuM'llnl  to  mitu,  m  lf>A 
Whether  lite  ailoptlim  ni  a  new  coiiniiiiii.iii.  iii 
IflM.  and  the  et|iiiNliiii  of  a  niimlMr  or.'mu'ti 
and  nuns,  will  lulm  the  ilisonler,  iriniiini-  In  lit 
seen.     In  Salvador,  Eieta  was  lirivin  fnim  tlH 
prtisldencv  in   1I<M.  and  a  provlahiiml  i!<>ven 
meat  set  up     in  CosU  itica.  during  iwi  ;i.  Mierr 
wsrs  ooDlIlol*  lietwsvB   the  preshlrnt   aiul  ibr 
legteWturs,  (nil   no   rvrolutiua   occurri^l      lu 


4U 


CKNTRAL  AXKBICA. 


CHALCIS  AMD  SRBTRU. 


Onttenttk,  PraridMt  Bufllat  wm  (ueeeadcd  ia 
\m  by  Gen.  Joti  Bht1o%  ho  of  Um  foniMr 
proideiiL 

CENTRAL  ASIA.    Bm  Aiu,  CHmuk 

CENTRE,  TiM.    SaeRiaHT,  Ac. 

CENTREVILLB.  BvMMtiea  ot  8w 
CicrrcD  Statu  or  Am.:  A.  D.  lWl-188a  (Da- 
CM  BEm— Mabcb  :  VimoiKU). 

CENTURIES,  Romu.    8«eCoMiTuCB» 

TUBIATA. 

CENTURION.— The  aaeeroomiMiidtng  CM 
of  the  flfty-flTe  centuriw  or  compeiiiee  in  a  Ro- 
man |p?<oa  of  the  empirtL    See  LMioa. 

CEORL.    Hee  Eokl,  and  BrHmL. 

CEPEDA,BatUeef(iU»)>  BeeAMnmn 

rkpcbi  ic :  A.  D.  i8i<»  lerft. 

CEPHISSUS,  Battte  ol  tk«  (A.  O.  1311). 

Soft  ('ATtLAN  Obaxd  COMPAinr. 
CERAM.  8eelfALATABCHirBLMO:l>aTea 

£aiit  Ihdim. 
CERAMICUS  OP  ATHBN8.— The  Ceim- 

inirii«  wiM  ciriirfDRlly  the  moet  important  of  the 
I'lhiirlmn  iliMricts  of  Athena  and  derived  Ita 
uime  (nim  the  pottiT*.  "It  ia  probal>le  tliat 
»\K:ii  tliF  time  of  PinUtratiu  the  nurliet  of  tlie 
anricnt  oiiliurb  callpil  the  Ceramicui  (for  every 
.\ttic  ilUtrirt  pnaMiaed  lU  own  market)  wa*  con- 
stitiitnl  the  trntral  market  of  tlie  city.  .  .  . 
Tlvr  [the  Piaintrntidn]  connected  Athvoi  In  ail 
lilrrftliHu  by  raailwaya  with  the  country  iii»- 
irirti:  tbne  madi  were  accurately  mpniiiin.v|, 
>n<l  all  met  00  the  Ceramicua,  In  tlie  centre  of 
which  an  altar  waa  erected  to  the  Twelve  Oixla. 
CVto  this  centre  of  town  and  country  were  ciil- 
ruliteil  (he  distancea  to  the  different  country 
(liMriru.  lo  the  porta,  and  to  the  moat  important 
Morluarira  of  the  common  fatherland.  ...  [In 
the  mxl  nntury  —  in  the  »g»  of  Periclea  —  tlw 
I>npul»iiiin  had  extended  to  tlie  north  and  weat 
•n>l|  p.trt  of  the  ancient  pottera'  diatrict  or 
CcmTiiii'iii  had  long  become  a  quaiter  of  the  city 
|th>-  liintrCrramicuaj;  the  other  part  mnalniti 
»:iliiirl>  (tlie  Outer  t'eramicua].  Between  the 
!ir<i  lav  the  douhl"  ^nle  or  Oipvlttm,  tlie  broad- 
i-t  am)  m<Mt  apk-ndid  gate  of  tira  city.  .  .  . 
il'Tc  the  bnaul  carriafe-raad  wliich.  avoidln> 
nil  heiflit*,  atcended  from  tiM  marliet-phire  of 
lli;<|HiiUinu»dinH'tly  to  Um  eity-narkct  of  t 
i<nniini!i,  cnleml  the  city;  from  Itera  atraigi. 
to  the  wiM  led  tlie  mad  to  Eleuaii,  tba  tacred 
M.iir*  of  IJH-  fnilve  proceaaiona.  ,  .  .  From 
IhiH  nwl  amin.  immediately  outatda  the  cate, 
bran<h<-.|  oft  that  which  led  lo  the  Acatlemy 
Tlie  liiiih  riNwIa  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city 
era-*  weiv  every  wkert  bordered  with  numeroua 
Dill  luiiilaiimv  arpulchral  moaumeota,  in  par- 
tiriilar  tlie  riiad  leaillnf  through  tba  outer  Cera- 
>i>liii»  Here  ]»y  the  Dublic  bttrial-gtound  for 
tli<-iliif<.nii  who  luid  fallea  in  war;  the  vaat 
*\wr  wai  clivliled  Into  fieida.  oarreapondin;;  U> 
till'  ililTi  nnt  Ultle-flekia  at  boOM  and  abnaui'."— 
I  I'unm,.  //,.«.  ^  onm,  M.  I.  M.  9  amf  U.  I. 

^.Vijoi!,:  W.  M.  Leake,  nipfr'f'^f  <^ AtHem, 

CEHHSTES.  OR  KBRBSTBS.  BMUaaf 

(l»».    Ni  llisuAHT;  A.  I)    IDM-iaiM. 

A  ImI?"'""*'  "'"'•  "^ *'*•!'•    ■*«*  '»*"■ 


41 


CBRRO  GORDO,  Battlt  oL    8«e  Mexico 

A.  D.  1847  (MancH-SBrTBitBEK). 

CESS.— A  word,  corrupted  from  "aaieia,* 
Hgnifylng  a  rate,  or  tax ;  used  especially  ia 
Scotland. 

CEUTA,  A.  D.  I4is.-Captnrt  by  th« 
Pertanaaa.    Hee  PoarooAi. :  A,  D.  141^-1400. 

A.  O.  16M.— Cedad  to  Spain.  Hee  Pobtd- 
oal:  A.  D.  1«87-1«68. 

CiVENNES,  The  propheta  of  tha  (or  the 
Cereaoi  propbata).  —  The  Camiaarda.  8ee 
Frakcb  :  A.  iV  1708-1710. 

CEYLON.— The  name  Ceylon  la  derived  by 
a  leriea  of  corruptions  from  the  Sanskrit  name 
Sinhala.  given  to  tlia  ancient  people.  T.he 
Oreek  name  of  the  island  was  Taprohane  The 
(Sinhalese,  who  form  the  most  of  the  population 
came  originally  from  India.  BuddkiKm  was 
intruluced  at  an  early  day  (see  India:  B.  C. 
813—),  and  is  still  tlie  religion  of  the  Siiibaleiie. 
The  wilder  narU  of  the  island  are  occupied  by 
a  people  called  tl.e  VeddiUis,  who  are  probably 
tlie  reinnauta  of  an  abori>pnal  race.  Arabs  and 
Chinese  form  a  considerable  element  of  the 
coast  population.  The  Portuguese  eKUblisbed 
llieninelveii  In  the  inland  in  t!ie  Irtth  century, 
but  were  driven  out  by  the  Dutch  lietween  1088 
and  Kl.Vl.  Ceylon  waa  ceiliil  to  England  in 
17IM,  and  tlio  cession  conHrme<l  in  IMrj  — (««« 
Kra.mik:  a  I).  1I*)1-1H02  — C  P.  Liieas.  A 
Jiitt.  (Jfuij.  lifts*  BritUk  Vittrthii:  r.  1.  ttrt  2 

CHACASUCO,  Battl«ef(l8i7>.  HeeCaiLB: 

A.  I>.  miO-1818. 

CHACO,  Tba  Graa.    Hee  Gran  Cbaco. 
CHARONBA,  Battlaa  of.    Hee  Uasaca: 

B.  C.  857-888 :  and  .Miturioatic  WABa. 
CHAGAN.    HeeKiiAN. 

CHACOS  ISLANDS.    HeeMA>rARKKR 

CHA'HTAS,  or  CHOCTAWS,  Tha.  He« 
Amkrican  AaoRioiRaa :  McyKnooBAN  Famii.t. 

CHALCEDON.— An  ancient  Greek  lity. 
foimiieil  by  the  Megariana  on  the  Asiatic  side  <.t 
the  lioaphoriis.  neariy  oppoalte  to  Bvxantium 

A.  D.  as*-— Captnr*  bj  tba  Cetba.  ^ee 
Ouru^:  A.  D.  ».V(-8A7. 

A.  D.  6i64«s.— Tba  Partiaaa  ia  poaaessiea. 
See  I'l.KaiA  :  A.  D.  HM-887. 


CHALCEDON,  Tba  Coaacil  of.    See  Nrii. 

TiMii \\  AND  .MovoFayatTE  Cojitiiovrii-v. 

CHALCIS  AND  ERBTRIA-  TIk- p.  .t 
danireniiM  rivals  of  Ionia  were  the  townn  cf 
Eub<ea.  among  which,  in  the  drat  in^latice. 
C.vme.  aituateil  in  an  excellent  bay  of  tie  east 
coast,  in  a  district  abounding  In  wine,  ami  af. 
lerwanis  the  two  sister  towns  on  the  Eiiriniis, 
CImli'is  and  Kn-tria.  distinguished  themselves  iiy 
larirer  niea«un-s  of  colonisation.  \>  hlle  Eretrta. 
tl»f  ■  lily  of  niwers. '  rose  lo  (irusperity  esperlally 
by  means  of  purple  ll<heries  ami  a  rerry'navi|,>a- 
Uim  conducted  on  k  cunslantly  Inrreastng  scale, 
Chalcis,  the  •  liroiue  elty.'  on  the  double  sea 
of  the  Btrotian  soumi,  rontrivnl  to  raiw  and 
amptoy  foe  herself  the  mnat  Important  of  the 
Many  tnaaures  of  the  tsUnd  —  lu  copper  .  .  . 
Chateia  bacaaie  the  .  .  .  Greek  Hidon  Next  to 
Cyprua  there  were  no  richer  stnras  of  rrijiprr  in 
IbaOraek  world  than  on  Euben  "— E.  Curilna 
tSM.^iirmn.hi  i.rh  S— Tliei  bakniians were 
aalwurisiag  ooloniaU.  partlcuUrly  in  Tbnire.  In 
Ik*  Macedonian  peninsula.  .  and  Insouilrrti 
Italy  aad  IMcity .    It  was  the  abuudaut  wealth  g( 


.    t 


n 


iH'r 


CHALCIS  A.XD  ERETRIA. 

Thimce  In  metallic  om  which  drew  tlio  Chalcl- 
dUns  to  It.  About  700  B.  C.  a  border  find 
between  ChalcU  and  Eretiia,  conct'niiu);  reruin 
"Leianttac  ticlda"  which  hiy  betwien  tliora, 
grew  to  »ucU  proportion*  and  *o  nmny  other 
»'»««  <»nie  f«  Uke  part  In  It,  that,  •■  Kccordlng 
to  Thucydli'-»  no  war  of  more  unlverwl  import- 
ance for  'he  whole  nation  wa»  fouglit  between 
the  fall  oi  Trojft  rnd  the  Persian  war."— The 
aamc.  b.  1,  ik.  8,  M.  1.— ChalcU  waa  eubdufd 
by  the  Athenians  in  B.  C.  806.  Sw  Athe.N3; 
B.  C.  80»-»0>i-  klao  Kt.C81'CES,  and  EracEA. 
CHAT  CUS.    See  Taunt. 

CHALDEA.— CHALDBES.      See  Babt- 
loniA. 

CHALDEAN  CHURCH.    See  Neotokiasb. 

.  SP^k^'^i^"'  °*'"« "' ('5'4)-   See TcnKs: 
^  D,  1481-'1520. 

CHALGROVE  FIELD,  FaU  of  Hampden 

at.     SeeEKOLARD:    A.  D.  IMS  (Acocar— Sef- 

TEXBKR). 

CHALONS,  Battlea  at  (A.  D.  J7i).-Amon» 
the  many  pretenders  Ui  the  Koman  Imp.rliU 
throne— "the  thirty  tyranU,"  a«  they  were 
OkUed  —of  the  distracted  reign  of  Oalllenua,  waa 
Tetricua,  who  had  been  governor  of  Aquitalne. 
The  dangerous  honor  waa  fon»l  upon  him.  by 
a  demoralized  army,  and  he  reigned  against  his 
will  for  leTeml  years  over  (Jaul,  Spain  and 
Britahi.  At  length,  when  Jie  Iron  ham  led 
Aur  Itan  had  taken  the  reins  of  government  nt 
Rome,  Tetricus  aerrrtly  plotted  with  Ulni  for 
deUverance  from  his  own  uncoveted  i.  ><itne)>s 
Aurelian  Invaded  Gaul  and  Tetricus  led  a.i  armv 
against  him,  only  to  betray  It,  in  a  great  buttle 
at  Chalons  (271),  where  the  rebels  were  cut  to 
plecet.— E  Gibbon,  VteliM  aiuf  FaU  of  the 
Beman  Kmpin,  cA.  11. 
A.   D.  3««.    See   Auwaiihi,    Ikvasioh   or 

OAtn,  Bt  TUB. 

A.D.  4SI.    See  HnNs;  A.  D.  «1.  Attilas 
UfTAaioif  or  Ga(7u 

» 

^CHALYBES,     Th«.-Tho     ChalTl)os,     or 
Chalyblana,   were   sn    ancient    people'  In  Asia 
Minor,  on  the  coast .  .'  the  Euiine.  probably  east 
of  the  Halys,  who  were  noU^I  ns  workers  of  iron 
— E.  H.  Bunbury,  Hit.  of  Ancient  Oeug.,  eh   ii 
i»o««  A.  »  .  . 

CHAM  AVI,   Tilt.      See    Bucctebi;    also. 
Francs;  also.  Gaul:  A.  D.  8S.V8A] 

CHAMBERS     OF      RBANNEXATON, 
Prnch.    See  I-'hancc:  A.  D.  I«7»-1(»(I 

CHAMBERSBURC,     Baraiac     of.      See 
iNiTED  Statm  or  Am.:   A.  I)    1»<M  (.Jiiv: 

VlMOINIA— MARn.ANI>). 

,  ^.^'^^T.^^^^-  *>'*«*■  «^  *•»•  county.- 
In  'he  middle  yean  of  the  revolt  that  il<  ilir.mil 
the  (  arlovlngians  ,„,(  n,|^  „,„  C'apeliuii«  to  a 
thnme  wLloh  they  made  the  thnmeiif  a  klncdom 
of  Frame,  Count  Herbert  of  Vernuindoi«  allieil 
hiiUMlf  with  the  party  of  the  latter,  ami  Ngan 
operations  for  the  expanding  of  his  donmin 
•^The  (hampaign  of  Hheims.  the  ■  Campania 
Remenals'~a  moat  appropriate  descriptive  de- 
oomlnailon  of  tlie  nirlon  — an  eitenaion  of  the 
plains  of  Flanders  —  Imt  not  yetemplovi-.l  p„litl. 
callv  -  'fealgnatlng  a  province  — wa»pn.iect.'d 
against  Count  llen^.t  •  a  the  Vermamloi.  bonier 
by  the  CMlrum  Th==rf,  t-Cb4trau  Thirrrr. 
Herberts  profuM  ,■  mUei  iodure.1  the 
eommandcr  lo  l^irav  uu  uu:».  .  .  .  Herbert 
through  tlito  oecupalioa  of  (^Imu  Tblrrry,' 


4M 


CHAKC2LL0R. 

obtained  the  dty  of  Troyes  and  all  the '  CamDsak 
Kemensls,'  which,  under  his  potent  swat  wu 
spee<lily  developed  Into  the  magnidcent  (SJuntv 
of  Champagne.  Herbert  and  Lis  lineage  l,di 
Champagne  during  three  generations,  until snm.! 
t  me  after  the  accesalon  of  the  Capets,  when  the 
Grand  Fief  paiaed  from  the  House  „f  v,r 
mandols  to  the  House  of  Blols."— Sir  F  Pa|. 
grave,  Ui'm.  of  Narmnndy  and  Knn.,  r  !!  n  1S> 
CHAMPkAUBEkT,  Battle  o/^  i^ 
Fkancb:  a.  D.  1814  (Jancabt— MARrni 

A  D  ^87"?M^'**^'^''"^'-  '*^'*"«*'^=^ 

CHAMPIONS  HILL,  Battle  of.  s,, 
yxrraD  Statm  of  Am.:  A.  D.  1863  (.\prii_ 
Jilt:  On  the  Mimibippi). 

CHAMPLAIN,  S«nii«l.-B«plorations  sad 
Cdomaatioiifc  See  Canada  (New  Krasce' 
A.  D.  H08-1WB;  1808-1«11:  and  1811-1«1«" 

CHAMPLAIN.  Lak.:  A.  D.  1776.  -AmoMi 
UTiU  battle  with  tartetoa.  See  tKiTKD  ™ra 
or  Am.  :  A.  D.  1776-1777, 

A.  p.  iSi4.-Macdoaouch'a  aaral  vietoiT. 
See  Lnmo  BrATEa  or  Am.:  a.  D.  18U  isii! 

TEMBSa). 

«??^?f.f^   °."    MARS. -CHAMPS  DE 

MAI.— >\  hen  the  MerovlngUn  kluvs  of  tie 
!•  ranks  summoned  their  captains  to  t:;iiher  for 
the  planniiig  and  preparing  of  r.i!ii|..iiitn«  tlie 
a^seml'ies  were  called  at  first  tli.t  I  li.in,n,  i, 
Mnrn,  iM'causo  the  n»>ellng  was  in  earliest  upriat 
-~  11  .M„rch.  "  But  as  the  Franks,  fn.m  »,  rvinJ 
"II  fiKit,  liecame  cavaliers  under  tlie  nemnd  [ilil 
(^irlovinpiiinj  race,  the  time  was  .  haiiircl  to 
May,  for  the  sake  of  forage,  and  llic  «s.s,mli|if« 
wire  called  Champa  de  Mai  -K  E  Crowr 
Iha.  of  Fnnef,  eh.  1— See,  al»>,  Malum  jn<i 
Parliament  or  Pauib. 
CHANCAS,  The.    See  Peri-:  Tiik  Abobi 

OINAL  INnAHITANTS. 

^5"*,f";^^'-0'*'  The.-"  The  name  [of  the 
Chanocllorj,  derlvnl  pmlnbiy  from  Ilie  lamtlli 
or  screen  behind  which  the  sivntarial  wnrli  of 
the  roval  household  was  carried  on.  clainu  soio- 
siderable  antiquity ;  and  the  oBltrs  wlili  h  It  ll^ 
note*  are  various  In  proportion.    The  cliaooelLir 
of  the  Karolinghin  sovereigns,  sucfcedlni;  lo  tin 
place  of  the  more  ancient  referendarius.  Isiimply 
the  royal  noUry;  the  arehicanci'llarius  ii  tlx 
rliief  of  a  large  Iwdy  of  such  omrtm  SMKiated 
umler  the  name  of  ihe  chancery,  and  Is  the  kwpet 
of  the  roval  seal.     It  la  from  this  minlntrr  tkt 
llie   English  chancellor  derive*  his  name  sod 
function.     Edward  the  Confessor,  the  drsl  of  our 
soverelirns  who  had  a  seal,  Is  also  tlie  (Irit  who 
had  a  1  liancellor ;  from  Ihe  reign  of  the  ConnufPr 
the  offlce   has  descended  In  reitular  »iiroe«»iou. 
It  seems  to  have  been  lo  a  companllvrly  lat« 
perital.  generell/  if  not  slways,  at  l.-aat  in  En, 
laml.  held  by  an  *cclv»la«llc  who  was  a  mrml-  f 
of  Ihe  royal  household  ai.ilon  a  fi»illiiir  with  tl,« 
great  dignltarii*     The  iliancellor  v,,  tin-  bh-I 
diirniniff  of  the  royal  rhaplalns,  if  ii.ttlii'  Iwnl 
of  thai  Naly.     Tlu>  whole  secreUrl  il  ir.irk  of  tb« 
household  and  court  fell  on  the  rlninr.)    •  sail 
the  chaplalaa  .  .  .  The  chancellor  w;i»    in  a 
manner,  Ihe  secretarv  of  stale  for  all   Ifpsrt- 
menu."— W.  Stublie.  Vv.iM<  /ft,/  ,/ AV.y  .',  11. 
Kt't.  li\. — "  In  Uie  relgu  of  Edwani  I    **'•  ir^is 
to  perceive  sign*  of  the  rise  of  the  e\tra..nlioiir» 
or  equitable  jurlaillcthm  of  the  Chai'.  ell.T    TlW 
numerou*  pctlUuna  addrsaaed  tu  thy  Uia|  sail 


iwnm 


:  i  f  i  .■ 


CHANCELLOR 


CHARLI8. 


hii  CooDcil,  neking  tbe  interpmition  of  the  royal 
grace  sDd  favour  either  to  mitigate  the  hanh- 
ness  of  the  Common  Law  or  supply  ita  detlciencies, 
bad  been  in  the  apecial  care  uf  tlie  Chancellor, 
who  examined  and  reported  upon  tliem  to  the 
King.  .  ,  .  At  length,  in  1S48,  by  a  writ  or  or- 
dinance of  the  83d  vear  of  Edward  III.  all  auch 
matter!  aa  were  '  of  Grace '  were  dlrectod  to  be 
i|i«patrhrd  by  tbs  Chancellor  or  by  the  Keeper 
of  tbe  Priry  Seal  TtUa  waa  a  great  atep  in  tbe 
rcc<  Intuition  of  tbe  equitable  jurisdiction  of  the 
Oiiurt  of  Chancery,  aa  diatinct  from  the  legal 
Juriadiction  of  the  Chancellor  and  of  the  Courts 
of  Common  Law ;  although  it  waa  not  until  tbe 
foUnwiDg  reign  that  it  can  be  aaid  to  have  been 
peraumently  eaubliahed  "— T.  P.  Taawell-Lang- 
mead.  Bag.  Cml.  IIitt.,pp.  178-174.— "The Lord 
Chancellor  ia  a  Privy  Councillor  by  his  of&cc;  a 
Cabinet  Miniater ;  and,  according  to  Lord  Chancel- 
lor Ellesmere,  prolocutor  [chairman,  or  Speaker] 
of  tbe  Ilouae  of  Lords  by  pri.cription." — A.  C. 
Ewsid,  Tlu  Crown  and  iti  A'Intrr;  kct.  3. 

Also  a:  E.  Piachel,  Thf  BiuMth  ComtituiiaH, 
U.  .1,  eh.  1.    tivo,  also.  Law,  Eouitt. 

CHANCELLOR'S  ROLLS.  See  Exchs- 
ariK.— ExcmnirKR  Itoujt. 

CHANCELLORSVILLE,  Battles  of.  Bee 
rxrrED  Statu  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  IWS  (Anui^— 
Mat:  Viroinia). 

CHANCERY.    See  Cba.'vcxi.iar. 

CHANDRACUPTA,  OR  CANDRAGUP- 
TA,  Tht  empire  ot  See  Ihvia  :  B.  C.  337-313, 
and  ;il3 . 

CHANSERS,  Tht.    See  Ajucrica.i  Auuri- 

OINKK     SlOtAH  1-  AHII.T. 

CHANTILLY,    Battle    of.      See    I'nited 

StaTK.s  iir  .\»l  :  .\,  1).  IHfla  (.ifOt  "T— SltrTEM- 
BEK      VllUlt.MAl. 

CHANTRY  PRIESTS.— ■  With  the  m..rn 
vrilibv  niid  lievout  jio  till- 14th,  l.Vh  iiud  16lh 
onluricii)  It  was  the  pnu'lice  to  enit  llttli) 
fh:i|KU  nhirh  were  either  aildid  to  cliiirrhes  or 
eniloMHl  Iiv  screens  within  them,  wliere  eliuiitrv 
pni"it4niji.'lil  relehmte  masa  fur  the  gorxl  of  tlitfr 
sniil4  in  perpetuity.  .  .  .  I^r^e  sums  of  money 
werr  .  .  devotetl  to  the  maintenaucv  of  chantry 
priiTt*.  whiiie  duly  It  was  t<>  say  maw  for  the 
trpow  uf  Ilie  leslttl'or'ssiiul.  ,  .  .  The  •  hararter 
sail  nmiluit  of  tlie ihnntry  priests  must  Imvu  be- 
riiiiu' «innwhat  of  a  las  onler  In  the  IKMi  cen- 
tury -—It  U  Hliar|H',  Int.  to  ••liiUniUir  ..i'  WiUt 
in  V,r  fi,urt  !■/  It'iilinfi.  Ixnukm,"  t.  2.  ;>,  r?i». 

CHAOUANONS,  th«.    S. r  Amkrii  am  A»o 

ail. INK     SlIAW  ANKHi;. 

CHAPAS,  OR  CHAPANECS,  Tht.    Sec 

AjlKHlr\<(  .\lU)llI<ilNK8:   Z\I-<>TMS,  Ac. 

CHAPULTEPEC,  Battle  of.    See  Mbxico: 

A    l>.   lm7(MAK<ll— .SaPTKMBEH). 

CHARCAS,  Las. —The  S|>anlsh  pruvlnre 
whifh  BOW  fonrw  the  liepublic  of  Ilolivia.  Al«i 
cbHhI,  formerly,  I'pper  I'rru.  ami  sometimes  the 
pnivlm-e  of  Poioal  —  See  Arorntixk  Ki.pt-Bi.ii  : 
A  D.  1880-1777;    ami  Bulivia:    A     U.   IC'.'.V 

CHARIBBRT  I.,  King  of  Aqaitsiat,  A  l> 
N1-M7  Chwbtft  II„  King  of  Aauitaint, 
A.  D  e»(Ml31  •       -•  1 

^CHARITON    RIVER,     Batlla    of.     See 

Usmn  HTiT!c«  or  Am  :  A  !)  !><«9  (JrLT— 
BSmUBRB;   MlaBlll'RI— ARRAIlaASI. 

.CHARLBMAGNS-S   BMPIRE.  Am 

ra»!i«-  A  l>  :«•<  HU.  (jKn«»'«v  A  J»  llfT- 
>**<<•>»,    ,,in|    S11..M4.J.    Umirnii.-      A      I) 

n 


HolUad.     See 


7S4-774 ;  SazoifS :  A.  D.  77S-8M ;  Atabs  :  711. 
805 ;  and  SPAis  :  A  D.  778. 

CHARLEMAGNE'S  SCHOOL.  Sec 
School  op  the  Pti.Arii :  also,  Education. 

CHARLEROI:  A.  D.  1667.— Taken  by  the 
French.  See  NETii!;iaA.Nu»  (The  Spanish 
Phovinces):  a.  D.  1667. 

A.  D.  1668. — Ceded  to  France.  See  Nether- 

I.A.NDB(U0LIJiKII):   A.  V.  1I>6M. 

A.  D.  1679.— Restored  to  Spain.  See  Nime 
ouES,  The  Peace  op. 

A.  D.  1693.— Siege  and  capture  by  the 
French.    See  France:  A.  1).  161(3  (J clt). 

A.  D.  1697.— Restored  to  Spain.  See  Frajicg  : 
A.  D.  im. 

A.    D.     1713 Ceded    to 

Utrecht:  A.  D.  1713-1714. 

A.  D.  1746-1748.— Taken   by  French  and 
ceded  to  Anstrta.    See  Nethbrlanm:  A.  D. 
1746-1747,and  Alz-LA-CnAPELLE,TH>  CoRouEas. 
• 

CHARLES  (called  The  CrtRt  — Charle- 
magne), Kiag  of  Ncnstria,  A.  I).  708 ;  of  all  the 
Franks,  A.  D.  771 :  of  Franka  and  Lombardy, 
774;  EmpcrorofthcWest,tM0-«14.... .Charles 
of  Austria,  Archduke,  Campaina  oL  See 
Frarcei  a.  D.  17««  (.\PRii,— Oct«bbb);  1790- 
1797  (October— .Vpbii.);  IT":  (Apru^Mat); 
1798-1799  (AiotrsT- April) .  1799  (Aioist— 
December);  also  Germany.    1^09  (jA.>rARY— 

JcNE),     (.ItLT— September) Charlea     of 

Bourbon,  Kinr  of  Naples  or  the  Two  Sicilies, 
1734-17o9. . . .  .Charlea  (called  The  Bold),  Duke 

of  Burrundy,  1407-1477 Charles  1.,  King 

of  England,  1039-1049.- Trial  and  execution. 

.SeeENoi.AND:  A.  D.  1049(.I.\NfAHV) Charlea 

I.  (of  Anion),  Kinr  of  Naplca  and  Sicily,  I.'OO- 

Vin-i:  Kinc  of  Naplca,  13tl3-13ss Charles 

I.,   Kinr  of   Portural,   18HU- Charlea  II. 

(called  The  Baldi,  Emperor,  and  Kinj  of  Italy, 
A.  1).  875-477;  King oi^Ncuatria and  Burcundy, 

"iiy-sn Charles  II.,  King  of  EngUnd,  lOAU- 

l(W.^.  (Bt  a  loyal  fiction,  supposed  to  have 
reigned  from  lOao,  when  his  Uther  was  be- 
headed :  though  the  throne  waa  in  Cromwell's 

posscssioa) Charlea  II.,  King  of  Naples, 

IJts.'V.13il9 Charles  II.,   King  of  Navarre, 

1.M9-1387 Chvles  II.,  King  of  Spain,  UUii- 

ITtxi Charles  III.  (called  The  Fati,  Em- 
peror, Kiag  of  the  East  Franks  (Germany), 
and  King  Of  Italy,  .V.  I).  8H|-nn.><;  King  ot  the 

Weat  Franka  (France),   Ht«4  ^*HH Charles 

III.  (called   The    Simple),   King  of   France, 

A  n.  H»3-U3fl Charles  til.,  King  of  Naples, 

lltMI-lSM Charles  III..  King  of  Navarre, 

1.'IN7-I43.*.  .  Charles  III.,  King  of  Spain, 
n.tU-l?)*). . .  •  hsries  IV.,  Emperor,  and  King 
of  Italy,  lau  i:i7M;  King  of  Bohemia,  I:l4<>- 
i:)7N;  Ring  of  Gcimany,  i:u;-I3?m,  King  of 

Burgundy,  IHAVIHTm Charlea  IV.,  King  of 

France,  and  of  Navarre  (Charles  1.),  i:l-.>'.>-ia;j>i 
Charles  tV.,  Kiag  of  Spain,  KNH-twm  . 
Charles  v.,  Emperor,  t.MI>-l'>.V4;  DukcofBur* 
gundy.  I'liw  l.WV  King  of  Spain  (aa  Charles 
I.I  sndof  Naplea,  or  the  Two  Sicilies,  I.MH- 
I.VW  S<f  Aikthia:  a  1».  UWi^  I.V.'i)  . 
Charles  V.  ^called  The  Wisei,  King  of  France, 
i:UVt-t!«<0  Charles  VI., Cermsnic  Emp>-rot, 
•ad  Kiag  of  Hunearr  and  Bohemia.  '. T !  I  ''"> 
Charlea  VI.  (called  The  Well-loved',  King 
of  France,  i^m^  1433  Charles  VII  of  Ba- 
varia), Gsrmanic  Emperor,  ITt'.'  I7i'> 
Charles  VII.,  King  of  France,  1433  t«i>t    . 


417 


^1 

^M 

1 

Itlil^l 

».  ■!. 


CHARLSa 

Cha.'le»  VIII.,  Kins  of  Fnuic*,  1483-1498 

Charles  IX.,  King  of  Fnace,  15«0-1.")74.   .   . 
Charle*  IX.,  King  of  Sweden,  1604-lUtl. 
Charlei    X.,    Kinr   of    France  (the    Uat   of 

the  Houte  of  Bourbon),  1834-1830 Charlea 

X..   King  of  SwMiea,   1654-1860 Charlea 

XI.,  King  of  Sweden,  1660-1697 Charlea 

*i!;.  King  of  Sweden,  16»7-1718. . . .  .Charlea 

XIII.,  King  of  Sweden,  180»-1818 Charlea 

XIV.  (Bemadotte),  King  of  Sweden,  181»-1844. 

. . .  .Charles  XV.,  King  of  Sweden,  18.>i)-1873. 

iJ-^^^^*  Albert,  Duke  of  SaTor  and  King 

of  Sardinia,  18ol-I8l9 CharleJ  Emanuer 

DukeofSaToy,  I.**)-1630 Charles Emaauei 

II.,    Duke    of  SaToy,    1638-16:5 Charles 

Emanuel   III.,  Duke  of  Sanr  and  King  of 

S'L*'°'V  J^-*"-!' '^ Charles  Emanuel  IV., 

Jin.  "'  S?^^  ""•  Kinr  of  Sardinia,  1790- 
180^..... Charles  Felix,  Duke  of  SaTOy  and 

Kinr  of  Sardinia,  18-J1-183I Charles  Mar- 

tel,  Duke  of  Austrasiaand  Mayor  of  the  Palace 

(of  the  King  of  the  Franks),  A.  D.  71V741 

Charles   Robert,  or   Charobert,  or  Caribert, 

KingofHunganr  1308-1343 Charlea  Swer- 

kerson,  King  of  Sweden,  1101-1167. 

CHARLESTON,  S.  C. :  A.  D.  i68o.-The 
founding  of  the  city.  8e«  Sonu  Cakoliha: 
A.  D.  loro-iowi. 

_A-  p.  1706.— Unsuccessful  atUck  by  the 
French.  St-e  Soitii  Cauollna  :  .V.  I).  1701- 
li06. 

A.  D.  I775-I774-— Revolutionary  procced- 
iW;-    **  »"'TH  Carolina:   A.  U.   177J  ami 

1 1  ID. 

A.  D.  1776.— Sir  Henry  Clinton's  attack 
and  repulse.  Sec  Unitkd  States  or  Am.  ; 
A.  I).  1771!  (Jixi). 

A.  D.  1780.— Siege  by  the  British.— Sur- 
render of  the  city.  fn*.  tNiTKuSTATrsor  Am.  ; 
A.  1).  liMiKtKimrAHY — Anii-irr). 

A.  D.  i860.— The  splitting  of  the  Nation&I 
Democratic  Convention.    S<f  L'mtkh  SrvTF.t 

O''  -^M- :    A.   !».    iNilMAl-HIL— XoVKMHKllV 

A.  D.  i860.— The  adoption  of  the  Ordinance 
01  Secession.     N-c   IMtku  Statkh  ot-  .Vm 

A.    I>.    l'«HllNoV|..MIlKll— IlKCKMIll-iHI 

A.  p.  1B60.— Major  Anderson  at  Fort  Sum- 
ter. Nh-  I  .SITED  .>rATKs  or  .Vm.  :  A  I)  1^;) 
(UkckmhkiiI 

A.  D.  1861  (AprUi.— The  Beginning  of  war. 
—Bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter.  S.^^  IMteo 
STyKjoKAM      A    1).  IxiiKMAii.ii-Apiiii.) 

.^■°'^63iAprjh.-Tht  attack  and  repulse 
of  the  Monitor  fleet.  S.T  l.\ni..u  Status  or 
Am  :  A    I)   I'fW  1  Ai-bil:  South  Caholina), 

A.  p.  i8«3  (jB'n-Tlie  Uniea  troops  oa 
Morris  Island.  See  Unitkd  Statrs  or  Am  • 
A.  1».  IH8S  (July  :  South  Caboi.in  k) 

A.  D.  ll«3  (ADg«st-Decembcr).-Boa- 
bardmsBt,  See  t'.tncu  Statkh  <ir  Am.  ;  A.  D. 
I8*l(Ariiif«T— DaiKMBEii:  Soiih  Iaboliiia); 

A.  p.  iSOS  (Ftbmaty).— EraruatioB  by  tha 
Confederates.  S<«  Umitrd  Statkh  or  Am  • 
A.  U  186.1  (Pkbbi'abt  :  8f>rTR  Cabolixa). 

A.  D.  1886.— Eartbqaake.— A  serers  aarth- 
quske.  Aue.  31,  1886,  destroywl  muck  of  thedty 
anil  many  livrs. 


CHARLBSTOWN,  Maa*.:  A.  D.  ifaj.- 

A.  n.  IflW-lAHM. 

A  S!*^!!  Jf.5,°^*'  '"''•••    *»  COBHECtlCUT  : 


CHlTILLON-SUIl-SKmS. 

CHARTER  OP  FORESTS.     See 

LAKD :  A.  0. 1818-1*74. 

CHARTERHOUSE,  OR  CHARTREt 
Bee  Cabthusiak  Oudbk. 

CHARTERHOUSE    SCHOOL,  - 

See  EDncATioK,  Hodhm:  Eubopkah: 

LAHD. 

CHARTISTS.  — CHARTISM.    See 
LAMD :  A.  D.  1888-1848,  and  1848. 

CHARTREUSE,  La  Craada.     See  1 
thusiar  OEDSm. 

CHASE,  Jndga.  Tha  Impaacbmcat 
Trial  ot    See  Uihteo  Stath  or  Am.:  a 
1804-1808.  ^ 

CHASIDIM,  ORCHASIOEES,  OR 
SIOEANS,    The.— A    name,    ■ignifrini; 

J  wily  or  pious,  assumed  by  a  party  anion" 
ew».  In  the  second  century  B.  C.  who  rm 
the  OredaDizlDK  tendencies  of  the  timv  u 
the  influence  of  the  Orcco-Syrian  domiim 
and  who  were  the  nucleus  of  the  Maoeal 
rpTolt  The  later  school  of  the  Pharigrfs  is 
resented  by  Ewald  (Hitt.  of  Itrael,  A*.  5.  *< 
to  have  been  the  nruduct  of  a  narmwink,  'i 
fxrmation  of  the  ■cliool  of  the  CbastiMni ;  while 
EoKonc's,  in  hU  view,  were  a  purer  a-8iilue  ol 
CliiiHiilim  "who  strove  after  piety,  yet  W( 
not  join  the  I'liariwvs  " ;  who  abandoneit  "so 
a.1  wiirlilly  ami  inrurably  corrupt."  and  in  »1 
"the  coiiiicience  of  tlic  nation,  as  It  were  » 
drew  inl.i  the  wilderness."- H.  EwaH  ;/,, 
hnul,  hi.  ,1.  If  I.  3.— A  mmlem  wri.  iM.mi* 
the  name,  fotimUil  liy  one  Israel  Baal  S'hcm  ' 
first  apiHiiml  in  i'oilolia.  in  174<l,  iniwiil  |.. 
lirace  moitt  of  the  Jewa  in  (lulloia,  lluiip 
Southern  Kuiwla.  and  Wallachia.— H.  V  A(J« 
J/i$l.  nf  iht  Jeum.  p.  .lai. 
Ai-Ko IN :  H.  Oraeti,  I/itt.  o/theJetn,  r  .1, d 
CHASUARII,  The.  Bee  Fhakks:  Ohii 
kti.    ^ 

CHATEAU     CAMBRESIS,     Treaty 
(»SS9>.,  «<■<•  Kkance:  a.  U.  1.%47-l.V.y 

CHATEAU  CAILLARa-Thi»  wm 
n»me  iflveii  to  a  famou.i  castle.  Iiuill  h  ■  Uirli 
t'uMir  (le  Liou  111  Xormamly,  and  disiiiiicl  t.i 
the  key  to  the  defencTH  of  tliat  Imixirt.iiii  ,|iic 
"A»  a  monument  of  warlike  «kill,  hi*  'Siii 
f'ttstle,'  I'hilteau  Uaillanl.  atands  find  aiiiiiun 
forln'SM'g  of  the  Middle  Ajtea.  Hi.  iianl  di 
HU  Kite  where  the  Seine  Ih'IkU  miditenlv  at  U. 
Ion  ill  a  (.'real  aemiiinle  to  the  north,  ii'nd  wli- 

the  Viilliv  of  Ix-s  Aiiili'lya  limik*  the  lit f  1 

elmlk  (lilfn  aloiii;  it.s  Imiik.  The  eiiMli'  f.mi 
part  of  an  liitri  iiclied  eanip  wliirli  ItulmnI  ■ 
«l>!iiiil  to  cover  his  Noniian  iiipilal  .  .  1 
e.i.v  rnliictiiin  of  Norniamly  011  the  Till 
Chilean  (laillani  at  a  later  tliii-  (wImii  it  m 
taken  1)^  Philip  Augustus,  of  Iriin.v]  i.nn 
Hlilmnlit  foriHifKht."— J.  H.  (Jniii,  .vA.-rr  Hi 
of  till  l.'n'/linh  I'tiiiAr,  eh.  a,  lerl   t) 

CHATEAU    THIERRY.    Battle   of.    8 
l-iivNM.:  A.  I).  1n|4(Jakiakv— MMiiir 

CHATEAUVIEUX,  Fate  to  the  soMii 
of.    .N|.  I.nii:iirv  Cai'. 

CHATHAM,  Lord ;  Administration  of.    S 
Kniii.and:     a.  I).     17.17-17(10:    i;(iii-iri..l    »i 

I7i'..">-176H And  the  American  Rtvolutio 

Hen  rmmi  Stath  of  Am:  a.  D.  I7W.  u 
177.1  (.I.AiirABT— Mabi-h). 

CHATILLON,    Baltlaa    of  (1793).     K 
FiiAM^:  A   l>   nHJKJii.T— DrrmHiTK) 

CHATILLON-SUR-SEINE.Congrens 

Sit   FllAJill..   A    1).  lM14(jAI(UA«V-ilAll>ll! 


418 


CHATTANOOOA. 


CBERUBCL 


CHATTANOOGA  :Tlwn«m«.  SeeCHiTBD 
State*  of  Am . :  A.  D.  1888  (Adooct— Septkm- 
ggR:  Tbmnmbbe). 

A  D.  1863.— Sccored  by  tht  Coiusderatet. 
See  United  States  or  Am. :  A.  D.  18«3(Jra»— 
(KToiiKn:  TEmcKaBEE— Keittuckt). 

A.  D.  1863  (AnKU^).— ETACumtien  by  the 
CoLrederatei.  Son  tsiTKn  S'tates  of  Ah.: 
A  l>.  lHfl3(Aroi'8T— Skptuibeh:  Tenkebbee). 

A.  D.  1863  (October— HoT»mber).—  Th« 
,i,n.— The  battle  on  Lookout  Monntain.— 
The  uMult  of  Mtitaionwy  Ridge.— The  Ront- 
iar  of  Bragf's  mnny.  Foe  United  State*  cr 
a5  :  A.  D.  1868  (OcTOBiui— NoviuoiEu:  Ten- 

lIEfgKK).  ^ 

CHATT!,  OR  CATTI,  The.—"  Beyon<i  [the 
Mttitioci]  are  Ute  Cba'ti,  wlii.iic  M-ttlemrots  hrgin 
at  Uie  I'creynlan  forwt,  where  the  country  in 
not  ao  opn  and  m&raby  a«  in  the  other  cantons 
Into  which  OcrmanT  itielchea.  Tliey  are  found 
when'  tlure  are  hilu,  and  with  them  grow  less 
freijucni.ior  the  Hercyntan  ffreat  keeps  close  till 
It  ha»  aet'D  the  last  of  it*  native  Chatti.  Hardy 
frames,  close  knit  limbs,  flerco  countenances, 
ao(i  a  peculiarly  vigopoua  courage,  mark  tlio 
triU.  i'liT  Oermnna,  they  have  much  Intclll- 
gfnrt'  and  sagacity.  .  .  .  Otiier  tril>es  you  si-c 
golui?  to  battle,  this  Chatti  to  a  campaign."— 
'The  w'ttlpmcnts  of  the  (Chatti,  one  of  the  chief 
Ocmian  tribes,  aptmrently  (»inciiie  with  portions 
of  WcKtiiliulia,  Nassau,  HeiBir' Darmstadt  and 
UesM'-Caiwel.  Dr.  Lntham  asaumes  the  Chatti 
of  Tiiiitus  u>  be  the  Sucvi  of  Ciesar.  The  fact 
tliat  the  name  Chatti  docs  not  occur  in  C'saar 
rendi  n  tlii»  hypothesis  by  no  means  improbable. " 
—Tacitus,  Hermans,  tmim.  *y  Church  ait<!  Brod- 
ribb,  II  iiii  Hiitr. — tK'C,  also,  SfKVi. 

CHAUCER,  and  hit  times.  See  Etiui.Aiii>: 
A.  I).  VKiO-lVM. 

CHAUCl  AND  CHERUSCI,  The.-  The 
fihe  of  the  Chiiuci  .  .  .  U'ginning  at  the  Frisian 
■ctth-inrnts  andoccupvinn  a  part  of  tlie  coast, 
itretrlii-s  along  ilio  frontier  of  all  the  )rilM'ii 
which  1  have  rnumrrated,  till  it  reaches  with  a 
Ijend  as  far  as  the  (,'liattl.  Tliia  Ta«t  extent  of 
cnutjtiy  is  not  tnerely  poaseaaed  but  ilensely 
lieoplwl  by  the  ('hauci,  tlie  noblest  of  the  (Jcr- 
man  rai-ra,  a  nation  who  wouhl  maintain  tlieir 
irrcHtncM  by  Hi;hteous  dealing.  Without  am- 
kiiion.  williout  lawless  violence,  .  .  .  the  crown- 
lug  pnii.f  of  their  valour  and  their  strength 
is,  th.it  they  keep  up  their  au|>eri<>rlty  wittmut 
barm  to  others.  .  .  Dwelling  on  one  aide  of  the 
Chain  I  iind  <'hatti.  the  Clicrwl  long  cheri^lied, 
uniusiulctl,  an  excessive  and  enervullng  love  of 
pciici'  Thu  was  MKin-  ph-aaaut  tlian  safe,  .  .  . 
Mill  »>  the  Cluruaci,  ever  reouted  giNNi  an<l  just, 
arc  miH  nillnl  niwanis  and  finils,  while  in  the 
CHM-  <<f  tlie  victorious  Chatti  siKcesa  has  been 
iilculitlisl  altli  prudeni'e.  I'he  downfall  of  the 
I'hiniwl  hrmiglit  with  it  al«>  that  of  the  Foal,  a 
srik-lilxiuriiig  tril<e."  -"TIhi  settlementa  of  the 
CluiK  i  .  .  .  muHt  have  im  liidtsi  aliiiiiat  the  en- 
tlw.imiiiry  iK'twcen  the  Knis  and  tiiv  Weaer  — 
that  Is.  <  ililrnliurg  and  part  of  Uanorcr  —  and 
havr  uikeii  in  luirtions  ot  Wesi|ihHlia  aUiut 
Miiidi.r  and  Pailerlairn.  Tlie  I'licrusci  .  .  . 
appcur  til  have  mTUiiiiil  Ilninswirk  an.l  ihe 
Mfuih  |mri  i>f  ilsniivcr.  Arniiiiiuii  wiio  lii-atniysi 
tlie  ItHiiiitn  army  umicr  Varus,  was  a  ClM-niMMn 
thief  .  The  Foal  .  .  .  must  liave  la-cupiisl 
feitof  llaoon  .{  "-  Tacitua,  ilimr  Wurlu,  tran*. 


by  Church  and  Brodribb:  The  Oermnny,  -jiith 
Oeug.  nota. — Bishop  Stubbs  conjectures  that  the 
Cluauci,  Cherusci,  and  some  utliur  tHbes  may 
have  been  afterwards  ccmprelicndisl  under  the 
general  name  "Saxon."    See  Saxons. 

CHAUTAUQUA  ASSEMBLY,  ani!  Cir- 
cle. See  EoucATioH,  MoocuM:  Aiuutira: 
A  D.  1874. 

CHAZARS,  The.    See  Kraza m, 

CHEAi  SUMMIT,  Battle  ot  SeerniTCO 
States  or  A:i. :  A.  D.  1861  (Acomr— Decbk- 
BEB :  West  VmoiHiA), 

CHEBUCTO.— The  origiiial  name  of  the 
harbor  of  Halifax. 

CHEIROTONIA,— A  vote  by  show  of  bands. 
snODK  the  ancient  Or^ka. 

CHEMI.    Bee  Egypt:  Its  Nave£. 

CHEMNITZ,  BatUe  of  (l<i39).  See  Oeb- 
MA.vv:  A.  1).  l»i;il-16iffl. 

CHERBOURG.— Destroyed  by  the  Eag- 
llsh.   See  Knoi.and:  A  1).  ITW (.Ifl-v— AloisT). 

CHEROKEE  WAR,  The.  See  Soltii 
C.KnoMNA:  A.  D.  17.W-1761. 

CHEROKEES,  The.  Sec  Americas  Abo- 
liKiiNRs:  CiiEimKEEa. 

CHERRONESUS,  The  proposed  Stste  of. 
Si-e  Northwest  Tkrbiturt  or  the  L'nited 
States  or  Aic. :  A.  D.  1784. 

CHERRY  VALLEY,  The  massacre  at. 
See  Uxn-ED  States  op  Ax.  :  A.  D.  1778  (Jithb 
^— ^ovrmbrr) 

CHSRSON.  See  Bosphokus:  K.  D.  563- 
574. 

A.  D.  988.— Takes  by  tho  Rnssiaas.— "  A 
thousand  years  after  the  rest  of  the  On-ek  nation 
\VH4  sunk  in  irremediable  slavery,  Cherson  re- 
mnined  free.  Such  a  phenomenon  aa  the  ex- 
istence of  nutnly  feeling  in  one  city,  when  man- 
kind everywhere  else  slept  contented  in  a  state 
of  political  degradation,  deserved  attentive  con- 
sideration. .  .  .  Cbenon  retained  its  position  as 
an  ind.  pendent  State  until  the  reign  of  Theo- 
plillus  [Uvzantine  emperor  A.  D.  839-843],  wlio 
'Compelled  it  to  receive  a  governor  from  Con- 
stantinople; but,  even  under  the  ttyznntine 
government,  it  contlnue<l  to  defend  its  niiiiiicliial 
liUiiitutions,  and.  Instead  of  slavishly  soliciting 
the  imiH>rial  favour,  and  adopting  Byzantine 
manners,  it  boasted  of  ita  constitution  and  self 
giiveinment.  But  U  gradually  lost  ita  former 
wealth  and  extensive  trade,  and  when  \'la(liniir, 
ti>e  Boven-ign  of  Rusam,  attackinl  it  in  9HH,  it 
was  betrayetl  Into  bia  bands  br  a  pncst,  who  in- 
formed him  how  to  cut  off  tlie  water.  .  .  . 
Vladimir  obtained  the  hand  of  Anue,  the  sister 
of  the  emperor*  Basil  II.  and  Constiuitlne  VUl., 
and  was  tiaptised  and  marrinl  in  the  cliur<h  of 
the  Panagbia  at  Cherson.  To  wsithe  the  vnuily 
of  the  Empire,  he  preten>led  to  n-tain  posM'ssioD 
of  bis  conquest  an  the  dowry  of  his  wire.  Many 
of  the  prieuta  who  coiivertetl  the  Kiisstana  to 
Christianitv.  and  maiiv  of  the  aitlsts  wlm 
adorned  the  earlirat  ItusaUkn  chiinin-t  with 
paintinins  and  mosali-a,  were  nativesnf  Cliirson." 
-■(J.  Kliihiy,  llitt,  u/  tkt  Bytantiru  Kmfirt/rom 
716  to  KttT. 

» 

CHERSONESE,  The  Golden,    SerCnKYSR. 

CHERSONESUS.-The  UriTk  name  for  a 
petiliistiiii.  nr  IiohI  '.slMiiii,"  H|n>tnsi  iti.M-i  1  f.|rt-t  i. 
ully  III  tlic  louir  tongue  of  luiid  bi'twirn  the 
llcl!fsiH>iit  :lll'l  the  (illlr  of  MclSK. 

CHERUSCI,  The.    Suv  Cuawvl 


419 


CHESAPEAKK  AJTO  SnANNON. 

«  ????;^'*"^'^S   AND  SHANNON,  The 

CHESS,  Origin  of  the  guae  of.— "If  we 
wtohHl  to  know,  for  liistancc,  wlio  Ims  tuuglit  us 
the  game  of  chcM,  the  name  of  clieaii  wouia  tell 
u»  Jwtler  than  onythlns  else  tlmt  It  came  to  the 
West  from  Persia.  In  spite  of  all  that  has  been 
wrttU-n  to  the  contrary,  chi-ss  was  originally  the 

fame  of  Kings,  the  game  of  Slialis.  This  word 
hah  became  in  Old  French  cscliac.  It.  scacco 
Germ  Schach;  while  the  Old  French  e.*.hecs 
was  furtlier  corrupted  into  chess.  Tlie  more 
original  form  chec  has  likewise  been  preserved, 
though  we  little  think  of  it  when  we  draw  a 
cheque  or  when  we  suffer  a  check,  or  when  we 
■peak  of  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  The 
great  object  of  the  chese-ptaycr  is  to  protect  tlic 
king,  and  when  the  king  is  in  doninT  the 
•  <>pP"?e°"»  obliged  to  say  'check,'  i.  e..  SImli 
the  kliig^  .  .  .  After  this  the  various  meanings 
?\  n'.";r.  "^'"*<l"e-  O'  exchequer  become  eiiaily 
Intelligible,  though  it  Is  quite  true  that  if  similar 
changes  of  meaning,  which  in  our  case  we  can 
watch  by  the  light  of  hlatoiy,  had  taken  place  in 
the  dimness  of  prehistoric  ages,  it  would  be 
difflcult  to  convince  the  sceptic  that  exchequer 
or  scsccarium,  the  name  of  the  ohess-boanl  was 
afterwards  used  for  the  checkered  cloth  on 
which  accounu  were  calcuUted  by  means  of 
counters,  and  that  a  checkere<l  career  was  a  life 
with  many  crossUnes. "— P.  Max  MlUler,  Biao. 
tf  ff'XYfc,  rt.  4.  ^ 

CHESTER,  Origin  of.    See  Dsva. 

CHESTER,  The  PaUtine  Earidom.  See 
rALATmR.TuB  Enomsu  Countus:  also  Walu 
Princu  or.  ' 

CHESTER.  Battle  of. -One  of  the  flcreest 
of  the  biitths  fought  iKtween  the  Welsh  and  the 

CHEVY  CHASE.  See  Ottbrbuhn.  HArruc 
or. 

CHEVENNES.  OR  SHEYENNES,  The. 
Bee  Ambhica-X  Aborioi.-jes:  AuK)NqLiA.N  Fam- 

CHIAPAS:  Ruins  of  ancient  dTiliaatioa  in. 

»eo.\M::!ticA!<ABOiiiuiNK8;MAYAS;andMKXico 
AjfciKNr 

CHIARI,  Battle  of  (1701).  See  Italy  (Savoy 
AKD  I'lEIlMONT):  A.  D.  1701-1718. 

CHIBCHAS,  The  See  Ambrican  Abo 
riiiinkh:  ('iitnriiAs. 

B  ^"i*^^9°  •  tt-  °-  «•".— ETaeuation  of  the 
Fort  Dearborn  Post,  and  maaaacrc  of  most  of 
tut  retreatiog  garrison.  See  Unitkd  States 
or  Ajr:  .VI)   I"<ia  (.li  xk-Octobe..). 

.  °'  '»«?— .The  Republican  National  Con- 
vention.-Nomination  of  Lincoln.  H.r  IMteh 
^J""-"  ""  Am.  :  A.    I).   18«0  (Apbii,-.N,)VE¥ 

A.  D.  i87i.-The  rrcat  Fira.-"  The gnate^l 
ev.>.K  11.  tl...  hUtoryof  Chicago  was  tl.,'  (Jh-Hl 
Fin.  lis  it  i»  t.muHl.  which  broke  out  oii  tl... 
evenin.'  ,.f  O,.,  m.  i«7i.  Chicago  was  «i  il„,t 
tlin.'  I.  .n.vpt  III  th,.  biwlness  e.-nln)  a  .itv  of 
wo.«l_  l-or  u  l.iiig  III,,,,  prior  to  til.'  <v.ni,ii;  rc- 
fern.l  to  ilirr..  h,„|  l„  .n  blowing  a  hot  » in.l  from 
tie  «.mil,v...st  wlil.l,  |„«|  (irieil  evorvlhin,,  to 
theiiillimiiiiHliiliivof  iln-l.r.  and  it  w,w  ,ip.,n  a 

tlmt  thr  rtre  Inijan  in  w„rk.  It  Is  .,ip,«,M-,|  lo 
bavi'  ..rltflnnuvl  from  \\w  n. ,  id,.nt;il  upwiiin,:  of 
■  kcnmue  lamp  in  a  cow  born  [.Mrs.  OUary'sj 


CHICAOO. 

on  De  Koven  Street,  near  the  comer  of  Jcffcraon 
on  the  west  8i<le  of  the  river.    This  region  «ru 
composed  Urgily  of  shanties,  and  the  fin-  snnJj 
mijidly,  very  s.«n  or™«lng  tlio  river  to  the.s„utj 
mue.  and  fastening  on  that  portion  of  t|„.  ,.1., 
which  contjiimM  ncariy  all  tlie  leadini-  buMnai 
houses,  and  which  was  built  up  very  lajg,  ly  u-^ 
stone  and  brick.    But  it  scenicl  to  eiikin.lle  u 
if  It  were  tinder.     Some  buildings  were  bl„irn 
up  with  gunix.wder,  which,  in  conniction  will, 
t  le  strong  southwest  gale,  prevenltHi  Wv  in™. 
slon  of  the  flames  to  the  south.    The  lln;  sweot 
on  Monday  stewiily  to  the  north,  Includin-fverT 
tiling  from  the  lake  to  the  South   Brand,   aij 
then  croase<l  to  the  North  Side,  and.  taki;,.  in 
everything  from  the  lake  to  the  North  Ilruicl, 
it  burned  northwanl  for  adistanceof  thpv  ii,ii«; 
where  it  die<l  out  at  the  city  limiU.  wl,c„  t|,e~ 
was  nothing  more  to  bum.     In  tlie  midst  „f  tlm 
broad  area  of  devastation,  on  the  north  n.le  of 
Washington  Square,  between  Clark  Slnrt  and 
Uearbom  Avenue,  the  well-known  Ogd,  n  house 
stands  amid  tiv^es  of  the  ancient  forest  au.l  sur 
rounded  by  exU'nsive  grounds,  the  soliiarv  relic 
of  that  section  of  the  city  Infore  Uie  ll.rvlliwd 
The  toul  area  of  the  laud  burned  over  w/is  "  100 
acr<»     Nearly  2I).()(H)  buil.iiags  were  con.u^^ed; 
IW.OOO  people  were  rendered  homeless;  Jilo  lira 
were  lost,  ud  the  grand  total  of  values  d^tniyed 
is  estimated  at  $200,000,000.     Of  this  vast  Hiim. 
newly  one-half  was  covered  by  insunimr  but 
under  the  tremendous  losses  manv  of  tl,e  ig. 
•urance  companies  were  forc«Hi  Ui  the  wall  lad 
went  into  liqulilatlon,  and  the  victims  of  iIh'cod- 
Dagratkm  n^overwl  only  about  oi„.-ilfii,  „f  their 
aggregate   losst^.     Among  the  Imilditiu's  nhfch 
were  burned  wen- tl,e  courtliou.H,.,  lu.si.iii  Imme 
and  post  offlce.  chanilHT  of  comim  nc  ilmr  nil. 
way  depou,  nine  daily  new»|mperolll(.»  iliirtr- 
two  hotels,  ten  thcatn^s  and  lialla,  eiirli!  nt,bUc 
schools  and  some  branch  schoul  buildinc-i  f.irty- 
one  churches,  five  elevators,  and  all  tl,,'  n.,iioiiil 

parallel  In  Us  dimensions  and  the  nia!,'i,iluile  of 
its  dire  results,  the  charity  whirl,  followed  itwu 

"l"»lly,unrivall.sl   in   its  enlent VII  the 

civilized  world  npix-ared  to  instanllv  aiwinciste 
the  calamity,     F.k«1.  clothing,  siippli,.. „f  ,.verT 

kin.l.  money,  messages  of  alfccti «yni|«ithT 

etc..  began  poiiriiiitin  atonceiii  aslminiiliitsih 
peanjl  endlcvi  ami  iHiiioinleas.  Inall.  tl„ai.uiunl 
conirilmted  reaeiusi  ovir  17.000,000  |t  w>« 

believed  by  min.v  that  tlie  lire  had  f,ir.v,r  lil„n«l 
out  Chicago  fn>iii  il,|.  list  <,.'  gnat  .\miric»ii 
cities  but  the  spirilof  Iwr  pi-oplewa.s  uii.l.iimtBl 
by  calamity,  and.  cncoiimgiil  liy  tl„.  piiLTom 
sympathy  au<l  help  from  all  quartirs  tli.  v  set 
to  work  at  once  to  npair  their  almost  ruised 
fortune*  .  .  lU-building  was  at  on..'  iimi 
ineuccd.  »n<l.  within  a  year  aft.r  ilie  lir.  more 
llian  WO  M,"  (•KHI H-  Tl'  expenihsl  in  impn.n  niwili. 
The  cltycanir  uj  rmm  lis  ruins  far  111. .n-  palstisl. 
splemlid,  strung  i„i,|  imperisiialili.  tli.i,  l« fore. 
In  one  sense  iImiIh'  was  a  iH'neflt.  Ilscuw.iueace 
waa  a  chus  of  »trucliir>'8  far  iK'ttir.  li  -7 
M«-ntlal  respect,  than  iKfore  the  iv.nil 
Fireproof  buiiiliiiK's  iNvame  llie  ruU',  li,  ,u 
of  wood  were  carifullv  nsiiriclcd,  au'l  tiic  .  • 
of  the  reconBtni.!...!  'jKirti-.m  i;!ii!:::;.;:r-;!:!v  .r 
cceilod  Uwt  of  the  citv  wl,i<li  lia,|  \w,n  >lisi  r,  n  «!  " 
—MitrifHW  lhn,lh,>„k<>fl'l,ini,f,, ,,  ■:<  --  Tlio«- 
sandsof  people  on  tl„.  .N'ortl,8i,lc  tlr,|r„r.. lit. ■nths 
prairie,  but  other  thuusouds,  less  fortuuaU',  wrr 


420 


omcAoo. 


CHICAOO. 


hemmed  tn  before  they  could  retch  the  countnr, 
luid  were  driven  to  the  Sands,  a  group  of  bcacL- 
iiillnclu  fronting  on  Lake  Michigan.  These  liad 
hwn  covered  with  rescued  merciiandiM  and  fur- 
niturr.  The  flameB  fell  fiercely  upon  the  heaps 
of  goods,  and  the  miserable  refugees  were  driven 
iuto  tlie  black  waves,  where  they  stood  neck-deep 
in  chilling  water,  scourged  by  slieeU  of  sparks 
anil  lilowmg  sand.  A  great  nuinlH-r  of  horses 
luid  been  coTlecte<l  here,  and  they  too  dashed  into 
the  sea.  where  scores  of  them  were  drowned. 
Towanl  evening  the  Mayor  sent  a  fleet  of  tow- 
hosta  which  took  off  the  fugitives  at  the  Sands. 
When  the  next  day  [Tuesday,  October  10]  dawned, 
tlie  prairie  was  covered  with  the  calcined  ruins 
<if  more  tlian  17,000  buildings.  .  .  .  This  was 
tlK*  greatest  and  most  disastrous  conflagration  on 
reconl.  The  burning  of  Moscow,  in  1H18,  caused 
B  lom  amounting  to  £30,000.000;  but  the  Ion  at 
Cliicago  was  in  excess  of  this  amount.  The 
OrestTIre  of  London,  in  1660.  devastated  a  tract 
of  436 acres,  and  destroyed  18,000  buildings;  but 
that  of  Chicago  swept  over  1,900  acres,  and 
burned  more  than  17,000  buildings."— M.  F. 
Swwtser,  Chimgo  ("  dtia  of  the  WorU,"  ».  1). 
—  The  following  is  the  statement  of  area  burned 
over,  and  of  property  destroyed,  made  by  the 
Chicago  Relief  and  Aid  Society,  and  which  is 
probably  authoritative:  "The  total  area  burned 
over  in  the  city,  including  streets,  was  3,  IM  acres, 
or  nearly  three  and  one-third  square  miles.  This 
area  cDnUined  abou  78  miles  of  streets,  18,000 
buililini^,  and  the  homes  of  100,000  people." — 
A  T.  Andreas,  Hitt.  of  Chicago,  e.  8,  p.  760. 

Also  in:  E.  Culliert  and  E.  Chamberlain,  CM- 
tan"  unit  the  Grtat  VonJIniiration. 

A.  D.  i8t6-iM7.— The  Haymarkct  Con- 
spiracy.—Crime  of  the  Anarchists,— Their 
trial  and  execution.  —  "In  February,  18H6, 
Mes.'irs.  .McCormick,  large  agncultunil-machine 
makers  of  Chicago,  refusing  to  yield  to  the 
dictaliiin  of  their  workmen,  who  required  them 
to  (liM'liarge  some  non-Union  hands  they 
hsillikin  <m,  an'inunce<l  a  'Iwk-out,'  and  pre- 
parvil  to  resume  i.  jsiness  as  soon  as  poasililc  with 
anew  ulaff.  Spies,  Lingg,  and  other  Oerman 
Ananliims  saw  their  opportunity.  They  per- 
siuuii'U  the  ousted  workmen  to  prevent  tlx' 
'«cab«,'— angiici.  '  bUcklegs,'  —  from  enteriuK 
the  works  on  the  day  of  their  reopening. 
Reviilvcra,  rifles,  and  bombs  were  readily  found, 
th«  isMer  being  entrusti-il  prinripally  to  the 
hands  of  profeiwioDal  '  Hcdj."  The  most  violent 
sppealn  were  maiie  to  the  members  of  Unions  and 
thi' piipulare generally :  I'lHthouirh  nsuecossionof 
rlou  wcri'  got  op.  th?y  were  easily  quidled  by  the 
nwiliiti'  aitiiin  of  tiie  ii.dlce.  iMu-ked  by  the 
sppMv  d  of  the  immenw  iiiijority  of  tlie  people  of 
Cliir.'ii.'o  Fitii'lly,  a  mass  inetHlnir  in  arms  was 
called  to  lake  piaieon  May  4lh.  1)*)46,  at  7.80  p.m., 
in  Ihi  \\i  '  marKi't,  a  long  ami  n-ciiitly  widene<l 
strwt  of  t'le  town,  for  the  express  purpose  of 
'UnMiiihliig  tit-  tiolici!.  But  the  iulention  of  the 
AimrrhiAtH  was  not  merely  to  denounce  the  police 
thin  was  the  pretext  onfy.  Tlie  prisons  were  to 
be  (.iri-ed,  the  pidice-stations  Mown  up,  the 
piihlii'  hiiililiiiKS  attacked,  and  tlie  onslaught  on 
prop'-rty  mid  capital  to  he  iimuiriirHted  by  the 
•ii'v  iMaiion  of  one  of  the  fairest  cities  of  the 
Vni  II.  Ity  M  p.  ni  a  mob  of  simie  three  or  four 
111"  I  Hid  per«ms  hail  U-en  c<dle<-tiHl,  and  were 
K-piird  liy  s|)eerhes  that  became  more  violent 
M  Uie  lUgUt  war*  (A    At  10  p.  m.  tte  io\io» 


appeared  in  force.  The  crowd  were  commanded 
to  disperse  peaceably.  A  voice  shouted:  'We 
are  peaceable.'  Captain  Schaack says  this  was  a 
signal.  The  words  were  hanlly  uttered  when 
'  a  spark  flashed  through  the  air.  It  looked  like 
the  lighted  remnant  of  a  cigar,  but  hissed  like 
a  miniature  sky-rocket.'  It  was  a  bomb,  and 
fell  amid  the  ranks  of  the  police.  A  tcrriltc 
explosion  followed,  and  Immediately  afterwards 
the  mob  opened  fire  upon  the  police.  The  latter, 
stiiimed  for  a  moment,  soon  recovered  tliem- 
selves,  returned  the  Are,  charged  the  mob,  and 
In  a  couple  of  minutes  dispersed  it  in  every 
direction.  But  eight  of  their  comrades  lay  dead 
upon  the  pavement,  and  scores  of  othera  were 
weltering  in  their  blood  aroiiiul  tlie  spot.  Such 
was  the  Chicago  outrage  of  May  4tii,  1886." — 
Tht  Spectator.  Apr.  19,  1890  (rtrirmng  Srhtuuk'e 
"  Anarehy  ami  Anarekiett"). — The  Anarchists 
who  were  arrested  ao<l  hroucht  to  trial  for  this 
crime  were  eight  in  number, — August  Spies, 
Michael  Schwab,  Samuel  Fieldcn,  Albert  R 
Parsons,  Adolph  Fischer,  Oeorge  Engel,  Louis 
Lingg,  and  Oscar  W.  Neebe.  The  trial  began 
July  14,  1886.  The  evidence  closed  on  the  lOth 
c'i  August;  the  argument  of  counsel  consumed 
mure  than  a  week,  and  on  the  20th  of  August 
the  Jury  brought  in  n  verdict  which  condemned 
Neeoe  to  imprisonment  for  flfteeu  yeara,  and  all 
the  other  prisonere  to  death.  I.inijg  committed 
suicide  in  pris<m;.the  sentences  of  Schwab  and 
Fieklen  were  commuted  by  the  Governor  to 
Imprisonment  for  life:  the  reni:iiiii!ii  four  were 
hnnircl  on  the  11th  of  November.  1HH7.  — .Indite 
Gary,  The  Chirntjo  Ananhiste  "f  1»«6  (Centurf 
Mag..  April,  1808). 
A.  D.  1889-1893.— Chicago  University.   >i  i- 

EdIHATIOS,M<'1)KH.N:  AmKK"  a;  a  I)  1S.Nl|.Isn;j 

A.  D.  1891-1893.— The  World's  Columbiar 
Expoaition. — "  As  a  fitting  nnxii'  of  n  lelirtiiiig 
the  four  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  Inuiliiig  of 
Columbus  on  Oct.  I'i.  149i,  It  was  pmiHwcd  to 
litivv  a  universal  exhibition  in  the  I'nited  States. 
The  idea  was  flrat  taken  up  by  citizens  of  New 
York,  where  subscriptions  to  the  amount  of 
$5,000,000  were  obtalneil  from  merchants  and 
capitalists  before  application  was  miule  for  tlie 
sanction  and  support  of  the  Federal  Government. 
When  the  matter  came  up  in  Congn'ss  the 
claims  of  Chicago  were  consldereil  superior,  and 
a  bill  was  passed  and  iippmvod  on  April  39, 
1890.  entitlnl  '  An  Act  to  provide  for  celebrating 
the  four  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  discovery 
of  America  by  Christoplur  Coliiinbus,  by  hola- 
ing  an  intemationul  exhibition  of  arts,  industries, 
manufactures,  and  the  proilucts  of  the  soil, 
mine,  and  sea  in  the  city  of  Chicago,  in  the 
State  of  Illinois.'  The  act  provided  for  the 
appointment  of  commissioners  who  should 
organize  the  exposition.  .  .  .  When  the  organ- 
ization was  completed  and  the  stipulateil  finan- 
cial support  from  the  citizens  and  municipality 
01  Chicago  assured.  President  Harrison,  on  l)cc. 
34.  1890.  issued  a  protdaiiiation  inviting  all  the 
nations  of  the  earth  to  participate  in  the  World's 
Columbian  Exposition.  Since  the  time  was  too 
short  to  have  the  gMiinds  ami  buildings  inmi- 
pleteii  for  the  sumnuT  of  189'i.  as  was  originally 
uilendni,  tiie  owning  of  tlie  ex|iiwiliiMi  was 
announcMl  for  May,  189.1.  When  the  work  was 
falrlv  lirgun  it  was  accelerated,  as  many  as 
10,0110  workmen  tieing  employed  nt  one  time.  Id 
order  lo  have  tiw  bulkUogs  nwdy  to  Iw  d«di 


421 


i-t 


1/ 


cmcAoo. 

nted  with  Impodnf  ceramonlps  on  Oct  13, 1899 
lu  lominrmonition  of  the  exact  date  of  the  dla- 
covory  of  Amvric^"— AppUloai  Annual  CM»- 
padia.  1891.  p.  837.— On  May  1,  1(«3,  the  Fair 
waa  opened  with  appropriate  cetemoiilea  by 
rreaident  Cleveland. 

» 
CHICASAS,   The.     See    Akmicam  Abo- 
mioiNES:   Mi'SKnooEAN  Familt:  alio.  Lociai- 
ajia:  a.  D.  I71O-1750. 

isaviM-""*^*^^'  ^•-   **  *•"'»=  ^  °- 

CHICKAHOMINY,  Battlet  on  Ui«(Gaiii.t' 
Mill,  i86a;  Cold  Harbor,  1864).  Sec  Uhitbd 
8TATK8  or  Am.;  A.  D.  IWti  (.Iixs-Jult: 
VimiiNiA);  and  ISMOUy— Jtsr.:  Viuoinia) 

CHICKAMAUOA.  Battle  ot  S«  Umt«d 
States  or  Asi. :  A.  D.  1863  (Auoiot— Skptbh. 

BBR:    TENXEaaKE). 

„  CHICORA.— Tlie  name  riven  to  the  region  of 
Boutli  Carolina  l)y  ita  Spiin&h  dlscoverera.     See 
America  :  A.  D.  1519-1335 
CHILDEBERT  I.,  King  of  the  Fraiika,at 

Panj.  A.  D.  511-5.58 diudebert  uTkI^ 

of  the    Frank*   (Anitratia),  A.    D.   573-353! 

(Bumindy).  583-.'.U6 CMIdebert  III.,  Kiar 

09^-7'  1  '■'"^'  (Nenatria  and  BnTpindy),  A.  D 

CHILDERIC  II.,  KiBc  of  the  Praata. 

A  n  6t)(t-67:l Childerielll.,  A.  D.  742-7S 

CHILDREN  OF  HAN.   .Sei  Chwa 

CHILDREN  OF  REBECCA.    See  IUbec- 

caitk.'*. 

CHILDREN'S    CRUSADE,    The.       See 

CHiSADKit;  A.  i).  121a. 

V,,9"'LE:  The  Araucanlan*-"The  land  of 
l-liili.  tmm  dO'  Hoiith  latitude,  waa  and  is  still  in 
part  ocrupkd   by   several  tribes  who  si)c»k  the 
same  lanRuaKe.     They  form  the  fourth  and  most 
■oiithern  jfroup  of  the  Andes  people,  and  arc 
callH  Ariiuniiiians.     Like  almost  all  Aii«ri<an 
triliHl  nnnies.  the  term  Araucanwn  Ls  imietlniu-- 
ionieliniis  it  i.s  restri<te<l  to  a  single  ban<!  and 
sometimes  so  exieii.iwi  as  to  cinbmec  a  gfoup  of 
triliea.     .Some  reirard  tliem  us  a  separate  family 
callins  them  fhilians,   while  otiiera,  whom  we 
follow,  r|.,;a^l  tliem  as  the  southern  memben  of 
the  Amies  «roup,    ami  still  otlieni  riaas  them 
with  the  Pampas  Imli.inj.     The  name  Araiicanian 
Is  an  improper  one.  imnnluceil  bv  the  .Simnianls 
but  it  is  so  (irmly  llxe,l  that  it  cannot  lie  clinnired' 
The  native  names  are  .Moluehe  (warriors)  and 
ALipuehe  (natives).      Originallv  they  extended 
from  Cxiuimbo  to  the  Chonoa  Arehlpehigo  and 
from  o<^;in  to  iKvnn,  and  even  now  they  extend 
thoujrh  mil  very  fur.  to  the  east  of  the  Cordlllcraa! 
They  are  divide.1  into  four  (or,  If  wc  include  the 
Plcunehc,  Hv.)  irltn™,  the  names  of  which  all  end 
in    tcheor  •ehe.'  the  wor.1  for  man.     Other 
minor  divisions  exist,     The  entire  number  of  the 
Amucanians    is     computed    at    about    80  000 
•ouls   but  it  is  (lecrvaslug  bv  siekiiesa  aa  well  ai 
by  vice.     They  « ',■  owner«  of  their  land  and  have 
cattle  lu  «„  i.iiianix-,  |>ay  no  Ux.-s.  and  even  their 
tabjir  in  the  iimstriietl  jn  of   highways  is  only 
light.     They  a-e  warlike,  brave,  and  still  enjoy 
some  of  the  bl,  ^'rft  of  the  Inca  civilization; 
only  the  nal.  wcMem  Araucaniain  in  Chill  have 
atlami^d  U.  a  wilentary  life.     L..iiif  before  llu! 
aniv.ii  ,if  th.   ^S|„.niani»  the  goverumeut  of  tlic 
Aniueanlans  ollemi  a  striking  itwinblancetotlie 
military  ariHiiK-raty  of  the  old  world.     All  the 
nat  that  ba^  been  written  of  their  high  itage  of 


CHILE.  14S0-17S1 

cultttie  hai  prpred  to  be  an  empty  picture  of 
fancy.    They  followed  agriculture,  built  fixed 
housea,  and  made  at  least  an  attempt  at  a  form 
of  goreniroent,  but  they  stiU  remain,  aa  a  whofe 
CTUel,    plundering    aavagea."—  ITu    .%$,utari 
J^nnrf  But.   (JT  &    KingtUt,  ed.),  t.  8    m 
m-m— • '  The  Anucanhina  hihabit  the  deliirht; 
Jul  region  between  the  Andes  and  the  8<a  snd 
between  the  riven  Bio-bio  and  Valdivia     Ther 
derive  the  appellation  of  Anucanlans  f n.m  tlw 
provtooe  of  Arauco.  ...  The  political  division 
of  the  Aiaucanhin  stete  U  regulated  with  much 
ntelllgence.     It  U  divided  from  north  to  south 
i.!?i  te  j?o»en,ment8.  .  .  .  Each  governnieot 
la  divided  tato  five  provinces,  and  each  pr..viiic. 
into  nine  counties.    The  state  consisu  of  tliiw 
order*  of  nobilitv,  each  being  subonlinaie  i.>  the 
other,  and  all  having  their  iwip.Htlve  vuskiIi 
They  are  the  Toquls.  the  Aiw-Vlmenes,  ami  the 
timenes.     The  ToquU,  or  governors,  art'  fourjn 
number     They  are  hMiependent  of  pa.  h  oilier 
i  'u*??'*"*""***  '*"■  "■*  public  welfare.    The 
Arch-Llmenes  govern  the  provinces  under  their 
reapective  Toquls.      The   Ulmemw   ^oveni  the 
counties.     The  upper  ranks,  generally,  are  like- 
wise comprehended  under  the  term  LImeues  - 
K.  O.  Watson,  Spanish  and  IWtugiuM  S.  Am.. 
V.  1,  cA.  13. 

TT^}*".^:  "'•  ^-  Molina,  Gtog.,  Natural an.1  CM 

Hut.  of  Chili,  e.  a,  hk.  8. 

A.  p.  1450-17*4. -The  Spanish  conquest- 
The  Araucaoian  War  of  Independence.--  In 
the  year   U-iO  the  Peruvian   liieu,    Yupammi 
deslrour  of  extending  his  dominions  to»,inl<  the 
south.  sUtionetl  himself  with  a  iniwerful  Hrmv 
»' Atacama.     Thentv  he  dispatcheil  a  fonv  of 
'•'•"*>    men   to  Chili,    umler  the  coiiiiii.inl  of 
Uilnchiruca.  wl-*.  ov,^rc«miing  almost  iiicmlilile 
obatacles.  marched  through  a  sandv  <lesert  a.i  f»r 
aa    CoplaiK).    a    distjince  of  80    leairues.     The 
Copbpina  flew  to  arms,  .md  prep»re<l  to  resiit 
thU  invasion.      Wnt  r.\  inchiruea.    true  to  the 
policy  which  the  Incaa  always  observed    .m.»id 
upon  the  defi^nsivp.  trusting  to  ptTNimsiiui  rithor 
than  to  force    for    the    accomplisliimni  of  his 
designa.    .    .    .    While    he    proffere<l    |»a(..    he 
warned  them  of  the  consoquenn-s  of  nsi.tiuif 
the  '  Children  of  the  Sun. ' "    After  wav,  ri.u-  for 
a  time,  the  Copiapina  submitted  tlieiiw  hi»  to 
the  rule  of  the  Iiieas.     ••  The  adjoiiiiri;;  |n.i  inee 
of  Coquirabowuseiiailysubjujrateil.  iin,l  M,.i„lily 
advancing,  the  Peruvians,  some  six  ve^irs  after 
their  flrst  enterin;;  the  country,  llnnlvV>i;iblish«l 
themselves  in  the  valley  of  Vliill.  „i  „  ,li,iauce 
of  more  tlian  200  leagues  fnmi  IIk-    frcinii.  r  o( 
Atacama.     The  '  C'hildn-n  of  the  Hum    Iu.I  met 
thua  far  with  little  n'siaWiice,  ami,  rni-.,urait.il 
by  suoceas.  tliev  marelie<l  their  victorimiMaruiiej 
against    the    I'liruinanelans. 


,,",      ^      - ".    ■.   wurlik"    |...ipW 

living  beyond  the  riv.r  lUpel."  Her.,  ih,  v  were 
desperately  reslsKil,  In  a  buttle  wl;i.  l,■ia^t(J 
three  days,  and  from  whUh  ImiIIi  aniiin  with 
drew,  undefeateil  ami  iinvletorious.  ( tii  1.  irning 
this  reault,  the  Inea  Vu|ian<|ui  onhnil  hi^  iva- 
ersis  to  relinquish  nil  nttiiiipis  at  fiirili.r<on 
quest,  and  to  ■•seek,  hv  the  iiiir<«liii  iiia  of  wiae 
Uws,  and  by  inslnu'tiug  the  |Moplr  iu  airriiul 
tiirc  and  the  arts,  to  esiablUh  tli.ius.  h,-,  more 
flmily  in  th«  u-rris.u-v  alr^Hilv  r,--;\'-\  1- 
what  extent  the  Peruvians  we're  so', ,  .^^ful  la 
the  endeavor  to  ingmfl  theirclvilUutioii.  n  lirioa, 
and  customs  upon  the  Chilians,  it  Is  at  thisilisunt 
day  iinpuiaibic  to  deter:;iinc,  sinii'   the  eurliert 


422 


h.f.. 


CHILE.  14S&-1791. 


CHILE.  1810-1818. 


tbtnrUni  dUter  widely  oa  the  subject  Certain 
It  in,  tliat  cm  tho  vnTal  uf  the  SpsnUrd*  the 
Imiui.  at  least  DominallT.  ruled  the  oouotr;. . 
tnil  received  an  aanuu)  tribute  of  gold  from 
iit'ii|ile.  Ill  till-  year  1585,  after  the  death  of  tbo 
unfortunate  Inca  Atabuallpa,  Diego  Almagro, 
8rt'il  by  the  love  of  glory  and  the  thirst  for 
eold,  yieliird  to  the  solicitations  of  Francisco 
Piuirrii,  ihe  conqueror  of  Peru,  and  set  out  for 
tlic  •iibjcction  of  Chi'.;,  which,  as  yet.  bad  not 
bn-n  visited  by  any  European.  Ilia  armr  con- 
(iDliti  of  370  Bpanianln,  well  equip|)ea,  and 
IS.unO  Peruvian  auxiliaries.  Regardless  of  diffl- 
cuitirs  and  dangers  this  impetuous  soldier  se- 
lected tlie  near  route  tiuit  Iny  along  the  summits 
of  tlie  .Vniles,  In  preference  to  the  more  circuitous 
roa<l  po.ssing  through  the  deiiert  of  Atacama. 
Upnn  the  horrors  of  this  march,  of  which  so 
thrilling  so  account  is  given  by  Prescott  in  tlie 
'C'lirMiuest  of  Peru,'  it  is  unnecessary  for  us  to 
lUi'll ;  sulflce  '.t  to  state  tlutt,  on  reachlnK  Copiapo 
■III  less  than  one-fourth  uf  his  8|»iiiiitu  troops, 
SD<i  two-thirds  of  his  Indian  auxiliaries,  had 
perlsliitl  from  the  effects  of  cold.  fiiiiKuo  and 
starvation.  .  .  .  Everywhere  the  Spaniards  met 
with  a  friendly  reception  from  the  natives,  who 
regunie<l  them  as  a  superior  race  of  Iwings,  and 
tlie  after  conquest  of  the  country  wouW  \<T'  >)>ably 
have  iK'en  atteude<l  with  no  dilUculty  had  a  con- 
cilialiiry  policy  Iv^cn  adopted;  but  this  naturally 
inolfennive  people,  aroused  by  acts  of  the  most 
barlian>us  cruelty,  soon  flew  to  arms.  Despite 
the  op|x»ition  of  the  natives,  who  were  now 
jiiWf!  iu  every  direction  to  oppose  his  march, 
Almagro  kept  on,  overcoming  every  obstacle, 
until  he  reached  the  river  Cachap>oal,  the  north- 
em  boundary  of  tlie  Purumanciim  territory." 
Here  he  met  with  so  stulibom  and  elTective  a 
re»ii)taiice  tliat  he  atiandoneti  his  expedition  and 
rrtunitii  to  Peru,  where,  soon  after,  he  lost  his 
life  [.v-e  Peru:  A.  D.  ISSJ-liUs)  in  a  contest 
with  tile  Piianoa.  *'  Piiarro,  evir  desirous  of 
conquering  Chili,  in  1540  dispatclxd  Pfdro  V'al- 
(livia  fur  that  purpose,  wiiii  some  200  SpaiiiKh 
soldiers  and  a  large  body  uf  Peruvians.'  Tlie 
iavsKiiin  of  Vuldivia  wiis  oppoMil  from  the 
miiiiii'iit  he  enterv<l  the  country;  but  he  pushed 
on  until  he  reached  the  river  MnpiK'lio,  and 
"eni'um|)e<i  upon  the  site  of  the  present  capital 
of  Chili.  Valdivia.  finding  the  IcHiition  pleasant, 
Hod  the  surrounding  plain  fertile,  here  fouiiitf<i 
a  city  on  the  24th  of  Kehruarv,  IMl.  To  this 
tret  European  settlement  in  Ohili  he  gave  the 
nunie  of  Santiago,  in  honor  of  the  patruu  saint 
of  Spain.  He  luid  out  the  town  in  Spanish 
ttyli' :  snd  a.i  a  place  of  refuge  in  <'ase  of  attacit, 
eniinl  II  fort  u|)«u  a  steep  rocky  hill,  rising 
iimie ',>lli  feet  shove  the  plain."  The  Mup<x'liins 
»«'n  !iM  .iked  the  infant  town.  dMVe  its  [leople 
to  ilic  flirt  and  bunie<i  tlieir  wttleinent;  but  werr 
finally  rimilaed  willi  dreailful  slaughter.  "Ou 
tlic  arrivul  of  a  second  army  from  Peru,  Vahlivk, 
wlio-.e  niiihition  Imd  a'-vays  been  to  coniiuer  the 
•oiitli'  m  pniviuivs  of  C'fiili,  advanced  into  the 
coiiiilryif  tlie  Puruniauchins.  Ileri'  liUtory  is 
prol'ulily  defective,  as  we  have  no  account  of 
any  Iwttlis  fiiiight  with  these  brave  people.  .  .  . 
\\v  simply  learn  that  the  isiunlsh  leader  cventu- 
fti'j  g^lfirtl  tlirir  gtun*  will,  and  esfniiii.'ihni  with 
them  an  alliance  both  offensive  and  defensive. 
In  the  following  year(l-MO)  the  tSpaiiish 
forces  eroaaed  the  river  .Mauli,  the  southern 
buumlary  of  the  Punimanciana,  and  advancisl 


toward  the  Itata.  While  encamped  near  the 
latter  river,  they  were  attacked  at  dead  of  night 
by  a  body  of  Araucanhuis.  So  uuexpected  was 
the  approach  of  this  new  enemy,  that  many  of 
the  horses  were  captured,  and  the  army  with 
diiflculty  escaped  total  destruction.  After  this 
terrible  defeat,  ValdivU  finding  himself  unable 
to  proceed,  returned  to  SantiaEo."  Soon  after- 
wards he  went  to  Peru  for  relnforcementa  and 
was  absent  two  years;  but  came  back,  at  the  end 
of  that  time,  with  a  large  band  of  followers,  and 
marched  to  the  South.  "  Reaching  the  bay  of 
Taicahuaoo  without  having  met  with  any  oppo- 
sition, on  the  6th  of  October,  1550,  he  founded 
the  city  of  Concepcion  on  a  site  at  present  known 
as  Penoa"  The  Araucanians,  advancing  boldly 
upon  the  Spaniarda  at  Concepcion,  were  defeated 
in  a  furious  battle  which  cost  the  invaders  many 
Uvea.  Three  years  later,  in  December,  1553,  the 
Araucanians  nad  their  revenge,  routing  the 
Spaniards  utterly  and  pursuing  them  so  f  uiTousIr 
that  only  two  of  their  whole  army  escaped. 
ValdivUk  was  among  the  prisoners  taken  and  waa 
sUin.  Again  and  again,  under  the  lead  of  a 
youthful  hero,  Lautaro,  and  a  vigorous  toqui,  or 
chief,  named  Caupolican.  the  Araucanhins  as- 
sailed the  invaders  of  their  country  with  success: 
but  the  latter  increased  in  numbers  and  gained 
ground,  at  last,  for  a  time,  building  towns  and 
extending  settlements  in  the  Araucauiao  territorv. 
The  indomitable  people  were  not  broken  in 
spirit,  however;  and  in  1596,  bv  an  universal  and 
simultaneous  rising,  tbev  expelled  the  Spaniards 
from  almost  every  settlement  they  had  made. 
"  In  1608  .  ,  ,  of  the  numerous  Spanish  forts 
and  settlements  south  of  the  ISio-Bio,  Nacimiento 
and  Anuco  only  had  not  fallen.  Valdivia  and 
Usomo  were  afterward  rebuilt.  About  the  same 
time  a  fort  was  erected  at  Boroa.  This  fort  waa 
soon  after  abandoned.  Valdivia,  Osomo,  Naci- 
miento, and  Arauco  still  remain.  But  of  all  the 
'cities  of  the  plain '  lying  within  the  boundaries 
of  the  haughty  Araucanians,  not  one  ever  rose 
from  its  ashes;  their  names  exist  only  in  history; 
and  the  sites  where  they  once  flourisluti  are  now 
marked  by  ill-defined  and  grass-grown  ruins. 
Krom  the  peri<sl  of  their  fall  dales  the  independ- 
ence of  tlie  A:-tucanUn  nation;  for  though  a 
hundred  years  more  were  wasteil  in  the  vain 
attempt  to  reconquer  the  heroic  ptsiple  .  .  .  the 
l^paniartls,  weary  of  constant  war,  and  dislKart- 
eneii  by  tlie  lotui  of  so  much  L!'iod  and  treasure, 
were  finally  compelled  to  sue  for  IH'iice ;  and  in 
1T'.24  a  treaty  was  ratifietl.  ucknowi"dging  their 
freedom,  and  establishing  tlie  liniitso'  their  terri- 
tory."— E.  R.  Smith.  T/it  AniHi-itniiiht,  eh.  11-14. 

AlJK)  in:  R.  O.  Watson,  SjkiiiM  uml  Utrtu- 
ffiuM^.  Am.,  t.  l.r/i.  12-14.— .1.  I.  Mo'iiia.  (Vox;., 
yalanil  and  rinl  IfUt.  of  ChiU.  r.  2,  l,k.  1,  8-4. 

A.  D.  1568.— The  Audiencia  established. 
See  .\l DiKNCIAs. 

A.  D.  1810-1818.— The  achievement  of  in- 
dependence.—  San  Martin,  the  Liberator. — 
"  Chili  first  threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke  in  Sep- 
li'"lK'r,  1810  [on  the  pretext  of  fidelity  to  the 
liourlKin  king  dethroned  by  NapoU-on]."  but  Ihe 
national  independence  was  not  fully  eil.iblislifd 
till  .\pril  1818.  During  the  iiiteruioiliute  period, 
llic  dissctislims  of  tlicitiHrrriit  I'rtKiv-.  (li.-ir  dis- 
putes as  to  the  form  of  coveniiiieiit  and  the  law 
of  ek-ction ;  with  other  drstnictini;  cium's,  arising 
out  of  tlie  ambition  of  turbulent  liolividuals.  anil 
tlie  inexperience  of  the  whole  nation  in  political 


423 


I     &!■' ! 


u^ 


CHILE,  1810-181S. 

»ff»ln;  so  matprislly  retarded  th«  anion  of  the 
epuntry,  that  the  SpwiUnlg,  by  icDdlDS  ezpedi- 
tloM  fn.m  Ptru,  *,„  enabled,  in  1814,  to  remln 
their  l.>8t  authority  in  Chili.  Meanwhile  the 
Oovrramcnt  of  Bucnoa  Avrea,  the  independence 
of  which  had  Iwn  eiUbfUhed  in  1810  faee  A«. 
oestikkRkpiblic:  a.  D.  1808-18SO],  mturally 
dreaded  that  the  Spaniarda  would  not  long  bi 
confined  to  the  western  aide  of  the  Andes;  but 
would  »pee<lll;r  make  a  descent  upon  the  prov- 
nci's  of  tlie  Kiver  Plate,  of  which  Buenos  Ayres 

^1 1  1.5*?"*'  I"  ""^J' '"  f""^  •«*''»»»  thU  for- 
midable danger,  they  bravefy  resolved  themaeWes 
to  become  the  invaders,  and  by  great  eaertlona 
eouipped  an  army  of  4.000  men.  The  command 
of  this  force  was  given  to  General  Don  Jos«  de 
Pan  Martin,  a  natfve  of  the  town  of  Yapeyu  In 
Paraguay;  a  man  greatly  beloved  by  airmnks. 
ami  held  in  such  high  estimation  by  the  people 
that  to  hu  personal  eiertlona  the  formation  of 
this  army  la  chiefly  due.  With  these  troops  San 
Mnrtm  entered  Chili  by  a  pass  over  the  JUides 
heretofore  deemed  Inaccessible,  and  on  the  18th 
of  February.  1817.  attacked  and  completely  de- 
feated the_^  roval  army  at  Chacabuca  The 
Chilians,  thus  freed  from  the  Immedtete  presence 
of  the  enemy,  elected  Oene-al  O'HIg^na  [see 
I^Bu:  A.  D  1550-1818]  as  Director;  ud  he  ta 
1818  offerwl  the  Chilians  a  constitution,  and 
nominated  Ave  senators  to  administer  the  alTalrs 
of  the  country.  ThU  meritorious  offlcer,  an 
Irishman  by  descent,  though  bom  In  Chili,  has 
ever  since  [1825]  remaine*!  at  the  head  of  the 

Soveminent.     It  was  originally  proposed  to  elwt 
en  ml  9an  Martin  as  Director;  ^ut  this  he 

"'''^''/v.n''"f'''  .P"'po«'n<?  hl»  companion  In 
arms  O  Iligglns.  hi  his  stead.  The  remnant  of 
the  Si^nish  army  took  refuge  in  Talcuhuaiia,  a 
fortitiid  seaport  near  Conception,  on  the  southern 
froutier  of  (hill.     Vigorous  meaaures  were  taken 

1818.  the  \  Iceroy  of  Peru,  t)y  draining  that  prov- 
Inee  of  Its  b<'8t  troops,  tent  off  a  U.ly  of  5  000 
men  under  General  Osorio,  who  succeeded  in 
joining  the  Spaniards  shut  up  in  Taleuhuana 
Tliua  reinforce<i.  the  Uoyal  amiv,  amounting  In 
sJI  to 8,000,  drove  back  the  Chlifans,  mattli.-.1  on 
the  capital,  and  gained  other  considerable  mivan- 

.f  ^".L?"'"/'".'?'''y  '"  »  "'8'"  •"««''  •'  Talca.  on 
the  19th  of  March  1818,  where  the  Kovalisu 
almost  entirely  dispersed  the  Patriot  fories  San 
Martin  however,  who,  after  the  battle  of  Chaca- 
buco,  had  been  named  Commander-in-rlii.f  of 
,,."?lf**  "™'"  "'  Chill  and  Buenos  .\vr..«  " 
rallle<l  his  army  and  equlpiXKl  It  anew  so  iiiiickiv 
that,  •■  on  the  Sth  of  April,  only  17  days  afur  hfs 
defeat  he  engaged,  and,  after  an  obstinate  and 
sangulnar)-  onllict.  completely  route.!  the  Span- 
Uh  army  on  the  plains  of  Maypo.  From  that 
day  Chili  may  .late  her  complete  independene, 
for  although  a  small  portion  of  the  Sn^uiish 
inxips  endeavoured  to  make  a  stand  at  toncep- 
tlon  they  were  soon  driven  out  and  the  country 
left  In  the  free  iios.si'ssion  of  tlie  Patriots.  Havini 
now  time  to  Ln-atlie.  the  Chilian  Government. 

^!r\,.^'  'J"'  °u  ^'^"^  Ay**-  'JeU'mlne.l   to 
attai  k  the  Itoyullsu  in  their  turr.  by  sending  an 

?™",""'"*  «»f«inst  Peru  [see  Pbbu;  A.  I)   iSa, 
1»3«|— a  gnat  and   bold  me««iirn.   oriffinatini 
withhan  Mart,n."--Capt  U  HM,  Ettraeufh^ 
a  Journal,  »,  1,  c\.  1. 

Al«)in:  J.  Miller.  Mmoin ef  Omtni  JfilUr 
A.  4-7(..  1)._T,  ButclUfe.  ai^  Tmnt'chdi 


OHILIC,  188S-18M. 

*^J^^y*^r^*^  B-  Mitre,  Th4  Bmo^ 
mp^ffa.  America. •  Hia.  of  San  MartiT^ 

P^trf-A!'S*-l'S^i^"'-  '-  •••™-    8- 

^.P'  '???•'••<•— A  tncceMfal  oliKardi. 

■EiiiS  '*!^"*'^-*rk«  ^  with  Pe?"2j 
BoUri*.-"  After  the  perfection  of  ltsnati,3 

'J:^"??^;  »»»  Cfil-n  government  *Si 
paMed  Into  Uie  permanent  control  of  civlllani 
while  the  other  govemmenU  of  the  went  cm2 
remained  prize*  for  military  chieftalrin  ■  T, 
.1"**"^  "»?«»»««««on  was  framed  In  im.  uA 
though  it  is  only  half  a  century  old  it  l>^ 
odest  written  national  conatitution  In  fon,  |" 
all  the  worid  except  our  own.  unless  the  M»m 
Chwtaof  EngUnibe  Inihi.ied  in  the  eai,,.,,?? 
The  pollticar  hwtorv  of  chile  during  the  sL 
years  of  iU  life  has  been  that  of  a  Well  „niere5 
commonwealth,  but  one  of  -  most  unuKnal  tai 
Interesting  sort.  lu  gove 
forcibly  overthrown,  and 
tempt  at  revolution  has  ' 
name  and  In  an  import     t 


yet  its  government  Ir 
reatricted  to  those  m. 
tered.  who  are  twent,< 
ried  and  twenty -one 
I'ead  and  write;   and 
property-  qualification 


■nt  hiu  nci IT  been 
on.-  scriiius  sl- 
ide.    Chile  U  ia 
a  I  puhlii,  and 
I'-        y.     8ulTra,;i.U 
who  are  n  i,'is- 
.trsold  If  uniiur- 
ricd,  and  who  cm 
<!  is  also  a  strin;:fnt 
The  consequence  is  tim 


424 


the  privilege  of  voting  is  confined  to  an  ari-!,«-. 
racy:  in  1876.  the  total  number  of  ballots  tljr-.w, 
for  president  was  only  48.114  in  a  population  i' 
about  two  and  a  quarter  milli,.na    Yhe  prpsl. 
dent  of  Chile  has  immense  powers  of  m.mins- 
tlon  and  appointment,  and  when  he  is  a  nun  of 
vigorous    will    he    tyrannically    swavs    imlilte 
policy,  andean  almost  always  dictate  the  name 
of    his    successor.     The    government  li,i.s  thus 
become  practically  vested   In  a  comimntivelv 
small  number  of  leading  Chilean  famlli.'s.     Tlieii 
is  no  such  thing  as  •public  opinion '  It,  i!,,-  s.n« 
n  which  we  use  the  phrase,  and  the  ne«s|>H|»Ti, 
though  ably  conducted,  do  not  attemnt.  Wimv 
do  not  desire,  to  change  the  existing  or,l.  r  of 
things.      'History,'    says    Mr.     Brown.-.     Jon 
°"f.  J"™'*''  »n  example  of    a  more   i.  ,w,rful 
political  "  machine  "  under  the  title  of  republic 
nor,  I  am  bound  to  say,  one  which  has  b^n 
more  ably  directed  so  far  as  concerns  tbe  s?- 
grandl7,ement  of  the  country,  or  more  h.iii.stfr 
aumlnlstered  so  far  as  concerns  pecuniar;  .or- 
riiption.      The  population  of  Chile  douhlinl  be- 
tween  1843  and    1875;    the    quantity  of   Und 
brought    under    tillage   was    quadrupl,-.! 
more  than  1.000  mile*  of  railroad  were  built   > 
foreign  export  trade  of  |:iI,BI>.V039  was  re|»  rted 
in  IM.N;    and  two  powerful  iron-cUds.    which 
were  destlne<l  to  pUy  a  miwt  Important  piirt  in 
u.,        ■''*'"■  wre  built  in  England.     .Mean- 
while, the  constitution  was  offlclally  Interpreted 
so  as  to  guarantee  religious  toleration,  and  tb« 
pollticail  iK)wer  of  tbe  Koman  Catholic  priert- 
hiKid    diminished.       Almost    everything   goxl, 
except  home  manufa.  tures  and  popular  eiliica- 
tion   flourished.     The  development  of  the  naiioo 
In  these  years  was  !>n  a  wonderful  s<-ale  f,>ra 
South  American  sute,  and  the  contrast  Utweea 
thlle  ami   Peru  was  necullarly  striking  .  .  . 
f-ar!y  in  1879  began  tho  grval  series  t.f  eveuU 
vhlch  were  to  make  the  f'. tune  of  Chile.    We 
Uk-  tbe  word   'gr»it.'  in  lu   low.    sup.rficial 
senk.'  and  witb.iut  the  atU'butlon  of  any  moral 
signifloui.„>  to  Um  adjeGtiTij.    The  at^gn.'aaor  la 


CHItE,  1888-1884. 


CHILE.  188»  ll»L 


tbc  war  between  Cbile  and  Peni  wm  Inspired  ly 
the  mn«t  purely  Miflah  motives,  anil  It  lenuiiiM 
to  be  Kfu  whether  the  Jiut  gnU  will  not  wir  in 
the  lon/r  run.  even  th<iuffh  the  Burae  of  their 
antsgoouti  be  played  with  hearily  j>late<t  imn- 
clads.  .  .  .  At  the  date  U«t  mentioned  Chile  wi>' 
tuflering,  like  many  other  nations,  from  a  genen 
depinaion  In  business  pursuits.  Its  people 
were  in  no  serious  trouble,  but  as  a  irnTprnment 
it  w««  In  a  bad  way.  .  .  .  The  means  to  keep 
up  a  sinking  fund  for  the  foreign  'l<'>>t  hnd 
{ailed,  and  the  Chilean  Ave  per  eem»  were 
quoted  In  London  at  sixty-four.  '.V  political 
cloud  also  was  darkening  aipilo  in  the  mirth.  In 
Uie  renewal  of  something  like  a  confnlemtioo 
between  I^ru  and  Bolivia.'  In  this  state 
of  things  the  (rov.rning  oligarchy  of  Chile 
decided,  rather  Kuddenly,  Mr.  Bmwne  thinks, 
upon  a  scheme  wliich  was  sure  to  result  -  ither 
In  uplrndid  pmaperity  or  absolute  ruin,  and 
wliirli  contemphited  nothing  less  than  a  war  of 
cunqiir^t  against  Peru  and  Bolivia,  with  a  view 
to  seizing  the  mott  Talual)lc  territory  of  tin 
fomier  country.  There  Is  a  certain  strip  of  land 
bordering  up  >n  the  Pacillc  und  about  400  niili.'S 
long,  of  wbk-h  the  nortliem  three  quarters  be- 
lon;:(>'i  to  Peru  and  Bolivi.t,  the  remaining  one 
qiiiirtcr  to  Cliile.  Upon  tills  land  a  heavy  rain 
nivir  fails,  and  often  years  pass  in  which  thp 
anil  il<«^  not  feel  a  shower.  .  .  .  Its  money  value 
la  immense.  'From  this  ref'  ■  '  »  world  dc 
rivM  almost  Ita  whole  sup.  !  nitrates — 
chit'tiy  naltnetre — and  of  Iodine :  its  moimtains 
sl!«^  are  rich  In  metnis,  and  great  deposits  o! 
guino  nv  found  In  the  highlanils  bordering  the 
iPB  Til'  nitrate-bearing  country  Is  a  main, 
from  tif!>  to  eighty  miles  wide,  the  nitrate  lying 
in  layers  Just  below  a  thin  sheet  of  impacted 
BtoniH  L-ruvel,  and  sand.  The  export  of  salt- 
pplr>  U.'.n  this  region  wa»  valutil  la  1HH9  at 
near;.  liJt.ono.OiX),  and  the  worth  of  the  Peruvian 
icrti  II.  w!  i  >  19  much  the  largest  ami  most  pr>> 
duciivo.  is  '!m»tc<l,  for  government  purprnes, 
at  a  r:i[iltal  of  |600,000,000.  Chile  waa,  natu- 
rally. '''II  aware  of  the  wealth  which  lay  so 
flnsi'  1  li.r  own  doors,  and  to  possew  herself 
tliin-of,  a  '  thus  to  rehabilitate  her  natlomU 
f  nunes,  kij  oddresaed  herself  to  war.  The 
<»'i'aai<in  for  aar  was  easily  found.  Bolivia  was 
first  attacked,  a  difficulty  which  arose  at  her 
port  of  Antdfagaata,  with  respect  to  !jcr  en- 
fon>'ment  of  a  tax  upon  some  nitrate  worki 
carrini  on  by  a  Chilean  company,  affording  a 
gmni  preli'.itt;  and  when  Peru  attempted  inter- 
volition  lior  envoy  was  confrtmted  with  CLilt's 
knnwiHige  of  a  sw-ret  treatv  twtween  Peru  and 
Biilivi'i,  and  war  was  formally  declared  bv  Chile 
uii-m  IVru,  April  8,  1878. "  This  war  "lasted. 
with  Mine  breathing  spaces.  f>r  almost  exactly 
five  years.  At  the  outset  the  two  belligerent 
powers— Bolivia  Ulog  soon  practicilly  out  of 
the  contest— aeenxtl  to  be  about  equul  in  ships, 
(oldlers,  andTe»ourfi>*;  buttliesupmnacy  which 
Cliile  soon  gained  upon  the  sea'i  siilmtontlaily 
detemiinwl  tht-  v  ir  in  her  favor.  Koch  nation 
owned  two  powi  tui  1;  ,n-clads,  and  six  months 
were  employed  !'  ac;t!i.ig  the  question  of  naval 
superiority.  .  .  Oi-  tli'  21st  of  Mav .  1878,  the 
P^r-ivian  Rert  s:  r-ki-d  „':u  aiiai.'sl  t!: -'.r-jyrd  the 
Chilean  wooden  ,igv-j  which  were  blockading 
Iquique;  hut  In '-h-ulng  a  Chilean  corvette  the 
larger  Temvlan  Irorciail— the  Indepcndcncia — 
na  'MO  Bear  the  slnre.  and  «:«  fatally  wrecked. 


'So  Pent  li>-     me  of  I,  r  ^ 
pluye<l  wii       he  other- 
mlnible,   ln'     a  lo^g  o 
October  the    same    y 

attacked  .  the  Chileaii 
two  iron-cluds,  and  waa  t 
desperate   r  '■istance. 


:l,^>' .  The  gnme  she 
he  liuoscar — was  ad- 
■;'  and  on  the  6lh  of 
-ir  the  Huaacar  was 
"et,  which  lnclud< 
]y  captured  '  after  r 
im   tills   moment 


the  Pcruvin  coast  was  at  Chile's  :nerry:  the 
Chilean  arm«  pn-tailed  in  every  pitcli>'<l  battle, 
at  San  Fraociac  [November  1«,  1879]  r.-  Tacna 
rWay  26,  I>WU|,  at  .-riea  [June  7,  l-'-il;  and 
finally,  on  the  17th  o[  January,  Ih^I  after  a 
series  of  actions  which  resembled  in  vine  of 
their  detail.-)  the  engagements  tliat  preceiled  oui 
capture  of  the  ( ity  uf  Mexico  [ending  in  »hat  li 
known  as  the  Battle  cf  Mireflores],  the  victuriou* 
array  of  Chile  look  possession  of  Lima,  the  capi- 
tal if  Peru.  .  .  .  The  results  of  the  war  have 
thus  far  cx'  •■dcd  the  wildest  hcTes  f>f  ''bile. 
She  has  t;i!,<  n  absolute  posaeaslon  uf  the  whole 
nitrate  ri';:i"n,  lias  cut  Bolivia  nit  from  the  sea, 
and  a< !  irviil  the  iM'rmanent  duvolution  of  the 
Peru-B'  liviancoiifiHlenttiuii.  .\s  a  conscqueoce, 
her  f  .'i'n  trade  has  doubli  '  the  revenue  of 
her  g  rvi-  iment  has  been  trebi  ;,  and  the  public 
debt  gri'ii  ■  V- reduced.  The  Chilean  boniis.  which 
nere  sold  iit  64  in  London  in  .'snuary,  1^79,  and 
fell  to  60  In  March  of  that  year,  at  the  announce- 
ment >f  the  war,  were  quoted  a'  '">  in  'iinimry, 
H"*! " — Tfui  <rrmriii;-j  h/tttr  ti:  '.■■  Hep'ihlie  of 
Chilr.i.UlitHlif  itnuthty.  Jutit,  !-■•!). 

.\l.!«iiv  II.  Uirkediil,  Th' UtU-  Wir  inS.  Am, 
lOr.-li,,..  r<;tli';.  -.'»,■».,  Feb. .  anri  Mil reh.  1984). 
-(■  R  .M  -kUain  T/.  War  M.  V-ru  und  Chile. 
-R.  X  I!  •:.  i,  Via:;  ,1.  It,  17. -.If  .*ij«  of  tht 
rrittiit'%:  ''  ff.,tr'tn.'initt':iql^pfit  ^latingio 
the  Wi'.'  ii  •  Ain  .Jan.  i<\.  »  '82.— T.  »V  Knox, 
Dfciritt  Hi-  •  n'lt'V  H^itirino,  ch.  'i'i — See,  also, 
Peiu':  a.  !)    IfJ(i-lsT8. 

A.  D.  1885-1891.- The  pmidency  and  dic- 
tatorship of  Balmaceda — His  conflict  with 
the  Coneress.— Civil  war. — "Save  in  the  one 
8trug.;leln  whic  b  the  parties  n'>.>rted  to  arms, 
the  political  development  of  Chih  wos  fn-e  from 
rh-n  disturbances,  and  the  ruling  class  was  dls- 
tin.  iihe<l  amon^  the  Spanish  Araericin  nations 
not  inly  for  weaitli  and  education,  but  f  1  its 
talent  for  coverniiii  at  and  love  of  constitutional 
liberty.  The  republic  was  called  'the  Enirland 
of  .S)V't<  -Vmerica,'  and  it  was  a  common  iKMst 
that  i'  ■■  liiii  a  pronundamlcnto  or  a  revolution 
waa  iniiHisKible.  The  spirit  of  modern  Liberalism 
became  more  prevalent.  ...  As  the  Liberal 
party  Ixn-ame  all  powerful  it  split  into  factions, 
divided  liy  (|iieationsof  principle  and  by  strug- 
gles for  li-a"ier»liip  and  otace.  .  .  .  The  patron- 
•»ge  of  till'  Chilian  President  Is  enormous,  em- 
bracing n.  it  only  the  general  civil  service,  but 
local  otHcials,  except  m  the  municipalities,  and 
all  appointments  in  the  army  and  navy  and  in 
the  teleirraph  and  railroad  services  and  llie  giv- 
ing out  of  contracts.  The  Pn'sident  has  always 
been  able  to  select  his  successor,  and  has  exer- 
cised tlila  iN'wer,  usually  ii.  harmony  with  the 
wishes  of  Intluentlai  statesmen,  itometiiiies  call- 
ing a  conference  of  party  chiefs  to  decide  on  a 
candidate.  In  the  course  of  time  tli  more  ad- 
vanced wing  of  tlie  Liberala  grew  more  numer- 
ous !!:an  tb*  '-■•  -ler^Tes  The  m--*  ri-licaJ 
aectlim  h;.  I  its  i)„ jVus  In  a  Reform  Club  In 
Bantiairi'  ionii..  o  .if  young  university  men,  of 
whom  ")..lo»ci  li  w.ii!  t:ie  flneat  oratiir  Knter- 
log  Congre^  in  IfStS,  he  took  a  leading  part  la 


425 


I  f     I,  : 


n 


CHILE,  imMSM. 

debatet.     ..  In  1886  he  wi  i  the  matt  popular 
man  In  the  country  ;  but  hii  chUm  to  the  presi- 
deoiial  »ucce*.fc>n  wa^ contiated by  varioua other 
aapiranu— older  puliticiuni  and  leaders  of  fac- 
tion* ttrJTing  for  tupivmacr  in  Consreaa      He 
wai  elwtiKl  by  an  ovirw  licfming  niajoritv,  and 
aa  ITenldrnt  injoyjil  an  i.nfTamplml  deirree  of 
popularity      Kor  two  or  ll.rre  years  the  poUH- 
ciajis  who  had  been  his  party  aaaixUtes  worked 
In  harmony  with  his  ideas.  ...  At  the  flood  of 
the  democratic  tide  be  was  the  moat  popular 
man   In  South   Amcrira.       But   when   the  old 
tj-rritorial  faniilie<i  «hw  Ihc  seat«  in  Conirrrss  nnd 
the  posis  in  the  civil  service  that  bad  be.n  their 
prin.Kstlve  flilcl   by   new   men,    and   fortunes 
nia.l..  by  upstarts  where  all  chances  bad  been  at 
tlieir  iliii|).«iil.  then  a  reliction  set  In,  comiptliin 
was   »cenl..,l.    im.l   .Moderate    UbiTala,   joiniuif 
baiHia   will,   the  Nutionalisu  and  the  reviviiic 
t..iu.rv,itive    imrty.    formed   an  opposition    of 
re»peetal>le  str.  nvtli      In  the  i-arller  part  of  liis 
*#.'""»,'"'"""  "'''"•»••'•'<»  had  tlie  <-o-oper«l  ion 
of  the  Niitioniili.n.  who  wer.'  repn-wnted  in  tli.. 
I  iibliict.     In  the  lB»t  two  yeiiPi.if  bin  U'rrn.  when 
the  linu'  ilrew  n.iir  for  wleetiiig  liU  succiiMi..r 
deration  and  rev.,|t  nnd  the  rivalries  of  «i.pir' 
oni-.  for  the  .-ic.f«ion  tlmw  the  part  v  into  dis 
onl.r  and  an^end    in    liitlie-.o    un  juejitloni'd 
lea.l-r    .      .   In  jHiiujiry.  l^.*),  the   '»pp,wiii„n 
wen-  strong  enmiifh  to  p'.ice  their  candidate  In 
the  chrtir  when    the    He  ,«■   „f   Keprescniatives 
orgnni/(d      Tli    tiiiiiistrv  resit'iM-d,  aiidacontlict 
b.nve.n  the  .Jiecullve  sihI  leL'islallve  bramlies 

;'.  .'.''  '.";''"■"""■'"  **"  "ixnly  iM'irun  when 
the  I  nsident  »|>|x.inte.|  s  Cabinet  of  his  own 
wl.-iliiin    .  .      Thin  ministry  had  to  facesnoTcr 

^»  '"•'' L'  iiiaj.'rity  naiiinit  tlie  I'rei.ident,  which 

treated   li,m   -.1*  r.   .11  lat.ir  nnd   ln'pin   to  pass 

h,.«'il.-  liws  iijiil  r.^oliiii.iiis  llmt  were  veUied 

nnd    r,  fiise.l    (,.  consider  the  measures  thai  he 

r<i  ..nini  •■.'..Itil      The  ministers  wer>'  liud  liefore 

the  t  li.'iinlxrs  rinil  i,iie.«i..n,  d  about  the  inaiiiier 

I'f  th.ir  ii|.,«,ii,i,iieMt      Thev  eiih.r  ch,|in.Kl  to 

au>wi  r.  (T  ii.isw  ir.-.|  in  a  wnv  that  Incri-asiil  the 

•nMn...ity  of  Cin-n...   which  flnallv  iniMd  n 

»ote  ..f  .■,.n„m-,  in  ■.l,.,|i,.nre  to  whi'ch,  aa  wn^ 

usun  .   IliM  Cihm.  I  r.-iL-i»d.     Then  H>dnince<la 

•ppothid  :i  miiiiMrv  in  M|i,n  ileHanie  ,,t  (  ,,n 

trres-    will,  -n.if.i.n.p,  «,  i.,  .,„„|.  the  ,,„„,  ,.,„,   ! 

wiui..lri-rt,ly  si..,l,en  ,f  ■.,  hi.  «-le.  I.-I  eiii.illdBle    I 

f..r  the  i.r.>id,„.y      II,'  p^■|M^■.|  f,.r  tl».  ..nig 

ch'  that  lie  ii,v.t.-.|  l.y  rciH.v  ing  the  .hirf,  ,,f  the    ; 

«diiiini»tniti,„  ..f  ilie  .1.  pirtnient.  nnd  npiielne   I 

them  Kith  mend.  >,.t,.dt.,l,iiUH.If„„|  |,i,,„,|i,v     ' 

ail.    milking  ehnntf.-,  i.,  the  ,„,!(,.,.    ,|,..  ,„||j,i-,'    , 

an.l.  lo  s..m.-  .si.  i,i.  |„  t|„.  „rniv  nti.l  nnrv  c..m'    i 

liMiK  a     1  he  yn*-  .|.  ii-hmcI  llln,  „«  n  .li;tnt..r     ' 

an.l  indlgnnti i,.ii,ii.M   »,.„.   l„.|,|    i„   ,.,,„: 

t'Wii      Bnlmn.-.l-.  „iid  l,i,  .iip|«,rt.r»  i.rele.i.1,^1    i 

'"     "•   " "!.»    '!"•  ■Immpi..iis  of   the  i„.  ,|,|,.    | 

ajtaiiisl  til,.   ttri.!.._m,y,    l,.,t    .,f    ,|,e   pr/nci  .le   , 
of  thdi  r,r  th..  nM»„.    -.ii.iMo„'.  A„J,.,I 
|.,W..,,,1W  ,,,.,,.,.,  ,..,   -.•■TheUm.tlrtween   I 
I  n-  ,l.nl  ltaii.m...|,,  „i„|  Cm^rr^  Hp.ne.1  Int..   | 
rev.^uti.m      (l,i.l«n,inry  I.  Ixyi.  the  Op,>,.,iti,«i    i 
inernlK  n.  ..f  the  Senate  aii.l  I|..iim'  „f  Ui.iitles   ' 
in.t   and  nign-l  an  .\.  i  ,1,,  Inring  that  IIm-  I'n  si     I 
dent  was  m,»,,rt|,y  ..f  his  |-«t.  aiMl  that  he  was  j 
no  l.mgjr  hew   ,.f  the  stniem*  PreaMent  of  the 
KepjiLll.-.  n-.  I»-  >».|  vl,J,|„|  the  Constitution 
«»n  .Inn.inry  7  tlK-  nn»y  .l.-clami  In  fav..u...f  t|,r 
leglslHt.ir*  nu.lairalti.tHalnunT.la     The  |'n,i 
IMt  deouumed  the  navy  as  traltun,  abullshtd  ..U 


CHILI,  18>l-lbM. 


4Jti 


the  lawi  of  the  country,  declared  hlnurlf  nirts. 
tor,  and  procUimed  martial  kw.  It  was  an™ 
^  '^T"..  T^*  "PRS^Uon  "crult«d  an  annv  ,„ 
the  UUDd  of  Santa  Maria  uinler  Oenei,!  Irr;.,  " 
and  CommanderCanto.  On  February  U  a «  v,  r, 
flght  took  place  with  Ibe  Oovemmcnt  tr.«>i.» 
In  l.|ui(|uc,  and  the  Congressional  ariiiv  !.«* 
PoMisalon  of  Plsagim.  In  April,  Presi.lent 
iSalmaceda  .  .  .  delivered  a  long  message   .u 

aTA^Sl'Trj-  •.  T'^^'-t^tconriniK^ 
and  April  7,  Arlca,  In  the  province  of  Tiir. 
iwea,  waa  Uken  by  the  revolutionists.  Sme 
naval  fights  occurred  later,  and  the  ir.in.l,a 
Ulanco  Encahida  was  blown  up  by  the  l»iii« 
Uir's  torpedo  cruisers.  Finally,  on  August  at 
Uernral  Canto  lan.led  at  Concon,  ten  miles  ii„rtli 
of  V alparaiso  KnlmiMwIab  forces  atla< k^l  ini. 
mejllately  ami  were  routwl,  hising  S.fHNl  kiilnt 

I  n!.  .1*"^??"':.    7}^  i'onp*"  »rmy  l.»t  mi. 
On  tlw)  SUth  a  decisive  battle  waa  'ought  at  |'|» 
cilia,  near  Valparaiso     The  Dictator  hail  IJikio 
tro.)|)s,  and  the  opposing  anny  10,0011.     HiTlnis- 
ce<U  8  fore.*  were  complelcly  routetl  after  rtv« 
hours  hard  fighting,  with  a  loaa  of  1,5IN»  men 
>anting..  fomi.illy  surrendered,  and  the  triii.i,|,h 
of  tlie  Congrens  party  was  crmipletc      A  Jiiiiia 
heailed  by  heftor  J..rge  Montt.  took  chnr-e  „f 
alTain.  at   \alpsniiso   August  DO      Balniiic-.|», 
»h.)  hail  taken  refuge  at  the  Argentine  bg? 
tl.in  in  Nintiago,  was  not  able  tnmtie  hi.ew  luie 
an.l  I..  av..i.'  ei.pture,  trial,  aiul  punisliment ,  .'ni; 
m  Ited  sidcide,  Heptemlw  80,  by  slio<,tiiii:  |„m 
«».      <»n   the   ICth   November  Admlml  ,).,rre 
Montt  was  chosen  be  the  Klwt.iral  Coll.g..  at 
Santiago.  I'n'si.l.nt  of  Chill,  and  on  I>eceiMlNr"» 
lie  WIS  Installi'.l  w  ith  great  cen-roony  uid  g.  u,  r»l 
Tvi<iiv{ngt.'~Aiinvit liivt'trr.  IN»I    n  i'Hi 
II*;  P-    ••9"-l89a.--Di«cnlt»    with    the 
United    St«t..  -thremtenad  W»r.-I>uri„g 
till'  ilTll  war  whiih  terminated,  as  U.ld  sUn,- 
ill  the  overthniw  iinil  suici.le  of  the  ill.'1iii.,riiii 
I   iisuriwr.  lialmiiecla.  the  triumph  of  the  (  .a 
gns.  party,  ami  the  election  to  the  pre*i.l.ii,v 
I  of  AdniintI  Jorge  .Monti,  tie  lepreaentaiii.-  .'f 
the    l'nite«J    States.     Mlnl>ler     Egan      >li..«.<l 
mnrk.il  favor  to  Balmnciln  and  his  party  h  hi,  I, 
irritaiHl  the  <liilenns.  iiml  [.r-sluiwl  among  i|„  ,u 
I   a   h.«t.,e   feeling   t.iwanls   Americans  an.l  the 
I   American  K..verninent      This  was  Incn'swd  l.v 
I     h.' action  of  Mr   Kgan,  after  the  def.Ht  .  f  tl,'e 
Knlmacedlsts,  In  sheltering  a  latg«>  n.inil.r  ..f 
refuK.^.,  of  that  pnrlv  within  the  walls  ..f  the 
American   leg:,tl..n      The  same   was  i|n„e  hy 
..Iher  foreign  npr.  s.-ntallves,  but  ton.,  s.uh  er 
tejit,  exc.  pt  In  the  <„«■  ,,f  the  Hpanlsli  l.g»ii..n, 
A  lel.gratn  sent   t,v   Mr    Kgan  on  the  f\u  ..f 
«Ht..lrr  to  the  StBte  Hepariment  at  Ws«liii..-t..n 
stat.sl     "Hii  [H  r»i.M»Kniglit  nf.ige  In  his  l.(:« 
ti.mnfterthe.virthn.w  ..f  ||„.  |f«|nia< mIh  am 
eminent ,  aUiut  tlie  same  number  In  llieS|.iiiil«h 
l.gntion,  tt  In  the  nraslllnn.  .1  In  the  Kr.ii.h 
s.veral  In  the  frugiiayan,  i  In  IIk-  (leminii  «iMi 
1  In  the  hnglish.     Kalmaceda  sought  nfiu-..  in 
the  Ar«^tlne      All  these  have  g..iie  mil  , »,,  pi 
■  ■"iln  his  own  legation.  1  In  the  tieriiian  ...,.1  1 
In  the  Spanish  •     v  :  ven'iirin;?  t..  \l..l,ii.    Hi, 
privilegi-s  of  the  rican  .Minister'.  h-.l,|.t:,e 

the  Chilean  authorities  pln<T.|  it  uti.hr  |"  : .» 
surveillance,  an.l  nrnsUd  a  niinilsr  of  i^.-m 
entering  Uie  premi..-.  The  Minister  .  m 
rlnln.'<l.  ami  was  s.ipp.,ri.sl  In  his  complale'.  st 
>*  ushington.  causing  further  irritation  in  (  hiif. 
1  his  was  again  greailf  lacrrawl  by  his  >lal» 


m 


CBILB,  Un-1801 


CBDfAIUEAN  FAMaT. 


Idi  the  rfgbt  not  only  to  iheltcr  the  nfugcM  in 
bi^  rt'iidrnce,  but  to  protect  them  in  tbdr  de- 
parture rrom  the  country.  In  tliat,  too,  be  wu 
iiutaiuni  by  hi*  goTeroment,  sod  the  refugees 
wcn>  Mkfi-ly  wnt  aw«T.  Meantime  a  more  leri- 
ois  (iiu«  of  quurel  between  the  two  countriei 
iuii  ariwn.  A  purty  of  sailor!)  on  shore  at  Val- 
rwntiiio.  from  the  united  Htates  ship  Baltimore, 
hiul  lie<>n  asaaileil  by  a  mob,  October  16,  and  two 
were  Itillefl,  while  eiibteen  were  wounded.  The 
t'nitnl  Statu*  demanded  aatiifaction.  and  mu-'h 
tagry  currespondenne  enioed,  made  particular!? 
offentive  no  the  Chilean  Me  bv  an  insulting 
drciiliir  which  HeAor  Matta.  the  Chilean  Foreign 
MIniMer,  imued  December  13,  and  which  be 
rsuwil  in  be-  published  In  the  Chilean  news- 
nit|ienL  "The  note  was  to  the  last  ilrjfrec  in- 
tuUlii|(.  and  would  hare  juvtifled  a  witlulrawal 
of  our  mininter  and  a  serrrance  of  diplomatic 
n-latiims.  Tb  attempt  was  made  lat<-r  tn  <vl 
up  the  claim  tlint  it  was  a  'domesllc  rommii 
nimtiim'  which  could  not  be  the  subject  of 
iliplomittic  coinpUint  Mr.  Blaine  de<'lini-d  to 
irrrpt  tlie  view  tliat  a  nation  Is  to  take  no  notice 
of  nn  iimult  nut  <iirectly  communicated,  awl  n'- 
fuml  t'l  rvalue  as  a  siifflcicnt  apology  a  s'liic- 
ment  that  the  Chilean  goremmrnt  woiiM  strike 
out  the  offensive  wonla  ...  In  the  elslx>mte 
ri'vh'w  cif  the  difflcully  made  in  his  mesaaKc  of 
Jiiii\wrT  M,  ItW!!.  rrc«lilent  Harrison  s«j« : 
The  nimniunieatlons  of  tlie  Chilean  (fovem 
mint  .  Ii»ve  ntii  at  any  lime  taken  the  form 
(it  a  madly  anil  satlsfuctory  expression  of  retfret, 
much  liiw  of  apology.'  TiiU  statement  is  at!cu- 
r;il''  .ii  l<i  the  attitude  of  Ciiile  up  to  the  end  of 
.Miitt  1  wiministrntion.  .  .  .  Wlien,  in  .lanuarr, 
III' I'hileiin  fim'iirr.  ilepartment  paasi'd  Into  the 
|j.H!i(l-  of  (ienor  I'ereira.  a  ehanie  Is  instantly 
vi>,hl.  .  on  January  4th  S<-fti>r  Montt  at  Wash 
tiii;t..n  iifB<iBlly  mentloni'd  the  nccumnice 
whicli  'Chile  has  lamenlni  anil  iliies  so  sincerely 
Iniiiint '  Piiur  days  later  he  announcetl  that  he 
li:ail  nielvetl  siMM-ial  inatnictiiins  t^  stale  'tliat 
iIh'  tiovemmi'ut  of  Chile  has  felt  very  sincere 
MTil  f.ir  tlH'  unfortunate  events  which  oeciirri'd 
III  ValparaiMi  on  the  18th  of  October;'  and  he 
ailiinl  that  hi«  Oovrmment  'sincen-lv  deplon-s 
Ihiaf'irewiil  ilisturbancp  '  Minister  Montt  hiul 
singly  HUir^'eatiii  arbitration  a*  a  means  of  aet- 
tlini!  ill"  <li<piiie  On  .laniury  inth  the 
(.'liileaii  a  iilioritie*  notiHed  Mr  Kgan  that  ther 
<iHiil,|  »iili<lraw  any  offensive  paaaaiies  in  tlie 
y  .111  cirriilar,  an<i  Wl  instru<ie<l  their  MinU 
ut  it)  Wanliiiiirttai  to  expn'sa  retfret.  The 
upoloirr.  tliii«  eiitir«-«e(l  luiih  in  Was'ilnitton  nml 
SaiitliuM,  wa«  •ilT  ami  unifwiTfu'  iMTlinp*  in 
*t<i|iiale;  but  it  wsM  inaile  In  kikkI  faith  On 
.111  icy  'JOth  erideiitly  ri'ellni;tlMt  all  was  now 
wr.ii.'  the  ChilcaiK  vt  iituBil.  ai'ting  on  a  liliit 
<'(  Mr  lliiiiii'it.  t4i  aik  for  Kgan's  wltlidmwal 
ii<  n  |K'r«>'m  ni .  errata  '  What,  Ihervfore.  must 
law  luiii  III'' >ii<niar  of  the  Chileans,  ou  Jin 
uin  '.'.ll.  t..  ri'11'lvr  lin  offli  iai  notici'.  which  the 
I,,  w-ini.  mi|iiIiIh»I  ati  '  iiltinmtum.'  euntalnlng 
I'u.  '.hirmi'iit  tl.at  the  l!nite«l  Mates  C»oTcm 
in.iii  wa«  n<a  lati^llitl  with  the  result  of  the 
'uliii'il  iiivestlgatliMi  at  Val|>anlao  and  still 
»>kMl  f.ir  a  siiitahle  aiKilngy  : '  that  for  the 
.Mii';i  note  tliere  must  Iwsllll  another  'suiliihlc 
n|..|.«y  •  without  which  'he  ('lilted  HtalCB  wiiiili) 
ii'niiimie.lli.liimallc  reunions ;  ami  lliat  the  re 
'1  "••  '  r  Mr  Kgnn's  witbdnwal  could  mil  at 
UaX  liiiie  \k  cunsldcrcd.    ll  was  a  bittsr  draught 


for  any  gOTcmment ;  but  threats  of  war  were 
reaounding  through  the  United  States ;  Ameri- 
can naval  Teasels  were  hurriedly  being  made 
ready;  coal  and  supplies  were  going  into  the 
Paclflc.  There  wss  power  behind  the  note,  and 
Chile  prepared  to  bend  to  the  storm.  The  '  ulti- 
matum' appears  to  have  reached  the  Chileans  on 
Haturday,  January  Sfld.  On  Mondar,  January 
83th.  they  sent  an  answer  which  could  not  pos- 
sibly be  read  aa  anything  but  a  complete  and 
abject  apology  on  all  the  three  points.'  But  on 
the  same  (Uy  on  which  this  answer  was  being  for- 
warded, the  Pnsident  of  the  United  States  sent 
•  warlike  niesaoge  to  Congress.  "It  rehenrsed 
the  whole  controversy  at  great  length,  submitted 
copious  correspondi'nee.  and  ended  with  the  sig- 
nlllcant  phrase :  '  In  my  opinion  I  ought  not  to 
delay  longer  to  bring  these  matters  to  the  atten- 
tion of  Congress  for  such  action  us  may  be 
deemed  appropriate.' ...  It  la  an  uiipMllfalile 
controversy  as  to  whether  the  ttiitlmritlea  in 
Washington  knew  that  an  answer  wan  on  Its  way: 
if  ".ey  had  read  the  corn'siiomlence  ti.ey  knew 
that  an  answer  must  rome,  and  Unit  thi-  I'hilean 
Ministry  must  have  wnt  a  peaceful  unswer  It 
is  llien-fure  ilifflcult  to  understand  tlii'  piirposa 
of  the  president  s  message.  .  .  .  Thi  ilTe<t 
was  to  Inflict  an  unneitssnry  humiliation  im 
Cliile.  H|«ntsh  AinrricunshuvcgmMl  nicmiirii  a 
Meiico  still  cherishes  resentment  for  the  war 
liegun  against  her  forty  Hvi-  years  ngi';  and 
flirty  live  years  hence  the  Chileans  are  jikily  to 
ri'niember  the  Balmaceda  affair  as  Anieri.  iir.s 
n'memlien-ii  the  impressment  of  Anieriran  Xia- 
men by  Oreat  Britain.  We  have  the  aiKjI^gv, 
hut  with  It  we  have  the  ill  will"— A.  IJ.  Haft, 
J'riifNetU  Umapt  oa  Ar^natn  Unrtrntaenl.  Ut- 
Mjr  3. 

CHILIARCHS.—Cr  plains  of  thousands.  In 
the  army  of  the  Vani'jils.  — T.  IlMlgkin,  Uiit$ 
tiiid  hrr  Inniil/rf.  hit.  %  ck.  8. 

CHlLLIANW.'.l.LAH,  Battle  of  (1849). 

Hee  !mii«    A    D   im.Vlt«» 

CHILPERICI.,KinKofthcFrankslNciis- 
triat,  A  D  .VII  .V«4  .  .  Chilpsric  II.,  Kinr  of 
the  Pranks,  .\   I)  7I'^  -.H) 

CHILTERN  HUNDREDS,  ApplTinffor 
the  Stewardshipof  the.— A  seat  In  the  Hrilii>h 
House  of  Ciiminons  "cannot  Is*  resigned,  nor 
can  a  man  who  'i.is  nnc<'  formally  taken  his  sint 
for  oiM'  constit  .cy  throw  it  up  and  iimii  «l 
anotlier  KIther  a  .I'sqiialiflcation  must  Ih-  in 
curn-d.  or  the  House  must  deilare  the  si-nt 
vacant."  The  necessary  iiis(iuali''iatiim  can  lic 
im  urrtil  by  accepting  an  nfllce  of  pmAt  umlir 
the  Crown,  -wi'nin  certain  oflldai  categoric* 
"Cirtatu  oil!  offleea  of  nominal  value  In  tl»'  gift 
of  the  Treasury  are  now  granted,  ss  of  courw. 
tn  menils'rs  who  wish  to  n-sign  their  scats  In 
order  to  l»'  ipilt  of  I'arliamiintjtri  .'ufirs  or  to 
contest  another  constituency  TlH-se  offices  nn- 
the  Htewardship  of  the  Chlllem  Hunln'iia 
|Cmwn  pr'Wrtv  In  Huckinghanisiilrp].  of  tlic 
manors  of  hn»t  Hemln'il.  Nortbsinul,  or  Hemp 
holme,  and  the  escheatorship  of  Miinster  The 
office  Is  n-slgiiitl  as  soon  a«  it  hns  operaliil  to 
vacate  llie  seal"-Nlr  W  H.  .\iisim,  /-.iif  ami 
r»tl;m  of  Mr  <\.n%t  ,  r    1,  fi  iM 

CHIMAKUAN  FAMILY,  The.  Hee 
.\MriiH  IN  Anoiiii  mts   CiiivAkr*!!  P.tiiiiT 

CHIMARIKAN  FAMILY,  The.  Xee 
Aiisnu  an  AnuniuiiiBs    CamaniKAR  FamilT' 


427 


CHmA. 


CHINA. 


CHINA. 


The  NamM  of  tht  Coutry •  •  Th»t  ipaclnm 

•eat  of  aacieot  cl»Uli«tion  which  we  call  C'hiua 
has  luomed  always  lo  hirge  to  weatern  evii, 
.  .  .  that  at  era*  far  apart,  we  flnd  It  to  have 
been  dlwlngulihed  by  different  appellations 
ac«>r-ling  as  It  was  regarded  as  the  t<'rmiinu  of 
a  southern  sea  route  coasting  the  great  i«nlD- 
sulas  and  Islands  of  Asia,  or  as  that  of  a  northern 
lajid  route  trsTerslng  the  longitude  of  th»t  con- 
tinent.    In  the  former  aspect  the  name  applied 

2f*  ^f'^'  ^."'y*  '^''  •°"«  f'>™  "f  «he  name 

Sin,  Chiu,  8lnir,  China.     In  tlie  latter  point  of 

Ticw  the  region  in  question  was  known  to  the 

ancients  as  the  land  of  the  Seres;  the  middle 

ages  as  the  Empire  of  Cathay.    The  name  of 

China  has  been   supposed,  like  manr  another 

wi.nl    and    name    connected    with   tm.le  and 

r^igmphy  of  the  fur  enst,  to  have  cinr  u>  us 

tliri.ugh  the  Malays,  nnd  U>  have  been  applied  by 

tliim  to  the  great  ea»tem  m<«a<Tby  fmin  the 

itvle  of  the  dynasty  of  Thsin,  which  a  little  mora 

timn  two  centuries   Ufore   our  era  eujoved  a 

brief  but  very  vigorous  exi»t*me.  .         tliere 

are  reasons  however  for  btlieviug  that  the  nameof 

China  must  have  been  liestowetl  at  a  niucli  mrller 

date,  for  It  occurs  in  the  laws  of  Manu.  » liich 

awrt  the  Chinas  to  Iiuvh  l^-en  degenentic  Ksha- 

tryas.  and  intheMalialiharat.  comjiosltioinniKny 

ceiituriesolder  than  the  im|ii-riai  il  vnast)  of  I  lisin 

Tills  name  may  have  yet  pwisiliiy"  l^eu  i-on- 

nectetl  with  the  Thsln.  or  some  moiiarcliv  of  like 

dynastic  title;    for  that    dynasty  liadreignwl 

I'xally  In  HhensI  from  theUtbcentUiy  l>ef,)reour 

era  ;  and  when,  at  a  still  earlier  date.  tl,..  empire 

was  partltloneil  Into  manv  sii.ai|  kins<ionn,  we 

lln.l  among  them  the  dynasties  of  tli<'  Tdn  ami 

tlie  Ching.      .      Some  at  ieaxt  of  the  circiim- 

stamps  which  have  liecn  collwteil  .      .   nn<ler 

It  the  Iras  Improbable   that   the   Hinim   of  tlie 

propbt-t  Isaiah  should  Iw  truly  Inierpr.  ti-d 

as  ludicatlnp  tlio  Chines...     Tlie  nam.  ..f  China 

III  this  form  was  late  in  reaching  the  (ir.-.  k»  „n\ 

Komaus,  ami  to  them  It  pMlmblr  came  ilmiugli 

pcple  of  Arabtan  «peech.  as  tlw  Ariln.  iMin^ 

without  the s<.und  of    ch.'  ma.le  Uie  t  hini.f  rl,u 

Hindus  and  Malavs  Inti'  Sin   an  I 


•II.    The  KUlMi  were  a  people  of  Manch., 
ra<Se.  who  Inhabited  for  centuriWi  a  co,"rr7  „ 
the    north-east   of  China."     During  „  ivri.l 
between  the  10th  and  Uth  centurira   t|„.  Kl,i 
tans  acquliwl  supremacy  over  their  nei>rl,lH,u„ 
and    esublished    an    empire    which    en,l,r«.,™ 
Northern  China  and  the  adjoining  reifions  „f 
TarUry.     "It  must  have  been  during  thi.s  peri,«l 
eadlngwith  the  overthrow  of  the  dynasty  jiallcj 
the  Leso  orlron  Dynastyl  In  112)),  snd  wliiL  tk,. 
iMwthem  monarchy  was  the  face  which  the  Cel,, 
Ual  EmplB!  turnwl  to  Inner  Asia,  that  tiie  nam. 
of  Khitan.  Khitat,  or  Khital.  became  in,liM„ln 
biy  assoeiatetl  with  China"— H,   Yule    i„iUi 
and  tAt  B'.iy  mt/,,  r:  I'rttiminnry  KmujI  —  ■■  Tlj* 
term  •China.-  ar.pliiil  by  Eumpeans  to  this  p. 
gion,  is  iiiikniiwn  to  the  natives,  and  the  T.n 
r.v?"*-\  "'»■'"•«'    probably    the    Hindu    f„rm 
China    has    for    nenrly    flftee ,  huiidr.il   v.a~ 
reused  to  rule  over  tile  plains  of  the  llo«usl,„ 
and    Yangtze  kiang,      Ji„r   do  tliev  nctni/,. 
the  epithet  •Cel.siiul,'  atlribuUKl  lo  tlnir  .ii',. 
pin-.  ...   In  onlinary  hingiiage  the  ii.uhI  n. 
presfclon  in  Chung  kwo;  llmt  Ts.  '  Middle  Kiiiir 
doni.    ..r  •  Central  Empin-,'  In  refennre  ,.i,|„.r 
t«)  the  pn'ponderanie  gradually  aeqiiinil  In  tli. 
ci'ntral  plains  over  the  surrounding  siatix  i.r  i  \ 
'les.  thill  Cliiin 


timeslnto  Thin.  llemelh'Thino/ th.  „.itliorof 
[he  I'erlplusof  theKrvlhrieanSea.who  ipiuftMto 
l>etlieflr«e«taiit«u!liortoemploytheni»iie  ill  this 
form,  hence  also  the  «|iib  rihI  Thinieof  I'toleinv 
...  If  we  now  turn  to  tlie  SiTes  we  (i  .,|  ihi< 
name  mentioned  by  classic  authors  iiiik  li  in. .re 
^^  .|ueiil|y  sihI  st  ui  earlier  date  bv  nl  I.  a.|  • 
reniury.  The  name  i«  fsmillur  enoii.-li  i„  ii,„ 
l.«tlii  poeU  of  the  Aug.i»t«n  age.  but  ...h,Ht.  in 
a  V iijue  way  The  n-ime  .if  Si'n*  \»  pr,>ln» 

Illy  from  Its  earll.'^t  ii.«.  In  the  west  i.ienlittiil 
With  the  name  ,.f  the  siik»t>rm  and  It.  pn.luce 
ati.l  this  as«»isi|..n  omlnue.!  until  ih.  mm.'. 
c*am-i\  enllt»ly  t..  !»■  u«d  a«  a  g.-..gripiii.a| 
etnreMi.ia  (.  was  in  the  .lays  ..f  th..  M.in 

g'l'  .  .  .  that  China  Hr^t  lierame  renllv  kie.^n 
..1  hiirope.  an.1  thst  by  a  name  whi.  h',  ll,.mgh 
•sp..rlally  appILd  t.>  tlien..rth.'rn  pr..v  in.  .s,  ulni 
<v«.iie  to  hear  a  m..regen.r»l  appliiati..ii  I mhav 
Th:..  name  khilai,  is  ih.t  l.y  whi.h  rhma  Is 
s!>  I.M  li.  this  .lav  l.y  all.  „r  n.-8rly  all.  th.  i.ait,Hi« 
wl.i.h  know  It  fr..ni  an  Inlan.l  point  of  vi .« 
'"''"'""«.'„;  •*""•'•"'.  the  Peralaiis.  ami  ih^ 
BHions  ..f  Turkestan,  and  yet  It  originally 
^ulungaU  10  ■  people  who  wer«  not  Cbini.*e  at 


428 


the  iil..a  cinnion  lo  so  many  |i<.tipi< 
was  reully  thecntreof  theworl.l.  T.ilheu«Mal 
f.nir  limits  of  Uie  compass  the  Chin.s..  a.1,1  , 
rtfth-the  cntr..:  that  is,  China  (-okt  ibf 
Manchu  con.j.iesi  the  .ffldal  designati.m  n  T.t 
sing  k«.,;  that  is.  II,..  ■(;r..ttt  an.1  I'nr,  Knini,,' 
or   |*rliap,,  Ta  Tslng-kw...  the     Kmpln.  .,f  th', 

,1    "If^i.'ni"''^..       ■''l"P'-<'I'l'lbem.-l^.,are 
tlie    (  hll.in.u  of  Han,'  ..r  the  •  .Men  ,.f  r*„iir    in 
allusion  to  t«o  fain.. us  dvn»Bli..«     Tin    sis.. 
call  lheMi«.lv(.<  l.iiiiin.  an  .•"iiiginaticali.nn  ,„iii. 
monly  r>  n.|.r...l  •  lilack  hain^i  Ihic.. '     |l„i  i|„.r,. 
I   is  11.1  pr.^iw  i.Ht.iral  term  ..f  g.-iHrai  »,,.<.;m„ 
._llher  f..r  111..  ....iintry  or  Hie  jN'ople  v    y.  |i„  i^ 

/'.<   h'lith  mill  lit  li,l,„l,it.uit.i.  I    ','    r',    A 

China  Proper  anj  the  Chinese  Empire.- 
Tlii.  t  hin..Ne  Fni|.ir..  ..mlira.  is  Mm  li.ir  ,   .Mon 

p.lia.    Z.ihLMna,    k»«li.'»ri«    i-.r   K.i»i..ni    Tur 
k<  «t..n,.  uii.l   I  iU  I,  a>  n.il  as  China,  |....|m  rlv  - 

inll..<i      Kor..:i  was  ..»..  ,,f  i|,|.  .1. .«  i,,!,  ,i,  j,;  ,,< 
the   Kmp.r..  iiniil  iMOft,  w|„.„  j,  ,p,,,„r,,|  |,„i, 
|M  mill,.. .  „,  I  ,.,m».,, ,„.„,.,,  ,,f  ,(„,   ,,^f ,,  ,„^^ 
t  liiita  a!i.l  .lapan      |n  sr^-a,  wnn  .  U  ,u       i|,  m 
..lie  llilrd  .,f  iIm.  Kniplre  i.,  .■.,i,t„i,i„|  i„  ,  |, ,,, 
pr..|«r,  bill  f„llv  iiin.  (..nil...  ,.f  u,.  >,„t  .,,.  , 
lail.ui  ..(  th..  Kmpir..  i,  a„|,|  ,„  i^   ,|«, ;!,,.;;,« 
thai  ....e  thini  ..f  tlir  CliiiLs..   .|..iii,iii,         Tii. 

na'iir'.I   limits  ..f  «  hliia  i.r.i..r  an.  miII!.  i.nilv 
w.ll  .htiiLnl      (In  III.'  we  I  ih.  ..asi.  rn  .  \|.  i  ..,-1 
of  Ih..  Tilrlan  plai..au.  Inn    «.  |.ari.t..|  l„  .|,vp 
river  valley,  iiu,.  .I!v..rg..nt  ral,^'e,.  f,,rti,H  „  ,  i,,,r 
rr.nlier  liMw.vn  Ih.l  hln.se  ainl  Ui..|,...l(  m.v«i;.. 
U.l.>  Sifan   ami  ..ih.r  hill  trila's     .\..nh«sr.|. 
tin-  tlwal  Wall  in-iii-al.-s  throiighmit  ni.~  ,  f  I'. 
course  the  parting  line  lH.tw.<<-ii  the  «rabl.  ImiU 
aiMl  Ilie  si..|.i«.  ..r  iU-ttn      K»nt  an.l  •.ii.th  ,«,t 
war.U  llie  l'a<ifi|.  ()(i«n  wash>.s  the  sialfciarl 
whi.  h  .ler..h,pi  a  se.niclr<'<itar   ..wi.t  lin,.    .r,r 
».<KK»   miles   in   Client     Ijistly,   i.n  llie  «v;i|, 
roimnlain  rangr*.  plateaus,  inar^iv  lr.vi«    lilK 
cull    river    gorg.-s.    separate    Chins  fr..ni  In- 
Trans  (langell<.|»nlnsiila     Her..  I>..»r..r  fl, 
i?"!l"  "'""  '•  "      "  P'"'"'''  <..ii»eiiii,mal  nn.l  :  1 
thii  dirertlofl  China  merges  moregrwliisi!i  'li... 


---\ 


CHIKA. 


CHIHA. 


elMwhere  with  the  bacderlandi.  It  oeeuplet  In 
tbe  rxtreme  eut  of  the  oonticcat  a  .(>aoe  of  al- 
molt  circular  form,  with  one  aciiitcircle  traced 
nn  tbe  mainland,  while  the  othrr  is  formed  by 
ttrj  Pacific  Eidboaid.  .  .  .  Within  it*  natural 
limlu  Chimi  proper  enjoya  a  fair  degree  of 
HfrMgraptiic  uoity.  Tbe  mountain  systema  run 
nulnly  in  the  direction  from  west  to  eaat,  thua 
rvrry  where  oiM'ning  euy  routes  from  the  cnaat 
IdIiuiiI.  The  plsinx  on  either  nidc  of  the  main 
rniKenare  al«>  con  .ected  br  meant  of  freouent 
gapt  and  eaay  pi-awa,  ao  tLnt  the  f>w  itolated 
plateaux  are  nowhere  extenaire  enoiiffb  to  pre- 
Tent  the  fualon  of  tbe  surroundinK  populationa 
The  national  unity  haa  been  promi>te<l  in  a 
•pnlal  manner  by  the  diapiieition  of  the  two 
rri'at  river  tyatema.  Doth  the  Yellow  and  Hlue 
ftlfi'ra  [the  HoSDg-hoaod  Yang-tie]  flow  mainly 
parallel  with  the  equator,  and  ftllliough  their 
niititlle  rounca  are  widely  deflcrtnl  north  and 
»iiuh.  the  interreniag  uplaml*  are  almoat  ererv- 
wbvri'  <'nia«r<i  by  aocemible  nuitet  .  Tfie 
two  Kreat  Huvl^I  haaina,  co-npii))  ng  in  Tlt>-i, 
Kuiiu  niir,  Mongolia,  and  China  an  areit  of  urer 
t.Hil.iMli)  aquare  milea,  may  even  he  reganliil 
t*  rorining  a  common  hydrop'apbic  avalt-m. 
The  section  of  thit  VHat  «n-a  lying  aotilh  of  the 
Mon^'olian  ateppea  and  enat  of  the  Tibetan 
plaie,iux  haa  naturally  become  the  domain  of  a 
uuiteit  agricultural  nation."  Tlie  Innda  toiith 
of  the  two  great  twin  rivera  "  are  leaa  aolidly 
unltpii  with  the  real  of  the  empire.  Here  the 
moiintiiina  am  more  eleTatP<l  llian  in  the  lieart 
of  the  country,  and  are  groupeil  in  a  Kreater 
tmrobiTof  independent  rldge«.  running,  notweat 
anil  ni»t,  hut  niaiidy  a<mth  west  and  north  eaat. 
N<if  ran  the  81  kiang.  the  chief  river  of  tula  re- 
gion, he  companMl  with  the  two  main  atjeama 
111  China,  either  in  extern  or  in  the  fncilitlea 
alfonietl  by  ita  lat<THl  Tnlliya  fur  free  inUtid 
comniuniratiiia.  Hence  thia  portion  of  the  em- 
pire iimat'.tiitea  a  dialiiict  territory,  more  nearly 
alliwi  phyaicalir  and  ethnlcnlly  with  Further 
loJia  than  witJi  China  pmner  Tlie  Soiithcrn 
C'hlni*  lilffer  widely  from  llioae  of  the  central 

awl  northern  region'a.  both  In  '•in h  and  cua- 

tnma.  awl  have  within  tlie  hialoric  |<erlo<)  fre- 

r'nily  formed  diatinct  political  ayatema  In 
rnntem  bemitphere  (?hlna  corre«|kHKla  with 
Weat  Kuropc  In  it*  climate,  pnalucla,  and  hia- 
lnrir  ileveiopment  The  maaa  of  the  land  doulit- 
lim  Ilea  much  nearer  to  th.'  ei|u«tor.  for  ita 
iiorthrm  frontier  at  the  eiint  rn  ixireniitv  nf 
ilieliri«|  Wail  la  croaaeil  liy  tlie4(ith  parnili'l, 
lild  Mminl  Athin,  Minorca."  ami  H<iuth  Spain, 
whili  !he  whnle  ciaat  aonllt  «(  the  ('■inlon  e«- 
tiiari  lleawithin  the  Ir.'plin  Hut  IhelMitheriiml 
liiw  «iloaay.  dellert  China  pn>|«'r  northwanla. 
Iiiipanlng  to  it  a  rUtltely  i-..ld  clinmtr 
Tliel  hiiieaepeonlriHniatltuienneiif  ihemiKl  Jia 
iliul  vnrlptieaiif  nutiikiml  They  an- i-oniinoiily 
fnriiiilaaabramhuf  theaoi-nll'iii  Mi«ig"l  type, 
al!linui:h  pnvntiiig  a  nutriiid  ouitrHitt  to  the 
n(iiiiii.i  irll»-»  of  lliia  name.  The  v.ry  i-xpri* 
»l<Hi  Mi>iigri|.  t,i  which  a  more  pr-'tine  meaning 
wa»  f  .riiiftly  aaalgniii.  denote*  at  pnaent  lii'le 
more  ihan  ihe  rrlatlonahtp  of  contwt  or  p^>x 
lniil\  Imw.en  liie  Ka»t  .\»i«ti<-  na!lona  The 
t'hm.-»  are  e«ldpnllr  ii  virr  mixeil  race  pr<' 
•eiiiliu  a  great  vartny  of  lypea  in  the  Tn*t 
le.-l.vi  «ir.iihliiif  f«>ii(  t'linlim  lo  Ihe  Great 
Wall  fr.im  Ih.-  P.u-lrte  *  alirnril  t<!  TlbiH.  But 
»i  Iht'W  tyiM-a  tlie  Mongol  la  perbap*  lb*  IwMt 


common  tmongit  the  'Children  of  Han'.  .  .  . 
The  native*  of  tile  varloua  provinoea  preaent  tbe 
*harpe*t  contraita  with  etch  other.  The  true 
national  link  ia  their  eommoo  culture  r,icher 
than  any  common  racial  type.  For  the  •\bori- 
glnal  element*  have  been  divcraely  mndifled  by 
mixture  with  Tibetan*,  Tartar*,  Mon/iol*,  Man- 
cbiia,  Burmeae,  Bhana,  Malay*,  beakle*  tbe  81  fan, 
Minoue.  and  other  atlli  half-aavage  hill  triliea, 
which  have  no  collective  ethnical  deaignution. 
For  thouaanda  of  year*  the  agricultural  popiihi- 
tiona  of  diverae  origin  aettled  In  the  HiHing-ho 
and  Yang  tze-klaog  baaiua  have  had  tlic  aarau 
biatnric  de*tinle8,  *peak  dialect*  of  the  aanie  lan- 
guage, and  have  become  one  nation.  .  .  .  Uiit 
tlie  difference*  are  atill  conapicuKUii  in  *ome  of 
tbe  louthem  province*,  nota'ly  In  Fokien  and 
Kwangtung."— E.  Keclui,  n»  Earth  and  i(< 
Inhalitanl:  t.  3,  eA.  5.— See,  alao.  Hanciiv- 
ni«,  MuHoouA,  Zdhoabia,  TtntKcsTAK,  and 
Tinrr. 

The  (rest  baeiat  of  the  Heaog-ho  aad 
the  Yaag-tse-Kiaaf.— "The  region  dreioed 
br  the  Hoang-ho,  or  Yellow  River,  oompriaca  In 
Tibet  and  China  proper  a  total  area  of  aamu 
WKi.nOU  ai|uare  mile*,  or  about  three  timew  the 
I'xiint  of  France.  Yet  it  rank*  only  m  the 
M-cond  river  baain  of  the  empire.  .  .  .  Tlie  Wei 
i«  .  .  .  it*  hu-geat  affluent,  and  even  more  im- 
portant a*  a  navigable  highway.  .  .  .  Both 
rivera  waah  down  large  quantitlea  of  aedimen 
lary  matter,  entimateil  In  ITWa  liv  Ktaunioii  at 
■  ine.flfiieth  of  tlie  whole  volume  for  tin-  niiitiii 
Htriam.  .  .  .  Theaedepoaita  are  one  of  llie  great 
Houm-a  of  danger  to  tlie  riverain  (MipiilHtiona 
NiitunI  emliaokmenta  arc  tberehy  grailuully 
fi>rini<d  along  tbe  coiirae  of  the  Kti'eiiiii,  wiiiw! 
bed  ia  raifted,  and  new  channel*  fornie<i  lioring 
tlie  fl(KKla,  which  often  caiiae  widiiipniiil  ruin 
Like  the  Nile,  I>o.  and  Mlaahrippi.  the  V< How 
Itiver  tbua  flowa  occaaionallv  at  a  lilglier  eliva- 
tion  than  the  aurrounding  plain,  ailhonirli  not  >» 
hirh  aa  baa  tx-en  rrpreaented  by  tlie  tirMr- 
atrii'ken  fancy  of  the  inbatiitanta. '  A  vtut  xv  < 
um  of  enilianknient*  haa  hern  erected  mi  li<iih 
•id>«  to  keen  llie  ktrrnm  within  ita  lieil  ilurinir 
tile  rlaini  of  ita  waters.  .  .  .  But  this  vitv  i.\  a 
tern  iltelf.  maintaineil  by  the  conalant  inlioror 
Ro.dtK)  handa,  lia*  the  inevitahle  re»iilt  uf  in 
creaalng    the  .  iliffennce     in  hvel  liel w iiti 

the  river.lml  and  the  low  lying  plaina  .  .  The 
higher  the  emhankmenta'are  (arrieii  tlie  iiii>re 
dangernua  becomea  tbe  atream  In  apiti-  ci(  uU 
precaiitiona.  great  diaaatera  *n>  iM-cHniuiiiilly 
cauaed  by  tbe  I'urating  of  tlic  dvkea,  when  iliV 
criip*  of'whoie  provlnn^a  nrv  awept  awny,  umI 
i  nililiona  become  n  prrv  to  famine  and  iM'xtili  iiit- 
For  Ch ilia  Ihe  lloang  lio  atill  tTmainatheNih  ho, 
or  'H-'lxlliniiK  Kiver.'  aa  it  ia  cailiil  by  th<'  <ild 
ihronlrlera  The  rl«-erain  populati-wa  are  al 
waya  at  the  men  y  of  Invailing  hiaKa.  or  I'ven  of 
prtnlatory  tmiidi  •Iroiig  enough  to  atijc  and 
iipen  IIm'"»IuI(i'»  .  ,  .\|<ark  from  the  hiiriiliiiida 
and  alluvial  plaina,  mimt  of  the  lioane  ho  Imain 
ii  mvereil  with  hoang  tu,  or  •  yelfnw  enrlli.' 
which  pnvaii*  thMuirhoiit  Pw'hill.  Slnmti. 
K*n*u.  half  of  Sheiiai.  the  northern  ditUlun  of 
ilonan.  and  eitenaive  traiia  in  Hhanlitiig  Thi* 
formation  coniprtaing  a  n'gion  lart'er  limn  liie 
whole  of  Franci'.  renchea  in  aome  piao-a  even  to 
the  hanka  <'f  the  Vnni  lie.  and  atreii  hi-a  Heat 
wania  lo  the  Tilvtan  plati'Miix.  In  theai-  ntU'iH 
everything  is  yellow  — bills,  flelds,   highwH}*, 

29 


m 


:  !■ 


ni 


CHIKA. 

houMu  the  TBIT  tonwiti  ud  itrMuni  charired 
with   slluria.    Eren   Um  TeceUtion   ia   often 
coTered  with  a  yallow  Teil,  while  ererr  puff  of 
wind  raiaM  clouds  of  floe  duM.   Kr..in  tliew.-  land* 
the  emperor  hlnuelf  takes  the  title  of  lloang  ti. 
2^'y. .     .  '^•'  «xi"'»»lent  to  •  Matter  of  the 
!i_.  ^""^loiftoHlchthofen.  thehoangtu, 
regarded  by  him  as  a  formation  analoirous  to 
the  loess  of  the  Rhine  and  Danube  banint    Is 
nothing  more  than  so  much  dust  aocuniulated 
during  the  course  of  ages  by  the  northern  winda 
•  •  •  On  the  plateaux  encircled    by  mounuin 
parriers  forming  close*!  basinii  the  yellow  earth 
forms  a  unifunn  layer  of  unknown  depth      But 
wherever  the  crosfve  action  of  running  waters 
has  had  full  play,  enormous  AMurtn  with  verti 
cal  walls  hare  been  opened  in  the  argiliaceous 
maw.         •  The  erosions  rereal  in  *ini«pliiceii  a 
tbic'kiieH  of  at  krnst  8,000  f«-t,  offering  a  pr>v 
diglous  iiuantity  of  fortlll/,inif  noil,  con«imillv 
wa^hwldown,  and  malnlainint;  the  prolmilve. 
net*  of  the  plains  wM.red   by   tlM^   ll.iang  Ixi. 
Jor  thl<  yellow  earth  i»  the  richest  ik>II  in  China, 
being  far  more  fertile  eren  than  ordinary  allu- 
Tiuni      It  re<|uires  no  manuring,  anil  goes  on 
pnxluiring  heary  crops  for  ag<ii    .      .   Much  In- 
g.nuity  has  b«,n  displayeil  in  ovrrroniing  the 
ililHi'ultii-*  offen-d  to  frei-  conimunicjtiion  by  the 
p.Tii.'Mdiiuli»r  waIN  of  the  yellow   lands      To 
(>.««  from  riyer  lauln  to  riyir  l.!i«ln  a<|yantage 
h.w  be«-n  taken  of  eyery  narn>w   ll«ur<-  dm> 
rutiings  haye  been  made  in  many  plai-ra.  and  I 
f^•.ll  n..itet  opene.1  when  thi-x-  liayp  bm  ailed 
up  by    the   landalipa     Honu-  of  the    km  fm- 
iiiicnl.'.l  nwla  have  been  eir«yai«l  todrpclM  of 
fr-ini  4o  to  Kill  feet  and  upwards,  and  the  labor 
ex[H  mied  on  all  these  worti  \,  .t  leant  eiiual  U, 
that  lavi>b>'<t  on  the  building  of  tlw  (Irest  Wall 
or  Ihc  ctHi'.trucllon  of  the  Oraiul  Canal 
Tlif  inouniHin*  whnae  lower  iilo|i.-i(  Kn>  cnyenti 
bv    ttic   v.-llow  earth  also  riMitain  smne  of  the 
rirli.'M  c.«l  Ix.,!*  in  the  world.     AnUir».  (t*.  and 
olh.  r  Viiri,  tle»  are  foumi  in   all   the   pnivinces 
w»ten'<l  1)V  iributaries  of   the   iloaug  lio 
The     Vwig  l/.e  klang     basin    cmiprU.-*    UiriW 
f(itblh«  of  China  pniper.  wlili  a  iMmululioii  es- 
tiniaii,!     b.-f,ire  the   late  c|y||  war,  at  no  lew 
111  ill     ■J.liimiil.iSNI       Although     not     c^ginally 
found.-,!  here  the  State  drew  fr,m  thi.  n-eUm 
tlie  cluef  elemrnta  of  strength,  which  enalilnl  it 
to  ileveloii  Into  the  paramount  |«>wer  of  Kast 
A«i.      «lf   the  two   great   Chinese    riyem     the 
^  .1.1-  t/.e  l«  by  far  the  largest,  and  is  henre  nim 
ni.iilv  siMiken  of  simply  as  the  Ta  klane    <ir 
t.rcii    Kiver  It  is  certainly  <Hie  of' the 

Very  larL-.  It  ui  llie  world  In  the  lengUi  of  Its 
<  ...ir«-  >tri<l  tlH'  eiteni  ..f  Us  basin  it  U  no  do.ibi 
.iirpii-..!  by  ihr.-..  .ithera  in  Ask  aliHH-  U,e 
<>  ■  \.tii«i  ami  1,4'na.  Hut  In  yoinme  It  far 
ei.e.,U  :h.m„  Silx-rian  streanw.  an.l  itccmling 
to  Ih.  .ireful  nK-asuri-roenu  of  Hiakisi.Hi  an.) 
<»ii|.|.v.  II  U.ur|iame.l  in  ibl>  n«|«..-<  hv  lliree 
onU  III  il,.-  «ho|e  w<jrld  -  the  Aniai.Mw  C.w»o  i 
an.l    Ui   l'l,.i»  The   Yang  i».-   tm.    never 

c«it«<i  «iirh  K  kl.'.iqva.l  ruin  a*  that  wiwb  Iim 
SII.I..1..I   the  »liiriinr«  of  tlM'  II.imiiiIm.    nor  1.    ' 
anv  rit.T  in  Il»-  n.H-hl  rhht  usefnl  !..r  uayig^    ^ 
ll.>"       If  ii  .i.«a  not  yet  ii.inili.'r  a«  main  stram'   i 
sf-  a«  iIm-  MiwiMlppl.  .«-  even  th.-  \  ..Iga   II  Is 
n..i.,    il>    leH,  irowiUl    «iih   Itotlllas  of    iimk,  i 
siel    ruer   ,r,,fi  „f  „„v  .1...  rlptl.M.    while  .i. 
n..iiiiii:  |n>|M;laii,Hi  ia  noinlari.l  l.i  h,M«t.,..l,  ,,f 
ih.m^iid.  llie  Yang  t«e  been r..|y«lfr«»i 


•  ('OH  It 

ii'l  ill 
llial 
■^alll.' 

M    Ilk' 


41ft 


CHIKA. 

the  Mongolians  the  tlUe  of  DahU,  or  •  Sea  ■  .ml 
in  the  history  of  China  it  has  playe.1  th.   ,"„, 
part  as  the  ocean  and  gnat  marine  inl,  i,  ,.li» 
where.     It  has  affonied  ey«u  great,  r  fa.  iliiie, 
for  trayel.  for  the  transport  of  go<«l..  „,„i  f" 
the    mutual    intercourse    of    the    nurnmnilln,, 
peoples.     At  the  present  day    Kur.ii»„„   i„rt,, 
enceaare  pt'nelmiing  into  the  hi«rt  of  tin  ,m 
pire  through  Ih.'  same  channel,  which  f..r  nra, 
tlcal  purpiMcs  may  be  regarded asacMiiiniuti,,, 
of  the  siniboBrd.  stretching  some  i.4iiii  i„ik',  iu 
laiid.     The  total  l.'ngth  of  the  navig;,l,|,'  kji,.,, 
ill  IU  liaain  ia  e<|ual  to  half  the  cinunif.reiu.'  „f 
the  glolie.     Thi-  h<-ad  streams  of  th.'  Vanirt/e 
are  known  to  ri*  on  the  Tibetan  ih.i.uuv  fnr 
bi'vond  the  limits  of  China  pr,.|HT  •-  I     i;  ,  ;„, 
ii'f  Hirih  iiiut  ill  liihiiiiii.inim  r  i  rl,    , 

The  Origin  of  the  People  and  their  early 
History.     -The  iwlgln  of^  the  Chini-,..  i,„,.  f, 
shroiiiled  in  Home  oliaciirity.     The  liivi  r.  .,,nl< 
we  liaye  of  them  reprewnt  them  as  u  l.,i„|  ,,| 
mmigrants  seitllng  hi  tlu'  north  .aM.  „.  i.p.v 
in«-«  of  the  mislern  empire  of  China  ;.i»l  ■  ri,| 
Ing  lb«'ir  way  amongst  tlie  alaaigiiies  nn..  h  ai 
tile  .)ew.«  of  old  f,M',»,|  their  way  iiii,' 
against  llic  various  tribes  which  ili.'t  i 
p.>s*>'saii>n    of    tlie    land.      It   is  pru'l,:,! 
tlH>iii:h  Ihiy   all    entend    China    In     i|, 
niute,  Ih.y  s.  parateil  into  luiii.ls  ulni..^i 
tfan-shold  of  the  cmpiir      One  Is.lv.  ih. 
hate  left  IIS  111.'  ni-.mls  of  iluir  lii«i.,r\  n,  tij,. 
ancient  Cbiiiesi'  Usika  apparentiv  fi.li..«,,|  He 
course  ><(  th.'  Yell..w  River   »i„|,  iuniii,;..  ,.,„ih 
wahi  with  il  from  its  n.H-therninosI  1..  u."  .,  ulcl 
themaehes  iu  llie  ferlili'ilistriclsof  th.    •  ..hri' 
provinces  of  >hai»ii  ami  Monaii      Hiii  ,i»  ., ,  ii,|.| 
also  tiwl  at  alsMit  the  aaiiie  |M'ri.»l  a  liirj.  ^  ill,' 
UM-nt  was  nmile  as  far  aouUiaa  Annani.  .,|  nl.i.h 
there  Is  ii.>  mention  in  the  Iss.ks  of  tli,.  i„.riherti 
Chinese,    we   muM    aMHim.    Ihsl    uii,.||i.  r  !„>|y 
struck  .lire,  tly  siwlbwanl  ibroiiirli  ili,  vinlhrB 
pruviiHvs  of  China  to  thai  i-oiinlry       Hi.   .,uei 
tion  th.ii  arisen,  when-  iliil  Una.:  (i.',.).,,  .,«» 
from?  and  the  uiiawer  wlili  h  rii  ,iil  re»,"o,  i,   mv 
H.tHYLosit  I'iiihitivkI  ifiv.-s  1,1  ihis  .|t<.^,ni 
Is.  fnmi  the  soiiih  of  the  (  aspiaii  >e«  Ig 

all  tir.ilwliilii>,  ihi'  iiiiilin'ak  in  S.i.isdu  .,( 
|uwsibly.  Bonii' iNiliiiialillainrliaiiie  m  al».,.i  ila^ 
Stih  or  a:tr.|  leuniry  II  C  ,  dron  ih..  i  hinrse 
from  Ilic  lan.l  of  ||„  ir  adopthm.  i,n,l  ih.i  i1i«t 
waii<ien-.l  eistwsr.l  iiiuil  ihev  tinallt  KiiMin 
Chiiui   aii.i    llie   ,.,iiiiiriea   soiiih  ,if   n  |t 

woiihl  a|>t«>ir  'ii«..  Iliat  the  (Inn..,.'  nu  .    jiiu, 

China  |,.««.«.e,|    ,,f   ilu'   r.' r,  ,s  ..f   W  •■sfeni 

Asian  mliur  Hiey  br.iiiihl  »iih  th.ia  > 
kn.iwhsli.'.'  of  writiiic  aial  aHiroiiomv.  iis  u.ll  ai 
of  the  ari-  Mhieli  priiiMriiv  loinisi,  i  i,,iln  nantt 

aiMl    comf.n    i.f    iinuikiiui      Tl i.i.n.si  ..f 

lliese  ciir|isHi|{  InfliiiiKs's  ia  IriiiliihiimlU  nii'ib 
■iieil  III  111.  Kii,|ier<ir  llwani:  h.  olioi-  -.m  t., 
have  niL'tMl  '•  ,,11  II  c  .'imr  •.'"illT  liui  th, 
naaH',>f  ihn-.i.  i,  i.n  I,  ,.!« i,.|,,.u|,|i  *  ihathe 
ttrirt  ant  on  ilw  tUr.ai,  in  Chun  ti,  ■  .  f  hi< 
iiaam.  w,  sri  loH  was  N'al,  aim,  nllt  N«k  ani 
in  I'll'  I  hini'se  |N,|(..,CTH|ihi.-al  ,  ,.ll. .  ii  .n  he  i» 
ilesi'rtt»<i  l.\  a  charai  I«r  ,  .Hup.",-,!  .  f  n  irmiip 
of  plNHoii,  <  will,  h  rewl  S,Ak..i,  u  TV 
reaemMaiiiy  hi-i«  «,«,  thi.  name  •a.l  il. ,'  ..f  Nak 
hunt.  »li.  ttct.iniinir  i,,  ih.  *ii..itth  i-  »'*  wan 
thei  hiif  ,if  Ihe  ir.»|.  t«  .Htti,  i,.)rtU  strikiiif  uml 
nian\  ,>f  ih.  ailrilii,,,.  Iiehmgiiii;  l,,bims,.  -mh 
asl'.pla,,  him  oil  mi  .',|iMlllr  with  ll"  ''i4«m 
.l.>ily      In  ,  lactsivurdance  alsii  with  tli.  «,  jUbi 


J 


CHINA. 


Btma*Um. 


CHINA. 


of  BabjkmUn  chronolngy  b«  nUliltslieJ  t  cycle 
of  tot'lre  yrvn,  U)J  Uxnl  the  linKlli  of  the  year 
at  3tiO  lU.Vit  cumpoanl  vf  twelve  iiidDtlii,  » Itli  an 
isteriaUr'y  month  to  balance  the  turplut  time. 
He  further,  we  are  tuld,  built  a  Linx  t«i,  or 
obMTVHiory,   reminding  ui  uf  the   liabylnnian 
Zigftunttu,  or  liouie  of  obaervation, '  from  wlilrh 
to  wnlrh  the  morements  of  the  heavenly  bollea.' 
Tilt'  iirimitive  Cbincac,    like  the   Babylonian*, 
rr(<i)!iii!ic<i  five  planeta  beaiilei  the  aun  anil  niuon, 
•iiil,  with  one  rxceptioa,  knew  them  by  thesiuiie 
luiiira.  .  .  .  The  varioua  pliaaes  of  these  pluueta 
vpre   rurt'fully    watched,   and     nortcnta    wire 
dirivi'il  from  every  real  and  imaginary  chunf^i-  in 
tkeir  rilutive  miititloua  and  i-ulnurs.     .\  ('iiiiipari- 
lufl  between  the  astnilogical  tableta  tniUHliiloi  liy 
Pnifemior  Suvi-e  and   the    aa'nilogintl    rliiipter 
(iTili)  in  the  She  ke,  the  earliest  of  the  n>iiuKlic 
HisUirlps,  shiiwi  a  remarlciililc  |Mir»lli'liNiii,  nut 
only  ill  the  general  alyle  of  the  fiire«-a»t«.  but  in 
partirulnr  luirteiita  whirh  arc  ao    iiiiitrary    tJ> 
Cliiiiese  prrjuiiirca,  oa  a  nation,  and  the  'rain  of 
thuufrlit  iif  the  people  that  they  would  lie  atonre 
putituwn  aa  of  fnreirn  origin,  even  if  they  were 
not  fiiuml  in  the  linbvlnniun  nHonla.  ...  In 
the  nicn  of  C'hwau  Ilii  (2.'}i»-«43.1  H.  C).   we 
llnl  aiTiinling  to  the  Chim-ac  reconln,  that  the 
Ttir,  ai  aniiiiig  the  ChaMenn*.  began  with  the 
ihirii  niiiulh  of  the  aolar  yinr,  and  a  comparison 
beiwi'en  the  ancient  iianieauf  the  moiitlia  given 
in  Ilir  I'rh  ya.  tlie  oldeat  riiiiieae  dhiionary. 
vith  the  Accailian  eqiiivulcnta,  allow*,  in  aome 
instance!!,  an  exart  identity.  .  .  .  Tlieric  paralM 
i-iiH.  to^'tlier  with  a  luwt  of  othen  whirh  niiKht 
W  pnolui'iii,   all   point   to  the  existence  of  an 
curly  nlaiioiikhip  Ix'tween  Cbineae  and  Meaopo- 
laiiiUii  iiiltiin';  and,  arnieil  with  the  advantage* 
tliiii  puMKased,    the  Cliiiirae  enlen>il    Into    the 
enipiriMiMT  whirh  tliiy  wire  iiltliimti'ly  to  over- 
•[•riail  tliiuiselvea.     Hut  they  iviiiie  among  trilies 
wli...    iliouu'h    aomewhat    inferior    to    them   in 
ii' III  rill  ri\iliMition,  wire  by  no  mean*  di'atjlute 
if  niliiire.      .  .  Among  auih  people,  ami  III  her* 
■  f  II  l.nir  rivilii«iti,in.  *ui'h  a*  the  Jung*  of  the 
vi  .1  mill  the  T<  ka,  the  aneeator*  of  the  Tekke 
T'lri.iniaii*.  In  tde  north,  the  Chineae  wiceeeiled 
iBi.lil.li-liIng  themsi'lve*.     The  Emperor  Yaou 
>  .".".(l-;;j.V)    IJ.  {.' )    dlvidni   hi*    kingdom    into 
t»  111  |i.irtliiii«.  presiileii  over  by  aa  many  Paa- 
I  r>.  in  iviiit  iniilation  of  the  d'uoilenarir  feudal 
I ,  -ti  1.1  i.f  .Sum  « ith  thrir  twelve  l*«*t«ir Vrinrei 
I-  Vi"«  nuniiileil  Shun,  who  carried  oo  li  ■ 
«  Ik  "f  M»  pri'iliii>«iir  of  ciiiiaoliilating    the 
( l.mix.  |».«ir  with  iiiir>;y  and  »iHTera.     In  hi* 
riii;n  llie  lirst  niiiitiuii  i»  nmile  of  rrilglou*  wor- 
sliip    .  .      In   !>hun«  riij;"   i«curr«irtlie  great 
ri<«J  «lilih  Iniinilateil  mimt  of  the  pnivlnie*  of 
the  flirting  einplri'.     The  wiiler*.  we  are  told, 
rue  1.1  Ml  iireal  a  In  i({ht,  that  the  people  bail  lo 
lirlalie  Ibrromlti'ii  lo  the  mountain*  to  ewape 
ilratiL     Tlie  lll»n^ler  aroM-,  a*  many  aimlhu'  ilia 
Mli-n.  though  of  a  h  «•  mairniUMle,  have  ainre 
•rinen.  in    cimi«niiiii, e    of   the    Yellow    Kiver 
burntmg  iu  ImuiiiU,  and  Uiii  'Ureat  Yu '  wa* 
tpimln'cil  to  lead  the  wnlern  bark  to  their  chan-    ■. 
n<l     Wllh  unreniiiUiig  emrirv  he  *et  ■Iniit  his 
t»»k,  anil  in  nine  jei-.n  aini  i-eiliil  In  bringing  the 
rivt  un,lrr  .•.imri.j    .      .  A.  a  n-wanl   for   the 
•efMre.  lie  bad  n  ii.irreil  to  ilie  empire,  he  wa* 
lnv.,i.,l  with  th.  |.rimtp«litv  nf  ll.-a,  and  Kfler 
[i»'ine  ,i.iu|,l,,|  il„.  throne  I  iinjojiiily  with  Mum 
'"  """«'  I'*",  be  auiietMled  that  aoverign  on  liia 
"-»l>.inS»0«B.f,     With  Yulwgan  the. lynaaly   i 


of  He*,  which  gave  place,  in  17M  R  C,  to  the 
Hhang  Dvuaaty.     The  laat  aoverit:n  of  the  Haa 
line.  Kieb  kwel,  la  kuid  to  have  been  a  monster 
of  iniquity,  and  Ui  have  suffered  the  iuat  punish- 
ment for  hhi  crimes  nt  the  hand*  of  Tang,  the 
prince  of  the  Sute  of  Sliang,  who  tooli  bis  throne 
from  him.     In  like  mcnm  r.  (HO  years  later.  Woo 
Wang,   the  print*  of  Clinw.  overthrew  Chow 
Bin,  the  last  of  the  Sbaiig  Dynasty,  and  estab- 
Ihdied    hinuelt    a*  the    chief    of    the  aoverign 
*Ute  of  the  empire.    By  empire  It  must  not  lie 
suppowid  that  the  empire,  as  it  exist*  at  present, 
i*  meant.     The  China  of  the  (  how  Dynasty  lav 
between  the  33nl  and  8«lh  pnnillels  of  Ulitude, 
and  the  lOBth  and  ll»th  of  longitude  onlv,  and 
exU'nded  over  no  more  than  portions  of  the  pro- 
vinces of  Pih   ehih  II,  Shansi,  Shense,  Honan, 
Keang-se,  and  Shantung.     This  territory   »a» 
re  arranged  by  Woo  Wang  Into  the  nine  priiici- 
palllies  esubllbhed  by  Y'u    .  .  ,   Woo  Is  held  up 
In  Chinese  history  as  one  of  the  model  momin  lis 
of  antiquity.   .  .  .  Under  the  next  ruler.  K'ang 
(B.  C.  10T8-1053),  the  empire  was  consolidsled, 
and  the  feudal  prince*  one  and  all  acknowleij^'ed 
their  allegiance  to  the  ruling  hmiae  of  Chow. 
.  .  .  From  all  accounta  there  spt'cdilyoccurreil  a 
marked  degeneracy  iu  the  cbaraitersof  the  (bow 
kings.  .  .  ,  Already  a  spirit  of  lawlessness  was 
spreading  far  and  wide  among  the  princes  and 
noblca,  and  wars  and  rumours  of  ware   were 
creating  misery  and  unrest  throughout  the  coun- 
try. .  .  .  The  band  of  every  iiiuu  wa*  against 
his  neighlHiiir.  and  a  constant  slate  of  internecine 
war  succiided  the  peace  and  pros|H'rlty   wliich 
had  exhit«d  under  the  rule  of  Woowaug.  .  .  , 
As  time   went  on  and   the  dbionler  Increased, 
supematufsl  sign*  added  their  U'stimony  to  the 
Impending   crisis.      The   brazen    vessels   upoa 
which  Yu  had  engraved  the  nine  divisions  of  the 
enipire  were  observed  to  shake  snil  totter  m 
though  foreshadowing  the  appniacblng  change 
in  the  political  poaition.     Meanwhile  Ts  in  on  the 
northwest,  Ta'oo  on  the  south,  and  Tsin  on  the 
north,  having   vanqiiislietl  all  the  nlher  Halea, 
engaged  in  the  final  struggle  for  the   nmiliry 
over  the  oimfederate   iiriurlpitlllles.      The   ullf- 
mate  victory  rvstnl  with  the  slatt-  of  Ts'lti.  .-iiid 
In   SS8  B.  C,  Chaou  seang    Wang   beiitiiie   the 
at'knowie<lge<l  ruler  over  the  ■  liLirk  haired    jieo- 
ple.     Only  four  V'-aia  wen-  given  him  In  r  ign 
supreme,  aiul  at  the  end  of  th>it>linie  he  was  i-.u:- 
ceeileil  by  his  son,  tieaoii  wan  Wang.  *hii  dL-d 
almost  liumetlUtely  on  ant  emliuii  the  Ihnine.     To 
liim  sucn-edeil  Chwang  seang  Wanir,   who  naa 
followed  In  H6  B   C   by  Che  ll«an)!  te.  tlie  first 
I.m|ieMr  of  China.     The  alu.iiil.in  i.f  femlHlism, 
W'liii'h  wa*  the  first  act  of  Chi'  ll«aiig  te  riiU'il 
much  dlaiHinti-nt  among  thoae  to  wlmni  tli>  fi'iKlal 
BValem  had  brought  iiower  ami  niioliinii '    ».  mid 
the  countenance  whicb  bad  Intn  h'imu  m   iIh) 
sy»tem  by  Confiiclua  suti  Mini  lus  iidiiie  It  il<  ^lr■ 
aliie  — Ml   thought   the    emisnir  —  to    iliiuolliii 
oni-e  fur  all   their  lesiimiHiy  in  favour  of  llial 
coiidllliin  of  affaira.  which  lie  had  ilnriiil slioiild 
lip  aniimg   the  things  of  llii    past.     Willi  thit 
objeet  he  ll^b'ml  that  tlH'  whole  exlslint:  liii  ra- 
lure,  with  llie  exiiptiim  of  Imuks  on  iimli.  ii'e, 
Hftrli'iilluri',  simI  illvinaliiin   ahonld   N'   liiir'.d. 
Tlie  liiinv   was  iiU'jiil   as  faithfully   a«    « aa 
|Hi*allih-  In  the  ease  of  an  awitping  an  iinllimi.i*, 
ail  I  fur  many  years  a  night  of  luiioraMri'  n  >iiii 
on  the  niunlry.     The  iimslrm  iioii  of  mii   tU'ni,. 
tic  work  — tbif  Uri'at  Wall  of  China  -  has  iiia>i« 


431 


It  c 


CHINA. 


Jm  nsiM  ot  thl«  moDarch  u  funoui  m  the  dea- 
tniotion  of    the  hoolu  has  nude  it  inramoiia. 
Fiwlinif  the  Heung-nu  Tarun   were   mitkiiiK 
dangeroui  Inroad*  Into  the  empire,  he  determined 
with  cbancteriitic  thorGughoeM  to  build  a  huge 
barrier  which  liiould  protect  the  northern  fron- 
tier of  the  empire  through  all  time.     In  314  B.  (.'. 
the  work  waa  be^un  under  hi*  penonal  super 
»i«ion,  and  though  every  endeavor  wa*  mads  to 
hostun  lu  completion  he  died  (900)  leaving  it  un- 
flnishcd.     His  death  wsa  the  *ignal  for  an  out- 
break among  the  dl*poa*e««ed  feudal  princes, 
who,  however,  aftrr  some  /earn  of  disorder,  were 
again  reduced  to  the  rank  of  citizen*  bv  a  luc- 
cesaful  leader,  who  adopted  the  title  of  Kaou-te, 
and  named  hi*  dymistv  that  of  Han  (309).     From 
that  day  to  tbia,  with  occasional  Interrenium*, 
the  empire  ha*  been  ruled  on  the  line*  laid  down 
by  Che    Hwsng-te.      Dynasty    has   succiwlcd 
dynaaty,  but  the  nolitical  tradition  ha*  renmlned 
ttnchang<'<l,  and  tliougb  Mongols  snd  Munclious 
have  at  difrernit  times  wreste<l  tht?  thrine  fn)m 
its  Irgitinutte  heirs,  they  have  t/een  enitulfiit  in 
the  liiimrigennius  maa*  inhaMtin?  the  eiupiro, 
and  Intitead  of  iniprusHing  tlirlr  seal  on  the  coun- 
try have  tieoome  l.iit  tlie  ri'llction  of  the  van- 
quished.   The (Ivpastiis from liii'  Iwginninj; of  tba 
earlier  Han,  fouudni,  -is Hlutetl  above,  tv  Kiiou-tc, 
arc  as  follows :  — The  earlier  Han  Dynastv  B.  C. 
806-A.  D  M;    the  late  Han  A   D.  25- Ji');  *Jie 
Wei  2Sn-2HO;    the  western  T«in    865-317;    the 
eastern  Tsln  817-4JO;    the  Suiib  48i)-«:0,    tlio 
Tse  479-.'S03;  tho  I,..«ng  5*13-557;  the  CUiu  5.57- 
B8B.     8imultani-on»ly  with  tli»9«— tlie  northern 
Wcl   A.   D.  »»«-,.:«;   th->  wcsumWei  M.'>-,'m7; 
the  eastern  Wei  534-r(5();  the  northern  Ta'e  5.W- 
577;  the  northern  Chow  587-589.     The  Siiv  .M»- 
618:  theTangei8-*>7;  the  Utcr Leang 9<)"7-»en ; 
the  later  Tang  9i3-93«;  the  later  T»m  1K18-BI7; 
the  later  Han  B47-951;  the  later  Chow  »5".-9fli), 
the   Surg  980-1127;    the  southern  8ung   1127- 
12H0;  the  Yuen  12S(»-l3fl8;  the  Ming  18d*-lBM: 
the  Ts'lng  in44.     SImulUneuualy  with  some  of 
these  — the  Ixsoii  007-1125;  the  wexU'm  I*aou 
1 135-1 1«S;  the  Kin  1115-1280."— R  K.  Dougla*. 
Clitn.1.  M.  1  • 

Also  IM  n.r.  noiilirrr,  Jlint  of  ChirKi.  t.  t-8. 
Tha  Religion*  of  the  People.— Confucian- 
Urn.— Taouiun.—  Buddhiam.— "  Vlie  L'hiuesa 
describe  theni.«'l\'e4  as  |HMaeai>lnK  three  n'ligioiis, 
or  more  aii-iiriuiv,  three  B<-et«.  nnnielv  Joo 
kcaoii,  the  »nct  of  Htlmliun;  Kuh  lieiiori.  the 
•vt  l^f  Huilllm,  and  Tmu  keaou,  lliu  sect  of 
Taoii  Itiiili  ii»  n  .'imls  age  ami  origin,  the  wet 
of  Sehi'lur*.  .  r,  .»  it  i<  genenillv  cnlici,  (on- 
fnelsnliiii,  rcjin  .4  iilH  pre  emiii.nllv  llie  religion 
of  Cliititt.  ft  liitH  it«  riKit  In  tli'?  worNliip  of 
Sliini?  le.  a  il.liv  wliiili  ix  aswK-iated  Willi  the 
earliest  trwlitioimif  ilieChiiieKe  rut:  Unuin  to 
(2fl'J7  11  ('  )  rreiiiil  a  U'lnple  to  Iiik  honour,  uiul 
•  lenr.lliig  f  ni|i. Tort  wi.r»lii|i|.,  ,1  Ik  f.-ro  hilt 
shrin.v  Hiirinu  ilie  inniMciH  tiinn  whii  h 

f  illo«e.|  after  the  rii,'n  of  the  few  lirsl  wivenlifin 
o(  llie  Cli.iw  l>Viia«iv,  the  lM-l|.f  in  n  personal 
diily  grew  lii.limmet  ami  cIImi,  iinill.  when  Con- 
f..  Iii»  [l«.ni  11.  (  ,V.l)  l»gaii  hit  eaMT.  lliere 
app.a^•d  iioihinif  str«n;.'e  in  lils  ullieiHile  (],«■ 
\Titu'*  Me  never  in  any  wav  denle,!  the  ex 
l.liiiee  of  .mrn.-Tu- le.  but  he  |-ri..r..l  |,ini  His 
coiireni  was  Willi  nisii  as  a  meinli.  r  if  im-lety. 
an  I  llie  ulij.rl   .f  IiIh  teaihlnK  was  l-i  l.ail  hiui 

i:ito   tlKw    p.llli«.,f   h.,||;i|,|,.    Hill,  I,    iiil^lit    |,.,t 

wmt-ihute  to  bis  own  luippliiess,  and  t.i  ilie  well- 


43 


CHINA. 

being  of  that  eommunity  of  which  he  foniiM 
part      Man,  ho  held,  was  bom  good,  aud  ww 
emlowed  with  qualiUa*  which,  when  cultirst«| 
ami  improved  by  watchf uloaat  and  lelf-iestraiiit. 
might  enable  him  to  acquire  godlike  wiadon 
and   to   become   'the  equal  of  Heavea     H« 
divided  manklDd  Into  four  rl*mi,  via.,  thos! 
who  are  bom  with  tha  poaaaaaSon  of  knowledge 
those  who  leam.  aod  *o  readily  get  poMession  of 
knowledge;  those  who  are  dull  and  stupid,  sad 
yet  nicceed  in  leamisg;  aod,  lastly,  those  wlio 
are  dull  and  stupid,  and  yet  do  not  leam.    To 
all  these,  except  those  ot  the  but  class,  the  pstli 
to  the  climax  raached  by  the  'Sage'  la  open. 
Man  baa  only  to  watch,  Uaten  to,  undentind. 
and  obey  the  moral  sense  implanted  hi  him  br 
Heaven,  aod  the  highest  perfection  is  wlUiin  liii 
reach.  ...   In  this  *yBtem  there  i*  no  pisce 
for  a  ncrsonal  Ood.    The  impenonal  Heaveo, 
according  to  Confucius,  ImplaiiU  a  pure  nature 
In  every  bi'ing  at  his  birth,  but,  having  ilme 
this,  thern  is  no  further  supernatural  ioterfcfetm 
with  the  tboughis  and  dceda  of  men.     h  is  In 
the  power  of  each  one  Ui  perfect  his  nature,  and 
lliere  is  no  divine  inlluriice  to  restrain  tiiuse  who 
UiUe  tlio  downwsrd  course.     Blau  has  his  destiny 
in  Ills  own  liauds,  to  nuke  or  to  mar.     Neither 
bad  C'oufiuius  sny  indueenient  to  offer  to  en 
coiirage  men  In  the  practirc  of  virtue,  except 
virtue's  self.     He   was  a  iiia'terof  fu  t,  uclm- 
j  njjiuiulvc  man,  who  was  (|ulto  eontent  looecupr 
I  hiiiiself  with  tliu  study  of  bis  fellow  men,  snl 
I  wa*  dislnellu'Hl  to  groiw  Into  llio  future  cr  li 
jieer  upwards.     No  wonder  that  his  system,  sa 
I  hi  tnuneiated  It,  proved  a  failure.     Eacrrlv  be 
I  sought  in  the  exeeuliou  of  bis  olflc  lui  ilutien  tr 
e!Tect  the  regeneration  of  the  empire,  hut  Nvond 
the  circle  of  Ills  personal  diariples  he  f.mnj  few 
tollowers,  and  aa  soon  as  princes  snd  atate;inieM 
hud   satiafled   their   curiosity  about   him  Ibej 
liimcd  their  backs  on  his  p'recepts  snd  would 
noneof  his  ivpniofs     Succeeding  sge<,  reeoiiils. 
Ing  tlie  loflintsa  of  hi*  alms,  viiminau-d  all  that 
wsa  impracticable  and  unn-al  In  bl«  sysum,  snd 
held  fast  to  that  part  of  it  that  wss  tnic  sod 
good.     They  mem  content  to  accept  the  l.igic  of 
eventa,  and  to  throw  overhoani  the  irieal  'isge.' 
and  to  Ignore  the  supposeil  i>ot4-n;y  of  hi::  la- 
fluence;  but  they  clung  to  tJie  doetrininiif  dlitl 
piety,   brotherly  line,  and  virtuoiw  living.    It 
waa  admiration  for  the  emphiwis  whi<  li  be  laU 
on  these  ami  other  virtues  wliirh  luu  drawn  m 
many   millions  of    hh'U  imu>  him;    uhiib  hu 
nuwic  his  tomb  at  K«>  fi»>  h«-n  to  be  the  Meces 
of  CoiifiielaiiNm.  si\d  has  wlorned  evirvrilvf 
the  empire  wlUi  uunples built  in  his  Iio!i..'it   .' 
foncurrently  with  the  Unw<  iif  piin-  I  ..ii(iici»;i 
Isni.  awl  the  adoption  of  iliixie  prim  i|>iea  wlixb 
find  th«'ir  earliest expnsBlon  in  tlw  |ir<  fuifurisa 
cU-wiin  of  China,  tliire  is  nl«.  r>nlile  a  n-iure  i.p 
the  worship  of  ftluiiig  te.     Tlieiiuwi  mniririiiriil 
t<  inpiv  in  the  empire  is  tlieTeiiiple  •>(  liiaf  u  tt 
rekliig,    when'  the   higheat  ohji.t  .,f  .  hincae 
wnr  hip  Is  wloriil  with  the   pun  it  ritu 
What  is  popularly  known   In    i;iir.|i.-  a-i  tin 
fuiiimiara  Is,  tlien-forv.  <'onfu<  luiiisio  uiiti  Urn 
dl-iiinetlve  opinions  of  Confui  ins  omliinl      .  , 
Hut  this  worslilp  of  Hlisnit  te  is  e.>iitlii.-.i  .mly  ID 
the  emiieror     1  he  iMople  Iwre  no  lot  orli'  ritsc* 
in  the  sui'Rd  sets  of    worahio  at  llie  ,Mnr  .( 
Ilea- in.  .  .      Hide  bj-  side  wiili  tli.-  n>ii.l    ( 
the  Ji«i  l;iHM)a,  urhler  till'  liilluriiii-  "f  (    itifiMu, 
grew  up  a  ayau-m  uf  s  toUilly  dlifen-tu  luioia, 


J 


caocA. 


Bmalrtof 
Xuitat  Kkam. 


CHINA.  iaa»>iNi 


ud  which,  when  diveitad  of  lu  Moterie  doe- 
Irioct,  ud  reducixl  bv  the  practically-iniiided 
Cblnunen  to  •  codd  of  morals,  wa*  destined  in 
future  ages  to  become  aUUiated  with  the  teach- 
logs  of  the  Sage.  This  was  Taouism,  which 
was  founded  bjr  Laou-tazc,  who  was  a  cod- 
Kmporiuy  of  Confucius^  An  air  of  mrstcty 
bangs  oTcr  the  blstcnr  of  Laou-tsxe.  Uf  his 
punitage  wa  Itnow  nothing,  and  tt>e  Itistoriana,  in 
tlwlr  anilety  to  conceal  their  ignorancp  of  liis 
nrlier  reara,  slielter  tiiemselves  lieiiind  the 
Irnnd  that  he  was  bom  an  old  man.  .  .  .  The 
pRnurv  meaning  of  Taou  la  'The  way,'  'The 
path,'  but  in  Ltoa-ttze'i  philoitopby  It  was  more 
tiian  Iku  wuy,  It  was  the  way-goer  as  well.  It 
wu  an  eternal  road;  along  It  all  beings  and 
things  walked;  it  waa  ererythlng  nnd  nothing, 
and  the  cause  and  effect  of  all.  All  things 
originated  from  Taou,  conformed  to  Taou,  and 
to  Tariu  at  last  returned.  .  .  .  '  If,  then,  we  bail 
to  eiprcsa  the  meaning  of  Taou,  we  should 
dewribe  it  as  the  Absolute ;  the  totolitr  of  Biiog 
sod  Things:  the  phenomenal  world  and  its  orlir; 
and  thv  I'tbical  nature  of  the  good  man,  and  the 
principle  of  his  artinn.'  It  waa  absorption  into 
this  '  Motbcr  of  all  things '  that  Laoii-t<ize  amiini 
at  And  this  end  wan  to  bu  attniucd  to  by  self - 
rniptint'tn,  and  by  giving  free  scope  to  the  un- 
contaminated  nature  winch,  like  ('(nifucias,  be 
taught  was  given  by  Ucavcn  to  all  men.  .  .  . 
But  these  subtl<tics,  like  the  more  abatniae 
epecuktiuns  of  Confucius,  were  suited  unly  to 
ttie  taste  uf  the  schools.  To  the  rommnn  people 
ther  were  f(K>ll.shne8S,  ami,  before  Uini;,  tlie 
phiW'phlcal  doctrine  of  LaoU'tat.e  of  the 
Ideutitv  of  t'Xiatcnce  and  DODexialence,  assumed 
bi  their  eyes  a  warmnt  for  the  old  £picurean 
molt),  'Let  us  eat  and  drink,  for  tn-Di>m>w  we 
die.'  The  pleasures  of  sense  were  sut»lituted 
for  the  delights  of  virtue,  and  the  next  siep  was 
to  desire  pMloogation  of  the  time  when  Uioso 
pleasures  could  be  enjoyed.  Legend  said  that 
uwrnute  had  secured  to' himself  immuri;y  from 
ilrath  by  drlnkine  the  elixir  of  immortality,  and 
t"  enjiiy  the  same  prtirilege  became  tlie  all 
abr«.rlilng  objri  t  of  his  followers.  The  demand 
k'T  (liiirs  and  rburms  produced  h  supply,  and 
Taiuiim  ijuirkly  degenerated  Into  a  svsum  of 
nugti'.  .  .  ;  Tiie  teat'hinga  nf  Lauu-Uze  having 
fsmillsriiwl  the  fhluiwa  mind  with  pliildsopbical 
ilntriiies,  «liieh.  whutiver  were  thiir  din-ct 
H'unv.  !K)rt  a  marked  rvaembUuce  to  the  mus- 
ingidt  Indian  sages,  served  to  prepare  the  wsy 
fur  the  Inirudurtlon  of  Buddhism.  The  exact 
dste  at  whkh  the  Chinese  ttnt  became  ac((uainUHl 
with  tlic  ductrinea  of  Uuddha  waa,  acnirding  to 
•n  author  qui.Kil  In  K ang-be's  Imperial  Emy- 
cHip^lta,  lie  thirtieth  jtmr  of  the  reign  of  .4Le 
Hwang  If,  1,  c  ,  B.  C.  216  The  story  tills  wrtter 
'I'Hiol  <i.e  ditUeultIrs  which  the  first  miuloDaries 
rsruunten>d  l<  rurlous,  sod  singularly  sugges- 
tiv«  of  die  uomlive  of  Ht  Peter's  Imprtson- 
3»«it.  -II  K  I),.ug!as,  CUna.  dk.  17  -Also 
l>  The  Mtat  (vntSmnnitm  and  Tmnium.— 
'^  Bml.lliltni  |H'wt»k-d  to  China  along  the 

aifd  r-iiit,.  fn>ni  iuttia  to  iliat  <-<>untr)-,  muml  the 
fc.nii.we,t  -„mer  of  Uie  lltnwlaraa  and  amiae 
fc*t»n!  lurkestan.  Aiready  in  ti«e  a«d  v™r 
i>  (  .  an  iinlwMv.  perhaps  seal  by  HuvWdia 
i«h<>  i,'i,!i„<l  In  Kabul  and  Kaaamm-I  took 
HwkJiwt  i».ji,  t„  Uw  then  Emperor  of  ('hina, 
A  IK ;  sud  lii,  tjii|«r<ir  Ming  tl,  MAP,  guided 
b.v  •  iinwu  II  a«i>l  lu  have  sau  to  Tanary  ead 
2>> 


Central  India  and  brought  Buddhist  books  to 
China.  Prom  thia  time  Buddhism  npidlr 
spread  there.  ...  In  the  fourth  century  Bua- 
dUsm  became  the  Mate  rellgloD. "— T.  W.  lUiTt 
Darida,  AuWUms,  dk,  (, 

,  •^ifS.™  '•  Wf«-  ^**  Stligioni i^Ckina.— 
J.  Edklna,  Sdtgion  in  C'Ai'na.— The  some, 
Ckinm  B}i<UAum.—S.  Beals,  BwUlhitm  in 
Ckiiia.—S.  Johnaon,  Oriental  HiligUmt:  China. 

A.  D.  iao.f-ia34.—  Conqueat  by  Jingit 
Khaa  and  bia  aon — "The  cnoqiiestof  China 
was  commenced  by  Chlnghiz  [or  Jini;lj  Khan], 
nltliough  it  was  not  complctetl  for  siveral  gen- 
erations. AIrea<ly  in  1805  he  had  Invaded  Tan- 
gtit,  a  kingdom  occupying  the  extreme  north- 
west <if  China,  and  extending  beyond  Chinese 
llinils  In  the  (uune  direction,  held  by  a  dynasty 
of  Tibetan  rare,  which  was  or  bad  been  a  vaaaal 
to  the  Kin.  This  invasion  was  repeated  In  auc- 
eeviling  ^can:  and  i.i  1211  his  attacka extended 
to  the  Linpirc  of  the  Kin  Itself  In  1!14  he 
ravaged  their  provinces  to  the  Yellow  River,  and 
in  the  following  year  took  Chungtu  or  Peking. 
Ill  1218  he  turned  his  arms  against  Western 
Asia:  .  .  .  but  a  lieutenant  whom  he  had  left 
Ix'hinil  him  In  the  East  continued  to  prosecute 
the  subjection  of  Xorthem  China.  Chinghix 
himself  on  his  rcturr  from  his  western  conquests 
renewed  his  attack  on  Toag ut,  and  died  on  that 
enU'rprisc.  18th  August.  Okkodol,  the  son  and 
successor  of  Chlnghiz.  followwl  up  the  subjuga- 
tion of  China,  exiinpuishwl  the  Kin  finally  in 
1234  and  consolidated  with  his  Empire  all  the 
provinces  north  of  the  CIrcat  Klong.  The 
tiouthem  provinci  s  remained  for  the  present 
subject  to  the  Chinese  dvnastv  of  the  Bung, 
reigning  now  at  KingssiVr  Hongcheu.  This 
kincdnm  was  known  Ui  the  Tartars  as  NangkUss, 
and  also  by  the  quasi  (lilnefe  title  of  .MangI  or 
Manzi,  mode  so  lamc>ii!i  by  >!nrco  Polo  and  the 
travellen  of  the  following  age."  — H.  Yule, 
Cathag  ami  ths  B'ay  TMther.  Prrliminary  /",. 
•fi.V.  serf.  BI-98.  —  See,  alio,  Mongols ;  A.  D 
1153-I2S7. 

A.  D.  ias9-<a94-— The  Empire  of  Kublai 
Khaa.— Kuldai.  or  Khubilai  Khan,  one  of  li.e 
gnunlsons  of  Jingis  Khsn.  wb..niv'm-d  as  tl;e 
Ureal  Khan  or  Supreme  lord  <.f  the  Mongols 
from  12511  until  1291.  •■  was  the  wiven  iitn  of  ilie 
krgest  I'lnplre  llmt  wm  ever  ccKitp.lled  bv  .  m- 
man.  China.  Con  a,  Tbiliet,  TumrKing,  t'.«liia 
China,  a  great  iKirti.m  of  Imliti  Ix-muhI  the 
Oanges.  the  Turkish  ni:d  MIk  riun  realm.,  fr,  ni 
the  Eastern  Sea  to  the  DnlijHT,  nlwved  bin  com 
mands;  and  although  the  obii  f  uf  uie  llnnlea  of 
Jagstai  and  Ogaui  rt'fused  to  ac  knowletlge  him, 
the  Ilkhans  of  I'epfia  .  .  .  were  hia  feuiialiTiet. 
.  .  .  Tlic  r«upremi!  Klum  lutd  immediate  autboriiy 
only  In  Mongolia  and  China.  .  .  .  The  caplui  e^f 
the  Khakan,  after  tlw^  accession  of  Khublhii,  was 
a  new  city  he  liulit  rlose  to  the  ancient  nietrnpii- 
lis  of  'he  I.l».i  and  Kin  dynasties. "—11.  H 
lloworlh.  Ilitt  ./  tUr  Mimgi-Li,  \:  1.  pp.  216.283. 
— •KhanUillg  (Mi.ng,,  Tlie  Khan's  citv'i, 
the  Caraialu  of  Marco,  Piking  .  .  .  ws»  rap- 
tured bt  Chlnulilz  in  r,M.\  amlin  12ft4  Kubl-d 
made  It  ^lia  eliitf  residence.  In  1207  he  built  a 
new  etn  ihn-e  II '  t.i  Um.  rii.rth  east  of  the  old 
oae,  to  otiicb  was  given  the  name  uf  Tn  tu  or 
'Ureat  i  «Mirt.'  called  by  the  MiMigols  INIdu.  the 
Taydo  of  Odorli-  nnd  Taidu  of  INilo.  w  Im>  (tin  n  a 
daacrlption  of  il*  dliiien>i<ins,  the  numlxr  nf  is 
etc,  stoiilsr  to  tiau  in  the  text.    Tbt 


ma 


It 


«. 


CHUrA,  19W-1904 


Ibrtnr 


CHINA,  UM-lSm 


Chlneie  accounu  give  only  eleren  gates.  Thto 
city  wu  •bandonea  a*  •  royal  reahlence  on  tlie 
enpuUion  of  the  Mongol  dynaalr  in  \36n.  but 
re  .iccupied  in  Itil  by  ttie  Uilnl  Minir  Kiiiidror 
wlio  buUt  the  walla  >a  they  now  exist,  rediiciiiif 
their  extent  auil  the  number  of  the  gates  tn  nine. 
Thia  la  what  la  commonly  called  tlie  •  Tartar 
city  'of  the  present  day  (ojled  alao  by  fjie  Chl- 
neiie  Uu-Cbhingor  •Old  Town"),  wUioh  there- 
fore  npreaeou  the  Taydo of  Odoric."— II.  Yule. 
Cat/Mg  and  th*  W<^  Thithtr,  ».  1.  p.  127,  /out- 

AiJO  m  Marco  Polo,  TVuarft.  wtt*  A'ohi  bf  Sir 
^! '^•^ ».-8ee.  ahn,  MoaooLa:  A.  D.  1281^ 
18W,  and  Pout.  Mabco. 

^^  "V  i,"<K-«Mj-Dl»«»lotlon  of  th«  Em- 
'^  S'  ?»"»'«*«».- The  MJiiK  dyoMty 
•od  its  falL— The  enthronement  of  the  pre- 
jent  llanckn  Tartar  DynaMy.  of  the  Tainga  w 
Ch  inn.— The  appearance  of  the  Portngucae 
•ad  the  Jesuit  Miaaionariee.— "The  immediate 
aucceaaors  of  Kublai.  broujrlit  up  in  the  luxuries 
of  the  imperial  palace,  tht  moat  gorgeous  at  that 
time  in  the  world,  relied  uikm.  the  prestige  with 
which  the  glory  of  the  iale  emperor  investeii 
them,  and  never  dr»aiiHHi  that  change  could 
touch  a  domhiioo  so  viwt  an^l  no  nolid.  t»omede- 
voted  UiemsoWee  to  elegant  literature  and  the 
Improvement  of  the  iieople;  lawr  nriucra  to 
the  mvsteries  of  Buddhium,  which  beiame  In 
some  degree,  tlie  sUU-  rcligi.m ;  and  aa  the  cvi  le 
went  round,  the  dregs  of  the  dynasty  ai>au(h>n<'<l 
thenuelvea,  as  usual,  to  priests,  women,  and 
eunucha.  .  .  .  The  disUnt  provlncs  threw  off 
their  subjection;  roblwrs  ravage.!  the  land,  and 
piratea  the  aea;  a  minorifv  and  a  famine  came 
at  the  samt  moment;  and  in  lesa  tlinn  ninety 
yeara  after  iu  cominem-euient,  tlio  fall  of  the  ' 
dynasty  was  i.uly  ilhiiniued  by  some  few  tlaxlii-a 


of  dying  heroism,  and  every  anneil  TsrUr   wlio 
~"'''    ■ '-  ■•  l">nio  u.  aid  his  flight,  s[uimd 


could  obUiio 

bjrk   to    his  native   deserti      Some  of  "tiiem 
of  the   royal   race,  turning  to  tliu   w.st.  took 
refuge  with  the  Mancliows,  and  in  prwess  of 
time,  marrying  with  the  families  of  the  chiefs, 
intermingled  the  bl.xid  of  the  two  great  tribes. 
The  proximate  cause  of  thia  cataatrophe  waa  a 
Chinese  of  low  birth,  who,  in  the  midst  of  the 
troubles  of  the  time,  found  means  to  raise  him- 
self by  hU  genius  from  a  servile  suiion  to  the 
toidership  of  a  boily  of  the  malcontents,  aii<l 
thence  to  step  Into  the  imperUI  throne.     Tlie  new 
dynasty  [the  Mint;!  I»t>'»n  their  relgji  with  cn-n' 
brilliann.      Tlie  .  nif..  rur  larri.^i  the  Tartar  war 
into  their  ..wn  touniry,  and  at  homo  made  uiir.- 
lenting  war  U|ioii  ,lie  abuses  of  his  psla.^..     II,. 
cuuimitted   tlio  luLstalie,  however.    ..f  graiiliiiif 
separate   pn».i|M,li|i,,»   u  th.^   ni.nil.r«  (,f   his 
h')ii»e,  whii  1.  Ill  II.         XI  reikis  ,  :,„«  ; 
war,  and  tlm  ui.u:         n  of  the  tlir. 
umle  of  the  then  fii.i»  rnr.     The  u»ui:    • 
it  i»  reiiiary  to  trHn»l.r  tlw  lapiul  to  l"-    . 
a  |Hi*t  of  ik'feuiv  i<;;,nii»t  tiiu  eaaU-rii    i 
will,  now  nuide  tlirir  ainxmramr  aijain 
•vfuiful  ntugi..      Ill- was  SUO^wfil,  hl,»,  ,,r    ,D 
hi*  wars  iu  t|,c  d.M  rt.  and  be  aiidtKl  Tununln 
and  ( .Khiu   t  hiiia  u>  the  fhlnese  domlni.ms. 
After  hiiii  the  l.iriuiiefi  of  tliv  dynasty  i,vk»nio 
wane.     1  li,-  utivinimint    iH-inmo    weaker     tin 
lanara  stn.im.i,  »..m.    pHmr*  atUcliiHi  them 
SelKTf  to  111.  rai.m-,  N.ri,,- 1  .  lloddliisinorTafilsm; 
1  '"lun  (  hina  r.v.ili.-l.  and  v>.m  l,«t  i.,  ji,,.,,,, 
pirs,  Japan  ravagni  the  cnuu  with  her  privs 


.  ■  ivil 
■•>  ~n 
found 
:iir.  iia 
irisrs, 
II  this 
in 


434 


teers;  famine  oame  to  add  to  the  homn  of  mis. 
rule.  "-Leltch  Ritchie,  UM.  rt-  Ms  Orienlat  xi 
<J'«».  **.  7,  <*.  1  (s.  «).-■•  rtom  without,  tlK 
Mings  were  oopstanUy  hanassd  by  the  enciWt 
menu  of  the  Ta-tars;  from  within,  the  cea«i«« 
intnguingof  the  eunuchs  (resulUng  hionecsM 
In  Uie  temporary  depositian  of  an  Emperor)  vu 
a  fertile  cause  of  trouble.    Towards  the  close  of 
the  ISth  oenturr  the  Portuguese  appeared  upon 
the  scene,  and  from  their  'coaoession '  at  Ma^T 
some  time  the  residence  of  Camoeus,  onenni 
nimmercial   reUtioos   between  Cliina  and  the 
West.    They  brought  the  Chinese,  among  olhtr 
things,  opium,  which  had  previously  u"n  Im. 
ported   overland   from    India.    Tli.y   p,«sii,i, 
Uugbt  them  how  to  make  gunpow.lcr,  to  the  In- 
vention of  which  the  Chinese  do  n.it  mm  up  a 
striiting  a  balance  of  evidence,  to  poi«<«kn  h. 
dependent  cUim.     Aliout  the  same  time  n.'SsjI 
Koine  ccmtributed  the  first  inBt«lni.nt  ofii^ai 
wonderful  Jesuit  fatliers.  whose naiiu!i imiy  truir 
be  said  to  have  filled  the  empire  'with  »,imi,fj 
that  eiho  still.' the  memory  of  their  mitniiljc 
lalioiira  and  the  licnefiu  they  thus  conlt..„l  upun 
I  liina  having  long  survive<l  the  ytniH  tud  dii- 
cnnlit  of  tiic  laiUi  to  which  tliey  divotid  their 
livr!*.     Ami  at  tlila  disUncv  of  time  it  iliips  Df« 
apiiear  to  be  a  ivii.l  statement  U>  uwrt  that  hail 
the  Jesuits,  tlir  Kranciscaiis.  and  the  l)oiiiiiiioiin, 
1k.ii  able  to  resist  quarrelling  among  tlii'iimivei 
and  had  they  rallier  united  to  p.'r»ua.l.'  I'uiial  iu- 
li.'liliiliiy  to  iK'riiiit  tiM!  iucorporation  of  aiimlur 
»  .i^liip  Willi   tlie   rius  ami  ceiiiii.,iiii»  ..f  the 
l<oiiii.,n  church  — China  would  ut  thia  r.  «n«.t 
be  u  Catholic  iMuntry.  and  Bu.ldliiMii,  T»„i«n, 
ami  Confucianism  w.iul.i  hmj  sini^e  iiav.' rw-eiicl 
liilo  tlie  iwsL     Of  all  these  Jesuit  ini.«ioiwrie», 
the  name  of  .Mutt.-o  Wivi   [who  died  in  liilU] 
••lunda  by  common  ctmsent  drat  up.iii  the  long 
list  .  .  .  The  overthrow  of  the  mum  (.V.  I). 
1«44|   was  brought  alxuit  by  a  combiiuiiKin  ol 
events,  of  the  utniimt  ini|M<rtaiice  to  iliciae  who 
would  undenund   the  present  position  i.f  tin 
Tartars  aa  rulers  of  China.    A  su.lil.n  rel> Uioa 
had  resulted  hi  the  capture  of  Peking  by  the  in- 
surgents, and  In  the  suicide  of  the  Empemr  who 
waa  faU-d  to  be  the  hist  of  his  line.    The  Im- 
perial Commander-in-chief.  Wii  eankuel, jt Uut 
time  away  on   the  frontiers  of  Manchuris,  ea- 
gacJ  in  nuisllng  tlie  Incursions  of  Uie  .Msnchu 
tara.  now  for  a  long  time  in  a  sute  of  fft- 
n.,  .It.  imi.ie<liau.ly  hurried  back  to  the  capital, 
liui  was  Uiully  defeated  by  the  insurKrnt  liadt.-, 
»:.  I  once    more  made   his  way,  this  timr  •»  » 
fugitive   ami  a  suppliant,  Uiwards  Ihu    laii^r 
camp,     lleti'  h.'  olitaine.1  promises  o'  a«i;ii«i.r>, 
■  liletiy  on  loudition  that  he  would  share  hb  L  1.4 
and  grow  a  l«H  in  a«-..r<hinc«  with  Mancbu  ous- 
toin.  and  again  set  off  »1U|  his  new  auiiliann 
towanis  I'l-king.  Mng  ninforcoi  00  tlie  t,s»  b» 
a  boiiy  of  .Mongol  volunte.Ts.     A^  things  turr.»l 
out  Wu  Hankiu-i  afrivt^l  at  Peking  in  sdvam* 
of  tbes.1  alllim,  an.l  acti;  .lly  aumwTed,  with  tU 
remnant  of  his  own  watt-Ted  forces,  la  Muliaj 
the  Iniops  of  tli.-  r.  tsl  h-ader  befo't     'le  Tartan 
and  the  Mongols  came  up.     He  ili.ii  j'jirt.'.!  m 
pursuit  of  llietlyinif  f.w      Meanwh'lo  llie  Tar- 
tar ciwtlngeiit  arriv.-.i ;  an.)  on  enteiiug  the  cajil. 
ta!.  (he  young  Man.  Iiu  prince  in  c.mimandwM 
invi,...!  by  tlie  {leople  of  iVaing  to  ascend  Um 

vacant  throne.    "     ■ ■     ■     ' 

l»  apiieared  h«  .... 
or  Tsing  dynasty 


tlie  |>e<i|de  of  iVaing  to  ascend  Um 

ne.    H.)  that  by  the  time  Wi  Han  kuel 

he  found  a  newdySMty  [ths  Vf'rt 

irnasty  u.'  the  pieseDt  dsyj  ilr^; 


CHINA,  18M-188S. 


Opium  War. 


CHIXA,  1888-1849. 


wUbliibcd,  uti  hli  lata  Hanchu  ally  at  the  head 
uf  affain.  Hi*  flnt  intention  bad  doubtlea*  b«ea 
to  contiaue  the  Ming  line  of  £mperore ;  but  lie 
teeroi  to  bare  leadily  fallen  in  with  the  arrange- 
nwnt  already  made,  and  to  have  tendered  bia 
{omuil  allcronce  on  the  four  following  condi- 
tioni:— (1.) 'I>at  no  Chineae  woman  abould  be 
taken  into  the  Imperial  aeragllo.  (3.)  Thnt  the 
fint  placeat  the  great  triamiaTezamination  for  tlie 
highest  literary  degreei  ahould  never  be  given  to 
a  Tartar.  (3.)  That  the  people  ahould  adopt  the 
natioiml  coatume  of  the  Taruira  in  their  every- 
day lire :  but  tbat  they  abould  be  allowed  tu  bury 
their  rorpac*  in  tlic  drcu  of  the  late  dynasty.  (4. ) 
That  this  cunditiun  of  costume  abuuld  not'  apply 
to  tlie  women  of  China,  who  were  not  to  Im 
compelled  either  to  wear  the  hair  in  a  tail  before 
marriage (aa  the  Tartar  girls  do)  or  to  abandon  the 
custom  of  compreaaing  their  feet  The  great 
Ming  dvnastv  waa  now  at  an  end,  though  not 
4estine<i  wholly  to  pass  away.  A  large  part  of 
it  may  be  »iicl  to  remain  in  the  literary  monu- 
ments which  were  executed  during  ita  three  cen- 
turies of  existence.  The  dresa  of  the  period 
survives  upon  the  modem  Chinese  stavv;  and 
when  occasionally  the  pieacut  alien  yoke  la  found 
to  gall,  seditious  whispen  of  '  •estoration'  are  not 
altogether  unheard.  .  .  .  TheageoftheCh'ing* 
i<  the  age  In  which  we  lire;  but  it  is  not  so  n- 
miliar  to  some  peraoos  aa  it  ought  to  be,  that  a 
Tartar,  and  not  a  Chinese  •oTereIgn,  is  now 
seated  upon  the  throne  of  China.  For  some  time 
sfter  the  acoeasion  of  thu  flrat  Hanchu  Kmperor 
there  was  couaiderable  friction  between  the  two 
faces,  due,  among  other  natural  causes,  to  the 
enfiirced  adoption  of  the  peculiar  coiffure  in 
Togue  among  the  Manchus  —  i.  e.,  the  tail,  or 
plaited  queue  of  bair,  which  now  hangs  down 
CTerr  Chinaman's  back.  This  fashion  was  for  a 
bog  time  vigorously  resisted  by  the  inhaliitanta 
of  Kiuthem  China,  though  now  regarded  by  all 
illke  as  one  of  the  mo«t  aacred  cfaaracterUtfci  of 
the 'blnck-haired  people.'.  .  .  The  subjugation 
>if  the  empire  by  the  Hancbua  was  followea  by  a 
mlliury  on-upatlon  of  the  coontrr,  which  baa 
survivetl  the  original  neceaslty.  and  Is  part  of  the 
system  uf  g<  vemment  at  the  present  day.  Qu- 
luans  of  Tartar  troops  were  stationed  at  Tarloiia 
Imp  >naiit  centrea  of  population.  .  ,  .  Tboa* 
Tartiir  guriii'ias  still  occupy  the  suoa  poaltiocs; 
sod  the  descrnilaou  of  the  flnt  battalions,  with 
occssional  ivinforrements  from  Peking,  lire  side 
by  tide  ai-d  in  perfect  h.-u-moiiy  with  tlie  strictly 
Chinese  (fipulatioiuk  Thcw  Bannermen,  aa  tbey 
are  calle:|,  may  be  known  by  their  equate,  beaTy 
hifn.  whi.'li  contrast  strongly  with  the  sharper 
and  more  luluU'  physiognomMa  of  the  Chineae. 
Tbey  a|ieak  tlte  dialect  of  Peking,  now  rerogniaed 
St  tile  otDrial  lautfuage  par  ezoel'.ence.  Tbey  do 
Dot  uae  their  family  or  aumamea— which  belong 
rather  to  the  cUn  than  to  the  individual  —  but 
In  ll^ier  to  conform  to  the  roquirementa  of 
Hilmiie  life,  the  persona!  name  is  siibstltutrd. 
Thiir  women  do  not  compreas  their  fwt,  ami  tha 
f"ni»li'  coiirurc  and  dress  are  wholly  Tartar  In 
rhara,  t.T.  lnU'ni.arriare  bt-lween  the  two  racea 
iiui't  I  ^nsiilered  desirable  liiough  inataocea  ar« 
iii.t  uukri„«n.  In  otlier  respects.  It  is  the  olj 
Morj-  111  •  VI,  i»  victrix ; '  the  oonuuerttig  Tartara 
havf  bivn  lluniaelvea  conquered  by  tbe  penpki 
ovir  wtM.in  tliey  set  themsclvva  to  rule.  They 
hs"  v!>|.ti.,|  u,,  Ungoage,  written  and  collo- 
|ulal,  uf  Chhia.  .  .  .   Uanchu,  tlie  languag*  of 


the  conquerors.  Is  still  kept  alive  at  the  Court  of 
Peking,  liy  a  Ktate  Action,  It  is  auppowMl  to  Ik 
the  Unguage  of  the  sovcreiga  .  .  .  Eight  em 
perors  of  this  line  have  already  occupied  the 
throne,  and  ■  become  guesta  on  high ;'  the  ninth 
Is  yet  [in  1883]  a  boy  Teaa  than  ten  yea-a  of  age. 
or  these  eight,  the  second  In  every  way  fills  the 
largest  spa<*  in  Chinese  history.  iC»Dg  Hsi 
(or  Kang  Hi)  reiined  for  sixty -one  years.  .  .  . 
Under  the  thin!  .Manthu  Emperor,  Yung  Cheng 
[A.  D.  1788-17861,  began  that  violent  persecu- 
tion of  the  Catholics  wlich  has  mntinned  almost 
to  the  present  day.  The  various  sects  —  Jesuits, 
Dominicans,  Franciscans— liiul  Urn  unable  to 
agree  abimt  the  Chineae  equivalent  for  God,  and 
the  matter  had  been  tinally  referred  to  the  l*ope. 
Another  difticulty  had  arisen  as  to  the  loleratlon 
of  ancotral  worship  by  Chinese  converu  pro- 
fes.^ing  the  Catholic  faith.  .  .  .  Aa  the  Pope  re- 
fused to  pi-rmit  the  embodiment  of  thU  undent 
custom  with  the  ceremonies  of  the  Catholic 
church,  the  new  religion  ceasi^l  to  advance,  and 
by-and-by  fell  into  diarrpute."— U.  A.  Ullea, 
uulorif  China,  eh.  S-O 

Atao  m  8.  W.  AVilliams,  Tht  MuMU  Kxagdnm, 
th.  17.  and  19-aO  (v.  8).— C.  Outzlall,  Skrtrk  of 
Chine-  UiM..  r.  1,  eh.  16,  e.  9.— J.  K<»a,  TI14 
Jf^fwAtis.— Abbi  Hue,  ChrvUianitM  in  China, 
«.  «-& 

A.  D.  1839-184J.— The  Opium  War  with 
EBfland.— Treaty  of  Nanking.— Opening  o> 
the  Five  Porta.—"  The  tirst  Cliinese  wiir  [of 
Englamll  waa  In  one  sense  directly  iiltributable 
to  the  alte.t^  poiition  of  the  Eii-st  India  Com- 
pany after  1838.  [SeelnniA:  A.I)  lHa»-1838.1 
Up  to  that  year  trailc  betweon  England  and 
China  had  l>een  conducted  In  both  countriea  on 
principles  of  strict  monopoly.  The  (.'hineaa 
trade  was  sirurni  to  the  East  India  Company, 
and  the  English  trade  was  contined  to  a  company 
of  merchants  spm'ially  nominated  for  the  pur- 
pose liy  the  Ei'ipj'ror.  The  change  of  thought 
which  pnxiuced  the  destruction  of  monopolict 
in  England  did  not  penetrate  to  the  conservativa 
atmosphere  of  the  Celestial  Empire,  and,  wbUa 
the  trade  in  one  country  was  thrown  open  to 
everyone,  trade  In  the  other  wm  still  exclusively 
couflned  to  the  merchanta  nominated  by  tha 
Chinese  Government  These  merchanu.  Hong 
merchanta  aa  tbey  were  called,  traded  separately, 
but  were  mutually  Ibble  for  the  dues  to  tM 
Chinese  Oovcmment  and  for  their  debts  to  the 
foreigners.  Such  conditions  neither  promoted 
the  growth  of  trade  nor  the  solvei.<  y  of  the 
trailers;  and,  out  of  the  thirteen  line?  ivTchaata 
In  1837,  three  or  four  were  avowedly  iuwilvcnt 
(SUte  Pap..«.  V.  27,  p.  1810.)  Such  were  tha 
general  coniiilion*  on  which  the  trade  waa  con- 
ducted. The  must  inip<.rtant  article  of  trade 
waa  opium.  The  importation  of  opium  into 
China  bad,  imleed,  been  illegal  simx;  1704.  But 
the  Chinese  Government  had  made  no  stringent 
efforts  to  prohibit  the  trade,  end  a  Select  Cany 
mittee  of  the  Houae  of  Commi>ns  tiud  declared 
that  It  waa  ln»<tviaablo  to  abandon  hii  iniportsol 
source  'if  revenue  to  the  YjM,  India  I  unipany. 
(Siate  Papcra,  v.  S«,  p.  1020  )  The  oplu  ,1  trad* 
conaeiiiientlv  tlinive,  and  grew  from  4.  liiO  olieats 
In  1796  to  81I.U11U  cbi-su  In  li-  7.  and  the  Chi^iew 
oiiinlvid  at  or  ignored  the  gnit.ing  Iraite. 
(111!  I.,  p  1019).  .  ,  ,  In  1837  the  CI  •«:  Gov. 
eniinent  ailopteit  a  freah  policy.  It  decided  on 
rig'^uroualy  stopping  lb  <  Inda  at  which  it  had 


435 


OHIX&.  I8a»-lSU. 


Ofimm  War. 


CHINA.  I8>»-lStfL 


pnHouslv  taritljr  connWcd.      .  .  Whether  the 
t'biaew  Oovrrnmciit  wu  n  .,lly  ilinckfU  it  Uie 
trroning  uar  of  the  drug  anU  the  cotiiici|ui-nnr« 
<rf  it!  ute,  or  wh«'lber  It  wiu  alurmed  ut  ■  drnia 
of  fUver  from  China  whicli  disturbed  what  the 
politica:  arithmetlcUoa  of   KoKland  >  huntlml 
yeun  befiire  would  hare  mllrd  thv  hnlaoce  of 
trade.  It  undoubtedlj  delrrmined  to  check  the 
trafflc  by  ercry  meana  at  iu  illspowil.     With 
thli  object  It  atrengtlieiit'd  Iu  fiirre  on  the  coast 
■nd  wot  Un,  a  man  of  creat  energy,  to  Canton 
[March,  1830]  with  iuprome  authority.     (8tato 
rapen,  t.  39,  p.  834,  and  Autoliiogrtphy  >f  Sir 
H.  Taylor,  t.   1.  appx..  p.  843.)     Before  Uu'i 
arnral  cargoes  of  opium  hod  been  aclzed  by  the 
Custom  Iluuaa  authorities.     On  bis  arrival  I.ln 
required    both  the    Hhiib   mcrchuoti  and   the 
Chioeie  merchants  to  dillvcr  up  all  the  opium 
In  their  puasessiun  In  order  that  It  might  bo 
destroyed.     (State  I'ltiiers.  t.  t.l,  p.  OM.)     The 
IntereaU  of  Enfrland  in  China  were  at  that  time 
entrusted   to    (harles   EllloL  .   .   .  But  Elliut 
occupied  a  very  difficult  position  In  Clilna.     The 
Chinese  placed  on  their  communir»tlona  to  him 
the  Chlicae    word   'Vu,'  and    wished  him  to 
phice  on  his  despatches  to  them  the  Chinese 
word  'Pin.'    But  Yu  signideaa  command,  and 
Pin  a  humble  address,  siid  a  British  Plenipoten- 
ihiry  could   not  receive   commands  from,  or 
humble  himself  before,  Chinese  officials.    (State 
Papers,  v.  8»,  pp.  881,  »ij«,  888.)    And  hence 
the    communications    between    him    and    the 
Chinese  Uovemment  were  unable  U)  follow  a 
direct  oursp,  but  were  frequently  or  luually 
sent  throuch  the  Hoax  mcrclumts    Such  was  the 
sute  of  things  In  Chinu  when  Llii,  arriving  In 
Canton,  insisted  on  the  surri'uder  snd  destruction 
of  all  tlie  opium  there.      Elliot  wus  at  }(acao. 
lie  at  nnce  (lecidod  on  ivlurrinn  to  the  poat  of 
dilHeulty  and  <langer;  and,  Ui<iu;,'h  Canton  was 
l.lockuditl  bv  Chinese  foru«  and  iU  river  giurded 
by  Chinese  batteriia,  he  made  his  way  up  In  a 
boat  of  H.  M.  8.   -Lame,'  and  threw  himself 
among  his  imprisonid  eountrvnien.      After  his 
arrival  he  ti»'k  tlie  responsibility  of  deiiuinding 
the  surrender  Into  his  own  hamls,  fi)r  the  scrvlcs 
of  bis  Ooverument,  of  sll  the  IJritUh  opium  In 
Chlua,  and  he  surnnderi'd  the  opium  which  be 
thus  obul.ned,  ntiiountinK  ti>  2I»,2S)  rlirsts,  to  the 
Chinese  authi.iities,  by  whum  it  wns  destroyed. 
(Ihld.,  pp.  045.  Ofl;.)     Th.'  Iminliient  dani^cr  to 
the  lives  and  pn>iierties  of  a  large  nuuiber  of 
Brilinh  subjects  wus  uiidnubtedlytnmoTed  by 
Elliots  action.      Thoii;;li  some  dillleulty  arose  In 
c<muerti<in   with   the  sumniler,   l.in  undertook 
griMliiiilly  to  ri'lin  the  K:riniT<mv(.f  thcmeasuri'S 
whli  h  he  hail  ii,l,ipttHl  (ilii.l..  p"  B7T),  and  Elliot 
ho|K.!  th.it  his  i.wn  /enlnus  elTi.rt.i  liicirry  out 
the  arranceim  nt  which  he  li.i'l  innde  wmild  lead 
to  the  mihiiig  ..f  t:ie  hlocLadf      He  was,  Imw- 
ever.  »<»>n  uiiilf.t(v«l.      (in  the  4lh  of    April 
Uu  requiml  him.  in  cmiJuiHllon  with  the  n»r- 
chanu.  lo  en-j  r  iiii4>  a   l».nd   under  whirh  all 
Vessels  bereafler  eiigap-il  In  the  opium  tralEc 
would    have    Ixen    ei^ulljuMtiil   to  the   Chlne.se 
Oovemment,  ami  ull  iNnums  ennnceted  with  the 
traile  woidd     .-ufT.r  dmth  at  the  hiincU  of  the 
Ceksliul   (f.iirt/     (Il.i(!.,    p    V>:t)     This   bomi 
Elliot  ateiulily  refuHsl  ij  ijjsn  (ihld  ,  p.  902);  and 
feeling  timt  'all  Mowot  i>e<iirity  was  broken  lo 
pieces'  (Ibid  ,  p   WK,.  be  orUiMl  nil  British  sub 
Jecu  t<.  leave  (aiil4in  (ibid.,  p    KKH),  he  himself 
Withdrew  to  the  Purlugurse  aetUcment  at  MacM  j 


436 


(IblJ..  p.  1007),  au!  ho  wrote  to  Auckland    the 
Uovemor-fieneral  of  ItMli^i.  for  armed  assistance 
(Ibid.,  p.     s)».)    The^j    grave  evenU  nalumllr 
treated  profound  anxiety.      A  Select  Commltui 
of  the  House  of  Comim^ns  had  formally  declined 
I  .  interfere  with  the  trsile.    The  opium  monopolv 
at  that  time  was   worth   some   £1,000,000  or 
i;, 800,000  a  year  to  Dritlflh  IndU  (Ibid.,  p  1020) 
and  India,  engai;<'<l   in  war  with  Afglianistsa 
and  alreoily  Involved  In  a  serious  deBelt    could 
not  affonl  to  part  with  so  hirge  an  amount  of  m 
revenue  (il>il..   p.   1090).      Nine-tenths     '  the 
British  mcr.'lumts  hi  China  were  engaged  :    •]» 
Illegal  traio  (ibid.,   p.   1030),   whUe  Elliot    lo 
enforcing  the  surrender  of  the  opium,  had  dvea 
tbeinerch    ,u  bonds  on  the  British  Oovemnwnt 
for  Its  value,  and  the  20,000  chesU  surrcmlrnil 
» ore  supposed  to  be  worth  from  600  to  1  "00 
d.)llirs  a   chest  (ibid.,   p.   (WT).    or   say   from 
tJ.4(K»,m-1  to  £4,800.000.  ...  As  the  'rnmer 
advanced,   mon-nver,  a  fresh  outrage  Imnued 
tlie  Intensity  „f  the  crisis.    On  the  7th  .lulv some 
British  seamen   landed  Dear  Ilong  Koni,  and 
engaged  la  a  serious  riot     A  native  «:i8  un- 
fortunately kflliHl  on  the  occasion,  and  thi>ujh 
Elliot,  at  his  own  risk,  gnve  the  lehjliona  of  tie 
victlin    a   Urge   pecunUry   compensation,  and 
placed  the  men  engaged  la  the  riot  on  their  trial, 
Lin  was  not  satisfied.     He  moved  down  to  the 
coast,  cjl  off  the  supplies  of   P.ritlsh  suhjecti, 
and  thieatened  to  stop  the  suinlles  to  .Macao  'f 
the  Portuguese  continued  to  oi^ist  the  llrltlsh. 
(Ibid.,  pp.  1037-103».)    The  BritUh  w,  r.-  m  coo- 
Sequence  forced  to  leave  .Macao;  and  u^Mt  the 
same  tine  a  small  schooner,  the  'Blaik  .Kike' 
was  attacked  by  the  Chinese,  and  a  Uriii^h  sub- 
Ject  on  boani  of  her  seriously  wounded.     Sum 
afterwards,  however,  the  arrival  of  a  ship  of 
war,  the  'Volage,'  In  Chinese  waters  emibk^ 
Elliot  to  assume  a  bolder  front    He  returned  to 
Macao:  he  even  atteinpted  to  procure  sunplk* 
from  the  mainfauid.    But,  though  he  su> (..Mtd 
In  purchasing  food,  '  the  Mandarin  runm  ri  ap- 
proMbed  and  obliged  the  oatires  to  take  hack 
their  proTlsIoas,'  and  Elliot,  exasperated  at  ihiir 
oondiiet,  Hied  on  some  war  JunJta  of  the  Chimse 
which  Rtumed  the  lln.     A  week  afu  rwanli 
Elliot  declared  the  port  and  river  of  t  imton  to 
be  la  a  sUte  of  blockade.    (Ibid.,  p.  1008.)   The 
commencement  of  the  blockade,  however,  dij 
not  lead  to  immediate  war.    On  the  contrary,  t> 
rhliieae   showed   cnoslderable   desire   to  an" 
fcOBtllltles.      They  InUsUil,   Indeed,   that   some 
British  sailor  must  hi  surrendered  w  them  to 
suffer  for  the  death  of  the  Chinaman  wlm  hikl 
fallen  In  the  riot  of    Uong  Kong.    But  th.j 
showed  so  much  anxiety  to  conclude  an  anunkf 
ment  on  this  point  that  they  endeavouKnl  to  In- 
duce Elliot  to  declare  tliat  a  sailor  who  was  aid 
dentally  drowned  In  Chinese  waters,  and  vlw~t 
Iwdy  they  bod  found,  was  the  actual  mtirli  n  r 
(State  l*uiHrs,  v.  80,  p.  27.)    Ami  Ic  thr  i:hiui 
while  the  trade  which  Lln  bad  InU  iidul  to  dr 
stnvy  went  on  at  leatt  as  actively  as  ever.      I.ln» 
nn)ceeillngs  bad,  Indeetl,  the  effect  of  siltnjlat- 
lag  it  U>  an  unprecedented  degree.    The  drviruc- 
lion  of  vast  stores  of  opium  led  to  a  ri-H'  in  the 
price  of  opium  In  China.      Tlio  rise  in  pric  pro- 
duced the  natural  consequence  of  on  liirnssfd 
speculation;   and,  though  IlritUh  sliippins  wu 
excluded  from  Chinese  wivun,  and  the  contents 
of  British  Tesseln  i  id  to  be  transfermi  to.\rafri- 
can  bottoms  for  cv.iTexanoe  Into  Chinese  p«tl% 


OaOfA,  183»-1841 


OritmWmr. 


CHINA,  1880-lMI. 


Britith  tnde  hod   never  bern  lo  large  or  to 
tdvantagcoiM  ai  in  the  ucriuj  which  succeeded 
Un'i  arbitrury    pnxMHlluKa.      Elliot    was,    of 
couno,   iioaMc  to  pruvcnt  war  cither   by  the 
nirrrniler  of  a  liritish  tailor  to  tlie  Chineie,  or  by 
iTcn  aasuuiiug  that  a  tlruwm-d  luan  waa   tlie 
murderer;  and  war  in  conaequcnce  became  dally 
more  probable.    In  January,    IMO,  operationa 
ictuaily  commenced.     Elliot  was  instructed  to 
mslie  an  armed  demonstration  on  the  northern 
coasts  it  China,  to  take  iMMacuinn  of  some  Island 
CO  tlic  coast,  and  to  obtain  reparation  and  in- 
demnitr,  If  possible  by  a  mere  display  of  force, 
but  otoerw&e  to  procrcd    with   the   squadron 
ind  thence  tend  an  ultimatum  to  Pckin.     In 
tcconionce    with   these   onlcra   tlie    lalnud    of 
Chusan  waa  occupied  In  July,  and  the  fleet  was 
mt  to  the  mouth  of  the  I^iho  with  orders  to 
transmit  a  letter  to  Pekia     But  the  sea  oil  the 
IViho  is  shallow,  the  ship*  could  not  approach 
the  coasts,  ami  the  Chinese  naturallyrvnised  to 
yield  to  an  empty  demonatratlon.    The  expcdi- 
tioD  was  forced  to  return  to  Chusan,  where  It 
found  C'^t  the  troops  whom  they  had  left  be- 
hind were  smitten  by  disease,  tliat  one  out  of 
tTeiy  four  men  were  dead,  and  that  more  than 
one-half  of  the  survivors  were  InTaUded.    Thua, 
throughout  1840,  the  Cbineaa  war  waa  only  at- 
tended with  disaster  and  distrea.    Things  com- 
nenced  a  little  more  prusperoualy  in  1841  by  the 
capture  of  the  Chlneae  position  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Canton  rlrer.     Elliot,  after  tbia  succesa,  waa 
even  able  to  conclude  a  pn^'limlnary  treaty  with 
the  Chinese  authoritlea.    But  this  tn-aty  did  not 
prove  aatisfactorv  either  to  the  British  Govern- 
ment or  to  the  Chinese.     The  British  saw  with 
dismay  that  the  treaty  made  no  mention  of  Uie 
trwle  in  opium  which  had  been  the  ostensible 
cause  of    tlie   war.     The    Whig   Government 
tccunlingly  derldol  on  superseding  Elliot.     lie 
was  recalled  ami  replaced  by  Henry  Pottinger. 
Before  news  of  his  recall  reached  him,  however, 
the  treniy  whic:h  had  led  to  his  supersession  had 
been  disavowed  by  the  Chinese  authorities,  and 
Elliot  hod   commenced  a  frenh  attack  on  the 
Chinese  forrc  which  guarded  the  roail  to  Canton. 
British  sailors  and  Britlah  tmopa,  under  the  com- 
mand of   llnTOcr  and  Oough,   won  a  victory 
wblch  plao-d  Canton  at  their  mercy.    But  Elliot, 
slirinkiiiu'  from  cx|)osing  a  gn-at  town  to  the 
homOT  of  an  asiwiilt,  stopped  tho  advance  of  the 
troops  and  admitted  the  city  to  a  rinsom  of 
£l,2M,O0O.      (Sir  11.    Taylor's  Autobiographr, 
V.  l.appx..  pp.  ftW-3f)3.)      Ills  modemtion  wits 
naturiliy   imaca  jilaliie  to  tlic    troops  and   not 
fntlnly  ;ii-provc<l   liy  the  Dritish  Clovemmcnt 
It  constituted,  however,  Elliot's  hi«t  action  as 
«i:cnt   in    Cliina.      Tlic  sulincquent    opi-ratlons 
wrre  conducted  under  Polllngir's  a«lvlcc."— 8 
«a)p<.ic,   lli>t.  ,<f  Eng.  fnm   1815,  Xott,  t.   S 
n-  -.^T-S!)!  -"  Pir  Henry  Pottinger,  who arrlvd 
M  1  Icnlpotcull  iry  on  the  10th  of  August,  to.ik 
the  chhf  .lincilon  of  tho  alTaln  ...  To  the 
end i.f  MI  tii.re  »i  re T-arijsis  successes  achieved 
»•}■  the  l.i:i,I  aid  i,;ivttl  fonos,  which  gave  tho 
British  ii-SMi-ion  of  many  large  fortilleil  towns, 
JjKjjfsl  will,  h  wcr.-  .Vmoy,  Tinghal,  Chinlml, 
>ms.-\«..  and  Slian'fhal.       The  Chinese  were 
r.evinh<l,-.«  pirsevcring  in  Ui<lr  resistance,  and 
10  most  .-:i(s  evinceii  a  braviry  which  showed 
1.x-  mi,:uk.ti  were  the  views  which  regarded 
tlic  suhj.  ciira  of  this  extmordinarj-  people  as  an 
tuy  taii>(.  .  .  .  The  Britiah  fleet  oo  the  IStb  of 


Jime  [184S]  catered  the  great  river  KUn(,  and 
on  the  6th  of  July  advanced  up  the  river,  and 
cut  off  lu  communication  with  the  Grand  Canal, 
by  which  Nanking,  the  ancient  capital  of  Cidna, 
was  supplied  with  grain.    The  pdnt  where  the 
nver  interaecU  the  canal  is  the  city  of  Chln- 
Kiang-foo.  ...  On  the  morning  of  the  9tst  the 
city  was  stormed  by  the  Britlah,  in  three  bri- 
gades.    The  realatance  of  the  Tartar  troops  was 
most  desperate.     Our  troops  fought  under  a 
burning  sun,  wbow  overpowering  heat  caused 
some  to  fall  dead.    The  obstinate  defence  of  the 
place  prevented  tU  being  Uken  till  all  o'clock 
In  the  evening.     When  the  streeu  wen  entered, 
the  bouses  were  found  almoat  deserted.    Tbey 
were  filled  with  ghastly  corptet,  many  of  the 
Tartar  aoldlen  having  destroyed  the'r  famllle* 
and  then  committed  suicide.    The  city,  ^m  the 
number  of  the  dead,  had  become  unlnbiibiuble." 
— C.  Knlffht,  Pbjmlar  UM.  cf  Eng.,  e.  8,  s*.  9& 
—"The  destruction  of  life  was  appalling.  .  .  . 
Every    Maurhu    pnfcrred    resiManoe,    death, 
suicide,  or  flight,  to  surrender.    Out  of  a  Xanchu 
popuintion  of  4,000,  It  was  eatlmated  that  not 
more  tlian  SOO  rurvived,  the  greater  part  having 
perished    by   t'.ieir    own    lumda.    .    .    .    Within 
twenty. four  houra  afl"r  the  troops  landed,  the 
cit  V  ami  suburbs  of  ChlnkUng  were  a  mass  of 
ruin  aud  destruction.  .  .  .  The  total  loss  of  the 
English  was  37  killed  and  181  wounded.  .  .  . 
Some  of  the  large  ships  were  towed  up  to  Nan- 
king, aud  the  whole  fleet  reached  it  August  9tb, 
at  which  time  preparations  had  been  made  for 
the  osaaiilL  .  .  .  Everything  was  ready  for  the 
assault  by  daylight  of  August  I5th;"  but  on  the 
night  of  the  14tn  the  Chinese  made  overtures  for 
the    negothition  of    peace,   and    the  Important 
Treaty  of  Nanking  waa  toon  afU'rwanls  con- 
eluded.     Its  terms  were  as  follows:     ■■!.  Last- 
ing   peace   between  the  two   nations.    3.  Tho 
ports  of  Canton,  Amov,  Fuhchau,  Ningpo,  and 
Shanghai    [known    afterwards   as   the    Treaty 
PorU]  to  be  opeoeil  to  British  trade  and  resi- 
dence, and  tnule  conducted  according  to  a  well- 
uuderstoixl  tariff,     8    '  It  Ixing  obvlou.sly  neces- 
sary and  desirable  tliat  British  subjecUi  should 
have  some  port  whereat  they  may  careen  and 
reflt  their  ships  when  rei|iilre<i.'  the  island  of 
Hongkong  to  be  ceiled  to  licr  JIaJesty.     4.  Six 
miiliona  of  dollars  to  be  paid  as  tlu'  vu'luc  of  the 
opium  which  waa  delivered  up  'as  a  ransom  for 
the  lives  of  H.  B.  M.  Superintendent  aud  sub- 
jecu,"  in  March,   1830.    5.  -niree   millions   of 
dolhus  to  be  paid  for  the  debu  due  to  British 
merchants.    8.  Twelve  millions  to  be  paid  for 
the  expenses  Incurred  In  tlie  exiH^iition  sent  out 
'  to  obtain  redress  for  the  violent  and  unjust  pro- 
ceedings of  the  Chinese  liigh  authorities.    7.  The 
entire  amount  of  $31,000,000  to  be  paid  before 
December  81,  1843.    8,  All  prisoners  of  war  to 
be  ImmcdUtely  released  by  the  C'Idnese,     9,  The 
Emperor  to  grant  full  and  entire  amnesty  to 
those  of  his  subjects  who  had  aided  the  British. " 
.\nlcles  10  to  13  related  to  the  tariff  of  export 
and  import  duea  that  should  be  levied  at  the 
open  ports;  to  future  terms  of  oQlcial  corre- 
S(K)ndencc,  etc.     The  Treaty  was  sipned  by  the 
CummUsiouen  on  the  20th  of  Augu  .t,  1842,  and 
the  Emperor's  ratilication  was  received  Septem- 
ber l.lth.— S    W.  WiilUms,   Th*  MiddU  Jiing- 
dum,  eh.  SI-23. 

Alio  IN  D  C.  Boulger,  Bitt.  of  China, ».  8.  eh.  S 
-7.— £.  II.  Parker,  ChiiumAccttifthtO^um  Har. 


CHINA,  1830-18M. 


CHINA,  18Sa-18M. 


cif 


\'n 


A.  D.  1850-1864.— The  Taiping  Rebellion. 
— "The  phrase  '  Tiiiping  RelielHoii  Is  wholly  of 
foreign  manufacture ;  at  Peking  and  everywhere 
among  those  loyal  to  the  government  the  in- 
surgents were  styled  'Chang-mao  tseh,'  or 
'Longhaired  rebels,' while  on  their  side,  by  a 
whimsical  resemblance  to  English  slang,  the  im- 
perialists were  dubbed  '  Imps.'  When  the  chiefs 
assumed  to  be  aiming  at  independence  in  1830, 
in  onler  to  identify  their  followers  with  their 
cause  they  took  the  terra  '  Ping  Chao,'  or  '  Peace 
Dynasty,  as  the  style  of  their  sway,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  'Tsing  Chao,'  or  'Pure 
Dynasty '  of  the  Miinchus.  Biich  of  them  pre- 
fixed tlie  adjective  •  Ta '  (or  '  Tai,'  in  Cantonese), 
'  Qreat.'  as  is  the  Chinese  custom  with  regard  to 
dynasties  and  nations;  thus  the  name  Tai-ping 
became  known  to  foreigners. " — 3.  W.  Williams, 
T/ie  MidiUe  Kingdom,  r/i.  U(r.  2).— "This  re- 
markable movement,  which  at  one  time  excited 
much  interest  In  Western  lands,  originated  with 
a  man  named  Hung  8ew-tscuen  [or  Hung  Slu- 
tscucn],  son  'if  a  humble  peasant  residing  in  a 
village  near  Canton.  On  the  occasion  of  one  of 
bis  visits  to  the  provincial  city,  probably  in  the 
year  1^33,  he  appears  to  have  seen  a  foreign 
Protestant  missionary  addressing  the  populace 
in  the  streets,  assisted  by  a  native  interpreter. 
Either  then  or  on  the  following  day  he  received 
from  some  tr.iot-distributor  a  book  entitled 
'  Q(hk1  Wonls  for  Exhorting  the  Age, '  which 
consisted  of  essays  and  sermons  by  Leang  A-fah, 
a  well-known  convert  and  evangelist.  Taking 
the  volume  home  with  him,  be  looked  It  over 
with  some  interest,  but  carelessly  laid  it  aside  in 
his  iKiokcnse.  A  few  years  afterward  he  at- 
tended for  the  second  time  the  competitive 
literary  examination  with  high  hopes  of  honor 
and  distinction,  having  already  passed  with 
much  cmlit  the  lower  examination  in  the  dis- 
trict city.  His  nmbitious  venture,  however,  met 
with  severe  disappointment,  and  he  returned  to 
his  friends  sick  in  mind  and  body.  During  this 
state  of  mental  depression  and  physical  infirmity, 
which  continued  for  some  forty  days,  he  hail 
certain  stnnirc  visions,  in  which  he  rccilveil 
Ci>mmanils  from  heaven  to  destroy  the  idols. 
TIh'«i  fancied  revelall'.ns  seem  to  have  pr<»luccd 
a  deep  impression  on  his  mind,  and  Itnl  to  a  cer- 


t;iln  gravity  of  demeanor  after  his  recovery  and 

his  quiet  occiini  ' 
vilhi^n  schoolmaster.     When  the  English    war 


return  to  his  quiet  occupation  as  a  student  and 


broke  out,  and  foreigners  swept  up  Canton  River 
with  their  wonderful  fire-ships,  ...  It  is  not 
surprising  that  Hung  should  hare  had  his  atten- 
tion again  attracted  to  the  Christian  publication 
which  Imd  lain  so  hmg  neglivted  In  his  library. 
.  .  .  The  wrillnK"  of  lA'ang  Afah  contalnetl 
rhaplers  from  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
Scriptures,  which  l.n  found  to  com-spond  In  a 
striking  manner  with  the  pnrtematural  sights  and 
voices  of  that  meinoniblu  perhsi  in  his  lilslory 
[during  his  sickness,  six  years  lirfore] ;  and  thts 
strange  coincidence  convinced  him  of  their  Ir'ilh, 
tndof  his  iM'ing  divinely  app<ilnte<l  t^i  restore 
the  world.  tliHt  is  China,  to  the  worship  of  the 
true  Uixl.  Hung  Si^w  t«'Ucn  accepted  his  mis- 
sion and  liegan  the  work  of  pn)pak;«ting  the 
filth  he  hail  espoused.  Among  liis  first  converts 
was  one  Fung  Yun-san.  who  iKvanio  a  miMt 
anient  missionary  anil  disinterested  preacher. 
ThoM  two  leaders  of  the  movement  traveled  far 


people  of  all  classes  and  forming  a  society  o{ 
Qo<{-worahlppers.  All  the  converts  rendiuiced 
Idolatry  and  gave  up  the  worship  of  Confucius. 
Hung,  at  this  time  apparently  a  sincere  ami 
earnest  seeker  after  tnith,  went  to  Canton  and 
placed  himself  under  the  instructions  of  the  Kev 
Mr.  Roberts,  an  American  missionary,  who  for 
some  cause  fearing  that  his  novitiate  ml^lit  be 
inspired  by  mercenary  motives,  denied  him  the 
rite  of  baptism.  But,  without  being  oHemled 
at  this  cold  and  suspicious  treatment,  he  went 
home  and  taught  his  converts  how  to  baptize 
themselves.  Ifhe  God-worshippers  rapidly  In- 
creased in  numbers,  and  were  known  and  fesri  I 
as  zealous  Iconoclasts.  .  .  .  For  a  year  after 
Hung  Sew-tseuen  had  rejoined  the  OiKl-wor- 
shippers  that  society  retained  its  exclusively 
religious  nature,  but  in  the  autumn  of  18.50  it 
wai  brought  into  direct  collision  with  the  civil 
magistrates,  when  the  movement  ossunieil  a 
political  character  of  the  highest  aims."  It  was 
soon  a  movement  of  declared  rebellion,  ami 
allied  with  a  rebel  army  of  bandits  and  pirates 
which  hod  ta'kcn  arms  against  the  govern- 
ment In  south-eastern  China. — L.  N.  Wheeler, 
The  Pbrtigner  in  China,  eh.  13.— "The  llalika 
schoolmaster  proclaimed  his  "  mission '  iu  1850. 
A  vast  horde  gathered  to  him.  He  norninateii 
five  'Wangs 'or  soldier  su'i  kings  from  out  of 
hisclan.  and  commenced  hisnorthward  movi'ment 
from  Woosewcn  in  January,  IS.'il.  TliMui^li 
the  rich  prosperous  provinces  his  desultory 
march.  Interspersed  with  frequent  halts,  spriail 
destruction  and  desolation.  The  pe«(  i  il  tteii 
shudderinely  l)efore  this  wave  of  fierce,  -  ilwsrt 
rumanbood,  with  its  tatterdemnliun  tau,iriness, 
its  flaunting  banners.  Its  rusty  naked  wcaiwiDs. 
Everywhere  It  gathered  in  the  fwal  wsiuridn  lisin. 
The  pirates  came  from  the  coa.Ht;  the  nihkrs 
from  the  interior  mountains  rallied  to  u,u  enter- 
prise that  promised  so  well  for  their  traile.  In 
the  perturbed  state  of  the  Chinese  populntinn 
the  horde  grew  like  an  avalanche  as  it  roileii 
along.  The  Heavenly  King  [:is  lluni;  now 
styled  himself]  met  with  no  opixi-iilioii  ti  sixik 
of,  and  in  ItWJ  his  pnunenaili:  ended  unilir  tho 
shadow  of  the  Porcelain  Tower,  in  the  riiy  of 
Nanking,  the  second  metropolis  of  the  Chinese 
Empire,  where,  till  the  wWlllon  and  hit  life 
cndeil  slmiillanmiusly,  lie  llveil  a  life  of  liirn- 
tlousness,  d.Hrkened  further  by  the  cnwae-t 
cruelties.  The  relielllon  had  lasteil  neurlv  ten 
years  when  the  fates  brought  it  into  cnlllsifm 
with  the  armed  civilization  of  the  West.  Th,; 
Imperialist  forces  had  made  sluk.'k'islily  some 
head  against  It.  Nanking  hail  iHen  i'  vested 
after  a  fashion  for  years  on  end.  'The  [ii .  -i|Ki  Is 
of  the.Tai  pings. 'says Commander  Uriue.  intli* 
early  spring  of  IS80,  had  become  very  (jliomy. 
The  Imperialist  generals  hail  hemmed'  'I'lii  pinK 
dom  within  certain  limits  In  the  lower  valley  <>( 
the  Yants/e,  and  the  movement  lunKulihid 
further  'from  Its  deslriicllve  iiiiil  exli;iii»tlnK 
nature,  which  for  continued  vitality  i.m^isntly 
reqiilri'd  new  dlstrUts  of  country  to  e-  'mu-l  ami 
deslMy.'  But  In  IH.IB  China  ami  the  \Ve,l  lamo 
Into  collision.  .  .  .  The  ndnlllon  liml  upper 
tunity  to  recover  h>st  gniund.  F.ir  the  sislli 
time  the  'Faithful  King'  ndleved  N  iiikiniT 
The  Imperialist  generals  fell  back  and  then  lli' 
Tal-plngs  took  the  olTensive.  and  as  the  reniill  "( 
sunary  victories,  the  rebellion  regained  nn  oiilve 
•ud  lluutiaiiiug  uuudiUuu.  .  .  ,  SiwuglMi,  uOi:  <ii 


438 


CHINA,  18S0-18M. 


War  wilh 
Snglaiui  and  Fmnct. 


CHINA,  1856-1860. 


the  treaty  ports,  wm  threatened."— A.  Forbes, 
Chinae  Oonkm,  eh.  8. — "Europe  .  .  .  hug 
known  evil  dsvs  under  the  hands  of  flcrcc  con- 
querors, plundering  and  destroying  in  religion's 
name;  but  iti annals  may  Iw  ransacked  in  rain, 
without  finding  any  parallel  to  the  miseries 
endured  in  those  proTinces  of  China  over  whirh 
'The  Heavenly  King,'  the  Tai-ping  prophet,  ex- 
tended his  fell  sway  for  ten  sad  years.  Hung 
Sew-t°uen  (better  known  in  China  by  his  assumed 
title,  Tien  Wang)  .  .  .  hod  read  Christian  tracts, 
bod  learnt  from  a  Christian  missionary;  and 
when  ho  announced  publicly  three  years  after- 
wards that  part  of  his  mission  was  to  destroy  the 
temples  and  Images,  and  showed  in  the  jargon 
of  his  pretended  visions  some  truces  of  his  New 
Testament  study,  the  conclusion  was  instantly 
seized  by  the  sanguine  minds  of  a  section  set 
upon  evangelizing  the  East,  that  their  efforts 
had  produced  a  true  prophet,  fit  for  the  work. 
Wedded  to  this  fancy,  they  rejected  as  the  in- 
ventions of  the  enemies  of  missions  the  tales  of 
Talping  cruelty  which  soon  reached  Europe: 
and  long  after  the  details  of  tlie  impostor's  life 
at  Nonuin,  with  Its  medley  of  visions,  execu- 
tions, edicts,  and  harem  indulgence,  became 
notorious  to  the  world,  prayers  were  offered  for 
hU  success  by  devotees  In  Oreat  Britain  as 
blgotfd  to  his  cause  as  the  bloodiest  commander, 
or '  Wang,'  whom  be  had  raised  from  the  ranks 
of  his  followers  to  carry  out  his  '  exterminating 
decrees.'  The  Talping  cause  was  lost  in  China 
before  It  was  wholly  abandoned  by  these 
fanatlri  in  England,  and  their  belief  in  its  ex- 
cellence so  powerfully  reacted  on  our  policy, 
that  it  might  have  preserved  us  from  active 
intitrvintlon  down  to  the  present  time,  bad  not 
certain  Imperialist  successes  elsewhere,  tlie 
diminishing  means  of  their  wasted  possessions, 
and  tlie  rashness  of  their  own  chiefs,  brouglit 
thcTaiping  arms  into  direct  collision  with  us. 
And  with  tlie  occasion  there  was  happily  raised 
up  the  man  whoso  prowess  was  to  scatter  their 
bliKKi  cemented  empire  to  pieces  far  more 
•pwiily  than  It  had  bten  built  up." — C.  C. 
C'b(»iiiy,  Kuny»  in  Military  Biog.,  eh.  10. — "The 
Tuiping  rebellion  was  nf  so  barbarous  a  nature 
that  its  suppression  had  become  necessary  In  the 
lntere«u  of  civilization.  A  force  raised  at  the 
expense  of  the  Shanghai  merchants,  and  sup- 
ported by  the  Chinese  government,  had  been  for 
some  yuan  struggling  against  iu  progress. 
This  force,  known  as  the  'Ever  Victorious 
Army.'  was  commanded  at  first  by  Ward,  an 
Amcrii-an,  ami,  on  his  death,  by  Burgevine,  also 
an  American,  who  was  summarily  dismissed ;  for 
s  short  time  the  command  was  held  by  Holland, 
an  Kni;Il*li  marine  oOcer,  but  be  was  defeated 
at  Tuiuan  2»  Feb..  1863.  LI  Hung  Chang, 
govrniorgi'neral  of  tlio  Kiang  provinces,  then 
applied  to  the  British  commantkrin-chlef  for  the 
services  of  on  Engllsli  officer,  and  Qonlon  [Charles 
OiKirge,  subsequently  known  as  'Chinese 
Ocirdcm']  was  authoriae<l  to  accept  the  command. 
Ho  arrived  at  HungKlong  and  entenxl  on  his 
new  duties  OS  a  mandarin  and  lieutenant -colonel 
In  the  Chinese  service  on  94  March  1863.  Ills 
force  was  cumposeil  of  some  three  to  four  thou- 
sand Chinese,  offlcercd  by  l.W  Europeans  of 
^mcwt  every  nationality  and  often  of  doubtful 
character.  Bv  the  indomiuble  will  of  It.  com- 
■f^' tW*  heterogeneous  body  was  moulded 
ffito  a  &Ui  uiu;  wiwse  iiigii-souadiof  title  of 


'ever- victorious'  become  a  reality,  and  In  less 
than  two  years,  after  88  enga;;eme>its,  the 
power  of  the  Taipings  was  completely  broken 
and  the  rebellion  stamped  out  'The  theatre  of 
operations  was  the  district  of  Kiangsoo,  lying 
between  the  Yang-tze-Klang  river  in  the  north 
and  the  bay  of  Hang-cliow  in  the  south."  Be- 
fore the  summer  of  1863  was  over,  Gonlon  had 
raise<l  the  rebel  siege  of  Chanzu,  and  taken  from 
the  Taipings  the  towns  of  Fu.shiin,  Taitsan, 
Quinsan,  Kiihpoo,  Wokong,  Pataehiiiow,  Leeku, 
Wanti,  and  Fusaiqwan.  Finally,  in  December, 
the  great  city  of  8oo-chow  was  surrendered  to 
him.  Cordon  was  always  in  front  of  all  his 
storming  parties,  "carrying  no  other  weapon 
than  a  little  cane.  His  men  called  it  his  •  magic 
wand.'  regarding  It  as  a  charm  that  protected 
his  lifi-  and  led  them  on  to  victory.  W  hen  Soo- 
chow  fell  Gordon  had  stipulated  with  the 
Governor-general  LI  for  the  '.Ives  of  the  Wangs 
(reb<'l  leaders).  They  were  trcrrheroui'/ mur- 
dered by  Li's  orders.  Indign<int  at  ■  Is  per- 
fidy, Gordon  refused  to  serve  any  longer  with 
Governor  LI,  and  when  on  1  Jan.  1864  money 
and  rewards  were  heaped  upon  him  by  the  Em 
peror,  declined  them  all.  .  .  .  After  some  [two] 
months  of  inaction  it  became  e  idcnt  that  if 
Gordon  did  not  again  take  the  field  the  Taipings 
would  regain  the  rescued  country,"  and  he  was 
prevailed  upon  to  resume  his  campaign,  which, 
although  badly  wounded  In  one  of  the  battles, 
he  brought  to  an  end  in  the  following  April 
(1864),  by  the  >a»pturcof  Clianchufu.  '"This 
victory  not  only  ended  the  campaign  but  com- 
pletely destroyed  the  rebellion,  and  the  Chinese 
regular  forces  were  enabled  to  occupy  Nuniiin 
in  the  July  following.  The  large  money  present 
offered  to  Gonlon  by  the  em|H.'ri)r  was  again 
declined,  although  he  hod  spent  his  pi.y  in  pro- 
moting the  elllciency  of  his  force,  so  tlmt  he 
wrote  home:  'I  shall  leave  China  as  poor  as 
wlien  I  entered  it '"—Col.  R  H.  Veltch.  C/iarUl 
Oeotyt  Oordiin  (Diet,  of  Nat.  Hiog.) 

Also  ts:  A.  E.  Hake,  T/u  Story  of  Chinem 
OnnUin,  eh.  8-8.— W.  F.  Butler.  Chiu.  Oeorgt 
Oonton,  eh.  2.-8.  Moasman.  Qeiural  Oonlm  in 
ClUiut.—PiitiU*  Diary  of  Qen.  Oonlon  in  C'Aiiut, 
—Mm.  Callery  and  \van,  Uitt.  of  the  Iruurrte- 
lion  in  China. 

A.  D.  1856-1860.- War  with  England  sad 
France.- Bombardment  and  capture  of  Can- 
ton.—The  Allies  in  Pckio.— Their  destruction 
of  the  Summer  Palace.— Terms  of  peace.— 
The  speech  fn)m  the  throne  at  the  opening  of 
the  English  Parliament,  on  Februi..-y  8,  IS.'JT, 
"stateil  that  acta  of  violence,  Insult*  to  the 
British  flag,  and  infractions  of  treaty  rights,  com- 
mitted by  the  local  authorities  at  Cunton.  and  a 
pertinacious  refiuuil  of  redress,  luul  rendered  It 
necessary  for  'her  Abjesty's  otHcers  In  China  to 
have  recourse  to  measures  of  force  to  obtain  satis- 
faction. The  allege<l  olTenccs  uf  the  Chinese  au- 
thorities at  Canton  had  for  their  single  victim 
tlto  lorcha  '  Arrow.'  The  lorclia  '  Arrow  '  was  a 
small  boat  built  on  the  European  model.  Tho 
word  '  Lorcha '  is  taken  from  tliv  IVrtuguetie  set- 
llemeut  at  Matao,  at  the  nioiilli  of  the  Canton 
river.  It  often  iwcura  in  treaties  witli  the  CI  lueso 
authorities.  Ou  Ocuiber  8.  tti'iO,  a  party  of 
Chinese  in  charge  of  an  offlcer  lN>anle<f  the 
'Armw,'  In  the  Canton  -Iver.  They  liwk  oil 
twelve  men  on  a  charge  of  piracy,  leaving  two 
men  to  charge  of  the  Forcha.    The  '  Arrow '  wm 


439 


'►   !  ' 


CBIXA.  18S0-1890. 


Affair  of 
tk*  Arrmi. 


CHINA,  18S0-18aa 


^: 


declnrod  by  Its  ownera  to  be  »  Britiah  vessel 
Our  mnsiil  at  Canton,  Mr.  Parkcs,  ilcmaiulwi 
irom  Yeh,  the  Chinese  Governor  of  Canton,  the 
return  of  the  men,  basing  his  demand  uiion  the 
1  reaty  of  1843.  sunplementnl  to  the  Treaty  of 
1843.  Tliis  treaty  did  not  give  tlie  Chinese  au- 
thorities any  riglit  to  seize  Cliincse  offenders,  or 
supposed  offenders,  on  Imard  an  English  vessel. 
It  mereiy  gave  them  a  right  to  require  tlie  sur- 
render of  the  olfcnders  at  the  lunds  of  tlic 
Engli.sh.  The  Cliini-Me  Governor,  Ych.  con- 
tended, however,  tliat  tlic  lorcha  was  a  Cliinesc 
j)irate  vessel,  which  had  no  right  whatever  to 
hoist  the  flag  of  England.  It  may  be  plainly 
8tate<l  at  once  that  the  •  /■  -row '  was  not  an 
English  vessel,  but  oiilv  a  Ciiineso  vessel  wliicli 
had  obtaine<l  by  false  pretenec«  the  temporary 
possession  yf  a  British  llag.  Mr.  Consul  Partes, 
however,  wag  fussy,  and  he  demanded  the  in- 
stant restoration  of  the  captured  men,  an<l  lie  sent 
off  to  our  Plenipotentiary  at  Hong  Kong.  8ir 
John  Bortiliig,  for  authority  and  assTstanceln  the 
business.  Sir  John  Bowring  .  .  .  ordered  the 
Chinese  authorities  to  surrender  all  the  men  uken 
from  the  '  Arrow,'  and  he  insisted  that  an  apology 
should  be  offered  for  their  arrest,  and  a  formal 
ple<ige  given  that  no  such  act  should  ever  be 
committed  again.  If  this  were  not  done  within 
forty -eight  hours,  naval  operations  were  to  be  be- 

?in  against  the  Chinese.    The  Chinese  Governor, 
eh,  sent  back  all  the  men,  and  undertook  to 
promise  that  for  the  future  great  care  should  be 
taken  that  no  British  ships  should  be  visited  Im- 
properly by  Chinese  olHcers.    But  he  could  not 
offer  an  apology  for  the  particular  case  of  the 
•  Arniw,  for  he  still  maintained,  as  was  indeed 
the  fart,  that  the  'Arrow '  was  a  Chinese  vessel 
and  thai  the  English  hati  nothing  to  do  with  her' 
Accmiingly  Sir  .Jolin  Bowring  carried  out  his 
tirciit,  ami  had  Canton  bombarded  by  tlie  fleet 
J.  hi.  h  Adnilnii  Sir  .Micliael  !S<"\"i,ourcommandetl 
r-.om  »>et()l)er  23  to  November  18  naval  and  mili- 
tary o,  eratious  were  kept  up  continuously.    Com- 
missioner Yeh  retaliated  by  foolishly  oilerinir  a 
rewanl  for  the  heiul  of  every  Euglishman.     This 
news  from  China  cn'ated  a  considerable  M'nsation 
In  England.     t)n  February  84,  la'jr,  \a>v\  IX^rbv 
brouiflit  forwanl  in  the  House  of  Lonis  a  motiori 
comprehensively  condemning  the   whole  of  the 
proctjillngs  of  the  British  autlioritiea  in  China. 
The  debate  would  have  U^n  memorable  if  onl" 
for  the  powerful  s|wwh  in  which  the  venerable 
Lord  Lvndhurst  supported  the  motion,  and  ex- 
posed the  utter  Illegality  of  the  raurse  pursuwl 
by  Sir  John  IjAwring.    The  Houm-  of  LonIs  re- 
jected the  motion  ofLord  Derby  »i  a  nialoritv 
of   148  to   110.     On  February  26 'Mr    Cobden 
brought  forward  a  similar  motion  in  the  Hou.ic 
of  Commons.  .  .  .  .Mr.    CoUlcn   h:id   pi.'lialily 
never  dreamed  of  the  amount  or  the  nature  of 
llie  support  his  motion  was  destined  to  nivlve 
The  vote  of  censure  was  carried  by  263  voti^s 
against  247  -  u  majority  of  16.    Lord  Palmerston 
announced    two   or  tlirt^*)  days  after  that   the 
Oovemiiient  hail  nN)lv(^l  on  a  dtwolution  and  un 
apixal  to  the  country     Lord  Palmerston  under- 
sto««l  his  countrjmen."    In  the  ensuing  elections 
his  victory  waso.mnlete.   "CoUlen,  Bright,  Mil- 
ner  Glb*,n   W.  J.  Fon,  Layard,  and  many  other 
calling  opponents  of  the  Chinese  policy,  were 
left  without  seau.     Lord  Palmerston  came  back 
I'l  "Tyi  *'"'  I*"""*"!  »nd  redoubled  strength  " 
H«    bad  the  satisfaction  before  he  kft  offlo:  [in 


1858]  of  being  able  to  announce  the  capture  ol 
Canton.     The  operations  against  Chtoa  had  I„.en 
virtually  suspended  .  .  .  when  the  Indian  Mu- 
tiny  broke  out.    England  had  now  got  the  o. 
operation  of  ti^ance.    France  had  a  complaint  of 
long  standing  agidnst  China  on  account  of  the 
murder  of  some  missionaries,  for  which  nnlresa 
had  Ix'eti  asked  in  vain.     There  was,  therefore 
an  allle.1  attack  made  upon  Canton  [DeeemlHT' 
1S57J,  and  of  course  the  city  wag  easily  captun^il' 
Commissioner  Yeh  himself  wag  Uken  prisoner 
not  until  l.e  had  been  sought  for  and  hunted  out 
n  most  Ignominious  fashion.    He  wag  found  at 
last  hidden  away  in  some  obscure  part  of  a  house 
He  was  known  liy  his  enormous  fatness. 
He  was  put  on  boanl  an  English  man-of-war  ami 
afterwan  s  sent  to  Calcutta,  where  he  dic^d  iurlv 
In  the  following  year.     Unless  report  greatly  he- 
lietl  him  he  bad  beep  exceptionally  cruel  even 
fcr  a  Chinese  official.    The  English  and  Fitnch 
Envoys  Lord  Elgin  and  Baron  Qros,  succewled 
in  making  a  treaty  with  China.    By  tie  con 
ditlona  of  the  treaty,  England  and  France  were 
to  have  minii-ters  at  tlie  Chinese  Court  on  certain 
special  occasions  at  least,  and  China  was  to  be 
represented  in  London  and  Paris;  there  was  to 
be  toleration  of  Christianity  in  China    and  a 
wrtain  freedom  of  access  to  Chinese  rivers  for 
inglUh  and  French  meroantlle  vessels,  ami  to 
the  Interior  of  China  for  Enj^ilsh  and  Ftfnch  sub- 
lectg.    China  was  to  nay  the  expenses  of  the  war 
It  was  further  agreed  tliat  the  tenn  'barbarian' 
?:'i°f  °°  iS"**"'  •"  •*  applic<l  to  Europeans  In 
China.    There  was  great  congratulation  in  Eng- 
land over  this  treaty,  and  the  prospect  it  affoniSi 
of  a  lasting  peace  with  China.    The  peace  thus 
procured  lasted  in  fact  exactly  a  year  The 

treaty  of  Tien-uin,  which  had  been  arrangid  by 
Lord  Elgin  and  Baron  Oroa,  conuined  a  clause 
pnu'id  ug  for  the  exchange  of  the  ratifleaiions 
at  Pekin  witliin  a  year  from  the  dai  \  of  tlie  »ig- 
iiature,  which  took  place  In  June  laW.     b,r,I 
Elgin  returned  to  England,  and  his  brother,  Mr 
JriHlerick  Bruce,  was  appointed  In  Slareli  IN59 
Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Pleniimien- 
tiary  to  China.    Mr.  Bruce  wag  directetl  to  pro- 
ceed by  way  of  the  Peiho  to  Tientsin,  and  thence 
to  Pekto  to  exchange  the  ratiflcatious  of  the 
treaty.    Lord  MalmesLury,  who  was  then  Foreign 
Secretary  .  .  .  lmpress«d  upon  Mr.  Bruce  lliat 
he  was  not  to  be  put  off  from  going  to  the  aipiial. 
Instructions  were  sent  out  from  England  at  tlic 
same  time  to  Admiral  Ho|)e,  the  Jfaval  Com- 
manderinChlcf  in  China,  to  provide  a  sultii  ieot 
force  to  accompany  Mr  Bruce  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Pelho.    The  Pelho  river  tlows  from  the  high- 
lands on  the  west  Into  the  Gulf  of  Pechell,  at  the 
north-east  comer  of  the  Chinese  domlnlens.    The 
capital  of  the  Emnire  is  about  100  miles  inland 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Peiho.     It  does  not  stiiud 
on  that  river,  which  flows  past  It  at  some  Ui«- 
liince  westward,  but  It  U  connected  with  the 
river  iiy  means  of  a  canal    The  t4)wn  of  Tien- 
tsin stands  on  the  Pelho  near  Ita  junction  with 
one  of  the  manv  riven  that  flow  into  It,  and 
alKiut  forty  miles  from  the  mouth.    The  entrance 
to  the  Peiho  was  defended  by  the  Taku  fori.. 
On  June  20.  1S59.  Mr  Bruce  and  the  French  En 
voy  renciiwl  the  mouth  of  the  Peiho  with  Admlnd 
Ho|H-s  fleet,    some  Dlneteen  vessels  In  sll,  to 
escort  them.     They  found  the  forU  defended: 
sinne  negotiations  and  ioter-communlca'!uujtook 
place,  itbU  a  Chiucse  uOiviai  from  Tisa-tgin  caiuv 


440 


C-aiNA.  18S6-18aO. 


Airbuifunj 
i»  AWk. 


CHINA,  1897-1M8. 


uod  endeavoured  to  obtain  lome 
proinin.    Mr.  Bruce  became  con- 


vii"  .'(1  lufi .  the  condition  of  things  predicted  by 
:^)nl  Malriicsbury  was  coming  about,  and  tlut 
tilt  Chinese  authorities  were  only  trying  to  de- 
fciit  Ills  purpose.  He  called  on  Admiral  Hope 
to  clear  a  passage  for  the  vessels.  When  the 
Ailmiml  brought  up  his  gunboats  the  forts 
o|Kne<l  Are.  The  Chinese  artillerymen  showed 
unexpected  skill  and  precision.  Four  of  the  gun- 
Uiuts  were  almost  immediately  disabled.  All 
tlic  attacking  vessels  got  aground.  Admiral 
Hope  lUtenipted  to  storm  the  foru.  The  attempt 
wtti>  a  compiecc  failure.  Admiral  Hop  himself 
wiis  woun<le<l;  so  was  the  commander  of  the 
French  vessel  which  iiad  contribute<i  a  contingent 
to  the  storming  party.  The  attempt  to  force  a 
passage  of  the  river  was  given  up  and  the  mis- 
sion to  Pukin  was  over  for  the  present.  It  seems 
only  fair  to  cay  that  the  Chinese  at  the  mouth  of 
the'P'.'iho  cannot  be  accused  of  |>ertidy.  They 
had  mounted  the  forta  and  liarricadvd  the  river 
openly  and  even  ostentatiously.  ...  It  will  be 
eHsily  inmgine<i  t  it  the  news  created  .^  deep 
seniuitiou  in  England.  People  in  general  made 
up  their  minds  at  once  that  the  matter  could  not 
be  allowed  to  rest  there,  and  that  the  mission  to 
Ptkin  must  be  enforced.  .  .  .  Before  the  whole 
question  came  to  be  discussed  in  Parliament  the 
Conservatives  had  gone  out  and  the  Liberals  '  id 
come  in.  The  English  and  French  Giovemmeuts 
determined  that  the  men  who  had  made  the 
treaty  of  Tien-tsin  —  Lord  Elgin  and  Baron  Qnn 
—  should  be  sent  back  to  insist  on  its  reinforce- 
ment. 81r  Hope  Unmt  was  appointed  to  the 
militiiry  command  of  our  land  forces,  and  Qeneral 
Cousin  de  .Montauban,  afterwards  Count  Palikao, 
commanded  the  soldiers  of  France.  The  Chinese, 
to  do  them  Justice,  fiught  very  bravely,  but  of 
course  they  had  no  clmnce  whatever  against  such 
forces  IIS  those  commun<led  by  tlie  English  and 
Fnnch  generals.  The  allies  ciiptun'd  the  Taku 
fort.1  [August,  1800L  occui)led  Tientsin,  ami 
infirciieil  on  Pekin.  The  Chinese  Oovemment 
eniiciivoured  to  negotiate  for  peace,  and  to  iuter- 
|H)se  liny  manner  of  delay,  diplomatic  or  other- 
wise, between  the  allies  and  their  progress  to  the 
espitui.  LonI  Elgin  consented  at  IhkI  to  enter 
into  negotiations  at  Tungchow,  a  walled  town 
tell  or  twelve  miles  nearer  tlian  Pekin.  Before 
tile  negotiations  took  place.  Lord  Elgin's  secre- 
taries. Mr.  Purkes  and  Mr.  Loch,  gome  English 
olticers.  Mr  Uowlhy,  the  o>rrespontlent  of  the 
'Times,'  and  some  members  of  the  stall  of  Baroa 
Oriw,  were  tiiiieherously  seized  by  the  Chinese 
while  uiiiler  a  Hug  of  truce  and  dragged  off  to 
viirii  us  |iri.«iiis.  Mr.  Purkes  and  >Ir.  L<Kh,  with 
cknii  of  their  companions,  were  afterwanis  n'- 
leiixd  lifter  having  Iwen  treated  with  much 
eruclty  and  Iniilgnity,  but  thirteen  of  the  prison- 
ere  ill  1  of  the  horrible  111  treatment  they  re- 
cilvei  L<)rd  Elgin  refused  to  negotiate  until 
the  iirismicrs  had  been  returned,  and  the  allied 
Hriuiis  Were  B'-tually  at  one  of  Ibe  great  gates  of 
I'elklii,  sud  lind  their  guns  in  ixwUion  to  blow 
tlie  Kate  In,  when  the  Chinese  acceiled  U)  their 
teriiii.  The  gate  was  surrendered,  the  Bilk's  eu- 
liriil  the  citv,  and  the  English  and  French  flags 
wi  re  Iu.UimJ  ,|,|e  by  side  on  the  walls  of  Pekin 
It  WHS  only  after  entering  the  city  that  LonI 
Elifiii  learned  of  the  munler  of  the  captives.  He 
Hum  letemilned  that  the  Summer  Palace  should 
K  burul  duwD  ■■  a  meuia  ui  impressing  the 


mind  of  the  Chinese  authoritiet  genenlly  with 
some  sense  of  the  danger  of  treachery  and  foul 
play.  Two  days  were  occupied  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  paUce.  It  covered  an  area  of  many 
miles.  Oanlens,  temples,  small  lodges,  and  pa- 
godas, groves,  grottoes,  lakes,  bridges,  terraces, 
artillchd  hills,  diversiHed  the  vast  space.  All 
the  artistic  treasures,  all  the  curiosities,  arch- 
aeological and  other,  that  Chinese  wealth  and 
Chinese  taste,  such  as  it  was,  could  bring  to- 
ge*'<°r,  had  been  accumulated  in  this  magnificent 
pit '  .  unce.  The  surrounding  scenery  was 
be  .  ..'ul.  The  high  mountains  of  Tartaiy  ram- 
pai  :<.d  one  side  of  the  enclosure.  The  buddings 
were  set  on  fire ;  the  whole  place  was  given  over 
to  destruction.  A  monument  was  ralsi'd  with  an 
inscription  in  Chinese,  setting  forth  that  such 
waa  the  reward  of  perfidy  and  cruelty.  Very 
different  opinions  were  held  in  England  as  to  the 
destruction  of  the  Imperial  palace.  To  many  it 
seemed  an  act  of  unintelligible  and  unpardonable 
vandalism.  Lord  Elgin  explained,  that  if  he  did 
not  demand  the  surrender  of  the  actual  perpetra- 
tors, it  waa  because  be  knew  full  well  that  no 
dittlculty  would  have  been  made  alH>ut  giving 
him  a  seeming  satisfaction.  The  Chinese  Oovem- 
ment would  have  selected  for  vicarious  punish- 
ment, in  all  probability,  a  crowd  of  mean  and 
unfortunate  wretches  who  had  nothing  to  do  with 
the  murders.  ...  It  is  somewluit  singular  that 
so  many  persons  should  have  been  roused  to  in- 
dignation by  the  destruction  of  a  building  who 
took  with  perfect  composure  the  unjust  invasion 
of  a  count^.  The  allied  powers  now  of  course 
had  it  all  their  own  way.  England  established 
her  right  to  have  an  envoy  In  Pekin.  whether  the 
Chinese  liked  it  or  not.  China  had  to  pay  a  war 
indemnity,  and  a  large  sum  of  money  as  com- 
pensation to  the  families  of  the  murdered  pristm- 
emand  to  those  who  had  suffered  injuries,  and 
to  make  an  apology  for  the  attack  by  the  garrison 
of  the  Taku  forts.  Perhaps  the  most  important 
gain  to  Eumpe  from  the  war  was  the  knowledge 
that  Pekin  was  not  by  any  means  so  large  a  city 
as  we  had  all  imagined  it  to  be,  and  that  it  was 
<m  the  whole  rather  a  crumbling  and  tumble- 
down sort  of  place." — J.  McCarthy,  S/iort  Hint, 
of  our  men  Tintt,  eh.  13,  15,  17  (cA.  30  aiui  43, 
e.  8,  iif  Uirger  vork). 

Also  i.n:  L.  Oliphant,  NarrnUtt  of  the  Earl  of 
Klgin't  Mition,  t.  1, — H.  B.  Loch,  Ikrmituil  Nur- 
nitire.—a.  W.  Williams,  The  MiMle  Kingitom, 
eh.  a  (e.  2).— Col.  Sir  W.  F.  Butler,  Chu.  Ueo. 
Oontun,  eh.  8. 

A.  O.  i8s7-l868.— Treaty  with  the  United 
States.— The  Burlingame  Embassy  and  the 
Burlinrame  Treaties. — "The  guvernment  of 
the  I'lilteil  States  vieweil  with  «n.\iely  the  new 
breaking  nut  of  liostilitie:!  U'tween  Ureut  liritain, 
supported  !)»•  Friiiict'  as  an  iilly,  and  Cliiim,  in  the 
ve»r  IMII.  'Preitident  Buchuniin  mliI  thitlier  the 
ilim.  William  1).  Keed  to  wuti  h  the  eourst!  of 
events,  and  to  act  tlie  part  of  a  miKlistor  and 
iK'aivmaker  when  opportunity  should  offer. 
In  Wn*  he  was  sustained  liv  (lie  intliience  of 
Itussla.  Mr.  Iteed  arrived  in  Ibing  Knng.  or-  llie 
line  war  steaim  r  .Minnesota,  NuveiniHT  7,  1N.>7. 
He  at  once  set  himself  to  reninve  tlie  dirtlciillies 
U'lweeu  the  En»;'i»li  anil  Chinese,  nml  s.ive  if 
possible  the  fulun'  elTiisii)n  of  IiNkmI  He  en- 
deavored ill  vain  to  persuade  the  pmiid  mid  ob- 
Hiinate  governor  Yen  tn  yii-ltl  jiod  itive  ('iitil^tQ 
from  bombardment.    He  proceeded  to  the  north. 


411 


CHIN^  1857-1888. 


Burlingame 
Embanj/. 


CHINA,  1857-18«8. 


and  m«do  on  behalf  of  bb  government  a  treaty 
of  pt^ce  with  China  which  was  glgniii  June  lA 
Tlic  flret  article  of  the  treaty  contains  asicnifi- 
cnnt  referencx-  to  the  posture  of  the  Culted  States 
in  n'lation  to  the  war  then  in  proKrvas  as  well 
as  to  any  whlcli  might  thcreafur  arise.  The 
artKlo  says:  -There  shall  be,  as  there  have 
always  ixua,  peace  and  friendship  Iwtween  the 
Lniud  States  of  America  and  the  TaTsiuK 
Empire,  and  between  their  people  respectively 
Tliiy  shall  not  Insult  or  op,,ress  each  other  for 
any  trttimg  cause,  so  as  to  pnxluce  an  estraoKe- 
ment  between  them;  and  If  any  other  natn)n 
should  act  unjustly  or  oppressively,  the  United 
btaU's  will  exert  their  good  offices,  on  being 
Infonned  of  the  case,  to  bring  about  an  amicable 
arrangement  of  the  question,  thus  showing  their 
friendly  fetiings.'  A  subsequent  article  of  this 
treaty  Is  to  be  taterpreted  by  kitping  In  view 
tlie  bitter  root  of  the  dlfflculties  between  Great 

,  Vi.o„''°'',*^'''°»  *''''^''  '">  'o  'he  previous  war 

of  1839  to  43,  and  to  this  war    After  statlnit 

the  ports  where  Americans  shall  be  permitted  to 

reside  and  their  vessels  to  trade,  it  continues  In 

the  following  language:  'But  said  vessels  shall 

not  carry  on  a  clandestine  and  fraudulent  trade 

at  othe-  ports  of  China  net  declared  to  be  legal 

or  along  the  coasto  there-of ;  and  any  vessel  under 

the  American  flag  violating  this  provision  shall, 

with  her  cargo,  be  subject  to  confiscation  to  the 

tliinise   government;  and  any  cltizi-n  of   the 

Lnacd  states  who  shall  trade  in  any  contraband 

article  of  merehandi.w  sliall   be  subject  to  be 

dealt  with  by  the  Chinese  government,  without 

lieing  entitled  to  any  countenance  or  protection 

from  that  of  the  Inlted  States;  and  the  United 

Males  will  take  measures  to  prevent  their  flag 

from  iK'ingabused  by  tlie  subjects  of  other  nations 

as  a  coyer  for  the  violation  of  the  laws  of  the 

empire.  The   development  of  the  foreign 

tm.le  with  China  during  the  brief  time  which 

has  passed  [INTO]  since  llie  Ixst  war  has  been  very 

great.  .  .      The  American  government  has  ken 

representwl  most  of  the  time  by  the  Hon.  An8<m 

Uur  ingamc.  who  has  taken  the  lead,  with  n  - 

markabl..   ability  Bn<l    su.cvss,   in  establLshing 

the  policy  of  peaceful  coi.|)<.ration  between  the 

chief  treaty  powers,  in  encouraging  tlie  Chinese 

to  iidopt  a  more  wise  and   pn.gressive   policy 

n  the  r  entenourse  with  foreign  nations  and  in 

llie  IntrtKluetion  of  the  improveiiienls  of  the  age 

.  .  .  Mr.  Uurllngimie.  whohailU-enlnChiiiasix 

years,  determined  [in  18«:|  to  resign  his  post  and 

reiiim  to  Amenca.    The  news  of  it  exc  t .'.l  iiiiich 

ngret  ainoiig  lioth  Chiiiem.  and  fon'-n  <lipl,mia- 

tiHt.s     1  he  former  endeavored  In  vain  U)  dis-siimle 

him  from  his  purixwe.    Failing  to  lu  complish  this, 

he  wasinvlu.,1  by  I'rinc..  Kui.g  loa  farew.llenler 

jalnnirnt.  at  which  wir.'  pn«.nl  niiuiy  of  the  l.ad- 

Ing  olllcrrs  of  il,e  government.     During  it  they 

exi.r.  .H.S.M1  l„  hlin  their  gratitude  for  his  ofllces  to 

theiiiiisan  inlclllgent  an.l  disinterested  counselor 

MO  friend.     And  tliey  seem  to  have  conceived  at 

this  thiie  the  thought  of  putting  th«  niations  of 

the  empire  with  foreign  countries  npona  more  Ju.st 

•nc  cjual  ba«i.H,  l,y  «..ndlng  to  them  an  impJrial 

eniliassy  of  which  he  should  be  the  hea<i      T'lev 

nmiimily  con8ult..<l  some  of  their  more  rellabfe 

fri.  niU  iiniong  the  foreign  gentlemen  at  the  capi- 

M.  and  1,1  two  days  afur  they  Unden'<l  Ui  Mr. 

Burlingame.  much  to  his  surprise,  the  appolnt- 

men   of  mli.lsier  plen!;H)tcnti«ry  of  China  to  the 

Western  pvwct*  .  .  ,  Sir.  Uufllugaiue  iufi  the 


Cunese  capital  on  the  SRtii  of  XovemlKr  1867 
The  embassy  oonsistol.  besides  the  principal  of 
Ch  h-kang  and  Sun  Cliiaku,  a  Mauchu  uikI  « 
Chinese  officer  each  wearing  the  red  ball  „„  i,u 
cap  which  Indicates  on  offlcfi.l  of  o  rank  nfuZ 
the  highest  in  the  empire;  J.  McLeary  Unm,, 
formerly  of  the  British  legathm,  andM  1),., 
champs,  as  secretaries;  Teh  Jllng  and  Fuiixi 
as  Chinese  attaches,  and  several  other  ...rsons 
nsulKmlinatc  positions.  .  .  .  It  went  to  «I,X! 
hiU,  thence  to  San  Francisco,  where  It  was  nidt 
cjiniially  welcmicd  by  both  the  American  axu 
(.hiiiese  mercantile  commup:les.  It  reiulail 
Washington  In  May,  1868.  riie  cmhaj;  «„ 
i^ifiV-'  *t'  ?"" ''.  '"sOnftlon  at  the  A.n.ricua 
capital.  No  American  statesman  was  so  cnnal.le 
ami  dlsi«.se,l  to  enter  conlially  into  Its  ohje  taas 

William  H.  Seward,  wli<«o  mind  ha.1  1»bk  an: 
preheiided  the  gre'„;  features  of  the  policy  wliu'l, 
American  and  fcr.ign  nations  shoulcl  pursue  in 
relati  jn  to  the  Cldnese  empire.  On  the  Ifiili  of 
Ju.  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  ratiticU 
ti«ity  which  he  had  made  in  behalf  of  tlil. 
country  with  the  representative  of  the  Chinese 
government  The  treaty  defines  and  fixes  the 
P,.f ';.','•■*  "'  the  intercourse  of  Western  nations 
witu  China,  of  the  Importance  of  which  I  have 
already  spoken.    It  secures  the  territorial  iuteg- 

^X?  '•'.".''"'.P'"','""'  "'"cedes  to  China  the 
rights  which  the  civilized  nations  of  the  world 
accord  to  ca'-h  other  as  to  eminent  domuiii  over 
land  and  waters,  and  jiirisdictioii  over  ix-^ons 
and  pro|x.rty  therein.  It  t^ikes  the  oL  step 
toward  the  appiilntmcnt  of  Clilnes»'  consuls  in 
our  si'aports  — a  measure  proniotiv.^  of  l„ith 
Chinese  and  American  Intere^sLs.     Itwiiiris  u- 


emptiou    from  all  disability  or  pei*,uiion  on 
faith  in  either  coiinirv.    It 


442 


acioiiiii  of  religi. 

recoi;iii/.cs  the  rif    .  o'  voliiuUiry  eiu'lKioiiiui'  mi 
makes  iKiial  the  v  ...ngg  „f  n^.  coolie  irulll,      It 
plwigcs  priv':.ge8  as  to  travel  or  resi.l.ncu  in 
either  coi:utry  such  as  are  enjoviil  bv  tin     i,«t 
faytred   nation.     It  grants  to  tlie  CfiiniM   mr- 
mission  to  attend  our  schools  aixl  colli-.r,  IiuJ 
allows  us  u>fr.Tly  establish  ami  maintain  sihoolj 
In  (  una.     And  while  it  acknowledg       ,„.  riifbt 
of  the  Chinese  government  to  conti..i  ii.s  own 
whole   Interior   arrangements,   as  u>  niilroiids, 
tcl.graplis  and  other  Internal  Inipreveiii. uts  it 
suggests  the  willingnesa  of  our  goveriiin.  ut  to 
Bllord  aid  toward  their  ramstruct'on  liv  ilisii- 
iiating  and    authi.riiing   suitable   cngiiicrs  w 
perform  the  work,  at  the  expense  of  the  I'hiuew 
goveriim-iit.     The  tr  «ty  expressly  leav,«  the 
(|iiestlim  of  naturalization  in  either  country  «n 
o|)en  one.   ...  It  is  not  necessary  to  follow  in 
(htail  the  pn>gre8s  of  this  first  lmpcri.il  t'hiniw 
embassy      In  England  it  was  re'ci-lved  ut  tint 
\ery  coldly,   and  It  was  some  months  Ufore 
pro|Hr  attention  ci>uld  be  secured  fnmi  tin  uor- 
crniient  to  its  obJi-<t«.     At  length,  how.vc  r,  on 
>;iv,|iiilK'r  at).  It  was  presenteil  to  the    uiinst 
»  iidsor  Castle.  .  .  .   What  hoar*  U  thin  that 
will  not  join  In  theconlial  »i.;l.  ihu(  'h- tr,.itiei 
iiuide  I).v  the  emiMtssj-  with  Great  Uritaiii,  FruKf, 
I  rii.<>iia  ;oid  other  European  powers  mH\  !«•  the 
coii.ineiiccmeat  of  a  new  era  in  the   (iii"iIoinatic 
am;  national  iiitcreourae  of  China  with  iliu*  and 
a!  other  land)  of  the   We8t!"-W.  8pe.r,  Ut 
HUletl  unit  IIk  Xttetit  Binpirt.  eh.  14. 

AlJt.1  IN       T<f>Hia  ami    amtc::l:'>.v  h,:    0* 
I.  H.  aiu: uHier  J\neen  (last),  p,  lJ»0Bdl7». 


CHIKA,  1884-188S. 


Futurt  of 
the  Chinam. 


CHIPPEWA. 


A.  D.  1884-1885.— War  with  Frmnce.  Sw 
Fuasce:  a.  D.  1875-1889. 

A.  D.  1893.— Ezdtttion  of  Chinr.xe  from  the 
United  Statu.  See  Unitku  Static  of  Am.  : 
A.  D.  18»a. 

A  D.  1893.— The  future  of  the  Chinese. — A 
iptculation.— "  China  ia  generally  regunled  asa 
stutiiimiry  power  which  can  fairly  hold  its  own, 
tliougli  it  has  lost  Anniun  tc  Fmnce,  and  the 
•uieniinty  of  Upper  Biinnah  to  England,  and 
the  AmcKJf  Valley  to  liussia,  jut  wliieU  is  not  a 
jcrious  coniiH'ti'or  in  tlie  race  for  eninire.  There 
is  a  certain  i-  .lusibility  in  this  vii .  •.  On  the 
other  hand,  Cliina  luis  recovered  Eai>.«ni  Turkes- 
tan from  MiUiommedan  rule  and  from  a  liussiaa 
prutectiimte,  is  dominating  the  Corea,  and  has 
stamped  out  a  dangerous  reljcl'm  in  Yunnan. 
No  one  can  doulit  that  if  China  were  to  get  for 
niTeri'iKn  a  man  witli  the  rrganising  and  aggres- 
sive genius  of  Peter  the  Great  or  Frederick  the 
Sjccdod.  it  would  lie  a  very  formidable  neighbour 
to  either  British  India  or  Russia.  Neither  is  it 
easy  to  suppow  that  the  improvements,  now 
tentatively  intruducca  iutoChiua,  will  notS'Kin  be 
taken  up  and  puslied  on  a  large  scale,  so  that 
nilnays  will  be  carried  into  the  heart  of  Asia, 
and  lar^e  armiesdrillcd  and  furnished  -'itharms 
of  precision  on  the  European  model.  In  any 
such  KLse  the  rights  which  China  has  reluet;intly 
conceded  or  still  claims  over  Annam  and  Ton- 
uuln,  over  Siam.  over  Upper  Burmah.  and  ever 
Ntpaul,  may  become  mitta-rs  of  very  serious  dis- 
cussion. At  present  the  French  settlements 
srrest  the  expansion  of  China  in  tlie  direction 
inoiit  dangerous  to  the  world.  Unfortunately, 
tlie  elimale  of  Saigon  is  sucli  as  no  Euroiwan 
cares  10  wttle  in,  and  the  war  to  secure  Tonquia 
vss  Mj  unpopular  that  it  cost  a  French  premier 
ills  tenure  of  otllce.  .  .  .  Whatever,  however,  be 
the  fortune  of  China  in  this  direction,  it  is 
scarcely  doubtful  tliat  she  will  not  only  people 
up  to  the  furthest  Inundary  of  Iier  recognised 
territory,  but  gradually  acquire  new  dommiona. 
Tlie  history  of  our  Straits  oettleinenta  will  afford 
a  familiar  instance  how  the  Chinese  an.  spread- 
ing, Tliey  already  form  half  the  population 
predoniiiiating  in  Singapore  i<nd  I'eruk,  and  the 
best  oliservers  are  agreed  that  ihe  Maluy  cannot 
hold  bis  own  against  them.  They  are  beginning 
to  settle  in  Borneo  and  Sutiiaira,  and  tliey  are 
supplanting  the  natives  in  some  of  the  small 
islands  of  the  Pacific,  such  as  Hawaii.  The 
cliinat<'  of  all  these  countries  suits  them,  and  they 
commend  themselves  to   governments  and  em. 


players  by  their  power  of  steady  Industry ;  Rud 
they  intcrman^  freely  up  to  a  saf  j  point  with 
the  women  "f  .he  country,  getting  all  the 
advantages  of  alliance,  yet  not  sacridcing  their 
nationality.  Several  causes  have  reUirded 
their  spread  hitherto:  the  regions  enumerated 
liave  mrstly  been  too  insecure  for  an  industrial 

Ee^plc  to  fliurish  In,  until  the  Bntish  or  the 
lute'-,  established  order;  the  government  of 
China  has  hitherto  discouraged  emigration; 
English  administrations  have  been  obliged  to  lie 
rather  wary  in  their  dealings  with  a  people  who 
showed  at  Sarawak  and  Penang  tl"it  they  were 
capable  of  combining  for  purposes  of  mu.s.sicre; 
and  tlie  Chinese  superstition  alHiut  burial  in  the 
sacred  soil  of  the  Celestial  Empire  mi"''!  the 
great  majority  of  the  emij^rants  birds  of  passage. 
All  these  causes  are  dliappearing.  .  .  .  Euro- 
peans cannot  flourish  unt'er  the  tropics,  and  will 
Lit  work  with  the  hand  where  an  interior  race 
works.  What  we  have  to  consider,  therefore,  is 
the  probability  that  the  natives  who  are  giving 
way  to  the  Chinese  in  the  Malay  Peninsuli  will 
be  able  to  make  bead  against  them  in  Borneo  or 
Sumatra.  Bo:.-ieo  is  nearly  six  times  as  big  as 
Java,  and  if  it  were  peopled  like  Java  would 
suppor  a  population  of  nearly  100,000,000.  .  .  . 
In  the  long  run  the  Chinese,  who  O'lt-numbcr 
t'"'  Malays  as  sixteen  to  one,  who  are  more 
<lecidedly  industrial,  and  who  organise  where 
they  can  in  a  way  that  precludes  competition, 
are  tolerably  certain  to  gain  the  upper  hand. 
They  may  not  destroy  Uie  eurly  settlers,  but 
they  will  reduce  them  to  the  position  of  the  Hill 
tribes  in  India,  or  of  the  Aiiios  in  Japan. 
Assume  fifty  years  hence  tliat  China  has  taken 
ita  inevitable  position  as  one  of  the  great  powers 
of  the  world,  and  that  Borneo  has  a  population 
of  10,000,000,  predominantly  Chinese,  is  it  easy 
to  suppose  in  such  a  case  that  the  larger  part  of 
Bomi  1  would  still  be  a  dependency  of  tlie 
Netherlands  t  or  that  the  whole  islanil  would  not 
liavo  passed,  by  arms  or  diplomacy,  iiit<i  the 
possession  of  China  t  .  .  .  There  are  those  who 
Jelieve  that  the  Chinaman  is  likely  t<i  sujierseda 
the  Spaniard  and  Indian  alike  iu  parM  of  »outh 
America."— C.  H.  Pearson,  A'ativnal  Life  and 
CharatUr,  pp.  45-51. 

A.  D.  1894-1805.— The  Korean  c|uestion 
and  war  with  Japan.— Japanese  victories. 
See  KoiiKA. 

On  other  subjects  relating  to  China,  see 
Thade,  Medi.eval  ;  Edl'i  A'l  ION  :  LiuitvitrES, 
MuoEBM ;  and  Mo.net  >nii  Bankimi. 


CHINANTECC.  The.    See  A.mkkican  Auo- 

niOLNt,*;   ZaI-OTECS,  ETC. 

CHING   OR  TSING   DYNASTY,  The. 

SeeCiiiSA:  A.  1).  ViMt  1882. 

CHINGIS  KHAN,  Conquests  of.  See  MoN. 
•.ou:  A.  a  1153-1227;  and  Indu:  A.  D.  P77- 
12iXI. 

CHINOOK,  The.  See  Amkhicam  Abohi- 
oixeh:  Ihinookan  Family. 

CHIOGGIA,  The   War   of.    See   Venice: 

A  I)  i:n»-ia8i. 

CHIOS.— The  rocky  Island  knovn  nncientl- 
IS  tliii*.  ealli^l  f^cio  in  modern  'Imes,  was  one  of 
the  places  wl  ieli  claimed  Homers  birth.  It  is 
utuaud  iu  the  Egeun  Sea,  separated  by  a  strait 
oiiiv  «ve .  M,.,  i,li,  from  the  Asiatic  cioaU  The 
wlues  of  Chilis  wire  famous  hi  antiquity  ami 
aire  u  guud  reputation  at  tlui  present  day.    The 


Island  was  an  important  niemlier  of  the  Ionian 
confederation,  and  afterwards  subject  to  Athens, 
from  which  it  revolteil  twice,  suitcring  terrible 
barlwrities  in  consequence.  See  Asia  Mlnoh: 
TheQheek  Couimes. 

B.  C.  413.  -Revolt  from  Athens.  See 
Ghebck:  B.  C.  413-412. 

A.  O.  1346.— Taken  by  the  Genoese.  See 
CoNSTANTiNoPLi;:  A.  I).  1348-i;t.Vi. 

A.  D.  1681.— Blockade  and  attack  by  the 
French.  S<c»AitiiARv States:  a.  I».  1«(U-U184. 

A.  O.  1770.— Temporary  possession  by  the 
Russians.    See  Tihkb    A.  I).  17tW-1774. 

A.  D.  1823.—  Turkish  massacre  of  Chris- 
tiana.    SeeQHEECE:  A.  I).  1821-182«. 


CHIPPEWA,  Battle  of.  S«  Ukitki.Htatm 
or  Am.  :  A.  U.  1814  (J  uly— bKPTEMUEU). 


44S 


f   I 


CHIPPEWA8. 
CHIPPEWAS.  OR  OIIBWAS,  The.    Soe 

AMERICAN   AnoRIOtNM:   AUJONQUUW    FaMILT 
AKD  CllnWAS.  ' 

CHIPPEWYANS,   The.     See    Ai«»ican 
AfloHiniNEs:  Athapascan  FAMtLY. 
nJE  b  ,  °'''  The.-"Thc  chiton  [of  t\  e  ancient 
Greeks]  wiu  an  oblong  niece  of  cloth  armnged 
round  the  body  so  that  the  arm  was  put  through 
a  hole  in  the  closed  side,  the  two  ends  of  the  open 
side  being  fasU'ncil  over  the  opposite  shoulder 
by  means  of  a  button  or  clasp.    On  this  latter 
side,  thea.fore,  the  chiton  was  completely  open 
at  least  as  far  a.s  the  tliiffh.  underneath  of  which 
the  two  ends  might  be  either  pinned  or  stitched 
together,     ft.und  the  hips  the  chiton  was  fas- 
tene(  with  a  riblwn  or  girdle,  ami  the  lower  part 
could  be  shortened  as  much  as  required  by  pidl- 
Ing  It  through   this  girdle.    .    .    .    Frequently 
s!c-eves,  either  sliorur  and  covering  only  the 
upper  arm,  or  continued  to  the  wrist  were  added 
to  the  el.itou.  .  ,  .  The  short-sleeved  chiton  is 
frequently  worn  by  women  and  children  on  monu- 
ments.    Of  the  sleeveless  chiton,  worn  by  men 
over  l)oth  shoulders,  It  U  stated  that  it  was  the 
"??  of  a  fn-e  citizen.    Slaves  and  artisuns  arc 
said  to  have  worn  a  chiton  with  one  hole  for  the 
left  arm,  the  right  arm  and  half  the  chest  remain- 
ng  quite    uncovered.  ...  It  appears  clearly 
tliat  the  whole  chiton  consisU  of   one    piece 
Together  with  the  open  and  half-open  kinds  of 
the  chiton  we  also  And  the  closed  double  chiton 
Bowing  down  to  the  feet.     It  was  a  piece  of 
cloth  considerably  longer  than  the  human  iKxIy 
and  cliwd  on  lM)th  sides,  inside  of  whicli  the  per- 
son imtliii  jj  it  on  stood  as  in  a  cylinder. "—  E,  Quid 
Md  W.   Koncr,  Ufiof  tht  Oreila  and  li,,n,in. 
p«   I,  *,-<,  4i._"X|,e  principal,  or  rather,  the 
■ole  garnioiit,  of  the   Dorian   mai.lens  was  the 
cliitoii.  or  liimation  made  of  woolen  stuff,  and 
without  sleeves,  but  fastened  on  either  slioulder 
by  a  l.irge  d.Lsp,  ami  gathered  on  tlie  bn'a>.t  bv 
a  kind  of  bro-ich.     This  sleeveless  r,)lK.,  which 
scl.lom  rcaeliiil  more  than  half  way  to  the  knee 
was  moreover  Kft  open  up  to  a  cerhiin  ix,  ..t  on 
both  sides,  so  tiiat  the  skirts  or  winjcs    Hyliiif 
op.n   IS  thcv   «alke.l,   entirely    exp,S."d   their 
iimiw.  ...  1  lie  married  women,  however,  did 
not  make  their  appearance  in    pulilic  'en  che- 
.nlse,   Imt  wlun  going  abroad  donned  a  si'Cond 
ment  wlmli  seems  to  have  resembled  pretty 
n'lv  tlieirhiLoliuuds'  himatia."— J.  A.  St.  John 
•  IMIeii,,,,  hi:.  ;t,  eh   8 
tHITTIM.     See  KlTTIM 
;HlVALRY.--."Tlie  primitive  sens,,  of  this 
«e!l  k-    ..,1   wunl,   durivwl    from    the    Fniieli 
Che  .a       .  Bigniliis  merely  cavalry,  or  a  b<Kiy  of 
soldieio  (.Tviugou  liorsebaek;  and  has  Urn  used 
In  that  gi'niTal  a.ceptation  by  tlie  best  of  our 
pmts,    aii,ii.|it    and    modem,    from    .Milton    to 
IhoDias    Canipliell.       Hut   the    present    article 
respects  tlie  iH<  uliar  meaning  given  to  the  wonl 
n  in.K  em  burot.,..  as  ai.pli^l  to  the  onl.r  of 
kniglithiKHl,  established  In  almost  all  her  kint'- 
tloms  during   ilu^   middle  ag.'s,   and   the   laws 
niles,  and  ciisImmis,  liy  whi(  li  it  was  gov.Tned' 
riiose  laws  ami  i  ustoms  have  limg  '.een  anti- 
<iuale,l.  but  Hair  cITects  may  still  Tk!  tracwl  in 
LuroiH'aii    manners;    and,   excepting  only   the 
<  haiige  win,  li  llowcd  from  the  lntr,«luetion  of 
jhe  (  hristian  nligion,  we  kn,>w  no  cans,,  which 
lias  prixluecd  sui  li  general  an,l  permanent  ,liff,T 
ene,.  iMtwixt  tlie  ancients  and  mo<lernH,  as  that 
wlilth  has  arucn  out  of  the  lustitutiua  of  chivalry 


CmVALRT. 

.  .     From  the  time  that  cavalry  becomes  usnl 
in  war,  the  liorseman  who  furnishes  and  sunnom 
a  charger  arises,  in  aU  countries,  into  a  person  „! 
superior  importance  to  the  mere  f.mt  R,)l,li„ 
...  In  various  militarv  nations,  ther,f,,r,-  .« 
Hnd  that  horsemen  are  <fistinguished  as  an  o'ni.J 
in  the  state.  .  .  .  But,  in  the  middle  u-es  7S 
distinction  ascribed  to  soldiers  serving  ou  imnt 
back  assumed   a  very  peculUr  an.f  imfoZ, 
character.    Ther  were  not  merely  rcspiK-U'J  » 
account  of  thefr  wealth  or  military  skill  bw 
were   bound  together  by  a  uni,>n   of  a'ven 
peculiar  chan;cter,   which  monarehs  were  am 
bltious  to  share  with  the  poorest  of  their  subject. 
and  govcme<l  by  laws  directed  to  enlian,  e  into 
enthusiasm,  the  military  spirit  an<I  the  s,.nse  of 
jiersonal  honour  associated  with  it.     The  asoir 
anu  to  this  dignity  were  not  pennitted  to  u*uine 
the  sacred  character  of  knighthiKxl  until  ,iftor  a 
long  and  severe  probation,  during  whidi  they 
practised,  as  acolytes,  the  virtues  neees.sar>'  L 
the  oftier  of  Cliivalry.      Knighthood  was  the 
goal  t,)  which  the  ambition  of  every  noble  v,  uth 
turned;  and  to  support  its  honours,  which  (in 
theory  at  least)  could  only  be  conferrcl  ,)n  the 
gallant,   the  modest,  and  the  virtuous    it  wu 
nccccamry  he  should  spend  a  certain  time  in  a 
subordinate    situation,    attendant    up.m  some 
knight  of  eminence,  olwierving  the  eoii.luct  of 
Ills  master,  as  what  must  in  future  U-  the  nindel 
of  his  own,  and  practising  the  virtues  of  hmnililv 
modesty,  and  U^mperantv.  until  called  uiwn  to 
display  those  of   a  higher  order.  .  .      In  the 
general   and   abstract   dcliniti,>n   of   (^hivalrv 
wheUier  as  comprising  a  iMsly  of  nun  vh6i 
military  service   was  on    horseback,   Hn,i  wlio 
were  investd  with  p<euliar  honours  and  nrivi- 
leges,  or  with  reference  to  the  iiuhI,'  and  peri.jd 
In  which  these  distinctions  ami  privil.>;,.s  were 
twferred,   there  is    nothing  either  i>rigiuul  or 
exclusively  proper  to  our  Oothio  ancisiors.    h 
was  In  the  singular  tenets  of  C'liivaiiv.  — in  tlie 
exalwd,  enthusiastic,  and  almost  Bam'tiiiiiinious 

ideas  connected  with  its  duties,  —  i MiL-ular 

balance  which  ita  institutions  olTere  dsI  the 

evils  of  the  rude  ages  in  which  it  aros.  hat  we 
are  to  seek  those  peculiarities  which  r,ii.  it  so 
worthy  of  our  attention.  .  .  .  Tlie  eclM.,,tionot 
the  future  knight  iM'gaii  at  an  early  iiri.»l  Tiie 
care  of  the  mothir,  after  the  ttrst'vi'arsi.f  mrlv 
youth  were  passeil,  was  d,.<.ni,il  im  iiinlcr  aiiJ 
the  inilulgences  ,)f  the  paternal  roof  li k)  , ifimi- 
nate,  f,)r  the  future  aspirant  to  tli,'  iionours  of 
chivalry.  .  .  .  To  eountenu't  these  lialiits  nf 
indulgence,  the  first  step  to  the  onier  of  knight. 
iKKxi  was  the  <legree  of  Page.  The  vungana 
noble  stripling,  genenilly  aluiut  his  twilfih  year, 
was  transfern.,!  from  liis  father's  Innise  tu  that  of 
some  baron  or  gallant  knight,  .sediil„nslv  ,  Imn 
by  the  anxious  pari'iit  us  tliut whiih  li.icl'iii,  lnM 
reputatiim  for  gisni  onler  ami  liiMinliin'.  .  .  . 
When  advani'ing  age  ami  experiiiicc  in  ihc  u« 
of  arms  hail  qiialiiled  the  page  for  the  h.lnl.^llip^ 
and  dangers  of  lutuul  war.  he  was  r.  miovhI, 
from  the  lowest  to  111,'  tu'cond  gra.lniiiin  o( 
chivalry,  and  bei^ame  an  Ksciiyir.   K-i|iiin',  or 

Squire.     Thederivali f  this  plinisi'  lix-^  Iwn 

much  conteatcl.  It  Imsbeen  genenlh  Mip|«i«eil 
t<i  be  derived  from  its  lie^eoniinu'  the  n'tlii  lai  cluiy 
of  the  esquire  to  carry  the  shiihl  iKm  iimf  ilie 
knight  his  master,  until  he  wa>  alHuit  i.i  engage 
the  cnr.my,  Other?  hsve  feteliii!  ilu-  iplihet 
(more  remotely  certainly^  from  Scuria,  a  swliH 


444 


CHTVALRT. 


CHOCZIM. 


the  charger  of  the   knight  being  under  the 
eapeciol   care   of  the   iquire.      Others,  again. 
ucribe  tlie  derivation  of  the  word  to  tlic  right 
vklch  the  squire  himself  liad  to  carry  a  shield, 
and  to  blazon  it  with  armorial  bearings.    This, 
hi  later  times,    becaqie  almost   the  exclusive 
meaning  attached    to  the  appellative  esquire; 
and,  accordingly,  if  the  phrase  now  means  any- 
thing, it  means  a  gentleman  having  a  right  to 
carry  arms.    There  is  reason,  however,  to  think 
this  is  a  secondary  meaning  of  the  word,  for  we 
do  not  find  the  word  Escuyer,  applied  as  a  title 
of  rank,  until  so  late  as  the  Ordonnance  of  Blois, 
hi  1579.  ...  In  actual  war  the  page  was  not 
eipccted  to  render  much  service,  but  that  of  the 
squire  was  important  and  indispensable.    Upon 
a  inarch  he  bore  the  helmet  and  aliield  of  the 
knight  and  led  his  horse  of  battle,  a  tall  heavy 
animal  fit  to  bear  the  weight  of  a  man  in  armour, 
but  which  was  led  In  hand  in  nurching,  while 
the  knight   rode   an   ambling  hackney.     The 
iquire  was  also  qualified  to  perform  the  part  of 
an  armourer,  not  only  lacing  his  master's  helmet 
and  buckling  bis  cuirass,  but  also  closing  with  a 
hammer  the  rivets  by  which  the  various  pieces 
wi're  united  to  each  other.  ...  In  the  actual 
shock  of  battle,  the  esquire  attended  closely  on 
the  banner  of  his  master,  or  on  his  person  if  he 
were  only  a  knight  t)achelor,  kept  pace  with  him 
during  the  melee,  and  was  at  hand  to  remount 
him  when  his  steed  was  slain,  or  relievo  him 
when  oppressed  by  numbers.      If   the  knight 
made   prisoners  they  were  the  charge  of  the 
esquire ;  if  the  esquire  himself  fortunra  to  make 
one.  the  ransom  belonged  to  his  master.  ...  A 
youth  usually  ceased  to  be  a  page  at  14,  or  a  little 
earlier,   and   could  not   regularly  receive   the 
honour  of   knighthood  until  he  was  one-and- 
twenty.  .  .  .  Knighthood  was.  In  its  origin,  an 
order  of  a  republican,  or  at  least  an  oligarchic 
nature;  arising  .  .  .  from  the  customs  of  the  free 
tribes  of  Oermany  [see  Cojhtatcb],  and,  in  its 
essence,  not  requiring  the  sanction  of  a  monarch. 
Ou  the  contrary,  each  knight  could  confer  the 
order  of  knighthood  upon  whomsoever  prepara- 
tory noviciate  and  probation  had  fitted  to  receive 
it.    The  highest  potentates  sought  the  accolade, 
or  stroke  which  conferred  the  honour,   at  the 
hands  of  the  worthiest  knight  whose  achieve- 
ments had  dignified  the  period.  .  .  .  Though  no 
positive  regulation  took  place  on  the  subject, 
ambition  on  the  purt  of  the  aspirant,  and  pride 
and  policy  on  that  of  the  sovereign  princes  and 
nobles  of  high  rank,  gradually  limited  to  the 
totur  the  power  of  conferring  knighthood.  .  . 
Knitthts  were  usually  made  either  on  the  eve  of 
battle,  or  when  the  victory  had  been  obtained ; 
or  they  were  created  during  the  pomp  of  some 
solemn  warning    or   grand    festival.  .  .  .  The 
ipmt  of    chivalry   sunk    gradually    under    a 
combination  of  physical  and  moral  causes;  the 
flrat  arising  from  the  change  gradually  introduced 
into  the  art  of  war,  and  the  last  from  the  equally 
great  alteration  produced  by  time  in  the  habits 
jncl  ni,«lc8   of   thinking   in   modem    Europe. 
Liuvalry  began  to  dawn  in  the  end  of  the  10th, 
and  biirmning  of  the  11th  century.     It  blazed 
lortiiwuh  high  vigour  during  the  crusades,  which 
inuecrt  may  be  considered  as  exploits  of  national 
knight  errantry,  or  general  wars,  undertaken  on 
y>c  "cry  snme  principles  which  actuated  the  con- 
aucl  of  individual  knighu  adventurers     But  ita 
nwM  biiilimii   period  waa    during   the  wan 


between  France  and  England,  and  It  was  un- 

questionablv  in  those  kingdoms  that  the  habit  of 
constant  and  honourable  opposition,  unembittered 
by  rancour  or  personal  hatred,  gave  the  fairest 
opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  the  virtues 
required  from  him  whom  Chaucer  terms  '  a  very 
perfect  gentle  knight.'  Froti^rt  frequently 
makes  allusions  to  the  generosity  exercised  by  the 
French  and  English  to  their  prisoners,  and  con- 
trasts It  with  tlie  dungeons  to  which  captives 
tokin  in  war  were  consigned  both  in  Spain  and 
Germany.  Yet  both  these  countries,  and  indeed 
every  kingdom  in  Europe,  partook  of  the  spirit 
of  chivalry  in  a  greater  or  less  degree;  and^ven 
the  Moors  of  Spain  caught  the  emulation,  and 
had  their  orders  of  Knighthood  as  well  as  the 
Christians.  But  even  during  this  splendid 
period,  various  causes  were  silently  operating 
the  future  extinction  of  the  flame,  whiclk  blazed 
thus  wide  and  brightly.  An  important  discovery, 
the  invention  of  gunpowder,  had  taken  place, 
and  was  beginning  to  be  used  in  war,  even  when 
chivalry  was  in  its  highest  glory.  .  .  .  Another 
change,  of  vital  importance,  arose  from  the 
institution  of  the  bands  of  gena-d'armcs,  or 
men  at  arms  in  Prance,  constituted  .  .  .  expressly 
as  a  sort  of  standing  army.  ...  A  more  fatal 
cause  had,  however,  been  for  some  time  operating 
in  England,  as  well  as  France,  for  the  destruction 
of  the  system  we  are  treating  of.  The  wars  of 
York  and  Lancaster  In  England,  and  those  of 
the  Huguenots  and  of  the  League,  were  of  a 
nature  so  bitter  and  rancorous,  as  was  utterly 
Inconsistent  with  the  courtesy,  fair  play,  and 
gentleness,  proper  to  chivalry.  .  .  .  The  civil 
wars  not  only  operated  in  debasing  the  spirit  of 
chivalry,  but  in  exhausting  and  destroying  the 
particular  class  of  society  from  which  its  votaries 
were  drawn."— Sir  W.  Scott,  Euay  on  Chimlry. 

Also  in:  O.  P.  R.  James,  Hut.  of  CtiiwUry.— 
H.  Hallam,  State  of  Europe  during  the  Middlt 
Ane*.  eh.  9,  pt.  3  (v.  8).— F.  P.  Quizot,  Hut.  of 
Oinlimtioa in  Franet,  6rt  leet.,  id  eoune  (o.  4).— 
"rt.  of  Chitalru.—H.  Stebbing,  Hut. 
of  Chi0u„j  and  the  Cnttadet. — L.  Oautier, 
ChiixUrg.—K.  H.  Digby,  The  Broadttone  of 
Honour. — Dr.  Doran,  Knighti  and  their  Dayt. — 
See,  also,  Kniohthood,  Orders  or. 

CHLAMYS,  The.—"  The  chlamys  [worn  by 
the  ancient  Greek?]  .  .  .  waa  an  oblong  piece  of 
cloth  thrown  over  the  left  shuuldcr,  the  open  ends 
being  fastened  acrosa  the  right  shoulder  by 
means  of  a  clasp ;  the  comers  hanging  down  were, 
as  in  the  himation,  kept  straight  by  means  of 
weights  sewed  into  them.  The  chlamys  waa 
principally  used  by  travellers  and  soldiers." — E. 
Guhl  and  W.  Koner,  Life  of  t>te  Greek)  and  Ro- 
man*, pt.  1,  Hei.  43. 

CHOCIM.    See  Cnoczisi. 

CHOCTAWS,  OR  CHA'HTAS,  The.  See 
AstEnic*!»  AnoRiciiNEs:  Ml'8kiioue\.n  Pamilt 

CHOCZIM  (KHOTZIM,  CHOTVN,  KHO- 
TIN,  CHOCIM, KOTZIM):  A.  D.  1633.— De- 
feat of  the  Turks  br  the  Poles.  See  Poland: 
A.  D.  1590-1848. 

A.  D.  1673.— Taken  by  Sobieska  and  the 
Pol  .  —Great  defeat  of  the  Turks.  See  Poland: 
A.  1.    1668-1696. 

A.  O.  1739.— Captured  bj  the  Ruiiiani  and 
restored  to  the  Turks.  See  Russhi:  A.  D.IT^}- 
1789. 

A.  D.  1769.— Taken  by  the  Ruttian*.- Oe- 
featofthe  Turks.   SeeTcau:  A.  D.  1768-1774. 


445 


CBOCZDt 

A.  p.  tTM—Dcfcat  of  th*  Torkt  by  th« 
Rasiiana.    Bee  Tvbks:  A.  D.  1776-1782. 

CHOLERA,  The  Visiutions  ot  See 
Pijioin: :  10th  Cbiituiit. 

CHOLET,  Battles  ot  See  Fiuiic« :  A.  D. 
1798(Jdi,t— DaoxBKK). 

CHOLULA.  See  Mexico,  Aschiit:  Tarn 
ToLTitn  Empiu,  and  Mexico:    A.  D.  1518 

(OrTOBKR). 

CHONTALS,  The.  SeeAMKRiCAnABOW- 
SINES:  Choktals. 

CHONTAQUIROS,  OR  PIRU,  The.  See 
Amkrican  Aborioikrs  :  Andbsiams. 

CHORASMIA.    SeeKHCARKZM. 

CHOREGIA.    See)   roiM  iKs. 

SSSIfJS'.O'*  CHi.JSn-N.    SfloKoMtA. 

CHOTUSITZ.  OR  CZASLAU,  Battle  ot 
Bee  Apstria  :  A.  D.  1743  (J^kuart— Mat). 

CHOUANS.-CHOUANNERIE.  See 
Frarci  :  A.  D.  1794-1T9S. 


CHRISTUOTTT. 

CHOUT.— The  blackmail  levied  by  thelhk. 
tsttas.    See  Ihdia:  A.  D.  18(»-1816. 

CHOWANS,  The.  See  Ammican  Abos* 
oiKis :  Iroquois  Tbibbs  or  thk  Soutii 

CHREItONIDEAN  WAR.The  8«. 
Athihb:  B.  C.S8a-M8.  .  <      ^  an 

CHRIST,  KniKhts  of  the  Order  of.  Sm 
Pobtuoai.  :  A.  D.  U1(H4«0.  "^ 

CmtlST  IAN  I.,  Klajr  of  Denmark,  Norw» 

•ad  Sweden,  A.  b.  lfl8-1481 dhriitiS 

II.,  1518-1528 Christian    III.,  mi-lM? 

ii--Cfcri»ti«»  IV.,  158»-ie48...  Cri.t^ 
v.,    1«7U-16»9 Christian  VI.,    Vm"im 

wi.f '•5i!l*''"  VII.,  i7«e-i8oe. . . .  .chri,ti„ 

VIII.,  1889-1848 Christian  IX.,  18«:i- 

CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS.  See  Kdcca- 
Tios.  Modern  :  REroRMS :  A.  D.  188t-lN;8 

st^.t12'^£l^^?]!J>?iSSro;^'-«"»i'e. 

CHRISTIAN  ERA.    8eeKBA,CHBHTus. 


■I      I 


!■' 


Historical  geographv  has  of  late  years  be- 
«)me  an  inteml  part  of  the  historical  science 
Kecent  InTestigations  have  opened  up  the  subject 
and  a  solid  beginning  has  been  made  —  but  it  is 
only  a  bcginnrng.  ft  is  clearly  ncognized  that 
the  land  itself  as  it  appears  at  different  periods 
Is  one  of  those  invaluable  original  documenU 
upon  which  history  is  built,  and  no  stone  U 
being  left  unturned  to  clear  away  mysteries  and 
to  bring  to  our  aid  a  realism  hitherto  unknown 
to  the  science.  ...  But  the  special  branch  of 
this  vast  and  complicated  theme  of  hUtorical 

Seography  which  interests  us  most  and  which  I 
esire  bnedy  to  bring  to  your  attention  is  that 
which  deals  with  the  Christian  Church  Our 

eyes  first  rest  upon  that  little  group  at  Jerusalem 
that  made  up  the  Pentecostal  Church.  Itsspread 
was  conditioned  by  the  extent  and  character  of 
the  Roman  Erplre,  by  the  municipal  genius  of 
that  tmpire,  its  great  highways  by  land  and  sea; 
conditioned  by  the  commercial  routes  and  the 
track  of  irmies  outside  the  bounds  of  civiliia- 
tlon  conditioned  by  the  spread  of  languages— 
A-  '.  Greek,  and  Latin,— and,  most  import- 
■^''  .conditioned  by  the  whereabouts  of  the 

sev  .llion  Jews  massed  in  Syria.  Babylonia, 
and  -eJPt,  and  scattered  everywhere  through- 
out the  Empire  and  far  beyond  its  boundariea"— 
H.  W  HulUrt.  The  Hitorieal  Otoma^y  of  tht 
Ohnrtuin  Church  (Am.  Soe.  Chunk  ffM..t  8) 
—  'When  we  turn  from  the  Jewish  'disperaion' 
in  the  Last  to  that  in  the  West,  we  seemln  quite 
a  different  atmosphere.  Despite  their  intense 
natliinallsm.  all  unconsciously  to  themselves 
their  mental  characteristics  and  tendencies  were 
In  the  opposite  direction  from  those  of  their 
brethren  With  those  of  the  East  rested  the 
future  of  Judaism;  with  them  of  the  West  in  a 
sense,  that  of  the  world.  The  one  represented 
old  Israel  groping  back  into  the  darkness  of  the 
past;  the  other  young  Israel,  stretching  forth  its 
hands  to  where  the  .•  wn  of  a  new  day  was  about 
to  break.  Tbew  J  s  of  the  West  are  known 
./'j!.^^*-?'  Hellenists.  ...  The  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament  into  Greek  maybe  r.ntded 
as  the  staring  point  of  Helleni  j.  It  rtidered 
possible  the  hope  that  what  in  .>a  original  form 
•S«*  Apptodiz  D,  vol.  I. 


CHRISTIANITY." 


446 


had  been  confined  to  the  few.  might  become  sccm. 
slblc  to  the  worid  at  large.  ...  In  the  account 
of  the  truly  representative  gathering  In  Jerusalem 
on  that  ever-memorable  Feast  of  Weeks,  the  divi- 
sion of  the  '  dispersion '  Into  two  grand  sectioiu 
—  the  Eastern  or  Trans-Euphratic.  and  the  West- 
em  or  Hellenist — seems  clearly  marked.    In  thij 
arrangement  the   former  would   Include     the 
rarthians,  Medes,  Elamites,  and  dwellers  in  Meso- 
potamia,   Judsa  standing,  eo  to  speak,  in  the 
middle  while  'the  Cretes  and  Arabians '  would 
typically  represent  the  farthest  outrunners  re- 
spectively of  the  Western  and  Eastern  Diaspors. 
The  former,  as  we  know  from  the  New  Tesument 
commonly  bore  in  Palestine  the  name  of  the  '  di* 
persion  of  the  Greeks',  and  of  ' Hellenists '  or 
Grecians.       On  the  other   hand,   the   Trsiis. 
Euphratlc  Jews,  who  '  Inhabited  Babylon  and 
many  of  the  other  satrapies,'  were  included  with 
the  PalestinUns  and  the  Syrians  under  the  term 
Hebrews,    from  the  common  language  which 
they  spoke.      But  the  difference  between  the 
Grecians    and  the  '  Hebrews '  was  fur  deeper 
than  merely  of  language,  and  extended  to  the 
whole  directlim  of    thought."— A.   E>itr«heim. 
TML(rtand  TimstofJttu*  the  Memah.  t.  1.  h». 
1,  ch.  8-8,  and  1.—"  Before  Pentecost  an  l^asem• 
bly  of  the  believers  took  place,  at  which  the  post 
vacated  in  the  number  of  the  aposths  byilie 
suicide  of  the  traitor  Judas  of  Kerioth,  was  filled 
up  by  the  election  of  ilatthias  by  lot.      )n  this 
occasion  the  number  of  the  assembled  hnUuen 
amounted  to  about  130  men.  ...  At  the  (esst 
of  Pentecost  ...  a  very  considerable  nrirssion 
was  made  to  the  font  rly  mo<leratc  band  of  be- 
lievers in  Jerusalem  .  .  . ;  about  S.Ooo  souls  re- 
ceived the  word  and  were  ioinetl  to  tin-  Church 
by  baptism  (Acu  11.  41).    We  must  not,  Imwever. 
at  once  credit  the  Chureh  in  Jerusalem  with  this 
increase.    For  among  the  listeners  to  the  apos- 
tolic discourse  there  were  Israelitish  guests  and 
proselytes  from  near  and  distant  countries  (ii.  5. 
9-11,   14),  whence  we  may  Infer  that  of  those 
newly  converte<l  many  were  not  living  In  Jeru- 
salem Itself,  but  partly  In  Judira  and  lialilte, 
partly  In  countries  beyond  Palestine,  who  there- 
T<SK  returued  home  after  the  f«agt  lia/i  woe 


L  ■•. 


bytheUab' 
icAK  Aaosi. 

JUTH. 

'.The.  See 

•«•  of.    See 

rk^Norwaj 
.Chriitiu 

■  ~'  riitiia 
K;>l)-I74«, 
.Chrittias 
,  18«:i-. 

8«o  Ki)cc\- 
BI-IN78. 

rheUaited 

r. 

CBBlaTU.V 


conieacctt. 
be  account 
I  Jerusalem 
!9.  thedivi- 
Dd  sectioni 
1  the  West- 
fd.    InthU 
iliidc   '  the 
•rsinMfiio- 
?ak,  io  the 
ins  ■  would 
unnera  re-, 
Diaspora, 
reatflment, 
>f  the  '  dis- 
lenists '  or 
he   Trans- 
bylon  and 
uded  witli 
r  the  term 
a^e  which 
tween  the 
far  deeper 
led  to  the 
IvUrsheim. 
4.  t.  1.  bt. 
iin  l^ssem' 
h  the  post 
lis  by  me 
was  filled 
In  thia 
Ijrethrcn 
the  feast 
noTsaion 
ml  of  be- 
I  souls  re- 
('  Church 
however, 
with  thii 
the  apos- 
it'sts  and 
ries  (ii.  5. 
of  thoae 
In  Jeru- 
I  Oalllte. 
lid  there- 
»)i  were 


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CHRISTIAinTT. 


JewUk 
Ckritlinnitf. 


CHRISXIANITT. 


nded.  Borne  of  theie  might,  under  certain  cir- 
rumstance*,  form  the  centre  of  a  imall  Church 
in  the  diapenlon,  lo  that  gradually  Churches 
Dur  have  ariwn  to  which  alio  James  may  pos- 
sibly have  addressed  his  Epistle.  .  .  .  Soabun- 
ilintly  did  Ood  bless  with  success  the  activity  of 
tlic  cArlr  apostles  though  limited  to  the  nation 
nf  Israel  and  the  land  of  Canaan,  and  their  fidel- 
ity within  a  circumscribed  sphere.  Hence  there 
ciistcd  St  the  end  of  the  perio<l  of  which  we 
lR«t  numerous  Christian  Churches  in  Jerusalem 
MiJ  the  whole  country  of  Judasa  (comp.  Qal.  I. 
ii,  etc. :  Acts  xi.  1),  also  on  the  coast  (Acts  ix. 
3-2-35.  etc.)  in  Samaria  and  Oalilce,  and  finally 
in  Svria.  Phenlcia,  and  Cyprus,  (Acts  Ix.  2.  id, 
i\  xi.  10),  some  of  which  were  directly,  some  In- 
directly, founded  by  the  Twelve,  and  were.  In 
any  <asc,  governed  and  guided  by  them.  In 
tlie  shove  named  districts  outside  Palestine,  It 
miKht  not,  indeed,  have  been  easy  to  find  a 
Christian  Church  consisting  exclusively  of  be- 
lieving Jews,  for  as  a  rule  they  consisted  of  be- 
lieving Jews  and  indiviiiual  Qfntiles.  On  the 
other  hand,  wc  shall  scarcely  be  wrong  In  re- 
arAmn  the  Cl>ristian  Churches  within  Palestine 
ItKlf  as  n)mpose<l  entirely  of  believing  Israelites. 
Out  even  among  tlieae  there  were  many  distinc- 
tions, e.  g.,  between  Palestinians  and  Hellenists." 
-0.  V,  Lcchler,  The  ApotMit  and  Patt-Apoi- 
tMf  Timft,  t.  \,p.  80-3.1.—"  We  find  the  early 
[.lowishl  Christians  olMervIng  the  national  feasts 
and  hididays  (AcU  ii.  1;  xviii.  21;  XX.  6,  16; 
Itim.  xiv.  5).  They  take  part  in  tlie  worship  of 
tlir  temple  and  the  synagoeue:  they  pray  at  the 
ouBlomnry  houm  (chaps.  11.  46;  ill.  1;  T.  42;  X. 
1*1.  They  olntcrvc  the  fasts,  and  undergo  volun- 
tiirv  nbstinenre,  binding  themselves  by  special 
vows  like  all  pious  Jews  (xili.  3;  xvii.  18;  xxl. 
£1).  Tiiev  scrupulously  avoid  unlawful  food, 
nml  nil  legril  defllemcnt  (X.  14).  They  have  their 
(kildnn  circumcised  (XT.  S;  xvi.  8:  Oal.  v.  2). 
.  .  .  This  scrupulous  piety  won  for  them  the 
esteem  and  admimtion  of  tha  people  (ehap,  T, 
13)."  At  first  their  creed  was  "comprlMd  In  t 
riogle dogma:  'JetusistbeMeasIah.' .  .  .  Thair 
nriHiliinir  of  the  Oospel  strictly  followed  the 
lines  nf  Messianic  tradition  (1.  7;  ii.  86;  ill.  80). 
.  .  .  But  in  reality  all  this  formed  only  the  out- 
side of  tluir  life  and  creed.  .  .  .  Herein  lies  the 
protauiiii  slffniAcance  of  the  miracle  of  Pentc- 
iint  That  il«v  was  the  birtliday  of  the  Church, 
not  heenuw  of  the  marvelous  success  of  Peter's 
pn-ai  liiiig,  hut  because  the  Christian  principle, 
uilherto  txlsllnf  only  objectively  and  extemnlly 
In  the  p<rsi)n  of  Ji-sus,  passed  from  that  moment 
Into  till'  souls  of  ills  disciples.  .  .  .  And  thus  in 
the  very  midst  of  Judaism  we  see  created  and 
unfolded  a  form  of  religions  life  essentially  dif- 
Trent  fnmi  it  —  the  Christian  life. "—A.  Satmtler. 
Vif  .ii>mil4   I^iit,  pp.   85-S6.— "  By  the  two 

fiml>li'<<of  the  Mustard  Seeti  and  the  Leaven, 
hrlst  inarke<i  out  the  two  sides  or  aspects  of  His 
truth  — its  rxtemal  gmwih  tmm  the  least  to  the 

Eiwest,  and  Its  internal  arllon  on  society  at 
rge— as  scttlni  up  a  ferment,  and  making  a 
sew  lump  out  of  the  unkneailini  mass  of  the  old 
humanity.  With  these  two  symbols  in  view  we 
m«v  iMife  what  the  gospel  was  designed  to  lie 
•nil  to  do.    It  was  to  grow  into  a  great  outwaril 

iOefc'y  _  •!:=  tr-a>  r.f  fiiP  Ch'irvll ;  btit  It  ws=  rIv> 
to  dn  a  wnrk  on  M-cular  society  as  such,  corre- 
•IHmdinit  to  the  action  of  h-aven  on  flour.  The 
UMory  uf  Christianity  hH  been  the  carryiog  out 


of  these  two  distinct  and  contrasted  conceptlooi; 
but  how  Imperfectly,  and  under  what  draw- 
backs."—  Rev.  J.  B.  Heard,  Alexandrian  and 
Qirthaginian  Theology  Cnntratted, p.  186.— "The 
organic  connection  of  Jewish  Christians  with  the 
synagogue,  which  must,  in  accordance  with  the 
facts  before  us,  be  reganled  as  a  rule,  is  certainly 
not  to  be  taken  as  a  mere  incidental  phenomenon, 
a  customary  habit  or  arbitrary  accommodation, 
but  as  a  moral  fact  resting  upon  an  internal 
necesolty,  having  its  foundation  in  the  love  of 
Jewish  Christians  to  their  nation,  and  in  the  ad- 
hesion of  their  religious  consdousnetw  to  the  old 
covenant.  To  mistake  this  would  be  to  under- 
rate the  wide  bearing  of  the  fact.  But  lest  we 
should  over-estimate  its  importance,  we  must  at 
once  proceed  to  another  consideration.  Within 
Judaism  we  must  distlnguisli  not  only  the  Rab- 
binical or  Pharisaic  tradition  of  the  original 
canonical  revelation,  but  also  within  the  canon 
itself  we  have  to  distinguish  the  Levitical  cle- 
meu*  from  the  prophetic,  .  .  .  taking  the  latter 
not  i  t  a  close  but  a  wide  sense  as  the  living 
spiriti  al  development  of  the  theocracy.  "—O.  \. 
Lechlc,  The  ApoetoUe  and  Pott-ApoetMe  Timet, 
v.  1,  p.  S4.— "  Moreover  the  law  had  claims  on  a 
Hebrew  of  Palestine  wholly  independent  of  his 
reliirious  obligations.  To  him  it  was  a  national 
institution.  08  well  as  a  divine  covenant.  Under 
the  Oospel  he  might  consider  hti<  relations  to  it 
In  this  latter  cliiiractcr  altered,  hut  asembixlving 
the  decrees  and  usages  of  his  country  it  still  de- 
manded his  allegiance.  To  be  a  good  (Christian 
he  was  not  re<|iiircd  to  be  a  bad  citizen.  On 
these  grounds  the  more  enlightened  members  of 
the  mother-church  would  Justify  their  continued 
adiiesion  to  the  law.  Nor  is  there  any  reason  to 
suppose  that  St.  Paul  himself  took  a  dilTerent 
view  of  tlieir  obllgationa "-  J.  B.  Lightfoot, 
Dmertatione  on  the  Ajxittulie  A^.  p.  67. — "The 
term  '  Jewish-Christianity '  is  applicaMe  exclu- 
sively to  those  Christians  who  really  retained, 
entirely  or  In  the  smallest  part,  the  nathmnl  im<l 
political  forms  of  Judaism  and  inslsteil  upon  the 
oliaervance  of  the  Mosaic  Law  without  niodificit- 
tion  as  essential  to  ChristUnlly,  at  least  lo  the 
Christianity  of  the  Jewish-bom  converts,  or  who 
indeed  rejected  these  forms,  but  acknowledged 
the  prerogative  of  the  Jewish  people  also  in 
Christianity. '—A.  Hamack,  Outtina  of  the  Iht- 
tont  o/Dirgma,  p.  75. 

A.  D.  33-ioa— The  RIm  of  tha  Cburchei. 
— JeruMiem. — "After  the  miraculous  healing 
of  the  cripple  and  the  discourse  of  the  Apostle 
Peter  on  that  occasion,  the  liistorinn  goes  on  to 
say,  '  Many  of  them  which  beard  the  word 
he1ieve<l.  and  the  numlierof  the  men  was  about 
S,0(X)'(iv.  4).  It  sei'ms  as  if  in  consei|uence  of 
this  event,  which  mtule  no  little  stir,  a  larger 
numlH'r  J(dnv<l  themselves  to  the  I'lmreh,  Nor 
is  it  probable  that  this  heallnit  tiHik  place  until  a 
long  time  after  the  beginning  of  the  Church. 
The  miracle,  with  tha  efTeet  which  It  had, 
Mrrea  as  a  resting  place  at  wlitch  the  result  of 
the  previous  growth  of  the  Church  may  be 
Morrtalned.  And  here  the  number  again  In- 
cidentally mentioned  refen  without  doubt  to  the 
Church  at  Jerusalem."— O.  V.  Lechler,  The 
Apaelolie  and  l\At- ApottoUe  Timet,  t.  1,  p.  10. — 
Xfie  fRr'r  hf"'---'-?  --■•  t!»  rhtirrhMi  "faUa  lot© 
tbice  periods  which  mark  three  distinct  stagea  la 
ita  progress:  (1)  The  Extension  of  tha  Church 
to  Ike  QentUei;  (3)  The  RtoofalUon  of  Ocatil* 


447 


CHRISTIANmr. 


ApoiMte  Uimlon: 


CHllISTIANnT. 


Ill 


:x 


Liberty;  (3)  The  Emancipation  of  the  Jewish 
Churches.  .  ,  .  And  Boon  enough  the  pressure 
of  events  began  to  be  felt.  The  dispersion  was 
the  link  which  connected  the  Hebrews  of  Pales- 
tine with  the  outer  world.  Led  captive  by  the 
power  of  Oreeli  philosophy  at  Athens  and  Tarsus 
and  Alexandria,  attmctcd  by  the  fiwoinntionsof 
Oriental  mysticism  in  Asia,  swept  alunz  with 
the  busy  whirl  of  social  life  in  the  city  and  court 
of  the  Ciesnrg,  these  outlying  members  of  the 
chosen  race  had  inhaled  a  fn^r  spirit  and  con- 
tracted wider  interests  than  their  fellow-country- 
men at  liiime.  By  a  series  of  insensible  gm<ia- 
tions  —  proselytes  of  the  covenant — proselytes 
of  the  eatc  —  superstitious  devotees  who  observed 
the  rites  without  accepting  the  faith  of  the 
Mosaic  dispensation  —  curious  lookers-on  who 
Interested  tiiemselves  in  the  Jewish  ritual  as  they 
would  in  the  worsldp  of  Isis  or  of  Astarie  —  the 
most ».  ibom  zealot  of  tlie  law  was  linked  to 
the  idolatrous  heathen  whom  he  abhorred  and 
who  despised  him  '  turn.  Thus  the  train  was 
unconsciously  la:  hen  the  spark  fell  from 
heaven  and  lired  it.  Meanwhile  at  Jerusalem 

•ome  years  passed  srfay  before  the  barrier  of 
Judai.'<m  was  assailed.  The  Apostles  still 
observe)!  the  Mosaic  ritual;  they  still  conflneil 
their  preaeliing  to  Jews  by  birth,  or  Jews  hy 
•doptidn,  the  proselytes  of  the  covenant.  At 
len);lli  a  brearli  was  made,  and  tlio  assailants  as 
might  lie  e.xi>ecti'd  were  Hellenists.  The  first 
step  towanis  the  rreatlon  of  an  orKanir.ed  ministry 
was  also  the  first  sl«'p  towards  the  emancipation 
of  the  (.'liiirch.  The  Jews  of  Juda'a,  '  Hebrews 
of  the  Hebrews'  had  ever  regarded  their 
Helleiii'<t  brelliren  with  suspicion  and  distrust; 
and  this  estmngement  repriKiuewl  itself  in  the 
Christ lan  t'him'li.  Tlie  int<!resta of  the  Hellenist 
willows  had  been  neglected  in  the  dally  distrl- 
butlmi  iif  alms.  Hence  'arose  a  murmuring  of 
the  HilienistJi  against  the  Hebrews '  (Acts  vi  1), 
which  was  mi't  by  the  ap|i<>intment  of  seven 
persons  s|M'elally  charged  with  providing  for  the 
wants  (if  these  neglected  poor.  If  the  selection 
wa«  made,  as  8t.  Lukes  hingiiage  seems  to 
Imply,  not  by  the  Hellenists  theinst'lves  but  by 
the  Cliunh  at  large  (vl.  2),  the  com'ession  when 
granted  was  carriiil  out  In  a  lllMTai  spirit.  All 
the  names  uf  the  seven  are  Ureek,  pointing  to  a 
Hellenist  rather  than  a  Hebrew  extrnction.  ami 
one  is  esjH'iially  descrilieil  as  a  proselyte,  Ixlng 
diiuliiliss  ehown  to  represent  a  hltherlo  small 
but  gniwing  serllim  of  the  ctmiinunilv.  Bv 
this  a|)polnlinent  the  Hellenist  members  o'btahieil 
a  sljitus  in  Uie  i^hureh;  and  the  ctfeets  of  this 
measure  soon  N-eame  visible.  Two  out  of  the 
•even  stand  prominenlly  forwani  as  the  elinin- 
plons  of  eiiiuiieipHtion,  rftephin  the  preaelier  and 
martyr  nf  lllierty,  and  I'Ipillp  tlie  praelind 
worker  '  — ,(  B.  IjightfiKit,  Jn—frl'Uinn»  o'l  Hit 
.l/»«f"/„-  .\;,f.  pp.  (HKVi.  —  •■The  Hellenist 
Stephen  niiistsl  dei'p  stirring  movements  ehlellv 
In  Hellenist  eireles.  .  .  .  The  permrutlon  of  the 
Jenisuleni  eonmiunily  —  |M>rha|M  sprelally  of  its 
Helleiiist  imri  — wiiieh  fiillowisl  the  stiming  of 
bti'phen.  Iseame  a  means  of  promoting  the 
spreail  .if  till'  Christian  faith  to  .  .  ,  Cyprus,  at 
la*t  to  »>  lm|H)rt«nt  a  centre  as  Antioeh,  the 
Imperial  eapilai  of  the  Kast.  To  the  winning  of 
tliH  Jews  tn  faith  In  .lesiis  Om'Tv  Ia  slreadv  added 
the  nsipiion  Into  the  Christian  community  of 
the  ploii*  *  lent!  h-  ( Cornelius,  a  proselyte  of  the  gate. 
.  .  .  Tbouyh  tblt  appwn  Id  tmUtfam  a«   an 


Individual   case  lanctloned  by   special  DIrine 
guidance,  in  the  meantime  Hellenist  Cbristiani 
had  already  begun  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  iKini 
Greeks,  also  at  Antioeh  in  Syria,  and  surross 
fully  (Acts  xi.   19-96),  Barnabas  Is  sent  tliither 
from  Jerusniem." — W.    Moeller,  Iliilory  nf  th, 
Chrittian  Church,  p.  58-54.— "Philip,  drivoo 
from  Jerusalem  by  the  peiwcution,    preacliod 
Christ  to  tiie  SamorltaDS.  .  .  .  TheApostlea  who 
had   remained    at   Jerusalem,   hearing  of  the 
success  of  Philip's  preaching,  sent  two  of  their 
number  into  this  new  and  fruitful  field  of  lulior. 
.  .  .  Pet*'r  and  John  return  to  Jcru.salem  while 
the  Deacon  Philip  is  called,  by  a  new  manifi'sta- 
tlon  of  the  will  of  God,  yet  further  toexteml  ilie 
field  of  Christian  missions.    It  is  not  a  Samari- 
tan but  a  paran,  whom  he  next  Instructs  in  the 
truth.  .  .  .  He  was  an  Ethiopian  eunuch,  a  trn-jt 
dignitary  of  the  court  of  MeniO,  treasunr  of  the 
Queen.  .  .  .  This  man,  a  pagan  by  birth,  li»| 
taken  a  long  Journey  to  worship  the  true  (tod  in 
the  temple  of  Jerusalem." — E.  De  Pres.sen»e,  Tht 
Barty  Yenn  of  Chnttianity,  pp.  71-74.— "For 
the  sake  of  tlie  popular  feeling  Hensi  Ajripps 
laid  hanils  on  memlM'rs  of  the  comniiniirv,  ami 
caused  James  the  brother  of  John  (the  »i>u  of 
Zebedee)  to  In  put  to  death  by  the  swoni,  in  the 
year  44,    for    soon    thereafter  Hensl    Acrippn 
<iled.     Peter  also  was  taken  prisoner,  but  miracu- 
lously eseaiH-d  and  provisionally  left  Jeriisalfm. 
From  this  time  on  James  the  bnitluT  nf  the 
I.iord  ap|)ears  ever  more  and  more  iw  n.illv  liear- 
Ing  rank  as  head  of  the  Jerusalem  cumnuinily, 
while  Peter  mure  and  more  devotes  liiiiistlf  'a 
the  apostolic  mission  abroad,  and  imli  iil.  ninro 
accurately,  to  the  misshm  In  Ismel."— \V.  .MikIIit, 
Ilintory  iif  the  Chrilinn  Vhureh,  p.  M.— "The 
aerounts  whii-h  we  have  reimniing  the  sivistle 
Peter,  represent  him  as  preaeliing  the  gosjuj  from 
the  far  east  to  distant  parts  of  the  »ist.  .  .  . 
Acconling  Ui  his  own  wonis.  he  fouiidcil  i  Imrches 
In  Pontus,  (}alatin,  CappuIiKla.  Asia,  ami  lliiliy 
nlo,  and  aceoniing  to  the  testimony  n(  niuieiil 
historians  of  the  Chureh  in  the  east  al«).  in 
Syria,  Ikiliylon,  Mesoixitamia.  Clialdaea.  .\raliia. 
PhiM-nicia  and  Egypt,  and  In  the  west,  at  Iti'ni'. 
In  Britain.  Ireland,  Helvetia  and  Sixiiii  "-J.  E. 
T.  Wiltach.  Ihnd  limk  of  tht  ilfKiniphy  ,ii.i 
SInlMiet   of    Tht    Church,    r.    1.    /71.    1II-J>- 
"Thri'C  and   tlm'c  only  of  the  personal  ili*!- 
pies  and  Inimtiliate  followers  of  our  Uml  \M 
any  pMmliieiit  plmv  In  the  .\pcwtolie  riii>nis— 
Jaines,    Peter,   and  John;   the  first  IIm'   l,iml> 
brother,  the  two  latter  the  foremost  ininilnnnl 
the  Twelve       Apart  from  an  Incldcniiil  tvUr 
enre  to  the  death  of  James  the  son  of  S^lsilre, 
which  is  ilLsmissitl  In  a  single  senlemi'.  ilic  nst 
of  the  Twelve  are  mentioned  by  name  f'lr  tiie 
last  time  on  the  day  of  the  Lonl's  ■\'<iiri«ion. 
Thenceforwanl  they  illsap|M'ar  wliollv  frniii  tlie 
canonical     writings.       And    this    silcecu    slio 
extends  to  the   traditions  of  sucec'iini:  sci 
We  read  indeed  of  St.  Thomas  In  Itidiii,  ufM. 
Andrew   In  S<ythiii;    hut  such  scanty  imllii'*, 
even  if   we  aeiTpt  them  as  trustwcirthy.  slmw 
only   the  more   plainly   ho*   little  lln'  1  liunli 
eoiild  Ij'll  nf  her  earili-st   teachers       Ik.iihlli'JI 
they  lalmured  xenloiisly  and  elTiciivi  ly  In  the 
•pri-ail  of  the  (losiMd;  but.  so  far  as  wc  know. 
l.'iey  h»ve  left  n^   impresa  of  IU-At   !!!!!'i'!i!»l 
mind  and   cliamcii'r  on  the  Church  at  lariir 
Ocrupying  the  foreground,  and  Indccl  oivprim 
the  whuki  caovas  ul  early  '     lusUstical  liltturj, 


448 


CHBISTIANITT. 


AdvHt 
a/8t.t1uiL 


CHRIBXIANITT. 


ippetr  four  figure*  alone,  St.  Paul,  and  the 
three  Apostles  of  the  Circumcision." — J.  B. 
Lightfoot,  DiuertatioTU  on  the  ApottoUe  Age,  p. 
40— "While  Peter  (as  it  appears)  is  occupied 
with  the  work  of  preaching  to  the  Jews  outside 
of  I'ali'stine,  the  community  at  Jerusalem,  and 
indeed  the  Palestinian  communities  in  general, 
lUnd  I  :<ler  the  leadership  of  the  brother  of  the 
Lord,  J.iracs,  as  their  recognised  heiul.  They 
lemain  strictly  in  the  life  of  the  law,  and  still 
bold  securely  to  the  hope  of  the  conversion  of 
the  whole  of  God's  people  (which  Paul  had  for 
the  present  given  up).  The  mission  to  the 
Gentiles  is  Indeed  recognised,  but  the  manner  of 
its  conduct  by  Paul  and  the  powerful  increase  of 
Psulinc  communities  excite  misgivings  and  dis- 
sensions. For  in  tliese  mixed  communities,  in 
the  presence  of  whut  is  often  a  preponderating 
Gentile  element,  it  becomes  ever  clearer  in  what 
direction  the  development  is  pressing;  that,  la 
fact,  for  the  sake  of  the  higher  Christian  com- 
munion the  legal  customs  even  of  the  Jewish 
Christians  in  theae  communities  must  inevitably 
be  broken  down,  and  general  Christian  freedom, 
on  principle,  from  the  commands  of  the  law, 
gain  recognition." — Dr.  Wilhelm  Moeller,  Ifitt. 
cfthe  Chrutian.  Church,  p.  73.— "The  fall  of 
Jerusalem  occurred  in  the  Autumn  of  the  year 
70  [see  Jews:  A.  D.  M-70].  And  loon  the 
catastrophe  came  which  solved  the  difficult  prob- 
lem. .  .  .  Jerusalem  was  razed  to  the  ground, 
and  the  Temple-worship  censed,  never  again  to 
be  revived.  The  Christians  foreseeing  the  calam- 
ity hail  fled  before  the  t«.'m|)«st.  ,  ,  ,  Before  the 
crisis  came,  they  had  been  deprived  of  the  coun- 
sel and  guidance  of  the  leading  apostles.  Peter 
ha>l  fallen  a  martyr  at  Tiome ;  John  hud  retired 
1/  Asia  .Minor;  James,  the  Lonl's  brother,  was  shtin 
not  long  before  the  great  catastrophe.  ...  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  cousin  Symcon,  the  son  of 
Clopas  and  nephew  of  Joseph.  Under  these  ctr- 
cunistanres  the  Church  was  reformed  at  Pella.  Its 
bistiirv  in  the  ages  following  is  a  hopeless  blank. " 
—J.  11.  Lightfoot,  Di—trtationt  on  the  Avoitolie 
Aft,  p.  W— "  While  Cicsarea  succeeded  Jcrusa- 
Irm  as  the  political  capital  of  Palestine,  Antioch 
»ii(«t'ilftl  It  as  the  centre  of  Christendom." — ▲. 
I'lummer,  Churth  of  the  Knrly  Fathere,  eh.  8. 

Antioch.—"  t'nder  Macedonian  rule  the  Greek 
intiU'il  had  IxTome  the  leading  Inlellecttial 
poivvr  of  tlie  world.  The  great  Ontrk  siicakiiig 
Uiwns  of  the  East  were  alike  the  Htriingiiuld.s  of 
tnti'lliTttial  power,  the  battlelieUls  of  opinion 
and  systems,  and  the  laboratories  of  sclintillc 
reiciin  li.  where  discoveriii  were  made  and  liter- 
ary midi  rtaklngs  requiring  the  r(miliiiiation  of 
forcM  wire  carried  out.  Such  was  .\ntiiHh  on 
the  Orcntis,  the  meeting  point  of  Syrian  and 
Onik  inlelliTt ;  such,  al>ove  all,  was  Alexandria. " 
—J.  J.  Von  DOlllnger,  Stnilirt  in  Kuri'itrim  Hie- 
torn,  p  lll.V— "The  chief  line  along  which  the 
new  rcll^'i.m  develo|)ed  was  ihat  w  hlch  led  from 
Byriiiu  .\ntiiK'h  Uimiigh  llie  t'iliii.in  Gatrs, 
siruii-  l,y.*.iiiU  to  Eiihi'Kus.  ("orlntli,  nnci  liome. 
Our  mit'.idiary  line  followed  the  land  route  by 
Philalidphia,  Troas,  IMiilippI,  and  the  Kgnatiun 
Wivto  Krlndisi  and  llome;  and  unollier  went 
nnnh  from  the  Gates  bv  Tvana  and  Ciesareiaof 
Capiii.liKia  to  .\miMM  In  I'ontus.  the  creal  har. 
hour  ,.i'  ihi'  iilark  Pea,  by  which  the"  traile  of 
Cinir;d  .\«iii  was  ctrried  to  Ibime.  The  main- 
tenHMn'  (if  I'loMi  unit  constant  communication 
■K.tvrt'1'n  the  scattered  oungrcgatlons   must  be 


m 


presupposed,  as  necessary  to  explain  the  growth 
of  the  Church  and  the  attitude  which  the  State 
assumed  towards  it.  Such  communication  was, 
on  the  view  advocated  in  the  present  work, 
maintained  along  the  same  lines  on  which  the 
general  development  of  the  Empire  took  place; 
and  politics,  education  and  religion  grew  side  by 
side.  — W.  M.  Ramsay,  T%e Churchlnthe Roman 
Empire,  p.  10.— "The  incitement  to  the  wider 
preaching  of  the  Gospel  in  the  Greek  world 
starts  from  the  Christian  community  at  Anti<x:h. 
For  this  purpose  Barnabas  receives  Paul  as  a 
companion  (Acts  xiil. ,  and  xiv.)  Saul,  by  birth  a 
Jew  of  the  tribe  of  Beniamin,  bom  at  Tarsus  in 
Cilicia,  educated  as  a  Pharisee,  and  although 
indeed  as  a  Uellenlst,  he  had  command  of  Greek 
and  had  come  into  contact  with  Greek  culture 
and  Greek  life,  yet  had  not  actually  passed 
throueh  the  discipline  of  Greek  culture,  was 
introduced  by  Gamaliel  to  the  learned  study  of 
the  law,  and  bis  whole  aoiU  was  seized  with  fiery 
zeal  for  the  Statutes  of  the  fathers.  .  .  .  After 
[his  conversion  and]  his  stay  in  Damascus  and  In 
Arabia  and  the  visit  to  Peter  (and  James)  at 
Jerusalem,  having  gone  to  Syria  and  Cilicia,  ha 
was  taken  to  Antioch  by  Barnabas."— W.  Moel- 
ler,  Ilietory  of  the  Chnttian  Churth,  p.  57.— 
"  The  strength  and  zeal  of  the  Antioch  Chri.stian 
society  are  shown  in  the  sending  forth  of  Paul 
and  Barnabas,  with  Hark,  a  cousin  of  Barnabas, 
for  tlieir  companion  for  a  part  of  the  way,  on  a 

S reaching  tour  in  the  eastern  districts  of  Asia 
liuor.  First  they  visited  Cyprus,  where  Sergius 
Paulus,  the  prtx;onsul,  was' converted.  Thence 
they  sailed  to  Attalia,  on  the  southern  coast  of 
Pamphvlia,  and  near  Perga;  from  Perga  they 
proceeded  to  Antioch  in  Pis;  lia,  and  from  tliere 
eastward  to  Iconium,  ami  ->  far  as  Lystru  and 
Derlie  in  Lycaouia.  Retnu  ing  their  steps,  they 
came  back  to  Attalia,  and  sailed  directly  to 
Antioch.  .  .  .  This  was  the  first  incursion  of 
Paul  into  the  domain  of  heathenism."— G.  P. 
Fisher,  llittary  of  the  Chritti.in  Church,  p.  ti. — 
"  How  then  should  Paul  and  Barnabas  proceed  ? 
To  leave  Syria  they  must  go  first  toSeleucei.i.  the 
harbour  of  AnticK'h.  where  they  would  find  ships 
going  south  to  the  Syrian  const  and  Egypt,  and 
west  either  by  way  of  Cyprus  or  along  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor.  The  western  route  led  toward 
the  lUimiin  world,  to  which  all  Paul's  subseiiuent 
history  proves  that  he  considered  himself  called 
by  the  Spirit.  The  Apostles  einlmrkeil  in  a 
ship  for  Cyprus,  which  win  very  closely  con- 
nected by  commerce  and  general  intereouriH'  « ith 
tlie  Syrian  coast.  After  traversing  the  Uhind 
fmm  east  to  west,  they  must  go  onwanl.  f*l  ips 
going  westward  naturally  wiMit  across  the  (■■  ast 
of  Pamphrlla.  and  the  Apistles,  after  rcuiliing 
Paphos,  near  the  west  cn<l  of  Cyprus,  sailed  in 
one  of  these  ships,  and  hindeil  at  Attiillaiu  I'am- 

Jhylla." — W,  M.  Hamsay,  The  Churth  in  tht 
imMii  Eminre,  p.  6(1. — "'The  work  starting  from 
AnIkH'h.  by  which  acre<;s  to  the  faith  is  opcniHl 
to  the  Oeiitiies.  the  formation  of  (pre{M>niliT«t- 
Ingly)  tlculile  Cliristlim  communities,  now  intn)- 
diuesiiito  the  oriuiual  Christian  development  an 
important  pnihlem.  which  (about  the  year  153, 
prolialily  imt  later),  (Oul.  ii. ;  .Vets  xv  )  'leads  to 
dliuMiiwiiins  and  explunatloiiH  nt  tlip  KO'C:illi<d 
Aposlolic  Council  [at  JerusulemJ.  .  .  .  For 
Paul,  who  ha«  rlwH  to  perfect  indeiKiidence  by 
the  energy  of  his  own  peculiar  stamp  of  gospel, 
tbert   uuir  begin   the   year*   of  bis  puwcrftit 


449 


CHMSTUNITT. 


rutWt  Ifimionan 


CHRISTIANITY. 


IS 


iH 


•ctlTltytn  which  be  not  only  again  vtolts  and 
extiuds  bU  former misalonary  flelJ  In  Asta  Minor 
but  gains  a  firm  footing  In  Macedonia  (PhUippI), 
Athens   and  AchaU  (Corinth);  then  on  the  so^ 
called  third  missionary  journey  be  exercises  a 
comprehensive  Influeoco  during  a  stay  of  nearly 
three  years  at  Epbesus,  and  finally  looks  frr>in 
Achaia  towards  the  metropolis  of  the  world."— 
W  Moeller.  fflW.  of  tht  Ohritian  Chunk,  pp. 
07-39.— "If  the  heathen  whom  he  (Paul)  had 
won  to  the  faith  and  received  into  the  Church 
were  to  be  persuaded  to  adopt  circumcision  and 
the  law  before  they  could  atuin  to  full  nartlcl- 
pation  In  the  Christian  salvation,  his  pi    Mna 
liad  fallen  short  of  bis  aim.  It  bad  been  In  vain 
since  It  was  very  doubtful  whether  the  Gentiles 
giiuied  over  to  believe  in  the  Messiah  would  sub- 
mit to  the  condition.     Paul  could  only  look  on 
thiise  who  made  such  a  demiind  as  false  brethren, 
who  having  no  clair.  to  Christian  brotherhood 
had  forced  themselves  Into  the  Church  at  AnUoch 
In  an  unauthorized  way  ((Jal.  11.  4).  and  was  per- 
suaded that  neither  the  primiUvc  Church  as  such 
nor  its  rulers,  sharcd  this  view.     In  older  there- 
fort-  to  prevent  the  (Jentile  Christians  from  being 
disturbed  on  thb  potat,  he  deU    uined  to  jro  to 
Jerusalem  and  there  to  challenge  a  decision  In 
the  matter  that  sliould  put  an  eml  to  the  strife 
(I.  .>).      The  Church  at  Antiocli  ulao  recognized 
this  neccjslty ;  hence  followed  the  proceedrncs  in 
Jtrusuilem  [about  A.  D.  52].  whither  Paul  and 
Barnalws  ri'palrud  with  other  u.ssociate8  (Gal   U 
\i    ^}',^>\  8,«f).  •  •      It  is  ceruin  that  when 
Paul  laid  ..is  (free)  gospel  before  the  aut.'oritles 
In  .Jerusalem,  they  added  notliliig  to  it  (Gal.  II. 
»-«),  1  e    thev  did  not  require  that  the  irosDel  he 
preaclijd  W  the  Gentiles  should,  besides  tliisolo 
comlilion  of  faith  whi.  h  ho  laid  down,  impose 
Judaism  up.  I.  them  as  a  condition  of  participT 
1 1.11  in  salvation    .      .  Pauls  stipulations  with 
tlie  authontles    In    Jerusalem   resiwctluir  their 
future  work  were  just  as  important  forlilm  as 
the  recognition  of  his  free  gospel  (Gal.  II.  7-10) 
Thty  had  for  their  basis  a  recognition  on  the 
part  of  the  primitive  apostles  that  he  was  en- 
trusted with  the  gospel  of  the  uiulrcumcislon  to 
which  tl   V  could  add  nothing  (11.  6),  just  as 
Peter  (as  admittedly  the  most  prominent  amonit 
the  prtmitivc  apostles)  was  entnisted  with  that 
of  the  circumcision.  ••-Bemhard  Weiss,  A  Man- 
*"  .'Ci','!^"!f*""'  '"  ""  ^''>'  TttUiment.  t   1 
pp.  1/2-1".  »'8^';  It  seems  clear  that  the  first 
meetlnm  of  the  Christians  as  a  community  apart 
-in.-llnjp  that  is  of  a  private  rather  tharT a 
p^.l«■lytl8in»  character  — took  place   as  we  see 
from  Acu  1.  1»-15.  ir.  private  apartments,  the 


w^ith  ud  social  position,  who  could  accomma 
date  In  their  house,  hirge  gatherings  of  t^?JS" 
f  ul :  and  It  is  taterestlng  to  reflect  tBat  w Lne^m. 
of  the  mansions  of  an  ancient  city  migl  ^^^ 
neasing  hi  supper,  of  a  Trimalchio  or  a  Vim 
Kene.  more  revolting  to  modern  tLS.  ii^' 
a  moat  anythhig  presented  by  X  pag^\^?," 
others,  perliapg  hi  the  same  itre.  t,  nSt  be  i. 
seat  of  Christian   wonddp   „r   of   theMS^ 

"plF^rF  "?«'«'f^-  &«s 

v««      I  J","  "'*'"'^  """  »  Prtod  of  tS 
yrars     Larj:    spaces  are  passed  over  in  silcnca 

In  L"^"!?'*-"'.'"  '»>e  catalogue  of  his  mfxXl 
Incdentallv  given,  he  refers  to  the  fact  th""^ 
ha.1  been  sLipwreckH  three  Umes,  and  thesl  dU 
asters  were  a  prior  to  the  ahinwr..!.i  „  .> 
Island  of  JIalta''described"'by  Tuke'"  Z^y 
after  the  conference  at  Jerusilem  he  startXJ 
his  second  toilsdonaiy  tour.  He  wa«  n-^™ 
paniiKl  by  Silas,  and^M  joined  by  Timothy  « 
Lystra^  He  revtaited  hu' converts  n  Eastern 
Asia  Minor,  founded  churches  in  Galalia  aS 
Phry,-m  and  from  Tr«».  obedlen-.  to  a  h  -av/ok 
.uni.  19,  crossed  over  to  Europe  ll«vi,, 
plar  atPhilippI  a  church  that  "^einaiu  '«^ 
mark  ,.  devoted  and  loyal  to  him.  he  (Movni 
the  great  Koman  road  to  Tbessalon  c»  t  ■  ■  ,  .t 
Important  city  in  Macedonia.  Driven  fnm  tL™ 
and  from  Berea,  he  proceeded  f.  .",S  f^ 

cultivated  city  he  discoursed  on  Mars  IliU  (o 
aud!u>™  eager  for  new  ideas  In  phil„s.,,,h"  .lid 
religion,  and  in  private  debatal  with  SiLi  and 
Epicureans.  At  Corinth,  which  had  rU-,.  fmm 
U  ruins  and  was  once  more  rich  and  pr,.,,».nmi 
he  remained  for  a  year  and  a  half.    I  wai  th  re 


,.  ,„  .„,  ,,,  |,,ivai«  Hparrmenis 

up|»r  n).>ms  or  large  guest  chambers  In  the 
houses  of  individual  members.  Such  a  room  was 
doubtless  provided  by  the  liberality  of  Titus  Jus- 
tus (Acta  xvill.  7).  such  a  nK)m  again  was  tl  e 
upper  chamber  In  which  Ht.  Paul  preaehe.1  at 
TrouKAcUxx.  7  8),  In  such  awmbVed  tK  con- 
veris  salutt.l  by  the  AiH«tle  as  the  churc.i  which 

.Ld  of  PblLnion.  .  The  primitive  Itoiimn 
b.n,»c  had  only  one  story,  but  as  the  cities  irh'w 
o  U-  more  densely  populati^^l  upjn^^r  stories  otme 
iut-.  use.  and  It  was  the  custom  to  plac-  in  these 
laming  apartmenu,  which  were  callcl  cenarulT 
»u.h   apartmeuls  would   answer  to  th«  ■  upper 

iou?;  L"'l"'i'  •         ^'"'    P'*'''"'   •'""'mm.itk. 
couulocd    from   u   early  period  members  of 


4d0 


prebably,  that  ho  wrote  his  two  Eoistl^  „uS 
The««lon  an  Christlami.  After  a  sinrt  stay™ 
Ephesus  he  returned  to  Antloch  by  «„y  of 
Cesarc-a  and  Jerusalem.  It  was  not  Im,?  Jhn 
Paul -a  second  Alexander,  but  on  a  ,«H.-.'f™ 
expclltlon- began  his  thlnl  great  iuiv.i„„ary 
journey.  Taking  the  lan.l  ^,ute  from  .\,ai"b. 
he  traverse.!  Asia  Minor  to  Ephesu-s.  a  u.„iri»h. 

proWnoe  of  A.hi  There,  with  occa,i„ual  ab- 
senoes,  he  macle  his  abode  for  upwanU  „f  two 
i'^rt;  .  .".'  ^}"i»''?-  probably.  h<-  ^>r„ie  the 
Epistle   to  the   tialatians.  .  .  .   Frm.    Eplu^su. 

tidans  The  Second  Epistle  U,  the  C.rimhian. 
he  proljably  wrote  from  Philippl.  .  .  Couiiui 
dowu  through  Greece,  he  remalncl  thiru  thr« 
inontiis.  There  he  a.mpose<l  his  E-islle  t(.  Ilie 
Itomans.  .  .  .  The  uitlrmg  Apostle 'ii..w  turaiHl 
his  tttce  toward ■  Jer  isulem.  lie  dcslrcl  to  bo 
present  at  the  festlva'  of  the  Pcntecwt.  Ii,  „nicr 
to  save  time,  he  niiled  past  E|.h.«u»,  c  M  .t 
IHIletus  bade  a  tender  farewell  t,.  the  K|„„»l»n 

elders.     He  had  fuiail..!  hU  , .-e  ^hn\  „|  ilm 

conf.renc.-  and  ho  now  carrlnl  comril,iiii..uj 
from  the  Christians  of  Mace-'  iila  sn.l  .Vchaii  for 
the  p.H.r  at  Jiru«.ilem."-G.  P.  Kishtr.  ll,.l^ 
oftM  Chiutum  Vhiink,  pp.  87-."m  _■•  Uc  may 
safe  y  say  that  If  Saul  hiwl  b.-.n  l.ss  of  s  Jew, 
l-ao!  tlK^  ,\{«>st;re  w„u!u  have  bau  i.»»  U.ui  aaJ 
independent.  His  work  would  have  Inen  in.  re 
siiuerflcial,  and  his  mind  less  unfelt.r,-,!  IW 
did  uot  choow  »  boatlwu  to  bo  the  aposllv  for  tU 


CHRISTIAinTT. 


Labonof  at.  Fini. 


CHRISTIANITT. 


knthen;  for  he  might  hare  been  ensnared  by 
the  tradition*  of  Judaism,  by  its  priestly  hier- 
srchy  and  the  splendours  ol  its  worship,  as  in- 
deed It  bsppenra  with  the  church  of  the  second 
century.    On  the  comrary  Ood  chose  a  Pharisee. 
But  this  Pharisee  had  the  most  complete  ex- 
perience of  the  emptiness  of  external  ceremonies 
ud  the  crushing  yoke  of  the  law.    There  was 
no  fear  that  he  would  <!ver  look  back,  that  he 
would  be  tempted  to  set  up  again  what  t'^e  grace 
of  Ood  had  justly  overthrown  (Gal.  11.  IG).    Juda- 
ism was  wholly  vanquished  in  his  soul,  for  it 
was  wholly  displaced.  "—A.  Sabatier,  TheAryeilt 
Paul,  p.  69.— "Notwithstanding  the  opprsition 
be  met  from  his  countrymen,  in  spite  of  t.ii  the 
liberal  and  the  awc'iened  sympathies  whi?h  he 
derived  from  his  w  'rk,  despite  the  necessity  of 
conleD.ling  daily  ai.d  hourl^  trt  the  freedom  of 
the  Gospel  among  ti.e  Ge:;uies,  he  never  ceased 
to  be  a  Jew.  .  .  .  The  most  ardent  patriot  could 
not  enlarge  with  greater  pride  on  the  •;lorics  of 
the  chosen  race  than  he  does  in  the  Epist;-*  to  the 
Romana    His  care  for  the  poor  in  Judoti  is  a 
touching  proof  of  the  strength  of  this  n  ttlonal 
feeling.    Ills  attendance  at  the  great  annual  fes- 
ti'alsin  Jerusalem  is  still  more  signiflcont.     'I 
riuit  spend  the  coming  feast  at  Jerusalem. '  This 
nguaKC  beroiuea  the  more  striking  when  we 
ememlwr  that  he  was  then  intending  to  open 
out  a  new  tleUi  of  missionary  lalmur  in  the  far 
West,  and  was  bidding  perhaps  his  Inst  far"well 
to  the  Holy  City,  tlie  loy  of  the  whole  earth."— 
J.  B.  Lljtlitfoot.   Bihtifal  Eunyt,  pp.  200-210  — 
"The  .Macedonian  Churches  are  honorably  dis- 
tlnguishcil  ab^ve  all  others  by  their  Hdclity  to 
the  GiwiM'l  a  .d  their  affectionate  regard  for  8t 
Paul  himself.     While   the   Church  of  Corinth 
disirriioil  herself  by  gross  moral  deliniiuencies, 
whili'  till-  Ualittians  bartered  the  lilK'rty  of  the 
Gospel  for  a  narrow  formalism,  while   the  be- 
lierera    of   Kphesus    drifted    into    the  wildest 
speculative  errors,  no  such  stain  attiiches  to  the 
brethren  of  Pliilippl  «n(l  Thesanlonica.     It  is  to 
the  Macviloniiin  congregations  that  the  Apostle 
ever  turns  for  solace  in  tlie  midst  of  his  severest 
trials  and  sufferings.    Time  seems  not  to  have 
chli:,'<l  ihi'se  feelings  of  mutual  alTection.     The 
Epistle  to  the  I'liilipplans  was  writu-n  about  ten 
yean  after  the  Tlu-agalonian  letters.     It  is  the 
more  sur,  rising  therefore  that  they  should  re- 
wmbic  each  other  so  strongly  in  tone.     In  both 
•like  .St  I'uul  drops  his  olllciiil  title  at  the  outset 
.  Olid  in  both  he  adopts  throughout  the  same 
tone  of  confidence  and  aroction.     In  this  inter- 
val  of  ten  years  we  meet  with  one  notice  of  the 
Mawilonlan  Churchei     It  is  conceived  In  terms 
of  luiimiisured  praise.     The  Ma  ■•■donians  bad 
l»een  c«|l„l  upon  to  contribjto  u>  the  wants  of 
their  p()<inr  brethren  iu  Juda'a,  who  were  suffer- 
og  .r  .m  famine.    They  had  resp«m«UHl  n,>bly  to 
itie call     I)v«p  simk  in  poverty  and  sorely  tried 
by  peiiiprutloii.  they  came  forward  with  eager 
jor  and  pnur.'.l  out  the  riches  of  their  lllicrBllty 
•tralDlnij  their  means  to  the  utmost  in  order  to 
relieve  t he  »uffer.-rs,  ,  .  .  We  may  imagine  that 
the  pe.,ple  ,1111   reialni-d   something   of   those 
•implir  habits  mil  that  ntunlier  character,  which 
.,»;'',''"■''  '".*'  ""*'"  ""'I  Orientals  in  the  days 
"  r.M,:j.  am!  AK-iamicr,  ai.d  l.'ius  in  the  e.rty 
^^u  .  "'j''"  <^'"^»"«''  t'hurch  the  Maccloniai 
PhalMi  offered  a  successful    resistance  to  the 
•Jjjulls  of  .n  enemy,  before  which  the  lax  and 
«»rv»t*d  rvikt  of  Ada  and  AciuU  bad  yielded 


ir^ominlously,"- J.  B.  Lightfoot,  BiNieal  Euayt, 
I  '.  849-250.- At  Jerusalem,  "the  Apostle  was 
rescued  by  a  detachment  of  the  Roman  garrison 
from  a  mob  of  Jewish  mallgnants,  was  held  in 
custody  for  two  years  at  Cesarea,  and  was  finally 
enabled  to  accomplish  a  long-cherished  Intention 
to  go  to  Rome,  by  being  conveved  there  as  a 
prisoner,  he  having  made  an  appeal  to  Ctesar. 
After  being  wrecked  on  the  Mediterranean  and 
cast  ashore  on  the  Island  of  MalU,  under  the  cir- 
cumstances rehited  in  Luke's  graphic  and  accu- 
rate description  of  the  voyage,  he  went  on  his 
way  in  safety  to  the  capital."— O.  P.  Fisher.  Ilit- 
tvryoftKeChrittian  Chnrch,p.  29.- "Paulsapos- 
tollc  career,  as  known  to  us,  lasted  .  .  .  twcnty- 
ntae  or   thirty  years;  and  it  falls   into  three 
distinct  periods  which   are  summarized  in  the 
following  chronological  table :  First  Pcrio<l  —  Es- 
sentlallv    Mlssionery:  85  A.   D.,  Conversion  of 
Paul.  — journey  to  Arabia;  38,   First  visit  to 
Jerusalem;  88-49,  Mission  in  Syria  and  Cilicia— 
Taraus  and  Antioch ;  50-51,Fir8t  missionary  jour- 
"Py— Cyprus,  PamphyliaandOalatia  tActexiii., 
xiv.);  52,  Conference  at  Jerusalem  ;Ajtsxv. ;  QaL 
li.);  52-55,  Secondmissionary  jou'jey  — Epistles 
to  the  Thessalonlans     from   Coiinth).     Second 
Period  —The  Great  t  uiflicts,  and  the  Great  Epis- 
tles: 54,  Return  to  Antioch  — Controversy  with 
Peter  (Oal.  li.  12-22);  5.V5T,  Mission  to  Ephesus 
and  Asia;  66,  Epistle  to  the  Oalatians;  .WorSS 
(Passover),    Firet    Epistle  to    the    Corinthians 
(Ephesus);   57  or  58  (.Sutumn),   Second  Epistle 
to  the    Corinthians    (Maccdoida);   58    (Winter) 
Epistle  to  the  Romans.    Third  Period  —  The 
Captivity;  58  or  69  (Pentecost),  Paul  Is  arrested 
at  Jerusalem ;  58-60,  or  59-61,  Captivity  at  Cffis- 
area  —  Epistles  to    Philemon,    Colossians  and 
Ephesians;  60  or  61  (Autumn),  IX'parture  for 
Rome;  61  or  03  (Sprint'),   Arrival  of  Puul  In 
Rome ;  63-63,  Epistle  to  the  Phillppians ;  63  or  64 
End  of  the  narrative  of  the  Acu  of  tlie  Apos- 
tles. "—A.  Sabatier,  TKe  Apottlt  Paul,  pp.  21-23  _ 
"The  impression  that  we  get  from  Acta  is,  that  the 
evangelisation  of  Asia  Minor  originated  from  St. 
Paul;  and  that  from  his  initiative  the  new  reli- 
gion gradually  spread  over  the  country  through 
the  action  of  many  other  missionaries  (Acts  xfi. 
10).     Moreover,  missionaries  not  trained  bv  him 
were  at  work  in  South  Oalatia  and  In  Enlu'susas 
early  as  64-56  A.  I),  (Oal.  v.  7-10;  Acts  xviil 
85).  .  .  .  The  Christian  Churrli  in  Asia  Minor 
was  always  opposed  to  the  priinltl»-e  native  eliar- 
arter     It  was  t'hristianltv,  and  not  tlu^  Imperial 
government,  which  llnallv  destnived  the  native 
languages,  and  made  Orcek  the'universul  lan- 
guage of  Asia  Minor.      The  new  religion  was 
strong  in  the  towns  before  it  '.'ml  any  lioM  of  the 
country  parts.     The  ruder  and  the  le.ss  rivlliaed 
any  district  was,  the  slower  was  Christianity  in 
permeating  it    Christianity  in  tlie  eariv  centuries 
was  the  R'l^Hon  o'  the  more  advaneed.'not  of  the 
'  barbarian '  [H-opleo ,  and  in  fact  it  wems  to  be 
nearlv  ceinllned  within  the  limits  of  the  Roman 
world,  and  pructically  to  take  little  thought  of 
any  people  l»vond,  though  Intlieory,  '  Hariiarian 
and  Scythhm    are  ineluded  in  it.  .  ,  .  The  First 
Epistle  of  John  was  In  all  prolMbility  'addnssed 
primarilv  to  the  cln-le  of  A«lal!c  Churrtiis,  n! 
which  fcplieaus  was  the  centre.'"— W.  M.  Ilim- 
.«y,  T"**  Church  in  the  Unann  Emjiire,  pp.  284, 
44,  80;i.— '■  Unless  we  arc  pre|iared  to  ri'Jeet  with- 
out a  hr  ring  si'  the  traditions  of  Christianity 
we  ca^ji  rcfuD  to  believe  that  the  latest  yean 


461 


CHRISTlAinTT. 


M/okm 


CHRISTIAKTIT 


of  the  Apottie  St  John  were  ipent  In  the  Roman 
proTlDce  of  Asia  and  chiefly  in  £phesu8  Its  capi- 
tal.   This  tradition  is  singularly  full,  consistent 
and  well-authenticated.     Here  he  gathered  disci- 
ples about  him.  organized  churches,  appointed 
bishops  and  presbyters.      A  whole  chorus  of 
voices  unite  In  bearing  testimony  to  its  truth. 
One  who  passed  his  earlieT  life  hi  these  parts  and 
had  heanl  his  aged  master,  a  disciple  of  St.  John 
himself,  recount  his  personal  reminiscences  of  the 
great  Apostle;  another,  who  held  tliis  very  see 
of  Ephusus,  and  writing  less  than  a  century  after 
the  Apostle's  death  was  linlted  with  the  past  by  a 
chi-in  of  relatives  all  bishops  in  the  Christian 
Church;  a  third  who  also  flourished  about  the 
close  of  the  century  in  I  numbered  among  bis 
teachers  an  oid  man  fn)iii  this  very  district  —  are 
the  principal,  because  the  most  distinct,  witnessi'S 
to  a  fact  which  is  implied  in  several  other  notices 
of  earlier  or  contemporary  wriUTS.     As  to  the 
time  at  which  St.  John  left  1 '   original  homeanc' 
settled  in  this  new  abode  nodirect  account  is  pre- 
servcti;  but  a  very  probable  conjecture  mav  bj 
hazarded.     The  impending  fall  of  the  Holy  t'it  ' 
was  the  signal  for  tiic  dispersion  of  the  followcM 
of  Chri.st.     About  this  stiine  time  the  tlin^e  oil;  - 
great  Anostles,  St.  Peter,  St.  Paul  and  St.  James, 
died  a  nmrtvr's  death ;  and  on  St.  John,  the  lost 
surviving  of  the  four  great  pillars  of  the  Church, 
devolved  the  work  of  developing  the  theology  of 
the  Gospel  and  completing  the  organization  of 
the  Church.     It  was  not  unnatural  that  at  such  a 
crisis  he  should  fix  bis  residence  in  the  centre  of 
a  large  and  growing  Christian  community,  vhicU 
had  been  planted  by  the  Apostle  of  the  GcntiLo 
and  wat-ri-d  by  the  AiHwtle  of  the Cirrumeision.' 
The  missionary  lalKJurp  ol  St.  Paul  and  St.  Peter 
in  Asia  Minor  wen-  .onflrmed  and  extended  bv 
the  prolonged  res'Mcnce  of  their  younger  coii- 
temponiry.     At  j.II  events  such  evidence  as  we 
possess  is  favouraliie  t    tni^  view  of  the  date  of 
St.  John's  si'ttlement  at  Ephesus.    Assuming  that 
the  Ap<x-alyp8e  is  the  work  of  "     beloved  Apos- 
tle, and  accepting  the  v'.-w  whic      assigns  it  to 
the  close  of  >en)s  rcign  or  thereal)outs,  we  find 
him  now  for  the   first   time  in   tlio  immediaU 
ncighlH)Hrhood  of  Asia  Minorniid  in  direct  com- 
inunicution  with  Ephesus  and  the  miglibouring 
Churrlies.      St.    John    however  was  not  alone 
^Vhetlu•r  <lniwn  thii,.  r  by  the  attraction  of  his 
presence  or  acting  in  pursuance  of  some  common 
agneimnt,  the  few  surviving  personal  dKciples 
of  the  I.<)nl  woulil   seem  to  have  chosen   Asia 
MiP'iras  their  permanent  abode,  or  at  all  events 
as  their  remgnW'd  Ii<«il,|imrter8.     Here  at  least 
wc  meet  witli  the  friend  of  St.  John's  youth  an<i 
perlmps  his  fellow. townsman,  Andrew  o'  Ilelh- 
BHlda,  who  with  liira  had  first  lisU'tied  to  John 
the  Biiptisi.  and  with  himalsohail  been  the  earliest 
to  ricofTiiise  Jesus  as  the  Christ.      Here  tiKj  we 
encounter  Philip  the  Evangelist  with  his  daugh- 
ters, mid  perhaps  also  Philip  o'  Ih'thsuidu,  the 
Apostle.      Here  alv.  was  settled  the  Apostle's 
namesake,  John  the  Presbyter,  also  a  personal 
disciple  of  Jesus,  and  one  Aristion,  not  ether- 
wise  known  to  us,  who  likewise  had  heanl  the 
Ixird.     And  (sisslbly  also  other  Apostles  whoso 
traditions  Pajiias  n-eonled  Iseo  J.  11.  LiglitfiH)t 
A/MfMie  Father;  p.  M^],  >fatthew  and  Thomas 
Slid  James,  may  have  hail  some  ninrwurinn,  tpin- 
porary  or  penhanent,  with  this  district.     Thus 
surrounded         the  surviving  disciples  of   the 
Lord,  by  blii.opi  tad  preibyten  of  iiit  own  ap- 


polntinent,  and  by  the  pupiU  who  gathewd 
about  him  and  l.xiked  to  him  for  instruction  8t 
John  was  the  fo.us  of  a  large  and  active  sor'ietv 
of  heli«ver».  In  this  respect  he  holds  a  unique 
pos-Uon  ainong  the  great  teachers  of  the  ucvt 
faith.  St.  Peter  and  tit.  Paul  converted  rtl.scinle's 
and  organized  congregaUons ;  St.  John  alone  was 
the  centre  of  a  school.  His  life  prtilonped  tin 
the  close  of  the  century,  when  the  t'lmreh  was 

,?u^J°'J*^'^,  ^"'l  *;''•"';'  "^"tended,  combined 
with  his  fixed  alxxle  in  the  centre  of  an  estsb- 
lished  community  to  give  a  certain  deHnitiness 
to  his  personal  influence  which  would  be  wnntin? 
to  the  wider  labours  of  these  str<.iiy  niLssionarv 
preachers.  Hence  the  notiw-s  of  St.  John  haves 
mnre  solid  ba»ls  and  claim  grec.ier  attention  than 
rojries  relating  to  the  other  Apostles  "—J  B 
Llghtfoit.  nmieal  Em-'/;  pp.  81-,'5.3._"  In'.he 
parable  of  Jesus,  of  which  we  are  speskiiiL'  it  is 
said  that  'the  earth  br.ageth  forth  fruit  i.f  tn,- 
self;'— that  is,  to  tm:.»fcr  the  Greek  term  into 
English,  'automatically.'  That  epithet  is  chosen 
which  denotes  most  precisely  a  self  netin:,'  spon- 
taneous energy,  inherent  in  thesei'd  wliiih  Jesus 
through  his  discourses,  his  acts  of  nierey  and 
power,  and  his  patience  unto  death,  was  sowinB 
in  the  world.  This  grand  prophetic  deelanition 
utu-red  in  a  figure  so  simple  and  beuutlful  in 
the  ears  of  a  little  company  of  Oalilerins  was  lo 
be  wonilerfully  verified  In  the  coiuini;  O".  ,f 
Christiiin  history."— O.  P.  Fisher,  Th«  .V,  rt 
and  Mrthiid  oflttteUitutn,  p.  47. 

Alexandria. — "Plutarch  looketl  upon  it  a« 
the   great  mission  of  Alexander  to  iniiisiilunt 
Grecian  culture  into  distant  count  ries,  mid  to 
conciUate  On^■ks  and   barbarians,  ami   In  fuse 
them   into  one.     He   says  of  him.  not  without 
reason,  that  he  was  sent  of  God  for  this  |iuriinse 
though  the  historian  did  not  divine  lliiii  this  eDci 
itself  Was  only  subsidiary  to,  and  the  miiinsef 
one  still  hijrl    -  —  the  niakiiig,  viz.,  the  united 
peoples  of  th     Kast  and  West  more  aeeessihle  to 
the  new  cnaiioa  which  was  to   prMced    from 
Christianity,  and  by  the  combination  of  ihe  ele- 
ments of  Oriental  anil  Hellenic  culture  the  piv- 
paring  for  Christianity  a  material  iu  wliiih  it 
might  develop  itself     If  we  overlook  this  ulterior 
end.  and  do  not  fix  our  n'ganls  i  ii  tlie  hiKlur 
quickening  spirit  destined  to  reanim  \U\  for  .some 
new  end.  that  combination  which  a  read v  liore 
within  itself  a  germ   of  corruption,  ac  "might 
well  doulit  whether  that  unhin  was  na.'v  a  gain 
to  eitlier   party;   whether,  at   least,  it  «;is  not 
everywhere  attended  with  a  corre»|Kin(h  nt  loss. 
For  the  fresh  vigour  which  it  infused  inio  tie 
old  national  spirit  must  have  Ihm'M  con-lanlly  f- 
pressed  by  the  violence  which  the   fi.nii;n  ele- 
ment did  to  it.     To  intriHluce  into  that  eoniWns 
tlon  anew  living  principle  of  develn|.iiii  nt.  aud. 
w'thout  prejudiie  to  their  original  ess<i.. e.  to 
unite  p«'culhirith'«  the  most  diverse  Inin  a  whnli' 
in  which  each  part  shouhl  Iw  a  eoiiipl.'ment  to 
the  other,  reiiuln-d  siuiiethiiig   hiirhir  than  any 
element  of  human  culture.     The  true  living  rora- 
munion  tietween  the  lOast  and  Ihi-  \\e«t.  which 
■hould  cimiblne  together  the  two  peculiar  prin- 
ciples that  were  equally  necessary  f.ir  a  loiiiiihtc 
exhibition  of  the  tyiH!  of  hunmnitv.  enul  1  Ilrsl 
come  only  from  Christianity.     Uiit'siill.  as  pre- 
parst'iry  tlufrto,  the  iniiuenro  whi.ii,  f,  r  thrm 
centuries,  went  forth  fmm  Alexandria,  that  a>n- 
tre  of  the  intercourse  of  the  world,  was  of  great 
Importance."— A.  Meander,  Uentral  Uiit.  of  t\i 


452 


CHBISTIANITT. 


n*  £arty  CkwrA 
at  Bowu. 


CHRISTIAinTT. 


Chritlian  Religion  and  Church,  t.  1,  introd.— 
"The  Greek  version  [of  the  Old  Testament,  the 
geptuagint],  like  tlieTargum  of  the  Palestinians, 
origiosted,  no  do  ibt,  in  the  first  place,  in  a  felt 
Ditlonal  want  on  he  part  of  the  Helk-aisu,  who 
u  a  body  were  igi.  'rant  of  Hebrew.  Hence  wo 
Jnd  notices  of  very  --ariy  Greek  versions  of  at 
least  partsof  the  Pentateuch.  But  this,  of  counse. 
could  not  sulBce.  On  the  other  hand,  there  ex- 
isted, as  we  may  suppose,  a  natural  curiosity  ou 
the  part  of  the  students,  specially  in  Alexandria, 
which  bud  so  large  a  Jewish  population,  to  know 
ihe  sacred  hooks  on  which  the  religion  and 
bistory  of  Israel  were  founded.  Even  more  than 
this,  we  must  take  into  account  the  literary 
taste'  of  the  first  thitie  Ptolemies  (successors  in 
Egypt  of  Alexander  the  Great),  and  the  excep- 
tional favour  which  the  Jews  for  a  time  enjoyed. " 
—  A.  Edersbeim,  L\fa  and  Timti  of  Jetui  the 
Matinh,  e.  I.  p.  24. 

Rome.— "Alongside  of  the  province  of  Aski 
Minor,  Rome  very  early  attains  to  an  outstanding 
Importance  for  young  Christianity.  If,  as  we 
have  supposed,  the  community  here  which  eman- 
dpated  itself  from  the  synagogue  was  mainly 
recniitcd  from  among  the  proselyte  circles  which 
had  formed  themselves  around  the  Jewish  syna- 
gogue, if  Paid  (luring  the  years  of  his  captivity, 
ana  Peter  also,  influenccl  this  preponderatingly 
OeiitlleChristian community,  we  must, however, 
by  no  means  undervalue  for  the  Christian  com- 
munity the  continuous  influence  of  Judaism  on 
the  Itonian  world,  an  influence  which  was  not 
lessened  but  rather  increased  by  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem.  Many  thousands  of  Jewish  cap- 
tives bad  arrived  hei.:  and  l)ccn  sold  as  slaves  — 
Rome  was  the  greatest  Jewish  city  In  the  Empire, 
.  .  .  and  in  part  it  was  an  enlightened  and  lilwral 
Judaism.  Jowlsh  Hellenism  bad  already  long 
availed  itself  of  the  weapons  of  Hellenic  philoso- 
phy ami  stieme  .  .  .  in  order  to  exalt  the  Jewish 
fpiili.  .  .  .  Under  this  stimulus  there  was  .  .  . 
developed  a  pruselytisni  which  was  Indeed  at- 
trarteil  l)y  that  monotheism  and  the  belief  in 
providence  ai  d  prophecy  and  the  moral  Ideas 
tllieil  therewith,  and  which  also  had  a  strong 
tenileney  to  Jewish  customs  and  festivals — ea- 
pecliilly  the  keeping  of  tlic  Sabbath  —  but  which 
remuiiied  fur  fniiii  binding  itself  to  a  strictly 
Icgnl  way  (if  Iif(!  in  circiiiiicision,  etc.  We  may 
>up|n>He  that  Koiiian  ('hristiani'v  not  only  ap- 
peared In  the  charaetj.'r  of  such  a  p...;j|ytism,  but 
also  retained  fmin  it  a  certain  Jewish  colouring." 
— \V.  Mueller,  Iliatory  of  tht  Clirittian  Church: 
A.  D.  l-flOd.  /)/).  H3-S4.— "The  last  notice  of  the 
Roman  Cliiireh  in  tlie  Apostolic  writings  seems 
to  ixiiiit  to  tw(j  separate  coniinunitics,  a  Judaiz- 
\af  Chun  h  uiid  a  Pauline  Churrh.  The  arrival 
of  the  Cleutile  .Vpostic  in  the  metropolis,  it  would 
aptxar.  wiis  the  siirnal  for  the  scpamtion  of  the 
Jmhiirird.  »li>i  Iniil  hitherto  associated  with  their 
0-r.;;ie  linllireii  o.dilly  and  distrustfully.  The 
preseu if  M.  Puiil  iiiiist  have  vastly  strength- 
ened die  iiiiiiilierH  and  influence  of  the  more 
li'  .al  iiuil  Ciithi.llc  party:  while  the  J'ldaizers 
piuviikcit  In  rivalry  reihiiililed  their  efforts,  that 
liimakliij,'e.mvert.-i  to  the  Gospel  they  might  also 
gain  priHelyies  to  the  law."— J.  B.  Liglitfuut, 
Diufl.ili,,!,!!  :,n  Ihe  Aixittidie  Age,  }>.  B4. — "His- 
torical intiiriiiaiion  of  any  certainty  on  tbe  latter 
peri.id  (if  Paul,  life  is  entirely  wanting.  While 
theeplMlcH  reiiiiire  this  unknown  pcrtod,  and  a 
Kcoud  euptivlty,  as  a  basis  for  their  apottollc 


origin,  on  the  other  hi>nd,  the  hypothesis  of  a 
second  captivity  scarcely  finds  any  real  founda- 
tions except  in  the  three  Pistoral  letters."— A. 
fahatier,  TIte  ApoHle  Ihitil,  p.  869.— It  only  re- 
mains for  us,  returning  to  tbe  close  of  the  apos- 
tle's life,  to  put  together  the  slencler  indication! 
that  we  have  of  its  date.  He  embariied  for  Itome 
in  the  autumn  of  60  (or  61)  A.  D. ;  but  was  com- 
pelled by  shipwreck  to  winter  In  the  island  of 
Malta,  and  only  reached  the  Etcmui  City  in  the 
spring  of  61  (62).  Luke  adds  tliat  he  remained 
there  as  a  prisoner  for  two  years,  living  in  a 
private  house  under  the  guanf  of  a  soldier;  then 
his  narrative  breaks  off  abruptly,  and  we  are 
confronted  with  the  unknown  (Acts,  xxviii.  30). 
Paul  is  supposed  to  have  perished  in  the  fright- 
ful persecution  caused  bv  the  fire  -if  Rome  in 
July  64  A.  D.  All  that  is' certain  is  that  he  died 
a  martyr  at  Rome  under  Nero  (Sabatier). 

[The  purpose  of  what  follows  in  this  article  is 
to  give  a  brief  history  of  Christianity  in  son  ~  of 
its  relations  to  general  history  by  the  methou  of 
this  work,  and  in  the  light  of  some  of  the  best 
thought  of  our  time.  The  article  as  a  combina- 
tion of  quotations  from  many  authors  attempts  a 
presentation  of  historic  facts,  and  also  a  positive 
and  representative  view,  so  far  as  this  may  be 
obtained  under  the  guidance  of  ideas  common  to 
many  of  tl.e  books  used.  Some  of  these  books 
have  had  more  influence  on  the  devehipmeut  of 
the  article  than  others :  entire  harmony  and  a  full 
presentation  of  any  author's  view  would  mani- 
festly be  Impossible.  Nevertheless,  the  reader 
may  discover  in  the  article  principles  and  ele- 
ments of  unity  derived  from  the  literature  and 
rcprescting  it.  Unfortunately,  one  of  the  es- 
sential parts  of  such  a  history  must  be  omitted  — 
biography.  J 

A.  D.  ioo-3ia.--The  Period  of  Growth  and 
StruEgle. —  "Chriitian  belief.  Christian  moral- 
ity, the  Christian  view  of  the  world,  of  which 
tlic  church  as  a  rcligieiis  society  and  institution 
is  the  focus,  as  fluid  spii'.nial  elemeuts  permeate 
hiimnnity  as  it  liecomesClirii'ittii,  fuc  beyond  the 
sphere  of  the  church  proper;  while  convcrs<'T 
the  church  is  not  assured  against  the  possibility 
tl!;it  spiritual  elements  originally  alien  to  her 
may  (luminate  snd  influence  her  in  their  turn. 
...  In  this  living  interaction  tue  peculiar  life 
of  the  c'l'-Th  is  unfolded.  In  accordance  with 
its  Internal  pilpclples  of  forniatidu,  into  an  ex- 
iraordinarily  maniioM  and  complicated  object  of 
historical  examination.  .  .  For  this  purpose  it 
is  necessary  to  elucidate  t'lc  general  historical 
movement  of  the  cliuo  h  by  the  relative  separa- 
tion of  certain  of  its  a!i|M'(  is.  without  loosening 
the  bond  of  unity."— W,  M.K'ller,  Ilitt.  of  tht 
Clirintiiin  Church:  A.  1).  1-000.  ;i;).  1-3.— "Such, 
in  fact,  has  been  the  history  of  the  Faith :  a  sad 
and  yet  a  glorious  succession  of  battles,  often 
hardly  fouglit,  and  sonietiiiies  indecisive.  Ix'tween 
the  new  life  and  the  old  life  .  .  .  The  Christian 
victory  of  coH'inon  life  was  wroug'iiout  in  silence 
and  patience  and  naiiieiess  ai;(Miies.  It  was  the 
victory  of  the  soldiers  nmi  nul  of  the  captains  of 
Christ's  army.  Hut  in  due  liuie  another  cnnfllct 
had  to  be  sustained,  not  by  the  massis.  but  by 
gn'atmen,  the  conse(|iienee  and  theciimpletiim  of 
tfiut  which  liad  gone  tiefore.  .  .  .  The  discipline 
of  action  preee(i(>s  tlic  elTorl  of  reascn.  ...  So 
it  CHiiie  to  pass  tliat  the  pcriiMl  during  wliieh  this 
second  conflict  of  tlie  Kiitli  wiu  waned  wai, 
rtiugbly  speaking,  from  tbe  middle  of  the  second 


453 


CHRISTIAinTT. 


OrMt  PhOatopImn  and 


CHRISTIAinTT. 


to  the  middle  of  the  third  centuir. "— B.  F.  We»t- 
cott,  Bmay  in  tht  llittory  of  Heligiout  Thougkt 
in  tlu  Wat,  pp.  194-197.— ■■PhfloeophT  went 
on  its  way  among  the  higher  cliiiei,  but  laid  ab- 
■olutely  no  hold  on  men  at  large.  The  reforma- 
tion which  it  wrought  in  a  few  elect  apirita 
failed  utterly  to  spread  downward  to  the  mass 
of  mankind.  The  poor  were  not  touched  by 
it;  society  was  not  helped  by  it;  IM  noblest 
men,  and  they  grew  fewer  and  fewer,  genera- 
tion by  generation,  bewailed  bitterly  the  univer- 
lal  Indifference.  The  schools  dwindled  into 
a  mere  univeraity  system  of  culture;  Christi- 
anltv  developed  into  a  religion  for  the  civilised 
world.  .  .  .  New  ideas  it  bad  in  abundance,  but 
new  ideas  were  not  the  secret  of  its  power.  The 
essential  matter  in  the  Oospel  was  that  it  was  the 
history  of  a  Life.  It  waa  a  tale  of  fact  that  all 
could  understand,  that  all  could  believe,  that  all 
could  love.  It  differed  fundamenully  from  Phi- 
losophy, because  it  appealed  not  to  culture,  but 
to  life.  ...  It  was  the  spell  of  substantial  facts, 
living  facts,  .  .  .  thespcllofaloyaltytoapersonal 
Lord ;  and  those  who  have  not  mastereil  the  differ- 
ence between  it  philosopher's  speculations  about 
life,  and  the  actual  record  of  a  life  which,  in  all 
that  makes  life  holy  and  beautiful,  transcended  the 
philosopher's  most  pure  and  lofty  dreams,  hai'e 
not  understood  yet  the  rudiments  of  the  reason 
whv  the  Stoic  could  not.  while  Christiaulty  could 
and  dill,  regenerate  socictv." — J.  B.  Brown,  Sioiei 
and  Siinlt,  vp.  85-86.— The  'period,  from  the 
accedsiun  of  Marcus  Aurelius  (A.  D.  161)  to  the 
accession  of  Valerian  (A.  U.  253)  was  for  the  Oen- 
tile  wnrld  n  period  of  unrest  and  exhaustion,  of 
femient  niid  of  imlcrision.  The  time  of  great 
hopes  and  creative  minds  was  gone.  The  most 
conspicuous  men  were,  with  few  exceptions, 
busied  with  tlie  piist.  .  .  .  Local  beliefs  hiid  lost 
their  power.  Even  old  Rome  ceased  to  exercise 
an  unciuestioned  monil  supremacy.  Men  strove 
to  be  cosmopolitan.  Tliey  strove  vagu  ly  after  a 
unity  in  wliieh  the  scattered  elements  of  ancient 
experience  sliould  lie  harmonizetl.  The  effect  can 
be  s<'en  lK)tli  in  the  policv  of  statesmen  and  lii  the 
speculations  of  philosophers,  in  Marcus  Auielius, 
or  Alexander  Severus.  or  Decius,  no  less  than  in 
Plotiuus  or  Porphyry.  As  a  necessary  conse- 
quence, the  teaching  of  the  Bible  accewiihle  in 
Greek  began  to  attract  serious  attention  among 
the  heatlieu.  The  assailants  of  C'iiristianity, 
even  if  they  affected  contempt,  shewed  that  they 
were  dwply  movol  1^  its  doctrines.  'I'lie  mem- 
orable saying  of  Numenius,  •  What  is  Plato  but 
Moses  speakhig  in  tlie  language  of  Athens?' 
shews  at  once  the  feeling  after  spiritual  sympathy 
which  iH'gan  to  \>e  entertained,  and  the  want  of 
splritunl  iusiirlit  in  the  representatives  of  Geniile 
thought.  "—B.  F.  Westcott,  JSMoystn  t/m  IIMo'y 
of  Urli;/iiim  Thdiight  in  tht  Wut,  pp.  196-IB7.— 
"  To  cur  miniis  it  apiH^rs  that  the  preparation  of 
philosophy  for  Christianity  was  complete.  ,  .  . 
The  time  wiui  ripe  fur  tliat  movement  of  which 
Ju.stin  is  the  earliest  [complete]  representative." 
— Q.  T.  I'urves,  The  Tftinwuyof/utliti  .Vartyr, 
p.  135— "The  writing  in  defense  of  Christi- 
anity is  called  t'le  apology,  and  the  writer  an 
apologist  .  .  .  Tli?rc  were  two  classes  of  apolo- 
gists, tlie  Greek  and  the  Latin,  according  ui  the 
lerrlloiy  which  Ihey  occupied,  and  tile  language 
in  which  thcv  wrote.  But  there  were  further 
differences.  The  Greeks  belonged  mostly  to  the 
•ecood  century,  and  their  wriuogt  exhibited  a 


profound  IntimacT  with  the  Greek  pliilosnnhv 
Some  of  them  had  studied  in  the  Greek  scliools 
and  entered  thechu.ch  only  in  mature  life.  They 
endeavored  to  prove  that  Christianity  was  tlie 


blossom  of  all  that  was  valuable  in 


every  system. 


They  stood  largely  on  the  defensive.  Tlie  fjitjns' 
on  the  other  hand,  were  aggressive.  They  lived 
mostly  in  the  third  century.  .  .  .  Tlie  priiiclpsl 
Greek  spologisU  [were]  Aristo,  Qiiailnitus  Arts- 
tides  [A.  D.  181],  Justin  [A.  D.  180],  Melito  [.V.  D 
1701,  Miltiades,  Irenaeus,  Athenagoms  |A.  D 
178],  Tatian,  Clement  of  Alexandria  |  A.  I)  im 
Ilippolytus,  and  Origen  [A.  D.  8i5].'— j  p 
Hurst,  Short  IliHory  of  the  Chrirtiun  Church  n 
83.  Lightfoot  assigns  to  about  A.  I).  15u  (?i  'ih« 
author  of  the  Epistle  to  Diognetus.  "fimei 
without  number  the  defenders  of  Clirlsiianitv 
appeal  to  the  great  and  advantageous  clinnirt 
wrought  by  the  Gospel  in  all  who  emlinKeti  ft. 
..."  We  who  liated  and  destroyed  one  another 
and  on  account  of  their  different  manners  would 
not  receive  into  our  houses  men  of  a  diirirent 
tribe,  now,  since  the  coming  of  Christ,  live  fa- 
miliarlr  with  them.  We  pray  for  our  enemlei, 
we  endeavor  to  persuade  those  who  hate  us  un- 
justly to  live  conformably  to  the  beautiful  pu- 
cepts  of  Christ,  to  the  end  that  they  niiiv  iKTume 
partakers  with  us  of  the  same  joyful  linpe  uf  a 
reward  from  God,  the  Ruler  or  all.'  This  dis- 
tinction between  Christians  and  heaihin,  tbii 
consciousness  of  a  complete  change  in  eliaraott'r 
and  life,  is  nowliere  more  beautifully  dibcrilted 
than  In  the  noble  epistle  ...  to  IMo^'nctus." 
— Gerhard  Uhlhom,  Tht  Conflict  of  VhiittMiUty 
with  Heathenitm,  p.  186, — "For  Cliristi;ins  are 
not  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  muukiml  eitlier 
in  locality  or  In  speech  or  in  customs.  F.t  they 
dwell  not  somewhere  In  cities  of  lluir  own, 
neither  do  they  use  some  different  luiittuage.  nor 
practise  sn  extraordinary  kind  of  life.  .  .  .  But 
while  they  dwell  in  cities  of  Greeks  and  liarlis. 
rians  as  the  lot  of  e.ich  is  cest,  and  I'mMuw  the 
native  customs  in  dress  and  food  an<l  the  othrr 
arrangements  of  life,  yet  the  coustituiidii  uf  thiir 
own  citizenship,  which  they  set  forth,  is  nuirvil- 
lous,  and  confessedly  contradicts  e.vpiiiation. 
They  dwell  In  their  own  countries.  Ijut  onlv  as 
sojourners;  they  bear  their  slmn-  in  iiM  lli'ings 
as  citizens,  and  they  endure  all  li^ir<!>hi|>s  as 
strangers.  Every  foreign  country  is  a  fullirrlanJ 
to  them,  and  every  ftttiicrianii  Is  foniirn 
Their  existence  is  on  earth,  hut  their  i  iii/.iiship 
is  in  heaven.  Tliey  obey  the  estalilishid  l.iws, 
and  they  surpass  the  laws  in  tlitir  own  lives. 
They  love  all  men  and  tlicy  are  persei nt.ii  hy 
all.  .  .  .  War  is  urged  against  tlieni  as  all.  ns  hy 
the  Jews,  and  persecution  is  carried  <>ri  airaiiiit 
them  by  the  Greeks,  and  yet  those  tliat  Mat"  tLem 
cannot  tell  the  reason  of  their  lioHtilitv.  —  ,1  B 
Lightfoot,  Trant.  of  the  Kpitllf  to  /)/•»/«.  r.o  i  The 
Apottulie  fUthen,  pp.  60,V-50fl)  — "TIk--  apoln. 
gists  rise  against  piiilosopliy  also,  out  vf  H....a 
they  themselves  had  arisen,  in  the  full  (luiMiuus 
ness  of  their  faith  open  to  all  and  not  >ii>ly  u,  the 
cultured  few,  the  certainty  of  w  hieli,  Ui^ld  upon 
revelation,  cannot  be  replaced  bv  uncertain  liiinan 
wisdom,  which,  moreover,  isself-contra.lic  lory  in 
its  most  important  representatives.  (In  lli''  other 
liand.  they  wililnily  recogni.se  in  tlie  pliilowphr 
by  means'  of  whicti  tliey  had  tlieniMiMs  lieeb 
educated,  certain  elements  of  truth,  wliii  h  they 
partly  derive  from  tlio  scedconisof  truth,  which 
the  divine  Logos  bad  scattered  among  the  heatbta 


454 


CBRISTIANITT. 


KOM9 


CHRisTiANrrr. 


ilio,  putlr  eztemally  from  a  dmendeno*  of 
Onek  wtMom  oo  the  much  older  wudom  of  the 
Eut,  ud  therefore  from  the  uae  of  the  Scripture* 
of  the  Old  Testament  To  the  reproach  that  they 
ti*d  deserted  the  religion  which  had  been  handed 
down  from  their  ancestors  and  thereby  made 
■acred,  they  oppose  the  right  of  recognised 
truth,  the  right  of  freedom  of  conscience;  re- 
UgloD  becomes  the  peculiar  affair  '  *  personal 
coQvictioo,  against  which  methods  of  force  do  not 
tufflce:  Ood  is  to  be  obeyed  rather  tlian  man." 
— W.  Hoeller,  Hill,  of  the  Chrutian  Churth: 
A.  D.  1-600,  p.  179.— "Such  a  morality,  as  Roman 
greitni'ss  was  passing  away,  took  pc^session  of 
Uie  ground.  Its  beginnings  were  scarcely  felt, 
icarcely  known  of,  In  the  vast  movement  of 
sSairs  in  the  greatest  of  empires.  By  and  by  Ita 
prefDce,  strangely  austere,  strangely  gentle, 
itrangcly  tender,  strangely  Inflexible,  began  to 
be  noticed.  But  its  work  was  long  only  a  work 
o(  indirect  preparation.  Those  whom  it  ctiarmed, 
tfaoK  whom  it  opposed,  those  whom  it  tamed, 
knew  not  what  was  beins  done  for  the  genera- 
tions which  were  to  follow." — FL  W.  Chureh, 
The  OiJU  of  Civilitation,  p.  159. — "The  more 
spiritual  and  profound  historians  of  the  Church 
recognize  it  as  a  manifestation  of  this  divine 
life  Sowing  into  human  history.  But  this  is 
true  of  the  organized  church  only  with  important 
qualiHrutiuns.  The  life  must  manifest  itself  in 
ID  organization ;  but  the  organization  is  neither 
the  only  nor  the  complete  exposition  of  the  life. 
.  .  .  The  life  wliirh  creates  the  organization 
penetrates  and  purifies  also  the  fi-niiy  and  the 
state,  renovates  individuals,  and  blooms  and 
fructities  in  Christian  civilisations;  and  these  are 
alto  liistorical  maaifestations." — 8.  Harris,  Tht 
Kingdom  of  Chi-itt  on  Earth,  p.  87. — It  was  the 
great  fnrmatlve  period  of  the  world's  new  life, 
and  all  streams  tended  to  flow  together.  The  in- 
fluence of  Greek  thought  on  Roman  law  had  led, 
under  the  circumstances  of  Roman  commercial 
life,  to  the  development  of  an  ideal  "jus  gen- 
tium." a  kind  of  natural  law  discovered  by  the 
reason.  This  conception  tr»nsf<)rme<i  the  Roman 
law  and  brought  it  into  touch  with  the  new  sense 
of  human  relationa  "It  was  by  means  of  this 
bigber  conceptior  .f  equity  which  resulted  from 
the  iili  ntiflcatioi  f  the  jus  gentium  with  tiie 
Jul  iiatunilc  — th  the  alliance  Ixawcen  law  and 
philosophy  was  i    lly  made  efficient '—\V.  C. 

Morey,    OulUiu$  _,  om  Raman  Law,  p.   114. 

"There  were  tliree  agencies  whose  influence  in 
workiiii;  simultaneously  and  successively  at  this 
Idcntirul  task,  the  developing  and  importing  of 
the  ius  gentium,  was  decisive  of  tlie  ultimate 
result  These  were  the  practorl»n  edict  [which 
ftacliij  its  climax  under  the  Ri;publlc  and  was 
coraol.teil  under  Il»drian],IlomBn  scientific  Juris- 
pruiUuL-c  [which  developed  its  greatest  ability 
about  A.  U,  200)  and  imperial  legislation."— 
K-M\m,IiittUutttnf  Itaman  Lin.  p.  46.— "The 
Utenl  poliiv  of  Rome  gradually  extended  the 

P""'' '  of  her  citizenship  till  it  included  all 

herBulijrots;  nod  nloni;  with  the  'Jus  suffragii." 
went  of  ciiurM  the  'Jus  honorum.'  Even  under 
Augustus  -lud  a  Spanianl  consul  at  Rome; 
and  under  (iallia  nn  Ejryptian  is  governor  of 
tgyrt_  It  is  not  long  Ix-fore  even  the  emperor 
rm,^:t  X,  s;:ppliid  by  iIk-  ()ruviuee«.  It  ia  eosy 
to  eoinpr..h,nd  therefor.'  how  the  provincUis 
torgoi  III,,  fatherlaml  of  their  birth  for  the  father- 
Uud  of  their  titlzenship.    Ouco  win  the  fran- 


chise, and  to  great  capacity  was  opened  a  great 
career.    The  Roman  Empire  came  to  be  a  homo- 
geneous mass   of   privileged    persons,    largely 
using  the  same  language,  aiming  at  the  same 
type  of  civilisation,  equal  among  themseWes, 
but  all  alike  conscious  of  their  superiority  to  the 
surrounding  barbarians. '—W.  T.  Arnold,  Th* 
Soman   SyOem  of  Provineial  Adminutration, 
P-  87. — "As  far  as  she  could,  Rome  destroyed 
the  individual  genius  of  nations:  she  seems  to 
have  rendered  them  unqualified  for  a  national  ex- 
istence.   When  the  public  life  of  the  Empire 
ceased,  Italy,  Oaul,  and  Spain  were  thus  unable 
to  become  nations.    Their  great  historical  ex- 
istence did  not  commence  until  after  the  arrival 
of  the  barbarians,  and  after  several  centuriea  of 
experiments  amid  violence  and  calamity.    But 
how  does  it  happen  that  the  countries  which 
Rome  did  not  conquer,  or  did  nut  long  have 
under  her  sway,  now  hold  such  a  promhient 
place  in  the  world— that  they  exhibit  so  much 
originality  and  such  complete  confidence  in  their 
future?    Is  it  only  because,  having  existed  a 
shorter  time,  they  are  entitled  to  a  longer  future? 
Or,  perchance,  did  Rome  leave  behind  her  certain 
habits  of  mind,  intellectual  and  moral  qualities, 
which  Impede  and  limit  activity?  "— E.  Lavisse, 
PMtical  Hitt.  of  Europe,  p.  6.  —  Patriotism  was 
a  considerable  part  of  both  the  ancient  religion 
and  the  old  moralltv.    The  empire  weakened  the 
former  and  deeply  injured  the  latter  by  conquest 
of  the  Individual  statea     It  had  little  to  offer  in 
place  of  these  except  that  anomaly,  the  worship 
of  the  emperor;  and  a  law  and  justice  adminis- 
tered by  rulers  who,  to  say  the  least,  grew  very 
rich.     "The  feeling  of  pride  in  Roman  citizen- 
ship .  .      became  much  weukprns  the  citizenship 
was  widened.  .  .  .  Roman  citizenship  included 
an  ever  growing  proportion  of  the  population  in 
every  land  round  tlie  Mediterranean,  till  nt  last 
it  embraced  the  whole  Roman  worlil.  .  .  .  Chris- 
tianity also  created  a  religion  for  the  Empire, 
transcending  all  distinctioi.s  of  nationality.  .  .  . 
The  path  ofdevclopmcnt  for  the  Empire  lay  in 
accepting  the  rcligiou  offered  it  to  complete  its 
orjranisatlon.     Down  to  the  time  of  Hadrian  there 
was  a  certain  progress  on  the  part  of  ilie  Empiro 
towards  a  recoffnltinn  of  tliis  necessity." — W.  M. 
Ramsay,  Tht  Church  in  the  Ui,m,m  Empire,  pp. 
873,  101-102.— The  relations  of  the  laws  of  the 
Empire  to  Christianity  may  lie  britlly  stated,  but 
there  are  diffcrcnci-s  of  opiiiicn  wUuU  cannot  be 
noted  here:     "A.  I>.  3i)  to  IIHI.  Cliristians  treated 
as  a  sect  of  the  Jews  and  shariiij;  in  the  general 
toleration  accorded  to  them.     A.  1).  100  to  2.50, 
Christians  recognized,  .  .  .  ami  rendered  liable 
to  persecution:    (Ist)  For  treason  an(l  impiety. 
('.!nd)  As  belonging  to  illegal  associations,  but  at 
the  same  time  protected  in  their  capacity  of 
tnembers  of  Friend  1  v  or  Burial  Societies  of  a  kind 
allowed  by  the  law.     A.  1).  2.)0  to  2U0,  Christi- 
anity recognized  as  a  fomiidalile  power  by  the 
State.     Commcneeineut  of  an  open  struggle  be- 
tween Chrislianlly  and   the   secular  authority. 
.  .  .  The  cemeteries  of  the  Christians  now  for 
the  first  time  inlerfcreil  with  and  became  places 
of  hiding  and  secret  asicmbly.     A.  I).  .00  to  800, 
I'crsecutions  cease  fur  a  time,  40  years  Peace  for 
the  lliurch.     Time  of  mii<h  prosiMTily  when,  as 
Eiiselilus  writes.  •  great  inulliluilrs  Hoclted  to  the 
religion  of  Christ.'     A.  D.  800  to  313,  Last  de- 
cisive struggle  under  Diocletiim. "— O.  B.  Brown, 
/'Vum  Sehoia  to  Cathtdral.—"  The  Judges  decided 


455 


CHRISTIAinTT. 


CHRISTIAinTT. 


Uo 


ibnplj  In  e^corduice  with  the  km,  knd,  In  the 
great  mejorltj  of  cues,  did  lo  c^nlly,  aUmly, 
without  psMioa,  M  men  who  wt  umply  die- 
charging  their  duty.  .  .  .  Not  tLo  prieeta,  but 
the  Emperon  led  the  attack.  ...  It  la  true  the 
Cbriitians  never  rebelled  againat  the  State.  They 
cannot  be  reproached  wiub  eren  the  appearance 
of  a  revolutiunarT  ipirit  Deiplaed,  penecuted, 
abused,  they  itill  never  reTolted,  but  showed 
thenuelTea  everywhere  obedient  to  the  lawi,  ard 
ready  to  pay  to  the  Empcrora  the  honor  which  waa 
theii  due.  Yet  in  one  particular  they  could  not 
obey,  tue  worahip  of  Idols,  the  strewing  of  in- 
cense to  the  Caesar-god.  And  In  this  one  thing 
it  waa  made  evident  that  in  Christianity  lay  the 
germ  of  a  wholly  new  political  and  social  order. 
This  is  the  character  of  the  conflict  which  we  are 
now  to  review.  It  is  a  contest  of  the  spirit  of 
Antiquity  apinst  that  of  Christianity,  of  the 
ancient  heathen  order  of  the  world  against  the 
new  Christian  order.  Ten  persecutions  are  com- 
monly enumerated,  viz.,  under  Nero,  Domltlan, 
Trajan,  Hadrian,  Marcus  Aurelius,  Septlmlus 
Severus,  Maximinua  the  Tbraclao,  Dcclus,  Va- 
lerian, and  Diocletian.  This  traditional  enumera- 
tion Is,  however,  very  superficial,  and  leaves  en- 
tirely unrecognized  the  real  course  of  the  struggle. 
.  .  .  Thnuirh  times  of  relative  tranquillity  oc- 
curred. Christianity  remained,  notwithstanding, 
a  prohibited  religion.  This  being  the  case,  the 
simple  arrangement  of  the  persecutions  lo  a  series 
makes  the  Impression  that  they  were  all  of  the 
same  character,  while  in  fact  the  persecution 
under  Noro  was  wholly  different  from  that  under 
Trajan  and  his  successors,  and  this  again  varied 
essentially  from  those  under  Decius  and  Diocle- 
tian. The  first  persecution  which  was  really 
general  and  systematically  aimed  at  the  suppres- 
sion of  tlic  Cliurch,  WHS  the  Decian  [see  Rome: 
A.  D.  192-284],  That  under  Trajan  and  his  suc- 
cessors [see  Home:  A.  D.  96-188,  188-180,  and 
803-30.')]  consisted  merely  of  more  or  less  fre- 
quent processes  against  individual  Christians,  in 
which  the  establLstied  methods  of  trial  were  em- 
ployed, anil  the  existing  laws  were  mote  or  less 
sharply  used  agninst  them.  Finally,  the  perse- 
cutions under  Nero  and  Domitian  [see  IloiiB: 
A.  1).  tU-OJ*.  and  70-96]  were  mere  outbreaks  of 
I)er8<iniil  cruelty  and  tyrannical  caprice.  .  .  . 
Christianity  is  the  growing  might:  \iith  the 
energy  of  "yotith  it  looks  the  future  in  the  face, 
and  there  sies  victory  l)e<konlng  onward.  And 
how  clianged  are  now  its  Ideas  of  tliat  triumph! 
The  eiirlier  piTiml  had  no  tliou^htof  any  vict4>ry 
but  that  w  hieh  C'lirist  was  to  brmg  at  bis  coming. 
.  .  .  But  in  tlie  time  of  Cyprian  the  hopes  of  the 
C'riatians  are  (lirt'ctc<i  towards  another  victory: 
tb. ,  begin  to  grasp  the  idea  that  Christianity  n  ill 
vanquish  heathenism  from  within,  and  become 
tlicdominant  religion  in  the  Roman  Empire.  .  .  . 
It  is  true  that  the  Christians  were  still  greatly  in 
the  minority.  It  is  generally  assumed  that  they 
formeil  nlKiiit  one-twelfth  of  the  whole  population 
In  the  Kast.  and  in  the  West  about  oi:c-fiftecntb. 
Even  tills  is  pirhnps  too  high  an  estimate.  But 
there  were  two  things  which  gave  a  great  im- 
portance to  this  minority.  First,  that  no  single 
religion  of  the  much  divided  Heathenism  had  so 
many  aiiherents  as  the  Christian.  Over  against 
the  ecattvri'd  for.-^^*  of  Iteat'renism,  the  Cliris- 
tians  fortned  a  close  phalanx ;  the  Church  was 
a  compart  and  strongly  framed  organization. 
Second,  the  Christians  were  massed  in  the  towns. 


while  the  rural  population  wu  almost  ei- 
clusively  devoted  to  Heathenism.  There  existed 
in  Antiocb,  for  instance,  a  Christian  church  of 
flfty  thousand  soula"— O.  Uhlhom,  Tht  CoiMet 
of  ChriHiaraty  leith  IltatKtnitm,  bk.  8.— "The 
Encyclopedia  of  Missions  "  on  the  authority  of 
the  late  Prof.  R  D.  Hitchcock  states  that  then 
are  on  record  "the  namea  of  churches  eiistiDi 
at  this  period  [at  the  close  of  the  perseciitloiu] 
in  SaS  cities:  cities  of  Europe  188,  of  Asia  214, 
of  Africa  128."  (See  Appendix  D.)  Tliercwere 
tendencies  at  work  In  many  of  these  against  thai 
toward  general  catholic  (universal)  organization, 
but  in  suffering  and  sympathy  the  Cliristiaii 
Churches  formed  a  vast  body  of  l>elievers.  "Such 
a  vast  organisation  of  a  perfectly  new  kind,  with 
no  analogy  in  previously  existing  institutloni, 
was  naturally  slow  In  derelopment.  .  .  .  The 
critical  stage  was  passed  when  the  destruclinnot 
Jerusalem  annihilated  all  poasibility  of  a  loialised 
centre  for  Christianity,  and  made  it  clear  that  the 
centralisation  of  the  Church  could  reside  on  ly  In  tn 
Idea — viz. ,  a  process  of  intercommunlcatiuniunido 
and  brotherhood.  It  would  be  lianily  |w8«ibli! 
tu  exaggerate  the  share  which  frequent  mtcr- 
course  from  a  very  early  stage  between  the  sep- 
arate congregations  had  in  moulding  the  lU  velop- 
mentoi  iheChurct  Most  of  the  d<K'U!n(  uts  In 
the  New  Testament  are  products  and  nionuinents 
of  this  Intercourse ;  all  attest  in  numlierli.sA  iletail) 
the  vivid  interest  which  the  scattered  rom- 
munities  took  In  one  another.  From  the  fii^;  the 
Christian  Idea  waa  to  annihilate  tlie  sepurutioa 
due  to  space,  and  hold  the  moat  distant  hrotlicr 
as  near  as  the  nearest.  A  clear  consciou.snt  ss  of 
the  importance  of  this  idea  first  appears  Id  the 
Pastoral  Epistles,  and  is  still  stronger  In  writ- 
ings of  A.  D.  80-100.  ,  .  .  The  close  n  hitioos 
between  dillen-nt  coug"  gations  is  lirougiit  into 
strong  relief  by  tlie  ciuunistances  dis<hiK(l  In 
the  letters  of  Ignatius;  Ihn  welcome  extcmiecl 
everywhere  to  him;  ihe  hiving  messages  sent 
when hewoswritingtootlierchurrlies:  theilipu- 
tations  sent  from  churches  off  Ills  road  tu  meet 
him  and  convoy  him;  the  rapidity  with  which 
news  of  his  progress  was  sent  round,  so  that 
deputations  from  Ephesus,  Magnesia, ami  Tniiks 
were  ready  to  visit  him  in  Smyrna:  the  news 
fn>m  Antiocb  which  reueheil  hint  In  Tri':i.<<,  hut 
which  was  unknown  to  him  in  !<niyriiii;  the 
directions  which  he  gave  to  eall  a  rouiiiil  nf  the 
church  in  Smyrna,  and  send  a  me>.tengt'r  ti  cud- 
gratulate  the  chureh  in  AntliH  h :  the  kn'ml^lge 
tliat  Ills  fute  is  known  to  and  is  eni.':>.L'iiiir  the 
efforts  of  tlie  church  in  Uonie."— \V.  -M.  liamsay, 
Tht  Chureh  in  the  Poman  Einpir',  i>p.  ;«>4-;i6«  — 
"The  fellowship  .  .  .  thus  strongly  Impressed 
oy  apostolic  hands  on  the  infant  Chureh.  i.i  never 
wholly  lost  sight  of  throughout  all  the  aires,  and 
its  permanent  expression  is  found  in  the  synoj, 
whether cecumenic,  provincial,  orilhuoiin  This 
becomes  fainter  as  we  reach  the  age  in  w  hith  a 
presbyter,  told  off  from  the  IkxIv  lo  a  ilisiinct 
parish,  attaina  gradual  isolathm  from  hii  lirttb- 
ren.  But  this  c(mies  some  eeutiirii  s  l.iti  r  .  .  . 
Everywhere,  till  that  decline,  the  I. ha  is  that  of 
a  brotherhood  or  corporate  oflhe,  a  unity  of 
function  pervaded  tiy  an  energy  of  iT'ihcrly 
love.  ...  It  is  no  mere  conlluenee  of  ui.iis  be- 
fore distinct."— 11  llHviimn.  /i.  ---"•■  ■'■^''^■di 
(ConUmp.  Her..  (Jet.,  ISH-JV— "  It  is  the  ai;c  when 
the  New  Testament  writings  begin  to  I'^ine  to- 
gether to  form  a  geuctally  reeoguueJ  canon 


4oG 


OHBISTIANITT. 


IUra$rUUt 
Chunk. 


C'HHIHTIAMITy. 


nt  epvMltloB  too  to  the  ■oTenigii  ipirit  of 
tContanut  propbecy  undonbtedly  locraHed  the 
need  (or  it  .  .  .  After  the  example  it  the 
Oncetict,  »  begfamlng  it  tlio  made  with  eze- 

Eitlckl  eiplanation  of  New  Teetament  writingf ; 
ellto  with  one  on  the  ReTclatlon  of  Jolin,  acer- 
trJn  HeriMditut  with  one  on  the  Apoetlei.  .  .  . 
rtoally,  in  thii  Hune  oppocitlon  to  the  heretic*, 
it  ii  tought  to  Mcure  the  agreement  of  the  dif- 
ferent churches  with  one  another,  and  in  this  re- 
lation importance  ia  gained  by  the  idea  of  a  uni- 
venal  (Catholic)  Churdt  So-called  catholic 
Epiitlet  of  men  of  repute  in  the  church  to  differ- 
ent communitiea  are  nlgblv  regarded.  Aa  illua- 
tntlonii  take  tbote  of  BiahopIHonyiiutof  Cor- 
inth tn  Lvcediemon,  Athens,  Crete,  Paphlagonia, 
Pontus.  Rume  (Euseb  4, 28)."— W.  Mueller, //w(. 
(f  the  Chriitian  Church,  pp.  188-184.— "  This 
period  [100-812]  may  be  divided  into  the  Post- 
Apoetolic  Age  which  reaches  down  to  the  middle 
of  the  Kcond  century,  and  the  Age  .  the  Old 
Catholic  Church  which  ends  with  the  >..abliah- 
ment  of  the  Church  under  Constantine.  .  .  .  The 
point  of  tranaltion  from  one  Age  to  the  other 
may  be  unhesitatingly  set  down  at  A.  D.  170 
The  following  are  the  moat  important  data  In  r> 

fard  thereto.    The  death  about  A.  D.   165  of 
uatin  Martyr,   who  markt  the  highest   point 
reached  in  the  Post-Apoato'.ic  Age  and  forms  also 
the  transition  to  the  Old  Catholic  Age  ;  an<l 
Irenai'ua,   flourishing  somewhere   about  A.    D 
170,  vbo  was  the  real  inaugurator  of  this  latt' 
age.    Beaidea  these  we  come  upon  the  beginning, 
of  the  Trinitarian  controversies  atraut  the  year 
170.    Finall  ',  the  rejection  of  Montanism  froB 
the  univereal  Catholic  Church  was  effected  aboct 
the  year  170  by  means  of  the  synodal  institutiio 
called  into  existence  (or  that  purpose." — J.  E. 
Kurtz,  Church  lUttory.  v.  1,  p.  70. — "If  evenr 
church  must  so  live  in  the  world  aa  to  be  a 
part  of  its  collective  being,  tL^n  it  must  always 
be  construed  in  and  tlirough  the  place  and  unic 
to  which  it  lives."— A.  M.  Fairbaim,  r/tePtar*  of 
Chritt  in  Modern  T^^o/n^.—"  The  Church  of  :ie: 
first  tliree  centuries  was  never,  except  pertepa 
on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  in  an  absolutely  iJeK ' 
condition.     But  yet  during  the  ages  of  persr  . 
tioD.  tlie  Churrh  as  a  whole  was  Tisiblr  aa  tia. 
worldly  instiiUtion.     It  waa  a  spiritual  en 
in  recognized  antagonism  with  the  worldeti  • 
— F.  W  .  I'ulUr,  The  Primititt  SainU  and  ■«• 

of  lime. p.  LOS.— All  thegreaterfoicesof '  ee, 
politinil  and  legal,  an<l  commercial,  aidei.  lOse 
working  within  the  church  to  create  au  uk-aoic 
unity.  "Speaking  with  aome  qualifications,  the 
patristic  church  was  Oreek,  as  the  primitive 
church  had  bcenjewiah,  and  themedinval  church 
was  to  he  Latin.  Its  unity,  like  that  of  the  Oreek 
nation,  was  federative;  each  church,  like  each  of 
the  Orcrian  states,  was  a  little  commonwealth.  As 
the  Orerre  wliich  resisted  the  Persians  waa  one, 
not  by  any  imperial  organization,  but  by  com- 
mon Ideas  and  a  common  love  of  liberty,  so  the 
church  of  the  fatlier*  waa  one,  not  by  any  organic 
connt'Otion,  but  by  common  thoughts  and  sym- 
Mthics,  ab.)ve  all  by  a  common  loyalty  to  Christ. 
Naturally  the  questions  which  agitated  such  a 
church  were  those  which  concern  the  individual 
loul  rather  than  society.  Ita  meml>en  made 
much  of  personal  beliefs  and  apeculatiTe  opinions ; 
and  so  long  as  the  old  free  spirit  laated  they  al- 
lowed one  another  large  freedom  of  tliought,  only 
lequlrhig  that  common  iuttnct  of  loyalty  to 


Christ    Hapr-fly  for  the  world,  that  free  tpiilt 
did  not  die  <    t  from  the  East  for  at  least  two 
centuries  aftt    Paul  had  proclaimed  the  indirld- 
ual  relational  o  of  the  soul  to  Ood.  .  .  .  The 
genius  of  the     -eek  expressing  Itself  in  thought, 
of  the  Latin        ruling  power,  the  ChristUnity 
whichwastoi      former  a  body  of  truth,  became  to 
the  latter  a  syi-    :n  of  government." — O.  A.  Jack- 
son, Thi  Fatiu  ^  of  ths  Third  Century,  pp.  164- 
156.— The  Ap  'tolic  Ideal  was  set  forth,  and 
wltliin  a  few  g.    t-rati^ns  forgotten.     The  vision 
was  only  for  a  ume  and  then  vanished.     ' '  The 
kingdom  of  Chnst,  not  being  a  kingdom  of  this 
world,  is  not  liiiJted  by  the  restrictions  which 
fetter  other  socit    tt,  political  or  religious.    It  is 
in  the  fullest  sei)  -•  free,  comprehensive,  univer- 
sal. ...  It  is  m  «t  important  that  we  should 
keep  this  ideal  drflnltely  in  view,  and  I  have 
theiofore  stated  it  as  broadly  as  possible.     Yet 
the  br  ia  statement,  if  allowed  to  stand  alone, 
would  suggest  a  false  impression,  or  at  least 
would  convey  only  a  half  truth.    It  muft  be 
evident  tha*^  no  socir-y  of  men  could  hold  to- 
•I       without  offlc.'-    without  rules,  without 
ms  '>f  any   ■     d;    and  the  Church  of 
s  not  cxemr-      '  m  this  universal  law. 
iception  iuMfe.i       ■strictly  an  ideal,  which 
i*cvcr  hold  befor     .iir  eyes.  .  .  .  Kvery 
rof  tb»-  human  f       ' 
-of  th<   fhunh. 

.  It  »    M  lianil. 
a(»<)  h.ii      «tmlie<(  i, 
.tlion  %T      .^ttrntion, 
Christiar.     h  irch  lia> 
I  in  the  eautei'ipatioD 
il    in  tl3«  jifmoval 
M     :  class aB»i  i  j^tas,  ami  in  'he  diftusion  of  a 
aeral  pii  .iaalfampy  untr»mi!     kd  by  the  fet- 
■  '•n  of  par      or  race;  in  s!ii«,  ii^t  t  >  'it  mainly 
msat  be        -"        '  the  mfwt  iinp"r-ant  advan- 
tage* wh  tli<  «up>ri"'    y  of  modem 
socleii  ■  '    lusiiou    y  or  uncon- 
scious                           .-.  ■miversui  priesthood,  of 
therii..                          f  ail  men,  which,  though 
not  untai^         Morf.  wxs  first  enil»xlied  in  the 
C'hiir-  >)■■'.  ■-t0tm.  h%«w  rked  and  is  working  un- 
t.ild  1      -lU^sSiip-      i       iustitution.H  ami  in  social 
life.          •   !i>-  -j-r-        -'udent  will  alrto  observe 
tliat  II.         -*              .    -  .  been  vi  ry  imperfectly 
anpn'!                           .ironghout  the  history  of 
t£-   <  '                      i^ifn  strugeliug  for  rccogni- 
t                               ^  ili'eerneU   in  some  of   its 
a«i                            ;mes  ■« holly  ignored  in  others; 
"    th'    Ht'tual  results  are  a  verv 
1    irr   of  its  elHciicy,   if  only  ft 
iTominencc  and  were  allowed 
son       .  .  It  may  be  a  general 
aadrr  ordinary  circuinstauecs  a 
•-raal  l:iw,  that  tliu  highest  acta 
il  worship  shall   lie  performed 
iicers  of  the  congrega- 
V"  may  ari-ic  Tvhen  the 


ly  A-as  potentially  a 
as  surli,  a  pries,  of 
denied,  I  think,  oy 
historv  of  modem 

hat  this  conception 
•  en  mainly  instru- 
f  the  dcjrwlcd  and 

if  artificial  barriei°s 


and  ■■ 

iiia< - 

cou 

fre. 

rulr 

prHi  tK«ttj 

of    ^      hf1»*tt)i 

Ihroui'h  ?V  principal 
tion.     '?'    !  an  emergen 


spirit  >  i  not  the  li  •  r  must  decide.  The 
Christiat.  ideal  will  then  .  interpret  our  duty. 
The  higher  ordinance  of  tjic  universal  priesthood 
will  overrule  nil  sptviiil  limitations.  The  lay- 
man will  assume  func  is  wliiih  are  otherwise 
restricted  to  the  ordain  luiuister." — J.  B.  Light- 
foot,  Ihtnertationt  on  tlie  Apoetolic  Age,  pp.  137- 
140,  837 — "No  Church  now  existing  is  an  exact 
counterpart  of  the  Apostolic  Church.  .  .  .  AUu- 
■ions  bear  out  the  idea  tlutt  the  Church  at  Corinth 
wa*  at  yet  almott  ttructureleat — little  more  than 


457 


CHRBTUimT. 


Mtmtf 


CHRISnANITT. 


u  aggiegtto  of  IndiTMuab— with  no  bUbop, 
picabyteror  dewoo."— J.  W.  CuiuhiKhuii,  Thi 
Orouth  cf  a*  Ckurtk  in  itt  OrganimO&n  and  In- 
«'»'•'/,««»».  »•  n,  18.— "Soiiio  Ume  b«fora  the 
mlditle  of  the  wcond  century  hereay  benn  ndly 
to  diftnct  the  Chriitiu  community ;  ud  to  »Toid 
imminent  danger  of  ichiim.  It  wu  deemeo  expe- 
dient in  •  few  great  town*  to  arm  the  diainnan  of 
the  eldenhip  with  additional  power.  A  modifled 
fonn  of  prelacy  was  thua  introduced."— W.  D 

KUlen,  nt  Old  OatMic  Church,  p.  81 Rea pect- 

tog  the  rise  of  the  Episcopate  aa  a  diitinct  office 
there  la  a  dillerence  of  opinion  among  acholan  — 
aome  holdhiK  that  i  t  wa«  ex  preaely  or£dned  by  the 
Apoatlea,  others  that  It  nroae  quite  independently 
of  thein ;  a  third  class  think  that  it  waa  developed 
gradually  out  of  the  eldership,  but  not  without 
the  sanction  of  one  or  more  of  the  Apostles 
For  the  Church  is  a  catholic  society,  that  is  a 
society  belonging  to  all  nationa  and  ages.    As  a 
Mtholic  aocletj  ft  lacks  the  bonds  of  the  life  of  a 
city  or  a  nation  —  iocal  contiguity,  common  lan- 
guage, common  customs.     We  cannot  then  very 
well  conceive  how  its  corporate  continuity  could 
have  been  maintained  otherwise  than  through 
some  succession  of  persons  such  as,  bearing  the 
apostolic  cummis8ion  for  ministry,  should  be  It 
etch  generation  the    necessary  centres  of  the 
Church's  llfe."-C.    Gore,  Tht  Mutton  of  the 
CAureh,pp.  10, 11.— "Jewish  presbyteries  existed 
already  in  nil  the  principal  citiesof  the  dispersion 
and  Christian  presbyteries  would  early  occupy  a 
not  less  wide  area.  .  .  .  The  name  of  the  presbyter 
then  presento  no  difficulty.    But  what  must  be 
said  of  the  term  bishop?  .  .  .  But  these  notices 
besides  establishing  the   general  prevalence  of 
episcopacy,  also  throw  considerable  light  on  its 
origin.   They  Indicate  Uiat  the  retatlon  suggestwl 
by  the  historyof  the  word  '  bishop '  and  iu  trans- 
ference from  the  lower  to  the  higher  office  is  tlie 
true  solution,  and  that  the  episcopate  was  created 
out  of  the  presbytery.  .  .  .  They  seem  to  hint 
also  that,  so  far  as  this  development  waa  atfected 
at  all  by  national  temper  and  characteristics  it 
was  slower  where  the  prevolling  Influenoea  were 
nionp\m]y  Greek,  as  at  Corinth  and  PfaillppI 
and  Rome,  and  more  rapid  where  an  Oriental 
spirit  predominated,  as  at  Jerusalem  and  Antioch 
and  Ephesus.    Above  all,  they  establish  thia  re- 
sult clearly,  that  iu  naturer  forms  are  seen 
first  in  those  regions  where  the  latest  surviving 
Apostles  (more  especially  St  John)  dxed  their 
abode,  and  st  a  time  when  Iu  prevalence  cannot 
be  dissociatfil  from  their  influence  or  their  sanc- 
tion. '—J.  B.  LiRhtfoot,  Diuertationton  theAnot- 
Mie  Agt,  pp.  151,  100,  191.- "Since  then  in  the 
constitution  of  the  church  two  elemenU  met  to- 
gether—the aristocratic  and  the  monarchical- 
it  could  not  fail  to  be  the  case  that  a  conflict  would 
ensue  between  them.  .  .  .  These  str  .   gles  »»- 
tween  the  presbytcrial  and  episcopal  systems 
belong  among  the  moat  impor»aut  phenomena 
connect- i  with    the   process   cf   the   develop- 
ment cf  church  life  in  the  third  century.     Many 
presbyters  mailc  a  capricious  use  of  their  power 
iiurtful  to  good  discipline  and  order  In  the  com- 
munities. —A.  Ncander,  General  Milorv  of  the 
ChriUian  Religion  and  Church,  e.  I,  leet   2  — 
•'  As  a  rule  Christianitv  would  get  a  footfaig  first 
in  the  metropolis  of  Iu  region.    The  leasnr  dtiea 
would  be  evangelized  l)y  misslona   sent  from 
thence ;  and  so  the  suffragan  aeei  would  look  oa 
tbenuelvM  aa  daughters  of  the  metmpoUtu  IM. 


The  iMtropoHtao  btsbop  la  (h«  natunl  rntiir  hi 
unity  for  tC  Uahop.  of  the  provin  "  rhi 

ri^SfVhV^  metroDolltan  sees  acoulred  certrin 

brothar  biahopa.  Moreover,  among  the  ni».t  Im 
portant  churches  •  cerUIn  order  of  precdenM 
grew  up  which  correaponded  with  the  livil  dl^ 
nitr  of  thecitteain  whld,  those  churches  t."i»^: 
■ad  finally  the  churehea  which  were  fomKledbv' 
™  ^P*^*!J"J"  "*»*«1  ""»"  peculiar  rever- 
theaetofOmt.pp.  11  and  18.-" The  triumpj 

.i'"J!5'*^'"    "y*"""  undoubtedly  promoted 
unity,  order,  and  tranquillity     But,  oVtheolTr 

^Ju,"  H?Ir°"r''''l'°  "•«  '™«  development 
of  the  life  of  the  church;  and  while  thv  latter 
promoted  the  formation  of  a  pric8tho<xl  foreign 
to  the  eaaence  of  that  development  of  the  kini- 
dom  of  God  which  the  New  Testanunt  mu 
forth,  on  the  other  hand  a  revolution  of  semi. 
mert  which  had  already  been  prepand-w 
alte;  ^  view  of  the  idea  of  the  priesthcHl-had 
no  small  infiuence  on  the  development  of  tb« 
episcopal  system.  Thus  does  this  change  of  the 
original  constitution  of  the  Christian  comnmni- 
tics  stand  Inttaiately  connected  with  another  and 
still  more  radical  change, -the  formation  of  a 
sacerdotal  caste  in  the  Christian  church  Out 

of  the  husk  of  Judaism  Christianity  had' evolved 
itsel  r  to  freedom  and  independence,— had  st  ripped 
off  the  forms  In  which  It  first  sprang  up  ind 
within  which  the  new  spirit  lay  at  first  con,  ,a!cd 
until  by  Its  own  Inherent  power  it  broke  throueh 
them.     This  development  belonged  more  par- 
ticuUirb^  to  the   Pauline  position,  from  «lii(h 
proceeded  the  form  of  the  church  In  the  fjentilc 
world.     In  the  struggle  with  the  Jewish  climeuta 
which  r;>poaed  the  free  development  of  (_  liristl- 
anity,  tnis  principle  bad  triumphantly  m.ulr  its 
way.     In  the  churches  of  pagan  Christ  i:,ns  the 
new  creation  stood  forth  completely  unf.ildeil- 
but  the  Jewish  principle,  which  had  be.  n  vaa' 
quishe^,   pressed   in   once   more  from  unotlier 
quarter.     Humanity  waa    as    yet  incapable  of 
maintalnlne  lUelf  at  the  lofty  position  of  pure 
spiritual  religion.     The  Jewish  position  was  Ut- 
ter auapted  to  the  mass,  which  needed  first  to  be 
trained  before  It  could  apprehend  Christianitv  in 
IU  purity,— needed  to  be  disabused  from  iiaiinn- 
Ism.     Out  of  CI     Mianity,  now  become  in.li  pen- 
dent, a  princlpl       ice  more  sprang  forth  akin  to 
the  principles  01  the  OKI  Testament,— a  new  out- 
ward sliaping  of   the  kingdom  of  God.  a  new 
discipline  of  tht  law  which  one  day  was  to  bi  rve 
for  the  tru'ning  of  rude  nations,  a  new  tuior«liip 
for  the  spirit  of  humanity,  until  it  sliould  arrive 
st  the  maturity  of  the  perfect  nianhixKl  inthrist. 
This  Investiture  of  the  Christian  spirit  in  a  f(.rm 
neprly  akin  to  the  position  arrived  at  in  tli.'  (i|d 
Testament,  could  not  fail,  after  the  fruiifi:!  prin- 
ciple had  once  made  lU  appearance,  to  unfold 
Itself  more  and  more,  and  to  bring  to  litht  (■ce 
after  another  all  the  consequences  whii  h  it  in- 
volved;  but  there  also  began  with  it  a  reaction nf 
the  Christian  consciousness  as  it  yearned  aftir 
freedom,  which  waa  continually  burst  in  l'  forth 
anew  hi  an  endless  variety  of  appearances  until 
It  attained  iU  triumph  at  the  Reformation  "—A. 
Neander,  Oentral  Uittory  of  the  ChritUan  lUH- 
gion  and  ChurrJi,  r.  1.  te^t.  2.  i?.— "Thouch  the 
forma  of  (pann]  religion  had  broken  awav,  the 
spirit  of  religion  was  still  quick;   it  had"  even 
developed:  the   aenae  of   sin,  an   almost   new 


458 


CHRISTIANITt. 


CHRISTUinTT. 


phenomenon,  begar      lu/adeSodetjuidPhlloio- 
pby ;  and  along  wiu  ^bli,  an  almost  importunate 
craTing  after  a  rsTelation.     The  changed  tone  of 
philoaopbr,  the  spread  of  myaticUm,  the  rapid 
growth  of  myttery-worahip,  the  reviveri  Plat> 
ninn,  are  all  articulate  expr«ulon*  of  thla  need. 
The  old  Phlloioph  J  begins  not  only  to  preach  but 
to  pray:  the  new  strives  to  catch  the  revealed 
Tolce  of  God  in  the  oracles  of  lea*  unfaithful 
daya  ...  In  the  teeth  of  an  organised  and  con- 
centrated despotism  a  new  society  had  grown 
up,  ielf-supporting,'self-regulated,  self-goTemed, 
a  State  within  the  State.     CUm  and  assured 
amid  a  world  that  hid  its  fears  inly  in  blind  ex- 
citement, free  amid  the  servile,  sanguine  amid 
the  despairing,  Christians  lived  with  as  object 
United  in  loyal  fellowship  by  sacred  pledget 
more  binding  than  the  sacramentum  of  the  sol- 
dier, welded  together  by  a  stringent  discipline^ 
led  by  trained  and  tried  commanders,  the  Cburdi 
had  succeeded  in  attaining  unity.    It  had  proved 
itself  able  to  command  self-devotion  even  to  the 
death.    It   had   not   feared   to   assimilate   the 
choicest  fruits  of  the  choicest  intellects  of  East 
Bud  West.   .   .   .  Yet  the  centripetal  forces  were 
■trongcr;  Tertullian  had  died  an  heresiarch,  aiul 
Origen  but  narrowly  and    somewhat  of  grace 
escaped  a  like  fatt.    If  rent  with  schisms  and 
threatened  with  disintegration,  the  Church  was 
■till  an  undivided  whole."— O.  11.  Rendall,  Tht 
Emperor  JuUiin,  Paganitm  and  Chrittianity  pp 
21  -22.— "  The  designation  of  the  Unlvemal  Chris- 
tian Church  as  Caibolic  dates  from  the  time  of 
Irenat'us.  ...  At  the  beginning  of  this  age,  the 
heretical  as  well  as  the  non-heretical  Ebionism  may 
be  regarded  as  virtually  suppressed,  although 
some  aeanty  remnanU  of  it  might  yet  be  fouud. 
Themostbrllliantperiodof  Qnostlcism,  too   .  . 
was  already  passed.    But  in  Manichajism' there 
sppeared,  during  the  second  half  of  the  third  cen- 
tury, a  newpcril  of  a  no  less  threatening  kind  in- 
spired by  Parseelsm  and  Buddliism.  .  .     With 
Marcus  Aurelius,  Paganism  outside  of  Christi- 
anity as  embodied  In  the  Roman  State,  begins 
the  war  of  extermination  against  the  Church  that 
was  ever  more  and  more  extending  her  boun- 
daries.   Such  manifestation  of  hostility,  however 
was  tot  able  to  subdue  the  Church.  .  .  .  During 
the  same  time  the  episcopal  and  sy  nodal-hierarchl- 
cal  organization  of  the  church  was  more  fullr 
developed  .ly  the  introduction  of   an  order  of 
Metropolitans,  and  then  in  the  following  period  it 
reached  its  climax  In  the  oligarchical  Pentarchy  of 
Patriarchs,  and  in  the  institution  of  oecumenical 
bynois.  -J  II  Kurti,  Church  UUtory.  v.  1  vp. 
.i-j3  to  w-hlch  the  reader  is  also  referred  for  aU 
periodsof  church  history.  See,  also.P.  SchafT  Hit- 
tpofth  Chriitian  Church;  and,  for  biography, 
ftw'"'"  '"'i^h^f'^'  ^  Dictionary  of  clri,Uak 
ftj^apfly.-'  Missionary  effort  In  this  period  was 
mainly  directed  to  the  conversion  o/  the  hea- 
then.    On  the  ruins  of  Jcrusa'.  ;:      Madrian's 
colony  of  J:iu  Capitolina  was  pL.,;.       «, "hat 
even   there  the  cSurch.   in    iU   character  and 
rh^'^''i.''""'''P>  *"•  »  G«''«"e  community, 
apital  of  the  small  state  of  Osrhene,  in  Me^opo- 
S?^.,   ^"*''"'e  mUdle  of  the  second  centubT 
S  eounr.':,"  ^"'"  ^"  """I'^i'-ntly  flourisUi^ 
to  count  among  ita  meml»r>,  the  kins,  AbgarBai 

^...^  ■*'„**""'  this  time  the  gospel  waa 
preached  m  Penrfa.  Media,  Parthia,  and  ^triT 
We  bare  noUces  of    aurehes  in  Ai»bi»  In  tiS 


V^IJ^^  °[  S^  ^^  century.  They  wen 
Tisited  several  times  by  Origen.  the  cefebrmted 
™u5?  ???  9'"'"''  '*»«'""  (185-254).  In  the 
^ddle  of  the  fourth  century  a  missionary.  Theo 
philus,  of  DIu,  found  chirches  in  Indta.  In 
SBTr  P"""?""?  msde  great  progress,  especi- 

•nd  other  neighboring  pUces.    in  upper  Eiypt, 

where  the  Coptic  language  and  the  superatftloil 

of  the  people  were  obstacles  in  ita  path,  ChrisU- 

•nity  had,   nevertheless,   gained  a  foothold  as 

«rly  as  towards  the  close  of  the  second  century. 

At  this  tirne  the  gospel  had  been  pUnu!d  in  pro- 

ronsular  Africa,   being  conveyed  thither  from 

Koms,  and  there  was  a  flourishing  church  at 

CWthage.    In  Oaul,  where  the  Druidlcal  syste-n, 

with  its  priesthood  and  sacrificial  worship,  was 

the  religion  of  the  Celtic  population,  several 

churches  were  founded  from  Asia  Minor     At 

Lyons  and  V  ienne  there  were  strong  churches  la 

the  last  quarter  of  the  second  century.    At  this 

time  IreniBus,  Bishop  of  Lyons,  speaks  of  the 

establishinent  of  Christianity  in  Oe.-many.  west 

of  the  lUilne,  and  Tertullian,  the  No-'h  African 

prMbyter,  speaks  of  ChristUnity  in  Bi.tain.    The 

fathers  in  the  second  century  describe  in  glowing 

terms,  and  not  without  rhetorical  exaggeration, 

the  rapid  conquesU  of  the  Gospel.     The  number 

of  converu  in  the  reign  of  lindrian  must  have 

been  very  large.    Otherwise  we  cunnot  account 

for  the  enthusiastic  langua'e  of  Justin  Martyr 

respecting  the  multitude  01  professing  Christians. 

Tertullian  writes  in  a  similar  strain.    Irensus 

refers  to  Barbarians  who  hare  believed  without 

having  a  knowledge  of  letters,    through  oral 

teaching  merely."— Q.  P.  PIslier,  Uittory  of  thi 

Chrutian  Church,  pp.  ii-ti, 

Alewuidria.— "ChristUnity    first  began   ita 
acUvlty  in  the  country  among  the  Jewish  and 
Greek  population  of  the  Delta,  but  gradually 
also  among  the  Egyptians  proper  (the  Copu)  as 
may  be  inferred  from  the  Coptic  (Mempbytic) 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  (third  cen- 
tury).    In  the  second  century.  Gnosticism  [see 
QNosncs],  which  had  ito  chief  seat  here  as  well 
as  in  Syria,  and,  secondly,  towanis  the  close  of 
the  century,  the  Alexandrian  Catechetical  School, 
sliow  the  importance  of  this  centre  of  rt'liglous 
movement  and  Christian  education."— W.  Moel- 
ler,  Hitt.oftth  Chrittian  Church,  p.  ia>.— "  Never 
perhaps  hag  the  free  statement  of  the  Christian 
idea  had   less  prejudice  to  encounte-  than   at 
Alexandria  at  the  close  of  the  second  century. 
Never  has  it  more  successfully  vindicaied  by 
argument  its  right  to  be  the  gn^at  Interpreter  of 
the  human  spirit.     The  instituthms  of  the  great 
metropolis  were  highly  favourable  to  this  rvsult. 
The  Museum,    built  hi  the  Ptolemies,  was  in- 
tended tolH',  and  speedily  became,  thecentreo'an 
intense  intillcctual  life.    The  Serapeum.  at  the 
other  end  of  the  town,  rivalled  it  in  lieauty  of 
architectiiri  and  wealth  of  rare  MSS    The  Sebas- 
tiot    rearcHl  in  honour  of  Augustus,  was  no  un- 
worthy companlim  to  these  two  noble  establish- 
ments.    In  all  three,  splendid  endowments  and  a 
rich  professoriate  attracted  the  Ulent  of  the  worid. 
If  tile  ambition  of  a  secured  reputation    <lrew 
many  eminent  men  away  to  Rome,  the  means  of 
securing  such  eminence  were  mainly  pr(X:ureil  at 
ASexaiiilriit.  .  .  .  The  Christian  Church  in  liiis 
city  rose  to  the  height  of  Its  grand  opportunity. 
It  entered  tt»-  lists  without  'ear  ami   without 
favour,  and      :dly  proclaimed  iU  competence  14, 


m) 


f 


CHMSTIANnT. 


Ckmnk. 


CHMSTIANnT. 


Mtbfy  tlie  intellectual  craTlngs  of  man.  Num- 
bers of  restless  and  inquiring  spirits  came  from 
all  parts  of  the  world,  hoping  to  find  a  solution 
of  the  doubts  that  perplex«l  them.  And  the 
Church,  which  had  already  brought  peace  to  the 
souls  of  the  woman  and  the  slave,  now  girded 
herself  to  the  harder  task  of  convincing  the 
trained  intelligence  of  the  man  of  letters  and  the 
philosopher."— C.  T.  Cruttwcll,  A  Literary  Hit- 
tory  of  Birlg  Chrutianity,  bk.  4,  «A.  1  (r.  2).— 
"Thcqucslion  .  .  .  came  up  for  decision  towards 
the  cluite  of  the  sub-apostolic  age,  as  to  what 
shape  the  Church  was  finall/  to  take.  Two 
typos  were  set  before  lier  to  choose  from — one  the 
Hebrew-Latin  type,  as  we  may  call  it,  into  which 
.  .  .  she  finally  settled  down;  the  other  the 
Hellenist  type  of  a  Demos,  or  commonwealth  of 
free  ritizens,  all  equal,  all  alike  kings  and  priests 
unto  Uod,  and  whose  moral  and  spiritual  growth 
was  left  very  much  to  the  initiative  of  each  mem- 
ber of  the  community.  In  Alexandria,  as  the 
meelin^-poiat  of  all  nationalities,  and  where 
Judaism  \Ue\t  had  tried  to  set  up  a  new  tvpe  of 
thought,  eclectic  b«twcen  Hebraism  and  Hellen- 
ism, and  comprehcncUng  what  was  best  in  lx>th, 
naturully  enough  there  grew  up  a  Christian  type 
of  rcleetieism  corresponding  to  that  of  Philo.  .  .  . 
Into  this  seething  of  rivu  sects  and  races  the 
Alexandrian  school  of  catechista  threw  them- 
selves, and  made  a  noble  attempt  to  re*-Uf  the 
Church,  the  synagogue,  and  the  Stoics  alilie  from 
the  one  Itanu  common  to  all  —  the  dangerous  delu- 
sion tint  the  truth  was  for  them,  not  they  for 
Uie  Imlli.  Setting  out  on  the  assumption  timt 
GoiI'h  purpose  was  the  education  of  the  whole 
human  fuinily,  they  saw  in  the  Logos  doctrine  of 
St.  .Idlin  the  key  to  harmonisu  all  truth,  whether 
of  (lirtxtiun  sect,  llelirew  synagogue,  or  Stole 
philosophy.  .  .  .  To  educate  all  men  up  to  this 
standanl  seemed  to  them  the  true  ideal  o(  the 
Church.  True  Qnosia  was  their  keynote;  and 
the  (Jnostic,  as  Clemens  loves  to  desiTtbe  hlnuw'lf, 
was  t/>  them  the  patU'rn  philosopher  and  Chris- 
tian in  one.  They  regarde<l,  moreover,  a  disci- 
pline of  at  least  three  veara  as  Imperative;  it 
was  the  preliminary  condition  of  entrance  into  the 
Chrisliiin  Churth.  '—J.  U.  Heard,  Aleriimliinn 
ami  <'iirlh>ii/iiiiiin  Thfoltigy  OtntrtuM,  pii.  37-38. 
— The  two  gri'iil  Christian  writers  of  Alexandria 
wi-re  Clenii-nt  and  Origen.  "The  universal  in- 
fluence of  Oritfen  maile  Itself  felt  in  the  third 
century  over  the  whole  field  of  Oreek  thTOJogy. 
In  lilni.  as  it  wi-rt',  everything  which  had  hitlierio 
iK'en  striven  after  In  the  On>ek  Held  of  tlieoloity. 
had  l»en  giithiteil  ti>gither,  so  as,  Ining  eoUeeted 
In  re  in  a  lenlre,  to  give  an  Impulse  in  the  most 
various  direetioiis;  lienw  also  the  further  de- 
velopnient  of  theology  In  suli«e(|ueni  times  Is 
alHiiNsureiistomed  to  link  lts<-ir  on  to  oi]e  side 
or  the  other  of  his  rieli  spiritual  heril;ige  .  . 
And  while  this  Involves  that  Christiiiiilly  Is 
phxed  on  frieudiv  relations  with  the  previous 
phll.iwiiihiiiildevefoiinientof  the  highest  eoiie(  p- 
tlons  "f  (ii»l  anil  the  world,  yet  on  the  oilier 
lint]<l  I  lirlstimi  truth  alwi  apiH'Hm  c<inver<i|v  :\» 
the  uhivenud  triilli  which  gatliem  togeilie'r  in 
It-silf  all  till'  hitherto  isolated  rays  of  divine 
truth.  ...  In  the  great  ivligious  ferment  of 
the  lime  then-  was  further  contained  the  ten- 
dt  ney  lu  tvW  siniilnr  nllglom  hieas  amid  tliii 
;,...;  rt  r,t  Tny'h'-T'-K*-  ri!  fen;;iirTi3  fnrii:3  ;i:i.i  ta 
mingle  them  syni retisllcally  This nligl.ius fcr- 
uent  was  still  further  increased  by  the  original 


content  of  Christianity,  that  mighty  leavm 
which  announced  a  religion  destined  to  the  re- 
demption and  perfecting  of  the  worid,  and  by 
this  means  a  like  direction  and  tendency  was  Im- 
parted  to  various  other  religious  views  likewise. 
The  exciting  and  moving  effect  of  Gnosticism  oa 
the  Church  depended  at  the  same  time  on  the 
fact,  that  Its  representatives  practically  appre- 
hended Christianity  in  the  manner  of  the  antique 
religious  mystcHes,  and  In  so  doing  sought  to 
lean  upon  the  Christian  communities  anil  make 
themselves  at  home  in  them,  according  as  their 
religious  life  and  usages  seemed  to  invite  thim, 
and  to  establish  in  them  a  community  of  tlie 
initiated  and  perfect;  an  endeavour  whirh  the 
powerful  ascetic  tendency  in  tlie  church  exploited 
and  augmented  In  its  own  sense,  ami  for  which 
the  Institution  of  prophecy,  which  was  so  highly 
respected  and  powerful  in  the  coniinunltles, 
afforded  a  handle.  In  this  way  the  initiated  were 
able  to  make  for  themselves  a  kisis  in  the  ciim- 
munity  on  which  they  couhl  depend,  while  the 
religio-philnsophical  speculations,  whicli  are 
always  intelligible  only  to  a  few,  at  the  same 
time  propagated  themselves  and  branehert  out 
scholasticiilly."— W.  Moeller,  IlintoryuflluChrit- 
tian  Church,  np.  21,1,  213,  130-131.— "".\t  .Vlex- 
andria,  Basilides  (A.  I).  12.">)  and  Valeiuine  ex- 
erted lu  turn  an  extraordinary  inttuiiue;  tlic 
latter  endeavored  to  cstal)li.>ih  his  st  Iick.I  iii  jtonie 
nlKiut  the  year  140.  The  liiiosties  of  Svri;\  pni- 
fcTised  a  more  open  dualism  than  those  of  Kirvpt 
The  Chun-h  of  Antioch  had  to  ri'sist  Saturuin, 
that  of  Edessa  tooppose  Bordesimesand  Tatian. " 
— E.  Uc  Pressense,  The  Kiili/  YiiinffChrintMn. 
i'y;  Ttie  Mnrlyrmml  Afnl'ijitt»,p.  liH  —  'iinre 
was  something  very  Imposinit  lu  those  miirlily  v\  s- 
tema,  which  embraced  heaven  and  earth.  Illnv 
philn  and  meagre  in  ccmiparisou  seeiiied  simple 
Christianity!  There  was  something  n  niarlialilv 
attractive  In  the  breaiith  and  lilM'rality  of  (iimv 
ticism.  It  seemed  completely  to  have  ni  >iiiil(il 
Christianity  with  culture.  How  narrow  tlie 
Christian  Church  appeared!  Even  iioMe  souU 
might  be  csptivate<i  l>y  the  hope  of  winniiur  ilie 
world  over  to  Christianity  In  this  way  .  .  . 
Over  against  the  mighty  systemsof  theOnoslirs. 
the  Church  »t<KKl,  in  soImt"  earnestness  lu  .1  ehill- 
llke faith,  on  the  simph'  Christian  ihstriiK'  of  tliu 
Apostles.  This  was  to  lie  souglit  in  tlie  ilmn  In  i 
founile<i  by  the  apostles  thenivlves.  wh.ntliiy 
hail  defined  the  faith  in  thi  ir  pnailiirii-  — (t. 
Uhlhom,  7lieO/nltiri„ft'hnMl,'tnil!/inlli  ll,.tiSiii- 
itm.hk.  a,  M.  8.— "(irifk  pliiloitopliy  liail  JoiiutI 
hands  with  Jewish  theiiso|ihy.  andllie  t  Imrrh 
knew  not  wliere  to  lisik  for  help.  .So  si  li.i'n  ili.l 
the  danger  strm.  w  hen  it  «  as  a.ssaili'<l  at ' m  e  ami 
from  opiMMlIe  shies  l>y  .lewi^h  aiul  Orei  kt>i«»ot 
(inimticism.  theouefnuutlienioiioihi  i«ii<  ii'liitnf 
view  Impugning  the  ()iHllie;iil.  the  ollii  r  f  r  the 
KiKTtIc  side  explninlng  away  las  a  spirii'i'il  lllu- 
slonj  the  manliisHt  of  Christ,  tliat  tie  I  liun  li.  In 
despalrof  iM'allng.rnirhy  nii  ria|Hi|oi!\  h  llliaik 
on  theinethisl  of  aiilliorily.  The  (lion  ii  «  iithe 
only  safe  kee|H'r  of  llir  dipo-it  of  sin  r-"  I  iii.liii"n; 
whis'ver  Impugned  that  triulition.  Ii  I  liim  •"■  I'll 
out  of  the  communion  of  suits.  ' -Ui*  I  II 
lliKnl,  Altxiiiulhiiii  iiHil  Ciiriliii'iiiiiiiii  ri'i"l".y 
<'„nlr,ittril,it.  41.—  ■Tlieliilen'sl,  tliiineiuiim:.  "f 
(inintleism  ri-st  entirely  U|M)n  llsitliii.il  in  "live 
!t  iv.ii  iiu  at!.  lupi,  a  ».  ii.i,i3  ;■;-.  111,';.  ;  !  i!!:--:"i 
the  dread  mystery  of  aomiw  and  |"iin.  t  >  iti<«'r 
that  spectnU  doubt,   which  U    mostly   ii:i>lit."J 


400 


CHIUSTIANrrT. 


CkimhM. 


CHRISTIANITT. 


downbjforce  — Cftn  the  world  u  we  know  it 
luve  been  made  by  Qod  ?  'Cease,'  aays  Basil- 
idea,  '  fn>m  idle  ana  curious  variety,  and  let  us 
retber  iliiicuss  the  opinions,  which  even  barbari- 
ans have  held,  on  the  subject  of  good  and  evil.' 
'I  will  say  anything  rather  than  admit  that 
Providence  is  wicked. '  Valentlnus  describes  in 
the  atmin  of  an  ancient  prophet  the  woes  that 
slflict  manliind.  'I  durst  not  affirm,'  be  cou- 
ciudea,  'that  Oo<i  Is  the  author  of  all  this.'  So 
Tcrtullian  says  of  Marcion,  'like  many  men  of 
our  tlini',  and  especially  the  heretics,  he  is  be- 
wlldeml  by  the  question  of  evil.'  They  ap- 
proach tlie  problem  from  a  non-Christian  point  of 
view,  and  arrive  therefore  at  a  non-Christian 
(olution.  .  .  .  tiany  of  tlien^  especially  the 
Uter  sectaries,  accepted  the  whole  Christian 
Creed,  but  always  with  reserve.  The  teaching 
of  tile  Church  thus  became  in  their  eyes  a  popu- 
lar eintrric  confession,  beneath  their  own  Qnosis, 
or  Knowledge,  wliich  was  a  Mystery,  Jealously 
guarded  from  all  but  the  chosen  few.  '— C.  Bigg, 
TheVhruitinn  Pl<UonultofAlfjmndHa,  pp.  28-'J«. 
C«iare«.— "Tlie  cliief  points  of  Interest  in 
the  hi*t<iry  of  the  Church  of  Cteaiirea  during  this 
ueri(Kl  are  the  residence  of  Origeu  there  (first 
{jctwern  A.  D.  21.1  and  219  and  again  after  bis 
final  departure  from  Alexandria  in  231),  the 
eilucalion  of  Eusebius,  the    foundation   of  the 

Sreat  library  bv  Pamphilus,  and  the  martvrdonia 
uring  the  Diocletian  persecution.  Most  of 
tlicse  will  come  livfore  us  again  in  other  con- 
ncilons.  but  they  require  mention  here.  It 
would  In'  (lifllcult  to  ovcrestiinute  tiie  effect  of 
wliat  llicy  imply  on  the  Churcli  at  hirgc.  Hail 
tlie  work  of  Orlgcn,  Pamphilus,  and  Eusebius 
at  C.i^ari'a  n'maiuwl  unnforde)!,  tlierc  would  l)e 
a  liiigr  lilank  in  ecclesiastical  history,  rcnderlni; 
much  tliHt  is  otherwise  known  scarcely  intcl- 
li!;il)le.  Had  that  work  never  been  done,  the 
courw  of  iTclesiastiral  history  would  have  U-en 
very  ditTertnt.  In  the  whole  of  tiie  second  ami 
Ibird  nnturies  It  would  l)e  diHicult  to  name  two 
more  iiiHucntinl  Christians  than  Origen  and 
EusrliliH:  and  Pamphilus  lalM>ureil  earnestly  to 
pn-scrvc  aiitl  circulate  the  writings  of  tlie  "one 
and  to  fiullitate  thi»«?  of  tlie  other.  It  was  from 
the  lilirurii's  of  Painphiiua  at  Ciesarea  and  of 
Aiexandir  at  Jiriisalem  that  Kuseblus  obtained 
most  of  Ills  nialirial "  for  Ills  "  Kcclesiasticai  llis- 
torj."  which  has  pn>served  titles  and  quotations 
(rum  ninny  lost  iHKiks  of  exit-eiliug  value. — A. 
Pliininu  r,  Thr  C/iiirrh  ofthf  Hirlf  Fiit/ieni,  M.  3. 

Edessa.— "  EiU^s^n  (tlie  moilern  Urfa)  was  from 
the  l«  winning  of  the  thlnl  ceiilury  one  of  the 
rhlif  ciiilns  of  Syrian  Chrlslian  li"f«  and  thiii- 
liiKhul  Miidy.  For  many  years,  ainiil  the  vhlaul 
tudiii  nf  Iheidngiciil  persecution,  a  series  of 
flourislmiir  tlienliiKiinl  achisds  were  maintaine<l 
then',  one  of  which  (the  '  Persian  schiMil ')  la  i,f 
p'lit  lni|iorianre  as  tiie  nursery  of  NeatoriHiiiam 
in  th«'  exirenie  Kjist.  It  was  as' bishop  of  Edessii. 
also,  that  .laeoli  linmdii'iia  organi/.eif  the  luonn 
phvsile  rlmrilies  Into  timl  Jacobite  church  of 
wlilih  he  Is  tlie  hem,  Kroin  the  scholars  of 
hdnu.1  innio  niaiiv  of  the  translations  whiili 
c«rri,-.|(ir,Tk  thought  U>  the  l':«st,  and  In  the 
|>crio.l«..fiii(itlngrontn)versy  Eitewia  was  within 
tile  ranee  of  the  thitdoglcHl  inovementa  llml 
it.rrr-i(    ^!,.^^j..iri;,    .^;.._i    (\,aiitan:iii..iii.        Tiie 

t  hnmh  le  of  Kdessa,'  as  it  is  ealhil  liecailsi-  the 
r;«l«r  iiiiuiIn r  of  Its  nuMnm  ndale  U>  blewMiie 
walni,  b  a  brief  ducuiueut  in  HyrUc  cuutaiaed 


In  a  manuscript  of  itz  leaves  in  the  Vatican 
library.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  funda- 
mental sources  for  the  history  of  Edessa,  con- 
tains a  long  oiHcial  narrative  of  the  flissi  of  A.  D. 
201,  which  is  perhaps  the  only  existing  monu- 
ment of  heathen  Syriac  literature,  and  includes 
an  excellent  and  very  carefully  dated  list  of  the 
bishops  of  Edessa  from  A.  D.313  to  543."— .4  n- 
(towr  Jimeie,  v.  19,  p.  874.— The  Syriac  Versioiu 
(of  the  Oospel)  form  a  gMup  of  which  mention 
should  undoubtedly  be  made.  Tlie  Syriac  ver- 
sions of  the  Bible  (Old  Testament)  are  among  the 
most  ancient  remains  of  the  language,  the  Syriac 
and  the  Chaldee  being  the  two  dialects  of  the 
Aramaean  spoken  in  the  North.  Of  versions  of 
the  New  'Testament,  "the  'Peshito'  or  the 
'  Simple, '  though  not  the  oldest  text,  lius  been  the 
longest  known.  .  .  .  The  '  Curetonian ' .  .  .  was 
discovered  after  its  existence  had  been  for  a  long 
time  suspected  by  sagacious  sciiolars  [but  is  not 
much  more  than  a  series  of  fnigraents],  .  .  . 
Cureton,  Tregelles,  Alford,  Ewald,  Ble.k,  and 
otliers,  believe  this  text  to  lie  older  than  tlio 
Peshito  [which  speaks  for  tlie  Greek  text  of  the 
second  century,  though  its  own  date  is  doubtful  1. 
.  .  .  Other  valuable  Syriac  versions  are  '  Phil- 
oxenian '  .  ,  ,  and  the  '  Jerusalem  Syriac  Lcc- 
tioiiary '  .  .  .  a  service-lxxik  with  lessons  from 
the  Oospels  for  Sundays  and  feast  days  through- 
out the  year  .  .  .  written  ut  Antioch  in  1030  in 
a  diulet't  similar  to  that  la  use  in  Jerusalem  and 
from  a  Orcek  text  of  great  antiquity."  A  recent 
discovery  renders  these  facts  and  "statements  of 
pi'culiar  interests.— Q.  E.  Merrill,  T/u  istoiy  of 
the  Wiinunrriptn,  eh.  10. 

Rural  Poleitine.- "  If  Ebionism  [sec  Ebion- 
ism]  was  not  primitive  Christianity,  neither  was 
it  a  creation  of  the  second  ceutiiry.  As  an  or- 
ganization, a  distinct  sect,  it  llrst  made  itself 
known,  we  may  suppose,  in  the  reign  of  Trajan: 
but  as  a  sentiment,  it  had  Ihtu  hurlHiured  within 
the  Church  fnim  the  very  earliest  days.  .M<sl- 
inited  by  the  per8<iiial  inlluence  of  the'Aposlles, 
soothed  by  the  generiil  prai  tico  of  their  church, 
not  yet  forced  inU)  declaring  themselves  by  the 
turn  of  events,  though  scarcely  tolerant  of  others, 
these  Judaizers  were  tolenited  for  a  time  them- 
aelyes.  Tlie  beijinning  of  llie  setond  century 
WHS  a  winnowing  season  in  the  Chiireb  of  the 
Circumcision.  ...  It  is  a  prolialile  conjecture, 
that  after  the  destruction  of  JeruKtlein  the  fugl- 
tlye  Christians,  living  in  thiir  n'tmniiMit  in  llio 
nelghbourliiHsl  of  the  Es«iiu  si'tihinents,  ri'- 
ceived  largo  acci'salons  to  their  niiiiilMTs  from 
this  sect,  which  thus  imsuiatnl  the  Chureh  with 
Its  peeuliar  views.  It  is  ut  hiist  worthy  i  if  iintlci-, 
that  In  a  rellgloiil  work  enianuling  from  this 
s<hiHil  of  Elilonltes  the  'true  Unspel'  is  reported 
to  have  lieen  llrst  propagated  '  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  holy  place.'" — I.  II.  I.ltrhtfivit,  Dit- 
atrtittiutuion  the  Atti>i'tt4if  A'jr.  ;>/',  7N-hO, 

CorthOft.— "  If  the  World  is  Imlehted  to 
Iliime  for  theorganlsrttlon  of  the  Church,  l{omo 
is  indebteil  to  Carthage  for  the  theory  on  which 
that  organisation  is  built.  The  career  of  Car- 
thage as  a  Christian  ciiilre  veiiiplilles  Hie 
simiige  vicissitudi'S  of  history,  I'he  -Ity  which 
Idime  In  lier  jealousy  hail  c'rusheil.  whleli.  no' 
content  with  crushing,  she  had  oliliierale.l  from 
the  Taiv  of  ilie  earth,  had  at  the  liiiiiiitii:  of 
Koine's  greatest  son  risen  fnmi  her  ashes,  and  by 
her  cansT  almost  verifliil  tlie  |)»et's  tauir.  that 
thu  KrvatiMM  uf  Conhoge  woa  rvanxl  uu  Um 


401 


m 


CHRISTIANmr. 


Oartkofomd 


CHRISTIANITT. 


niln  of  Italy.  For  In  truth  the  African  capital 
was  in  all  but  pilitical  power  no  unworthy  rival 
of  Rome.     It  bad  steadily  grown  In  commercial 

f)rosperity.  Its  site  wag  ao  advantageous  as  to 
nvite,  almost  to  compel,  the  influx  of  trade, 
which  ever  sponUuieously  moves  along  the  line 
of  least  resisliince.  And  the  people  were  well 
able  to  turn  this  natural  ailvantage  to  account. 
A  mLxed  niitionality,  in  which  the  original 
Italian  immlgnitii>n  lent  a  steadying  force  to  tlie 
native  Punic  and  kindred  African  elements  that 
formwl  its  basis,  with  its  iuU-iligence  enriched 
by  large  accessions  of  On-ck  settlers  from  Cyrene 
and  Alexandria — Carthage  had  developed  in 
the  second  century  of  our  era  Into  a  community 
at  once  wealthv,  enterprising  and  ambitious. 
...  It  was  no  longer  in  the  sphere  of  profane 
literature,  but  in  her  contributions  to  the  cause 
of  Christianity  and  the  spiritual  armoury  of  the 
Church,  that  the  proud  Oucen  of  Africa  was  to 
win  her  stTiind  crown  of  fame.  .  .  .  The  names 
of  Tertuiiian,  Cyprian  and  Augustine,  at  once 
suggest  the  source  from  which  Papal  Rome 
drew  the  principles  of  Church  controversy. 
Church  organisation,  and  Church  doctrine,  which 
have  const  ilidatcil  her  authority,  and  to  sonio 
extent  justitied  her  pretensions  to  rule  the  con- 
science of  Cliristendom."— C.  T.  Cruttwell.  .1 
lAler.irn  Ilithiry  of  Knrty  ChHMianity,  bk.  5,  c/i 
3  (r.  2). — "At  the  end  of  the  second  century  the 
African  Tertuiiian  flrst  began  to  wrestle  witli 
tile  dilHeultiea  of  the  Latin  language  in  llic  en- 
deavour to  make  it  a  vehicle  for  the  expression  of 
Christian  idias.  In  reading  his  dognmtic  writ- 
ings tlie  8truf.'L'le  is  so  apparent  that  it  seems  as 
though  we  Ulield  a  rider  euileavouring  t4>  dis<;i- 
pline  an  unbnikin  steed.  Tertullian'i  doctrine 
19,  however,  still  wlmlly  Oreek  in  substance,  and 
this  ciintinuiHl  to  Ik'  the  case  in  the  church  of 
the  Latin  tongue  until  the  end  of  the  fourtli 
century.  Hilary,  Ambrose,  even  Jerome,  are 
essentially  interpreters  of  On!ek  phllosopliy  and 
theology  to  the  Ijitin  West.  With  Augus- 
tine learning  U'gins  to  assume  a  Latin  form, 
partly  original  and  imlepeiident  — partly,  I  say, 
for  even  later  corniMwitious  arc  aliuudantly  inli  r- 
woven  with  Onik  elements  and  maU'rials.     Very 

f'radually  from  the  writings  of  the  Afriian 
atliers  of  the  ehunh  dcK'S  the  specific  Latin 
element  come  to  iKiupy  that  dominant  poslliim 
in  Western  Cliristendimi,  which  soon,  partly 
from  self-autlleient  indilTerenee,  partly  from 
Ignorance,  so  completely  severwi  Itself  from 
On'ek  inlliiences  tliat  the  old  unity  and  harmony 
could  never  \k  n-sUir»'d.  Still  the  HIblicul  slmly 
■  f  the  Ijitins  is,  as  a  whole,  a  men^  echo  anil 
copy  of  (Jrwk  pn-dwessom."— J.  I.  vein  Dol- 
linger,  Stiiiliiii  in  A'ur'i/iwn  llittiny,  fip.  1711-171. 
—  Fnim  I'arthage  which  wiu  aft4'rwar(l  the  n-l- 
deme  of  "  tlio  primate  of  ail  Africa  ,  .  .  i\v 
Christian  faith  B<»in  dlaseminaitsl  throughout 
NuMiiilia.  .Mauritania  and  Uelulia,  which  is 
proveii  liv  llie  gnat  numlM'r  of  bishops  at  two 
coumlls  ill  III  III  Cartilage  in  'iM  and  KW.  .\t 
Uie  l«ll«r  lhin>  weo'  S70  bishops,  whose  nanus 
are  not  given,  but  at  the  former  wen-  bishops 
from(H7)  .  .  .  ciilis.'— J.  K.  T.  Wlltsih, //.i/.  ^ 
tuuk  of  tin  OnyniiJiji  nml  Sl.tliiitirt  oftkt  Clinn/i. 
Romt.— "Inthe  West,  Korne  remains  and  in- 
detd  iM^Mimes  evi-r  mom  and  itiiim  the  '•<•<!"• 
ApMiolica,'  liy  far  the  miwt  Important  centre 
where,  alongside  of  the  lUimao  element,  there 
m  tu  be  found  vlemenUitrtsamiug  tugelher  (mm 


all  polnte  of  the  Empire.    Greek  names,  and  the 
long  lasting(8till  dominant  in  the  second  century) 
maintenance  of  Oreek  as  tlio  written  language  o( 
Ibiman  Christianity  are  here   noteworthy.  . 
Rome  was  tlie  point  of  departure  not  only  for 
Italy  and  the  Western  Provinces,  but  without 
doubt  also  for  ProconsuUr  Africa,  where  in  turn 
Carthage  liecomes  the  centre  of  dillusliin. 
The  diilusion  in  the  Gneco-Roinan  worlj  as  a 
whole  goes  flrst  to  the  more  important  ton  us  and 
from  these  gradually  over   the   country. 
The  tnstrumenu  however  of  this  missinu  are  bv 
no  means  exclusively  apostolic  men,  wim  pursue 
missions  as  tlieir  calling  .  .  .   ;  every  Clmstiim 
liecomes  a  witness  In  his  own  circle,  ami  Inter- 
course and  trade  bring  Christians  hither  sad 
thither,   and  along  with  them  their  Cliristisn 
faith."— AV.    Moeller,   JliMoiy  of  the  Chnilinn 
Chunk,  pp.  105-107.—"  It  has  been  cnutendeil 
and  many  still  believe,  that  in  ancient  lionie  tlie 
doctrines  of  Christ  found  no  proselyli's.  except 
among  the  lower  and  poon-r  classes  of  eiiizeni 
.  .  .  The  gospel  fuuwl  ita  way  also  to  the  man- 
sions of  tlie  masters,  nay,  even  to  the  palace  of 
the  Caaars.     The  discoveries  lately  made  on  this 
subject    are    startling,   and    constitute   a  new 
chapter  in  the  history  of  imperial  |{ome.  ...  A 
difflculty  may  arise  in  the  mind  of  the  reader: 
how  was  it  possible  for  these  magistrates,  cen- 
erols,  consuls,  offlcers,  senators,  and  govi  rnnrs  of 
provinces,  to  attend  to  their  duties  wiili..ut  per- 
forining  ucU  of  idolatry  ?  .  .  .  The  It.iiiian  iin- 
perors  gave  plenty  of  liberty  to  the  new  n  liitinn 
from  lime  to  time;  and  some  of  them,  iiinveilhy 
a  sort  of  religious  syncretism,  even  tried  to  ally 
it  with  the  olHcial  worship  of  the  eiii|iin-,  and  la 
place  Christ  and  Jupiter  on  the  stepsof  tin- same 
'lararium.'.  .  ,  We  must  not  Islieve  that  tlio 
transformathm  of  Home  from  a  panau  into  a 
Christian  city   was  a  sudden  and  unn[i<-ttid 
event,    which  took  the  world  by   surprisi'.    It 
was  the  natural  result  of  the  wiirk  of  three  cen- 
turies, brought  to  maturity  uielir  Ciinslaiitiue  bv 
an  inevitable  reaction  against   the    viuleiuc  of 
DiiK'letian's  rule.     It  was  not  a  revoluliau  or  s 
convi'rsion  in  the  true  sense  of  tliesi-  w.inis;  It 
was  tlie  olTicial  rp<'ognitiou  of  a  stale  i>f  thlnjti 
which   had   long  ceiuu'd   to  lie  a  si ml      The 
moral  suiierioritv  of  the  new  distriiiisuMr  the 
old  ndigtirtu  was  so  evident,  so  ovi  rii.vM  ring, 
tlial  the  n>^    ■  f  tin"  struggle  had  Ihiii  a  fore- 
goneeonilii  I  'i.  since  the  age  of  the  tIrM  apolo- 
gisU.     The  n'volution  was  an  ex(viiliin.'ly  mild 
one,   the  transformation  almost  iiii|urri  jitible. 
.  .  .  Thelraiisfnniiation  may  lie  fidhiwidvtaitehy 
stage  in  Uith  ita  moral  and  iiialerial  Of-pii  t    There 
is  nut  a  ruin  of  ancient  Itoine  lluit  dia  ■>  nit  Usr 
evidence  of  the  great  clia'>ite.  .  .  ,   \lm<-  |»)i- 
srases  authentic  remains  of  tiie  'housisiif  prayer' 
In  which  the  gospel  was  flrst  aniiouiiKil  In  apiK- 
tolie  times.  .  .  .   .\  very  old  tnnlili.in,  ciiilrmiil 
by  tlio  '  l.ilier  I^mtill<■alis,'  descrilns  thr  nimlim 
church  of  S.    I'udentiana  as  bating  lu<ri  ones 
the  private  house  of  the  same  i'uileiis  hIi.i  was 
Intptlzeil  liv  the  ap<iBth'S.  and  whi  is  iie  ntiunni 
inthe  episth'sof  «.   Paul.   .   .  .  The  ...mi.rtiott 
of  the  liniiM-  with  the  aiHwtulate  of  S.-i   I'lhr  nod 
Paul  liiaile  it  viry  (Hipiilar  from  tli>'  lu  .:inriin{(. 
.  .  .   Keiiiiiins  of  thehouaeof  I'liili  ns  »i  nfriimd 
in  1870.     Tiiey  la-.upy  a  tsinaideM!  !•.  sn  ■!  U!!d»r 
the  m'lghlNiriiig  housi's.  .  .  ,  Anioinr  ihildinisn 
churches  whose  origin  can  lie  tnued  \<>  tl  i'  ball 
of  mwling,  besides  tliusv  of  l*udeus  and  rhwA 


462 


CHRISTIAinTT. 


Oattloiul 


■Iready  mentioned,  the  best  prewired  ieemg  to 
be  that  built  by  Demetriasattlietliird  miie-stone 
of  the  Via  Latina,  near  tlie' painted  tombs.' .  .  . 
The  Ctiiutians  toolc  a<lvantage  of  the  free<Iom 
•cconltHl   to  funeral    colleges,    and    anociatcd 
themsclvea  for  the  same  purpoac,  following  as 
closely  as  possible  their  rules  concerning  contri- 
butions, the  erection  of  lodges,  the  meetings,  hikI 
the  .  .  .  love  feasts;  and  It  was  largely  through 
the  adoption  of  these  well-undcrst^MMl  and   re- 
ijM'rtMl  customs  that  they  were  enabled  to  hold 
their  met  tings  and  keep  together  aa  a  corporate 
body  through  the  stormy  times  of  the  second  and 
thini  centuries.    Two  eicelient  specimens   of 
tchnlie  connected  with  Christian  cemeteries  and 
with  meetings  of  'he  faithful  have  come  down  to 
us,  one  above  the  Catacombs  of  Callixtus,  the 
othtrnlmve  those  of  Soter."    This  formation  of 
Christian  communities  into  colleges  is  an  import- 
ant fact,  and  connects  these  Christian  siwieties 
with  one  of  the  social  institutions  of  the  Empire 
which  may  have  influenced  the  church  as  an  or- 
nnizntion.     "The experience  gained  in  twenty- 
flve  years  of  active  exploration  in  ancient  Rome, 
both  alH)ve  and  below  ground,  enables  me  to 
state  that  every    pagan   building    which   was 
capable  of  giving  shelter  to  a  congregation  was 
tniD.sf(>rme>l,    at   one  time  or  another,    into  a 
church  or  a  chapel.  .  .  .  From  apostolic  times 
to  the  iM-rsecuiion  of  Domitian.  the  faithful  were 
buriiil,    separately   or   collectively,   in  private 
tomlw  which  di<f  not  have  the  character  of  a 
Church  institution.     These  early  tomlis,  whether 
al«ive  or  below  gniund,  display  a  sense  of  per- 
fwt  M'ciirity,  anil  an  absence  of  all  fear  or  solid- 
tuile     This  feeling  arose  from   two  facts:  the 
small  ■■xteat  of  the  cemeteries,  which  aecureil  Ut 
tlitm  theriehts  of  private  property,  and  the  pro- 
tiiii'in  and   frecMlom   which  the  Jewish  otiony 
in  llime  enjoyeil  from  time  immemorial.  .  .  . 
From  the  time  of  the  npostlesto  the  flrst  persecu- 
tion   (if   Diimltian,    Christian    tombs,    whether 
sbiive  i.r  Mow  ground,  wen-  built  with  perfiit 
iiiipu!iiiy  and  in  delianceof  puliljc  opinion.     We 
hav.'  Ikiii  ai'customcd  to  consider  the  catacombs 
of  lluiie  a.!!  crypts  plunged  In  total  darkness,  and 
pcnetniiing  the  bowels  of  the  earth  at  unfathom- 
able ilepihs     This  Is,  in  a  certain  measure,  the 
ca.«'  nilh  those  catacombs,  or  wctioiis  of  cala- 
ci)mli«,  which  were  excavated  in  times  of  perw- 
cmi"ii    but  iiot  with  those  bel<mging  fo  the  tirst 
centufv     The  cemeU'ry  of  these    memlwrM  of 
Diimiiiun's  family  who  hail  emlirsced  the  gospel 
-«uih  as  Klavlus  Clemens,    Flavia   l)oinilill.i, 
Pliuiilla,  retn)uillii,  and  others  — reveal.s  a  IhiI.I 
cxiunple  of  publicity.   .  ,  ,   How  is  It  |)osail.U' 
to  jnujinc  that  the  primitive  Church   did  not 
know  the  place  of  the  death  of  its  two  leading 
»P"»li'  s  1    In  default  of  written  t<-Mtlmony  let  us 
ci'iKiill  rnoniiniental  evidence.    Tlien-  is  no  event 
of  ilie  itiiin'rial  age  and  of  Imperial  Itomi'  wliUh 
is  iiii.vii.l  by  an  many  noblu  structures,  nil  of 
whiib    |»iliit     to    the    same    omclusion.— tlie 
pn «!ur  and  cxiMutlon  of  the  apiaillis  in  the 
npilal.if  theemplri'."— II  Ijinciani,  JM'/mt  niul 
nn.f,.i„  li,^  fi,   ,  3  rt«/7._TI,e  Cliurch  at 
lli>me      ijave  no  illustrious  teachi^rs  to  am  lent 
ChriMiiriity     ...    All   the   greatest    i|Uealions 
»||T  .lelwliil  elacwheri'.  .   .   .   Hv  a  sort  of  In. 
Cij,.  r,.r  i;«i',  (iij  iNvupird  itai'lf'far  mori' with 
p-ilnw  ..f  novernment  anil  organiisation  than  of 
•ji-dililMn      Its  central  i«»lil,.n.  In  the  capital 
crt  the  empire,  and  iu  Kluriuus  memurics,  guar- 


CHRISTIANITT. 


anteed  to  It  a  growing  authority."— E,  De  Pre«- 
8ens«,  The  EaHy  Tean  of  ChHitianity :  Tht 
Martj/n  and  Ap^ogiiU,  p.  41. 

C«ul.— "Of  the  history  of  the  Galilean 
Churches  before  the  middle  of  the  second  century 
we  have  no  certain  information.  It  seems  fairiy 
probable  indeed  that,  when  we  read  in  the 
Apostolic  age  of  a  mission  of  Cresccns  to 
'Oalatltt'  or  "Gaul,"  the  western  country  it 
meant  rat  jer  than  tlie  Asiatic  settlement  which 
bore  tlie  surre  name;  and,  if  so,  this  points  to 
some  relations  with  St.  Paul  liimsclf.  But,  even 
though  this  explanation  should  be  accepted,  the 
notice  stands  ouite  alone.  Later  tradition  imleed 
supplements  It  with  legendary  matter,  but  it 
is  impossible  to  say  wliat  substratum  of  fact, 
if  any,  underlies  these  comparatively  recent 
stories.    The  connection   between  the  southern 

Kirts  of  Gaul  and  the  western  districu  of  Asia 
Inor  bad    been   Intimate    from    very   remote 
times.    Gaul  was  indebted  for  her  earliest  civil- 
iiation  to  her  Greek  settlemenU  like  Marseilles, 
which  had  been  colonized  from  Asia  Minor  some 
six  centuries  before  the  Christian  era;  ami  close 
relations  appear  to  have   been  maintaine<l  even 
to  the  latest  times.    During  the  Roman  period 
the  people  of  Maraeiliet  still  spoke  the  Greek 
language  familiarty  along  with  the  vernacular 
Celtic  of  the  native  popuIatioD  and  the  official 
Latin  of  the  dominant  power.     AVlien  therefore 
Christianity  had  established  her  headquarters  in 
Asia  Minor,  it  was  not  unnatural  that  the  Gospel 
should  flow  In  the  same  channels  which  already 
conducteil  the  civilization  and  the  commerce  of 
the  Asiatic  Greeks  westwanl.      At  all  events, 
whatever  we  may  think  of  the  antecedent  pro- 
babilities, llic  fact  itself  can  hardly  be  dispiitcA 
In  the  year  A.  D.   177,  umlcr  Marcus  Aurellus,! 
a  severe  persecution  broke  out  on  the  liaiiks  of' 
the  Rhone  in  the  cities  of  Vienne  and  Lvons  — a' 
persecution  which  by  iU  extent  and  chanicU'r 
iK^ars  a  noble  U'stimony   to  tiie  vitality  of  the 
Chu"ches  in  these  places.     To  this  Incident  we 
owe    tlie    earliest    extant     historical    notice    of 
Christianity  In  Gaul."^I.  B.  Lightfoot,  E»»iyt 
«n  th*  teork  fntitlrd  SiipfrnalnrnI  Rtliguni  pp. 
251-252.-"  The  Cliiirches  of  proconsular  Africa, 
of  Spain,  of  Italy  and  of  Southern  Gaul  ciuml- 
tute,  at  this  iierii*!,  the  Western  Church,  so  dif- 
ferent In  its  ge.ieral   type   fn)m   the    Ea.slcrn. 
With  the  exception  of  Irenaeus  (liishop  of  Lynnsj 
and  Hippolytus  [the  flrst  celehmted  preiw  hrr  of 
the  West,  of  Italy  and.  for  a  period,  l,viins|  who 
n'prescnt  the  oriental    element  in  Gaul  ami  at 
Rome,  the  Western  Fathers  are  broadly  ili»tin- 
KuiHhe<l   from  t'  >se  <.f   the   East    .    .    .    They 
HlBrm  nillier  than  demonstrate:  .  .  .  Iliey  pre 
fer  practical  to  »|X'culallvo  questions.     The  sys- 
tem of  episcopal  authority  Is  gradually  devebipcd 
with  a  larger  amount  of  piuision  at  Carthage, 
with  greater  pruilenee  and  patience  'n  Italy.  — 
E.    De  I'reswnse,  7'A/  Kirlj/   Vnin  tf  C'A'iwIi- 
iinily:  tht  .Vartynt  nnii  Ain-kiffiittM. 

Spain. — ■•  Christians  are  gem-Mlly  mentioned 
as  luiving  existtHt  in  all  pans  nf  Spain  at  the 
dose  of  the  secimd  century:  In-fore  the  miibileof 
the  tliinl  century  then'  is'a  letter  of  the  Ruriian 
bishop  Aiiterus'dn  2117)  to  the  bishops  iit  iliu 
pnivlnna  nf  BfFtica  sod  Toletana  .  .  .  :  ami 
after  the  middle  of  the  same  centurv  a  letter  of 
Cyprian's  was  aiMn-BiMd  to  .  .  .  ix'o'ple  In 

the  north         .  iis  well  as  ...  in  tlie  souili  of 
that  country    —J,  K.  T.  Wlitach,  Uamlluuk  <if 


40U 


CHIU8TIAN1TT. 


Oonnertum 
c*  llu  CteUU. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


ihf  Oengraphu  and  Stalittia  of  the  Ohureh,  pp. 
40-41. 

Britain.— "  All  that  we  c«n  iafcly  assert 
b  that  there  is  some  reason  for  jillevlng  that 
there  were  Christians  In  Britnin  bcfure  A.  D. 
200.  Certainly  there  was  a  British  Church  with 
bishops  of  its  own  soon  after  A.  D.  800,  and 
possibly  some  time  before  that.  Very  little  can 
be  known  about  this  Celtic  Church;  but  the 
scanty  evidence  tends  to  establish  three  points, 
(1)  It  had  Us  origin  from,  and  remained  largely 
dependent  upon,  the  Gallic  Church.  (2)  It  was 
confined  almost  exclusively  to  Roman  settle- 
ments. (3)  Its  numbers  were  small  and  its  mem- 
bers were  poor.  .  .  .  That  Britain  may  have 
derived  its  Christianity  from  Asia  Minor  cannot 
be  denied;  but  the  peculiar  British  custom 
respecting  Easter  must  not  be  quoteit  in  evidence 
of  it.  It  seems  to  tut ve  l)een  a  mere  blunder,  and 
not  a  continuation  of  the  old  Quarta-deciman 
practice.  Oaul  is  the  more  probable  parent  of 
the  British  riuirch.  ...  At  the  Council  of 
Rimini  in  S5U  Constamius  offered  to  pay  out  of 
the  treasury  tlie  travelling  expenses  of  all  the 
bishops  who  attended.  Out  of  more  tlian  four 
hundred  bishops,  three  from  Britain  were  the 
only  clergy  who  availed  themselves  of  thia  offer. 
Neither  at  Rimini,  any  more  than  at  Aries,  do 
the  British  representatives  make  any  show :  they 
•piH'ar  to  he  oiiite  without  intluenco. "— A. 
Plummer,  7^  Church  of  t/u  Early  fUthert, 
fh.  8. 

Gothi.— "It  has  been  observed  that  the  first 
indisputable  appearance  of  the  Ootlis  in  European 
liislory  must  be  dateil  in  A.  D.  SHS.  when  they 
laid  waste  the  8outh-Danubian  province  of 
MiKsia  as  far  as  the  Black  Sea.  In  the  thirty 
years  (23H-2«9)  that  followed,  there  took  place  no 
fewiT  than  ten  such  inroads.  .  .  .  From  these 
exiH'ditions  ihey  retumc<l  with  Immeuwt  boo^v, 
—  com  and  cattle,  silks  and  Une  linen,  silver  and 
gold,  and  captives  of  all  ranks  an<l  ages.  It  is 
to  these  captives,  many  of  whom  were  Chris- 
tians, ami  not  a  few  clergy,  that  tlie  Introduction 
of  Chri.stianity  among  the  Goths  is  primarily 
due.  .  .  .  The  periiHl  of  the  inroads,  whicli  so 
strangely  formed  a  sowing-time  for  Christianity, 


was  folfowiii  by  a  long  pcriiMl  of  trani|uillity, 
j.._.         ui.i  .1  faith  tiH)k  roo' 

ful  work  and  pur 
[Cliristian]  men  .  .  .  who  hail  He<i  from  Roman 


during  which  the  new  faith  tiH)k  root  and'sprcall 
.   It  is  to  the  faithful  work  and  pure  lives  of 


civilisation  for  conscience  sake,  to  the  example 
of  jiaticnce  iu    misfortune  and    high  Christliin 
character  displayed  by  the  captives,  and  to  lli 
Instruction  of  the  presbyters  sprinkletl  araoii 
them,   that  we  must    look,    as    the    source 
CliriKliaiiity  among  Ihe  Goths.   .  .  .  The  fai 
which  we  shall  have  to  refer  laier),  thi;*,  of  ai 
sea  raids  undertaken  by  the  Goths  Ik'tween 
years  Sas  and  Wi.  the  Visigoths  took  part  . 
only  two,  Willie  the  0»tn)goths,  who  were  settled 
InSiuthern  Kiissiu along  llie  coast  ui  me  Kuxiue 
fnitn  the  Criinialo  the  Dneittcr,  were  engagi'd 
probably  In  all  of  tin  m,  makes  it  verv  unlikely 
that  the   captives   nicnlioiiiil    liy   PlitkwUirgius 
Were  carriid   anywhere  else    than    the    ea.sU'm 
•ctllemcnu.     To  the    iiilluenee    of    these  A.tian 
Christians,  exerted  inuiiily.  if  not  entirely  u|xm 
the  (>8troi;oili«,  must  Ik'  atiihil  the  ever  increos- 

ir-.V"    Intireotirx.:    r:»rri;^!    ■■■;    (-.y    i^-;i    i-i-iWii-ii    llit 

Crimea  ami  iKitli  the  southern  shore  of  the 
Euxine  and  Conslnniiiiople  Vo  thesi!  pnilialiilt 
ties  baa  uuw  lo  Ui  added  the  fact  tlut  the  ualy 


tr-.ies  of  an  organised  Gothic  Church  existlni 
bi'fotc  the  year  841  are  clearly  to  be  referte<l  tos 
community  In  this  neigliliourhood.  Amoni;  the 
bishops  who  were  present  at  the  Council  ,if 
Nicaea  (A.  D.  82.1),  and  who  8igne<l  tl«  symbol 
which  was  then  approved,  we  find  a  ctrula 
Theophllus,  before  whose  name  stand  the  wonU 
'dc  Ootids,'  anil  after  it  the  word  '  Bospljiitj! 
tanus.'  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  wai 
a  bishop  representing  a  Gothic  Cliureh  on  the 
Cimmerian  Bosphorusi:  and  if,  folio  vin,-  ,iie 
Paris  MS8.,  we  read  further  down  the  lisi  the 
name  Domnus  Bosphorensis  or  PosphoMnus.  we 
may  find  here  another  bislr>p  from  this  dioav 
and  rcganl  TI.eopliilus  as  chief  or  ap.hhishop  of 
the  Crimean  churches.  The  uniloubted  presen:^ 
at  this  council  of  at  least  one  bisliop  of  tlie 
Gotlis,  and  the  conclusion  drawn  therefmm  in 
favour  of  the  orthodoxy  of  the  Gothic  Chunh  in 

feoeral.  led  atterwards  to  die  greatest  confusion. 
ailing  to  distinguish  between  tlie  Crimcsn  iinii 
Dauubian  communities,  the  historians  of  tj'n  found 
tlieir  infomiatioD  contradictory,  and  altered  it 
In  the  readiest  way  to  suit  the  coailition  of  the 
Church  which  tlicV  had  specially  In  view.  .  .  . 
The  conversion  of  that  section  of  the  nation, 
which  iKcarac  the  Gothic  Church,  was  due  to 
the  apostolic  labours  of  one  of  their  own  race, 
—  the  gri>at  missionary  bishop  Ulltlaa  [see 
GoTiis:  A.  D.  841-381].  But  to  him  too  was 
to  be  traced  the  heresy  In  which  tliey  stoppej 
short  on  the  waj  from  heathenism  to  a  compiete 
Christian  faith.  —C!.  A.  A.  Si'ott.  I'lJiliU.  Aittlte 
of  the  Oollu,  pp.  19-30.— "The  suiwrstitions of 
the  barbarians,  who  had  found  homes  in  the 
empire,  hail  been  exehangnl  for  a  more  -iholo- 
some  belief.  IJut  Christianity  hail  done  moru 
than  this.  It  had  extendeil  its  inlliiencc  o 
the  distant  East  and  South,  to  Abvssinia, 
and  the  tribes  of  the  Syrian  anil  'l.vhian 
deserts,  to  Armenia,  Persia,  and  i'.  lia."— "C.  i*. 
Fisher,  Jlint.  of  thi  Chrutinn  Church,  p.  MS  — 
• '  We  have  before  us  many  sigiiitlcant  examples  nf 
the  facility  with  which  the  most  intellii.'em  of  the 
Pagans  accepted  the  outward  rite  of  Christian 
liaptisin,  and  made  a  nominal  profession  uf  tlie 
Faith,  while  tlicy  retained  and  o|xnly  pnictimt, 
without  rebuke,  without  tvmark,  with  the 
Indulgence  even  of  genuine  bi'lievers.  the  rius 
and  usai^es  of  the  Pa,;anism  they  pretemled  to 
have  abjur  We  find  abundant  reeonlsofthe 

fact  tlint  pe.sonages  high  iu  otilce,  such  as  eon- 
Buls  and  other  magistrates,  while  adiuliii>tiriui{ 
the  laws  by  which  the  old  idolatries  were  pro 
neribetl,  actually  jwrfonned  Pagan  rites  iiml 
ven  erected  public  statues  to  Pagan  diviiiitii's. 
I'll  more  did  men,  high  In  the  ix'spwt  of  their 
lloW'Cliristians,  allow  themsi'lves  to  clurt.h 
enllments  utterly  at  variinee  with  the  ihllni- 
lioDS  of  the  Church."— C  Merivale.  /■I'ur  hdnnt 
on  Home  t.initJf  of  Jiirly  Church  /h'li>rj/  p  IV)  — 
"We  IcMill  back  to  the  early  actitaiid  ih'iII'  y  ,,■[  liie 
Church  towanis  the  new  nai'ons,  their  kinus  ami 
their  jviiple;  till'  vaysand  v»..,  i«nf  liir  Miiv.ii>n- 
aries  ami  lawgivers,  I'ltllas  aiiioni;  the  (!olh<, 
AugiLstine  iu  Kent,  Remlglus  in  Krau.e  Itoui- 
fiuv  in  (Icriiiaiiy,  Anwiiai  in  the  Nonli.tln  ln»h 
Coliiinban  in  ilurgiiiiily  and  ,><wii/>rl.inil, 
IhiHilict  at  Monte  Cossimi:  or  the  reforniiii< 
klri^n.  tiic  .\rian  Tiiuxhrric.  tiic  gn-al  ti-.r'-M-tii 
Charles,  the  great  Eni{li«li  Alfnil.  .Measund 
by  the  liu-lit  and  the  sti  lelanls  tliey  have  hel|HHl 
us  tu  ututu  to,  their  methods  uu  doubt  surprlte, 


464 


CHRISTIAirm. 


CHMSTIlinTT. 


diwppoint— It  msT  be,  revolt  ut;  ud  all  that 
we  dwell  upon  u  the  childishness,  or  the 
imperfect  monllty,  of  their  attempts.  But  if 
tliere  is  anything  certain  in  history.  It  Is  that  in 
iheae  rough  communications  of  the  deepest 
truths,  in  these  [for  us]  often  qLestionable  modes 
of  ruling  minds  and  souls,  the  seed?  were  sown  of 
nil  that  was  to  malte  the  hope  and  the  glory  of 
I  lie  foremost  nations.  ...  I  have  spoken  of 
iM.-.c  other  groups  of  virtues  whicl^  are  held  In 
spiTial  regard  and  respect  amoni'  us  —  those 
(iinnrcted  with  manliness  and  hari  work,  with 
ri'vcnnce  for  law  and  liberty,  ard  with  pure 
fiiniily  life.  The  ruiliraents  and  ftndeuclea  )ut 
(if  wliich  these  have  grown  ap^'sr  to  have  Vx-^n 
riirly  marked  in  the  Oerman  ruxs,  but  thev 
ueri-  nnl^  rudiments,  existing  in  company  with 
much  wilder  and  stronger  e.cments,  and  liable. 
nmiil  the  changes  and  chances  of  barbarian 
ixisU'Dcc,  to  be  paralysed  or  trampled  out.  No 
men'  barbarian  virtues  could  by  themselves  have 
i.t<iu<l  the  trial  of  having  won  by  conquest  the 
wealth,  the  lands,  the  power  of  Rome.  But 
lluir  guardian  was  there.  Wliat  Christianity 
ilid  fo-  these  natural  tenilencics  to  gOfHl  was  to 
lulcipt  them,  to  watch  over  them,  to  discipline, 
t(i ('(insi>liilate  them.  The  energy  which  warriors 
W(  TV  accustomed  to  put  forth  in  their  elTorts  to 
>>>ii<|uer.  the  missionaries  and  ministers  of 
( iiristianity  exiiibited  in  their  enterprises  of 
(iinvvr»ii>n  and  teucbiiie.  The  crowd  of  unknown 
wiuts  wlioM!  nanu'M  till  the  calendars,  anil  live, 
Hiine  of  tlicm,  only  in  the  titles  of  our  churches, 
miiiiily  represent"  the  age  of  heroic  spiritual 
vultures,  of  wliich  we  we  glimpses  in  the  story 
of  ^•t  IJonlface,  the  apostle  <if  Otmiany;  of  8t. 
(i)liiiiilmn  and  8t.  Gall,  waniliring  from  Ireland 
to  nclaiin  the  barbariaas  of  the  Burgundian 
(lewris  and  of  the  shores  of  the  Swiss  lakes.  It 
was  among  men  like  these  —  men  who  were  thi'U 
tinni il  einpliaticnlly  ' ..len  of  religion  '—that  the 
111  races  saw  tlie  example  of  life  ruleil  by  a 
(.•nut  and  sirious  purpose,  which  yet  was  hot 
one  of  ambition  or  the  excitenii  nt  of  war;  a  lif<t 
odlililnraie  and  sternly  indjstry,  of  hard  and 
unn>iii|ilaiuing  lalmur/a  life  as  full  of  activity 
ill  |«ace,  of  stout  an.l  brave  work,  as  a  warrior's 
wasttont  to  lie  In  the  camp,  on  tb"  march.  In 
the  Imiile.  It  was  in  thesi'  mea  and  in  the 
I  i.n-iiuiiity  which  they  taught,  and  which 
li -|i|ii(l  ami  governed  them,  that  the  fathers  of 
our  nioiUru  nations  tlist  saw  exeniplitled  the 
Kii'H'  of  human  nsponsiliility.  first  Irarued  the 
iioMi  ness  of  a  ruled  and  disciplined  life,  first 
inlirv'ed  tlidr  tli<mglits  of  the  iws  of 
1  \i«iii»e.  tlr->t  w<re  taught  the  dignity  nnii 
Ku  inliieas  of  honest  toil.  These  great  axioms  of 
nio.liiii  life  iiasscd  silently  from  the  »|ve<lal 
lioiiii  >  of  n  llglous  einployinent  to  thow  of  civil ; 
frniiHli,.  (loisters  and  cells  of  men  who,  when 
liny  Win'  not  engaged  in  worship,  wer.-  engagnl 
ill  tl.ilwork  or  luKikwork.  -  clearing  the  fi^irest, 
iMiiiliug  eultivation,  multiplying  manuscripts 
— !"  tlie  guild  of  tile  cniftsiimh,  the  shop  of  the 
ini.l.r  tliistuily  of  the  sdiolar.  Heligion  g"uer- 
itUi\  :inil  fed  llie-ie  ideas  of  what  was  manlv  and 
^^■ril.y  in  man. '—It.  W.  Church,  rhe  iiijU  of 
l..ii,..lli„„,  ;,;).  STD-Jsil. 

A.  D.  3"-337— The  Church  nai  the  Em- 
pire. -  ■  Mm.iii.v  afier  liie  In-ginning  of  the  tounh 
ciiniry  ihire  iK-eurred  an  event  which.  Iiad  it 
-.11  1  riili,  ie.1  in  the  dnvs  of  Nero  or  even  of 
iKi-iu-,  Would  have  been  deemed  a  wUd  fancy. 

465 


i<.  was  nothing  less  than  the  convetBion  of  the 
Roman  Emperor  to  the  Christian  faith.  It  wag 
an  event  of  momentous  importance  In  the  history 
of  the  Christian  religion.  Tne  Roman  empire, 
from  be'ng  the  enemy  and  persecutor  of^the 
Church,  thenceforward  became  its  protector  and 
patron.  The  Church  entered  Into  an  alliance 
with  the  State,  which  was  to  prove  fruitful  of 
consequences,  both  good  and  evil,  in  the  subse- 
quent history  of  Europe.  Christianity  was  now 
to  reap  the  advant.'vges  and  Incur  the  dangers 
arising  from  tlie  friendshii  of  earthly  rulers  and 
from  a  close  connection  »;th  the  civil  authority. 
Constantine  was  bom  In  274.  He  was  the  son  of 
Constantius  Chlorus.  His  mother,  Helena,  was 
of  ob).cure  birth.  She  became  a  Christian  — 
whetlier  before  or  after  his  conversion,  is  doubt- 
ful. .  .  .  After  the  death  of  Constantine's  father, 
a  revolt  against  Oalerius  ajgnicted  the  number 
of  emperors,  so  that,  in  8(W,  .lot  less  than  six 
<  lairoed  to  exercise  rule.  The  contest  of  Con- 
stantine was  at  first  In  the  West,  against  the 
tyrannical  and  dissolute  Maxcntius.  ft  was  just 
before  his  victory  over  tliis  rival  at  the  Mih  i»n 
Bridge,  near  Rome,  that  he  adopted  the  Christian 
faith.  That  there  mingled  in  this  lieeision,  a  *  in 
most  of  the  steps  of  his  career,  political  ambition, 
is  highly  probable.  The  strength  of  the  Chris- 
tian community  made  it  politic  for  hiin  to  win 
its  uniteil  support.  But  he  sincerely  iK-lieved  '  i 
the  God  whom  the  Chriiitians  worshipped,  and  In 
tlie  lielp  which,  through  his  providence,  lie  could 
liiid  to  his  servants.  .  .  .  ShortI"  before  his 
victory  over  Maxentius  there  occurred  what  he 
asserted  to  be  ■..._  vision  of  a  tlaming  cross  in  the 
sky.  seen  by  him  at  noonday,  on  which  was  the 
insiription,  in  Greek,  'Bv  this  comiuer.'  It 
was,  perhaps,  an  optical  illusion,  the  effect  of  a 
parhelion  belicld  in  a  moment  when  the  imagin- 
ation .  .  .  was  strcmgly  excited.  Ueiwhipted  the 
lalwrum.  or  the  siandanl  of  the  cross,  which  was 
afterwards  carried  in  his  annies,  [hee  K0.1IE: 
\.  1).  Saa.]  In  later  contests  with  Licinius. 
the  ruler  in  the  East,  who  was  a  defender  of 
paganism,  ConstJintine  la'came  more  distiiietiv 
the  cliampion  of  the  Christian  cause.  The  tinal 
defeat  of  Licinius,  in  .taH.  left  him  the  master 
of  the  whole  Roman  world.  An  edict  siitueil 
liy  Ualerius,  ConsUntine.  anil  Licinius."  in 
811,  had  proclaimed  freedom  and  toleration  in 
matters  of  religion.  The  edict  of  Milan,  in 
3ia.  emanating  from  the  two  latter,  estalilislied 
unrestricted  liberty  on  this  siiliject.  If  we 
consi  ir  the  time  when  it  was  i.sMied,  we  shall 
be  surprisi'd  to  find  that  it  alleges  as  a  mo- 
tive for  the  eiiict  the  sacred  rights  of  con- 
science. "—O.  K  Fisher,  JIiHt.  ,if  the  C/irittiiiH 
C/iiiir/i,  pp.  87-W.— "Towanls'tlie  end  of  the 
year  Constantine  left  Home  for  Milan,  where  he 
met  Licinius.  This  meeting  resulted  in  the  is-^iie 
of  the  famous  edict  if  .Milan.  I'p  to  that  li<>iir 
(  liristianily  had  Isen  an  ■  illicita  religio.'  anil  ir 
» a.s  a  crime  to  be  a  t  hristian.  Even  in  'I'mjiir.  s 
answer  to  I'liny  this  lamilion  is  iissumed.  tiioi.gli 
it  forms  the  biisis  of  humane  ngulations.  'I'lie 
edict  of  .Milan  is  the  char'  r  of  I'liristianity;  it 
pna  hiims  absolute  fret-iloin  lu  the  matter  of 
religion.  Both  Christians  and  all  others  were  |i> 
1h'  Inely  iK'miitted  to  follow  whatsoever  religion 
each  mitht  ciioime.  Moreover,  restitution  was  to 
be  maile  to  the  Christian  Issly  of  all  clitiri  lies 
and  other  biiihlings  which  had  twen  alieiiateil 
from  them  during  the  persccutiuu.     This  was  in 


CHRISTIANITT. 


Ckurek 
OrgtmitaUon. 


CHBISTIAinTY. 


i    ■ 


818  A.   D.  .  .  .  But  the  cauKi  of  diiaensioa 
remained  behind.    Once  more  (828)  the  question 
btatveen  paganiim  and  Christianity  was  to  be 
trifd  on  the  field  of  battle,  end  their  armies  con- 
frontttl  one  another  on  the  plains  of  Hadrianople. 
Again  the  skill  of  Constantine  and  the  trained 
valour  of  his  troops  proved  superior  to  the  un- 
di8(.'ipline<l  levies  of  Licinius;  while  at  sea  Cris- 
pus.  the  eldest  and  ill-fated  son  of  Constantine, 
dcstroye<l  the   enemy's   fleet   in    the   crowded 
wati'rs  of  the  Hellespont,  sowing  thereby  the 
seeds  of  his  father's  jealousy.     Byzantium  fell, 
but  not  without   a  vigorous   resistance;   and, 
after  one  more  crushing  defeat  on  the  site  of  the 
modem  Scutari,  Licinius  submitted  himself  to 
the  mercy  of  Constantine.  .  .  .  What  we  notice 
in  the  whole  of  these  events  Is  the  enormous 
power  which  still  belonged  to  paganism.     The 
balance  still  wavered  between  paganism   and 
Chrisitiiinity.  .  .  ,  Constantine  had   now,   by  a 
marvellous  succession  of  victories,  placed  him- 
self in  a  position  of  supreme  and  undisputed 
power.     At  this  juncture  it  is  of  interest  to 
observe  that  ...  the    divided   empire,   which 
followed  the  reign  of   Constantine,   served  to 
sustain   Catholicity   at   least  in  one  half  of  the 
world.  .   .  .  The  foundation  of   Constantinople 
Wis  the  outwaril  symbol  of  the  new   monarchy 
and   of  the  triumph  of  Christianity.  .  .  .  The 
choice  of  this  incomparable  position  for  the  new 
capital  of  the  world  remains  the  lasting  proof  of 
Constantine's  genius.  .  .  .  The  niagniticence  of 
Its  public  buildings,  its  treasures  of  art,  its  vast 
endowments,    the   beauty  of  its  situation,    the 
rapid  growth  of  its  commerce,  made  it  worthy  to 
lie    'iLs  it  were  a  daughter  of   Home  herself.' 
But  the  most  important  thought  for  us  is  the 
nlaticMi    of   Constantinople  to  the  advance  of 
Chri.Htianity.     That  the  city  which  had  sprung 
into  hupremncy  from  its  birth  and  had  become 
the  capital  of  the  conquered  world,  should  have 
ezcluiie<l  from  the  circuit  of  iu  walls  all  public 
recoKnition  of  |Hilytheism,  and  made  the  Cross 
its  most  conspicuous  oniament,  and  the  token  of 
its  greatness,    gave  a  reality   to  the  religious 
revdlution.  .  .  .  The     imperial    centre    of    the 
worlil  had    been   visibly  displaced."— A.  Carr, 
The   Churth  anil   t/it  Rmnnn  Empire,  eh.  4. — 
With  the  first  General  Council  of  the  Church 
held  at  Nicwa,  A.   D.    Bil  (see  Nic«a).    "  the 
ditisioim  ...  of  which   received   the  force  of 
law  fnim  the  confirmation  of  the  Emperor,  a 

•'''I'l y  was  entered  upon  which  was  decisive 

for  I  lie  riirther  development:  decisive  also  liy  the 
fact  lliHl  the  Emperor  held  it  U)  be  Ids  duty  to 
eoni|M'l  sniKinlination  to  the  decisions  of  the 
eouiKil  (in  (lenalty  of  banisliinent.  and  actually 
carried  nut  this  banishment  in  the  case  of  Alius 
and  wvcral  of  lila  ailherenta.  The  Em|)eror 
summoned  general  synods,  the  fiscua  provided 
I  the  cost  of  travel  and  subsistence  (also  at  other 
great  ayncHls),  an  imperial  eommimioncr  openini 
tliein  by  niuling  the  imp<Tial  edict,  and  watcheti 
over  the  r'Hirse  of  huniness.  Only  the  bishops 
and  their  ap|M)inted  representatives  had  votes. 
Dogmatic  jMiints  fixed  .  .  .  were  to  bo  the  out- 
come of  unanimous  agreement,  the  rest  of  the 
ordinann-s  (on  the  constitution,  discinline  and 
worship)  of  a  majority  of  vou-s."— W.  Mueller 
/AVf  t>/  Ihr  C/rnMan  Vhtirch.  p.  337.— -The 
illrect  Influence  o*    " 


of  the  emperor,  however,  does 
noi  appwr  iiniii  the  Emperor  Marclan  procured 
from  the  C^ouucil  of  Cbalcedun  the oomptetioo  of 


the  Patriarchal  system,     \auming  that  Rome 
Alexandria,  and  Antiocu  were  Patriarcliaus  br 
the  recognition  of  their  privileges  at  the  Coiineil 
of  Niciea  (though  the  ciinon  of  tliat  council  doM 
not  really  admit  that  inference),  the  Coiin<i|  of 
Chalcedon,  by  ito  ninth, seventeenth  mil  twintv 
eighth  canons,  enlarged  and  fixed  the  patriarchal 
jurisdiction  and    privileges  of   the  Church  of 
Consuntinople,    giving  It    authority   over  the 
Dioceses  of  Thrace,  Asia  and  Pontus,  with  the 
power    of   ordaining    and    requiring  candnical 
obedience  from  the  metropolis  of  those  DiiKcaes 
and   also  the  right  to    adjudicate    appeals  in 
causes  ecclesiastical    from    tlio  whole    Kastem 
Chureh.     The  Bishop  of  Jerusalem  also  ohiniueil 
in  this  council  patriarchal  authority  over  l'»lw. 
tine     The  organization  of  the  Church  was  thus 
conformed  to  that  of  the  empire,  the  patriarchs 
corresponding    to    the   Praetorian    Pnf.its   the 
exarchs,  to  the  governors  of  the  Diocews  anil  the 
metropolitans  to  the  governors  of  the  provinots 
—  the  Bishop  of  Rome  being  given  bv  an  (diet 
of  \alentinian  III.,  of  the  year  445,"  supteme 
appellate    jurisdiction    in    the    West,   and    the 
Bishop  of  Con.s-antinople,   by  these  camms  of 
Chalcedon,  supreme  appellate  jurisdictimi  in  the 
East.  .  .  .  Dean     Milman     remarks    tliiit    the 
Episcopate  of  St.  John  Chrysostom  was  the  last 
attempt  of  n  bishop  of  Constantinople  to  lie  imlf 
pen.lent  of  the  p<ditical  power,  and  (liat  his  fate 
involved  the  freedom  of  the  Churehof  tlwti  iiv." 
—.1.    H.   tgar,    Vhritte-ndim :  BcfUn.ulinil  ,',nd 
PnUtiml.  fnm  Contlnnlint  to  the  lt,f„niMtinn 
pp.  2.V27.— "The  name  of  patriarch!  pmlmlilv 
borrowed   from  Judaism,  was  from  this  piriull 
the  appellation  of  the  highest  dignitaries  of  the 
church,  and  by  it  were  more  immciliutilv    hut 
not  exclusively,  designated  the  bishops  of  C.n- 
stiintinople,  Alexamlria,  Aiitioch,  and  .lenisnlem. 
One  patriarch  accordingly  presided  over sevirai 
provinces,  and  was distingiilshetl  from  th  •  metro- 
politjin  in  this,  that  the  latter  was  bu'    nlinate 
to  him.  and  had  onlv  the  superintendem .  of  me 
pnivini-e  or  a  small  district.     However  the  desii;- 
mitiim  applied  only  to  the  highest  nilers  of  ihn 
church  in  the  east,  and  not  U>  those  in  the  wesi, 
for  here  the  title  of  patriarch  was  iioi    untir- 
quently  givin,  even  In  later  times,  to  the  nu  tro- 
poliUiii.     The  first  mention  of  this  title  oceurs  in 
the  si'tond  htter  of  the  Itoman  bishop.  .\na(le 
tiis  at  the  iKginniiig  of  the  senmd  ceiiiiirv,  ami 
it  is  next  spokin  of  by  Socrates;    and  afiir  the 
Council  of  ChaUedon,  in  4.'il,  it  came  into  general 
Use.      The   bishop   of  Constantinople   |i,.re  the 
»l«'tial  title  of  u'cumenical  bishop  or  put rianh  ; 

there  were  also  other  titles  in  use  a iir  the  Xi-s- 

torians  and  Jacobites.  The  Primates  and  Mi  ini. 
isilitaiis  or  Archbishops  aros*-  conli  nipnnne. 
oiisly.  The  title  of  Eparch  isal.suhaiil  in  have 
Is'in  given  to  primates  aliout  the  niiddle  of  the 
fifth  century.  The metro|Mditan of  Kphi-<in «uh- 
Bcrilied  hinis)  If  thus  in  the  year  flwi,  then  h.n  in 
the  fiuccitiling  period.  There  was  no  parlli  ular 
title  of  hmg  contlniiancc  fur  the  lUmuM  liish.  p 
until  the  si.xth  century  ;  but  from  the  v  ar  HM 
he  was  usually  calleii  I'apa.  ai'd  fmni  tin  tiiic 
of  On'gorv  the  Ureat  he  stvled  hiniMlf  S.rviu 
f*trvorum  Dei."— J.  E.  T.  V<iltsch.  Il<v,'l''-k  ••/ 
thf  iJrngraphu  and  f^ntiitif  of  the  Cluiri-li.  jtp. 
to.  71  Hitti  7i.  —  ''('hristinnity  may  now  iie  said  lo 
have  ascended  the  imperial  throne:  »iih  the 
single  ex<rption  of  Julian,  from  this  period 
the  monari'hs  uf  tin  Homaii  empire  prulciisd 


466 


CHRISTIANITT. 


CHHISTIAmTT. 


the  religion  of  the  Ooapel.    This  important  crisi* 
jD  the  history  of  Christianity  alniogt  forcibly 
umits  tlie  attention  to  contemplate  the  change 
viougbt  in  Chriatinnity  by  its  advancement  into 
*  dominant  power  in  the  state ;  and  the  change  in 
the  nmdition  of  mankind  up  to  this   period, 
attributable  to  the  direct  authority  or  indirect 
iofluenre  of  th'-  new  religion.     By  ceasing  to 
exist  M  a  separate  community,  and  by  advancing 
its  pretentions  to  influence  the  general  govern- 
ment of  mankind,  Christianity  to  a  certain  extent, 
forfeited  Its  independence.     It  could  not  but 
submit  to  these  laws,  framed,  as  it  might  seem, 
with  its  own  concurrent  voice.     It  was  no  longer 
a   republic,   governed    exclusively  —  as  far,  at 
least,  as  its  rellgous  concerns  —  by 'its  own  inter- 
nal polity.    The  interference  of  the  civil  power 
in  some  «f  its  most  private  alTaire,  the  promulga- 
tion of  its  canons,  and  even,  in  some  cases,  the 
election  of  its  bisltops  hv  the  state,  was  the  price 
which  it  must  inevitably  pay  for  its  association 
with  the  rulhig  power.  .  .  .  During  the  reign  of 
ConstaLtine   Christianit'     had     made   a   rapid 
advanor,  no  doubt,  in  the  ni  mlx^r  of  ita  prose- 
lytes as  well  as  in  Its  jztemal  position.    It  was 
not  vet  the  established  religiou  of  t.     empire. 
It  did  not  as  yet  stand    forward  as  tlie   new 
religion  adapted  to  the  new  order  of  things,  as  a 
part  of    tlie  grrnt  simultaneous  change  which 
gave  Ui  the  Roman  world  a  new  capita,  a  new 
system  of  government,  and,  in  some  important 
in«t«nrrs,anewjurispnidence.  .  .  .  Tlie- Ilgion 
o(  the  enincror  would  soon  become  that  of  the 
court,  ann,  by  somewhat  slower  degrees,  that  of 
th°empi"e.    At  p-i^sent,  however,  as  wo  have 
seen,  li'de  open  agression  took  place  upon  pagan- 
ism.   The  few  temples  which  were  closed  were 
insulated  cases,  and  condemned  as  offensive  to 
public  morality.     In  general  the  temples  stood  in 
sll  their  former  mnjcsfy,  for  as  yet  the  ordinary 
process  of  di-cay  from    neglect  or  ruptneness 
could  have  pro(luce<i  little  effect.     The  differ- 
ence -viis,  that  the  Christian  churches  begim  to 
assume  a  more  stately  and  imposing  form.     In 
tlie  new  capital  they  surpas8e<t  In  grandeur,  and 
pnilmhly    in   decoration,    the    pagan    temples, 
which  beIonge<i  to  old  Byzantium.     The  im- 
munities grnntei    to  the  (fhristinn   clergy  only 
pUccd  tiiem  on  t.ie  same  level  with  the  pagan 
priesthood.    The  pootiflcal  offices  were  still  held 
ny  the  distinguished    men    of    the    state:    tlie 
emperor  himself  was  long  the  chief  pontilT;  but 
the  r<0)tfinus  office  had  become  a  kinci  of  append- 
»gf  to  the  t.niponil  dignity.     The  Christian  pre- 
laUa  Wire  constantly  lulmitted,  in  virtue  of  their 
office,  to  the  imperial  presence.  "—H.  H.  Milman 
Hut  of  diruUiDiity,  bk.  8,  ch.  4.—"  As  early  as 
'onstHnilne's  time  tlie  punishment  of  crucifixion 
>:isal»i|i«lie<l;    ImiiKiral  practices,  like  infanti- 
cide, Hiid  the  exhibition  of  gloiliatoriiil  shows, 
wen'  (ItscDuragwl,  tl.»  latUT  of  these  being  for- 
liiddin    in    Ciinstantinoiiie;    and    in    order    to 
Impnui.  the  relation  of  the  sexes.  n-\en  laws 
■ovn-  |i,iK«^|  agslnst  adultery,  and    restrict' 
w-cp'  piiicinl  on  tlie  facility  of  divorce.     F 
the  IWi„|m  were  empoweroi,   in   the  i>t 

rellirinn,  to  interceile  with  governors,  an.  even 
Willi  til,.  ,.mi*ror,  in  behalf  of  the  unfortunate 
anil  oppniimil,  Ami  grailiuillv  they  ohtaitied 
!"c  riBiii  „f  exercising  a  sort  of  moral  suiteriii- 
h'tt.  en<v  over  the  discharge  of  their  official 
auli.H  l.y  tlie  Judges,  ami  others,  who  belonged 
w  Iteir  commuallki.    The  supervlsioo  of  the 


467 


prisons,  in  particular,  was  entrusted  to  them; 
and,       ereas  in  the  first  instance  their  power  of 
interfe.  once  was  limited  to  exhortations  addressed 
to  the  judges  who  superintended  them,  in  Jus- 
tinian's reign  the  bishops  were  commissioned  by 
law  to  visit  the  prisons  on  two  days  of  each 
week  in  order  to  inquire  into,  and,  if*^ necessary, 
report  upon,  the  treatment  cf  tiie  .  risoners.    In 
all  these  and  many  other  ways,  the  influcuce  of 
the  State  in  controlling  and  improving  society 
was  advanced  hy  ita  alliance  with  the  Church.''' 
— H.  F.  Tozer,  The  Chiirth  and  tlie  Biutern  Em- 
rtre,  pp.  56-37.— "The  Christians  were  still  a 
separate  people.  ...  It  can  scarcely  be  doubted 
that  the  stricter  moral  tone  of  Constantine's  leg- 
islation more  or  less  remotely  emanated  from 
Christianity.  .  .  .  During  the  reign  of  Constan- 
tine  Christianity  continued  to  advance  beyond 
theborderaof  the  Roman  empire,  and  in  some 
degree  to  indemnify  herself  for  the  losses  which 
she  sustained  In  the  kingdom  of  Persia.    The 
Ethiopians  appear  to  have  attained  some  degree 
of  civilization;  aconsiderable  part  of  the  Arabian 
commerce  was  kept  up  with  the  other  side  of  tlie 
Red  Sea  through  the  port  of  Aduiis;  and  Greek 
letters  appear,  from  inscriptions   recently  dis- 
covered,  to  have  made  considerable   progress 
among  this   barbarous  people.  .  .  .  The  theo- 
logical opinions  of  Christianity  naturally  made 
more  rapid  progress  than  ita  moral    influence 
The  former  ha<i  only  to  overpower  the  resistance 
of  a  religion  which  had  already  lost  ita  hold  upon 
the  mind,  or  a  philosophy  tcxi  speculative  for 
ordinary  underetiinding.'j  and  too  unsati.sfactory 
for  the  more  curious  ami  inquiring;  it  hnd  only 
to  enter,  as  it  were,  into  a  vacant  place  in  the 
mind  of  man.     But  the  moral  influence  had  to 
contest,  not  only  with  the  natural  dispositions  of 
man,   but  with     'le    Kirbarism  and   depraved 
manners  of  ages.     While,  then,  the  religion  of 
the  worid  underwent  a  total  change,  the  Church 
rose  on  the  ruins  of  the  temple,  and  the  pontifl- 
cal  establishment  of  paganism  became  gradu- 
ally extinct  or  suffered  violent  suppression;   the 
moral  revolution  was  far  more  slow  and  far  less 
complete.  .  .  .  Everywhere  there  wiw  exagger- 
ation of   one   of  the  constituent   elements  of 
Christianity;   that  exaggeration    which  is  the 
inevitable  consequence  of  a  strong  impulse  upon 
the  human  mind.     Wherever  men  fwl  strongly, 
they  act  violently.     The  more  speculative  Chris- 
tians, therefore,  who  were  more  incliniHl,  in  the 
deep  and  somewhat  stdllsh  solicitude  for  their 
own  salvation,  to  isolate  themmdves  from  the 
infected  class  of  mankind,  pressed  Into  the  ex- 
treme of  asceticism,   the  more  practioiil,  who 
were'  in  earnest  In  the  desire  of  ilissi'niiuatiiig  tlio 
blessings  of  religion  throughout  society,  scrupled 
little  to  press  Into  their  service  whatever  might 
advance  their  cause.      With  both  extremes  the 
dogmatical  part  of  the  religion  predominate<l. 
...  In  proportion  to  tlie  admitted  im[)ortance  of 
the  creed,  men  liecame  more  sternly  and  excl.i- 
sively   weii(le<l    to    their  opinions.  .  .  .  While 
they  swept  in  converts  iiidiscrimttaately  from  the 
palace  and  the  public  street,  while  the  emperor 
and    the    lowest    of    the    populace  were  alike 
admitted  on  little  more-  than  the  open  profession 
of  allcfflance.  Um'V  wen-  swfliftn)  if  th<-ir  all*"- 
glann;  in  this  respect  was  blind  and  complete. 
Heni«  a  far  larger  admixture'  of  hiiiimn  passions, 
and  the  common  vulgar  incentives  of  action, 
were  infused  into  the  cxpanJiDg  Chriatiau  budy. 


\ 


CHBISXIANITT. 


IVOract 
Ckure*. 


CHRISTIANITT. 


Men   bMame   Chriatiiuia,   orthnlox    Christians, 
*Uh  little  sacriflre  uf  that  which  Christianity 
aimed  chiefly  to  extirpate.     Yet.  after  all,  this 
imperfect  view  of    Christianity  harl    probably 
some  effect  in  concentrating  the  Christian  com- 
munity, and  holding  it  together  by  a  new  and 
more  indismluble  bond.    Tlie  world  divided  into 
two  parties.  .  .  .  All.  however,  were  enrolled 
uniier  one  or  the  other  standard,  and  the  party 
which  triiimphetl  eventually   would   rule   the 
whole  Christian  world."— H.  H.  Milman.  niiit. 
of  Chrittinnity.  bk.  3.  ch.  4-5._"Of  this  detcr- 
lomtion  of  morals  we  have  abundant  evidence. 
Riwl  the  Canons  of  the  various  Councils  and  you 
will  learn  that  the  Church  found  it  necessary  to 
prohibit  tlie  commission  of  the  most  heinous  and 
abominable  crimes  not  only  by  the  laity,  but 
even  by  the  clergy.     Read  the  homilies  o"f  such 
preacliers  as  Chrysostom,  Basil,  and  Gregory, 
and  you  may  infer  what  the  moral  tone  of  a 
Christian  congregation  must  have  been  to  which 
such  reproofs  could  be  addressed.    Read,  above 
all,  the  treatise  on  Providence,  or  De  Qubema- 
tione  Dei,  w^ritten  at  the  close  of  our  period  by 
Salvian,  a  presbyter  of   )Iaiseilles.     The  bar- 
barians had  over-spread  the  West,  and  Chris- 
tians had  suffered  so  many  hardships  that  they 
began  to  doubt  whether  there  was  any  Divine 
government  of  human  affairs.    Salvian  retorted 
that  the  fart  of  their  suffering  was  the  best  evi- 
dence of  the  doctrine  of   Providence,   for  the 
miseries  they  endured  were  the  effects  of  the 
Divine  displeasure  provoked  by  the  debauchery 
of  the  Church.    And  then  he  proceeds  to  draw 
up  an  indictment  and  to  lend   proof  which  I 
prefer  not  to  give  in  detail.    After  making  every 
allowance    for  rhetorical  exaggeration,   enough 
nmiiins  to  show  that  the  morality  of  the  Church 
had  grievously  declined,  and  that  the  declension 
was  due  to  tlic  inroads  of   Pagan  vice.  .  . 
Under   this   head,  lind   space  permitted,  some 
account  would  have  l)een  given  of  the  growth  of 
the  Christian  literature  of  this  period,  of   the 
great  writers  atid  preachers,  and  of  the  opposing 
schools  of  interpretation  which  divided  Christen- 
dom.   In  the  Eastern  Church  we  should  have 
had  to  notice  [at  greater  length  the  work  of] 
Euscblus    of    Ca'sarea,    the    fatlier    of    Church 
History  and  the  friend  of  Constantine;  Ephrem 
the  Syrian,  the  poet-preacher;  tlie  three  I'appa- 
docians,  Basil  of  Ciesarea.  Gregory  of  Nyssa, 
am'  Gregory  of  Xazianzus,  each  great  In  his 
OV..1  wrtv,  tlie  first  as  a  preacher  and  adminis- 
trator, the  second  as  a  thinker,  the  thir<l  as  a 
poet  and  pani-gvrist;  Chrysostom,  the  orator  and 
e.Kegete ;  Thfoclore  of  Mopsuestia  and  Theodortt 
of  Kyros,  along  with  Chrysostom  the  most  in- 
fliientiiil  representatives  of  the  School  of  Antioch. 
In  tlie  Western  Church  we  should  have  had  to 
sjnak  of  Ambrose,   the  eloquent  preacher  and 
vulmnltious    writer;    of    Jerome,    the    biblical 
critic;   and  of  Augustine,  the  philosopher  and 
conlrovur»mlist,  whose  thoughts  live  among  us 
even  at  tlie   present  day."— W,    Stewart,    The 
Vhiirrh  of  tKe  ith  and  hth  Centuria  (St.  GiUt' 
I^fluret,  ith  ,,na).—»pc  Rome:  A.  D.  883,  to 
3U1-39.J.  — •'Hitherto   Christian   asceticism    had 
iK-en  iudividualistie  in  its  character.  ...  In  the 
third  century  hermits  began  to  form  a  class  by 
thi'mselve-i  in  tl.r  East  and    in  Africa;   in  the 
fourth  they  began  to  lie  organize<l  into  communi- 
ties.   After  the  institution  of  monastic  societies. 
Uii«  development  of  Chriulan  asccticiim  spread 


far  and  wide  from  the  deserts  of  the  Tliehnid  and 
Lower  Egypt;  Basil,  Jerome,  Athauasius,  Au- 
gustine, Ambrose,  were  foremost  anioiur  iu 
eariiest  advocates  and  propagators;  CsMian 
Columbanus,  Benedict,  and  others,  crowned  the 
labours  of  their  predeceseon  by  a  more  elaborate 
organization."— I.  Gregory  Smith,  C/iritUait 
Motuutieitm,  pp.  33-33. 

A.  p.  318-335.- The  Arian  Controrersr  ud 
the   Coundr  of   Niaea.    Si-e  Ahumsm    and 
>ICAA,  The  First  CouviIl  or. 
/»\  ?•  ?32:">S4--T>ie  Eaatem  (Greek,  or 
Orthodox)  Church.— ■■ 'The  Eastern  Cliurch  ' 
says  a  well-known  writer,  '  was  like  the  East 
stationary  and  immutable;  the  Western  like  the 
West,  progressive  and  flexible.     This  distinction 
is  the  more  remarkable,  because  at  certain  periods 
of  their  course,  there  can  be  no  doubt  tliat  the 
civilization  of  the  Eastern  Church  was  fur  liiglier 
than  that  of  the  ^t'estem.' "— O.  F.  Maclcar,  rA« 
SUirt,    p.   23. — It  is  the  more    remarkable  be- 
cause   this   long-continuing   uniformity,  while 
peculiarly  adapted  to  a  people  and  a  church 
which  should  retain  and  tron.nmit  an  inheritance 
of  faith  and  culture,  sunds  in  singular  contrast 
to  the  reputed  character  of  the  Gnrk-speaking 
peoples  of  the  East.    The  word  Greek,  however, 
has,  as  an  adjective,  many  meanings,  nnd  there 
is  danger  of  wrong  inference  through  iniittention 
to  these;  some  of  its  distinctive  charactire  are 
therefore    indicated     in    bracketa    in    various 
places  In  the    following    matter.     "The    New 
Rome  at  the  time  of  its  foundation  was  Roman 
.  .  .  But  from  the  flret  it  was  destined  to  become 
Greek;  for  the  Greek.s,  who  now  began  to  call 
themselves  Romans— an  appellation  which  they 
have  ever  since  retained- held    fast   to  their 
language,  manners,  and  prejudices,  wliile  they 
availed  themselves  to  the  full  of  their  rinhu  ag 
Roman  citizens.     The  turning-point  in  tliis  re- 
spect was  the  separation  of  the  empin's  of  the 
East  and  the  West  in  the  time  of  An'iulius  and 
Ilonorius;  and  in  Justinian's  time  we  find  all  the 
highest  offices  In  the  hands  of  the  Gniks,  and 
Greek  was  the  prevailing  language.     But  the 
people  whom  we  call  by  this  name  wen'  not  the 
Hellenes  of  Gn-ece  proix-r,  but  the  Jlrtccdonian 
Greeks.     This  distinction  arosi'  with  the  estab- 
lishment of  Greek  colonies  with  muni(i|ml  gov- 
ernment throughout    Asia    by    AU'.xnndir   the 
Great  nnd  his  successors.     The  ty|)e  of  chiiractcr 
which  was  developed  in  tliem  and  anionir  those 
who  were  Hellenisiil  by  their  influence,  ililTcn-d 
in  many  respects  from  that  of  the  old  (-niks. 
The  resi'mblancc  betwi-en  them  was  indctil  niain- 
taine<i   by  similarity  of    education    and    social 
fwllngs,  by   tlic   possession  of  a  coiiiiiion  lan- 
guage an(f  literature,  and   by  their  cxrUisive- 
ness,  which  causcil  them  to  I(X)k  donn  011  Icsfi 
favoured   races;   but    while   the   inlml'it^iiits  of 
Greece  retaine<i  more  of  the  indi'|xiidinl  spirit 
and  of  the  moral  character  and   piiiiiotisin  of 
their  forefathers,  tlie  Maceiloiiiiiu  (ini  k^  wen- 
more  cosmopolitan,  more  sulisirviint.  utv\  more 
ready  to  take  the  impress  of  those  iiinoni;  whom 
they  were  thrown:  and  the  a.stiiti'n('s.4  :iiLd  virsa- 
tility  which  at  all  linn's  had  fonmil  om  elemint 
in  the  Hellenic  character,  in  tla'ni  !»< iiiiii'  the 
leading    characteristic.     The    inllueiKr   of  liiis 
type   IS  tntceaidc   lii  Itie  |Kiilr)  of  iIk-  I;,i.~i<td 
Empire,  varying  In  intensity  in  ilifTcnnl  ni-i'sin 
protMirtion  to  the  I)owerexerci9^^l  by  thi'iinrk*; 
until,  during  the  later  period  uf  the  history -in 


468 


CHniSTUNITT. 


2V  CkHtNoiUnd 


the  tttne  nf  the  Comneni,  and  still  more  In  that 
of  the  Pula-ologl  —  it  la  the  predominant  feature. " 
— H.  F.  Tozcr,  The  Church  and  the  EtuUrn 
Empire,  m>.  9-10.—"  What  have  been  the  effects 
of  Christianity  on  what  we  call  national  charac- 
ter in  Eastern  Christendom?  ,  .  .  The  Orecks  of 
the  Lower  Empire  are  taken  as  the  typical 
example  of  these  races,  and  the  Greeks  of  the 
Lower  Empire  have  become  a  byword  for  every- 
tliing  that  is  false  and  base.  The  Byzantine  was 
rrofoundlv  theological,  we  are  told,  and  pro- 
foundly vile.  .  .  .  Those  who  wish  to  be  just  to 
[it]  .  .  .  will  pass  ...  to  the  .  .  .  equitable 
and  conscientious,  but  by  no  means,  indulgent, 
liidgrarnts  of  Mr.  Flnlay,  Mr.  Freeman,  ami 
Dean  Stanley.  One  fact  alone  Is  sufficient  to 
engage  our  deep  interest  in  this  race.  It  was 
Greeks  rUcIleni-st  .lews]  and  people  Imbued  with 
Greek  ideas  who  first  welcomed  Chrtstlanity.  It 
was  in  their  language  that  It  first  spoke  to  the 
world,  and  its  first  home  was  in  Qreek  house- 
holds and  in  Oreek  cities.  It  was  in  Oreek 
[Hellenistic]  atmosphere  that  the  Divine  Stran- 

Ser  from  the  East,  in  many  respects  so  widely 
ISerent  from  all  that  Greeks  were  accustomed 
to,  first  grew  up  to  strength  and  shape;  first 
8howe<l  its  power  of  assimilating  and  reconciling; 
first  showed  what  it  was  to  be  in  human  society. 
Its  earliest  nurslings  were  Greeks;  Greeks  [Hel- 
lenist Jews]  first  took  In  the  meaning  and  mea- 
sure of  Its  amazing  and  eventful  announcements: 
Greek  sympiithies  first  awoke  and  vibrated  to  its 
appeals;  Greek  ol)e(iience,  Greek  courage,  Greek 
suffering  first  illustrated  iu  new  lessons.  Hud  it 
not  first  gained  over  Greek  mind  and  Greek  belief, 
it  is  hard  to  see  how  it  would  have  made  Its  fur- 
ther way.  .  .  .  The  Roman  conquest  of  the  world 
fouuil  the  Greek  race,  and  the  Eastern  nations 
which  it  hiul  inrtuenced,  In  a  low  and  declin- 
ing state  — morilly,  socially,  politically.  The 
Roman  Empiri',  when  It  fell,  left  them  in  the  same 
(liscouraging  rondlilon,  and  sutTering  besides 
from  the  degradation  and  mischief  wrought  on 
all  its  subjects  by  iU  chronic  and  relentless  flscul 
oppression.  .  .  .  These  were  the  men  In  whose 
fhilillsh  conceit,  childish  frivolltv,  childish  self- 
assertion,  St.  Paul  saw  such  dangers  to  the 
growth  of  Christian  manliness  and  to  the  unity 
of  the  CUiristian  I)ody — the  idly  curious  and  gos- 
siping men  of  Athens;  the  vain  and  shamelessly 
ostentatious  Corinthians,  men  in  intellect,  but  In 
moral  seriousneas  babes;  the  Epheslans,  'like 
rhililien  carried  away  with  every  blast  of  vain 
teachius,'  the  victims  of  every  Impostor,  and 
simrt  of  every  ileceit;  the  Cretans,  proverbially, 
'ever  liars,  evil  IwasU,  slow  bellies;'  the  pas- 
Mnniite.  volatile,  Gnrkspcaking.  Celts  of  Asia, 
tlie  ■  foolish  ■  Galatlans.  .  .  .  The  Greek  of  the 
Itoman  times  is  portrayed  In  the  special  wam- 
ines  of  the  Apostolic  Epistles.  After  Apostolic 
times  he  Is  portrayed  In  the  same  way  by  the 
beatlhn  satirist  Luclan,  and  by  the  Christian 
pnarhi  rChrysostom;  and  such,  with  all  his  l)a<l 
teiKleui  ies,  aggravated  by  almost  uninterrupted 
misrule  and  oppression,  the  Empire,  when  It 
lin'id'  up.  left  lilm.  The  prospecta  of  such  a 
p'>ple.  iirniil  the  cimiing  storms,  were  dark. 
Evervihiiii;,  tlieir  gifts  and  versatility,  as  well 
as  lliiir  fiiulta,  tlireatene<l  nation?'  lecav  and 
•IisiuieLTition.  .  ,  .  These  races  v  ♦he  Em- 

pire of  tlie  Ca-siirs  left  like  scatttrtv.  !ieep  to 
the  merey  of  the  barbarians,  lived  through  a 
lucccsslou  of  the  most  appiiuiug  storms,  and 


CHRISTLANnr. 


kept  themselves  together,  holding  fast,  resolute 
and  unwavering,  amid  all  their  miseries  and  all 
their  debasement,  to  the  faith  of  tlieir  national 
brotherhood.  .  .  .  This,  It  seems  to  me,  Chris- 
tianity did  for  a  race  which  had  apparently  lived 
ito  time,  and  had  no  future  before  ft— the'Greek 
nice  in  the  days  of  the  Ciesare.    It  created  In 
them.    In   a   new    and    characteristic    degree 
national    endurance,    national    fellowship   and 
Vmpathy,  national  hope.  ...  It  gave  them  an 
E.mplre  of  their  own,  which,  undervalued  as  It  Is 
by  those  familiar  with  the  ultimate  results  of 
Western  history,  yet  wIthsUxid  the  assaults  be- 
fore which,  for  the  moment.  Western  civilisa- 
tlon  sank,  and  which  had  the  strength  to  last  a 
life— a  stirring  and  eventful  life— of  ten  cen- 
turies.   The  Greek  Empire,  with  all  iU  evils 
and  weaknesses,  was  yet  In  ito  time  the  only 
existing  Image  In  the  world  of  a  civilised  state. 
.  .  .  The  lives  of  great  men  profoundly  and  per- 
manently influence  national  character;  and  the 
freat  men  of  later  Greek  memory  are  sainto. 
hey  belong  to  the  people  more  than  emperors 
and  warriore:  for  the  Chureh  is  of  the  people. 
.  .  .  The  mark  which  such  men  left  on  Greek 
society  and  Greek  character  has  not  been  effaced 
to  this  day,  even  by  the  melancholy  examples  of 
many     degenerate    successors.  .  .  .  Wliy,     if 
Christianity  affected  Greek  character   so   i   o- 
foundly,  did  It  not  do  more?    Why,  If  It  cured 
It  of  much  of  its  Instability  and  trifling,  did  it 
aot  also  cure  It  of  its  falsehood  and  disslnnila- 
ti(m?    AVhy,  If  It  impressed  the  Greek  mind  so 
deeply  with  the  reality  of  the  objecu  of  faith, 
dill  it  not  also  check  the  vain  inqutsitiveness  and 
spirit  of  disputatiousness  and  sophistry,  which 
filled  Qreek  Church  history  with  furious  wrang- 
lings  about  the  most  ho|)eless  problems?    Why, 
If  It  could  raise  such  admiration  for  unselfish- 
ness and  heroic  nobleness,  has  not  this  admiration 
borne  more  congenial  fruit?    Why,  if  heaven 
was  felt  to  be  so  great  and  so  near,  was  there  in 
real    life   such   coarse    and    mean  worldliiiess? 
Why,    Indeed?  .  .  .  Profoundly,    permanently, 
as  Christianity  aflfected  Oreek  character,  thero 
was  much  in  that  character  which  Cliristlunity 
failed  to  reach,  much  that  it  failed  to  correct, 
much  that  was  obstinately  refractory  to  Influ- 
ences which,  elsewhere,  were  so  fruitful  of  g(M)d- 
ness  and  greatness.     The   East,  as  well  as  the 
West,  has  still  much  to  learn  fn)m  that  reli!,'ion, 
which  each  t<H>  exclusively  claims    to  mider- 
stanil,  to  appreciate,  and   to  defend."— R.   W 
Church,  The  Giff  of  Ciriiimtion.  pp.  lSM-316. 
—"  The  types  of  character  that  were  deveIo|M'd 
In  the  Eastern  Church,  as  might  be  expected, 
were  not  of  the  very  higliest.     There  was  among 
them  no  St.   Francis,  no  St.  Louis.     The  uni- 
formity which  pervadi'S  everything   Byzantine 
prevented    the    developmcut    of    such    salient 
characters  as  are  found  in  the  West.     It  is  diffi- 
cult, no  doubt,  to  form  a  tnie  estimate  of  the 
Influence  of  religion  on  men's  lives  In  Eastern 
countries,  just  as  it  is  of  t:  ■•ir  domestic  relations, 
and  even  of  the  condition  of  tlie  lower  cliis.ses, 
Ixrause  such  matters  are  steadily  Ignored  l>v  tlio 
contemporary  historians.     But  all  the  evi.lence 
tends  to  show  that  inilividiial  rallier  than  heroic 
piety   w!is  f.icteri"!   tiy  thp  system  wlii..!i  |. re- 
vailed  there.     That  at  certain    peri<Kls  a  high 
tone  of    spirituality    prevailed    among    certain 
classes  Is  sufficiently  proviil   by  the   beautiful 
hymns  uf  the  Eastern  Church,  many  of  which, 


469 


CHHIBTIANITY. 


WtOntailieai 


i'A 


m 


thank*  to  Dr.  Netle's  singular  fclldty  In  tran«- 
htinn,   are  In  uae  among  ourselves.    But  the 
loftier  development  of  their  spirit  took  the  form 
of  rwceticism,  and  the  scene  of  this  was  mthvr 
the  secluded  monastery,  or  the  pillfr  of   the 
Styliie,  tlian  human  society  at  large.    But  If  the 
£asU-m  Church  did  not  rise  as  high  as  her  sister 
of  tlie  West,  she  never  sank  as  low."— H.  F. 
Tozer,  The  Churth  and  the  Outern  Empire,  pp. 
«-48.— "The   Greek    Church,   or,   as  it   cafis 
Itself,  the  Holy  Orthodox,  Catholic,  Apostolic, 
Oriental  Church,  has  a  venerable  if  not  an  event- 
ful history.     Unlike  the  Church  of  the  West,  it 
has  not  l)een  moulded  by  great  political  move- 
ments, the  rise  and  fall  of  kingdoms,  and  the 
nvulsions  which  have  passed  over  the  face  of 
•uixlern  soc-lety.     lu  course  ha*  been  out  of  the 
•ight  of  European  civilisation.  It  has  grown  up 
among  peoples  who   have   been    but   slightly 
affected,  if  they  have  been  affected  at  all,  by  the 
pmirri'ssive  movements  of  mankind.    It  has  no 
midtile  ages.     It  has  no  renaissance.     It  has  no 
Reformation.     It  has  given  birth  to  no  great 
universities  and  schools  of  learning.    It  has  no 
Protestantism.    It  remains  very  much  as  the 
fourth  and  fifth  centuries  left  it.  .  .  .  When  the 
royal  throne  in  the  days  of  the  first  Christian 
Emperor  was  removed  from  Rome  to  Constanti- 
nople,  there   arose   at   once   a  cause  of  strife 
l)etwccn  the  bishops  ol  old  i>nd  new  Rome,  as 
Byzantium  or  ConHtantinople  was  name<l.    Eaoh 
r'aimed  pre-eminence,  and  each  alternately  re- 
ct.vcd  it  from  tlie  governing  powers  in  Church 
and  Slate.    One  Council  decreed  ,A.  D.  381)  tlmt 
the  Bishop  of  the  new  Rome  should  be  inferior 
only  to  tliat  of  the  old ;  another  declare<l  (A.  D. 
451)  the  equality  of  both  prelates.    The  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  at  tlie  close  of  the  sixth 
century  claimed  superiority  over  all  Christlim 
Churches,— a  claim  which  m'ight  have  developed, 
had  circumstances  favoured  it,  into  an  Eastern 
Papacy.     The  assumption   was,    however,    but 
sbort-lived,  and  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  Boniface, 
obtained   from  the  Emperor  Phocas  in  806  tlie 
mucli-covefe<l   position.     The   Eastern   Church 
submitted,  but  from  this  time  looked  with  a  jeal- 
ous eye  on  her  Western  sister.     She  noted  and 
mafcniaeil  every  point  of  divergence  between 
them.     Differences  or  apparent    differences    in 
dix-trinc  and  ritual  were  denounced  as  heresies. 
Excommunitmtions  fulminated  between  the  East- 
em  and  WesU'rn  city,  and  ecclesiastical  bitter- 
ness was  intcnsifieii  by  political  Intrigue.  .  . 
In   the   ninth  century   the  contest    grew    very 
fiene.     The  holder  of  the  Eastern  see,  Photius 
formnlatol  and  denounce<I  the  terrible  doctrinal 
and  iitlier  defectiims  of  the  Western  prelate  and 
his    followers.     The    list    is    very    formidable. 
Tliey,  the  followers  of  Rome,  deemed  It  proi>er 
to  fast  on  the  seventh  day  of  the  week  — tlmt  is 
on   I  he  Jewish  Sabbath:  in   the  first  week  of 
U-nt  I  hey  p<-rmltt«l  Uic  use  of  milk  and  cheese; 
they  (iLsapproved   wholly  of  tlie    marriage  of 
priests;  they   thought  none  but  bishops  could 
anoint  witli  the  Imly  oil  or  confirm  the   bap- 
tized, and  that  they  therefore  anointe<{  a  second 
time  those  who  liail  bc-va  anointed  by  presbv- 
ters;  and  fifthly,  they  had  adulterated  the  Coil- 
Btantinopolltan  Cree«i  by  adding  to  it  the  wonls 
Flli<"l'ie.  thus  leaching  th.it  the  Hnlv  Spirit  did 
not  pn«ee<l  only  from  the  Father,  but  also  from 
Hie  Son.     This  last  was  deemed,  and  has  always 
been  acemed  by  the  Greek  Citureb  the  great 


CH1U8TIAN1TT. 


heresy  of  the  Roman  Church.  .  .  .  Thcflrwk 
Church  to-dav  in  all  Its  branches— In  Turkey 
Greece,  wd  Russia- professes  to  hold  flmily  C 
the  formula*  and  decisions  of  the  seven  lEcu 
menical  or  General  Councils,  ivganline  with 
•peciai  honour  that  of  Nice.  The  Nlcene  and 
Atlianasian  Creeds  are  the  symbols  of  its  fiutii 
the  Filioque  clause  being  omitted  from  the 
former,  and  the  eighth  article  readlnif  thus- 
And  in  the  Iloly  Ghost,  the  Lord  and  Giver  of 
life,  who  proceedeth  from  the  Father,  and  with 
the  Father  and  Son  together  is  wotshipn«l 
ajnd  glorified.'  ...  The  Greek  Church,  unlike 
the  Latin,  denounces  the  use  of  images  as  objecU 
of  devotion,  and  holds  in  abhorri'nce  every  form 
of  what  It  terms  'image  worship.'  Its  position 
In  this  manr-  r  is  very  curious.  It  Is  true  no 
figures  of  our  Lord,  of  the  Virgin,  or  saints  such 
as  one  sees  hi  churches,  wayside  chapels,  imi  |n 
the  open  fields  in  countries  where  the  Koman 
Church  Is  powerful,  are  to  be  seen  in  Russis 
Greece,  or  any  of  those  lands  where  the  Eastcni 
Church  Is  supreme.  On  the  other  hand,  piotuiw 
of  the  pbinest  kind  everywhere  take  their  place 
and  are  regarded  with  the  dei-pest  veneration.'' 
—J.  C.  liccs,  T/ie  Greek  Church  (in  the  Chircha 
of  ChrieUndom).  leet.  4.— See,  also,  Fii.iooci 
Controversy. 

A.  D.  33^47«.— The  tall  of  Imperial  Rone. 
—The  ri*e  of  Ecdesiuticml  Rome.  -The  ixill. 
Ileal  and  religious  hIsUiry  of  the  Empire  from 
the  death  of  Constantinc   is  so  fully  narrated 
under  Rome  that  mere  mention  here  of  a  few 
events  will  suffice,  viz. :  the  revival  of  PiipinUra 
under  the  Emperor  Julian ;  the  n-iisci'mli    -yof 
Christianity;  the  formal  estalilishmeut  of  (bris- 
tianily  as  the  religion  of  the  Romans,  by  tlie  suf- 
frages of  the  senate;  the  final  divisiimof  the  Em- 
pire into  East  and  West  between  the  .scins  of 
Theodosius;  the  three  sieges  ami  the  sucking  o( 
Rome  by  Alaric;   the  legal  sipuniliim  of  thp 
Eastern  and  Western  Empires:  the  pillage  of 
Rome  by  the  Vandals  and  its  final  subtnLssidn  to 
the  barbarians.    See  Rome:  A.  D,  3;i7-3fil,  to 
445-4T6.     For  an  account  of  the  earlv  bishops 
of  Rome,  see  Papacy.     "  A  heathen'  historian 
traces  the  origin  of  the  calamities  wliicli  he  re- 
cords to  the  alKilition  of  sacriflce  by  TlniHl.wius, 
and  the  sack  of  Rome  to  the  laws  against  ilie  an- 
cient faith  passed  by  Ills  son.     Tliis  (ilije<!ion  of 
the  heathens  that  the  overthrow  of  lilnlairv  and 
the  ascendency  of  Christianity  were  the  eaiise  of 
the  misfortunes  of  the  emplrew  iis  so  wiile  spread. 
and  had  such  force  with  those,  both  I'ligans  and 
Christians,  who  conceiveil  history  to  1k'  the  out- 
come of  magical  or  demonic  powers,  that  .Vul'us- 
tine  devoted  twelve  years  of  hLs  life  to  its  ntuta 
Hon.     His  treatise.  '  De  Civitate  Dei,'  was  Ingun 
in  413,  and  was  not  finished  till  4-'«,  within  four 
years  of  his  death.     Rome  had  once  iK'iri  taken; 
society,  consumed  by  inward  corrupticm,  w.ia 
shaken  to  its  foundations  by  the  violent  e;iset  of 
the  Teutonic  tribes;  mens  li'arts  were  failing 
them  for  fear;  the  voice  of  calumny  eridl  aloud, 
and  lahl  these  woes  to  the  charge  of  the  C  hris- 
tian  faith.     Augustine  umiertook  to  n  fute  the 
calumny,  and  to  restore  tlie  counige  of  liis  fel- 
h>w  Christians.     Taking  a  rapid  siirvev  nf  his- 
tory, he  asks  what  the  gixls  had  ever  (Imie  for 
the  Well  Ix-ingof  the  stale  or  for  puhli.-  n;..r,iii;v. 
He  maintains  that  the  greatness  of  Koine  in  the 
past  was  line  to  the  virtues  of  her  sons,  unci  not 
to  the  protection  of  the  gods.    He  shows  that. 


470 


CHBISTIAinTT. 


WaltmEmptr* 
ttndCkMrek. 


CHWSTIAinTY. 


long  before  the  rise  of  Chrtstlanltr,  her  ruin  had 
befun  with  the  Introcluction  of  foreign  vices 
ifter  the  destruction  of  Carthage,  and  declares 
that  much  In  the  ancient  worship,  iatteauot  pre- 
Tenting,  had  hastened  that  ruin.  He  rises  above 
the  troubles  of  the  present,  and  amid  the  vanish- 
ing glories  of  the  city  of  men  he  proclaims  the 
itS)fiity  of  the  dty  of  God.  At  a  time  when 
tlie  downfall  of  Rome  wan  thought  to  presage 
«ppn>achlng  doom,  Augustine  regarded  the  dts- 
a»ter»  around  him  as  the  birth-throes  of  a  new 
world,  as  a  necessary  moment  In  the  onward 
movement  of  Christianity."— W.  Stewart,  The 
Ckureh  of  the  ith  and  Sth  Genluriei  (St.  Gila' 
leettirft,  4<A  teria).—"  There  Is  as  little  ground 
for  discovering  a  miraculous,  as  there  Is  for  dis- 
owning a  providential  element  In  the  course  of 
erents.  The  Institutions  of  Roman  authority 
and  law  had  been  planted  regularly  over  all  the 
territory  which  the  conquering  hordes  coveted 
and  seized;  alongside  of  every  magistrate  was 
DOW  placed  a  minister  of  Christ,  and  by  every 
Hall  of  Justice  stood  a  House  of  Prayer.  The 
Repnwntative  of  Ciesar  lost  all  his  power  and 
dignitv  when  the  armies  of  Ctesar  were  scattered 
Inflight;  the  minister  of  Christ  felt  that  behind 
him  was  an  invisible  force  with  which  the  hosts 
of  the  alien  could  not  cope,  and  his  behaviour  im- 
piesseil  the  barbarian  with  the  conviction  that 
there  was  realltr  here.  That  beneficent  mission 
of  Leo,  A.  D.  452,  of  which  Gibbon  says:  'The 
pressing  eloquence  of  Leo,  his  majestic  aspect 
and  sarenlotal  robes,  excited  the  veneration  of 
Attila  for  the  spiritual  father  of  the  Christians ' 
—would  Ik.'  but  an  instance  of  what  many  name- 
leas  priests  from  provincial  towns  did,  '  not  count- 
ijng  their  lives  dear  to  tliem,'  The  organisation 
of  llic  Latin  state  vitalised  by  a  new  spiritual 
'toroe  vaniiuislied  the  victors.  It  was  the  method 
«D(I  the  nisicipline  of  this  organisation,  not  the 
subtlety  of  its  doctrine,  nor  the  fervour  of  Its 
officials,  that  l)eat  in  detail  one  chief  with  his 
motley  following  after  another.  Hence  too  it 
came  about  that  the  Christianity  which  was 
adopted  as  the  religion  of  Europe  was  not  modi- 
fie<t  to  suit  the  tastes  of  the  various  tribes  that 
cmljraced  it,  but  was  delivered  to  each  as  from 
a  common  fountain-head.  ...  It  was  a  social 
triumph,  proceeding  from  religious  motives  which 
we  niav  regard  with  unstinted  admiration  and 
gratitude."— J.  Watt,  The  Latin  Church  (St. 
OiUt'  Lerluru.  4th  tenet. — "The  temporal  fall 
iif  the  Imperial  metropolis  tended  to  throw  a 
brighter  light  upon  hor  ecclesiaslicnl  claims.  The 
separation  of  the  East  and  the  West  had  already 
enhuneed  tlic  religious  dignity  of  the  ancient 
capital.  The  great  Eastern  pntriarchates  of  An- 
tiixh,  .Mexandria,  and  Jerusalem  had  up  to  that 
time  all  held  tliemselves  equal,  if  not  superior  to 
lioine.  ( imst.'intinople  had  even  assumed  certain 
airs  of  supri'inacy  over  all.  The  General  Coun- 
cils nliieli  hiul  defined  the  Faith  at  MIctea  and 
Constantinople  had  been  composed  almo°t  wholly 
of  Orientals.  The  great  Doctors  of  th  'lurch, 
the  men  who  had  defended  or  diffused  tne  com- 
mon Faith,  had  been  mostly  Greeks  by  origin 
and  language.  None  had  been  Romans,  anu  It 
was  ranlv,  till  the  fourth  century,  that  any  of 
them  ha<l  written  in  the  Latin  tougue.  When 
Athauanius,  exiled  from  Alexandria,  came  to 
Italy  and  Gaul,  it  was  three  years  before  he 
rould  learn  enough  of  the  language  of  the  West 
lo  address  Its  congregatioot  in  puDllc,    But  this 


curious  fact  shows  that  the  Western  Chrlstiant 
were  now  no  longer  the  little  Greek  colony  of  the 
first  and  second  centuries.  Christianity  had  be- 
come the  national  religion  of  the  native  races. 
The  Romans  might  now  feel  that  'ncy  were  be- 
coming again  a  people ;  that  th"lr  'glorious  career 
was  assuming,  as  it  were,  a  new  point  of  depart- 
ure. .  .  .  For  at  this  moment  the  popular  In- 
stinct could  not  fail  to  perceive  how  strongly  the 
conscience  of  the  barbarians  had  been  affected  by 
the  spiritual  majesty  of  Christian  Rome.  The 
Northern  hordes  had  beaten  down  all  armed  re- 
sistance. They  had  made  a  deep  impression  up(/n 
the  strength  of  the  Eastern  Empire;  they  had, 
for  a  moment  at  least,  actually  overcome  the 
Western ;  they  had  overrun  many  of  the  fairest 
provinces,  and  had  effected  a  permanent  lodge- 
ment In  Gaul  and  Spain,  aud  still  more  recently 
in  Africa.  Yet  in  all  these  countries,  rude  as 
they  still  were,  they  had  submitted  to  accept  the 
creed  of  the  Gospel.  There  was  no  such  thing 
as  a  bartwrlan  Paganism  established  within  the 
limits  of  the  Empire  anywhere,  except  perhapa 
in  furthest  Britain." — C.  Merivale,  Four  ieeturet 
on  tome  Epoeht  of  Barly  Church  Uittory,  ;)p.  130- 
186. — "  When  the  surging  tides  of  barbarian  In- 
vasion swept  over  Europe,  the  Christian  organi- 
zation was  almost  the  only  institution  of  the  past 
which  survived  the  flood.  It  remained  as  a  visi- 
ble monument  of  what  had  been,  and,  by  so  re- 
maining, was  of  itself  an  antithesis  to  the  present. 
The  chief  town  of  the  Roman  province,  whatever 
its  status  under  barbarian  rule,  was  still  the 
bishop's  see.  The  limits  of  the  old  '  province,' 
though  the  boundary  of  a  new  kingdom  might 
bisect  them,  were  still  the  limits  of  his  diocese. 
The  bishop's  tribunal  was  the  only  tribunal  In 
which  the  laws  of  the  Empire  coul'd  be  pleaded 
in  their  Integrity.  The  bishop's  dress  was  the 
ancient  robe  of  a  Roman  magistrate.  The  an- 
cient Roman  language  which  was  used  in  the 
Church  services  was  a  standing  protest  against 
the  growing  degeneracy  of  the  '  vulgar  tongue.' 
...  As  the  forces  of  the  Empire  became  less 
and  less,  the  forces  of  the  Church  became  more  and 
more.  The  Churches  preserved  that  wliich  had 
been  from  the  first  the  secret  of  Imperial  strength. 
For  underneath  the  Empire  whicli  clianged  and 
passed,  beneath  the  shifting  pageantry  of  Em- 
perors who  moved  across  the  staire  and  were 
seen  no  more,  was  the  abiding  empire  of  law 
and  administration, — which  chanaeil  only  as 
the  deep  sea  changes  beneath  the  windswept 
waves.  That  inner  empire  was  coutinuiil  in  the 
Cliristian  Churches.  In  tlie  years  of  transition 
from  the  ancient  to  the  modern  worI<l,  when  all 
civilized  society  seemed  to  l)c  disintegrated,  the 
confederation  of  the  Christian  CInirolies,  by  the 
very  fact  of  Its  existence  upon  the  old  imperial 
lines,  was  not  only  tlie  most  powerful,  but  the 
only  powerful  organization  in  th"  civilized  world. 
It  was  so  vast,  and  so  powerl  It  seemed 

to  be,  and  there  were  few  to  quea..  jn  its  being, 
the  visible  realization  of  fit  Kingdom  of 
God  which  our  Lord  Himse'  1  preached." — 
E.  Hatch,    Tlu   Organitatii  .he   Chrittian 

Churchet,  pp.  160-178. 

A.  D.  347-412.— The  Syrian  Churchei.— 
"  St.  Chr}-sost4)m  was  bom  there  A.  D.  847 ;  and 
it  was  in  his  time  that  AutiocU,  with  its  hundred 
thousand  Christians,  became  the  leading  Church 
In  Asia,  especially  in  the  Arian  controversy  [see 
AM&MMii],   for  Arianism  was  very  prevalent 


471 


CHRISTIAinTT. 


Oohmwmw 


CHKISTJAOTTT. 


lily 


Uicn>.  Biit  hU  this  lies  outiUe  our  period.  The 
ncnllitl  '8cho<>l  of  Antiorh'  baa  iu  origin  Just 
Ufore  ...  our  period  [311,  Wlltsch].  Doro- 
theiiR,  .  .  .  and  llio  martyr  Luciun  mny  lie  rc- 
^nlul  at)  itii  fdunilers.  In  oontnuit  to  the  allegor- 
ising mysticism  of  the  School  of  Alcxundria.  it 
was  distinguishMl  liy  a  more  solwr  and  critical  In- 
ttrpretntlon  of  Scripture.  It  looked  to  grammar 
■ml  historj-  for  its  princlpl"S  of  exegesis.  But 
we  must  not  suppose  that  iliire  was  at  Antioch 
an  educational  estjthlishmeniilketheCutt-ehelical 
SchiK)!  at  Alexandria,  which,  by  s  succession  of 
great  teachers,  kept  up  a  tnulitlonal  mode  of 
exegesis  (uid  instruction.  It  was  rather  ar  in- 
tellectual tenileney  which,  beginning  with 
Lucian  and  Domlheus,  developed  in  a  definite 
direction  in  Antio.li  and  other  Syrian  Churches. 
.  .  .  These  notiiTs  of  the  Churchcsof  Jerusalem, 
Cwaarea  in  Palestine,  and  Antioch  must  suffice 
as  representative  of  the  Syrian  Churches.  The 
numlier  of  these  Churches  wa*  considerable  even 
In  the  second  century,  and  by  the  beginning  of 
the  fourth  was  very  large  indeed,  as  Is  seen  by 
the  nunilter  of  bishops  who  attend  local  Coun- 
cils."—A.  Plummer,  17ie  Chunk  of  the  Early 
Fathert,  eh.  3.—"  It  has  often  a.  nished  me  that 
no  one  has  ever  translated  letters  of  St. 

Jerome.  The  letters  of  St.  Au  inc  have  been 
translated,  and  are  In  many  ^.^.ts  very  enter- 
taining rending,  but  they  are  nothing  in  point  of 
living  interest  when  compared  with  St.  Jerome's. 
These  letters  illustrate  liic  about  the  year  400  as 
nothing  else  can.  Tliey  show  us,  for  instance, 
what  edueation  then  was,  what  clerical  life  con- 
sisted in ;  they  till  us  of  modes  and  fashions,  and 
they  tench  us  how  vigorous  and  constnat  was 
the  eoinmunication  at  that  same  period  between 
the  must  distant  parts  of  the  Koman  empire. 
AVe  are  apt  totliinkof  the  fifth  century  as  u  time 
when  lliere  was  vry  little  travel,  and  when  most 
certainly  the  Knsi  and  West  —  Ireland,  England. 
Gaul  and  Palestine — were  much  more  wiiiely 
and  completely  separated  than  now,  when  steam 
has  praelieallv  nnnihilate.1  time  and  space.  And 
yet  such  an  iilea  is  very  mistaken.  There  was  a 
most  lively  intercourse  existing  between  these 
regions,  a  constant  Church  correspondence  kept 
up  iH'twei  n  ilu  in,  and  the  inr  t  intense  and  vivid 
iulerest  luaiiilained  by  ihc  Gallic  afcd  Sviiau 
cliurehes  in  the  minutest  detjiils  of  tlieir  re- 
spective histories.  Mark  now  how  this  hap|>encd. 
St.  Jerome  at  Bethlehem  was  the  centre  of  this 
intercourse.  His  position  in  the  Christian  world 
in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  can  only  be 
compared  to,  but  ^  's  not  at  all  equalletl  by,  that 
of  John  Calvin  at  ihe  time  of  the  Reformation. 
Men  from  the  most  distant  parts  consulted  him. 
Bishops  of  highest  renown  for  sanctity  and 
leaniing,  like  St.  Augustine,  and  Exuperius  of 
Toulouse  in  sowtliem  France,  deferred  to  his 
authorily.  The  keen  inU-rcst  he  took  in  tlie 
churches  of  Gnu!,  and  the  intimate  knowle<igc 
he  possessed  of  the  most  petty  local  details  and 
nlijiious  gossip  therein,  can  only  be  understood 
by  one  who  has  sliidieil  his  very" abusive  treatise 
against  Vi'.'iliintius  or  liis  correspondence  witli 
Exuperius.  .  .  .  But  how,  it  may  be  asked,  was 
this  corr(s[>on<ience  carried  on  when  there  was 
no  postal  system?  Here  it  was  that  the  or- 
ganizatiim  <;f  mimaptlrlsm  suppiit-U  a  want. 
Jerome's  letters  tell  us  the  very  name  of  bis 

Ewtman.    He  was  a  monk  named  Sysinnius. 
e  was  perpetually  on  the  iDsd  between  liar- 


seillet  and  Bethlehem.  Again  and  again  don 
Jerome  mention  bis  coming  and  his  going  Jli» 
sppearwice  must  indeed  have  been  the  ktvu  ti 
citement  of  life  at  Bethlehem.  Trneliin. 
probably  tI»  Sardinia,  Koine.  Greece,  mul  ih' 
islands  of  the  Adriatic,  he  gatbereti  up  all  liinda 
of  clerical  news  on  the  way  —  a  piece  of  cdnduct 
on  his  part  which  seems  to  have  had  iis  u,u,i 
results.  As  a  tale-bearer,  he  not  only  revi-uled 
sccreU,  but  also  separated  chief  friends,  uiirl  this 
monk  Sysinnius  with  his  gossips  seems  t.)  have 
lieen  the  original  cause  of  the  celebrated  ijuantl 
iwlween  Augustine  tad  Jerome."— (i.  T.  Stokes, 
Ireland  and  tht  Celtic  Church,  pp.  170-17i 

A.  D.  496-800.— The  Prankish  Churdi  to 
the  Empire  of  Charlemagne.-"  The  liaptism 
of  Chl(Miovech  [Clovis—  see  Fuanks:  A.  I)  481- 
811]  was  followed  by  the  wlmlesale  eonvirelon 
of  the  Franks.  No  compulsion  was  used  to 
bring  the  heathen  Into  the  Church.  As  a  lautlien 
Chlodovech  bad  treatwl  the  Church  with  for 
bearancc;  he  was  equally  tolerant  to  hiiiiluniam 
when  be  was  a  Christian.  But  liis  eMimple 
worked,  and  thousands  of  noble  Franks  eniwiled 
to  the  water  of  regeneration.  Gregory  of  Tours 
reckons  the  Franks  as  Christians  after  tlu'  bap- 
tism of  their  king,  which  took  place  at  Christmas, 
A.  D.  496.  His  conversion  made  no  alteration 
In  the  policy  and  conduct  of  Chlodovech;  he 
remained  the  same  mixture  of  cunnini;  and 
audacity,  of  cruelty  and  sensuality,  thai  he  was 
before.  .  .  .  But,  though  his  baptism  wa-s  to  Urn 
of  no  moral  import,  its  conse.juences  were  wide 
spreading.  When  Gregory  of  Tours  eoinpares 
the  conversion  of  Chlodovech  with  that  of  Con- 
stentine  the  Great,  be  was  fully  in  the  rijtht. 
.  .  .  And  the  baptism  of  CliMovtch  dediiml  to 
the  world  that  the  new  blood  In-ing  poured  into 
the  veins  of  the  old  and  expiring  eivilizatioD, 
had  U'en  quickened  by  the  same  elements,  and 
would  unite  with  the  old  in  the  new  development. 
.  .  .  That  many  of  those  wlio  were  liaptind  car- 
ried with  them  into  their  new  Chris'ianitv  their 
old  heathen  superstltionsas  well  as  their  Ijarliarism 
is  certain;  and  the  times  were  not  those  in  which 
the  growth  of  the  gnat  Christian  gnins  was 
encouraged;  the  germs,  however,  of  a  new  life 
were  laid."— 8.  Baring-Oould,  1/ie  C/mn-h  i« 
German!/,  'A-  3.— "The  details  of  the  lii,«t»ryof 
the  Merovingian  pericnl  of  Fraiikisli  hislorv  are 
extraordinarily  complicated;  happily,  it  is  not  at 
all  necessary  for  our  purixisc  to  follnn  thim. 
.  .  .  In  the  earlier  years  after  the  euni|ui>l,  all 
ranks  of  the  clergy  were  tilled  by  Gallo  Knniaui 
The  Franks  were  the  dominant  nu-r.  ami  uire 
Christian,  but  they  were  new  cmiverts  from  a 
rude  heathenism,  ami  it  would  take  some  ^inira- 
tions  to  raise  up  a  '  native  miuLstry  among 
them.  Xot  only  the  literature  of  the" (Western) 
Church,  but  all  its  services,  and,  still  ni.re,  the 
conversational  intercourse  of  all  eivili/.d  and 
Christian  people,  was  In  Latin,  id  siiiis.  (lie 
Franks  were  warriora,  a  eimqiieriiur  (.lsIo.  a 
separate  nation ;  anil  to  lay  down  ilie  ii'ili  axe 
and  speer,  <\nd  enter  Into  the  pc  iieefiil  r;ink»  uf 
the  «.  r;  ■o-Oallic  Church,  would  have  sinned 
t.)  tie"  ..Ue  chaneiug  their  natiimaliii  fc.rthat 
1  f  till  nore  highTy  eulturtil,  perhaps,  Imt,  in 
their  ijye.-",  S'lbject  race.  The  Frank  kiiiirs  did 
n:  .  iun.  'Jjc  value  of  cduc-ation.  Cin-.is  issaiJ 
to  have  established  a  Palatine  school,  anil  1  ncour 
aged  his  young  men  to  qualify  theusilvea  for 
the  positions  which  bis  conquests  bud  uiieuuiout 


472 


CHRISTIANITT. 


JCMoMto 
ttfOOTmOM. 


CHRISTIAOTTT. 


to  them.  Bli  grandioiu,  we  hATe  aeen,  prided 
thcmsolvesonthetrLatinculturc.  After  a  while, 
Franks  aspired  to  the  magnltleent  posltloni  which 
the  frrcst  sees  of  the  Church  offered  to  their 
ambition;  and  we  find  men  with  Teutonic  names, 
and  no  doubt  of  Teutonic  race,  among  the 
bishops.  .  .  .  For  a  still  longer  period,  few 
FrankH  entered  Into  the  lower  ranks  of  the 
Church.  Not  only  did  the  prU.  ,thood  offer  little 
temptation  to  them,  but  also  tho  policy  of  the 
kinffs  and  nobles  opposed  the  diminution  of  their 
mllitarv  strength,  by  refusing  leave  to  their 
Frank.^'  to  enter  Into  holy  orders  or  Into  the  mon- 
asterios.  The  cultured  families  of  the  cities 
would  afford  an  ample  supply  of  men  for  the 
clergy,  and  promising  youths  of  a  lower  class 
Kcm  already  not  infrc(|uently  to  have  been  edu- 
cated for  the  service  of  the  Church.  It  was  only 
In  the  later  period,  when  some  approach  had 
been  made  to  a  fusion  of  the  races,  tnat  we  find 
Franks  entering  Into  the  lower  ranks  of  the 
Church,  and  simultaneously  we  find  Oallo- 
Romans  in  the  ranks  of  the  armies.  .  .  .  Monks 
wieldal  a  powerful  spiritual  influence.  But  the 
name  of  not  a  single  priest  appears  in  the  bUtory 
of  the  times  as  exercising  anv  influence  or 
authoritr.  .  .  .  Under  the  gradual  secularization 
of  the  Church  In  the  Merovingian  period,  the 
monasteries  had  the  greatest  share  In  keeping 
sllve  a  remnant  of  vital  religion  among  the 
people;  and  In  the  gradual  decay  of  learning  and 
art,  the  monastic  institution  was  the  ark  in  which 
tlie  aniiont  civilization  surviv.  I  the  deluge  of 
barlurism,  and  emerged  at  lengtn  to  spread  Itself 
over  tlic  modem  world." — E.  L.  Cutts,  Charle- 
maijuf.  rh.  .5  and  7. — "Two  Anglo-Saxon  monks, 
St.'Wilfind,  bishop  of  York,  and  St.  WiUibrord 
uiidcrt(H)k  the  conversion  of  the  savage  flsher- 
mi'D  of  Priesland  and  Holland  at  the  end  of  the 
seventh  and  beginning  of  the  eighth  century; 
they  were  followed  by  another  Englishman,  the 
most  renowned  of  all  these  mis.sionnrics.  Win- 
frith,  whose  name  was  changed  to  Boniface, 
perliaps  liy  the  Pope,  In  recognition  of  his  active 
and  Innetloent  apostlcship.  When  Gregory  II. 
appointed  liim  bishop  of  Germany  (723),  lie  went 
throu):h  Kavaria  and  established"  there  the  dio- 
ceses of  Frialngen,  Passau,  and  Katisbon.  When 
Pope  Zacliarias  bestowed  the  rank  of  metro- 
politan upon  the  Church  of  Mainz  in  748,  he 
entrusted  its  direction  to  St.  Boniface,  who  from 
that  time  was  primate,  as  it  were,  of  all  Ger- 
many, under  the  authority  of  the  Holy  See.  St. 
Bonifiiec  was  assassinated  by  the  Pagans  of  Fries- 
land  in  T.'i.',."— V.  Duruy,  IIM.  of  the  MiMh 
ilj«,  Ilk.  3,  eh.  8. — "Boniface,  whose  original 
name  was  Winfrld,  was  of  a  noble  Devonshire 
family  (.V.  1).  680),  educat«>d  at  the  monastery  of 
Sutcelle,  in  Hampshire,  and  at  the  age  of  thirty, 
five  years  had  obtained  a  high  reputation  for 
leamini;  and  ability,  when  (in  A.  D.  716),  seized 
witli  the  prevalent  missionary  enthusiasm,  he 
alianiiimiKl  his  prospects  at  home,  and  set  out 
witli  two  companions  to  labour  among  the  Fris- 
ians. .  .  Winfriil  was  refusi-d  permission  by 
the  Duke  to  preach  in  his  dominions,  and  he 
returneil  homo  to  England.  In  the  following 
spiim;  lie  went  to  Rome,  where  he  remained  for 
some  niciiitha,  and  then,  with  a  general  au'liori- 
zaiinn  troni  the  pope  to  preach  the  gospel  in 
Central  Europe,  lie  crossed  the  Alps,  passed 
thruuv'h  Bavaria  into  Thuringia,  where  he  began 
his  work.     While  here  the  death  of  Radbod, 


A.  D.  710,  and  the  conquest  of  Frisia  by  Cliarlet 
Martcl,  opened  up  new  prospects  for  the  evan- 
gelization of  that  country,  and  Boniface  went 
titither  and  l"boured  for  three  years  ain(mg  tiia 
missionaries,  under  Willibronl  of  Utrecht.  Then, 
following  In  the  track  of  the  victorious  forces  of 
Charles  Martel,  he  plungetl  Into  the  wilds  of 
Hessia,  converted  two  of  Its  chiefs  whose  example 
was  followed  by  multitudes  of  the  Hessians  and 
Saxons,  and  a  monastery  arose  at  Amiineburg  as 
the  head-quarters  of  the  mission.  The  Bishop 
of  Rome  being  Informed  of  this  success,  sum- 
moned Boniface  to  Rome,  A.  D.  723,  and  conse- 
crated him  a  regionary  bishop,  with  a  general 
Jurisdiction  over  all  whom  he  shoulil  win  from 
paganism  Into  the  Christian  f(dd,  requiring  from 
him  at  the  same  time  the  oath  which  was  usually 
required  of  bishops  within  the  patriurebatc  of 
Rome,  of  obedience  to  the  see.  .  .  .  B</nifaco 
was  not  only  a  zealous  missionary,  an  earnest 
preacher,  a  learned  scholar,  but  he  was  u  states- 
man and  an  able  administrator.  He  not  only 
spread  the  Gospel  among  the  heathen,  but  he 
organized  the  Church  among  the  newlv  converted 
nations  of  Germany:  he  regulated  tlie  disorder 
which  existed  in  the  Frankish  Church,  and  estab- 
lished the  relations  between  Church  and  State  on 
a  settled  basis.  The  meditevai  analysts  tell  us 
that  Boniface  crowned  Pepin  king,  and  modem 
writers  have  usually  reproduced  the  statement. 
'  Itettberg,  and  the  able  writer  of  the  biography 
of  Boniface  in  Hcrzog  (Real  Ecy k,  s.  v. ).  argue 
satisfactorily  from  Boniface's  letters  tliat  he  took 
no  part  in  Pepin's  coronation.'  When  Biuilfaco 
withdrew  from  the  active  super\ision  of  tiie 
Frankish  Churches,  It  is  probable  tliut  bis  place 
was  to  some  extent  supplied  in  the  councils  of 
the  mayor  and  In  the  synods  of  the  ('!;ur;li  by 
Chrodegang,  Bishop  of  Met/.,  a  ■  >.  vhosc 
character   and  influence  In  th'  the 

Frank  C;hureh  have  hardly  bit'  .^  ..    r^e- 

ciated."— E.    L.   Cutts,    CharU.  •;.  '?     — 

"Both  Karlmann  and  Pippin  '  ^^>  r;  u 
certain  abuses  that  had  crept  i  ■  >   ?!.     v. 

Two  councils,  convoked  by  KarLuo  •  ■" 

Germany  (742),  the  other  in  the  f  .t-. 

at  Lcstines  (near  Charleroi,  in  Belgiuii ,  ■•  .p 
decrees  which  abolished  superstitious  rites  and 
certain  Pagan  ceremonies,  still  remaiiiing  in 
force;  they  also  authorized  grants  of  Cliurch 
lands  by  the  '  Prince '  for  military  purposes  on 
condition  of  a  payment  of  an  annual  nut  to  the 
Church;  they  reformed  the  ecclesiastiral  life, 
forbade  the  ricsts  to  hunt  or  to  rule  ilirougli  the 
woods  w  dogs,  falcons,  or  sparrowliawks; 
a  .1,  li  1  ■'ade  all  priests  sulKiniinate  totlieir 
ulo"'(in,  .11  '  >,is,  to  whom  t"'  y  were  oliliiiinl  to 
givi  1  CO  ;ji  i-i.ch  year  of  their  faith  and  their 
minlsl;y  -  -  .i.-  f  wl'dch  were  neressary  i>n)visions 
for  the  organization  of  tlieecilcsiastleal  liierarehy 
and  for  the  regulation  of  church  Knverninent. 
Similar  mi  i  ivcs  were  tiiken  liy  tlie  Council  of 
Soissons,  couv'iked  by  Pippin  in  744.  In  7' 
Karlniaim  renoaneed  the  world  nmi  retired  to 
the  cciebroted  Italian  monasteiy  of  .Mcmte  las- 
sino.  As  he  left  he  entruMiil  his  iliildnn  to 
tho  care  of  tlieir  uncle.  Pippin,  wlio  rolil)ed 
tlieni  of  tlieir  inlieritimce  and  ruled  alone  over 
the  whole  Krankisli  Empire.  .  .  .  (^Imrleiiiairiio 
enlarged  and  coinpleleii  Hit  work  wliiili  liad 
only  iM-en  tHgun  by  Charles  Martel  and  Pippin. 
.  .  .  The  jliildle  Ages  acknowliniged  two 
Masters,  the  Pope  and  the  Emperor,  and  these 


478 


I  s' 


il 


I  .l>t: 


CimiSTIANITT. 


CharUmuMffms 
and  tin  Chunk. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


two  powprs  cnme,  the  one  from  Rome,  and  the 
other  from  AiistnuiiHn  Fmnee.  .  .  .  The  mayors 
of  Austrasift,  Pippin  of  Heristal,  and  Charles 
Martcl,  rclmilt  thv  Prankish  monarchy  and  pre- 
pansi  the  way  for  the  empire  of  Cliarlemagne ; 
.  .  till'  lion'mn  pontiffs  .  .  .  gstlier'-l  around 
them  all  the  churches  of  the  West,  aud  placed 
themwlvcs  at  the  head  of  the  great  Catholic 
society,  over  which  one  day  Gregory  VII.  and 
InniM cnt  III.  should  claim  to  have  sole  dominion. " 
—V.  Duruy.  ///«<.  ./  rAo  Miitrile  Aga.  pp.  119- 
123,  los  — Sci>  Mayoi.  iiftiirPaIxAck;  Franks: 
A.  I).  7IW-NI4;  an'  I  .M  i :  *.  D.  7M-774,  and 
774. — The  iiir.  I'iiiri  oi  •.  !'ai'Ic!i  '."Tic  at  Rome 
by  Pope  Leo  i'  (^■e  RuM^>  K?.  i  m,  A.  D. 
800)  pave  the  '  isicii  Cliiinh  the  v.ce  in  the 
state  it  liad  he  '  in."  r  the  earlSi  r  I.i  man  emper- 
ors. The  chai  'ii  t  f  a<i  ^.Tcai,  a  ;  an,  the  very 
books  he  rtwl  a  .•  i  I  :  >iat  fi  ■(  the  '  igorous  ideal 
element  in  so  p.n.Hiui  u  i.  iHt  are  worthy  of 
Interi'Bt ;  for  this  at  least  he  souglii  to  accomplisli 

—  to  pivconicr  to  a  tumultuous  and  barharian 
worlil,  aud  to  cstahlisli  learning,  aud  purify  the 
church:  "While  at  table,  he  liked  to  hear  a 
recital  or  a  reading,  and  it  was  histories  and  the 
gn'at  di'cils  of  past  times  which  were  usually 
read  to  him.  lie  umk  great  pleasure,  also,  in  the 
works  of  St.  Au>;ustlne,  aud  especially  in  that 
whose  title  is  •!)<■  Civitate  Dei.  .  .  .  lie  prar- 
tice<l  the  Christian  religion  in  all  its  purity  and 
with  cfiat  fervour,  whoso  principl<-s  had  iieen 
taught  him  from  his  infancy.  .  .  .  He  iiillg<>nlly 
stt4'ndi'<l  .  .  .  church  in  the  evening  and  mom- 
ing,  ami  even  at  niirht,  to  asai-st  at  the  oltlccs 
and  at  llic  holy  Siirrili<e,  as  much  as  his  health 
jH-miiltcd  lilm.  lie  watched  with  care  that 
notliini.'  shiiiiM  l)e  done  but  with  the  greati'st 
pnprii  ty.  .Mii»tanllv  ordering  the  guanlians  of 
the  cliun  li  iupt  to  allow  anything  lo  be  brought 
then'  or  lilt  I  In  ri'  iiiionsistent  with  or  unworthy 
of  the  sum  lily  iif  the  place.  .  .  .  He  was  always 
ready  to  hilp  Ilic  pisir,  and  It  wim  not  only 'in 
his  own  iiiimtiy,  or  within  his  own  ilomininns 
that  111  ili^p.ii>.d  tli.w  gratuitous  lils'ralitii's 
which  till'  (iniks  call  'alms,'  but  U'yond  the 
seas  "  in  .•^yriu,  in  Kj.'ypt.  in  .Ulrica,  at  Ji'runaliin, 
at  .Ml  xaiiilria,  at  (  arthage,  everywhere  where 
he  lianii'il  ilial  (liristians  wen*  living  in  iMivcrty 

—  he  piiii'il  tliiir  niisiry  and  loveii  to  send  them 
monev.  If  III'  wiiiirht  with  so  much  care  the 
friendship  nf  fori'lgn  sovereigns,  it  was,  alsive 
all,  to  priHuri'  for  the  ChristUns  living  under 
their  rule  In  Ip  and  n'licf.  Of  all  the  hnly 
plaice.  111'  lia'l.  alKive  all,  a  great  veneration  for 
the  Cliiinh  of  the  .\|Kistle  St.  Peterat  Home."— 
Kginhanl.  I.i/ruf  ' '/mrlfnuit/nt.  —  '' Thv  nligioiis 
side  I  if  (  liarlis'  rharacler  is  of  the  greatest  intir- 
est  in  the  study  of  his  remarkable  rlMracter  as  a 
whole  and  his  n'llgiiius  (xilley  h'd  to  the  most 
Iniportaiil  and  diiralile  results  of  his  reign.  He 
Inhiriliil  an  in  lisiastical  policy  fnim  his  fnllier; 
the  pnlii  y  of  rigulatlng  and  stn'ngthening  the 
Inhiii'iiii' of  ihi'  Chiirch  In  his  dominions  as  the 
chief  sifiiii  nf  rivHlr.allon,  and  a  gn-at  means  of 
bindiiii;  ilie  variniis  elements  of  the  empire  Into 
ime;  till'  |»iliiy  "f  acii'pling  the  liishopof  Hume 
OS  till-  Iii'.'kI  uf  Wisfini  Christianity,  with  patri- 
archal aiiili.'riiv  nvir  all  iU  Churches."— K.  L. 
Cutis.  fh.irl.m,i,iur.  eh.  88 —The  following  Is  a 
noteworthy  passage  fmm  Charlemagne's  Capllii- 
larv  of  Tw?;  "l!  isMtirwlaliihatvi-.'.:  mavtis-  ivhst 
It  Ik  limes  the  s.,|iiii<ra  of  Ihn  church' t^i  U",— 
RliKious  in  heart,  leameil  lu  illsvuunu,  puru  in 


act,  eloquent  In  speech :  so  that  all  who  nppmach 
your  house  In  order  to  invoke  the  Divine  .Master 
or  to  behold  the  excellence  of  the  nligioiis  lifp" 
may  be  edified  in  beholding  you,  and  liiMructtd 
in  hearing  you  discourse  or  chant,  ami  may 
return  home  rendering  thanks  to  (Jisl  must  HiijtL 
Fail  not,  as  thou  regardest  our  favour,  tu  scud  a 
copy  of  this  letter  to  all  tliy  suffragans  and  to  all 
the  monasteries:  and  let  no  monk  go  tsynnd  his 
monastery  to  administer  justice  or  to  intir  the 
assemblies  and  the  voting-places.  Adieu  "-J 
B.  Mulllnger,  Tht  School,  of  CluirUj,  the  Ihfnt  ' 
Sth-Tth  Centurie*.— The  Neitorian,  Mono- 
DbyMte  and  Monothclite  Controversies.    Si; 

NeSTOBIAR  AMD  MoMOPIIYSITE,  and   Mo.NOTHK- 
LITK. 

Sth-fth  Ceaturici.— The  Irish  Church  and 
its   miHiooi.— The   story   of   the   cuuvi-reloa 
of  Ireland  by  8t.  Patrick,  and  of  the  missiimsry 
labors  of  the  Church  which  he  fouuiliil.  is  hriitty 
told    elsewhere— see  Ireland:    ftili-siii  Cej,. 
TUBUS.     "The  early  Church  worknl  Iht  way 
in  the  literal  sense  of  the  word,  'unc|iri.'r(iiinil,'' 
under  camp  and  palace,  under  senate  ami  f  .rum 
But  turn  where  we  will  In  thes<;  Cellir  Miis.i,.ns] 
we  notice  how  different  were  the  featiiri«  li  ,t 
marked  them  now.     In  Dalarailia  Si    I'uihik 
obtains  the  site  of  bis  earliest  chunli  fi  ,in  tlie 
chieftain  of  the  country,  Didiu.     At  Tiira,  lie 
obtains  from  King  Laoghain-  a  relintani  tokr- 
ation  of  his  ministry.    In  Connauglit  lir  .il.lr,  s„.< 
himself  first  to  the  chieftains  of  finiw  li-v  an.l  in 
Munster  Imptizes  Angus,  the  kinir.  ai  i  ,sln-l 
the  seat  of  the  kings.'  What  he  ilil  In  \nW:\\ 
repnsluces  it«<'lf  in  the  Celtic  missiiais,,f  Wiilts 
and  Scotland,  and  we  cannot  hut    laki-  ri"i>'  if 
the  important  Infiueix-e  of   Welsli  anri   I'ji-ijsli 
chiefs.  ,  ,  .   '  The  people  nmv  lint  liavi- ailopli-.! 
the  actual  professinn  of  Cliri'stianity,  whi.  Ii  ims 
all  perhaps  tliat  in  the  llrst  instanie'tlii-v  aiLiiiiiil 
from  anv  clear  or  intelligent  appniiul'liin  of  il* 
superiority   to  their  fonner    n'iigion.      But  to 
obtain  from  the  people  even  an  actual  pnifissicn 
of  Christianity  was  an  important  slip  tn  ultimiite 
success.     It  secured  tJileratlon  tit  least  fur  Chrii- 
tiun  institutions.     It  enalileil  the   ini».sic.iiarli'«  tn 
plant  in  every  tribe  their  ihurchis,  m  Ii.h.Ii,  »ii.| 
monasteries,   and   to  establish  anning  tin'  lislf 
pagan  Inhabitanta  of  the  country   sisiiiirs  ii( 
noly  men,  whose  devotion,  usifulnrss,  aii.l  plity 
soon  pnslueed  an  effect  on  tlie  iiinst  liarhaMut 
and  savairi' heart*.' "—<)   !■'.  Macli-sr   r...,..>-«c..i 
of  thf  \Vr»l:  The  r-eiU.rh.  11.— "Tlie  M.lii  v»l 
Church  of  the  West  found  iu  the  sivmlli  r.  mury 
an  immense  task  XkUitk  It  to  fiillil.    .    .      The 
missionaries  who   aildreasi'd    thniisi  Ivis  \.>  the 
enormous  task  of  the  conversion  of  (i.  rtmiiiv 
mav  be  conveniently  dlvideil  Into  tlm-i'  >.Ti'ii|«t 
— the  British,  tlio  Frankish,  and,  i niiritiit  ■mtin'- 
what  later  into  an  honourable  rl\alry  »itli  iln-w, 
the  Anglo  Saxon.     A  wi.nl  or  Iwn  uimti  mi  k  nf 
these  groups.     The  British  —  thi-v  iiiilink  Irtsli 
ami  Scotch  — could  no  Umger  timf  a  llilil  f  ir  the 
exercise  of  their  ministry  in  Knglaiid,  ti..w  tkiit 
there  the  Unman  rule  and  iliMiplliii    t..  wliirh 
they  were  so  little  disixuHsl  to  suliinii.  Ii«'l  i  viry- 
where  won  the  day.     TlM'irown  nligi'iu-  limiw'S 
were  full  to  oveillowing.     At  home  llnn    ».u 
little   for  them   to  do,    while   yil   that    .liiiw 
hunger  and   thirst   for   the   wIhiiIhk  of    «mlj, 

•a-llii-h       !-,,^t      .i,,       |„^...,^,j      (i,,.      !,.._.:     ..f     « 

Patrick,  llvisl  on  in  Iheim.     To  tlii-T  ">  nuiilnt, 
pagan    Uennauy    offen'U    a  welttiitu-   Ikld  ul 


474 


I 


''HRISTIANITT. 


7nM 
liimionariea. 


CHW8TIANITT. 


labour,  and  one  In  which  there  was  ample  room 
{or  all.  Then  there  were  the  FninkUh  misttion- 
aries,  who  enjoyed  the  support  of  the  Prankish 
kinps,  which  sometimes  served  them  in  good 
sttMil ;  while  at  other  times  this  protection  was 
very  f»r  f  mm  a  n'oommeudation  in  their  eyes  who 
were  easily  persuaded  to  see  in  these  missionaries 
Ibe  emissaries  of  a  foe.  Add  to  these  the  AnRlo- 
gaxons;  these  last,  mindful  of  the  source  fn>m 
which  they  liuil  received  their  own  Christianity, 
making  it  a  point  to  attach  their  converts  to 
Rome,  even  as  they  were  themselves  bound  to 
her  by  the  clo.«'St  ties.  The  language  which 
these  8|>oke  —  a  language  which  as  yet  can  have 
diverged  verv  little  from  the  Low  German  of 
Frisia,  must  bave  given  to  them  many  facilities 
which  the  Frankisli  missionaries  possessed  in  a 
far  slighter  degree,  the  British  not  at  all ;  and 
this  may  help  to  account  for  a  success  on  their 
parts  far  greater  than  attended  the  labours  of  the 
others.  To  them  too  it  was  mainly  due  that  the 
battle  of  the  Creeds,  which  hail  been  fought 
and  lost  by  the  Celtic  missionaries  in  England, 
and  was  pnsently  renewed  in  Germany,  had 
finally  the  same  issues  th^re  as  in  England. 
...  At  the  same  time,  there  were  differeucea  In 
the  intensity  and  oltstiuacy  of  resistance  to  the 
memage  of  truth,  which  would  be  offered  by 
difleiviil  trilK'S.  There  was  ground,  which  at 
an  earlv  day  hod  been  won  for  the  Oospel,  but 
whicli  !n  the  storms  and  confusion  of  the  two 
preniliiig  renturies  had  iH-en  lost  again;  the 
vbiile  liiii',  that  is,  of  the  Danul  e  and  Uie  lihine, 
regions  fair  and  prosperous  on<x',  but  In  every 
sense  wMiicruesses  now.  In  these  we  may  note 
a  nadiiT  ncceptanct*  of  the  Message  than  found 
pliiie  ill  lands  whicli  in  earlier  times  that  mes- 
utv  h^iil  never  reached ;  as  though  obscure 
n-mltiisi rm IS  and  tntdilions  of  the  past,  not 
whully  <  xiinri,  had  hel|Mil  to  wt  forwanl  the 
pn-wiit  wiirk." — It  C.  Tremb.  l^rliirtt  on 
MeiHrt.tl  ri.iirrh  l/inturv.  Ifet.  ,1.  — "Fnini  Irihind 
caiue(i!illii«,  Kridolln,  Kilian,Trutb<'rt  and  Levin. 
.  .  .  The  onlir  in  which  these  men  succreiied  one 
anntlicr  cniiuot  always  be  established,  from  the 
unccrliiinly  nf  the  accounts.  We  know  thusmuih, 
liiatiif  111!  ihosi'  alKivenientiimeil,  Galluswasthe 
llrsi.  fiirlii>lulKiur!tln  Uelveti8iSwil/.erlaud)were 
cmitiiiiiiil  fnmi  ttie  preceding  into  tlie  period  of 
Willi  h  »■  are  now  treating.  On  the  other  hand, 
il  in  1111.1  riaiii  Its  to  Kridoiin  wiietber  he  had  not 
eorapl.ii.i  his  work  Infnre  (iallu.s.  in  the  sixth 
aniur\ ,  fur  in  the  opinii.n  of  some  he  closed  his 
career  hi  Ibe  time  of  Chsloveus  L,  but,  accord 
lni(  t(i  (itliiTs,  he  is  said  to  have  lived  umhT 
Cio(iii..us  II.,  oratanolher  periml.  His  labours 
tJtemliii  over  the  knds  on  Ibe  Mind  lie.  in  tlij 
Vimiicit  Mmmliiins,  oviT  Helvetia.  Ithaiiii  and 
Nlitra  Silva  (llie  Klack  Fori'sl).  He  built  the 
mmasi.ry  of  Sekklnga  on  the  Uhlne,  Tr\itbert 
WM  .1  i..nteni|MirHry  and  at  the  aamo  time  a 
niunlr>iiiaii  nf  Dallus.  His  siihere  of  aethm  la 
•aid  1.1  have  Ui'n  Hrisgovia  (lln'i-  lu)  and  the 
Bhuk  l-',.n.t.  Almost  half  a  ceii  y  laU'r  Kit- 
tan  |ir.«l  timed  llie  gospel  In  t :  incimla  and 
Wirtjiiiirg,  with  two  aasislauts,  Colonatus  and 
Tiitnaims.  |u  the  latter  place  they  converted 
duke  (i.i/lKTt,  niid  were  put  to  ileath  there  In 
*<*.  .\ft,.r  ihe  alKive  mentioned  miaalnnaries 
from  Inland,  in  tlie  seventh  century,  had  built 
firif  ;:rr,  anii  miiCiiiU  iki  ill  the  aoulheru  Ger- 
nwnv.  th,  iniHsionariet  from  Briula  ix'twired 
with  a  Kiiiiiki  purpoi«,  to  tbc  uurtlMtni  cuuatrl^ 


.  .  .  Men  from  other  nations,  as  Willericus, 
bisliop  of  Bremn,  preached  in  Tninsalbingia  at 
tlie  beginning  of  the  ninth  century.  Almost  all 
the  missionaries  from  the  kingdom  of  the  Fmnks 
selected  southern  Gennany  as  their  sphere  of 
action:  Eminenin,  alxiut  649,  Ratislioiia,  Kud- 
bert,  about  696,  Bajoaria (Bavaria),  Corbinlan  the 
country  around  Frisinga,  OtUrt  the  Brcisgau 
and  Black  Forest,  and  Pirmiuius  the  Brcisgau, 
Bajoaria,  Fronconia,  Helvetia,  and  Aisalis." — ' 
J.  E.  T.  Wiltscli,  Ilatuibuok  of  the  (lengmjihy  and 
Statutia  of  the  Church,  r.  1,  pp.  30.)-3a7. 

A.  D.  553-800.— The  Weitem  Church.— Rito 
of  the  Papacy.— "  Though  kindly  treated,  the 
Church  of  Itome  did  not  make  any  progress 
under  the  Ostrogoths.  But  when  their  power 
had  been  broken  l553),  and  Itime  had  tieen  placed 
again  under  the  authority  of  the  Eni|Mror  of 
Constantinople  [see  I{ome:  A.  I).  .5*>-.>.53].  the 
very  remoteness  of  her  new  master  insured  to 
the  Church  a  more  prosperous  future.  The  in- 
vasion of  the  Lombanla  drove  a  great  miiny 
refugees  into  her  territory,  and  the  Koman  popu- 
lation showed  a  slight  return  of  its  old  eneriry  in 
its  double  hatred  towani  them,  as  Iwrbarians  and 
as  Arians.  ...  It  was  at  this  favorable  point  in 
the  state  of  affairs,  though  critical  in  some  re- 
sjiects,  that  Gregory  the  Great  made  his  appear- 
auri>  (.•)9(>-fl04).  He  was  a  descendant  of  the  noble 
Aulciii  family,  and  added  to  his  advantages  of 
birth  anil  position  the  advantages  of  a  well- 
eniloweil  tiody  and  mind.  Hu  was  prefect  of 
Home  when  less  than  thirty  years  old.  but 
after  holding  this  olHee  a  few  inonllis  he 
abandomil  the  honors  and  cans  of  worlilly  things 
for  Ihe  retirement  of  the  cloister.  His  reputation 
did  not  allow  him  to  remain  in  the  olnuiirily  iif 
that  life.  Toward  579  he  was  wiit  to  Conslanti- 
nople  by  Pope  Pelagius  II.  as  siirelary  or  pupal 
nuncio,  and  he  rendered  di.stini.'uislii'd  services 
to  the  Holy  See  In  Its  n^Ialioiis  with  Ihe  Empire 
and  in  iu  struggles  against  the  Loinbanls.  In 
.'>9(»  the  clergy,  the  s«'nate.  and  the  people  raised 
him  will)  one  accord  to  the  sovereign  nonlilirate, 
Ui  siii-ceed  Pelagius.  As  it  was  still  neii'ssary 
for  every  election  to  be  iimtlrmed  by  the  Em- 
|«nir  at  Constantinople,  Ort'gory  wrote  to  him 
lo  iM'g  him  not  to  sanction  Ibis  one;  but  the 
letter  was  IntiTceptiil  and  sinm  imlers  arrived 
from  Mauri™  ratifying  llie  elecilon.  (ingory 
hid  hinuk'lf,  but  he  was  illsi-ovcn-d  and  liil  liiuk 
to  Koine.  When  once  Pope,  lliuugli  airaiiist  hi* 
will,  he  usiil  his  power  to  strengtii.ii  Ihe  papacv, 
to  propagate  Christianity,  anil  to  iiiipnive  tbe 
discipline  and  organization  of  the  Cburcji.  .  .  . 
t*tnngllicncil  thus  by  his  own  itTuriJi,  he  under- 
took llie  iiropagalion  of  Chrisiianity  and  orllio 
doxy  iMitli  within  and  without  Ibe  linillsof  tlie 
oldlioinaii  Empin'.  Williin  those  limits  tlier* 
were  still  wmie  who  clung  lo  paganism,  in  Sicily, 
Sanliniii,  and  even  at  the  very  gales  of  Itnnii',  at 
Terrmina,  and  ihiubtb'n  also  In  Gaul,  as  there 
is  a  ciiiislilulion  of  ChllilelN'rt  still  extJint  dated 
VV4,  and  eiilitliil:  'For  the  alsilitiim  of  the  re- 
mains iif  iiliilalry."  Then'  were  Arians  very  near 
lo  Itiiiiie  —  ntmiely.  llie  I<onil>anis;  but  tliMugh 
the  Intcrviiilion  of  Thcuilaliiida,  lliiir  quiin, 
Gngory  sueeiHileil  in  having  Adelwahl.  Ihe  heir 
to  llie  thniiie.  bniiight  up  in  the  Ciilholic  faith: 
a«  early  as  M'  the  Visigoths  In  Hpsin.  under 
lieei-nnii,  were  cunverteii.  .  .  ,  The  Itoman 
Empire  had  |H'ri»]ied,  ami  llie  barlinriHiis  had 
built  u|iou  Ita  tulua  niaoy  aUgltt  atruulurua  uiial 


475 


CnniSTIANITY. 


sit  of  tU 
Papacy, 


CHRISTIANITY. 


r?:*3' 


were  soon  overthrown.  Not  even  had  the 
Frank.s,  who  were  destined  to  Iw  perpetuated  as 
a  uution,  ns  yet  giioci'eclcd  in  fotiiiding  n  UDoial 
state  of  any  strenttlh;  their  luck  of  experience 
led  tlum  from  one  atitnipt  U) another,  all  equally 
vain  even  the  attempt  of  IharlcmaRne  met 
will,  .1  more  pt'rmuncnt  success.  In  the  midst 
of  tl..  ■•(■  siiicesMve  failiins  one  Institution  alone, 
(Icvi  lii|.injj  slowly  and  steadily  through  the  cen- 
turiis,  followinu  out  tlie  spirit  of  ita  principles, 
continued  to  grow  and  gain  in  power.  In  extiait 
and  ill  unity.  .  ,  ,  The  I'ope  had  now  heeome, 
in  truth,  the  ruler  of  Chrisleniloin.  lie  was, 
however,  still  a  subject  of  the  Greek  Emperor; 
hut  n  rupture  was  iuevitjililc.  as  his  authority, 
on  the  one  hand,  was  growing  day  bv  day,  aiid 

the  cmiwror's  on  the  contrary,  was  declining." 

V.  Puruy,  lli»t.  ,^thf  Miililh  Af/in,  pp.  lU-ll.'S, 
10tm09.  117. — "The  real  jMwer  which  advanced 
the  credit  of  the  Uoniun  see  during  tlu-so  ages 
wag  the  reaction  against  the  Byzantine  des|>otisin 
over  the  F:a8tcm  Church;  and  this  is  the  expla- 
nation of  the  fact  that  altliough  the  new  map  of 
Euro|H'  had  Ix-cn  marked  out.  In  outline  at  least, 
by  the  year  .liHl,  the  Ibiman  see  clung  to  the 
easuni  cinni'ction  until  the  first  half  of  the 
eighth  century.  ...  In  the  political  or  diplo- 
matic struggle  iH'twein  the  Church  and  the  Em- 
perors, in  which  the  Emperors  endeavored  to 
make  the  C'luinh  8ul>s<rvient  to  the  imperial 
policy,  or  to  adjust  the  siluulion  to  the  neoes- 
•IticH  of  the  empire,  and  the  Church  strove  to 
retidn  Its  autonomy  as  a  witness  to  tlie  faith  and 
a  Icirislator  in  the  lilTiiirs  of  religion,  the  Bishop 
I'f  Home  iKianie,  so  to  speak,  the  conHlltutional 
lii:id  nf  the  (ipiHisilioii;  and  the  East  was  willing 
loe\!ilt  his  aulhorily,  as  a  counterpoise  to  that 
of  llie  Emperor,  to  any  extent  short  of  acknowl. 
edging  tli.it  the  priinaey  imi'liiil  a  snpnmacy." 
— .1.11.  Efiir,  ('/in>l,ii,f„m  :  J'>rl,in,ulif,U  ami 
J'i'litir.il,  frtiiii  ('niifiiinliiie  In  th«  tlijhrnuilion,  /i. 
It».—  ■The  election  system  was  only  usi-d  for 
one  degree  of  t  lie  ( (  eli«iii.stii  al  dignitaries,  for  the 
bishopric.  The  lower  dii^iiitaries  wen?  chosen 
by   the  l)i.-l'  They    were   ilivided  into  two 

lategfiric  -the  liiflier  and  the  lower 

onhrs,    T  hn  .■  hij:her  onlers,  namely, 

the  priesl>  ons,   and  tlie  siih-ihacona, 

and  liiur  In  rs,   the  aeolvtes,   the  disir- 

kw(Hrs,  th)  xorcists,  and  the' ri-adera.  The 
latter  orders  wen>  not  ngarihil  as  an  integral 
pan  ,1  the  elirtv.  as  their  niemliers  were  the 
f«r\;.nlsot  till' olhem.  As  reiranlsthe  lerritoriHl 
divisions,  the  bishop  govenieil  the  diis.-w.whlih 
at  a  much  later  ilule  was  divldeil  Into  parishes, 
whos4'  spiritual  welfari'  was  lu  the  hands  of  the 
parish  priest  or  curate  (iiirio).  The  parishes 
taken  together,  eoiistitiilisl  the  diorese ;  the  iiiiileii 
dio(eB.s.  ir  suffragan  bishoprics,  conatituleil  the 
ecch  siaslieal  proviiue,  at  whone  head  stixst  the 
nietro|>olitan  or  an  liliishop.  When  a  provin- 
cial  loiincil  was  held.  It  met  In  the  melroisilU 
and  was  pn -iie  i!  over  by  the  metn>|Militan. 
Alsoe  tie'  nil  tropolitaiis  «,«•  llio  Puiriarxhs.  in 
the  Eiisl.  iind  the  1'rini.iles  in  th«  West.  hiHho|ia 
who  held  the  gri'ut  lapiials  or  the  apostolic  ws's, 
Conslaiitinople.  Ah  xaiidria,  .\ntria'h,  llonie, 
Jerii'udeni.  (  esiina  in  CappadiM'ia,  Carthage  in 
Africa,  and  lleriH  litis  in  Tiirace;  among  them 
Home  rankiil  hiirher  bv  one  deirree,  and  fmin 
this  supreme  |Hisiiion  exen  isisl  a  supreme  sulhor- 
Itjr  ackiiowlnlgiil  bv  all  Die  ('hur»h."— V 
Uuru/,  Ui4l.  </  (A«  MiiUU  Aft,  |y.  lU9-lia— 


"The  divergence  of  the  two  Churches,  Eastem 
and   Western,    was  greater  In  reulitv    tl,an  it 
appears  to  be  from  a  superlicial  view.     U  ^-^ 
based  on  essential  variations  in  the  character  anj 
disposition  of  the  people  in  the  East  ami  in  the 
West,  on  tlie  nature  of  their  civilization.  ,.i]„i  „„ 
the  dilTen'tit,  almost  antagonistic.  iIim  lopiMintuf 
the  Christian  idea  in  one  Church  and  in  the  ether. 
.  .  .  The  Eastern  Church  rejoiced  in  iis  direct 
alHliation  with  apostolic  times,  in  its  mii  liil  pre. 
servalion  of  traditions,  and  was  con-  inn  .1  of  jt, 
esjiecial  right  to  be  considen'd  tlie  true  lie  ir  nnil 
successor  of  Christ.  .  .   .  The  letter  of  i|„'  h^ 
superseded  the  spirit;  rillglon  stilfened  im,,  for. 
maiisni;    piety  consistol  lu  strict  ohserv^nee  of 
ceremonial  riU's;  external  holiness  re|,l:i(f,|  ^in. 
cere  and  heartfelt  devotion.  .  .  .    Tliroiifihout 
the  West  the  tenilency  was  in  a  coniniry  ilinn^. 
tion  — towards  the  practical  appliealiou  of  ti,e 
religious  idea.     The  effete,  worn  out  eivili/ntion 
of  the  past  was  there  renovated  by  coniiii  t  und 
admixture  with  young  and  vigonMis  nnrs.  and 
gained  new  strength  and  vitality  in  the  siriii;(;le 
for  existence.     The  Church,  freed  from  eentrul, 
became  Independent  and  self-iLssertimr;  llie  re'- 
sponsibility  cf  government,  the  preservaiiuo  ef 
social    order,   ilevolved    upon    it.    and    it  rose 
proudly  to  the  task."— A.  F.  Hcanl.   I'L  /,'i«. 
lian  l.hureh  and  Jium-in  l)in,iil,  ji/},  iHi),_ 
"On  the  overthrow  of  the  Wesi.  rn  Eiiipin-,  and 
the  demonstraiioii,  rendered  nmnilVst  to  all,  tint 
with  the  complete  triumph  of  the  new  world  of 
secular  p<ilities  a  new  spiritual  di'velopniint,  a 
new   phase  of    Divine  guidance,  was  openin^r, 
the  ronscience  of  the  UTievers  was  arou^iil  to  a 
sense  of  the  aiufulnesa  of  their  innanllv  iniic- 
tivlty.     'Go  ye   into  all    nations,    and    inptiw 
them,'  had  iH'cn  the  last  wonis  of  tli.  ir  hlrssed 
Master.  ...   It  Is  to  this  new  or  reviinl  mis. 
slonary  spirit  which  disiiiiguishrd  the  si\;li  nu- 
tury.  of  which  I  would  place   I'ope  (;ieL.,,rv  llie 
First,  or  the  (Jn'at,  as  the  ceiitml  tiiriire.  ili,,,t  I 
desire  now  to  inlnstuco  you.     Kinjrinli,  r  that 
the  Emnire,  whiih  had  rcpresenteii  tlieiii,iiv(d 
mankind,  had  la'conie  dislntegrited  and  hrekia 
Into  fragmcnta.      Meu  wen'  no  |oii;:er  H.niaiis, 
but  Ooths  and  Sucves,    Bnrgundiaiis  iiii.l  Van- 
dals,  and  beyond  them  lluiis,  .\>.irs,   Kniiilis. 
and  Eonibanls.  some  «lth  a  slli.'lii   liiMiiire  ef 
Christian   teaching,   but   most   wiili   nonr    .  .  . 
lA't  but  the  (fONiK'l  Is-   pnKlaliiiid   to  ,.ll,  «nd 
leave  the  issue  in  GihI's  hands;    .Siieh  wai  tlie 
eoDtrnst  between  the  age  of  Eeo  and  tin- age  nf 
Gregory!  .  .  ,  The  conversion  of  I  lov is  ami  tlie 
Franks  Is.  I  lupiHise,  the  earliest  in-.i.inii'  id  a 
Christian  mission  carried  out  on  a  ii  iiional  sealu 
by  the  common  action  of  the  Chun  h  n  pr.  vnlcd 
by   the    I'opf   and   .See   of    Home.      It   lnremi'S 
■i-conlingly  n  gnat   historical  event.  d>s<rvin{ 
the  earnest  cfinslderallon  not  of  Clnin  liim  n  i.nlv, 
but  of  all  iMililU'.denipiln'rs.  "— C  .M.  rivali .  /■;..> 

Ijtttufit  UH   H»M    K'l>"r/ll  nf  Kirln    I'.'iffnl,    lliMl  , 

}>p.  lT'J-177.— "Chrlslliuilty  tlms  nnenrd  in 
anlor  forproaelytisin,  .iml  Gnitorv  i  ..nininiiisl  ie 
Its  suci'eaa  most  wiwly  liy  eiijotiiun:  pn  e,  ptn  et 
nioderathin  u|Hin  his'  mlsslonnries.  and  n>  ilii< 
skillful  manner  In  which  he  mnde  the  innsiiien 
to  Cath.dlcltm  easy  Iji  the  paitans;  he  «i',ie  to 
Augustine:  'He  cawful  not  lodi«lniv  the  piiiraa 
temph'S;  It  !•  only  swrsjiarv  to  de-.ir--.-  th-.-  !•!■>!•. 
then  to  sprinkle  iIhi  (slillc«>  with  hoU  «anr.  siid 
to  build  altara  and  place  relies  ih.  re  If  the 
UHupki  aiv  wtili  built,   it  U  »  wUi  uul  uwful 


476 


CHKISTUNiry. 


Convertton 
of  tht  £ngluh. 


CHM8TIANITY. 


thing  ''f  t''*™  ^  P*"  '"""  ">*  worship  of 
dfiniw-j  to  the  wonhip  of  the  true  0<x1;  for 
vhilr  the  nation  sees  its  old  places  of  worship 
still  staiulinK,  it  will  be  the  more  ready  to  go 
tliiiv,  bv  force  of  habit,  to  worship  the  true 
G()(l.'  In  the  inteiior  Gregory  succeeded  in 
amint-'ing  the  different  degrees  of  jHiwer  in  the 
Churi'li.  and  in  forcing  the  recognition  of  tlie 
lupreiue  power  of  the  Holy  S»'e.  Wc  find  him 
craniiiii:  the  title  of  Vicar  of  Oaul  to  the  bishop 
of  Aries,  and  corresponding  with  Augustine, 
inlilrishop  of  Canterbury,  in  regard  to  Oreat 
Britiiiii,  with  the  archhishop  of  S«'ville  in  reganl 
til  ^'paiii.  with  the  archbishop  of  Thes.salonica  in 
regiirii  t«  Greece,  and.  finally,  sending  legates 
1  liilire'  to  Constantinople.  In  Ids  fastonil. 
wliirli  he  wrote  on  the  occasion  of  his  election. 
auil  w liiili  became  an  established  precedent  in 
tlie  West,  he  prescribed  ti)  the  bishops  their 
sivi'ral  duties,  following  the  decisions  of  many 
imincils  He  strengthened  the  hierarchy  by 
pnveiiling  the  encroachments  of  the  bishops 
upon  (1111  imotlier:  I  liaxe  given  to  you  'le 
spiritiKil  direction  of  Britain.'  he  wrote  to  le 
amliili"iis  Augustine.  ' and  not  that  of  the  Gauls.' 
He  rr;irningeiTthe  monasteries,  made  discipline 
the  I'liji-i  t  of  his  vigilant  care,  reformed  Church 
musir  iinil  substituted  the  chant  that  iH'urs  Ids 
name  f"r  the  Andirosiau  chant,  'which  re- 
semlilid.  accortling  to  a  contemporary,  'the  fur- 
(it!  iioi-i'  of  a  chariot  rumbling  over  pebbles. ' 
Hmiii'.  vii  inriiHis  again  with  the  help  nf  (iri'gory 
till'  liri'ul.  continueii  to  push  her  coni|Uesls  to 
ilivianl  rmintriis  aft«'r  his  death."— V.  Duruv. 
Il,,l  .ftlif  ViMlr  Afff.  /),  lift— Sei'.  aliove: 
X  l>  4W1-XII0.  and  Home:  A.  I).  51K»-«4(I 

A.  D.  597-800. —The  Eogliih  Church.— 
'Till'  (  athiilie  Chun  li  in  ttie  west  became  prac 
tI'Mlly  s|'lil  up  into  two  great  strtions.  One  of 
llie«liiid  its  centre  at  Home,  drew  its  inspiration 
fr'in  the  culture  and  discipline  of  the  imperial 
ciiy.  its  strength  from  the  traililions  of  an  apoa- 
iivlir  -ei'.  and  exercisi'd  an  inlluence  none  the  less 
nil  luKnini' often  litful  and  resented,  over  her 
biirUiriancoMqiiironiiiirougliout  western  Kuni|)e. 
Till  oilier,  driven  bark  to  the  islands  and  hills  of 
InUiiil  Sniilaml.  and  Celtic  Kngland,  develoi>ed 
•iiijiil  ir  powers  of  iH'rsonal  sitiiitllness  and  mis- 
tii'tiiiry  M-Ir  Siicrifire  among  her  uncultured  and 
un.li~  iplini  il  children.  Kn^ni  the  uninii  of  the 
tnoihi' I  hiirch  of  England  derived  its  full  atid 
nutuieil  life,  .  .  On  the  tttlh  of  Novemlier 
L\.  I>.  .'ittTi  he  (Augustine)  waaconsi'erated  .KnU- 
M'li'iKif  the  Knglish  l)y  Vergiliiis.  Anlibishop 
sml  ^l,■tlopolil»n  ,)f  Aries  and  the  Infant  Church 
nf  Kiichiiid  began  to  bi-  "  — 11.  O  \V«kem»n. 
An  Inlr-'iliirlion  to  t lie  Jlinlorfi  nf  tlir  Cluirfh  of 
Kviliwl,  ell.  1.  3  —"About  ilie  year  .WO,  .  .  . 
(iri'i:"ry  iveupietl  ihermiik  of  a  deaiwi.  ...  lie 
w»«i»rly  noiiil  for  his  zeal  and  piety;  coming 
iiiiii  liiriie  |w)«ses«|iins  .  he  had  exJM'ndeii  his 
«•  iltli  in  the  foundation  of  no  less  llian  st-ven 
111  mMieii.-t.  and  hail  become  himself  the  abliot 
of  St     Andrew's,    at    Kome.     Devoted    as 

he  wii>  from  tlie  first  to  nil  .  go.nl  works, 
his  aiienlton  was  more  jiarticularly  lurnecl 
t'  ilie  iiiuse  of  Christian  missions  by  casually 
Mnarkiiig  a  troop  of  young  slaves  eililbitiHl 
tor  sale  in  the  lioman  market.  Struck  with 
the  lieiutT  or  fresh  c-.inspleiinB  of  the*'  t'.rar.. 
ms.  he  nsketl  whether  thry  werr  Christ 
\m'  or  Pagans.  Tlwy  wer<'  INgans,  II  wn« 
^'l'liP'l      lluw   sad,   h«  ticlaluMj,   that  inch 


fair  countcnaces  should  lie  under  the  power  of 
demons,  'Whence  came  they  ?' — '  From  Anglia. ' 
— 'Truly  they  are  Angels.  What  is  the  name 
of  their  country?' — "Deira." — 'Truly  they  are 
subject  to  the  wrath  of  God :  Ira  Dei.  And  their 
kingY' — 'Is  named  .fllla.' — '  Let  them  learn  to 
sing  Allelujah.'  Britain  had  lately  fallen  under 
the  sway  of  the  heathen  Angles.  Throughout 
the  eastern  section  of  the  island,  the  faith  of 
Christ,  which  had  been  established  there  from 
early  times,  had  Iwen.  it  seems,  utterly  extirpated. 
The  British  church  of  Lucius  and  Albanus  still 
lingered,  but  was  chiefly  confined  within  the 
ruder  districts  of  Cornwall.  Wales,  and  Cumbria, 
The  reported  destruction  of  the  people  with  all 
their  churches,  and  all  their  culture,  begun  by 
the  Picts  and  Scots,  and  carried  on  by  ti  ■ 
Angles  and  their  kindred  Saxons,  had  mwle 
profound  impression  upon  Christendom.  T:. 
■(Jroans  of  the  Britons 'had  terrified  all  man- 
kind, and  discourageii  even  the  bmve  nds- 
sionaries  of  Italy  and  Gaul.  .  .  ,  Gre.irory  de- 
termined to  nuilic  the  sacrifice  himself.  He 
prevaili'd  on  the  Pope  to  sanction  his  enter- 
prise ;  but  the  people  of  Home,  with  whom  he  was 
a  favourite,  interposed,  and  lie  was  constrained 
reluctantly  to  foivgo  the  p<'ril  and  the  blessing. 
But  the  sight  he  had  witnessed  in  the  niarket- 
|ilace  still  ntained  its  impression  upon  him.  He 
kept  the  fair-liainvl  Angles  evir  in  view;  and 
will  11.  in  the  year  .">W'i.  he  was  himself  elevated 
to  llie  popislom,  lie  ri'solved  In  send  a  mission, 
and  lling  upon  ilie  obscure  shores  of  Britain  the 
full  beams  of  the  sun  of  Christendom,  as  tliey 
then  seennil  to  shine  so  eonspii'uously  at  Home. 
Augustine  was  the  preacher  chosen  from  among 
the  inmates  of  iine  of  Gregory  s  monasteries,  for 
till'  arduous  task  thus  im|H)sed  upon  him.  He 
wiLS  to  lie  accompanied  by  a  select  bund  of 
twelve  monks,  togetlier  with  a  i .  ,tain  numlM'rof 
attendants.  ,  ,  .  Tliere  is  something  \ery  re- 
markable in  the  facility  with  which  the  "rti  rce 
idolaters,  whose  name  had  struck  such  terror 
into  the  Christian  nations  far  and  near,  yielded 
to  the  persuasions  of  this  band  of  peaceful 
evangelists." — C,  Merivale.  Ftmr  Ircturt*  on  p<ime 
A'/«»-/i»  .,/  /'iir/v  Churrl.  lltntorv.  t>l'  l!»-!-HW  — 
Se  Eno1..\nu:  a.  1)  »»7-«W.'i— The  Honian 
missionaries  ir  England  landed  hi  Kent  and  ap- 
|H'ar  to  have  had  mon-  infiueme  with  the  petty 
courtsof  the  little  kingdoms  tliiin  with  the  (Hople, 
The  convitsion  of  the  Nnrtl.  of  Kngland  must 
be  crediU'd  to  the  Irish  monastery  on  the  island 
of  loiia,  'At  the  lieginning  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury these  Irish  Christ:  ns  were  seized  with  an 
unconquerable  '.mpulse  to  wander  afar  and 
preach  Christianity  to  the  heathen  In  !W3 
Columba.  witli  iwelvi  confederate:),  left  Inland 
and  founded  a  monastery  on  a  small  Island  off 
the  coast  of  Scotland  iloiia  or  Ilyi.  through  the 
iufiiience  of  which  the  Scots  and  Plitsof  Britain 
U'came  convertisl  to  cluistianliy.  twentythn-e 
missions  among  the  Scots  and  eighlii'n  in  the 
omnlrv  of  the  Picts  having  Ix-en  established  at 
tlie  death  of  Columba  (.WT)  I'lider  his  third 
successor  the  heathen  Saxons  wen-  convert*-!!; 
Aedan.  summoned  by  Oswaril  of  Northunibria, 
having  lalMired  among  them  from  BIM  to  tl.11  u 
missionary,  alilsit.  and  bisliop  His  successors. 
Finnan  aind  Colman.  worthilv  carrie<!  on  his 
work,  and  inlnsluctil  Christianity-  into  other 
Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms  near  East  Anglia, 
Mvrcia.    and    Esaex."— H,    ZUumer.    Tht  Iritk 


477 


IIIe- 


CHRISTIANITY. 


TV  B%dgariai% 
Church. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


Stemmt  in  .Veditmil  Cuhure,  pp.  19-21.— "Two 
buids  of  devoieil  men  had   hitherto  been   em- 
pIo^e<l  in  the  conversion  of  England,  the  Komao. 
assisted    by  their  converts  and   some  teachers 
from  FrancH.  and  the  Irish,  who  were  plainly 
the  lare^r  Ixnly.     Betwet-n  the  rwo  there  were 
the  i>l(l  dilTcrencos  as  to  the  time  of    keeping 
Easter  and  till' form  of  tlie  clerical  tonsure.  .  .  . 
Thiia,  while  Dswy  [King  of  Mercia]  was  cele- 
brating Easter  lu^cording  f(<  the  custom  he  had 
learnt  at  lona.   Ms  ■lucen  Eartleila  observed  it 
a»'cording  to  tht    rule  which  she  had  I'.-amt  in 
Kent,  and  was  s'ill  pn\cti.»ing  the  austerities  of 
Lent.     Tlw'W  dileren^es  were  tolerated  during 
the   Epiw'opate  of  Aiilnu  and  Flnan.  but  when 
Finan  died  and  was  succeeded  by  C'olman.  the 
controversy"  was  terminated   bv"  Dswv.    after 
much  debate,  with  the  words— ""•I  viiriiold  to 
St.    Pi'ter.   lost,   when  I   present  mvself  at  the 
gates  of  Heaven,  he  should   close  tliem  against 
me.'.      .  Colman,   with  all  his  Irish  brethren, 
and  thirty  Northumlirians  who  had  joined  the 
monastery,    ouittcil    Lindisfame  and    sailed   to 
lona.  " — O.   I.    .Miidear.  dmn-rnnn  of  the   W,»t: 
Tht  EnijlM.,  ;»,).  81-M.">.— The  impartial  historian 
to  wlioni  we  owe  all  the  early  history  of  the 
English   Church,  thus  records  "the   memory  of 
these  devoted  men  as  it  remained  in  the  niinds 
of    Englishmen  long  after  their  dep.irture.     It 
is  a  brief  passage,  one  like  thosi'  in  the  greater 
Ecclesiatical  History  of  Eusebius,    whi<h  iiuist 
stanil    fur  much  we  do  not  know.     Ii<ferrii;g  to 
their  devoteil  lives  ■  -"  For  this  reasim  the  relig 
lous  iiabit  was  at  that  time  in  great  veneration; 
so  tliat  wheresoever  any   clergyman  or   monk 
happened  to  come,  he  was  j(vyfiilly  received  bv 
all  persons,  as  (JikI's  servant ;  and  if  tliey  chanceil 
U>  meit  him  upon  the  way,  they  nm  to  him,  i>nd 
bowing,  were  ghid  to  l«."8ignMl  with  his  hand, 
or  blessed  with  his  mouth.     Great  attention  was 
also  paiil  to  thiir  e.\horta!ions;  ami  on  Sundavs 
they    tl(Kked     •airirly    to   the    churdi.    or    the 
monasteries,  not  to  feed  their  bodies,  but  to  hear 
the  word  (.f  (JvhI  ;  and  if  any  priest  hapiH  ned  to 
cimii'    into    a    village,    the"  inhabitants    Hinked 
together  to  hear  from  him  the  word  of   life;  f,ir 
the  prii'sts  and  <  lergynii'n  went  into  lli,   ,illag.> 
<mno  other  a<count  than  to  jireai  h,  baptise,  visit 
the   silk.  i.nd.    in  few  wonls,  to  take   care   of 
•ouls,  andthey  wen's.,  fri'e  fn mi  woriily  avarice, 
that  none  of  tlicni  n'leived  lands  anil  piwsessions 
for  building  niotnisteries,  unli'ss  they  were  cnm- 
pelleil    to  do   Ml  liy    the    tein|>oral  "authorities; 
which  cusloni  was  for  some  time  after  observed 
in  all  the  .  hurilii-s  of  the  Xorthuirbrians.     ibit 
enoiiizh  has  now  la'en  said  on  this  subject." — jiif 
1>|(.  niUf  Hfiien  KreUtitutinil  Ilinlirry  „f  Hnqln  ml; 
f'l    '',1/  ./,   .1.    (Jilff.  bt.   U,  f/i.   •>«  — Tlie  English 
t'liunh    passed  through   severiil    stages  during 
this  piriisl    A  notable  one  was  the  ris«'  and  fall  of 
•  loosi'   monastic   system  which   altnutiil  men 
and  ■.mmen  of  the    U'tter  claases.  but   fur  lack 
of  a   siriil   rule  limught    Itwdf  into  disreimte. 
AnotliiT  was  the  development  of  classical  leaniing 
»nd  the  fiiiincliilion  of  the  schiH.I  at  .larrow  in 
NorthiMnl»rland    resulting   In  making  England 
the  Intellectual  centre  o(   the  world.     Venerable 
Ikile,  who  wiote  tie  Keclesiasllcal  History  of  the 
English  Church,  was  the  greatest  teacher  of  this 
epoch;  and  Aleuln,  a  Northumbrian   bv    birth, 
and  of  the  s.hocil  a:  V,,rii,  ..f  liu'  i«xl.  "  iuviled 
b^  Charlemagne  to  the  Frankish  Court,  he  carrietl 
Eogllsh  learning  to  the  Cuutloent,  ami  although 


he  died  at  the  time  of  the  foundation  of  the 
Empire,  left  bis  Influence  in  manv  ways  on  the 
development  of  European  culture.  "A  siuei. 
fact  of  interest  will  suffice,  to  show  the  i|„se 
connection  of  this  early  history  witli  tjiai  of 
Rome  and  the  continent  —  viz.,  to  AUuin  \\|.  are 
largely  indebted  for  the  parent  si-ripl  wiijch 
formed  our  Roman  letters.  (I.  Tailnr  Tk 
Alplubtt.  T.  3,  p.  180.)  Northumbrian"  li-iirninir 
and  the  rich  libraries  of  ancient  ami  Ain-Iu- 
Saxon  literature  were  destroyeil  by  ilu'  D.ims 
who,  in  their  incursions,  showc"  fiir  a  Icmmiine 
peculiar  animosity  to  monks  and  moiiii»i,.rios 
Although  the  service  of  this  eariv  Aii;.'li.  Siixim 
Church  was  partly  in  the  veniac'ular,  aii.l  l.irirp 
portions,  if  not  all,  of  the  Gos|)els  iiuii  Ihcii 
translati  ;,  little  remains  to  us  of  its  larlv  nlij. 
ious  literature.  The  translations  of  iln '(;,,,n;,i 
into  Anglo-Saxon  that  have  come  down  to  usare 
to  be  attributed  to  a  late  period. 

9th  Century.— The  BulKuian  Church.-  In 
the  Iwginning  of  this  9th  ccnturv,  a  sister  ..f  the 
reigning  Iltitgarian  king.  Bogoris,  Um  h]\n 
as  a  captive  iiuo  the  keening  of  the  tJn'i  k  em- 
peror. For  thirty  eight  > ears  she  liviilat  Con- 
stantinople, and  wa-  there  instructed  in  tlie  iI.k- 
trines  of  'ne  Christain  Faith.  .Mianwhil,.  the 
adminis'.iition  passetl  into  the  lianiis  of  ilic  em- 
press  Regent,  Theodora.  She  was  intinsiid  in 
a  certain  monk  named  Ciipharas,  who  liml  t«.|.n 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Bulgarians,  and  with  a 
view  to  his  n>demption,  she  openiil  tieirotiiitiunj 
with  Bogoris.  An  exchange  of  prisoners  was 
Hnallv  effected.  The  sister  of  H,iir,,ris  »n;  re- 
stored to  him,  while  Cupharas  was  pirniilti.l  to 
return  to  Constantinople.  Hi  i  r..  the  plia'<  of 
the  pious  monk,  however,  he  liinl  striviri.  Iliniii,'h 
quite  unavailingly.  to  win  the  Bulgarinn  prinif 
to  the  service  of  the  Cross.  These  fniill.  s»  m- 
deavi-s  were  supplemenleil  by  the  eiilri:iii.«  of 
the  kin;;  s  sister,  on  her  retuiii  front  (  .inMinti- 
nople.  .  .  At  last,  fear  snapivd  tlie  filters 
which  love  had  failed  to  bsiMignge.  .  .  Hi, 
baptism  was  celebrated  at  miilniglii  with  pnv 
loundest  secriH-y.  The  rite  was  ailininistinil  hy 
no  lessa  p<'r8image  than  the  patrianli  I'li.itiiii 
He  emphasized  the  solemnity  of  the  mi  isi.in  hy 
presenlit.g  the  neophyte  with  a  lemrthv  inatiso 
on  Christianity,  theoretical  and  pnuiii-il.  mn 
sidered  mainlv  in  its  liearings  on  the  diilii  s  nf  « 
monarch.  The  emperor  .Michael  si.>.«l  sii,.ii»ir 
by  proxy,  ami  the  Bulgarian  king  n  ri  ivni.  ,« 
his  Chrisiiau  name,  that  of  his  inipiriil  ml. 
father  .  .  .  The  Iwttle-criis  of  thii>l"i;v  nnt 
over  Christendom,  anil  the  world  was  p-eiili-il 
with  the  8|)ectacleof  a  struggle  iHtwem  the  rivsl 
Cho.riiu's  forthepiBuM-ssionof  Hulgariu.  imiinlrT 
till  re.ently  so  omspleuously  'islliute  nf  lim-ras 
if  any  kind.  The  Bulgarians  tliemsi  hi  s.iL.iilit- 
h'ss  much  astonished  at  the  upmarfor  thelrsikf, 
and.  surely,  more  |>erple.xed  than  en  r  liv  the 
manners  anil  customs  of  Christianity.  iHgaii  to 
waver  in  (heir  adheremv  to  the  Westi'rn  Church, 
and  to  exhibit  symptoms  of  an  iiulinatiun  tutnuu- 
fer  their  allegiance  to  C.)nstaiiiiniipl-  The 
strife  went  on  for  years.  At  la<t.  A  l>  nT7. 
the  Latin  clergv  having  bt'en  dismisseil  from  the 
omntry.  l'o|>e  John  VIII.  solemnly  expostiiliitril. 

(iMti-stlng  against  the  Greek  priKlivitirs  nf  the 
iulgarians.  and  prtKlictinirdire  results  fmm  their 
idenlily  with  a  C'liun-h  whieli  was  nniv  fr« 
tnmi  heresy  in  one  form  or  another.  .\  wrtbe- 
less,  the  ByjtontlDe  leooiogs  uf  Bulgari.t  did  cul- 


478 


CHRISTIANITY. 


Slav  and 
yorthmen. 


CHRI8TUNITY. 


minste  in  union  with  the  Eastprn  Church.  A 
Greek  iinhbishop  and  bishopa  of  the  same  rom- 
raunion.  settled  .n  the  country.  .  .  .  '  The  East- 
tm  branch '  of  the  Slavonic  lHn;;iiages,  propj'riy 
gocullfl.  'comprehends  the  Rus.sian,  with  vari<.  i< 
local  dialects,  the  Bulgariiin,  and  the  Illyrian 
The  most  ancient  document  of  this  Eastern 
branch  is  the  so-called  ecclesiastical  Slavonic. 
I.  f,,  tlic  nn.-ient  Bulgarian,  into  which  Cyrillus 
anil  Mi'tluxlius  translated  the  Rilile  in  tlie  I'niildli' 
of  tliiDthcenturv.  This  is  still  the  autliori/.<il 
version  of  the  Bible  for  the  whole  Slavonic  nice, 
jnd  to  the  student  of  the  Slavonic  languages  it 
|j  what  Gothic  is  to  the  student  of  German. '  " — O. 
F.  Maoleur.  Convernoti  of  the  M'fit:  The  Shu-, 
fp.  .>l-<)9. 

9th  Century.— CoiiTeriion  of  MoraTia. —  •  In 
the  iipeninir  years  of  the  9th  century  Moravia 
siMcliiil  frotii  the  Bavarian  liorih'rs  to  the  Hun- 
pirian  river  Drina.  and  from  the  banus  of  the 
D.tuuU'.  Iwyond  the  Carpathian  mountams.  to 
the  river  Stfyi  in  Southern  Poland.  Into  this 
terriiiiry  Clirislianity  had  U-en  ushered  as  early 
as  -V.  I>.  l^ll.  by  Charlemagne,  wiio,  as  his  cus- 
tom w;is.  ciiforeed  bfiptism  at  the  point  of  the 
swnril.  at  least  as  far  as  the  king  was  coneeme(i. 
ElI'iK  wire  suba»'quently  made  by  the  arch- 
hisli.iw  of  Salzburg  and  Passau  to  fan  this  first 
fei  lile  Iticker  into  something  like  a  flame.  But 
no  suiTcss  attended  their  exertions.  Paganism 
was  iiv(  rpoweringlv  strong,  and  Christianity  not 
only  weak,  but  rude  ami  uncouth  in  type.  .  .  . 
The  story  of  this  country,  during  the  process 
of  enianiipiition  fnmi  paganism,  is  but  a  re[M'ti- 
tion  of  the  incidents  with  which,  in  nelghlHiuring 
Stat,  s,  we  have  already  become  familiar  liami- 
li.aliotis  .if  the  work  .if  Cyril  ami  Methodius  ex- 
t.ii.li 'I  into  S'rvia.  The  ?*lavonie alphaliet  made 
wiiy  ihire,  as  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  for 
Chrisiianity.  The  Servians  'enjoyed  the  advant- 
at'.if  a  liturcy  whi(  h  was  intelligible  to  them; 
and  we  tiiiil  that,  early  in  the  loth  century,  a 
ri.n«iilirable  numl)er  of  Slavonian  priists  /rf>m 
all  the  ilicKeses  were  ordained  bv  the  bishop  of 
Nona,  wh.t  w  as  himself  a  .Slav  ,n  by  ilescent. ' " 
— i;.  K,  Mallear,    Oinremiiiii  of  t/i('Wett:    Thf 

SUr,.    ,■',     4. 

9th-ioth  Centnriea.— The   Eaatem  Church 

u  a  missionary  Church.— "  If  the  missionary 
>|iiril  isllie  best  evidence  ..f  vitality  in  a  chureli. 
it.irtaiiily  wasn.it  wantlnir  in  the  Eksteni  Church 
iliiriug  tile  ninth  nt^d  tenth  centuries  of  our  era. 
This  iieriiHl  witnesseil  the  conversion  to  Chris- 
tiiiiiityof  the  principal  Slavonic  peopli'S.  whereby 
tley  are  Is.th  llnkeil  with  ('..nstantinople,  anil 
tfc.uml  lOiTither  bv  thow  assiK-latiimsof  envil.  as 
w.li  as  race,  wlifeh  fonii  so  important  a  factor 
in  the  KunijM'an  |>oliticsof  the  prewntdav.  The 
Moravians,  the  Bulgarians,  and  the  Itussians 
were  n.iw  brought  within  the  fohl  of  the  Chunh ; 
ami  the  way  was  prepared  for  that  vast  exteii- 
•lon.if  the  Greek  communion  by  which  it  has 
•prea.l.  not  only  throughout  the  Balkan  p«'nln- 
sulaaiid  the  laii.ls  to  the  north  of  It.  hut  whtr- 
ev-r  liiisslan  inHuence  is  found  —  as  far  as  the 
White  Sa  on  the  one  side,  and  Kamtchalka  ..n 
llif  .ither,  aii.l  Into  the  heart  of  Central  Asia. 
The  ha.lers  In  t'lls  great  work  wen-  the  two 
h^.th.m,  Cyril  and  Methodius,  who  in  conse- 
ij::v::r:-  r.i  this,  h.ive  i.in..'  Into  klioWu  as  (lie 
.\|«isil,.s..f  the  Slavonian*  What  Meirop  did 
f"t  the  .Vrmeninns,  what  Vmias  dhl  for  the 
Outh.,  wu,  accomplltUeU  for  that  raie  by  Cyril 


in  the  indention  of  a  Slavonic  alphabet,  whidi 
from  this  cause  is  still  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Cyrillic.  The  same  teacher,  by  his  translation 
of  the  Scriptures  Into  their  tongue,  provided  them 
with  a  literary  language,  thereby  pnslucing  the 
same  result  which  Luther's  Bible  subsequently 
effected  for  Germany,  and  Dante's  DIvina  Com- 
media  for  Italy.  It  is  no  matter  for  surprise  that, 
throughout  the  whole  of  this  great  branch  of  the 
human  race  —  even  amongst  the  Russians,  who 
oweil  their  Christianity  to  another  source  —  the 
names  of  these  two  brothers  shoidd  occupy  the 
foremost  place  in  the  calenilar  of  Saints.  It  is 
not  less  significant  that  their  names  are  not  even 
inentlonetl  by  the  Byzantine  historians." — II.  F. 
Tozer,  T!ie  Church  and  the  Eattern  Empire, 
eh.  7. 

9th-iith  Centuries.— The  Western  Church 
aa  a  missionary  Church. — The  earlier  missions  of 
the  Western  Church  have  been  descrital.  but  it 
is  noteworthy  that  again  and  again  missions  to 
the  same  regions  are  necessary.  It  requires  such 
a  map  as  the  one  accompanying  this  article  to 
make  plain  tLe  slowness  of  its  diffusions  and  the 
long  period  needed  to  prmlucc  even  a  nomi- 
nally Christian  Europe.  ' '  The  views  of  Charle- 
maene  for  the  conquest  and  conversion  of  the 
Northern  heathens  [see  Saxons:  A.  I>.  TT'i-S'M], 
were  not  confined  to  the  limits,  wide  as  they 
were,  of  Saxony.  The  final  jiaciflcation  effected 
at  Salz.  st<enied  to  open  his  eves  to  more 
extensive  enterprises  in  prospect.  V'olitlcal  may 
have  comblne<i  with  religious  motives  in  induc- 
ing him  to  secure  the  peace  of  his  new  frontiers, 
by  enlisting  the  tritx-s  of  Denmark  umler  tlie 
banner  of  the  Cross,  and  he  conceived  the  i.lea 
of  planting  a  church  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Hamburg,  which  should  f)ecome  a  missionary 
c.ntre.  This  plan,  though  interrupted  by  his 
death,  was  not  neglected  by  his  son  Louis  le 
Di-lKinnaire.  or  'the  Pious.'.  .  ,  But  it  is  easier 
to  propose  such  a  plan  than  find  one  willing  to 
carry  it  out.  The  well-known  femcity  of  tho 
Northmen  long  deterred  any  one  from  offering 
liims<>lf  for  such  a  duty.  At  length  he  re(eivi.3 
Intelligent  from  Wala.  the  abNu  of  ('.  rlK-y, 
near  .\miens,  that  one  of  his  monks  was  not 
unwilling  to  undertake  the  perilous  enterprise. 
The  intrepid  voluntwr  was  Anskar,  "— (i.  P. 
Maclear.  f'onrfrnon  of  the  H'Mf;  The  Xort/im^n, 
eh.  'i.- "In  82-2.  Ilamld.  the  king  of  Jutland, 
and  claimant  of  the  crown  of  Denmark,  came  to 
st'ck  the  help  of  Louis  the  Pious,  the  s<m,  and 
one  of  the  successors,  of  Charlemagne.  .  ,  .  On 
Harold's  return  to  Denmark  he  was  accompanied 
by  Anskar,  who  well  ileserves  to  be  calletl  the 
ajxwtle  of  Scandinavia.  .  .  .  Thus  Anskar  and 
AutlH-rt  s<'t  out  In  the  train  of  Ilarolil.  and 
.luring  the  Journey  and  voyage  a  kimllv  feeling 
sprang  up  between  the  royal  and  the  missionary 
families,  Harold  got  no'cortllal  greeting  fMm 
his  pMtiil  heathen  subjects  when  he  announced 
to  tliem  tha*  he  had  ilone  homage  to  tin  empemr, 
ail.;  ihat  he  had  embraceil  the  gospel.  He  seems 
to  have  Iki'U  very  sincen;  end  viry  earnest  in  lii  ■ 
emieavoun  to  in<luce  his  nobles  and  subjects  to 
abandon  idolatry  and  embrace  (Christianity.  To 
expect  that  he  was  altogether  judicious  in  these 
efforts  would  be  to  suppoiie  that  be  had  those 
>ieWH  regar.liug  Ihe  relation  thai  ought  Ui  sub- 
tlst  fietween  rulers  and  subjects.  .  .  .  views 
reganiing  lll>erty  of  conscience  and  the  riirht  of 
private   judgraeoL  .  .  .  The   result   wsa   that 


479 


i 


m- 


CHBISTIANiry. 


7%*  Aiufian 
C%urck. 


CHRISTIANITT. 


^tter.two  jetLTi,  in  828,  he  was  c  impelled  to 
abdicate  the  throne.  .  .  .  The  position  of  Ansliar, 
difflcult  as  it  was  while  Harold  was  on  the 
throne,  became  still  more  ditHcult  after  his 
abdication.  .  .  .  But  just  at  the  time  when  the 
door  was  shut  against  him  in  Denmark.  auot.*ier 
was  oiwned  in  Sweden,  which  proniim'd  to  bo 
wider  and  more  effectual.  .  .  .  He  was  Itindl.v 
received  by  the  Swedish  king,  who  gave  him 
permission  to  preach,  and  his  subjects  freetloi- 
to  accept  and  profess  the  gospel  of  Christ.  As 
Anskarliad  tieen  led  to  expect,  so  he  found,  manv 
Christian  captives,  who  had  been  brouglit  from 
other  countries, —  France.  Oerniany,  Britain, 
Ireland. — and  who,  having  iH'en  as  sheep  with- 
out a  shepherd,  gladly  received  from  Anskar 
those  consiilations  au'  "xhortations  which  were 
fitted  to  alleviate  fhe  .  rrows  of  their  captivity. 
.  .  .  jvftera  year  and  a  half's  stay  in  .Sweden, 
Anskar  returned  home,  and  gladdened  the  heart 
of  the  gixxl  emperor,  and  doubtless  of  many 
others,  by  the  cliee...ig  prospect  he  was  able  to 
present  of  the  acceptance  of  the  gospel  by  the 
Swedes.  He  was  now  made  nominally  bisliiip  of 
Hamburg,  hut  with  the  special  design  of  super- 
intending ami  conducting  missionary  operations 
both  in  Denmark  and  Sweden.  .  .  .  Horik, 
king  of  IDenmark,  who  had  <lriven  lliinild  from 
his  tlirone.  .  .  .  liad  been  hitherto  an  uncom- 
pn)mising  enemy  of  the  gospel.  Anskar  under- 
took the  management  of  some  p<i!itlcal  negoti- 
ations with  him.  ami  in  the  conduct  of  them 
made  so  favourable  an  impn's.si(m  on  him  that 
he  refused  to  have  any  other  negotiator  i)r 
amba,ssador  of  the  German  king  at  his  court. 
He  tri'aled  him  as  a  i>er8onal  friend,  and  gave 
him  full  liberty  to  conduct  missionary  operations. 
Tlie-u'  (iperationa  he  conducted  with  his  usual 
Zeal,  and  liy  (iixl's  blessing,  with  nuich  sucies.s. 
Many  were  baptijcil  The  Christians  of  Ger- 
many ami  Hiilland  traded  more  freely  with  the 
Dane.t  than  Infore.  and  the  Danes  resorted  in 
larger  numbers  as  traders  to  Holland  and 
Oerniany ;  and  in  these  ami  other  ways  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  gospel,  anil  .some  apprihenslon  of 
the  blessings  which  It  brings  with  it.  were 
diffused  among  the  people  .  .  Allliough  the 
Norwegians  wvrv  c  mtinually  coming  into  cim- 
tact.  In  the  varying  rela'ioiis'  of  war  anil  peacr. 
with  the  Swedes  and  the  Danes,  the  Fniicli  and 
the  Germans,  the  English  and  the  Irish,  and 
allhinigh  in  this  way  some  knowledge  of  Ilie 
Chri.ttian  system  must  have  iMin  diffused  among 
them,  yet  the  formal  Introduction  of  It  Into  their 
country  was  a  full  ciijiiiry  l.itcr  than  lis  Intro- 
ductlim  into  Denmark  and  Sweden.  "—Tiiomas 
Smith.  .VfMimil  .Viuutnt,  ;)/'.  li3-13M._'The 
conversions  in  Denmark  were  conllned  to  tlie 
mainland.  The  islands  still  remained  pagan, 
while  human  victims  contlnueil  to  lie  offernVtill 
the  Kiniien)r  Henry  I.  extorted  from  Gorm.  the 
first  king  of  all  Denmark.  In  \.  D.  BS4,  protection 
for  the  (.'hristians  throughout  his  realm,  ami  the 
sl>olillon  of  human  sacritlces.  In  Sweden,  fur 
•evenly  vnim  after  Anskar  s  deatli,  the  nucleus 
of  a  Christian  Church  continued  to  Ih' restricted 
to  the  Delghlxiurhood  of  BIrka.  and  the  country 
was  liarilly  vislteil  by  Christian  missionaries.'— 
O.  F.  Madear,  fonrfriuin  of  Ihr  \S'e4it :  Th, 
S-jrthmfn.  fh. 'i. —  'his  verv  n-markaiiin  that 
in  the  whole  history  of  the  inlriKluction  of 
Christlanitv  Into  Norway  and  IiTlaml.  eztendlpg 
OTer  ■  period  of  a  century  and  a  half,  we  meet 


not  with  the  name  of  any  noted  bishop,  orecclesl. 
astic,  or  missionary.  There  were,  no  doubt 
ecclesiastics  employed  in  the  work,  ami  tbfse 
would  appear  to  have  been  generallv  Kujriisli- 
men;  but  thcv  occupied  a  secondarv  place 
almost  their  only  pi  ince  being  to  baptize  tlnise 
whom  the  kings  i.  pelled  to'  submit  t,i  thit 
ordinance.  The  kings  were  the  real  niis,si.iiiariis- 
and  one  cannot  help  feeling  a  kind  of  uilinir.ition 
for  the  ferocious  zeal  which  one  and  aunthiTof 
them  manifesteil  in  the  undertaking,  — cviii  m 
the  Lord  commendel  the  unjust  steward  ln-i-auac 
he  had  done  wisely,  although  his  wLsiloni  was 
wholly  misdirected.  The  most  persistint  and  the 
most  successful  of  these  missionarv  kints  was 
Olaf  the  Thick,  who  came  from  England  in  ini; 
and  set  himself  with  heart  and  soul  to  the  work 
of  the  demolition  of  heathenism,  an^l  the  sub- 
stitution of  Christianity  as  the  naiimial  re- 
ligion."—Thomas  Smith,  Meriimil  ifini,,!,,  ,,,, 
140-141.  ■" 

loth  Century.— The  Russian  Church.— •  In 
the  middle  of  the  lOtli  century,  the  wi.l„wetl 
I'rincess  Olga.  lately  releasi'd  from  the  <iiresot 
regency,  travelleii  from  Kief  to  Constantiiniiilc 
Whether  her  visit  had  political  chjeet,,  i.r 
whether  she  was  prompted  to  pay  it  wvblv  as 
some  say,  by  a  desire  to  know  more  i4  tin  'bi.ly 
faith  of  which  only  glimpses  had  Imvii  vumb 
safed  her  at  home,  cannot  Im>  posiiiveh  ibciiicfl. 
But  her  sojourn  in  the  Imperial  city  was  a  lum- 
ing-i)oint  in  her  career.  Baptism  "was  ailminis- 
tered  to  her  by  the  patriarch  Polyene  ie<.  tlie 
em|K'ror  Constantlne  Porphyrogeniius  nllic  iaiinir 
as  sponsor.  I'olyeuctes  then  snlemnlv  uil.lhN^HH 
the  princess,  predicting  that  thn)UL'li  her  instru- 
mentality Russia  should  be  riclilv  llesw.l 
'Olga.'  writes  M.  Mouravieff.  n.iw  Imnuie 
Helena  by  baptism,  that  she  might  re*nilil.  I».th 
In  name  and  deed  the  mother  of  Conslaiitim  the 
Great,  stcxxl  meekly  Ixiwing  down  her  lie  ul,  ami 
drinking  in,  as  a  sponge  that  Is  thirsty  nf  neiist- 
ure.  the  instructions  of  the  pnlatc. ' '  .  .  s.mic 
latent  impres-sions  favoural)le  to  Christiauiu  her 
voungest  grandson,  Vladimir,  doubtless  imi-d  to 
her.  Nevertheless  when,  at  the  il.alh  .f  his 
brothi  r  'Varapolk,  for  which  indeed  lie  was  In M 
responsible,  he  mounted  the  throne.  n«  .sit-in  »( 
a  gracious  character  revealed  themselves  IK' 
was.  III!  the  contrary,  a  bitter  ami  bignteil  puna. 
.  .  .  It  seems  to  have  (xiurnd  to  ni.inv  mission- 
aries of  varying  ty|«s.  that  a  chief  of  s'neh  mark 
should  not  Ik-  left  at  the  mercv  of  his  own  vinlent 
pasaloms.  The  spiritual  well-being  "f  Vladimir 
accordingly  l>ecame  the  object  of  lalmrii'ii-  j"ur- 
neya,  of  much  exertion,  ami  uf  rediimlan!  el* 
yuence.  .  .  ,   Lastof  all  came  a  tiriek  i  nnssary. 


He  was  neither  '  a  priest  nor  a  mi.ssl>ui.'iry,  hut  a 

philosopher. '  .  .  .  LIki 

slan  chief  was  greatir  moved 


.Ike  Bogoris,  the  wild  Kus- 
-  „  _  ;lv  moveil.  .  .  .  The  follow- 
ing year  the  king  laid  Iwfore  the  elders  of  his 
council  the  rival  pleas  of  these  variously  recom- 
mended forms  of  faith,  and  stdUlteii  tlieir  advire. 
The  nobles  mused  awhile,  and  then  e.mii'MlW 
their  master  to  aM-ertalu  how  each  reIit:ioa 
worked  at  home  This,  they  thought.  w»ulil  be 
more  practical  evidenct'  than  the  plausihle  ripn;. 
sentalions  of  professors.  On  this  suggesthm 
Vladimir  actetl.  Envoys  were  clioseii,— pre- 
MimaHv.  for  their  powers  i-(  i-b^tyA'.'-'.i.—vA 
the  emlNuay  of  tnnuirv  started.  '  This  public 
agreement,  says  the  historian  of  the  HuHiu 
Church,  'eipUins  in  some  degree  the  luddta 


480 


CHRISTIAinTY. 


CHTRCH  OP  ENGLAND. 


«d  genenl  acceptance  of  Chriitianltj  which 
iboitfy  after  followed  in  RuMla.  It  is  probab' 
that  not  only  the  chiefs,  but  the  common  peopie 
ilso,  were  expecting  and  ready  for  the  change.' 
A  report,  far  from  encouraging,  was  in  due  time 
received  from  the  ambossaoors.  Of  the  Oerman 
and  Roman,  as  well  as  the  Jewish,  religions  in 
daily  life,  they  spoke  in  very  disparaging  terms, 
while  they  declared  the  Mussulman  creed,  when 
reduced  to  practice,  to  be  utterly  out  of  the  ques- 
tion. Disappointed  In  all  these  quarters,  they 
now  piiKTitli'd,  by  commaml,  to  Constantinople, 
or,  ss  the  Russians  called  it,  Tzaragorod.  .  .  . 
Singularly  enough,  the  Russian  envoys,  accus- 
tomed, as  we  must  suppose  them  to  have  been, 
only  to  the  barest  simplicity  of  life,  had  com- 
plamed  not  only  of  the  paucity  of  decoration  in 
the  Latin  churches,  but  of  a  lack  of  Iwauty  in 
their  appointments.  Thus  the  preparations  of 
the  patriarch  were  accurately  fitted  to  their  ex- 
pectant frame  of  mind.  They  were  led  into  the 
church  of  S.  Sophia,  gleaming  with  variegated 
marhles.  and  porphyries,  and  jasper,  at  that  time 
'the  m.isterpieoe  of  Christian  architecttire. '  The 
buililinjr  glitterofl  with  gold,  and  rich  mosaics. 
Tlie  strvice  was  that  of  a  high  festival,  either  of 
St.  .Iiihn  Clirysostom.  or  of  the  IK-ath  of  the 
Virttin,  and  was  conducted  by  the  patriarch  in 
person,  clad  in  hi.-*  most  gortjeiuis  vestments. 
.  .  .  (In  Ihcir  return  to  Vladimir,  they  dilated 
with  eaiii  r  <lclii;hton  the  wonders  thev  had  seen. 
The  kina;  listened  gravely  to  their  glowing  ac- 
count of  'the  temple,  like  which  there  was  none 
'ipon earth. '  Afterswcetness,  thev  protested,  bit- 
ttmt'ss  wouM  1)0  unbeumble,  so  that  —  whatever 
others  niiitht  do  —  they  at  all  events  should  at 
once  aboiilon  heathenism.  While  the  king  hesi- 
t»te(l,  his  liovers  turned  the  scale  by  reminding 
binithut  if  the  creed  of  the  (Jreeks  had  not  in- 
deed li;id  niiicli  to  recommend  it,  his  pious  ami 
sanaciiiiis  j;randniother.  Princess  Olga,  woiilil 
not  have  loveil  and  otn-yed  it.  Her  iiiinie  acteil 
like  a  talisman.  Vladimir  n'solved  to  conform 
toChri-tianitv.  But  still,  tcmdly  clinging  to  the 
Itiliits  <.f  his  forefathers,  he  cherished  the  idea  of 
^Miini;  anil  winning  his  new  nligion  by  the 
swurd       .  .    I'nder  the  auspices  of  the  sovereign. 


!  the  stately  church  of  St.  Basil  soon  arose,  on  the 
very  spot  recently  occupied  by  the  temple  of 
Perun.  Kief  became  the  centre  of  Christian  in- 
fluence, whence  evangelizing  energies  radiated  in 
all  directions.  Schools  and  churches  were  built, 
while  Michael,  the  first  metropolitan,  attended 
by  his  bishops,  'made  progresses  into  the  interior 
of  Russia,  everywhere  baptizing  and  instructing 
the  people."  The  Greek  canon  law  came  into 
force,  and  the  use  of  the  service-book  and  choral 
music  of  the  Greek  communion  became  general, 
while,  in  the  Slavonic  Scriptures  and  Liturgy  of 
Cyril  and  Methodius,  a  road  was  discovered 
which  led  straight  to  the  hearts  cf  the  native 
population.  '  Cyril  and  Methodius,  if  any  one, 
must  be  considered  by  anticipation  as  the  first 
Christian  teachers  of  Russia;  their  rude  alphalwt 
first  instructed  the  Russian  nation  in  letters,  and, 
by  its  quaint  Greek  characters,  still  totlHes  in 
every  Russian  book,  and  on  every  Russian  house 
or  shop,  the  Greek  source  of  the  "religion  and  lit- 
erature of  the  empire.'" — G.  F.  .Maclear,  Cunter- 
noil  nf  the  Wett :  The  fHatt.  ch.  T,. 

"As  in  the  first  centuries  it  w.is  necessary 
that  the  leaven  of  Christianity  should  gradually 
penetrate  the  entire  intellectual  life  of  the  culti- 
vated nations,  before  a  new  spiritual  creation, 
striking  its  root  in  the  fonns  of  the  Grecian  and 
Roman  culture,  which  Christianity  appropriated. 
Could  in  these  forms  completely  unfold  itself;  so 
after  the  Siime  manner  it  was  neces,sary  that  the 
leaven  of  Christianity  which  .  .  .  had  been  intrn- 
diiiiil  into  the  mas.s<'S  of  the  unt  itoreil  nations, 
should  gradually  penetrate  their  whole  inward 
life,  iH'fore  a  new  and  peculiar  spiritual  creation 
could  spring  out  of  it,  which  shoulil  go  nn  toi 
unfold  itself  through  the  entire  ptriix!  of  tlioj 
middle  ages.  And  the  period  in  which  we  now 
are  must  be  regarded  as  still  l)elonginir  to  the 
epoch  of  transitiim  from  that  old  spiriiu.il  crea- 
tion which  flourished  on  the  basis  of  Grecian  and 
Roman  culture  to  the  new  one.  " — A.  Neander, 
<iimr:il  Hint,  of  the  I'lirintinn  llili:ii''n  ,ind 
Ch'irrh,  r.  3.  ii.  4.'>6. — We  leave  the  author's  sen- 
tence incomplete,  that  it  m;iy  express  the  more 
fully  all  the  suliseciuent  history  of  Christianity. 


CHRISTINA,  Queen-regent  of  Spain,  A.  D 
l*l''-l'*tl Christina,   Queen    of    Sweden, 

A.  II  lit;:i-lii.-,l, 
CHRISTINOS.    The.     Se    Sp.vim    A.    I). 

iNCt-  l-Ml! 

CHRISTOPHER  I„  King  of  Denmark, 
A  11  lj.V>-ir,it.  ..ChriitopTier  11.,  A  D 
\m-\xu  ..Chriitopher  III.,  King  of  Den- 
mark,  Sweden    and    NorwaT,   X.    I)     U:t',(- 

ms 

CHRYSE.— Vague  reports  of  a  region  called 
Chr>M.  ith.'  Golden),  wimewhen-  Ix-vimil  the 
0»ii;e«.  un<l  of  an  island  liearing  the  same  n.'ime. 

off  'lie    n ths  of    the  Ganges,   as  well  as  of 

another  island  enlleil  Argyre  (the  Silver  Islandi, 
were  pri'valent  among  the  earlv  Roman  geo- 
paphical  writers  They  probiiblv  all  ha.l 
nf: rin. e  to  the  .Malay  peiHnsula,  whfch  I'tolemv 
callid  111,.  Oolilen  Chersonese.— E.  11.  Uunburv 
II, .t    . C. I .,,.,•, ,ir  Uf^tj..  eh,  •J.I. 

CHRVSTLER'S  FARM,  B»tt!e  of.  Sep 
I  .MTKii  Sj.tTM  OP  Am.  :  A.  D.  18i:l  (Uctobek— 

>OVEMllKHI 

CHRYSOBULUM.      See    Golden    Bcll, 

BTU.M1NK. 

ai 


CHRYSOPOLIS  — Moilern  Scutari,  opposite 
Constantinople;  oriirinally  the  pcirt  of  the  city  of 
Chalcedon 

CHRYSOPOLIS,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  aai). 
See  Rome:  A.  i).  lid.V.i.':! 

CHUMARS.    See  (  \-ii  System  ok  Inoh. 

CHUMASHAN      FAMILY,      The.        See 

A.'HEIUC.V.N  Am>RICitNF.S:    (111   >I\SI!.VN  K.VMII.V 

CHUR,  The  Bishopric  of     See  Ttiiol.  and 
Switzehi.vnd:  a.  I).  i;!IMl-lt;i'i 
CHURCH,  The  Armenian.    See  Armk.nh.n 

ClIllK  II. 

CHURCH  OF  BOHEMIA,  The  Utraquist 
NationaL     s,r  Hoiumu    A    1>    li;M-I4.->7. 

CHURCH  IN  BRAZIL,  Disestablishment 
of  the.     S.C  Rin/ii      \    I)    lss;.-is|ii 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND:  Origin  and 
Eitabtiihment.  .S'c  KNu[..tNi>:  A.  II.  \^i1~' 
I.1;M:   1.V11-1.'.«8;  and  l.W.Vl,-.3!). 

The  Six  Articles.  Se.-  Enolanp:  \.  D. 
1■^3f> 

The  completed  Church-refortn  under  Ed- 
ward VI.     S.C  Esai..tNn:  A    I)    l.VIT-l.'i.'iU. 

The  doubtful  conflict  of  religioni.  See  Zsa- 
LAMO:  A.  U.  1553. 


481 


:J| 


CHURCH  OP  ENGLAND. 

Romanism  restored  by  Marr.  See  Exolasd  : 
A.  D.  15,55-1558. 

Recovery  of  Protestantism  under  Elizabeth. 
See  England:  A.  D.  1558-15S8. 

The  Acta  of  Supremacy  and  Uniformity. 
See  England:  A.  D.  1559. 

Rise  of  Puritanism.  See  England:  A.  D. 
15.5!»-I566;  1564-1565  (»). 

The  Despotism  of  Laud.  Sec  England: 
A.  n.  16iB-1640. 

Rise  of  the  Independents.  See  England: 
A.  I).  lfl;W-1640. 

The  Soot  and  Branch  BilJ.  See  England: 
A.  D.  1041  (.March— May). 

The  Westminster  Assembly.  See  England  : 
A.  I).  ItUSaiLY),  and  1640 (.March). 

The  Solemn  League  and  Covenant.  See 
Emu.ani):  a.  D.  1643  (JiLY— Seitkmher). 

The  Restoration.— The  SaToy  Conference. 
See  F.M.i.A.vo;  A.  D.  1661  (April— J li.yI. 

Thi  Ac;  of  Uniformity  and  persecution  of 
NoncGnformists.  See  Enol.\nd:  A.  D.  1663- 
166.). 

Charles'  Declaration  of  Indulgence,  and  the 
Test  Act.  See  England:  A.  I).  1073-1073.  and 
1687. 

James'  Declaration  of  Indulgence.— Trial  of 
the  seven  Bishops.  SeeE.NGLAND:  A.  D.  10.S7- 
leyn. 

The  Church  and  the  Revolution.— The  Non- 
Jurors.  Sec  England:  A.  D.  1089  (.\pniL— 
AfiicsT). 

A.   D.    1704.— Queen  Anne's    Bounty.    See 

QlEEX  .A.NNES  norNTY. 

A.  D.  1711-1714.— The  Occasional  Conform- 
ity Bill  and  the  Schism  Act.  See  England- 
A.  I).  1711-1714. 

A.  D.  1833-1845.- The  Oxford  or  Tract- 
arian  Movement.      See   Oxford   or   Tract- 

AHIAN  MoVE.MENT. 


CHURCH  OF  FRANCE.  See  Oallican 
Chiki  H. 

CHURCH,  The  Greek  or  Eastern.  See 
Chkisthxity:  \.  D.  3;i()-I()54. 

CHURCH  OF  IRELAND,  Disestablish- 
ment of  the.    See  Enoi.and:  A.  I».    I86H-IH71) 

CHURCH  OF  LATTER  DAY  SAINTS. 
Si'e  Mokmdnism:  A.  I).  IHO.'i-lH.'to 

CHURCH  OF  ROME.    S(c  Papacy 

CHURCH,  The  Russian.— The  great  schism 
known  as  Raskol.  Sec  Hcssia  :  \.  I>.  10.5.'>- 
lO.'iU 

CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.-Its  birth. 
See  Scotland:  .•V.  I).  1.547-1557. 

The  First  Covenant.  See  Scotl.\nd;  X  D 
1.557. 

Rebellion  and  triumph  of  the  Lords  of  the 
Congregation.  See  .Scotland:  A  1).  1558- 
156(). 

Restoration  of  Episcopacy.  See  Scotland- 
A    1)   1572 

The  First  National  Covenant.  See  Scot- 
land; .\.  I).  1,581. 

The  Black  Acts.    See  Scotland:  A.  D.  1584. 

Appropriation  of  Church  lands.  S<t  Scot- 
land: A.  1),  1.587. 

The  Five  Articles  of  Perth.  Sec  Scotland  : 
A.  0.  1018. 

Laud's  liturgy  and  Jenny  Gcddet'  stool. 
SeeSioTLAND:  k.  U.  1687 

The  signing  of  the  National  Covenant.  See 
BcoTLAND;  A.  D.  1888. 


CILICIAN  GATES 

The  First  Bishops'  War.      See  ScntLA-m 

A.  D.  lfl:»-104(). 

The  Second  Bishops'  War.  See  ENOLA-ei) 
A.  I).  1040. 

"Hie  Westminster  A  isembly.  SecENcinifD 
A.  D.  1643  (July). 

The  Solemn  I  cague  and  Covenant  Sw 
E.VGLAND:  A.  D.  1643  (Jilt— Seitemiikki 

Montrose  anc*  the  Covenanters.  See  Scot 
LAND:  A.  1).  1644-1645. 

The  restored  king  and  restored  prelacv  Sw 
Scotland:  A.  D.  1660-1666. 

Persecutions  of  the  Covenanters.  .•<i-i.  Scot- 
land: A.  D.  1669-1879;  1079:  1681-1«N<) 

The  Revolution  and  re-establishment  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church.  See  Scoti.anh  \  11 
1688-1690.  ' 

The  Disniption.- Formation  of  the    Fret 
Church.    See  Scotland:  A.  D.  184:). 
■* 

CHURUBUSCO,  Battle  of.    Sr,    Mexico 


■  UoXE: 


A.  D.  1847  OLkRcii— Septe.mrehi 
CIBALIS,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  313).  .s, 

A.  D.  30.5-333. 
CIBOLA,  The  Seven  Cities  of.   Sir  Xntm- 

CAN  AllilRI'.INKS  :    I'lEHLOM. 

CICERO.  SeeHo.MK:  B.  C.  ««-«:)  ti>  44-4> 
CID,  The.  See  Spain:  .\.  I)  lii:)i  |,i.i„ 
CILICIA. — KILIKIA. — An  ancient  district 
in  the  southeastern  comer  of  Asia  >Iin(ir.  iHpnlfr- 
iug  on  Syria.  It  was  a  satrapy  of  tin-  I'l  rsLiii 
Empire,  then  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  S-- 
lucidip,  and  afterwards  a  liomaii  pmvincc  The 
chief  city  of  C'ilicla  was  Tarsus,  :i  very  unciert 
commercial  emporium,  whose  people  wire  noted 
for  mental  acuteness.  The  Apostle  I'anI  is  t,i  Ije 
counted  among  the  distinguished  iiativ,-s  i.f  Tar 
BUS,  and  a  quite  n-inarkalile  numlxr  ef  .-miiient 
teachers  of  philosophy  were  from  the  .same  hin.'i- 
place. 

CILICIA,  Pirates  of.— During  the  Miihridatic 
wars  piraoy  was  developed  to  ahiniiirn;  propor- 
tions in  the  eastern  parts  of  the  ^leiliiemmean 
Sea.  Distracteil  by  civil  conflicts  iiml  i«c-upiiil 
by  foreign  ones,  simultaneously,  the  Knninns,  for 
a  considerable  period,  gave  no"priii'<''  hoi.ltotbe 
growth  of  this  lawlessness,  until  tliev  foiiml 
their  commerce  half  destroyed  ami  li.'.ni.-  ami 
Italy  actually  thn-atenwi  with  starvation  liv  the 
intercepting  of  their  supplies  fromalir.Kel  '  The 
pirates  flourished  under  the  priiteeti  11  :iu(l  en- 
couragement of  the  king  of  Ponlu-  :it  whose 
instance  they  established  their  chi.  f  head 
quarters,  theirdocks.  arsi>nals  and  nmgiizines,  at 
various  points  on  the  coiutt  of  tillcia.  Hence  the 
nami'  Cilician  came  to  Ih'  applieil  i.i  all  the 
pirate  of  the  time.  This  era  of  pinicv  wu 
orni:  it  to  an  end,  at  last,  by  Ponipev,  wl'ifi  wiu 
sen-  .gainst  them.  B.  C.  67.  with  exinioriiiiisrr 
po  rs  conferred  by  the  law  known  ns  the  l/i 
G,i  iida.  He  procec-deil  to  his  undertiibiiii:  «iih 
remarkable  energy  and  ability,  nnd  hi-  liiinliDi; 
down  of  the  freebooters  which  he  iici  oniplisheii 
effectually  within  thn-e  months  from  ilie  ihiv  hit 
operation's  began,  was  reallv  the  mi"si  lirifliant 
exploit  of  his  life.— H.  O.  Liddell.  //,»r  »/ 
Hume,  lA.  7,  eh.  68. 

Also  in:  C.  Merivale,  Ilitl.  nf  the  litntaia, 
<■*  1 — G  Lone.  DeHine  of  the  lh:u:iu  Ufp'ihtit. 
r.  3.  eh.  6-7. 

CILICIAN  GATES.— A  pass  through  the 
Taurus  range  of  mountains,  opening  troni  fap- 
psducia  Into   Cllicia,  was  anciently  cilkd  tiM 


482 


U-- 


CILiaAlT  GATES. 


CIMBRI  AND  TECTONES. 


PyUe  Cllicic  or  Cilician  Oates.  The  city  of 
Traoa  was  situated  at  the  entrance  to  the  pass. 
Both  Xenophon  and  Alexrader,  who  traversed 
it  st'om  to  have  regarded  the  pass  as  one  which 
no  army  could  force  if  properly  def  ended.— E.  H. 
Bunburv.  //<»<.  »f  Ancient  Oeog.,  eh.  10,  >ect.  2. 
amlrh.  12.  *"<«.  1. 

CILURNUM.— A  Roman  city  in  Britain, 
"tlic  cxti'iisive  ruins  of  which,  well  described  as 
a  Britisli  Pompeii,  are  visible  near  the  modem 
haniMsof  Chesters."— T.  Wright,  Celt,  Soman 
and^trntt,  ch.  5. 

CIMARRONES,  The.  Sec  Americ.\  :  A.  D. 
IST'-'-lWO.  and.lAMAiCA:  .\.  D.  16.55-17P6. 

CIMBRI  AND  TEUTONES,  The.—  For 
»  considerable  pcri<>d  [second  century,  B.  C]  an 
'unsettled  people'  Imd  been  wandering  along 
the  northern  verge  of  the  country  occupied  by 
the  I'elts  on  l)oth  sides  of  the  Danube.  They 
ralleil  themselves  the  Cimbri.  that  is.  the  Chem- 
pho.  the  champions,  or.  as  their  enemies  trans- 
lated it,  the  roblH'rs;  a  designation,  however. 
wliicli  to  all  appearance  had  become  the  name  of 
tlie  people  even  Ix'forc  their  migration.  They 
came  from  the  north,  and  the  first  Celtic  people 
with  whom  they  came  in  contact  were,  so  far  as 
is  known,  the  Boil,  probably  in  Bohemia.  More 
exact  details  as  to  the  cause  and  the  direction  of 
their  mijrnition  have  not  been  recorded  by  con- 
temporaries and  cannot  besunpUed  by  conjectun-. 

.  .  Hilt  the  hypothesis  thiit  the  Cimbri,  as  well 
a<  the  similar  lionle  of  the  Teutones  which  after- 
wanU  joined  them,  belonged  in  the  main  not  to 
the  t'lliii'  nution,  to  which  the  Romans  at  first 
assi^neti  them,  but  to  the  Germanic,  is 
supported  by  the  most  definite  facts;  viz.,  by 
■he  e.\istence  of  two  small  tribes  of  the  same 
nami'  —  remnants  left  behind  to  all  appearance 
in  tlieir  primitive  scata — the  Cimbri  in  the 
modern  Denmark,  the  Teutones  in  the  north-east 
of  (Jennany  in  the  neiglibourho<xl  of  the  Bidtic, 
wliert'  I'ytlieas,  a  contemiwrary  of  Alcvander 
tlie  (iirat,  makes  mention  of  them  thus  early  in 
oouiiirtion  with  the  amber  trade;  bv  the 
insrtion  of  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones  in  tlie  list 
of  the  Oermanic  peoples  among  the  Ingsvones 
alongside  of  the  Chauci;  by  the  judgment  of 
Onar.  who  first  made  the  Romans  acquainteii 
witli  the  distinction  Iwtween  the  Germans  and 
tlie  Celts,  and  who  includes  the  Cimbri,  many  of 
whom  he  must  himself  have  seen,  among  the 
Geriuims;  and  lastly,  by  the  very  names  of  the 
jH'ople  niul  the  statements  as  to  their  physical 
apiwai^nee  and  habits.  .  .  .  Un  the  other  hand 
it  i.>  eoneeivable  enough  tiiat  such  a  horde,  after 
luving  wandered  perhaps  for  many  years,  and 
havinit  doubtless  welcomed  every  brother-in- 
amis  who  joine<l  it  in  its  movements  near  to  or 
wiiliin  the  land  of  the  Celts,  wouid  include  a 
certain  amount  of  Celtic  elements.  .  .  .  When 
nun  afterwards  began  to  trace  the  chain,  of 
wliii  li  this  emigration,  the  first  Oermanic  move- 
i:ieiii  which  touched  the  orbit  of  ancient  civili- 
7.  .,iim.  was  a  link,  the  direct  and  living  knowledge 
"'  it  liiul  long  passed  awav. " — T.  Momiusen, 
Ili'i  nf  Wnnf.bk.  4,  ch.  S.— •'The  name  Kymri, 
orryniri.  still  exists.  It  is  the  name  that  the 
\Vi  Uh  itive  themselves,  but  I  am  not  aware  tliat 
iip.v  "ilier  people  hav<-  calhti  them  by  that  name. 
Till  M'  Kymri  are  a  branch  of  the  great  Celtic 
!"■  "pli ,  and  this  resemblance  of  the  words  Kymri 
ml  t  iiiibri  has  led  many  modem  writers  to 
U3MII1U   I  hut    the    Cimbri    were   also   a   Celtic 


people,  as  many  of  the  ancient  writers  name 
them  But  these  ancient  writers  are  principallr 
the  later  Greeks,  who  are  no  authority  at  all 
on  such  a  matter.  .  .  .  The  name  Cimbri  has 
perishiKl  in  Germany,  while  that  of  the  Teutones, 
by  some  strange  accident,  is  now  the  name  of  the 
whole  Germanic  population. " — G.  I<ong,  Decline 
of  th^  Roman  Republic,  r.  2.  ch.  4. 

Also  in:  W.  Iline,  Hint,  of  R,/me.  bk.  7,  eh.  9. 

B.  C.  1 13-103.— Battles  with  the  Romans. 
—The  Cimbri  and  the  Teutones  made  their  first 
appearance  on  the  Roman  horizon  in  the  year 
113  B.  C.  when  they  entend  Xoricum.  The 
Noricins  were  an  indcpendeat  people,  as  yet, 
but  nrcepted  a  certain  protection  from  Rome, 
and  the  latter  sent  her  consul,  Carljo,  with  an 
army,  to  defend  them.  Carbo  made  an  unfortu- 
nate attempt  to  deal  trcacherouUy  with  the 
invaders  and  suffered  an  appalling  defeat. 
Then  the  migrating  barbarians,  iastead  of  press- 
ing into  Italy,  on  the  heels  of  the  flying  Ilomans. 
turned  westward  through  Helvetia  to  Gaul,  and 
occupied  themselves  for  four  years  in  ravaging 
that  unhappy  country.  In  109  B.  C.  having 
gathereil  their  plunder  into  the  fortified  town  of 
Aduatuca  and  left  it  well  protected,  they 
advanced  into  the  Roman  province  of  Narbi>, 
Southern  Gaul,  and  demanded  land  to  settle 
upon.  The  Romans  resisted  and  were  again 
overwhelmingly  beaten.  But  even  now  the 
victorious  host  did  not  venture  to  enter  Italy, 
and  nothing  is  known  of  its  movements  until  105 
B.  C.  when  a  third  Roman  armv  was  defeated  in 
Roman  Gaul  and  its  commander  taken  prisoner 
and  slain.  The  affriglite<l  Romans  sent  strong 
R'-enforcements  to  the  Rhone;  but  jealousy 
between  the  consul  who  commanded  the  nc 
army  and  the  proconsul  who  retained  commau 
of  the  old  delivered  Ixith  of  them  to  destruction. 
They  were  virtually  annihilated.  Oct.  6,  B.  C. 
105,  at  Arausio  (Orange),  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhone.  It  is  said  that  H0,000  Roman  soldiers 
perished  on  that  dreadful  field,  besides  half  as 
many  more  of  camp  followere.  "This  much 
is  certain,"  says  Mommscn,  "  that  only  a  few  out 
of  the  two  armies  succeeded  in  escaping,  for  the 
Romans  had  fought  with  the  river  m  their  rear. 
It  was  a  calamity  which  materially  and  morally 
far  surpassed  the  day  of  Canuiv. "  In  the  panic 
which  this  disaster  causeii  at  Rome  the  consti- 
tution of  the  Ri'public  was  broken  down. 
Marius,  conqueror  of  Jugurtha.  was  recalled 
from  Africa  and  not  only  reelected  to  the  Consul- 
ship, but  invested  with  the  ottlce  for  five 
successive  years.  He  took  command  in  Gaul  and 
found  that'the  formidable  invaders  had  moved 
off  into  Spain.  This  gave  him  time,  fortunately, 
for  the  organizing  and  disciplininiJ  of  his  demoral- 
ized troops.  When  the  barbarians  reappeared 
on  the  Rhone,  in  the  summer  of  102  B.  C,  he 
faced  them  with  an  armv  worthy  of  earlier 
Roman  times.  They  liad  now  resolved, 
apparcntlv.  to  force  tlieir  way,  at  all  hazanis, 
into  Italy!  and  had  divided  theiV  incn-asing  host, 
to  move  on  Rome  liy  two  routes.  The  Cimbri, 
reinforced  by  the  Tigorini,  who  had  joined  them, 
made  a  circuit  to  the  Eastern  Alps,  while  the 
Teutones.  with  Ambrones  and  Tougeni  for  con- 
fedeniti's  crossed  the  Rhone  and  attacked  the 
defenders  of  the  western  pas-es.  Failing  to 
make  any  impression  on  the  fortified  camp  of 
Marius  the  Teutones  rashly  passed  it,  marching 
straight  for  the  coast   rcwi   to  I>aly      Maritu 


483 


m  'M 


II 


I 


1^ 


CniBRI  AND  TEUTONES. 

antioiuly  followed  and  after  tome  day*  gare 
battle  to  the  barbarian*,  in  the  district  of  Aquie 
Sextis,  a  few  mile*  north  of  Manilla.  The 
Romans  that  day  took  reTcnge  for  Araugio  with 
awful  interest  The  whole  barbaric  horde  was 
annihilated.  "So  great  was  the  number  of 
dead  bodies  that  the  land  in  the  neighborhood 
was  made  fertile  by  them,  and  the  people  of 
Massilia  useii  the  bones  for  fencing  tlieir  vine- 
Tsrds."  Meantime  the  Cimbri  and  their  fellows 
had  reached  and  penetrated  the  Brenner  pass  and 
were  in  the  valley  of  the  Adige.  The  Roman 
an'  stationed  there  had  'ven  wa?  before  them, 
anil  Marius  was  needed  to  roll  the  lnva.sion  hick 
He  (lid  so,  on  the  30th  of  Julv  B.  C.  101,  when 
the  Cimbri  were  destroyed,  iit'a  buttle  fousht  on 
the  liaudinc  Plain  near  Vercellie.  as  completely 
as  the  Teutones  had  been  destroyed  at  Aqiue 
Sextiie.— T.  Mommsen,  Uitl.  of  Rome,  bk.  4, 
eh,  5. 
Also  in:  W.  Ihne,  Ilint.  of  Itomt,  bk.  7,  eh.  9. 

CIMBRIAN  CHERSONESUS.-The  mod- 
em Danish  promontory  of  Jutland  i  believed  to 
have  lieen  the  home  of  the  Cimbri  before  they 
migrated  southwards  nnd  inradt  J  Oaul 

CIMINIAN  FOREST,  The.— The  moun- 
tains of  Viterbo,  which  formed  nnc-"  ntly  the 
frontier  of  Uome  towards  Etruriii,  vere  then 
covered  with  a  thick  forest— "the  silva  Cim- 
inia'  of  which  I.ivy  gives  so  romantic  a  descrip- 
tion. It  was,  however,  notliintf  but  .i  nntund 
division  between  two  nations  wliich  were  not  con- 
nected liy  friendsliip.  and  wislieti  to  have  little  to 
do  with  each  other.  .  .  .  This  forest  was  liv  no 
means  like  the  'silva  Hercynn'  witli  wiiiil;  Liw 
compares  it,  but  Wiis  of  jist  such  an  exten;  that', 
accordin?  to  his  own  aceotmi.  the  li)iiians  <iiilv 
wanted  a  couple  of  hours  to  inarch  through  it." 
— H.  i;.  Xiebuhr,  LietH.  on  the  Hint,  of  liotiv 
'■•(■t.  +4.  ■' 

CIMMERIANS,   The. -■The    name   Cim- 
mcri.ms  appears    in    \\w    Oilyssi'V,— the    fable 
deserilk's  llinn  as  (Iwellin:;  rievoiiii  the  ocean- 
stream.  iiTUmrsed  in  ilarkness  and  unlilcssed  hr    ' 
the  nys  m    llelifis.     Of  this  people  as  existen"t    ' 
we  can  render  no  account,  for  tliev  had  passiil 
awav.  or  lost  tlieir  identity  and  Iwe.'  .iie  siilijeet, 
previous  to  the  coniiiieneeinent  of  tn^stwortliv 
authorities:  hut  they  s<-eiii  toliavelKcn  ilieiliief 
occupants  of  the  Tauric  CliersomseiCriimal  and 
of  the  territory  In  tween  that  pc  nin,  ula  and  ilie 
rivi  r  Tyras  l  Dneister)  at  the  time  when  llie  (Jreelis   ' 
first    commenced    their    permanent    settlements   ! 
on  those  coasts    in    the    seventli  century   ll   C     | 
The  numerous  localities  whieh  bore  their  name     i 
even  in  the  lime  of  Herixio'us,  aftir  they  had    ' 
ceased  to  exist  as  a  nation.  — .is  well  as  the  tonilis 
of  tli<-  Cimmerian  kings  then  shown   mar  the 
Tyras,  — siillleiently  attest  the  fact:  and  tliere  is 
reason  to  lielieve  that  lliev  were  — like  their  con- 
querors and  suecessors  the  Sevtiiians— a  nomadic 
people,   mare-niilkers,   muviut'  about  with  their 
tents  and  herds,  siiitablv  to  the  nature  of  thos*' 
unbroken    steppes    whiili    their  territory    pre- 
sented, and  wl'vli  olfered  little  except  herhnec 
in  profusion  "itM>tells>is  — on  whatautlioritv 

we  do  not  ki.,,\— that  ti-  v.  as  will  as  the 
Tri'res  and  other  Thnuians,  had  desolate<l  Asia 
Minor  more  th:in  nn<-,.  lw-f..r,-  the  (iine  of  Ardyi 
[Mnif  of  l.ydi^i.  seventh  eenlurv  B.  C.l  and  even 
earlier  than  Homer.' —G.  droie",  Hiit.  of  (irteee 
pi.  8.  eh.  17. -See,  also,  C  .  .M.«.  ''  ' 


CINCINNATI,  SOCIETY  OF  THE. 


See  Atbsks:  B.  C.  477, 
■See  Athcks:  B.  C.  4J0. 


■   -The  fouadinr 

•  87  "anolTeruaa 


CIMON,  CuMf  oC 

4«2.  to  460-449. 
CIMON,  PMce  ot 

449. 

CINCINNATI :  A.  D.  t^, 
aad  MmioK  of  the  citjr.-  ;  1 
made  to  Congress  by  John  .  ;-  0  Symines  fafi'i" 
wards  famous  for  Us  theory  that  the  eanh  u 
hollow,  with  openings  at  the  poles],  to  buy  two 
millions  of  acres  between  the  Little  and  the  Oreirt 
Miamis.  Symmes  was  a  Jerseyman  of  wealth 
had  visited  the  Shawanese  countrv  had  Wn 
greatly  pleased  with  iu  fertility,  and  had  oome 
away  declaring  that  every  acre  in  the  wildest 
part  was  worth  a  silver  dollar.  It  was  to.,  lie 
thought,  only  a  question  of  time,  and  a  virr 
short  time,  when  this  value  wouhl  he  douMc!;! 
and  tripled.  Thousands  of  immiRranu  were 
pouring  into  this  valley  each  year,  hundreds  ,if 
thousands  of  acres  were  being  taken  up,  and  tlio 
day  would  soon  come  when  the  rich  land  alooi? 
the  Miamis  and  the  Ohio  would  be  In  Krcm  Hit 
mand.  There  was  therefore  a  mightv  fortune  ia 
store  for  the  lucky  speculator  who  "should  l,„7 
land  from  Congress  for  five  shillings  an  acre  and 
sell  it  to  immigrants  for  twentv.     But  hij 

business  laggeil,  and  though  his  oiler  to  pur- 
chase was  made  in  August,  1787,  it  was  the  I.ltli 
of  May,  1788,  before  the  contract  was  cl,.s«l. 
In  the  meantime  he  put  out  a  pamphlet  and  made 
known  his  te'ins  of  sale.  A  copvsi«.n  Ml  into 
the  hands  of  .Matthias  Denman.  "He  heeame  in- 
terested in  the  scheme  and  purchaseil  that  section 
on  which  now  stands  the  cit  v  of  Cineinn.iti  1  )ne 
third  he  kept,  one  third  he  sold  to  Uoliert  I'atter- 
son,  and  X\\'  remainder  to  John  Filson.  Tie-  ron- 
diticms  of  tlie  purchase  from  Svminis  l'.ivi  tliem 
two  years  in  which  to  beirin  "niakim:  c  I.Mrinirs 
and  '.uilding  huts.  But  the  thne  chtermiiutl  to 
lose  no  time,  and  at  once  made  ready  to  liv  out 
a  city  diri'ctlv  opposite  that  spot"  wli.  n'-  tlia 
waters  <>f  the  Licking  mingled  tlieniselv.s  with 
the  Ohio.  Denman  and  Patterson  wiri'  no 
schcdars.  But  Filson  had  (.-.-e  lui^n  a  -.ii.N.l. 
imtster,  knew  a  little  of  Latin  and  soni.iliinL'of 
historv,  and  to  him  was  as-signc-d  the  .|iit\  (if 
choosing  a  name  for  the  town.  .  .  .  Iled.ti  rminisi 
to  make  one,  and  prcnluced  a  woni  iliit  w:(s  a 
most  absurd  mixturi' (if  Latin.  Creekand  Fr.ii.h, 
lie  called  the  place  Losantiville,  whi(  li.  Ininif 
interpret:d,  means  the  eitv  opposite  th,-  nioiith 
of  the  Licking.  A  few  weeks  later  the  \\'A\-mi 
sealpeil  him.'— J.  B.  McMa.ster,  IIM.  ■•<  ■'.  /'..>- 
fhofthf  r.  S..  p.  1,  ;,.  ,5Irt._The  n;in,^  -iv.a 
a  little-  later  to  Filson's  settlement  was  cut,  rnd 
on  it  by  (ieiieral  St.  Clair.  Governor  ..|  i|i.  I'lr 
ritorv.  in  honor  of  the  ScK-ietv  of  the  tin.  iiiiciti. 
,^•1.  .NoiiTiiwKsT  TEimiTonv  ok  tiik  I .  .s    .V  I). 

Ai.s..t.S:  ¥.W.  Miller,  riiieiuioiti''  l!,'-i,      -.it 
A.  D.  t86p.— Threatened  by  John  Moruan's 

Rebel   Raia.      Sec   United  sSx.tTEs 

A.  I).  IxtCUJuLY:  Kkntickv). 


ol.'      .Vll. 


CINCINNATI,  The  Society  of  the.-    Men 

of  the  pnsent  geiwration  who  in  ehildli.io.i  nini- 
magetl  in  their  grandmothers'  cosy  i;:irrets  .:i;i 
not  fail  to  have  come  across  scon-s df  nmstv  .m.l 
worm-eaten  pamphlets,  their  yelL.w  'iwir.s 
crowded  with  iialies  and  exclamation  points,  in- 
veighing in  passionate  languiiire  airain-t  the 
wlckeii  and  danirenma  Society  of  the  CiiKiTimitl 
Just  before  the  army  [of  the"  American  Kevojit 


484 


craOINNATI,  80CIBTT  OF  THE. 

tion]  wu  disbanded,  the  offlcen,  at  the  iuggei- 
tion  of  General  Knox,  formed  themselves  [April, 
iresj  into  a  secret  society,  for  the  purpose  of 
keeping  up  their  friendly  Intercourse  and  cher- 
iahing  the  heroic  memories  of  the  struggle  In 
which  thry  had  taken  part.  With  the  fondness 
for  classical  analogies  which  cha'ticterized  that 
time,  tliey  likened  themselves  tu  Cincinnatus, 
who  w!is  taken  from  the  plow  to  lead  an  army, 
and  rctumci  to  his  quiet  farm  so  soon  as  his 
warlike  duties  were  over.  They  were  modem 
Cincinnati.  A  constitution  and  by-laws  were 
ntablished  for  the  order,  and  Washington  was 
unanimously  chosen  to  be  its  president.  Its 
branches  in  the  scvemi  states  were  to  hold  meet- 
ings each  Fourth  of  July,  and  there  was  to  be 
a  general  meelibg  of  the  whole  society  every 
year  in  the  month  of  >Iay.  F"  jnch  offlcers  who 
had  tnkcn  part  In  the  war  ,vere  admitted  to 
membership,  and  the  order  vas  to  be  p»rpetu- 
ateil  by  descent  through  the  eldest  male  n-pre- 
lentatives  of  the  families  of  the  mcmb<-rs.  It 
was  further  provided  that  a  limited  membership 
should  fn)m  time  to  time  be  granted,  as  a  dis- 
tinguished honour,  to  able  and  worthy  citizens, 
without  regard  to  the  memories  of  the  war.  A 
golden  American  eagle  attached  to  a  blue  ribbon 
«lg(Kl  with  white  was  the  sacred  badge  of  the 
orilir;  and  to  this  emblem  especial  fa'  ur  was 
shown  at  the  French  court,  where  the  in  .gnia  of 
foreign  .-itates  were  genemlly,  it  is  said,  regarded 
with'jealoHsy.  Xo  political  purpose  was  to  be 
subserved  by  this  onler  of  the  Cincinnati,  save 
in  so  far  as  tlie  members  pledged  to  one  iiiinlhcr 
their ditirmination  to  promote  and  cherish  the 
union  Utween  the  states.  In  its  main  intent  the 
Mciity  ttiis to  l>e  a  kind  of  masonic  brotheriicxjd. 
charged  with  the  duty  of  aiding  the  wi(lo"s  and 
the  .irpliiin  cliildren  of  Ita  members  in  time  of 
neeil.  Innocent  aa  all  this  was,  however,  the 
news  of  the  e»tJil)lishment  of  such  a  society  was 
greclcd  with  a  howl  of  ln<lignation  nil  over  the 
country.  It  wiis  thought  that  Its  founiiers  were 
inspired  liy  a  deep-laid  piditical  scheme  for 
centralizing'  the  government  and  setting  up  a 
hcndit:ir>  iiristocracy.  .  .  .  Thcabsunlilvof  the 
lilUiilinii  was  nuickfy  realizetl  by  Wasbiugton, 
and  he  prevailed  u.ion  the  society,  in  its  first 
annual  meeting  of  May,  17H4,  to  abandon  the 
prim  iple  iif  hereditary  membership.  The  ai'ila- 
tion  «.is  thus  allayed,  and  in  the  pn^seiice  of 
graver  iiuestiuns  the  much-dreaded  brothcriiood 

fiiluilly  leased  to  occupy  popular  attcntiuti.'  — 
Fi-ke,  n.e  {ntkiil  I\riod  of  Am.  Uiat.,  eh  3 
--I  1!.  .MeMa-ster,  Hitt.  i>f  the'Penpk  i^  the  V.  .«., 
r.  1.  .7).  J.— ■The  her(^litary  succession  >  as 
never  aliandoned.  A  recommendation  to  that 
effect  was  indeed  made  to  the  several  Suite 
Societies,  at  the  first  OenersU  .Meeting  in  Phila- 
ilelphia  .  But  the  proposition,  unwillingly 
uri:(il,  was  accepted  in  deprecatory  terms  by 
some,  and  liy  others  it  was  toUilly  rejected.  .  .  . 
.\l  tlie  sec.nd  General  Meeting,  it  was  resolved 
th.it  tile  altemtions  couM  not  take  effect  until 
Uiev  had  lieeii  agreed  to  by  all  the  State  Societies. ' 
rhty  nevir  were  so  agreed  to,  and  consequently 
the  oriiimal  Institution  remains  in  full  force. 
Ih'Ke  MKieties  that  accepted  the  proposeil  alter- 
atinns  unci.ni!itiona!!y,  of  r.iurse  prrislinl  wllli 
their  own  generatii  ti."— A.  .Johnston,  SnneAret 
«ni,e  s^.  of  the  'Snnniuiti  (ftnn.  UUt.  .*«;. 
-W^'e^r,  r.  «,  ,,;,.  „-53).-"The  claim  to  mem- 
nersuip  lias  latterly  boeu  determined  not  by  strict 


CINQUK  PORTS. 

primogeniture,  but  by  a  'luitelectirepTeferenoe, 
especially  In  the  line  of  tiie  flnt-bom,'  who  luw 
a  moral  but  not  an  absolutely  Indisputable  right; 
and  membership  has  always  been  renewed  br 
election.  ...  Six  only  of  the  original  thirteen 
states  — MassachusetU,  New  York,  New  JerMy 
Pennsvlvanla,  MaryUnd,  and  South  Carolina  — 
are  still  [In  1873]  represented  at  the  General 
Meetings.  The  largest  society,  that  of  Massa- 
chusetts, consisting  originally  of  343  members 
now  [1873]  numbers  less  than  80;  that  of  New 
York,  from  230  had  In  1858  decreased  to  78;  the 
268  of  Pennsylvania  to  about  60;  the  110  of 
New  Jersey,  in  1866,  to  60;  and  the  13l  of  South 
Carolina  was,  in  1849,  reduced  to  71."— F  8 
Drake,  Memorial*  of  the  Soe.  of  the  Cineinnati  of 
Mat*. .  p.  37. 

CINCO  DE  MAYO,  Battle  of  (i86a).    See 
MEXicoi  A.  D.  1861-1867. 

CINE,  The.— Kinsfolk  of  the  head  of   the 
tribe,  among  the  ancient  Irish. 

CINQ  MARS,  ConapiraCToi^    SeeFBABCS 
A.  D.  lMl-1643. 

CINQUE  PORTS,  The.-"  Hastings,  Sand- 
wich, Dover,  Romney,  Hythc  — this  is  the  order 
In  which  the  Cinque  Ports  were  ranke<l  in  the 
times    when    they    formed    a    flourishing    and 
important  confederation.     Winchelaea  and   Rye 
were  added  to  these  five  .  .  .  soon  after  the  Nor- 
man   Conquest.  ,  .  .  The    new    comers    were 
otflcially   known  as    '  the  two  Ancient  Towns. " 
When  therefore  wc  wish  to  speak  of  this  famous 
corporation  with  strict  accuracy  we  say,    '  The 
five  Cinque  Ports  and  two  .\ncient  Towns. '    The 
repetition  of  the  numljer    five'  in  this  title  proha. 
bly  never  struck  people  so  much  as  we  might 
expect,  since  it  very  soon  came  to  he  merely  a 
technical  term,  the   French  form  of  the  word 
being  pronounced,  and  very  often  spelt  '  ."^ynku ' 
or 'Sinke.' justasif  it  was  tlie  Knv'lish   'Sink.' 
.   .  .  The  difference  between  the  Cinque  Ports 
and  the  rest  of  the  English  coast  towns  is  plainly 
indicated  by  mediicval  custom,  since  they  were 
generally  s,    ken  of  collectively  as  •  The  Ports." 
.  .  .  Most      ..tcrs  upon  this  subject  .   .  .  have 
iH'en  at  pains  to  connect  the  Ciiuiue  Ports  by 
some  sort  of  direct  descent  with  the  five  Roman 
stations  and  fortresises  which,  under  the  Comes 
Littoris  Saxonici  [see  Saxon  .Siioke,  Coint  of], 
guarded  the  southeastern  shores    of  Bnt.ain.'' 
— .M.  Burrows    The  Ciii'im  l''Tt»,  ch.  1-3— 'Our 
kings  have  thought  them    [I  he  Cin(|iio   Ports] 
worthy  a  peculiar  regard :  and,  in  onier  to  secure 
them   against  invasions,    have  grunted  them  a 
particular  form  of  goverument.     Thev  are  under 
a  keeper,  who  has  tlie  title  of  Lord  Warden  of 
the  Cinque  Ports  (an  otilcer  first  appointed  by 
William  tlie  Conqueror),  who  has  the  authority 
of  an  admiral  among  them,  and  issues  out  wriu 
in   his  own    name.      The    privileges    anciently 
annexed   to   these   porU  and    their  dependenta 
were  [among  others):    .Vn  exemption  from  all 
taxes  and  tolls,   ,  ,  ,  .V  power  to  punish  foreign- 
ers, as  well  as  natives,  for  theft,  ,  .  .  A  power 
to  raise  mounds  or   banks  In  any  man's    land 
against  breaches  of  the  sea.  ...  To  convert  to 
their  own  use  such  gooils  as  they  found  floating 
on  the  sea;  those  thrown  out  of  ships  in  a  stonn; 
and  those  driven  ashore  when  no  wretk  or  ship 
was  to  be  seen.     To  be  a  guild  or  fraternity,  and 
to  be  allowed  the  franchises  of  court  leet  and 
court-baron.     A  power  to  assemble  and   keep  a 
portmote  or  parliament  for  the  Cinque  Porta. 


486 


CINQUE  PORTS. 


CISTERCIAN  ORDER 


'■•:4 


.  .  .  Their  barons  to  have  the  privilege  of  gup. 
porting  the  canopy  over  the  king's  hoail  at  his 
coronation.  In  return  for  these  privileges  the 
Clnciuc  Ports  were  rcqulriKl  to  (it  out  57  ships, 
each  manned  with  31  men  and  a  bo/,  with 
which  they  were  to  attend  the  king's  service  for 
IS  days  at  their  own  expense;  but  If  the  state 
of  affairs  n-quirod  their  assistance  any  longer 
they  Were  to  be  paid  by  the  crown.  .  .  .  As  the 
term  baron  occurs  contmually  throughout  all  the 
charters  of  the  Ports,  it  may  not  be  improper  to 
inform  our  readers  that  it  is  of  the  same  import 
■s  burgess  or  fn-eman.  .  .  .  The  ri'presentatives 
of  the  Ports  iu  i>arliament  are  to  this  day  styled 
toirons."  The  post  of  Warden  of  the  Ciuijue 
Ports,  "  formerly  considered  of  so  much  honour 
and  consequence,  is  now  converted  Into  a  patent 
sinecure  place,  for  life,  with  a  salarv  of  £4.0<H)  a 
year"— y/i,<.  «/  the  Uomuglu  of  Ofent  lirWiin  ; 
toffetlwr  irilK  the  Cinque  Birta.  r.  3.— The  office  of 
Wanien  of  the  Cinijue  PorU  has  been  held 
durine  the  pres«'nt  centurv  bv  Mr.  Pitt,  the  Eiirl 
of  Liverpool,  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  the  Earl 
of  Dalhousie,  Viscount  Palmerston,  and  Earl 
Granville. 
CINTRA,  Conrention  of.    See  Spain:  A.  D. 

1H<I8-18(«  (AfOl'ST-^AM-AKV). 

CIOMP.  Tumult  of  the.  See  Florence: 
A.  '    "'-ft  1427. 

kS,  or  SIRKARS,  The  northern. 

S  A.  D.  1758-1701. 

.SSIANS.     See  Caucasus. 
.vwLES    OF    GERMANY,    The.      See 
Gekmanv;  a.  D.   149:i-1519. 
CIRCUMCELLIONES,  The.    See  Dona 

TISTS. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATION  OF  THE 
WORLD:  A.  D.  1519-1522.— Magellan'!  voy- 
age :  the  first  in  histotr.  See  AxERii  a  : 
A    1).  151il-i.-,24. 

A.  D.  1577-1580.— Drake's  royage.  See 
America:  A.  I).  IST'.'-l.'iW. 


CIRCUS,  Factions  of  the  Roman.— "The 
ract  in  its  tirst  institution  [anions  the  llomaii^]. 
was  a  simple  control  of  two  chariots,  whose 
drivers  were  distinguished  by  white  anci  n'd 
liveries;  two  additional  colours,  a  liirlit  green 
anil  a  cerulian  Mue,  were  afterwards  introduced; 
«i»l  as  the  races  were  R'p<'ated  twentvlive  times. 
"lie  hundred  chariou  contributed  in  the  siime 
day  to  the  pomp  of  the  circus.  The  four  fac- 
tions soon  acijuired  a  legal  istalilishnient  and  a 
mysU'rious  origin,  and  their  fanciful  colours 
were  derived  from  the  various  iippearancea  of 
nature  in  the  four  siMisons  of  the  vear,  .  . 
Another  interpretation  preferred  the  elements  to 
the  seasons,  and  the  struggle  of  the  green  and 
blue  was  supposi'd  to  represent  the  conflict  of 
the  earth  anil  sea.  Their  respective  victories 
announced  either  a  plentiful  harvest  or  a  pros- 
perous navigation,  and  the  hostility  of  the  hus- 
liandmin  ami  mariners  was  somewh.'it  les.s  absurd 
than  the  liliml  ardour  .-t  tlie  Koman  p<'oplc,  who 
devoted  their  lives  and  fortunes  to  the  colour 
which  they  had  espoused.  .  .  .  Constantinople 
adopted  the  follies,  though  not  the  virtues,  of 
ancient  l{ome ;  and  the  sainc  factions  which  had 
agitateil  the  ciriiis  msreil  with  redoubleil  furv  in 
the  hipp<xirome.  Under  the  reign  of  Aiiastasius 
[A.  D.  491-518]  this  popular  frenzy  was  inflamed 
by  religious  »-al;  and  the  greens,  who  had 
treacherously  concealed  stones  and  daggers  under 


baskets  of  fruit,  massacred,  at  a  solemti  festjvsl 
■I.OtN)  of  their  blue  adversaries.  From  ihi mnitsi 
this  pestilence  was  dilTused  Into  the  iimvimn 
and  cities  of  the  East,  and  the  sportive  ili«iiiii  ijna 
of  two  colours  pnsluced  two  strong  uml  imnio. 
cllable  factions,  which  8h(s)k  the  foumliiinn,  „( 
a  fii'ble  government.  ...  A  »eiliti..M,  «l,irli 
almost  laid  Constantinople  In  aslii's.  was  im  itca 
by  the  mutual  hatred  and  momentary  n . m,,  iijj. 
tlon  of  the  two  factions."  This  fearful  tiinmlt. 
which  acquired  the  name  of  the  Nika  .k..iiij,,ii 
fromthecry,  "NIka"  (vanquish).  uilu|iii',|  |,v  i|ie 
rioters,  broke  out  in  connection  with  the  n  llhrj. 
tlon  of  the  festival  of  the  Ides  of  Jiiimnrv  i  D 
53'i.  For  Ave  days  the  city  was  uinii  r,|,  j,, ,|„ 
moh  and  large  districts  In  it  were  Imri.a  jn. 
eluding  many  churches  and  other  siai,  u  „ii. 
flees.  The  emjHTor  Justinian  u  .iiM  '  i^ve 
abandoned  his  palace  and  throne,  liu:  f,,r  the 

hemic  opposition  of  his  consort.  Th |..ra     On 

the  sixth  day.  the  imperial  autlmritv  ».i,  1,  ,siali. 
lished  by  the  great  soldier.  HelK.,rill^.  afi^f 
iiO.iKH)  citizens  had  Ix-en  slain  in  the  lii|i|>iHlri>iiie 
and  iu  the  streets.- E.  Olblmn.  />,<■/,/„  „„,/  /;,« 
of  ttte  limuut  Kinfnre,  rh.  40. 

CIRCUS  MAXIMUS  AT  ROME,  The.- 
"The  races  and  wild  In-ast  shows  in  ii,,.  ,.|^i 
were  among  the  most  ancient  and  in.i>t  fav.nirite 
Roman  amusements,  and  the  buililini:^  ilc  .liiainl 
'o  these  sports  were  numerous,  ami  m  :irlv  ,(|uai 
In  .-laiiniflcence  to  the  amphitheatre>  tin- ( if. 
cus  .Maximus.  which  was  first  pr"vi.l.,|  wjtii 
pirmancnt  seats  for  the  spectators  as  earlv  a.»  the 
time  of  Tarquinlus  Priscus.  was  sueees-ivilvrt. 
storeil  and  ornamented  by  the  ri  piiMii  .u  j;.i\Vra- 
ment  in  3'i7  and  174  B.  C.  and  liv  .iiiim- 1  i.^ir, 
Augustus.  Claudius,  Domitian  aiiil  I'rijaii  The 
psult  was  a  buUding  which,  in  ilimeiiMiiijs  nnil 
magniflcence,  rivalled  the  Coliseum.  I,iit  has, 
unfortuiiati'ly,  proved  far  less  iliinilile,  .virnly 
avestigeofit"nowbenigleft'— R.  Uurii,  lim,t,ii,d 
the  i'limiMiffiui,  int.  unit  eh.  12. — "s,.,.   ,,1^,,  j'^m-n 

BOARIUM. 

CIRENCESTER,  Orign  of.    .SetoiiiNuu 

CIRRHA.     See  Delphi 

CIRRHiEAN,  OR  KIRRHiEAN  WAR, 
The.     Sec  Athens:  B.  C.  BlO-.'ixti.  au^l  I>ki.i'hi. 

CIRTA. — .\ii  ancient  Xumiilhin  liiy  The 
mislern  town  of  Constantina  in  Algeri;i  ii  .  n  its 

site.       Si'  NUMIDIANS. 

CISALPINE  GAUL  (GALLIA  CISAL- 
PINA).    See  Home:  B.  C.  :I'Jo-:j4: 

CISALPINE  REPUBLIC.  Sn  Kkame: 
A.  I).  1796-1797  (Octoiieii— Apiui,!:  KH?  i.M.tT 
—October);    1799   (April— Seitemiikio.    anil 

mn-ims. 

CISLEITHANIA.  See  Austuia  A  D 
186«-1K67. 

CISPADANE  GAUL.— Cisalpim' (Jaul south 
of  the  Padus,  or  Po.     See  Paois. 

CISPADANE  REPUBLIC,  The.  See 
France:  A.  1).  179»>-1797  lOcTonEit-.VrRiD. 
and  1797  (May— OctoberI 

CISSIA  (KISSIA).     See  Elam. 

CISTERCIAN  ORDER.-The  Monasteiy 
of  Citeauz. —  "Hanling  was  an  V::i::iblinuin 
who  spent  his  boyhmxl  In  the  nionast.  ry  i.f  Slier- 
iKime  in  Dorset,  till  he  wass«MZeil  h  illi  a  |ia»sii)ii 
f.-.r  wandering  and  r>r  stti.ly  whi.  h  '■•I  'ii-r-  fiK 
to  Scotland,  then  to  Oaul,  and  at  la.-^t  to  Kome. 
It  chance<i  that  on  his  return  thence,  passing 
through  the  duchy  of  Burgundy,  he  stupiieil  it 
the  abbey  of  MoICmes.     As  he  siiw  the  ways  sal 


486 


iv- 


CISTERCIAN  ORDER. 


CITIES,  IMPERIAL  AND  FREE. 


hsblU  familiar  to  his  cliildliood  reproduced  in 
thoae  of  tlie  moaks,  tlic  wanderer's  lieart  vearne<l 
fur  tlie  peaceful  life  wliicli  lie  bad  forsaken ;  he 
took  the  TOWS,  and  l)ecnnie  a  brother  of  the 
bouse.  But  when,  with  the  zeal  of  a  convert,  lie 
began  to  look  more  closely  into  his  monastic 
oblijtations,  he  perceived  that  the  practice  of 
Muk^mcs  and  Indeed  of  most  other  mona-steries, 
fell  very  far  short  of  the  strict  ru'e  of  8.  Benedict. 
He  remonstrated  with  his  brethren  till  they  had 
Dci  ri-»t  in  their  min<is.  At  last  after  lon^  and 
anxious. deliates  In  the  chapter,  the  abbot  dcter- 
iniui'<i  to  go  to  the  nnit  of  tli  matter,  and  ap- 
poinbil  two  bri'thren,  whose  learnin);  was 
f(|ualliil  bv  their  piety,  to  examine  diligently 
the  original  rule  and  dvilare  what  they  fouiiil  in 
it  The  result  of  lliiir  investiijations  justitied 
liunliiig's  repn)aclies  and  caused  a  schism  in  the 
convent.  The  majiiritv  refused  to  alter  their 
sccustonicd  ways:  finding  they  were  not  to  1k' 
rfforiii.l.  the  zealous  minority,  consisting  of 
Koliert  tlie  abbot.  Harding  himself  (or  i^tephen  as 
he  nas  called  in  religion)  and  sixteen  others 
equally  'stiff-neckcil  in  their  holy  obstinacy,'  left 
JlolCnies,  and  sought  a  new  alHxic  in  the  wilder- 
Di'ss.  The  site  whfcli  they  chose  —  in  the  diocese 
of  Cluilonsur-Saone,  not  far  from  I>ijon  —  was 
no  happy  valley,  no  '  green  nareat '  such  as  the 
earlier  IJeuedictine  founders  had  Ix-eii  wont  to 
seliei.  It  wa>  a  dismal  swamp  overgrown  with 
hru<liwood.  a  forlorn,  dreary,  unhealthy  spot, 
from  whose  marshv  character  the  new  hou.se  took 
ii>  nuiiie  of  '  the  Cistern ' —  Cistellum.  commonly 
calliil  Citeaux.  There  the  little  band  set  to 
work  in  1(108  to  carry  into  practice  their  views 
nfniona.«ticduty.  ...  Thrce-and-twenty daugh- 
ter liousis  were  brought  to  completion  during 
his  [llanlings]  lifetime.  One  of  the  earliest 
UiiH  I'onliguy,  founde*!  in  1114,  and  destined  in 
afiirdays  to  become  inseparably  associated  with 
the  name  of  another  English  saint.  Xext  year 
thiri'  went  forth  another  Cistercian  colony. 
whose  glory  was  soon  to  eclipse  that  of  the 
niiitherliouse  itself.  Its  leader  was  „  young 
monk  called  Bernard,  and  the  place  of  its  "settle- 
ment was  named  C'lairvaux.  From  Burgundy 
ami  Champagne  the  '  White  Monks, '  as  the  Cis- 
lercimi.s  were  called  from  the  colour  of  their 
h»l)it,  s<H)ii  spread  over  France  and  Norman.l  \ . 
In  UiS  they  crossed  the  sea  and  matie  an  e'n- 
tramv  into  their  founder's  native  laud." — K. 
Xiirijatt',  Kngland  uiuler  the  Angerin  King»,  r.  1, 
ch.  1, 

Also  is:  S.  R.  Maitland,  Tlu  Dark  Aget.  21. 

CITEAUX,  The  MonastetyoC   See  Cister- 

CU.N  (iKDEll. 

CITIES,  Chartered.     See  Commuse;    also 
BoHotoHs.  and  Ocilds. 
CITIES,  Free,  of  Italy.    See  Italt:  A.  D. 

KW-ii.V.'.  and  after. 
CITIES,  Imperial  and  Free,  of  Germany.— 

"  The  territorial  disintegration  of  Germany  [see 
Gf.k»hnv:  i:jTit  Centcrv]  had  intnxluied  a 
new  anil  Ixneticial  element  into  the  national  life, 
by  allowing  the  rise  and  growth  of  the  free 
cities.  Tiles*- wereof  two  claaseg:  those  which 
sti»Kl  in  immediate  connection  with  the  Empire. 
ami  were  practically  independent  republics,  and 
t!i~i-  -.vhirh.  while  owning  some  depiudeuce 
uiK'u  spiritual  or  temporal  princes.  ha<l  vet  con- 
quiriil  fur  themselves  a  large  nieasim''(if  self- 
jtovernment.  The  IchmI  distribution  of  the 
I'rimr,   which  u  curiously  uuenual,  depended 


•ry 


I  lilt 


upon  the  circumstances  which  attended  the  'is- 
■olution  of  the  old  tribal  dukedom  Wber  r 
some  powerful  house  was  able  to  oeize  upoi  le 
Inheritance,  free  cities  were  few:  whereve  the 
contrarv  was  the  case,  they  sprang  up  in  alu  Gl- 
ance. In  Swabia  and  on  the  Rhine  there  "  ere 
more  than  a  hundred:  Franconia  on  the 
counted  (miy  NOmberg  and  five  smalle  • 
Westphalia,  Portmund  and  Herford:  v 
Bavaria,  Ihgensburg  stood  alone.  ...  1 
pcrial  free  lities  .  .  .  were  self-goveme- 
constitutions  in  which  the  aristocratic 
denuwratic  elements  mingled  in  vari  ins 
tions:  the- provided  for  their  own  de'"  I .  .  . 
were  repiiblics.  in  the  midst  of  Statc^  w  m  i.< 
personal  will  of  the  ruler  counted  foi  i..  :■  ii 
more.  ...  In  these  cities  the  retii.  J  m  i 
luxurious  civilization,  to  which  the  prince^  .» 
indifferent,  and  on  which  the  knights  waged 
pri'datory  war,  found  expression  in  the  jiursuit 
of  letters  and  the  cultivation  of  the  arts  of  life. 
There,  too,  the  Im|H'rial  feeling,  which  was  else- 
where slowlv  dying  out  of  the  laiul.  retained 
much  of  its  force.  The  cities  held,  so  to  speak, 
directly  of  the  Empire,  to  which  tliey  bioked  for 
pnitection  against  powerful  and  lawh'ss  neigh- 
bours, and  thev  felt  that  their  liherlies  and 
privileges  were  bound  up  with  the  niaiutcuaiice 
of  the  general  order.  ...  In  them,  too,  as  we 
might  uaturuUy  expect,  religious  life  put  on  a 
frcTr  aspect.  " — C.  Heard,  M^irtit,  Lnllur  und  l!u 
liefoniMtiun.  p.  IG.  — -I'rior  to  the  peace  of 
Luneville  [1801].  (icnuuny  |kis.si's,si(1  i:!;i  free 
cities,  called  iteichstadte.  A  Heiclisladt  ( '  civitas 
imperii ')  was  a  town  under  the  inunediate 
authority  of  the  Emperor,  who  was  reoresented 
In- an  imperial  official  lalled  a  Vogt  or  ISchultheis. 
The  flr-t  mention  of  the  tenii  'civitas  imperii' 
(imiH'ri.il  citv)  im(  urs  in  an  edict  of  the  einpemr 
Frcic  rj,  k  II"  [lil-H'-ViO].  in  which  LulK-ck  wag 
di<  I  111,  I  'civitas  im|H'rii '  in  perpetuity.  In  a 
in.  1  .■•111  I.  i.f  the  year  I'iST,  we  find  tliat  King 
Rod.  If  teniK  d  the  following  places  '  civitates 
regni' (royal  ritiesi.  viz..  Frankfort,  Frieilberg, 
Wetzlar  Oppenheim,  Wesil,  and  Boppurt.  All 
these  re  yal  litiis  subseipieutly  lucame  imperial 
cities  in  I'onseijiunce  of  the  Iviiigs  of  Gtennanr 
being  again  raiwd  to  the  dignity  of  Emperors. 
During  the  reign  of  Louis  the  Havarian  [i:il4- 
134T]  Latin  cea.si-d  to  1m-  the  olUcial  language, 
and  the  imperial  towns  were  designated  in  the 
vernacular  '  Richstat  '  In  course' of  time  tlic 
imiK'rial  towns  aci(Uired.  cither  by  purchase  or 
coii(|Uest.  their  imlepenilenee.  "  Besides  the 
Reichstildte.  then'  wen-  Kn-istUdte.  or  freetiiwns, 
the  principal  being  (  logue,  Ba.sle,  Maycnce, 
Ritisboii,  ,*spins.  and  Wurnis.  The  free  towns 
appear  to  have  eiijoyeil  the  following  im- 
munities:— 1.  They  were  evempt  fnmi  the  oath 
of  altegiauc  to  the  Emjieror.  *.  They  were 
noi  Uiund  to  furnish  a  contiugeut  for  any  ex- 
peditiou  beyond  the  Alps.  3.  They  were  free 
from  all  imperial  taxes  and  duties.  4.  They 
could  not  be  pledged  .")  They  were  dis- 
tingiiisheil  from  the  imperial  towns  by  not  hav- 
ing the  imperial  eagle  emblazoned  on  the  muni- 
cipal cscutclieon  '  Subseiiui  ntly  "the  free 
towns  wen'  placi-d  on  the  same  footing  as  the 
Keieiistiiiii,  and  the  lenii  Kreisiadt.'or  free  lowu. 
was  disused.  The  goveruincnt  of  the  im|K'rial 
towns  was  in  tlie  hands  of  a  military  and  (ivil 
jjoveruor  .  .  On  the  imperial  towns  iH-coiniug 
uidepeudeut,  the  admiuistrution  uf  the  town  was 


487 


I .;  .-ft 

Mil 


jilt 


I' 
n 


lit 


I?l 


CITIES,  DfPERIAL  JiSD  FREE. 

•Btruited  to  «  colten  of  from  four  to  twentf- 
four  penoDi,  Mconfing  to  the  population,  and 
the  memben  of  this  kind  of  town  council  were 
called  either  Rathsmann,  Rathaf-eund.  or  Rath*- 
herr.  which  menu  councilman  or  adviaer  The 
town  councillors  appear  to  have  wiected  one  or 
more  of  their  number  as  presidenU,  with  the 
title  of  Rathsmcister,  Burgrrmcister,  or  Stadt- 
meister  .  .  .  Many  of  the  imperial  towns  gainnl 
their  autonomy  either  by  purchase  or  force  of 
arms.  In  like  manner  we  And  that  otlier«  either 
lost  their  privileges  or  voluntarily  became  sub- 
jects of  some  burgrave  or  ecclesiastical  prince, 
e.  g..  Cologne,  Worms,  and  Spin-s  placed  them- 
selves under  the  jurisdiction  of  their  respective 
archbishops,  whereas  Altenburg.  C'liemnftz  and 
Zwickau  were  seized  by  Frederick  the  Quarrel- 
some in  his  war  with  the  Empcn)r;  whilst 
others,  like  tiagenau,  Colmar,  Landau,  and 
Strasburg.  were  annexed  or  torn  from  the 
German  Empire.  As  the  Impi'riiil  towns  in- 
creased In  w<-;iltli  and  power  tliev  exteniled  the 
circle  of  their  authority  over  the  surrounding 
districts,  and,  in  onler  to  obtain  a  voice  in  the 
affairs  of  the  I'inpin'.  at  leni;th  demanded  that 
the  country  under  their  jurisdHion  should  lie 
represented  at  the  KilcliMtag  (Imperial  Diet). 
To  accomplish  this,  lliiy  formed  tlirinselves  into 
Bunds  iir  onfeilerations  to  iissert  their  iliiims, 
and  sucretnlisi  in  forriiig  the  Emfwrnr  and  the 

f)rince8  to  allow  their  representativis  tn  take  part 
n  the  delilH'nitions  of  the  I>iet.  The  primipiil 
coiifiilerations  brought  into  existencv  l)y  the 
strugirles  going  on  in  (iemiimv  were  tin-  Klienish 
and  Simblan  Hunds.  ami  the  lliinsa  [ve  IIa.vsi 

Towns) Vt  tlie  Diet  held  at  Augsburg  in 

1474,  It  appi'iirs  tluit  almost  all  the  inijierial 
towns   wen-  n  pri'scnliil.  and   in    ItWX,    an   the 

f<:ii t  Westphalia,  when  their  presence  in  the 
»i.t  was  fi.riiiMlly  rici.gnized,  thev  were  fnnni-d 
Int.i  a  Hepuntte  mll.ire  .  .  Ilv' the  pi-iur  ,if 
Lumville  four  of  tlie  iiiiiMrial  towns,  vi/:..  .\lx. 
la ChiiiMll.-,  Colo^'ne.  Spins,  ,in,|  W. inns,  wire 
ceded  til  France.  In  1x0:1,  all  the  iniiMriul  towns 
lost  tlieir  autonomy  with  tlie  ixn  piion  of  th..  | 
following  six  — .Vufisliiirg,  Xuninlsrir,  Fnuik- 
fort,  LuU'ck,  llanilmrg,  ami  IJn'tni'M;  an. I  in 
IsiKl  th|,  tlmt  thire.  and  in  IHpi  th,.  oi|i,rs 
sljarinl  tlie  siune  fate,  Init  in  Hl'i,  on  tlir  fail  of 
Napnii-on.  Hn-nien.  Ilanitmrg,  Kuls-rk,  ami 
Frankfort,  n'eovepHl  their  fri<tloin.  nml  wiri' 
n.iniitteil  iM  nunilsrs  of  tlii'  (Jirman  Ibirid. 
wliii  h  Ihevcontlioml  to  Ih'  up  to  tlif  viar  IxrttI  " 
— W  .1.  Wyatl.  IfiMl  nf  /Vr(«(,i.  r  •>.  ,,,,  1J7. 
4if.'  — •■  A<i onling  to  tlie  Oirniun  hisi.irlans  ihr 
piriisi  of  till' gnalest  siiNn.ioiir  of  tlii-si.  towns 
wasiliiriutf  the  Hih  ami  |.-illi  <intiiri.s  .In 

till  IHth  century  thev  ■till  eiijovid  the  sjiiiie 
pio,|«  rilv.  but  the  i>..ri.Kl  of  their  deiav  was 
cone       Thi-  Thirty-Years  War  hasiemd'  tlieir 

fall,  anl   Manily  oi f  ih>'in  estnoeil  ilistnic 

lion  and  ruin  during  that  [sriisl  .Nev.rthcl.  «, 
Ihi'  Inaiv  of  Wesiplmlia  nHiiilnns  them  |"isi' 
llvtiy.  and  B»«'rtB  their  p<«itlun  as  inimisliate 
stall"  that  is  to  s!iy.  slates  which  iii'|it'nd<s|  Im- 
nii'iiiaiily  ii|>on  the  Eni|X'Mr.  but  the  neiirh 
Isiuriui;  .Sovi  ri'lifos.  ,>ii  the  one  ban  1.  and  on  the 
other  till-  .'•nixn.r  himself,  the  i-xiTelwnf  whooe 
flower,  simi.  the  Thirty  Years  War,  was  timltisl 
t'^'  the  leffl.r  v:ix!^iU  =:f  ifo.  .^mj-ifr-  frslHri,-,! 
their  novereiirnly  within  narrower  and  narMwir 
limits.  In  III.-  IMih  .■.-niiirv.  .11  of  iheni  wen- 
Mill  in  viisteuce,  they  tilled  two  bciiebMi  at  tho 


CIVIL  RI0HT8  BILL 

diet,  ud  had  an  independent  vote  there;  but  in 
fact,  they  no  longer  exerciaed  any  influence  upm 
the  direction  of  general  aftai.'s.    At  home  thev 
were  all  hearily  burtbened  with  oe'iU,  partly  be 
cause  they  continued  to  be  charged  for  tlie  im. 
perial  taxes  at  a  rate  suited  to  their  former 
splendour,   and   partly  because  their  own  ad- 
ministration waa  extremely  bad.     It  is  very  r«- 
markable  that  this  bad  administration  seenml  to 
be  the  result  of  some  secret  disease  which  wu 
common  to  them  all,  whatever   might  be  the 
form  of  their  constitution.  .  .  .  Their  pupul, 
tion  decreaaed,  and  distresa  prevaileil  in  tl,|.„ 
They  were  no  longer  the  abodes  of  H.rnuD 
civilization:    the  aru  left   tliem,  and  went  lo 
shine  in  the  new  towns  created  by  the  Soven-iinij 
and  representing  modem  society.     Traiie  foiw),ik 
'he'"  — their  ancient  energy  and  patriotic  vimur 
disappeared.      Hamburg  almost  alone  still  n- 
maineil  a  great  centre  of  wealth  and  intelligent 
but  this  was  owing  to  causes  quite  peculiar  to  lier'. 
•elf."— •^-    de  Tocqueville,   Slals  nf  S.Hitii  i« 
£V>im-e  b^on  1789,   note   P.— SJee,  also,   lUsi* 
TOW.NS.— Of  the  48  Free  Cities  of  the  Empire  re 
maining  in  1808,  43  were  then  roblsvl  of  Un-ir 
franchises,  under  the  exigencies  of  the  Treaty  of 
Luneville    (see    Oekhanv:    A.    I).    IWH-lijo:)). 
After  the  Peace  of  Hressburg  only  thn-e  sur- 
vive.1.  namely,  Hamburg,  LulH-ck  ami  Hnmea 
(ai-e  Germany:   A.  D.  1805-1806).    Tins,,  w^re 
annextsi  to  France  by  Napoleon  in  INK)  —See 
France:   A.  I>.   1810  (FtBRUARy— I)k<  EMiigK) 
The  Congress  of  Vienna,  in  ISliS,  restored  frw- 
lioni  to  them,  and  to  Frankfort,  likewise,  »ii,| 
they  Is'came   members  of   the    Oemiaiiii    Cud- 
ftsieration    then    formed.— 8ec    Vikxw,   Tin 
CiiNiiRESs  op.— I,ubeck  gave  up  Its  privilei-es  u 
a  fn-c  citv  in  1H66,  .(oining  the  I'nissiun  (■ii*i,.ra.s 
I  nion.     Hamburg  and  Bremen  diil  tlie  s.inii.  io 
1MH8,  Mng  absorbed  In  the  Empire.     This  min- 
gtiished  the  last  of  the  "free  cities."    St-i  (ka 
many:  a.  D   1888. 

CITIES  OF  REFUGE.  The  sis  .I.hUi, 
"cities  of  refuge"  for  the  inaii-!n.i  .,. 
Numbew  xxxy,  rt,  Ut-l.".!  were  'Ki,|,.i,. 
Sheihim,  Hebron,  Uezer,  It8niolli(;ile..,.l,  :ii,i 
Golan 

CITY.     Si.<'  KoHoi'oii. 

CITY  OF  THE  VIOLET  CROWN  - 
Ancient  Athens  was  so  calle«l  by  the  poets 

CITY  REPUBLICS.  Italiu,  ,Se  Imr. 
A.  I)   10.VI  I   -..' 

CIUOAD  KOORIDGO:  A.  D.  iSio-itta  - 
Twice  bcsi«|[cd  and  canturtd  by  the  French  s<id 
by  the  English.     See  Spain:  .\    1>   |s|ii  |S|> 

CIVESltOMANI  AND  PERECRINI.- 
"Befon' the  SiHiiil  or  .Marslc  warill  ('  isi  iln-r» 
Wen-  imly  two  classes  within  the  llniiui  .[..iiiio- 
ions  who  were  designaleil  by  a  poliiiial  ii;iTm-, 
(Ives  Itoinnni.  or  Itoman  citizens.  hilI  I'lr,  crini. 
a  term  which  comprt'hendiHl  the  Latini  tin  S»ii 
and  the  I'nivinciales.  such  as  the  liihalii' .nn.if 
Sicily  The  I'lvi-s  Itomani  wen- the  liti/.ips.if 
Home  thi-  elllitens  of  Koman  cuionie-i  uiil  rhc 
inhaliiljinls  of  the  Miinlcipia  which  lis.l  nsTiv«l 
the  Roman  citizenship  "—G  Long,  Ihrliiif  >ftlit 
lt>iMH  llrpiMic  fh.  17— See,  also,  Komk    6  C. 

CIVIL  RIGHTS  BILL.  The  Pinrt,    !)n 

t  rjiTr.ii  r^TVTCs  of  Au  A  li  I'mr.  ;,\j.riti - 
The  Stcond,  and  iti  dtclarad  uaeanstitutit» 
ality.  See  L'nitbu  BTATka  or  Am.  .  A  0. 
187.V 


488 


crVILSSRYICK  REFORM:  EXQLAND. 


CrV'IL-SERVICE  REFORM:  ENOLAKD. 


CIVIL-SERVICE  REFORM  IN  ENG- 
LAND.—"  It  was  not  till  long  af'er  1832  that 
the  inherent  mischief  of  the  partisan  system  [of 
ippointments  in  the  national  civil  service]  became 
msnifest  to  the  great  xlv  of  tbinl(ing  people. 
When  that  result  was  attained,  the  flnal  struggle 
villi  patronage  in  the  hands  of  members  of  Par- 
liament began  on  a  large  scale.  It  seems  to  have 
betn,  even  then,  foreseen  by  the  best  informed 
tliat  it  could  nut  be  removed  by  any  partisan 
■i^cui'y.  They  began  to  see  the  need  of  some 
mi'tliciit  by  which  fitness  for  the  public  service 
coulil  Im?  "ti'sted  otherwise  than  by  the  (iat  of  a 
mcmlierof  I'arliamcnt  or  the  vote  of  the  Cabinet 
or  tlie  Treasury.  What  that  methrxl  should  be 
vaa  one  uf  the  great  problems  of  the  future. 
Ko  government  had  then  solved  it.  That  there 
must  Ik'  tests  of  fitness  independent  of  any 
political  action,  or  mere  otflcial  inlluince,  became 
more  and  more  plain  to  thinking  men.  Tlie 
leaders  uf  the  great  parties  soim  began  to  s<'e 
that  a  public  opinion  in  favor  of  such  tests  was 
bi'in)?  rapidly  cleveloped,  which  seriously  thrcat- 
taiil  their  power,  unless  the  party  system  Itself 
could  lie  made  more  acceptable  to  the  people. 
.  .  .  There  was  an  abundance  of  fine  promises 
made.  liut  no  member  gave  up  his  patronage 
—no  way  was  opened  by  which  a  person  of 
merit  could  get  into  an  otiice  or  a  place  excvpt 
bv  the  favor  of  tha  party  or  the  condesceu.<ii<>n 
of  a  nicnilMT  The  partisan  blockade  of  every 
port  of  entry  to  the  public  service,  which  nuid'e 
Ittiiitolil  easier  for  »  decayed  butler  or  an  in- 
ciiniiN'iint  cousin  of  a  nu-mber  or  a  minister. 
liua  for  the  promising  son  uf  a  rHx>r  widow,  to 
!«.<  the  barrier,  was,  afu-r  the  Keform  Bill  as 
U '  n;  rigidly  maiiitaineil.  Fealty  to  the  party 
iii  work  in  its  ranks  —  subserviency  to  mem- 
iirs  and  to  ministers  —  and  electioneering  on 
th<ir  iMhalf  —  these  were  the  virtues  liefore 
which  the  ways  to  office  and  the  diKirs  of  the 
Tniuury  wer«  opened.  Year  by  year,  the  public 
diiconlenl  with  the  whole  system  Inrieased. 
.  .  .  During  the  Melbourne  administratlim, 
txtwiTn  1834  and  1841,  a  demand  for  examina 
tioij».  «•  a  ciindllion  for  admission  to  the  service, 
caiiic  fnmi  two  very  dilTerent  quarters.  Due 
w»«  tin'  tii)ther  ollli'ials,  who  declari'd  that  they 
could  not  do  the  public  work  with  such  piHir 
srrranta  as  the  partisan  aysk'm  supplied.  The 
othir  was  the  more  indepi'mlent.  thoughtful 
portion  of  the  people,  who  held  it  to  be  as  un- 
list  US  It  was  demoralizing  for  members  of 
^aii'aniint  and  other  officers  to  monopoliie  the 
priviligi.  ,.f  saying  who  might  enter  the  public 
« rviii.  Uini  Mellmunie  then  yie|i|e<l  so  far  as 
to  allow  pius  examinntious  to  Iw  Inatituliil  In 
iiinw  of  the  larger  offices;  and  he  was  Inclined 
to  fator  competltire  examinations,  but  It  was 
tliouKlit  to  he  too  great  an  innovation  to  attempt 
stoii.e  Thrseeiaminatlons  — several  of  them 
bfiiigrompetltlve  — lntn>duce<l  by  public  offli'tm 
in n If  difi-nce  many  ye«r«  previous  to  I8,"MI,  bad 
tK'fun-  tUt  lime  prixluced  striking  ivsulu,  In 
thT  I'i...r  Imot  CommiaaloD,  for  example,  they 
Mil  brought  about  a  reform  that  arrested  public 
stlfntiou.  I' nder  the  Committee  on  Education, 
tiny  had  caused  the  selection  of  teachers  ao 
niiii  h  superior  •  that  higher  lalariea  were  biditen 
tor  Ihcm    for  prlvjttc    mtricf  '  The*    ex- 

smmstmna  were  stmidily  eilended  from  office  ».. 
offlo  ,|„wn  u>  the  rwllcsl  change  made  In  t8:»a 
It  had  bv«B  prorUwl,  kaf  btfon  :«U, 


i:: 


that  those  designed  for  the  civil  service  of  India, 
should  not  only  be  subjected  to  a  pass  examina- 
tion, but  should,  before  entering  the  service,  be 
subjected  to  a  courae  of  special  instruction  at 
Hailevbury  College,  a  sort  of  civil  West  Point 
This  College  was  aliolislied  in  1854,  but  equiva- 
lent instruction  was  elsewhere  provided  for. 
The  directors  had  the  putninuge  of  nomination 
for  such  instruction.  .  .  .  If  it  Ke<'ms  strange  that 
a  severe  course  of  study,  fur  two  viapt  in  such 
a  college,  WU.S  not  siitticient  to  wi-Id  out  the  in- 
competents which  patMiiaue  fom-d  iuto  it,  we 
must  lM>urln  mind  that  the  sjime  iiitluciice  wliich 
sent  them  I'  ere  was  used  to  kci'p  tin  in  there. 
.  .  .  Both  the  Derby  and  the  .\1k  nliiii  udminls- 
trations.  In  18.W  and  IS.'!:!,  took  niitice  that  the 
civil  service  was  in  a  comlitioii  of  piril  to 
British  India;  and,  witliout  distinction  of  party, 
it  was  agreed  that  railiial  refuniis  niu.st  be 
promptly  mnile.  There  was  corruption,  there 
was  inerticienry,  there  was  disgraceful  ignorance, 
there  was  a  humiliating  failure  in  the  govern 
ment  to  eiimnmud  the  res|M-et  uf  the  niori'  intelli- 
gent |M)rti()n  of  the  people  of  India,  and  there 
was  a  still  more  ahmiiini;  failun-  to  overawe  the 
unruly  classes.  It  was  as  liaii  In  the  aniiy  as  in  the 
civil  olllres.  .  .  .  There  was.  In  sliurt.a  liutUii 
of  abuses  pndiflc  of  tliow  intliiences  which 
causiii  the  fearful  outbreak  of  IS.'ST.  It  was  too 
late  when  nfonn  was  deciileii  u|)ou,  to  prevent 
the  outlinak.  but  not  too  late  to  save  British 
supn-nmi  y  in  India  A  ehant'e  of  system  waa 
entered  upon  in  1n.-,3  The  36th  and  3Tth  clauses 
of  the  hnlia  act  of  that  year  pniviiUd  •  that  all 
powers,  rights,  and  nrivileires  of  the  <'ourt  of 
directors  of  the  saiil  Inilia  (  umpanv  to  nominate 
ur  apiMiint  piTums  to  lie  udiiiitleif  as  stuileiits 
.  shall  ceas<- :  and  that,  subject  to  such  ngu- 
lalious  as  might  lie  made,  any  person,  being  a 
natural  Uim  subjett  of  her  Miijestv,  who  might 
be  desirous  of  presenting  hiiiiseff.  should  be 
admitted  to  lie  examintsi  as  a  candidate,'  Thus, 
it  will  lie  seen,  Indian  patrunage  n-nived  its 
deathblow,  and  the  same  blow  oiniiiil  the  door 
iif  stuilv  for  the  civil  servii'c  of  India  to  every 
British  citixen.  .  .  In  1H,W,  the  British  Ouvem- 
mint  hail  ri'ached  a  flnal  decision  that  the 
tiartisan  system  of  appoimnients  couhl  iioi  be 
loni-er  toUn.ted.  HulMantial  euntml  of  iioinina- 
tlounby  memliersof  Parlinnient,  however guonli'd 
by  restrictions  and  iiiiprovol  by  mere  pius 
etamitiatiiins.  had  continued  to  Is-  demurali/iug 
In  itselTect  upon  elections,  vicious  in  its  inllueiice 
upon  h'gishitlon.  and  fatal  to  eionoiuv  and 
elTlciency  in  the  departments  .  Tlieadminis- 
trathin,  with  l^oni  .\Unhfii  at  its  head,  promptly 
di'iidwl  to  undertake  n  radical  and  svstematio 
reform.  .  .  It  was  deihlid  that,  in  the  outset, 
no  appliratliin  should  Is-  made  to  Parliament. 
The  reform  should  lie  undertaken  bv  the  Eng- 
lish Kjecutive  ,  ,  for  the  lime  lie'lng  The 
first  step  dii'ideil  u|»in  was  nn  in<|ulry  Into 
the  exact  condition  of  the  public  service.  tMt 
Siaffonl  Niirtheute  (the  presi-nt  Chancillor  of  the 
Kxclieqiieri  and  Sir  t'harli'S  Trevelyau  were 
appointisl  in  l"!:!  to  make  such  Imnllrv  and  a 
rei>on.  They  siilimitted  their  n-port  In  S'ovem- 
l»r  of  the  same  year  ...  A  system  of  com- 
petitive MamilMlioiis  .  [waaim-ommeuiletl 
T!u^  rri-.:-.rt  »i:!. -:e;-.ir.[wnM  with  ^  sohriae 
for  carrying  the  exaniiiinlhins  into  effeit,  from 
which  1  quote  the  following  nsssages.  .  , 
'  8ucb  a  mvaaure  will  «a«rcii«  Vb»  kappleai  lalltt 


489 


m 


CIVIL-SERVICE  REFORM:  ENGLAND. 

race    in    the   rduration   of    the   lower  classes 
throughout  England,  acting  by  the  surest  of  all 
motives  —  the  desire  a  man  has  of  bettering  him- 
self in  life.  .  .  .  They  will  liave  attained  their 
situations  in  an    independent  manner  through 
their  own  merits.      The  sense  of  this  conduct 
cannot    but    induce    self-respect  and  diffuse  a 
wholesome  respt-ct  among  the  lower  no  less  than 
the    highi  -    clauses    of    nfflcial  men.  .  .  .  The 
effect  of  it  ,11  giving  a  stimulus  to  the  education 
of  the  lower  clas.«es  can  hardly  Ik-  overt^stiniated. ' 
Such  was  the  spirit  of  the  report.     This  was  the 
theory  of  the  merit  system,  then  first  appri.vcil 
by    an    English   adniinistration    for   the  home 
government.       I  hardly   neeii    repeat   that   the 
examinations  referred  to  as  e.xi.sting  wen'  iwith 
sm.ill  exception)  mere   pass  examiiiations,  and 
that  the  new  examinations  propiwcd  verv  open, 
competitive  examinations.  .  .  .   But    the  great 
feature  of  the  n-port,  which  made  it  reallvapro- 
posal  for  the  intro<luction  of  a  new  system,  wiw 
its  adviM-acy  of  open  competition,     ICxcept  the 
experiment  just  put  on  trial  in  India,  no  nati<m 
had  adopttHl  that  system.     It  was  as  theoretical 
as  it  was  ra<lical.    ...    A  chorus  of  ridicule, 
Indignatiim,  lamentation,  and  wrath  arose  from 
■II  the  official  and   partisan   places  of    politics. 
The  government  saw  that  a  further  stniggle  was 
at  h.ind.     It  app<>ared  more  clear  than  ever  that 
Parliament   was  not    a  very   hopeful    place    in 
which    to    trust    the    tender    years    of  such   a 
reform.   .   .   .  The    executive  caustnl  the   report 
to  Ik-  spread  broadcast  among  the  people,  and 
also  re(|uesie<l  th"  written  opinions  of  a  large 
number  of  persons  of  worth  and  distinction  both 
In  anil  out  f  f  office       The   remirt  was  sent   to 
Parliament    ln.t  no  action  U|)on  It  was  requested. 
.  .   .  -\Ni\u  the  tinii- that  English  public  opinion 
h;id  pronounced    its    tirst  Judgment   upon  the 
official  reixirt,  and  liefore  any  ttnul  action  had 
l»  en  taken  upiHi  it,  the  Alierdeen  ailministration 
went  out.   .  .  .   Lonl  I'alnieraton  came  into  power 
early  in  IHM,  than  wh<im.  this  most  practical  of 
nations  neviT  pnsluccd  a    mon-    hanlheadt^l, 
pracliial  statesman.   .  Toon  his  ailministra- 

tlon  fill  the  duty  of  deciding  the  fate  of  the 
new  system  ailvitfated  in  the"  report  He 

hail  faith  in  his  party,  and  believcil  it  would 
gain  more  l>y  removing  grave  abuws  than  liy 
any  partisan  use  of  patronage  .  .  Making  no 
direct  apiM^al  to  PaHiament,  and  trtisting  to  the 
higher  public  opinion.  I>jrd  J>»lmerstoii'«  «d- 
ministration  ailvis<'<l  that  an  onler  shoidd  lie 
maile  bv  the  Qinin  In  Council  for  carrying  the 
reform  into  i^ffn  t ;  and  such  an  <inier  was  inaile 
on  the  8Ut  of  May,  1M.M."_I),  n.  Eaton,  finl 
Sfrriff  in  (Iriot  llntittn. 

CIVIL-SERVICE  REFORM  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES.— "The  i,ue»tii.n  as  to 
the  Civil  Service  (in  llie  I'nlteil  States]  arint's 
from  the  fact  that  the  prealdi'nt  has  the  imwir 
of  amKiinting  a  vast  numtirr  of  p- ,1  ,■  oincials. 
rhielly  prwtniaaten  and  officials  ■•onivme,!  witli 
the  collection  of  the  feileral  revenue  Suiu 
fifllcials  have  properly  nothing  lo  do  with  t«)li 
lies,  they  are  simply  the  ugents  or  clerks  or 
servants  of  the  national  tnvemmenl  in  conduct. 
Inif  its  business,  and  If  the  busincM  of  the 
national  government  is  to  i<e  managed  on  such 
onllnary  princlniM  of  pr^iftei^ee  as  pfevst!  In  the 
mananemrnt  of  private  '•uin-'.,  such  servants 
ought  lo  Iw  wierted  for  personal  merit  ud  re 
taioed  fur  Uf«  or  during  good  bcfasTiour.     It  did 


CIVIL-SERVICE  REFORM:  THE  U.  8. 

not  occur  to  our  earlier  presidents  to  regani  th» 
tnanagement  of  the  pubfic  business  in  my  other 
1  ght  than  this.     But  as  early  as  the  begiMinj  of 
the  present  century  a  vicious  system  was  ct*, 
ing  up  in  New  York  and  Pennsvlvania     ',1  th'ow 
stales  the  appointive  offices  came  to  N^  uh^  ,. 
bribisoras  rewards  for  partisan  servios    Bv 
securmg  voles  for  a  successful  candidati'  a  m.ii 
with  little  in  his  pocket  and  nothln-  in  tianicular 
to  do  TOuld  obtain  some  office  witu  a  coinfcrt  iMe 
salary.     It  would  be  given  to  him  as  ii  nwiml 
and  some  other  man,   perhaps  mon.  (,.mi„unt 
than  himself,  would  have  to  be  turm.l  ,,«  j- 
onler  to  make  room  for  him.     A  nion-  itTntive 
method  of  driving  good  citizens  •  out  ..f ,,  jitir,' 
could  hanlly  l)c  devisi'd.     It  called  t..  the  fmnt 
a  large  cla.ss  of  men  of  coarse  moril  lihr,' 
The  civil  service  of  these  slates  km  s,  ri.mslv 
damaged  in  quality,  politics  deireninm,!  i,it„  . 
Willi  scramble  for  offices,  salaries  wi n-  p.M  to 
men  who  did  little  or  no  public  servii ,.  in  ntum 
and  the  line  which  sepaiBtes  Uxation  fMm  rob- 
Iwry  was  often  crossed.     About  th.-  mtw  time 
there  grew  tip  an  idea  that  there  is  si.riit-tliinr 
especially  di'mocratic,  and  therefore  tiiiritnri.iiu 
alKiut  'rotation  in  office.'"    On  the  ilmiigeof 
party  which  took  place    upon   the  clii ti.m  of 
Jackson  to  the  presidency  in  IH-'H.  ••  th.-  imthocls 
of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  were  appli,',!  on 
a  national  scale.     Jackson  cherishi'd  tho  alisuni 
lielief  that  the  administratiuii  of  lii.s  |in.lii ivmr 
.\dams  had  been  comipt,  and  he  ninii.l  111,11  out 
of  office   with  a  kwn  rest.      Durini;  tin'  f.mr 
.vears  between  Washington's  first  hi;iii-iir:cri„ii 
am'     ickson's  the  total  nuinUrof  n  in,.v,il,fr,,ra 
office  was  74,  and  out  of  this  nuniNr  .1  win-  .Ir- 
faulters.     Ituring  the  first  year  of  .Ia<  ks,in  j  ad- 
ministmlion  the  numlKT  of  cluingis  nia.i,.  in  tin 
civil   service   was  abtmt   2,(NXI.     Sm  h   »u«  the 
abnint  inauguration  upon  a  national  si  alo  of  the 
so-called  StHiils  System.     The  phras.'  oriKiD.itf<l 
with  W.    L.    .Marcy,   of  New  York,  win.    in  a 
speech  in  the  8<'iiate  in  1831  dechin.i  ili  !  ■  i.i ihf 
victors  belong  the  spoils. ' .  .  .  In  the  canva.M.f 
1H40  the   Whigs  pn)mis<'d  to  reform  ihi-  ilvil 
service,   and  the  promise  brought  llum  iiLiny 
Democratic  votes;  but  after  they  ha.l  won  iht 
election  they  followeil  Jackson's  Vxaini.l.'     The 
Ik'miKrats  followeil  in  the  siunc  wav  iu  isri.  ami 
fnmi  that  time  down  to  1NM.5  it  wii«'ni»t.iniarv  jt 
each  change  of  partv  to  maki  n  ' ilian  .»■.■. p'  ..f 
the  offices.     Soon  after  the  Civil  War  ilMink.f 
the  system  began  lo  attract  serious  all.  niinn  ..n 
the  nart  of  thoughtful  |«iiple  ■— J    Kl.k.,  i;„l 
linrl  in  rAe    I'.    S.  pp.   '2fll-',>(M  _■  li  w  1,  not 
until  1M87  that  any  important  nio\r  was  iii*lr 
[lowanUn.form]    .  .  .  This  was  liv  .Mr  .Ii-n. li<, 
of  Uhisle  Island,  who  inlnslucisl  a'lilll.  iiia.le  sn 
able  .;'|xirt  and  several  s|Mv<lies  in  lis  !»li.ilf 
Vn'ortunately.   di'sth   soon    put  1.     in.l  t.>  hlii 
lalsirs  and  deprivetl  the  cause  of  an  able  .i.lv.vatf 
But  the  seed  he  had  sown  bore  gissl  fruit    W 
lenlion  was  so  awakennl  to  the  necossitv  .'f  rr 
'orm.   that  President  ilranl.  In  his  m.ssujr  In 
IHTO,  called  the  attention  of  Congnss  to  it,  jn.| 
that  tMiily  passed  an  act  In  March.    I"*:!   irhiih 
autborizetl  the  l>resident  to  pr.'«<  rils'.  f  .r  *lral»- 
slon  to  the  Civil  Service,   stioh  rt  k-  ilni"!"  «• 
would  hi'st  pnimote  lis  effiiirmv.  an.l  axTrtnin 
th*  Itneii.-friifh -r-srrililair  frf"i::!-   ;--■'■■;,  tt^ 
sought.     For  this  purpose.  It  says,  he  nny   md 
plor  sult«ble  pemont  to  comluct  smh  liojuirirs, 
and  mmj  prcwribv   their  duties,  aad  rtubliih 


400 


CIVIL-SERVICE  REFORM:  THE 


CLAraVAUX. 


RgulatioDs  for  the  conduct  of  persons  i  'lo  i     . 
nceive  appointments  in  the  Civil  Service.' 
icconlance  with  tliis  act.  President  Orant  ap- 
poinwd  a  Civil  Si-rvice  Coniniission,   of  which 
fleorge  William  Curtis  was  made  chairman,  after- 
wards succeeded  by  Dorman  Q.  Euton,  and  an 
tpproprintion  of  $35,000  was  made  by  Congress 
to  defray  its  expenses.     A  like  suia  was  voted 
nextvciir;  but  after  that  nothing  was  jgrranted 
until 'June,  1HS3,  when,  instead  of  |-,>.5,00<")  asked 
for  by  the  President,  $15,000  was  grudgingly 
sppropriated.     It  is  due  to  Mr.  Silas  W.  Burt, 
>sval  Officer  in  New  York,  who  had  long  been 
greatly  interested  in  the  subject  of  Reform,  to 
my  that  he  deserves  the  credit  of  having  been  the 
6m  tri  introduce  open  competitive  examinations. 
Before  the  appointment  of  Oruat's  committee,  he 
had  hchi  such  an  examination  in  his  ottlce.  .  .  . 
Under  Orint's  commission,  open  competitive  ex- 
smin»tiim«  were  introduced  in  the  departments 
It  Washington,    and  Customs  Service  at  New 
York,  and  in  part  in  the  New  York  Postofficc. 
Alllii'»i>'h  this  commission  labored  under  many 
disadviu-'iges  iu  trying  a  new  experiment,  it  was 
ible  to  inalic  a  very  satisfactory  reivjrt,  which 
wa-H  approved  by  the  President  and  his  cabinet. 
,     .  the  r<des  adopted  by  Orant's  commission 
were  prepared  by    the   chairman,    Mr.    Curtis. 
Thry  were  adinimblv  adapted  for  their  purptjse, 
and  have  served  as  tlie  basis  of  similar  niles  since 
thin.     The  great  Interest  taken  by  Mr.  Curtis  at 
that  time,  and  the  pnu'tical  value  of  his  work, 
entillnl  him  to  l)e  reganled  as  the  leader  of  the 
Ri'tnmi.  .  .  .  Other  able  men  took  an  active  part 
in  the  movement,    but  tile  times  were  not  pro- 
pitious, pulilic  wntiment  ilid  not  sustain  them, 
uiil  Ci.iitfress  refUM'd  any  further  appropriation, 
sitliiiu^'h  tlie  Presiilent  asked  for  it.     As  a  con- 
leqiieBie,  Competitive  Examiimlions  were  every- 
where sii5|HniIeil,  and  a  return  made  to  'pass 
(uminalions.'     And   this  melhcKl  continueil  in 
use  at  Wiutliington  until  July,    ItWl,   after  the 
pajwaire  of  the  Civil  Service  Iteforiu  Act. 
Pn«iilenl    Hayes  favonnl  reform    of  the  Civil 
»rrviee.  and  ntnmgiy  urged  It  in  his  messages  to 
(Vinirrew;  yet  he  did  things  not  iiinsistent  with 
his  profi's»inn»,  and  Congress  paid  little  attention 
to  liiK  n'l-iimmendalions,   and  gave  him  no  ef- 
fwlual  aid.     Hut  we  owe  it  to  him  that  an  ohiev 
was  pa.'W.-d  In  .March,  INTH.  enforcing  the  use  of 
coni|»  titive  examinations  in  the  New  York  Cus- 
tom ll(i\i»e     The  entire  rliarice  of  thij  work  was 
VI n  to  Mr  Hurt  by  tlie Colhctor    .      .   In  IMWi, 
'imm.uiler     James     revlve<l      the     competitive 
metlii«l«  in  some  part*  of  his  ollice    .      .  When 
the  I'nsjdeni,  ilesiring  lliat  these  examinations 
ihniild  lie  mon-  general  and  uniform,  asked  (on- 
pess  f'T  an  appropriation,  it  was  nluNil      Hut 
uiitwiilisunding  this.  com|H'tilive  eiamiuntiouH 
cailinued  111  [„■  held  iu  the  New    York  Custom 
Hoiw  and   I'osioffli-e  until  the  passage  of  the 
lleforin  .\i  t  of  1N83.     Feeling  that  more  light 
was  niiili  ,|  upon  Uie  nietluNls  and  pmgresa  of 

"■'""»  ' her  wuntries,  l>Tealdent  Haves  ha.1 

fiimully  n>iiu<-«l(Kl  .Mr.  Dorman  B  hlaton  to 
visit  Knitland  for  the  purpow-  of  making  such  In 
quines.  .Mr  fMUm  stK-nt  several  months  In  a 
oirrful.  ihnrough  examination,  and  his  n-isirt 
«»« tr»n»nHii.-,|  to  Congrraa  in  DecimUr.  1H7» 

uT  the  l'ri.kitl»iif    In  .    ,_„_-.,._^    .„.|.i  .>.      ■  .      _,,      ■ 

'  ,  r  *  m—ssgp  »ni-,!i  lirstTibt-ti 

II  »<  an  elatKirate  and  compfvbeoslve  hisUirr  of 
I!irj"."'f  ,""'.'!"'•  Thlsrvp.irt  waa  afterwards 
tmbudiisi  in  Ar  Uuiat  ■  dvll  Berrlre  la  Oraat 


K 


SritaJn.'.  .  .  For  this   invaluable    service   Mr. 
Eaton  received  no  compensation  from  the  Oovem- 
ment,  not  even  hii  personal  expenses  to  England 
having  been  paid.     And  to  Mr.   Eaton  is  due, 
also,  the  credit  of  oririnating  Civil  Service  Re- 
form Associations.  "—H.  Lambert,  TAo  Prograt 
of  Cinl  Seniee  Reform  in  the  United  Stale;  pp. 
6-10.— "The    National    Civil    Service    Reform 
League  was  organized  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  on  the 
nth  of  August,   1881.     It  was  the  result  of  a 
conference  among  members  of  civil  service  reform 
associations   that  bad  sponUneousIy  arisen  in 
various  parts  of  the  country  for  the  purpose  of 
awakening  public  interest  in  the  question,  like 
the  clubs  of  the  Sons  of  Liberty  among  our 
fathers,   and  the  anti-slavery    societies    among 
their  children.     The  first  act  of  the  League  was 
a  resolution  of  hearty  approval  of  the  bill  then 
pending  In  Congress,  known  as  the  Pendleton 
bill.     Within  less  than  two  years  afterward  the 
Civil  Service  law  was  passed  in  Congress  by  a 
vote  in  the  Senate  of  88  yeas  to  5  nays,  33  Sen- 
Btora  being  absent,  and  in  the  House  only  a  week 
Uter,  by  a  vote  of  155  yeas  to  47  nays,  6*  mem- 
bers not  voting.     In  the  House  the  bill  was  put 
u|)on  iu  passage  at  once,  the  Speaker  permitting 
only  thirty  minuus  for  debate.     This  swift  en- 
actment of  righteous  law  was  due,  undoubteilly, 
to  the  panic  of  the  party  of  administration,  a 
panic  which  saw  in  the  disastrous  result  of  the 
rit-ent   election   a  demand  of  the  country   for 
honest  politics:  and  it  was  due  also  to  the  exult- 
ing belief  of  the  party  of  opposition  that  the  law 
would  essentially  weaken    the   ilominant  party 
by  reducing  ita  patromige.    The  sudden  and  over- 
whelming vote  was  tliat  of  a  Congi  ^sa  of  wliich 
nmbablv  the  members  bail  very  little  'r dividual 
knowleilge  or  conviction  upon 'the  subject.     But 
the  instinct  in  regard  to  intelligent  public  opinion 
was  uudoubte<lly  sure,  and  it  is  intelligent  public 
opinion  which  always  commands    the    future. 
.   .   .  The  pasdage  of  the  law  was  the  first  great 
victory  of  the  ten  years  of  the  reform  m<ivement 
The  si-cond  is  the  demonstration  of  the  complete 
prncticability  of  refonn  attestetl  by  the  hemis  of 
the  largest  otfici's  of  administration  In  tlie  country. 
In  the  Treasury  and  Navy  departments,  the  New 
York  Custom  llouse  and  Post  Ottlee,  and  other 
im|K>nantcusUim  houses  and  postortlws.  wiihimt 
me  least  n'gani  to  the  » Islies  or  the  wrath  of  that 
remarkable  clnss  of  our  fellowcitizens.  known  as 
political  iK^ivHia,  It  Is  conceded  by  ollleent,  wholly 
lieyond  suspicion  of  party  independence,  that,  in 
these  chief  branches  of  the  pulilic  nTvice.  reform 
is  (HTfectly  practieable  anil  the  ri'formed  svslem 
a  great  public  iH^netlt     And,  although  a's  yet 
these  olTlceaare  by  no  means  thoMUghly  reorgan- 
Izwlupon  n-fiirnrprineiplea,  yet  a  (|uarter  of  the 
if  places  in  the  public  serviiv  to 


whole  numUr  ...  , ._...., _....,  „ 

which  the  n-formed  niethisls  apply  are  now  In 
eluded  within  those  nietlnsls  "— (J.  W.  Curtis, 
Ailiire—,  .\,ili,:iuil  I'  S.  Ilrffrm  Uiiij'ir.  \'^*\. 
See.  also.  Cmtkii  Statks  ok  Am.;  A.  I>.  IW-V 

CIVILIS,  Revolt  of  See  BAT.kViANs  A  IV 
6S 

CIVITA-CASTELLANA.  Battle  of  (17911. 
SeeKHASCK!  A   l»  ITIf«-171«»iAiaiBT— Aphid. 

CIVITEf  A,Siet«of(i5S7).    8eeFB*.\cE: 

A.  n  i.v»7-:.'v..» 

CLAIR-ON-Er :  S,  TrMtf  •£     ber  Non- 

HANS:   .\    I)    87«-»ll 

CLAIRVAUX.  TiM  MeaaMtiy  of.-St  Her 
naid,    "the  (naicti  (ctnrnMr  u(  tjM  abuic*  at 


491 


11    ■ 

11   : 

II 


fir,- 


CLAIBVAUX 

the  monastic  life,  if  not  the  greatest  monir  in 
history  [A.  D.  1091-1158]  .  .  .  revived  the  prac- 
tice in  the  monastery  of  Citesux,  which  he  first 
entered,  and  in  that  of  C!airvaux,  which  lie 
afterwards  founded,  of  the  sternest  discipline 
which  had  been  enjoined  by  St.  Benedict  He 
became  the  ideal  type  of  the  perfect  monlc  .  .  . 
He  was  not  a  Pope,  but  he  was  greater  than  any 
Pope  I.,  his  day,  and  for  nearly  lialf  a  century 
the  history  of  the  C'lirLitian  Church  is  the  history 
of  the  inttuence  of  one  monk,  the  Abbot  o"f 
Clairvaux."— C.  .1.  Stllle,  ««rfi«  in  Medimnl 
llitt.,  th.  IS.— "The  convent  of  Citeaux  was 
found  too  small  fortlienumlKTof  persons  who  de- 
sired to  join  the  8<x;iety  which  could  boast  of  so 
eminent  a  saint.  Finding  his  inllucnce  bcnefli  ial, 
Uernard  proivedcd  to  found  a  new  monaslerv. 
The  sp)t  wliicli  lie  chose  for  his  purpose  was  in 
a  wild  and  elimniy  vale,  formerly  known  as  the 
Valli'V  of  Womiwixxi.  .  .  .  The  district  per- 
taiuiM  to  the  bishopric  of  I.,augres;  and  here 
Bernard  raised  Ills  far  famed  abbey  of  Clair- 
vaux."— H.  SU'bbing,  Uut.  of  Chritt't  I'liir. 
Churth.  rh.  28. 

Also  im  A.  Butler,  Lire*  of  iKe  SiinU,  t.  8.— 
W.  F.  IliK)k,  Eeettnattieal  Biog..  r.  2.— J.  C. 
Morison,  l.ife  ami  Tinin  of  tH.  Bemanl. — See, 
also,  CisTKHCiAN  Order. 

CLANS,  Highland,—"  The  word  Clan  signi- 
fies simply  children  or  descendants,  and  I  be  elan 
name  thus  implies  tliat  the  members  of  it  an'  or 
were  siipposi.'d  to  be  descended  from  a  common 
ancest^ir  or  eponymus.  and  they  were  <lisliu- 
guislied  from  eiich  other  by  their  patronymios, 
till'  use  of  gumames  in  the  proper  sense"  tH'ing 
uukiiown  among  them.  [See  (Jens,  liojiAN.l  .  .  . 
lu  considering  tlie  geaealogies  of  the  Highland 
clans  we  must  U'lir  in  mind  that  ir  the  earlv 
state  of  till'  trilml  organisation  the  jwiigree  of 
till'  sept  or  clttii,  anil  of  eaili  nicmln'r  of  the 
trilH-,  haii  a  very  iiii|M>rtnnt  meaning.  Their 
rights  were  dirivetl  through  the  common  ancestor, 
and  their  relation  to  liim,  and  through  him  to 
each  otlier.  indicated  thfir  position  in  the  suc- 
ccsiiiim.  a.'<  well  as  their  plare  In  the  all  ication  of 
the  tiibe  land,  lu  such  a  state  of  society  the 
pedigri"'  occupleii  the  same  {Kisition  as  the  tille- 
di;d  of  the  feudal  system,  and  the  Seunachics 
•Krrv  as  niucli  the  custodiers  of  the  rights  of 
families  as  the  mere  pauigyrisls  of  the  clan. 
Durlug  the  19lh  century  rht-  clans  wen- 
bn)uglit  ini*>  direct  cor  tact  with  the  Crown,  and 
in  tlie  lalUT  iiart  of  it  serious  elTorts  were  made 
by  the  Legislatun- to  establish  an  ertlciert  contml 
ov  r  them.  Th-se  gavi  ris<'  to  the  Acts  of  1,V<7 
and  \\H  .  .  .  ;  but  ll>ey  were  followed  tn  a  few 
yean  by  an  ir.tpurtant  Statute,  which  had  a 
powerful  etTei't  upou  tlie  p'>sltion  oi  the  clans, 
and  IhI  to  another  great  change  in  the  theory  of 
their  descent  .  .  .  The  chh'fs  of  the  cians  thus 
found  themselves  comtx-lled  to  defend  their 
rights  uiwn  gniunds  will,  h  could  compel*  with 
the  claims  of  tlieir  erger  op|H>n -iits,  and  to 
maintain  an  eijuality  of  tank  and  prestige  with 
tlii'm  in  the  ileralds'  Uftlee,  which  must  drive 
them  to  every  derii-e  necesaary  to  ritivl.  their 
I'lirpow,  and  they  would  not  hesitate  D  mauu- 
fiictur*'  titles  to  the  land  when  they  <;id  not 
exist,  and  to  put  forwanl  auurioiu  iHitigrm-a 
Jietter  i\aleul(ii«|  u.  msinlaia  their  ptailW  when 
u  native  ilewent  \m\  lost  its  value  aud  was  tisi 
weak  to  serve  their  purpo«v  From  thU  iM'ri.Hi 
MS.  histories  of  the  leading  Uighlaiul  fsmillrs 


CLANS. 

began  to  be  compiled.  In  which  these  pr  tensiom 
were  advanced  and  spurious  charter-  inserted 
.  .  .  The  form  which  thess  pretentious  gmekK 
gies  tfok  was  that  of  makins  the  eponvmrs  or 
male  ancestor  ot  the  chu  a  Nor  A-egian,  bam  cr 
^'orman,  or  a  cade*  of  some  distimruLshiil  familv 
who  succeeded  to  Uie  chiefship  aiid  to  t|ie  tetri' 
tory  of  the  clan  by  marriage  with  the  daiiL-hter 
and  helrese  of  the  last  of  the  old  Celtic  llm,  ihiu 
combining  the  ailvantage  of  r    descent  wliiil, 
could  com|>ete  wiih  that  of  the  great   N  ,n  lan 
families  with  a  feudal  succession  io  tliiir  lands 
and  the  new  form  of  the  dun  geneajoity  wuuld 
have  the  greater  tendency  to  iLssume  this  f.inn 
where  the  clan  name  was  derlvtd  not  friMi  « 
|>ersonal  name  or  patronymic  but  fropi  u  iw  r.,(,nal 
epithet  of  its  founder.  .  .      TheconiluMcm.  iIkh 
to  which  [an]  analyds    of   the   clan  iK.lijmTJ 
which  have  been  popularly  accepted  ai  iljff.rtot 
times  has  brought  us.  is  that,  so  fur  us  tl.iv  pro- 
fess to  show  tlie  oriein  of  the  dilTi  reel  Vlans 
they  are  entirely  artificinl  and   uiilnistwdrti,"! 
but  tliat  the  olJer  genealogies  may  1k'  ncciimii 
as  showing   the   descent  of  the   cljii  fr..iii  \\% 
eponymus    or  founder,  and    withiu   rciisi.ual-li. 
limits  for  some  generations  iieyoiul  liiin.  whilr 
the  later  spurious  [x'digrees  must   !»■  njur-il 
altogether.     It  may  term  surprisni;  tlut  sudi 
spurious  pedigrees  and  fabulous  uriciiis  (.ln'ull 
lie  so  readily  credited  bv  the   Clan   l;iniili,«  as 
genuine    traditions,    am)  teciive  sudi  |.,-.>nipt 
acvptance  as  the  true  fount   from  ulii.h  ili,v 
sprung;  but  we  must  reolhM't  that  tl.>  '.liulou's 
history  of    Hector  Boece   was   a;i  r.i|.iii;v  ami 
universidly  adopted  ns  the  genuine  aniiaUnf  the 
nalionul   history,    and   beci-.nii'  iiMite<t  in  iIkiw 
parts  of  the  country  to  which  its  i!,lii  .usrvinM 
related  as  local  tra.litlon'..     \Vl..ii  ]i    l.irllieir 
invested  the  oliacure  usurperOriv;  \,  itii  ilie  name 
and  attributes  of  a  ttc^lmu.,  kin^.  (in  corv  ttif 
Great,  and  conn«-ted  h..ii  wi.h  the  Mviil  line  ot 
kirifs,  the  Clan  Oregorat  oi  le  n'lognlv.l  liimss 
their  eponymous  an-M  -'or  and  tlieinle.'uint  from 
him  is  now   implicitly   iM'lievid   in   l>v  nil  the 
JiacOregors.     It  is  ptnAible,  howevir,  frmithp* 
^"healogies,  and  from  other  iiidicalinn^.  ta  liis. 
tribute  th"  -tans  in  certain   grouiw  ns  Imijnj 
oppHnrnt';.  .  closer  connection  with  im\\  oiIht, 
and  thes«!  grr)ups  we  hoid  in  tile  nmiu  Ii  n  (ir""- 
si'nt  tl"'  gresl  i.ils'S  in'o  which  tlie  (;:iclir  |i..nu 
hition  was  divided  liefote  .hey  iMiaine  lirlin 
up  into  clans.      The    iwo  great    inUs  ublcli 
possrsci'd  the  greater  part  of  the  lliirliliin.is  were 
the  Qallgaldlieal  .ir  Uiul  in  the  west,  wlio  litd 
Ih'cu  under  the  |niwer  of  the  Norm  i:iiin».  ami 
the  great   trilie  of  the    .Moravians,  or  .Min  ot 
>!oray,  in  the  Ceiitiil  anci  Ki.stern   llijiliUnds 
To  the  former  belong  all  the  i  luns  ili  sciiidiil  ot 
the  I.,onis  of  (he  Isli-s,  the  Chuii'Ik  lis  nml  Msi- 
lends  pnibably  representing  theolil.i  iiilaliitiiiu 
of  their  respcH'tive  districts,  to  the  Init'r  Inl.'iij 
in  the  main  the  clans  iimughi  in  t'e  <,|<l  I.'iih 
genealogies  from  the  kings  of  Dnlr^.il i  ot  ibe 
tribe  of  lA>m,  amouK  whom  tlii'  oil   .Mormarn 
of    .Moray  appear.      The  groii|)  ..ni.iinini:  thf 
Clan  Anilres  or  old  Bosses,  the  M»<k(nziis  aud 
.Mathesons,  liehing  to  the  tribe  of  lios>.  ihr  ( lau 
I>iinnachy  to  Atliole.  the 'Ian  l.nwr<n  I"  Sttsi 
heme,  and  the  Clan  Pharluie  to  Leno'V  xliiV 
tlif  ffnuin  rtKjtalning  thr  Mai-Vtitui  t' -.:■.  ^irt-i-:;:. 
and  MacKinnons,  >ppear  to  have  eniifi'id  (mm 
Utendis'liarl.  at  liaat  tola'  coniiectivl  wilh  Ih> 
old  Culiiiiibau  luouaateries.    The  C'»ii<,  iiroiicrl/ 


4'.»2 


CLASS, 


OUVX  m  INDIA. 


K  called,  wen  thai  of  natlTe  origin;  the  tur- 
nunes  pvtir  of  native  and  partly  of  foreisn 
deicent."— W.  F.  Sliene,  Celtic  Seotland,  bk.  8. 

CLARENDON,  The  Constitutions  and  the 
Aatise  o(  See  Eholand:  A.  D.  1168-1170; 
lbs,  lee  ConeTrrcTioNB  or  Clasekdok. 

CLARIAN  ORACLE,  The.  Scu  Uiuclu 
or  TBI  Oruki. 

CLARK,  Gcorrt  Rorcrs.  See  Uhitid 
SttTBS  or  AM. :  A.  D.  1778-177P. 

CLARK  UNIVERSITY.  See  Educatiow, 
Mudehn  :  Ambrica  :  A.  D.  1887-1889. 

CLAUDIUS,  Ronuui  Emperor,  A.  D.  41-41 

CLAVERHOUSE  AND  THE  COVE- 
NANTERS. SeeScoTLASo:  A.  D.  1679;  1681- 
\Ui.  and  1680  (Jult). 

CLAY,  Hemy,  and  the  war  c'  iSia.  See 
I'KmtD  State*  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  1810-1818. .... 
Ntgetiatioa  of  the  Treaty  of  Ghent.  See 
tirrreD  Statu  or  Ax. :  A.  D.  1814  (Dicexbbk). 
....And  the  Tariff  qncttion.  See  TARirp 
Liaiiii..\TioN(Vi«rrBDSTATC«):  A.  D.  1816-1824. 
tnd  1833:  and  UNrnto  Statu  or  Aic :  A.  D. 

1828-tS33 And  the  MiaMoii  CompromiM. 

gee  U.nited  Statm  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  1818-1821. 
....In  the  Cabinet  of  President  John  Qnincy 
Adimt.  See  Unitbd  Statu  or  Asc. :  A.  D. 
182V1X28.... Defeat  In  the  Presidential  eiec> 
ties.  See  UicrrKo  Statu  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  1844. 
. . ,  .The  Compromise  Measures  of  iSjo.  See 
I'HiTED  Statu  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  laV). 

CLAYBANKS  and  CHARCOALS.— 
During  the  American  civil  war  the  Comenrattve 
ind  tiiiiUcsl  factions  in  Missouri  were  sometimes 
callrd  CUybsnki  and  Cliarooala — J.  O.  NicoU«y 
ukI  J.  tinr.  Ahmhnm  Lincoln,  r.  8.  p.  204. 

CLAYtON-BULWER  TREATY,  Tha. 
SeeN'ir.\RAn(TA:  A.  D.  18S0. 

CLEAR  GRITS.  BeeCAMAOA:  A.  D.  1840- 
1867. 

CLEISTI'ENES,  CoosUtntloa  o£  See 
AtHtNs:  B.  C.  510-507. 

CLEMENT  II.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1046-1047 

Clement  III.,  Pope,  A.  U.  1187-1191 Clem- 
ent IV.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1269-1268 Clement  V., 

Pope,  A.  I).  1!)U5-1814. . . .  .Clement  VI.,  Pop*, 

A  D.  1343-1859 Clement  VII.,  Pope,  A.  D. 

13;»-13U4  (Antlpope  at  Avignon) Clement 

VII,,  Pope,  A.  D.  1523-1584. . . .  Clement  VIM., 

Pooe,  A.  I).  1591-1805 Clement  IX.,  Pope, 

A.1).  1M7-H89 Clement  X.,  Pope,  A.  T). 

I«7«-18T« Clement  XI.,  Pope,  A.  D.  170O- 

IWt Clement   XII.,   Pope,   A.    D.    1780- 

ITW  ...  .Clement  XIII.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1758- 
"«•       Clement  XIV..Poee^  A.  D.  1769-1774. 

CLEOMENIC  (KLBdllBNIC)  WAR, 
The.    S.M-  (iRUOt:  B.  C.  980-146. 

CLEOPATRA  AND  CiSSAR.    Bn  Alh- 

AXDHiv:   B.  C.  48-47 And  Mark  Anton*. 

SeclioMK   B  C.  81. 

CLEOPATRA'S  NBBDLES.-"Thc  two 
otwUdk*  known  as  CIropatra's  Needles  we« 
orijtimilly  nt  up  by  Thothmrs  III.  at  Hcllopolls. 
Augustus  transfcrreil  ;hem  to  Alexandi  >.  where 
they  rrmninwl  until  recentlv.  At  pn«nt  (.July, 
18*))  ctic  (irnAmenU  the  thsmei  Enilmnkment 
IU>iii|..til  while  the  other  is  on  iu  way  to  tlio 
Iniiitl  HUh'i  of  America,  "—f..  Rnwllnitm.  Hitt. 
of  A'vunt  Kgypt,  M.  20,  »»<<■. —The  obelisk  lost 
>9»nU.<n!-J  E.1W  s«»r,.is  ',;,  C*=nfrsl  Psrk,  Sew 
lork.  having  been  brought  over  ami  erected  by 
l'imm»D(lprUorringe,  at  the  expense  of  the  1st* 
WlUism  U.  V*Bd*Ailt.-U.  H.  Oorringe.  Bffp. 


tian  OitlUa.—8M,  liio,  Earn :  About  B.  C 
1700-1400. 
CLERGY,   Benefit   oL    See  BiKirrr  ov 

ClJEBOT. 

CLERGY  RESERVES.      See  Cahada  ; 
A.  D.  1887. 
CLERMONT,    See  Obrootia  or  tbx  Ab- 

YEBNI. 

CLERMONT,  The  Council  of.- Speech  of 
Pope  Urban.    See  Cbcsadk»  :  A.  D.  1094. 
CLERUCHI.    See  Klebl'crb. 
CLEVELAND,  Crover :  First  presidential 
*l*ction  and  administration.     Bee  Unitbd 

Statu  or  Am.:  A.  D.  1884  to  1889 Defeat 

in  presidential  election.    See  United  Statu 

or  Am.:  a.  D.  1888 Second  presidential 

administration.    See  Uhitbo  Statu  or  Am.- 
A.  D.  1899,  and  1895. 

CLEVELAND :  The  fonndinr  and  naminv 

of  the  city  (1796).    See  Ohio  :  A.  D.  1786-1796! 

CLEVELAND,  College  for  Women.    See 

Educatiov,  MooBBH :  RBroBMn :  A.D.  1804-1691. 

CLICHY  CLUB.-CLICHYANS,  The. 
SeeFsANCB:  A.  D.  1797  (Sb3TEmber). 

CLIENTES,  Roman.— "To  [the  Roman] 
familv  or  househoU'  anlted  under  the  control  ol 
a  living  msster,  and  the  clan  which  originated 
out  of  the  breaking  ,>  of  sneh  houBchohls,  there 
further  belonged  the  dependents  or  ■list<'ners' 
(cllentes,  from  'clucre ').  This  term  denoted  not 
the  guests,  that  Is,  the  members  of  similar  circles 
who  »!■!«  temporarily  sojourning  in  another 
household  than  their  own,  and  still  less  the 
slaves  who  were  looked  upon  In  law  as  the  prop, 
erty  of  the  liouaehold  and  not  as  members  of  it, 
but  tlioae  indivliluals  who,  while  they  were  not 
free  burgesses  of  any  commonwealth,  yet  lived 
within  one  In  a  coDtlltlon  of  protected  freedom. 
The  class  included  refugees  who  had  found  a  re- 
ception with  a  foreign  protector,  and  those  slaves 
in  respect  to  whom  their  master  ha<I  for  the  timo 
being  waived  the  exercise  of  his  rights,  and  so 
conferred  on  them  practical  fre«<lom.  This  rela- 
tion had  not  properly  the  character  of  a  relation 
'  de  Jure,'  like  the  relation  of  a  man  to  his  guest 
or  to  his  sisve:  the  client  remainc<l  non-free, 
although  good  faith  and  use  and  wont  alleviated 
In  his  case  tlie  condition  of  non-freedom.  Henco 
the  '  listeners '  of  the  household  (cllentes)  together 
with  the  sUves  strictly  su-called  formed  the 
'body  of  servants ■('fanillia')."  —  T.  .Moiniiutoii, 
JJitt.  of  lime,  M,  1,  M.  S. 

Axso  IN:  Fustel  De  Coulangos,  7^  Ancient 
Vitf,bk.4,  eh.  I<inrf6, 

CLIFF-DWELLERS.  Seo  Amebica: 
Pbbbistoric. 

CLINTON,  Dewitt,  and  the  Eri*  Canal. 
See  Nbw  York:  A.  D.  1817-1825. 

CLINTON,  Ceorce,  The  first  Goremor  ot 
N*w  York.    See  New  York:  A.  I).  1777. 

CLINTON  General  Sir  Henry,  and  th* 
war  of  th*  Am*rican  Revolution.  Hec  United 
States  or  Am,  :  A.  H.  ITT.T(Ariiii.— May);  1776 
(JPNE).  (AfofOT);  17T!<(.?INE);  1778-1779;  1790 
(FKBRUAnV— .VHUKT);   ITNl  l.lANfABT). 

CLINTONIANSANDBUCKTAILS.  See 
New  Vork:  A.  D.  1H17-1819. 

CLISSAU  OR  CLISSOW,  BattI*  ofdToa). 
See  Scandinavian  Statu  (Sweden):  A.  D. 
1701-170- 

CLIVE'S  CONQUESTS  AND  RULE  IN 
INDIA.  See  UiDU:  A.  O.  174»-178a,  to  17S7- 
1779. 


493 


CLOACA  MAXDIA. 


CLCHa 


m 


I '  ■(%»' 


I 


CLOACA  MAXIMA  OF  ROME,  The— 

"  Even  >t  the  preaent  day  tlicre  standi  uochaneed 
the  great  iewer,  the  '  cloaca  maxima,'  the  obfcct 
of  whloh,  it  may  be  observwl,  waa  not  merrly  lo 
carry  away  the  rcfua  of  the  dty,  but  chiefly  to 
drain  the  large  lake  whirli  wag  formed  by  the 
Tiber  between  the  Capitoline.  Aventlne  and  Pala- 
tine, then  extended  bclwevn  the  Palatine  and 
Capitoline,  and  reached  as  a  swamp  ns  far  as  the 
district  between  the  Quirinal  and  Vlminal.  This 
work,  consisting  of  three  semicircles  of  immense 
square  blocks,  which,  though  without  mortar, 
have  not  to  this  day  moved  a  knife's  breadth 
from  one  another  .  .  .  equnlling  the  pyramids 
in  extent  and  massiveness.  far  surpasses  them  In 
the  difllculty  of  its  execution.  It  is  so  gigantic, 
that  the  more  one  examines  it  the  more  incon- 
ceivable it  becomes  how  even  a  large  and  power- 
ful state  could  have  executed  it  .  .  .  Whether 
the  cloaca  maxima  was  actually  executed  by 
Tarquinus  Priscus  or  by  his  son  Superbus  is  a 
question  about  which  the  anclenU  themselves  arc 
not  agreed,  and  respecting  which  true  historical 
criticism  cannot  preeume  to  decide.  But  thus 
much  may  be  said,  that  the  structure  must  bare 
been  completed  before  the  city  encompassed  the 
•pace  of  the  seven  hills  and  formed  a  compact 
whole.  .  .  .  But  such  a  work  cannot  possibly 
have  been  executed  by  the  powers  of  a  state  sucli 
as  Rome  is  said  to  have  been  in  thoae  times." — 
B.  O.  Niebuhr,  LeeU.  on  tlu  Uitt.  0/  Borne,  leeti. 
Sand  a 

CLODOHIR,  Kinc  of  the  Frank*,  at  Or- 
Itant,  A.  u.  sn-a-M. 

CLONARD,  Menutcrf  of.— A  great  monas- 
tery founded  In  Meath,  Ireland,  by  St.  FInnian, 
in  the  sixth  century,  "which  l»  said  to  haveatn- 
Wined  no  fewer  than  8,000  monks  and  wliich  be- 
came a  great  trainlug-scbool  ia  the  monastic  life." 
The  twelve  principal  disciples  of  FInnian  were 
called  the  '  'welve  Apostles  of  Ireland,"  St. 
Columha  b  i  the  chief.— \V.  F.  Skene,  ftftie 
Scotland,  bk.  x.  eh.  2. 

CLONTARF,  Battle  Of.  SeelRBLAHD:  A.D. 
1014. 

CLONTARF  MEETING,  The.  Bee  Ihb- 
LAND;  A.  D.  IS41-IH48, 

CLOSTER-SEVEN,  Convention  oC     See 
OiRUANT:   A.  I).  1757  (JcLV— DECBMlutK).  and 
I7W. 
CLOTHAIRE  I.,  KioKofthe  FrMks,A.  D. 

Slt-Ml Clothaire  II.,  King oi theFruke 

(Neuitria),  A.  D.  5»4-62« ;  ( Austnui*),  91 8-823; 

Burnndy,  010-838 Clothaire  III.,  Kinc  of 

the  Fraaka  (Nenatri«  and  BnrnnilT),  A.  D. 

MO-670 Clothidre  IV.,Kingof  the  Franks 

(Aastrasia),  A.  D.  7I7-7ll>. 
CLOVIS,  Kinc  of  the  Franks,  A.  D.  481- 

SIl Cloris  II.,  King  of  the  Franks  (Neus- 

tria),  A.  D.  688-854:  (Ai-strasia),8Aa-8M:  (Bur- 
nady),  888-684. . . .  .Cloris  III.,  King  of  the 
Franks  (Neostria  and  Bnrgundv),  A.  D.  681- 
6I». 

CLUBS,  Ancient  Creek.  See  LEacm,  Hkt- 
JIRIES,  Erami  and  Tbiabi. 

The  Beefsteak.—"  In  ITa*.  there  was  formed 

In  the  capital  [London]  the  cihhrated  Beef  8u-ak 

Club,  or  '  Sublime  Society  of  Uecf  Steaks,'  as  lu 

membere  always  desired  to  be  deainated.    The 

riglnof  this  club  is  singular,  and  waa  in  this 

'm.     rttch,  a  celebrated  harlequin,  and  patentee 

ToTsnt  Oarden  Theatre  in  the  time  of  George 

vhU*  engaged  during  the  daytime  In  dlRct- 


ing  and  oontrolling  the  amngements  of  the  «t«» 
scenenr  was  often  visited  by  his  friends,  of  whwn 
he  had  a  very  numerous  circle.  One  dav  white 
the  Earl  of  Peterborough  was  present.  Rich  (,1. 
Uic  pangs  of  hunger  so  keenly  that  he  cooked  • 
beef  steak  and  faivited  the  earl  u>  partake  of  It 
which  ho  did.  relishing  it  so  greatly  that  he  came 
again,  bringing  some  friends  with  him  on  purDoie 
to  taste  the  same  fare.  In  process  of  time  tu 
beef-steak  dinner  became  an  institution  Some 
of  the  chief  wits  and  greatest  men  of  tliu  nation 
to  the  numlierof  24,  formwl  theniseh,,,  Into  i 
society,  and  took  as  their  motto  '  iStcuks  and 
Liberty. '  Among  iu  early  celebrities  vm  Bubh 
Doddington,  Aaron  Hill,  Dr.  Hiwllev.  KIchard 
Glover,  the  two  Coimans,  Osrrick'and  John 
Beard.  The  number  of  the  '  steaks '  remained  at 
iu  original  limit  until  1785,  when  it  waa  aug- 
mented by  one.  In  order  to  secure  the  admiaaiM 
of  the  Heir-Apparent."- W.  C.  Sydney  £,». 
kind  and  the  EngUek  in  the  VSth  dntu'ry,  eh  i 

The  Brothers'.- In  1711,  a  political  cliih  which 
took  this  name   waa   founde<l   in    Lomlon  b? 
Henry  St.  John,  afterwanls  Lord  UolimtlTOke' 
to  counteract  the  "  extravagance  of  the  Kit  Cat " 
and  "tbcdrunkennesaof  the  Beef 8l<'Hk."  -Thii 
society  .  .  .  continued  for  some  tiim-  to  restrain 
tlie  outburst  of  those  elemcnte  of  disunion  with 
which  the  Harley  ministry  was  so  rife.    To  lie  a 
member  o'  thisclubwasesteemedadistinKuiAcd 
honour.    They  addressed  each  other  as  ■  brother ' 
and  we  find  their  ladies  in  tlieir  corri'sixindcnce 
claiming  to  be  enrolled  as  sisters.    "Tlir  mem- 
bers of  this  club  were  the  Dukes  of  Ormocd 
Shrewsbury,    Beaufort;    the  Earls  of   Osfoid' 
Arran,  Jersey,  Orrery,  Bathiirst;  Lonis  Harley' 
Dunlin,    •iashain;    Sir    Rolwrt    Havniond    Sir 
Willi".;..  Windham,  Col.  Hill,   Col."l)..«icv  St 
John,  Granville,   Arbuthnot,   Prior,   S»ift'  and 
Friend."— O.  W.  Cooke,  Memoinof  lUiniAnlu 
e.  1,  eh.  10. 

TheClichy.    See  Fraxce:  A.  D.  1797  (Si?. 

TBHBER). 

The  French  Rerolntionarr.  See  Tmikx: 
A.  D.  1790. 

The  Hampden.  See  Enulamd:  A.  D.  181<- 
1690. 

Dr.  Johnson's.— "  During  his  Illoranr  career 
Dr.  Johnson  assisted  in  the  fDiimliition  of  no 
fewer  than  three  clube,  each  of  wbiih  »;w full; 
deserving  of  the  name.  In  174»  h.-  c-»t«bll«hed 
a  club  at  a  house  in  Ivy  Lane,  I'ateniosiir  How, 
and  only  the  vear  before  he  dieii  lie  rlrafied  a 
code  of  rule*  for  a  club,  of  which  the  luimben 
ahouhl  hold  their  meetings,  thrire  iu  imi  h  week, 
at  the  Essex  Head  in  the  Strand ;  an  ist^ililisb- 
ment  which  was  then  kept  by  a  foniu r  sirvimt 
of  his  ol<l  friends  the  Thrsli-s.  TIiom'  luirohcn 
who  falleii  to  put  In  an  appearanci'  ui  ilii'  rluh 
were  required  to  forfeit  the  sum  of  t»o|«m'e. 
There  is  an  interesting  arniunt  of  one  of  the 
meetings  of  the  Ivy  IjineCluli,  nt  wliieh.l'lnisnn 
preskled,  in  Sir  John  Hawkina'a  liii>i(ra|iiii  of 
film.  .  .  .  Tlie  next  club  with  wliiih  Jolinsog 
Itccame  acquainted  was  tlie  iiuwt  intliituiialof 
them  all.  and  was  the  one  whii  h  ia  n  >w  chied/' 
remcmbeivd  lu  connection  with  kia  iiaiiu'.  It 
was,  however,  a  plant  of  alow  and  Kndual 
growth,  thf  <in%  meetins  of  its  m"nil«f».  who 
exulted  in  the  deaignatiou  of  The  (liib.'wai 
held  in  1768  at  a  hostelry  called  the  Turki 
Head,  situated  la  Oerstd  Street,  Soho.    'Tki 


494 


■it 


CLUBS. 

Clnb'ntalned  Out  title  until  sfter  the  fmnrsl 
of  Oairick,  when  it  wu  *lr  ys  known  u  '  The 
literary  Club.'  Ai  iti  nu..^Jen  were  inuill  and 
UmiUKt,  the  admiision  to  it  waa  an  honour  greatly 
ooveted  in  political,  legal,  and  literary  circlca. 
'Tlie  Club'  originated  with  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds, 
then  President  of  the  Royal  Academy,  who  at 
lint  restricted  its  numbers  to  nine,  these  beine 
Rpynolds  himself,  Samuel  Johnson,  Edmund 
Burke,  Dr.  Christopher  Nugent  (an  accomplished 
Roman  Catholic  physician),  Bennet  Langton, 
Topham  Beauclcrk,  Sir  John  Hawkins,  Oliver 
Ooldsmltb,  and  M.  Chamier,  Secretary  in  the 
War  Office.  The  members  assembled  every 
Monday  evenhig  punctually  at  seven  o'clock, 
and,  having  partaken  of  an  Inexpensive  supper, 
conversed  on  literary,  scientific  and  artistic 
topics  till  tbe  clock  indicated  the  hour  of  retir- 
iai.  The  numbers  of  the  Literary  Club  were 
•uDsequently  augmented  by  the  enrolment  of 
Oarrick,  Edwani  Gibbon,  Lord  Charlemont,  Sir 
William  Jnnes,  the  eminent  Oriental  linguist,  and 
James  Boswell,  of  biographical  fame.  Others 
were  admitted  from  time  to  time,  until  in  1791  It 
numbiTed  85.  In  December,  1772,  the  day  of 
meeting  was  altered  to  Friday,  and  the  weekly 
•uppers  were  commuted  to  fortnightly  dinners 
during  tbe  sitting  of  parliament.  Owing  to  the 
conversion  of  the  original  tavern  into  a  private 
house,  the  club  moved,  in  1788,  first  to  Prince's,  in 
Sackville  Street;  next  to  Le  Teller's  in  Dover 
Street;  then,  in  1793,  to  Parsloe's  hi  St.  James's 
Street;  and  lastly,  in  February,  1799,  to  the 
Tlistched  House  "Tavern  in  St.  James's  Street, 
where  it  remained  until  long  after  1848."— W.  C. 
Srdney,  Englnnd  and  the  BnglM  in  tht  18(A 
Centiirg.fJt.  6  (r.  '). 

The  King's  Held.  See  ilitoLANO:  A.  D. 
18:8-1879. 

The  Kit  Cat.—"  The  K't  Cat  CTub  waa  Inrd- 
tutfd  in  1699  T.;  „,,«(  lUngtrious  meix'jers 
were  Congrev^-,  Prior,  Sir  John  Vimbrugl.  the 
Earl  of  Orrery,  and  Lord  Somers;  but  the 
memliers  bei'oming  more  numerous,  the  most 
violent  party  obtainc<l  the  majority,  and  the 
Earl  and  his  friends  were  less  regular  in  their 
attendance.  .  .  .  The  Kit  Cat  took  tu  nam 
from  a  pastry-cook  [Christopher  Katt],  whoae 
pies  formeil  a  regular  dish  at  the  suppers  of  tbe 
(luh.--0.  W.  Cooke,  Memoin  of  BulitMbroke.  t. 
\.'h.W,f<iot-nott. 

Alto  :.«i:  J.  "nmbs,  Club»  imf  Club  life  in 
Ifidm.  pp.  47-M.— W.  C.  Sydney.  Enetandami 
Vu  hif/lith  in  the  ISth  tientury.  th.  8. 

The  Mohocks.    See  Mobocks. 

The  October  and  th*  March.— '•  The  October 
Uub  came  limt  into  imporUnce  in  the  latest  yeara 
of  .\nne,  although  It  had  existed  since  the  last 
ilMule  of  llie  Utii  century.  The  sU)ut  Tory 
H»\tn  met  together  In  the  '  Bell '  Tavern  In 
raw.v.  dirty  King  Street,  Westminster,  to 
dnnk  October  ale,  under  Dahls  portrait  of 
vjuw  n  Anne,  and  to  trouble  with  their  fletv . 
uncompromising  Jacobltism  the  fluctuating  pur- 
pojhi  of  llarley  and  the  craftv  counsels  of  St 
Juttn.  The  (tenius  of  Swift  tempered  their  hot 
tal  with  111..  (-,«,!  nir  of  his  'advice.'  Then  the 
wi|.|.r  spirit,  „K.-e<l.Kl,  and  formed  the  March 
111'  wliu  h  ntained  all  the  anirrv  Jacobltism  of 
to  pnnt  h..iv,  but  tout  all  its  imporUnce. "— J. 
KcUrthy.  Hut.  at  (U  Fhur  Gtm^,  ».  1.  A.  8 

»V'mA  xn  the  Mth  tmtury,  eh.  8, 


COALITIONS. 


Bee  EnoLAXS:   A.  D.   18«S 


CLUBIIBN. 

(July- AcoDST). 

CLUGNY.OR  CLUNY.Th*  Monuteiyot 
—The  famous  monastery  of  Clugny,  or  Cluny 
waa  founded  A.  D.  910,  at  Quny,  near  Macon,  bi 
Burgundy,  by  the  abbot  Count  Bemo,  who  had 
Prevjpusly  established  and  ruled  the  monastery 
of  Glgnl,   near  Lyons.    It  was  founded  under 
the  auspices  and  at  the  expense  of  William, 
Count  of  Auvergne,  commonly  called  William 
the   Pious.      "In  the  disastrous   times  which 
fol  owed  the  death  of  Charles  the  Groat  and  the 
failure  of  his  scheme  to  reorganize  the  Western 
world  under  a  single  head,  the  discipline  of  the 
religious  houses  fell  with  everything  else  ■  fell 
not  perhaps  quite  so  soon,  yet  by  the  end  of  the 
ninth  century  had  fallen  almost  as  low  as  it  was 
ponible  to  fall.    But  here  symptoms  of  a  moral 
reaction  showed    themselves  earlier  than  else- 
where.   The  revival  dates  from  910,  the  year  of 
the  foundation  of  the  Monastery  of  Clugny  in 
Burgundy,   which  was  destined  to  exercise  an 
enormous  influence  on  the  future  of  the  Church. 
While  matters  at  Rome  were  at  their  worst,  there 
were  silently  training  there  the  men  who  should 
Inaugurate  a  new  sute  of  things  [notably  Hilde- 
brand,  afterwards  Pope  Gregory  VII.]    Already 
so  one  said  at  the  time,  the  whole  house  of  the 
Church  was  filled  with  the  sweet  savour  of  the 
ointment  there  poured  out.      It  followed  that 
wherever  in  any  religious  house  there  were  any 
aspirations  after  a  higher  life,  anv  longings  for 
reformation,  that  house  affiliated  itself  to  Clugny; 
thus  beginning  to  constitute  a  Conpregiition, 
that  Is  a  cluster  of  religious  houses,  Bcattenni  it 
might  be  over  all  Christendom,  but  owning  one 
rule,    acknowledging   the   superiority   of    one 
mother  house,   and   receiving    its   abhotf   and' 
priore  fmm  thence.     In  the  Clugnian  Congrega- 
tion, for  example,  there  were  about  twothouaand 
iiousei  In  the  middle  of  tlie  twelfth  century  — 
these  mostly  In  France;   the  Abbot,  or  Arch- 
Abbot,  as  he  was  called,  of  Clugnv,  being  a  kind 
of  Pope  of  Monasticism.  and  for  a"  long  time,  the 
Pope  excepted,  quite  the  most  influential  Church- 
ruler  in  Christendom."— 1{.  C.  Trench,  Ltet't  m 
Medimal  Ch.  Jliet. ,  eh.  8. 

Also  nt:  8.  R  Maltlnnd.  The  Dark  Age*,  eh. 
18-88.— A.  F.  Vlllemaln.  Lifeof  OregoryVlI.,  6*. 
1— S.  R  Gardiner  and  J.  B.  Mulllnger.  Int.  to 
the  StUitg  of  ISng.  Hitt .  eh.  3,  net.  M  — E.  P. 
Henderson,  Select  Uiet.  Doet.  of  the  MitUk  Aaee 
bk.  8,  no.  4. 
CLUNIAC  MONKS.  See  Cliuny. 
CLUSIUM,  Battle  of  (B.  C.  83).  8m 
Romt:  B.  C.  88-78. 

CLYPEUS,  The.— The  round  mm  shield  of 
the  Romana— E.   Ouhl  and  W    Kouer.  Life  of 
the  OntJct  and  Romane.  net.  107, 
CNOSSUS.    SeeCHETE. 
CNUT.    SeeC/fiTE. 

CNYDUS,    Battle   of  (B.    C.   394).      See 
OREKrK:  B.  C.  399-387. 
COA-.JILTECAN    FAMILY,  The.    Sec 

A.HKRIC.\N  AbORKII.-HES.  ('OAlllILThCAN  KaMILT 

COAjIRO,    Tht.      See    Amerhas  Ahori- 

OINES:  CoAJIRO. 

COALITION  MINISTRY  OF  FOX  AND 
LORD  NORTH.  See  Enoi.asd:  A  D  178*- 
1783;  and  1783-1787. 

^  COALITIONS  AGAINST  NAPOLEON. 
8m  FEaiicii;  A.  D.  1803  (Jahcakt— Apkil).- 


496 


■"♦t  -r     .; 


f 


coAunoNa 

OmcAirr:  A.  D.  1819-1818,  and  1818  (Mat— 
AcorRT),  and  Frakcx:  A.  D.  1814-181B. 

COALITIONS  AGAINST  REVOLU- 
TIONARY FRANCE.  See  Fkahce:  A.  D. 
1798  (  March— Sbfteiuui);  1798-1799  (Anocn 
— April). 

COBBLER'S  LEAGUE,  Tht.  See  Ocb- 
MAMY:  A.  D.  1584-1585. 

COBDEN,  Richard,  and  the  Free  Trade 
fflorement.  See  Taritt  Lboislatioh  (Eao- 
lAND):  A.  D.  1886-1889;  1848;  ."4V1846;  and 
the  sftme  (France):  A.  D.  185S-lb60. 

COBDEN-CHEVALIERCOMHERCIAL 
TREATY,  The.  See  Taiuft  Lsouultio!! 
(France):  A.  D.  1858-lt„J. 

COBURG,  Orifrination  of  the  Dnkedom  ot 
SeeSAXONt:  A.  D.  1180-1558. 

COCCIUM. — An  important  Roman  town  in 
Britain,  the  remains  of  which  are  luppoeed  to  \m 
found  at  Ribcheater.— T.  Wright,  OU,  Soman 
an''  Sojnm,  eh.  5. 

COCHIBO.-COCHIQUIMA.  The.     See 

AmeKICAN  ABnRKilMKa:  AKOEalAMR. 

COCHIN  CHINA.    Part  of  Annam.     See 

TOKKIH. 

COCO  TRIBES.  See  Amuicam  Abobi- 
OiNBs :  GucK  or  Coco  Group. 

COCONOONS,  The.  See  Amxrk-ah  Abo- 
BloiHKR :  Hakiporan  Fahilt. 

COCOSATES,  The.  SeeAqciTAiNE,  Thx 
Ancient  Tkibbs. 

COD,  Cape :  A.  D.  i6oa.— Named  bj  Gee- 
•old.    See  America  :  A.  D.  1608-1605. 

A.  O.  1605.— Called  Cap  Biaae  by  Cham- 

filaio.    See  Canada  (New  Fbakcb)  :  A.  D.  1603- 
805. 

A.  D.  1609.— Named  New  Holland  by  Hud- 
•en.    See  America  :  A.  D.  1609. 


CODE  NAPOLEON,  The.    See  Fbakcb^ 
A.  I).  1H(I1-1804. 
CODES.     See  Law,  Cokiiok:  A.  D.  1848- 

I88;i,  *c. 

CODS,  The.  See  NBTHERLA]nia(HoLLAin>): 
A.  D.  1»4.V1354;  and  1483-1493. 

CCELE -SYRIA.—  "  Hollow  Syria"- the 
long,  broHd,  fertile  and  beautiful  valley  which 
lies  Iwtwoen  the  Uhanus  and  Antllilianus  ranges 
of  mountains,  Knd  is  watentl  by  thf  ()n)ntes  and 
the  Loonies  or  Littany  rivers.  "Few  places  in 
the  world  arc  .-norc  remarkable,  or  have  a  more 
stirring  histonr,  than  this  wondrrful  vale. "— O. 
Rawlinwin,  Mve  Great  Monarthiei:  Ri/itlonia. 

C  CE  N  O  B I U  M.- C(ENOBITES.  — "  The 

woni  '  Ciriic>bi\iin  '  Is  equivalent  to  '  monasto- 
rlum '  in  the  IiiUt  sense  of  that  word.  Cassian 
distinguislies  the  word  thus.  '  Monastcrluin, ' 
he  says,  •  may  In-  the  dwelling  of  a  single  monk, 
C<»ni)l)ium  iiiiiHt  Iw  of  sevoraT;  the  former  word,' 
he  adds,  'expressed  only  the  place,  the  latter  the 
mannerof  living. •••—I.  0.  Smith.  CkrittianMm- 
attinim,  p.  40 

Also  in  :  ,1.  liingham,  Antiq.  of  Vu  Chritt.  Ch., 
bk.  7,  M.  3,  arrt  3. 

COFAN,  The.  See  Amebicam  ABORioraca: 
Amdkhianh. 

COGNOMEN.    See  Obrr,  Rokab. 

COHORTS      .'»rp  I.ieotnx    RoMAf. 

COIMBRA;  Early  history.  BeePoBTVOALt 
Eari.t  histort. 

COINAGE.    SeeMoRiiT. 


49e 


OOLOHIANa 

COLBERT.     See  Tabttt   hKaw.kTvn 
A.  D.1664-1667.  Also.  Prancb  :  A.  D.ieei-iSffl 

COLBY  UNIVERSITY.    SeeED^',^ 
Modbbh  :  Axbrica  :  A.  D  1769-1884 

COLCHESTER.- When  Ciesar  entered 
Britain,  the  site  of  modem  Colchest.  •  vas  occu- 
pied by  an  "oppidum,"  or  fastness  1  he  Trino- 
bantes,  which  the  Romans  called  Camulodunum. 
A  little  kter,  Camulodunum  acquinhl  some  re- 
nown as  the  royal  town  of  the  Trinohantine 
king,  or  prince,  Cunobelln,  —  the  Cymbeline  of 
Shakespeare.  It  was  after  the  death  of  Cunobe- 
lln,  and  when  his  son  Caractacus  was  Ijinjr 
during  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Claudius,  tbit 
the  Romans  began  their  actual  conquest  of  Bri- 
tain- Claudius  was  present.  In  person,  whea 
Camulodunum  was  taken,  and  he  founded  there 
the  first  Roman  colony  in  the  island,  callinit  it 
Claudiana  Victricensis.  That  name  was  too  cum- 
brous to  be  preserved;  but  the  colonial  character 
of  the  town  caused  it  to  be  called  Colonia  ceaster 
the  Colonla  fortress,  —  abbreviated,  in  time  to 
Cohie-ceaster,  and,  finally,  to  Colchester.  The 
colony  was  destroyed  by  the  Icenl,  at  the  time 
of  their  rising,  under  Bioadicea,  but  was  recon- 
stituted and  grew  Into  an  hnportant  Roman 
town.— C.  L.  CutU,  Oakhfler,  eh.  1-8. 

A.  D.  i6a8.— The  Roundhead  siege  and  cap- 
ture.— On  the  collapse  of  the  Royalist  rising  at 
1648,  which  produced  what  is  callwl  the  Second 
Civil  War  of  the  Puritan  revolutionary  period, 
Colchester  received  the  "wreck  of  the  insunw' 
tion,"  so  far  as  London  and  the  surMundlllr 
country  had  lately  been  threatened  by  it.  Tmnpj 
of  cavaliers,  under  Sir  Charles  Lucas  and  Loni 
Capel,  having  collected  hi  the  town,  were  «ur 
rounded  and  oeleuguered  there  by  Fairfax,  and 
held  out  against  their  besiegers  from  June  uniU 
late  in  August.  "  After  two  months  of  the  moet 
desperate  resistance,  Colchester.  ct)nquered  by 
famine  and  sedition,  at  last  surremliml  (.K\ig. 
27);  and  the  next  day  a  court-martial  oondomned 
to  death  three  of  Its  bravest  ilefcmlirs.  Sir 
Charles  Lacus,  Sir  Oeorgt  Lisle,  and  .sir  Btmard 
Oascoign,  *s  an  example,  it  was  said,  to  future 
rebels  who  might  be  tempted  to  imitate  them 
In  vain  did  the  other  prisoners,  Loni  Capel  at 
their  head,  entreat  Faiifax  to  suspend  the  execu- 
tion of  the  sentence,  or  at  least  that  they  should 
all  undergo  it,  since  all  were  alike  jruilty  of  the 
offence  of  these  three.  Fairfax,  cxritij  lijtbe 
long  struggle,  or  rather  Intimidated  hv  Irtion, 
made  no  answer,  and  the  eondenineil  oHlct'rs 
were  ordered  to  be  shot  on  the  spot. "  Ossoolgn, 
however,  was  reprieved  at  the  Inst  monicDt  — 
F.  P.  Oulzot.  niH.  of  the  Bng.  Il.f.l>it,:,i,.  M.  8 
Also  in:  C.  R  Markham,  Life  uf  the  Gnat 
Lord  Fairfax,  eh.  26-27. 

COLCHIANS,  The.- "The  Ci.Irhianj  ap^ 
pear  to  have  been  In  part  indeix'nili  iit,  in  part 
subject  to  Persia.  Their  true  liimie  « iis  evidently 
that  tract  of  country  [on  the  Euxini)  ul>"iit  the 
river  Phasis-  .  .  .  Here  they  first  Ih( .iim- lin'iwn 
to  Uio  commercial  Greeks,  whose  early  lUalinjfS 
in  this  quarter  seem  to  have  given  rix'  to  the 
poetic  legend  of  the  Argonauts,  Tin-  liniiu  of 
Colchis  varied  at  different  titnes.  but  Ilie  uatuni 
bounds  were  never  greatly  depart!  d  fr'tii  The.v 
were  the  Euiiiio  or.  the  ea»I,  lli>'  ;  .:..isuJ  ca 
the  north,  the  mountain  range  wliii  h  formi  the 
watershed  between  the  Phasls  (liioni  and  the 
Cyrus  (Kur)  on  the  weet,  and  the  high  grNnl 


OOLOHIAKS. 


OOLOHBIAN  STATES.  1886-1781. 


tiiween  Bttonm  hmI  Kui  (Uw  MotchUn  monn- 
tiliu)oa  the  loath.  .  .  .  The  most  intereiting 
auestioD  connected  with  the  Colchlans  is  tbkt 
eoDiiected  with  their  natiooality.  Thcv  were  « 
black  race  dwelling  in  the  mid«t  of  whltca,  and 
In  a  country  whidi  does  not  tend  to  make  its 
Isbabitants  dark  complexioned.  That  they  were 
eompantlTely  recent  immigrants  from  a  hotter 
clinistewems  therefore  to  be  certain.  The  notion 
mtertained  by  Herodotus  of  their  Egyptian 
extnction  appean  to  have  been  a  conjecture  of 
Ui  own.  .  .  .  Perhaps  the  modem  theory  that 
the  Colchians  were  tmmigrantg  from  India  is 
entitled  to  some  share  of  our  attention.  ...  If 
the  true  Colchi  were  a  colony  of  blacks,  they 
must  have  become  gradually  absorbed  in  the 
white  population  proper  to  the  country."— Q. 
Rawlinson,  Hutory  of  Btroiotut,  hk.  7,  app.  1.— 
See,  also.  Alarodiamb. 

COLD  HARBOR,  First  and  aecon'  battles 
ot  gee  Uhitbd  Btatbs  or  Ah.  :  A.  D.  1863 
(Jinn— Jult:  VnuuHiA),  and  1864  (Hat — Jtnn: 

VnoHHA). 

COLDEN,  Cadwalladar,  The  Uentenaiit- 
mrcmorship  oC  Bee  Nbw  York:  A.  D.  177S- 
1774  to  1775  (APBH^-SiaTniBBR). 

COLGATE  UNIVERSITY.  See  Educa- 
noN.  MoDBBH :  America  :  A.  D.  1769-1H84. 

COLIGNY,  Admiral  de.  Bee  Fbanck  :  A.  D. 
15(10-1363  to  1573.  Also,  Florida  :  A.  D.  1963- 
If  ,  156+-1565,  and  l.VJS. 

COLLAS,  The.  Bee  Pbru  :  Tmc  Aborioi> 
Ial  Inhabitants. 

COLLECTIVISM.  Bee  Social  Motb- 
ia.iTK :  DKFiNrrioN  op  Trrms. 

COLLEGES.    Bee  Educatiox. 

COLLEGIA.— Numerous  aasoclations  called 
"collf{;ia"  existed  in  ancient  Kome.  Some 
were  reliijious;  some  were  (guilds  of  workmen. 
The  piilitical  clubs  were  more  commonly  called 
"aodalitates."— O.  Long,  Jkelint  of  th*  Botaan 
BipvUir.  r.  ^,  ek.  11. 

COLLINE  GATE,  Battle  of  the  (B.  C.  83). 
See  Rome:  B.  C.  88-78. 

COLLOT  D'HERBOIS,  and  the  French 
RtTolntionarj  Committee  of  Public  Safety. 
Sec  Franor:  A.  D.  1798  (JmK— Octodkr),  to 
17W-i:m  (,Iin,r— April). 

COLMAR,  Ceesioa  to  France.  See  Oeb- 
HA-XT:  A.  n.  1648. 

COLMAR,  Battle  of  (1674).  Bee  Netbkr- 
LAN-m (Holland^:  A.  D.  1674-1678. 

COLOGNE:  Orifiii.  Bee  Colokia  Aomrpi- 
lrexl'^^ 

The  Electermtc.  See  Okrmaht:  A.  D.  1139- 
127*. 

In  the   Haaacatic   League.       See   Hakia 

TOWKH 


COLOMAN.    Bee  KoLOMAif. 
COLOMBEY-NOUILLY,    OR    BORNY, 
Battle  of.     Bee  Frahce:   A.  D.   1870  (Jult— 

Al'llliq',. 

COLOMBIA,  United  States  oC    See  Col- 

ovnivN  Mtatks. 

COLOMBIAN  STATES,  The.— This  gen- 
eral title  will  be  used,  for  cimTcnIence,  to  cover, 
for  ran.tlilprable  nerioiis  of  their  hiatorv.  the 
territiiry  now  divided  Iwtwecn  tho  republics  of 
Wuc/iiciii,  E«'iiHiii)r,  and  the  United  Stan's  of 
Cnlnrahia  (formerly  New  Omnaiia),  the  latter 
emhrwing  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  The  hUtory 
of  Uicic  countries  beiny  for  a  looy  time  substan- 
33 

497 


tlaliy  Identical  In  the  main,  and  onlr  distingulsli- 
able  at  Intervals,  It  seema  to  be  difflcult  to  do 
otherwise  than  hold  it,  somewhat  arbitrarily, 
under  one  heading,  until  the  seveial  currents  of 
events  part  company  distinctly. 

The  aboriginal  uihabitaata.  See  Ahxsicah 
Aborioixes:  Chibcha. 

A.  D.  1536-1731.— The  Spanish  conqnest  o( 
New  Granada.— Creation  of  the  new  Tice- 
roralty.— "  For  some  time  after  the  disastrous 
fafiure  of  the  attempt  of  Las  Casas  to  found  a 
colony  on  the  Pnrl  coast  of  Cumani,  the  north- 
em  portion  of  Spanish  South  America,  from  the 
Orinoco  westwards.  Is  almost  lost  to  histoir. 
The  powers  working  for  good  had  signally 
failed,  and  the  powers  of  evil  seemed  to  h-we  ft 
almost  all  their  own  wav.  .  .  .  Lying  uehind 
these  extensive  coasts  to  the  westward  in  the  in- 
terior, is  the  region  to  which  the  Spaniards  gave 
the  name  of  the  kingdom  of  New  Granada,  the 
name  being  applied  In  consequence  of  a  resem- 
blance which  was  detected  between  the  plain 
around  Santa  Fi  de  Bogoti  and  the  royal  Vega 
which  adjoins  the  historical  Moorish  capitd. 
New  Oranida  was  a  most  extensive  region,  com- 
prising as  it  did  the  entire  countnr  from  sea  to  sea 
In  the  north,  lying  between  60°  and  78°  longi- 
tude, and  from  6°  to  15°  of  latitude."  The 
Spanish  conquest  of  New  Gnmada  was  achieved 
in  the  main  by  Ximenes  de  Quesada,  who  in- 
vaded the  country  from  the  north,  although  the 
governor  of  Quito,  Benalcazar,  entered  it  like- 
wise from  the  south.  "Ximenes  de  Quesada 
came  to  America  about  the  year  1535,  in  the 
suite  of  the  Oovemor  of  Santa  Harta,  by  whom 
he  was  selected  to  lead  an  expedition  again.st  the 
Chibchaa,  who  dwelt  on  the  plain  of  Bogot&  and 
around  the  headwaters  of  the  Magdalena.  Set- 
ting out  in  April  1536  with  800  men,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  pushing  his  way  through  the  forest 
and  across  innumerable  streams.  lie  contrived 
to  Bubeist  for  eight  mo"**-*,  during  which  he 
traversed  450  miles,  enduring  meanwhile  the 
very  utmost  exertions  and  privations  tiut  human 
utture  could  support  .  .  .  When  he  had  sur- 
mounted the  natural  difBcultics  in  his  path,  his 
remJning  force  consisted  of  but  166  men,  with 
60  hones.  On  March  2d,  1337,  he  resumed  his 
advance;  and,  as  usually  happened,  the  mere 
sight  of  his  horsemen  terrified  the  Indians  into 
submissioD.  At  Tunja,  according  to  the  Spanish 
historians,  he  was  treacherously  attacked  whilst 
resting  in  the  palace  of  one  of  the  chiefs.  ...  In 
any  case,  the  chief  was  taken,  and,  after  much 
slaughter,  Ximenes  found  himself  the  absolute 
possessor  of  Immense  riches,  one  golden  lantern 
alone  being  valued  at  6,000  ducats.  From 
Tunja  Ximenes  marched  upon  the  sacred  city  of 
Iracs,  where  two  Spanish  soldlera  accidentally 
set  Are  to  the  great  Temple  of  the  Bun.  The 
result  was  tlwt,  after  a  conflagration  which 
Usted  several  daj's,  lM)th  the  city  and  the  temple 
were  utterly  destroyed.  ...  On  the  Bth  of 
August,  15%,  was  founded  the  city  of  liugotA 
Ximenes  was  soon  here  joined  by  Frederman, 
a  subject  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  with  160 
soldiers,  with  whom  he  had  been  engaged  in 
conquering  Venezuela;  and  likewise  by  Tlenal- 
cazar.  the  conqueror  of  Quito.  This  latter 
warrior  iiad  craned  the  continent  in  triumph 
at  the  head  of  150  Spaniards,  together  with  a 
multitude  of  native  followers, "  In  the  Intrigues 
and  jealous  rivalriea  between  the  three  which 


I  m 


i^^ 


COLOKBUN  STATES,  1<»»-17U. 

fdk>w«d,    Ximenei  d«    QummU  wm  puahed 
aude.  at  dm,  and  ctco  lined  and  banished  bj 
the  Emperor;  but  in  tlie  end  lie  Uiumphed  and 
wa«  appointed  marshal  of  the  liingdom  of  New 
Oranada.     "On  his  return  to  Bogoti  in  ISSl 
he,  to  his  credit,  exhibited  an  energy  in  pro- 
tecting the  people  of  the  country  against  their 
inTaders,  equal  to  that  which  he  had  dispUyed 
in  effecting  their  conquest.    Ten  yean  Uter  he 
commanded  a  force  organized  to  repel  an  attack 
from  the  ruler  of  Venezuela;  shortly  after  which 
he  was  appointed  Adelantadoof  the  Kingdom  of 
New  Oranada.     He  devoted  three  years,  and  an 
enormous  amount  of  toll  and  money,  to  an  absurd 
expedition  In  quest  of  the  fabled  El  Dorado  [see 
tr  mI^^I-."    Q"«»»da  died  of  leprosy  in  1878. 
Until  1718  the  kingdom  of  New  Oranada  re- 
mained subject  to  the  Viceroy  of  Peru.     In  that 
year  the  VIceroyalty  of  Peru  "  was  divided  Into 
two  portions,   the  northern   region,   from   the 
frontiers  of  Mexico  as  far  as  to  the  Orinoco,  and 
on  the  Southern  Sea  from  Veragua  to  Tumbei 
forming  the  VIceroyalty  of  New  Oranada,   of 
which  the  capital  was  Bogota.    To  this  region, 
likewise,  was  assigned  the  inland  province  of 
Quito.    The  VIceroyalty  of  New  dranada,  in 
fact,    comprised    what   now  [1884]  forms  the 
Hepubllc  of  Venezuela,   the  United  States  of 
Columbia,  and  the  Republic  of  Equador."    In 
1731    'It  was  deemed  expedient  to  detach  from 
the  \  Iceroyalty  of  New  Oranada  ihe  provinces 
of  \  cnezuela,  Maracaibo,  Varinas,  Cumani,  and 
Spanish  Guyana,  and  to  form  them  into  a  sepa- 
rate Captain  Generalship,  the  residence  of  the 
niler  being  fixed  at  Caracas  In  Venezuela  "— 
R.   O.   Watson,    Spanith  and  Pitrtugutie  South 
Amfnea,  t.  3,  eh.  9. 

A.  D.  1810-1819.— The  ttrunle  for  inde- 
pendence and  ita  achicTement.— Miranda  and 
Simon  Bolirar.— The  Earthquake  in  Vene- 
»nela.--The  found  ;  of  the  RepnbUc  of 
l.oiombia.—  The  .omblan  .States  occupy  the 
first  place  in  the  story  of  South  American 
independence  ...  The  Colombian  States  were 
first  in  the  struggle  because  they  were  In  many 
ways  nearest  to  Europe.  It  was  through  them 
Uiat  intercourse  between  the  Pacific  coast  and 
Europe  was  mainly  carried  on:  Porto  Bello  and 
Carthagena  were  thus  the  main  Inleta  of  European 
Ideas.  Besides,  there  was  here  constant  com- 
munication with  the  West  Indies;  and  govern- 
ment, population  and  wealth  were  leas  centralised 
than  in  the  more  Important  viceroyaltles  of 
Mexico  and  Peru.  The  Indians  of  New  Oranada 
ha<l  always  been  a  restless  race,  and  the  increase 
of  taxation  which  was  resorted  to  for  the  defence 
JL'!"*  ™"'  '"  "•«  *»'  with  Great  Britain  (1777- 
1783)  produce<l  disoontenta  among  the  whole 
population,    both    red    and     white  The 

French    Revolution,   coming   soon   afterwards 
was  another  link  in  the  chain  of  causes.  In 

Venezuela,  which  the  inilustrj-  of  Ita  inhab'ltanta 
had  raised  from  a  poor  mission  district  to  a 
thriving  enmmeroUl  province,  the  progress  of 
m<xl..rn  id,.«s  w„  yrt  fwiter.  ,  .  The  conquest 
of  Tnni<itt(l  by  England  in  1707  gave  a  new 
turn  to  the  movemint.  ...  It  was  from 
Trinidad  that  the  first  sttempta  were  made  to 
Mclte  the  Spanish  colonista  to  revoluUon 
l^ncls  Miranda,  by  whom  <bti  was  done  wa»  a 
typt  01  many  other  men  to  whom  Is  due  the 
credit  of  le«fhig  the  South  American  peoples  to 
talepeudenoe.    Ue  was  a  native  of  Canccaa, 


COLOMBIAN  STATES,  1810-1819. 

and  wh«i  a  yo-mg  roan  had  held  a  French  com 
mission  in  the  American  War  of  IndependeDa 
On  hU  return  to  VenezueU  in  1788  he  found  tS 
populace,  as  we  have  already  mentioned  ir„ 
excited  state  and  findhig  that  he  was  sugpectt^ 
of  designs  for  Ubersting  his  own  countrf  h 
went  to  Europe,  arU  again  attached  himwif  t^ 
the  FJ'ench  service.  .  .  .  Being  proecrilwd  bi 
the  Directory,  he  turned  to  Enghuid,  and 
when  the  wm  [between  England  and  Sp'tini 
broke  out  afresh  in  1804.  and  Knirland  Z 
out   an   expedition  to   invade   Buen  m  AjtS. 

T^"itSS'S*"v  •^u'^'  Wsopportunity  wa.  cS 
In  1808,  by  Engllab  and  American  aid  he  uiM 
from  Trinidad  and  hmded  with  (500  mtnonth. 
coMt  of  VenezueU.  But  the  •  Colombian  Amv  • 
as  Hlisnda  named  St,  met  with  a  cool  ncfptloii 
among  the  peopk).  His  utter  inability  to  meet 
r^^  ^^'^^  force,  compelled  him  to  retwt  to 
Trinidad,  nor  did  he  reappear  on  the  ronlinent 
until  after  the  revolution  of  1810.  The  principal 
inhabitantaofCaraccaahad  been  medititiD.  {h, 
formation  of  a  provisional  government  ou  the 
model  of  the  iuntaa  of  Spain,   ever  sinw  the 

fS^^^L""  ?'  *"  '''"«  f»*«  S'A^:  A.  D.  1807- 
1808] ;  but  it  was  not  until  1810.  when  the  Unal 
victoiy  of  Napoleon  in  Spain  appeared  certain 
that  they  made  a  decisive  movement  in  favour  of 
independence.    Spain,  for  the  timo  at  least  wu 
now  blotted  out  of  the  list  of  nations.    Ac'tin» 
therefore,  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand  VII    the* 
deposed    the    Spanish    colonial    officer*.'  und 
elected  a    supreme   Junta  or  council.    Similar 
Juntas  were  soon  established  in  New  (Jmnada. 
at  Santa  ¥6.  Quito,  Carthagena,  and  the  othn 
chief  towns  of  the  VIceroyalty  .  .  .  and  tha 
fortune  of  the  patriot  party  In  new  Granada, 
from   their   close    neighbourhood,  was  clowlv 
linked    with    that    of    the    Venuzolans.     The 
Regency  of  Cadiz,  grasping  for   itwlf  all  the 
righW    and     >ower«    of    the    Spanish    nation, 
determtae<i  tc       luce  the  colonists  to  suhitction. 
They  therefore  occlared  the  port  of  Caraicas  in 
f  *i"'*  °'  blockade,  as  the  British  Kovemraent 
hsrt  done  in  the  previous  generation  with  tlial  of 
Boston;  and.  as  In  the  case  of  Boston,  this  rreo- 
lutlon  of  the  Regency  amounted  to  a  d«lanitioa 
of  war.         .A  congress  of  all  the  pr  -vinow  of 
Venezuela  now  met  at  Caraccas,  and  published 
a  declaration    of    hidependcnce  on  tlw  5ih  of 
July.    18U,    and    those    of    Mexico   an.l   Xe» 
Oranada    soon    foUowed.  .  .  .  The    powers  of 
nature  seemed  to  conspire  with  the  tvrannvof 
fcuropc  to  destroy  the  young    South  Ann ricaa 
Republic.     On  the  86th  of  March,  IftlJ  Vene 
zuela  was  visited  bv  a  fearful  eartliquiikc,  which 
destroyed  the    capital    [Caraccas  |    ant  I   wveral 
other  towns,  together  with  20.(HX)  pinpli,  and 
many  othere  perished  of  hunger  and  in  other  wavi. 
ThUday  was  Holy  Thursday;  and  tlie  super- 
stitious   people,    prompted    bv    iluir   priests, 
believed  this  awful  visitation  to  l»  a  judgment 
from  God  for  their  revolt.     The  Spiii;ish  troops. 
under  Monteveide,  now  began  a  fri*h  attaclt  on 
the  dlsqulet<d  VenezoUns.    Miranda.  wlK.on  his 
return  had  been  pUoed  at  the  hemi  of  tli.'  army, 
had  in  the  meantime  overrun  New  (iranuda,  and 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  futun'  I  uii«i  States 
of   Colombia.      But   the    face   of   alfairs  wu 
■-hanged  by  the  at-rrs  of  the  carthquaki-.    8niitKa 
with  despair,  his  aoldiera  now  ilcscrKil  to  the 
royallsta;  he  lost  ground  every » lien',  the  for- 
tress of   Puerto  Cavello,  oonuuanded  by  thi 


498 


COLOMBIAN  STATES,  1810-18191 


COLOMBIAN  STATES,  1818-1880. 


f  <i,  doUrtf,  ttten  a  ooknel  In  the  lerrtce  of  the 
BtLibllc,  WM  luirenderad  through  traschny. 
Ob  the  SJith  of  June  Mintnda  hlmaelf  capitu- 
littd,  with  all  hi*  forces;  and  Venezuela  fell 
oace  more  into  the  handi  of  the  royaliitf. 
Kinnda  binuelf  wai  arreited,  in  defiance  of  the 
ttfini  of  the  surrender,  and  perished  in  an 
Eniopean  dungeon,  as  Toumint  had  perished  a 
few  yeiire  before.  .  .  .  Honteverde  emptied  the 
prisons  of  their  occupants,  and  filled  them  with 
Uie  families  of  the  principal  citizens  of  the 
npublic;  and  Caraccas  became  the  scene  of  a 
RdgD  of  Terror.  After  Miranda's  capitulation, 
Bolivar  had  gone  to  New  Oranada,  which  still 
msiotsined  its  independence,  and  entered  into 
the  H-rvice  of  that  republic.  Bolivar  now 
mppesred  in  a  new  character,  and  earned  for 
binuelf  a  reputation  in  the  history  of  the  new 
wwld  vhich  up  to  a  certain  point  ranks  with 
thst  of  Washington.  Simon  Bolivar,  like 
Uirsnda,  was  a  native  of  Caiaccas.  .  .  .  Like 
Minoda,  he  had  to  some  extent  learned  modem 
Ideai  bjr  visiting  the  old  world  and  the  United 
Slates.  When  the  cruelties  of  Monteverde  had 
made  Venezuela  ripe  for  a  new  revolt,  Bolivar 
reappeared  on  his  native  soil  at  the  bead  of  a 
unall  body  of  troops  from  the  adjacent  repub- 
lic. The  succesaes  which  he  gained  ao  incensed 
the  royalists  that  tliey  refused  quarter  to  their 
prisoners,  and  war  to  the  death  ('  guerra  a  muerte ') 
was  proclaimed.  All  obstacles  disappeared 
before  Bolivar's  generalship,  and  on  the  4th  of 
August,  1813,  he  publicly  entered  Curaccas,  the 
fortress  of  I'uerto  Cavcllo  being  now  the  only  one 
in  the  possession  of  the  royalists.  Bolivar  waa 
bailed  with  the  title  of  the  liberator  of  Vene- 
lueU.  He  was  willing  to  see  the  republic 
reitoiwti  but  the  inhabitants  very  properly 
feareil  to  trust  at  this  time  to  anything  but  a 
military  government,  and  vested  the  supreme 
power  in  him  as  dictator  (1614).  'The  event 
udeed  proved  the  necessity  of  a  military  govern- 
ment. The  defeated  rovalists  raised  fresh 
troops,  many  thousands  of  whom  were  negro 
■laves,  and  overran  the  whole  country ;  Bolivar 
was  beaten  at  La  Ihierta,  and  forced  to  take 
refuge  a  second  time  in  New  Oranada;  and  the 
capital  fell  again  into  the  hands  of  the  royalists. 
.  .  .  The  War  of  Indcpi'ndencc  had  tx'cn  under- 
taken ajptinst  the  Kegeney ;  and  had  Ferdinand, 
on  \m  restoration  to  the  throne  in  1814,  shown 
any  signs  of  conciliation,  he  might  yet  have 
recovrred  his  American  provinces.  But  the 
goveninient  persisted  in  its  course  of  absolute 
repression.  .  .  .  New  Oranada,  where  Bolivar 
was  general  in  chief  of  the  forces,  was  the  only 
part  where  the  insurrection  surviviti;  and  in 
1815  a  d^t  containing  10,000  men  under  Oeneral 
Morillc)  arrived  oB  Carthagcna,  its  priucipal  port. 
.  .  .  Csrthagena  was  only  provisiuned  ror  a 
short  time:  and  Bolivar,  overpowerwi  by  num- 
bers, quitted  tlie  soil  of  the  continent  and  went 
to  the  Wej't  Indies  to  seek  help  to  relieve 
Caithageuu,  and  maintain  the  contest  for 
liberty."  O*  uioing  assistance  in  Ilayti,  he 
fitted  out  an  ixiKNlition  "  which  sailetl  Ui  April 
from  the  port  of  .\iix  Cayes.  B<ilivar  landed  near 
Cuniana,  in  the  easlem  extremity  of  Venezuela, 
»nd  from  this  point  hn  gradually  advanced 
wesiwants,  jjaining  strength  by  slow  degrees. 
In  tile  meantime,  after  a  siege  of  116  days, 
LartiiHgina  surrendered ;  9,000 of  iU  inhabitanU 
M  perished  of  hunger.    Both  provinces  were 


DOW  in  Morillo's  hands.  Fancying  himself  com- 
pletely master  of  the  country,  he  proceeded  to 
wreak  a  terrible  vengeance  on  the  Oranadines. 
But  at  the  news  of  Bolivar's  reappearance, 
though  yet  at  a  distance,  the  face  of  affaii* 
changed.  .  .  .  His  successes  In  the  year  1817 
were  sure,  though  slow:  in  1818,  after  he  had 
been  Joined  by-  European  volunteers,  they  were 
brilliant  Bolirar  beat  the  royalists  in  one 
pitched  battle  after  another  [Sagamoso,  July  1, 
1819,  and  Pantano  de  Bargaa,  July  25]:  and  at 
length  a  decisive  victory  was  won  by  his  lieuten- 
ant, Santander,  at  Boyaca,  in  New  Oranada, 
August  1,  1819.  This  battle,  in  which  some 
hundreds  of  British  and  French  auxiliaries 
fought  on  the  side  of  liberty,  completely  freed 
the  two  countries  from  the  yoke  of  Spain." — 
E.  J.  Payne,  Hut.  of  European  Coloniet,  eh.  16. 

Also i» : C.  S.  Cochrane,  Journal  ofaRendenee' 
i/»  Coitmbia,  t.  1,  eh.  6-8.— H.  Browoell,  JV.  and 
S.  America  Ittuttruted,  pp.  316-331— C.  Gushing, 
SimanBoliTarifr.  Am.  Rev..  Jan.,  1679,  and  Jan., 
1830).— H.  L  V.  D.  Holstein,  Mtmnr$  ofBoUmr, 
cK  8-aO.— Major  Flintner,  Uitt.  of  tht  Sew- 
lution  of  Caraeea$. 

A.  D.  1810-1830.— The  rlonr  and  the  fjsll 
of  Boliwar.- Dlssolutionof  toe  Colombian  Fed- 
eration.—Tyranny  under  the  Liberator,  and 
moDarcbical  schemes. — Three  days  after  the 
battle  of  Boyaca,  Bolivar  entered  Bogota  in 
triumph.  "A  congress  met  in  December  and 
decided  that  Venezuela  and  Nueva  Oranada 
should  form  one  republic,  to  be  called  Colombia. 
Morillo  departed  for  Europe  in  1820,  and  the  vic- 
tory gahied  by  Bolivar  at  Carabobo  on  June  24, 
1821,  decidM  the  fate  of  Colombia.  In  the  fol- 
lowing January  Oeneral  Bolivar  assembled  an 
army  at  Popayan  to  drive  the  Spanhinia  out  of 
the  province  of  Quito.  His  second  in  command, 
Oeneral  Sucre,  led  an  advanced  guard,  which  was 
ri'inforccd  by  a  contingent  of  volunteers  from 
Peru,  under  Santa  Cruz.  The  Spanish  Oeneral 
Itamirez  was  entirely  defeated  in  the  battle  of 
Pichincha,  and  Quito  was  incorporated  with  the 
new  republic  of  Colombia.  "—C.  R.  Markham, 
Colonial  HiH.  of  8.  America  {Xarmtite  and  Crit- 
ical Uiet.  of  Am.,  t.  8,  ch.  5). — "  The  provinces 
of  New  Oranada  and  VcDczuela,  together  with 
the  Presidency  of  Quito,  now  sent  delegates  to 
the  convention  of  Cucuta.  in  1821,  and  there  de- 
creed the  iiiion  of  the  three  countries  as  a  single 
state  by  the  name  of  the  Itepublic  of  Colombia. 
The  first  Colombian  federal  constitution  was  con- 
cocted bv  the  united  wisdom  of  the  delegates ;  and 
the  result  might  easily  have  been  foreseen.  It 
was  a  farrago  of  crude  ami  heterogeneous  ideas. 
Some  of  its  features  were  imitated  from  the 
American  political  system,  some  from  the  Eng- 
lish, some  from  the  French.  .  .  .  Bolivar  of 
course  became  President:  and  the  Republic  had 
need  of  him.  The  task  of  liberation  was  not  yet 
completed.  Carthagena,  and  many  other  strong 
places,  remained  in  Spanish  hands.  Bolivar  re- 
duced these  one  by  one,  and  the  seoind  decisive 
victory  of  Carabobo,  in  1S22.  finally  secured  Col- 
ombian freedom.  The  Engiish  claim  the  chief 
share  in  the  battle  of  Carabobo:  for  the  British 
legion  alone  carried  the  main  Spanish  position, 
!'  ■sing  in  the  feat  two-thirda  of  its  numbers.  The 
war  now  fast  drew  to  its  close.  The  republic 
was  able  to  contest  with  the  Invaders  the  do- 
minion of  the  sea:  Oeneral  I'adilla,  on  the  33rd 
of  July,  Itas,  totally  destroyed  the  Spanish  fleet ■■ 


499 


A 


•ni 


COLOMBIAN  STATES,  181S-188a 

Md  the  SpuUh  commander  flnklly  capitulated 
at  Puerto  Cavpllo  la  December.    All  tlieie  hatd- 
won  aucceaaes  were  mainly  owing  to  the  bravery 
and  reaolutioa  of  Bolivar.    Bolivar  deserves  to 
the  full  the  repuUtion  of  an  able  and  patriotic 
soldier.     He  was  now  set  free  .  .  .  to  render  im- 
portant services  to  thereat  of  South  America:  and 
among  the  heroes  of  independence  nerhapa  his 
name  will  always  stand  first     But  Bolivar  the 
statesman  was  a  man  very  different  from  Bolivar 
the  general.    He  was  alternately  timid  and  arbi- 
trary,    lie  was  indeed  afraid  to  touch  the  prob- 
lems of  stjiu-sraanship  which  awaited  him:  but 
instead  of  leading  the  Colombian  people  through 
independence  to  lil)erty,  he  stubbornly   aet  his 
face  ugain.Ht  all  measures  of  political  or  social  re- 
form.   His  fall  may  be  said  to  have  begun  with 
the  moment  when  his  military  triumphs  were 
complete.     The  disaffection  to  the  constitution 
of  the  Iciuling  people  in  Venezuela  and  Ecuador 
(the  new  name  given  to  the  old  province  of  Quito, 
indicating  its  position  at  the  equator]  m  1826  and 
1827,  wa.'i  favoured  by  the  Provincial  governors, 
Paez  and  Mogqiicra ;  and  Jk)livar,  instead  of  re- 
8isii:ig  the  disintegration  of  the  stote,  openly 
favoured  the  military  dictatorships  which  Paez 
and   Mosquera  establiJilied.      This  policy   fore- 
shadowed the  reign  of  absolutism  in  New  Oranada 
Itself.     Bolivar  .  .  .  lu«i  now  become  not  onlv 
the  constitutional  head  if  the  Colombian  federa- 
tion, but  also  the  military  head  of  the  Penuiiin 
republics  [see   I'kud:    A.    D.   1820-1836    i.S2.>- 
1826,  and  1826- 1  ~:e] :  and      ere  can  be  no  doubt 
that  he  intended  the  Colim  jian  consti-  ilion  to 
be  reduced  to  the  Peruviai.  model.     A«  *  first 
step  to.vards  reuniting  all  tiie  South  A  =  :  rioan 
nations  under  a  military  government.  Pa.      be- 
yond reu.s,. liable  douht,  with  Bolivar's  connivance, 
proeluinuci  the  indeix  ndence of  Venezuela,  April 
30th,  182<1.     This  praetioally  broke  up  the  Col- 
rmtiian   federation:  and  the  destruction  of  the 
euiistiluti'in.  so  far  as  it  regarded  New  Granada 
itself,    Mxiii   followed.     Bolivar  had  ».lready  re- 
sorted to  tlie  usual  devices  of  military  tyranny 
The  terrorism  of  Sbirri.  arbitrary  arrests,  the  as- 
sumption of  adilitlimal  executive  powers,  aui 
finally,   the  suppression  of  the  vice-presldeiiev 
ail  poinUMl  one  way.  ...  At  length,  after  the 
practical  secession  of  Venezuehi  and   I    iiador 
under  their  military  nilers.  Congress  dr     •ed  a 
summons  for  a  Convi    tion,  which  met  at  t  Valla 
in  March.  1^38.  .  .  .    Ihc  lllierals,  who  were  bent 
on  electoral  reform  and  decentralization,  were 
Daralyzfd  liy  the  violent  iM-aring  of  the  Bolivian 
leadint:    and  Bolivar  quartered  hinwelf  in  the 
ncighbourli.KMl,  and  thn.'.!ened  thi-  Convention 
at  the   hui       >f    an    army    of    8,«I0    veterans 
He   did    111       howevtr    resort   to   open  font 
Instead  of  lliis.  he  ordered  hia  part-    to  rw*<li 
from  the  Convention:  and  this  left  ti.     Conver 
tion  without  the  means  of  making  a    juorun, 
J"r  ru  tlii.s  mouiint  fhi-  designs  of  Boliv  .r  we- 
uninistakat)lf      Tln'  .linsolution  of  tne  '     nvc 
tion.  and  tliv  !itp..ititm.  it  of  Bolivar  as  !      tat- 
liyajiint:,     :   nouible     followed  as  a  n     t^r     ( 
roxirm    ai,  ,  t,y  the  •  (»rj:iniic  decree  '  of      ug-  ^i 
2838,  iiolivar  iwsunuHl  ilie  ab«olut<-  sovet-^iirmy 
of  Colombia     A  reign  of  brut'         oe  now  fof. 
lowed:  iMit  the   Iriuinph   of   !v         r  was     'ily 

-;mc:i!r— ;.  .        .  Thf  r.  derail..     «i, -    n.ii, 

U-caine  i  question  of  necurinK  mil-,  %  je  in 
the  separate  pnivinees.  A  p-  -t<.n!  ua  '.fiance 
now  occurred  hi  Ecuador,    The    mocratk  party 


COLOMBIAN  STATES,  1838. 

under  Floret  triumphed  orer  the  Bollvlan»  nndn 
Mowjuera:  and  Paez  assured  his  chief  ilmt  Z 
help  was  to  be  expected  from  Venezu.  Ii  «. 
the  CopTenUon  of  Bogota,  lo  1830,  thou^li  it  »u 
packed  with  Bolivar's  nominees,  it  became  drar 
that  the  liberator'!  star  had  set  at  last.  Tbii 

conTentlon  refused  to  vote  him  Presiilent  Boli 
▼ar  now  withdrew  from  public  life:  and  a  few 
months  Uter,  December  17,  1830,  he  dl.,!  hrokin 
hearted  at  San  Pe<lro,  near  Santa  Martha  Boll 
var,  Uiough  a  patriot  as  regarded  the  ulniifjl, 
with  Spain,  was  In  the  end  a  traitor  to  his  fellow 
citizens.  Recent  discoveries  leave  little  doubt 
that  be  intended  to  found  a  monarchy  on  th« 
ndna  of  the  8pa:.ish  dominion.  England  end 
France,  both  at  this  time  strongly  conservative 
powers,  were  In  favour  of  sueh  a  scheme ;  and  t 
I'rince  of  the  House  of  Bourbon  had  alreailv  been 
nominated  to  be  Bolivar's  succesaor.  "— E  J 
Payne,  Uul.  of  European  Colonia.  eh.  1(1._ 
"  About  one  month  before  his  death.  General 
Boll  kT,  the  so-called  '  Liberator '  of  South  Amer 
ica,  wrote  a  letter  to  the  late  General  Klorcs  of 
Ecuador,  In  which  the  following  r. markabb 
passages  occur,  which  have  never  !>•  f.ire  been 
published  ir  the  Englii.h  language  I  hare 
been  in  power  for  nearly  20  years,  frotn  \>  lii-h  I 
have  gathered  only  a  few  den;iit«  r  :  I 
-Vmcrica,  for  us.  is  ungovernable.  2.  I|f  nhj 
dtKiicates  <  !u"-vices  to  a  revolution,  pluws  the 
sea.  8.  T  .■  only  thing  tliat  can  lie  d.iue  In 
America,  .^  u>  emigrate.  4.  This  (..iintrv  will 
Inevitably  !  into  the  hands  ■'  tli.  unlmilM 
rabble,  ami  iUtlr  hy  little  Ik'coh.  a  pnv  t.i  n.lty 
tyranM  of  all  colors  and  races  ■  -¥.  llass,  urck 
Four  Yairiatiuituj  SiMnuhAiii.>^,-am,  eh   12     ' 

Also  IN:  J.  M.  Swnce,  77..    ijiiut^'f  luimr 


1,  eh.  7.— E.  B.  kastwi. . 
(BdltUofCir'-ib,,). 

A  D.  1821-1854.— Emai 
— Tiie  aholiticm  of  slavery  i, 
of  New  Omnada.   Veui'^iielu 


' .  iiei'i,'l,i.  eh.  U 

nation  of  slaves. 

..■  three  ri'iuililici 
ml  Eriiii.|i)r  wsi 


iuitiaUsI  In  the  Hepubli,    of  Coloniliia,  while  it 


embraced  them  all.     "lUal,  . 
July,  1821.  it  w.w  provid'.ii  tli 
slaves,  1    ru  after  its  pMblieatio. 
cities  ,)f      •■  repulilic,  should  be 
tain  r-  s  were  appropriate! 

(.fan  en..      nation  fund  in  en 


.f  tlle  21st  of 

'"•  I'liiliiren  of 

tlie  principal 

n-e.  .  .  .  Cer- 

the  creation 

ii>lrirt 


.\side  fr.  .  a  certain  bungling  loos<iii>s  with 


Hpanlsh-Aineriiari  l:ms  are 
of  1821]  contains  ~ime  very 
IS,  and  serviHi  t.i  liv  a  solid 

work  of  eMiiineipstl..n.  since 

three  repuliliis  wliirh  then 
lia."  In  Eeiiailor  tin  coniple- 
ion  was  reached  in  I.s.vi  — K. 

I><»r»  among  SjuiiiM  .imeri- 


hirh  almost 
Irawii.  it  [th( 
'.■nsiiilc  regu 

.undallou  for 

>mp!  !<i|  by 
.  inst     .te<l  ('. 
t;    !     .   emaui 
■saaurek    f\m 

.!«,  op.  :i  i-SJtt 

A.  D.    .Sa6.— Tb"  Conrreat  of  Panama.— 

The  proposition  1  r  iisKemlillii:,' this  lN«h  (inin- 
iu«l  from  Bolivar.  »lio,  in  182:1,  as  pri>i'.l,-nt  of 
Colombia,  invited  the  governiiieiits  of  .Meiico, 
Peru,  Chile,  and  Buenos  Avres,  !■)  form  a  con- 
fi  .racy  of  the  S|mnish-.(nieri™n  ..-ta:.*..  by 
means  of  plenipotenliari.^  to  lie  convini.l  in  the 
spirit  of  classic  analog} .  in  the  isthmus  i.f  P«n 
ama.  To  this  Invitation  the  goveninniits  of 
Peru  and  Mexico  promptly  Hcri..|..i).  Cliili.  and 
Huenos  Ayres  neglwIisiOr  declined  to  In  n;.re- 
"••nu><l  In  the  assembly,  for  the  reas<ins  whieb  wi 
•hal:  presently  ttat^.  T'li^  imgnltlcent  iilisofi 
secuiui  Acbaaan  Lmgue  s<^.-d  on  the  Imagins- 


■m 


COLOMBIAN  STATES,  1891 


COLOMBIAN  STATES,  18S0-1888. 


tkMU  of  many  ipeculstWe  and  of  some  practical 
men  in  America  and  Europe,   as  deatinod    to 
create  a  new  era  In  the  political  hlatory  of  tbe 
world  by  originating  a  purer  system  of  public 
Uw,  anil  almost  realizing  Bernardin  de  Saint 
Pierre's  league  of  the  modem  natlims.    In  Its 
original  shape,  it  was  professedly  a  plan  of  a  bel- 
ligerent nature,  having  for  its  main   object  to 
combine  the  revolutionized  states  ai^uiast  the 
common  enemy.     But  time  was  requiad   for 
csrrying  it  into  effect.    Meanwhile  the  project, 
ma^nilied  by  tlie  course  of  events,   began   to 
change  iu  complexion.     The  United  Status  w  re 
invite<l  to  participate  in  the  Congress,  so  as  to 
form  an  American  policy,  and  a  rallying  point 
for  American  interests.  In  opposition  to  those  of 
Eunipe ;  and.  after  the  disciusions  which  arc  so 
familiar  to  all,  the  government  of  the  United 
.States  accepted  the  invitation,    and  despatched 
its  nprcsvntatives  to  Panama.  ...  In  the  In- 
terval, between  the  proposal  of  the  plan  and  Its 
execution.  Central  America  was  aaded  to  the 
ftniily  of   American    nations,  and    agreed    to 
talte  part  in  the  Congress.      At  length,  after 
many  ddavs,  this  mcxlem  Amphtctyonic  Coun- 
cil, consi.Hling  of  plenipotentiaries  from  Colombia, 
Central  America.   I'eru  and  Mexico,  assembled 
in  the  rity  of  Panama,  June  22,  1824,  and  in  a 
sessii'n  of  thn-c  weeks  concluded  various  treaties ; 
ouf    f  p    iMliial  union,  league,  and  confedera- 
tion;  ^iliir?!  rilating  to  the  contingents  which 
the    contcderalfs    should    contribute    for    the 
common  defence;    and  another  for  the  annual 
meetiriL-  i.f  the  Congress  In  time  of  war.     Hav- 
ing til  ;^   promptly   despatched    their   private 
affairs,  the  a.ssembly  adjourned  to  TaculHiya  in 
Mexico,  on  account  of  the  insalubrious  climate 
of  I'iinama.  befof  tlie  delegation  of  the  United 
Stall-  hill  arrived,  since  when  it  has  Justly  ac- 
quiril  'he  epithet  of  'introuvable.'  and  probably 
Dcvi  r  Kill  reiwsemtile  in  iu  original  form.     Is 
th.  re  a>.f  n  viret  history  of  all  this  T    Why  did 
Ciiili-aii..     .lenos  Avrcs  refuse  to  participate  in 
the  (  ongr.  »s  ?    Why  lias  it  now  vanished  from 
the  face  of  the      irth?    The   answer   given  In 
Sii'ith  .Vmeriia   i.-.    that   Bolivar  proposed  the 
»»  mM\  Ai  part  of  a  grand  scheme  of  ambition, 
— i;~  -  Uil  to  him  liy  the  republican  party,  and 
not    •ithout  some  countenance  from  his  own 
cos    .'t.— f.Ti-stablishing  a  miliury  empire  to 
i-iii ;:3.T  till    *li<)le  of  Spanish-America,  or  at 
!.:istaH  imi    .    uniting  Colombia  and  the  two 
Pcrus.    To  give  the  ciilor  of  plausibility  to  the 
projectitl  aiMembly.  tlie  United  States  were  In- 
vited to  1k'  rcprcv  nicd;  and  1'  is  said  Bolivar 
did  mt  <K|).'ct,  nor  very  gracio'    iv  receive,  their 
«ccc|itHnii'  of  tilt-  iovitatlon  "— I'   Cushlng,  Bolt- 
fir  <!<,./  IU  Ihlf         OmthhiHon  {X   A.   Ret., 
J.in.,  l-'Hoj.—In  th.   .  nited  Slates  "no  question, 
in  lis  diy,  excited  more  heat  and  inU'mperate 
dlscusM  .11,  or  more  feeling  U-tween  a  President 
«a.i  S,  Mile,  than  tliis  proposed  mission  to  tlie 
Congr.«  of  American  nations  at  Panama:  and 
no  h-at.-l  cjui'stiim  ever  cooled  off  and  .lied  out 
sosudij.i'.ly  mid  completely.  .  .   .  Th.    gh  long 
Jince  sunk  iiiio  oblivion,  and  Its  name  alnuist 
lorgott.ir  !■  was  a  master  subjwt  on  the  politic  ^ 
theatre  .;  .  Mg  u^  ,)„>     ,nd  gave  rise  t.i  qu. 

tlOn«  of  n.n...,Hi  r"t;.-.j--i'  !.;•.;      - 

nslLmal  |).,li. 
lie  ocr-asi.ii, 
Blutii.ti  ..f 

fmk  I.,  f 


occur.  Besides  the  grave  questions  to  which  tb* 
subject  gave  rise,  the  subject  itself  bicame  one 
of  unusual  and  painful  excitement.  It  agitated 
the  people,  made  a  violent  debate  In  the  two 
Houses  of  Congress,  Infiiimetl  tlie  passions  of 
parties  and  individuals,  niised  a  tempest  before 
which  Congress  bent,  iniide  bail  feeling  bc>tweea 
the  President  [John  Quincy  Adams]  and  the 
Senate;  and  led  to  the  duel  between  Mr.  Ran- 
dolph and  Mr.  Clay.  It  was  an  ndmii.  tration 
measure,  and  preaswi  by  all  the  means  known  to 
an  administration.  It  was  evidently  relied  upon 
asameansof  acting  upon  the  people— as  a  popu- 
lar movement  which  niiglit  have  the  effect  of 
t..ming  the  tide  which  was  then  running  high 
against  Mr.  Adams  and  M  Clay.  .  .  .  Now, 
the  chief  beneet  to  be  derived  from  Its  retrospect 
—  and  that  indeed  is  a  real  one  — Is  a  view  of 
the  tlrmness  with  which  was  then  maintahicd,  by 
a  minority,  the  old  policy  of  the  l'nit«d  States,  to 
avoid  entangling  alliances  and  interfervnce  with 
the  affairs  of  other  nations;- and  the  exposition 
of  the  Monroe  doctrine,  from  one  so  competent 
to  give  it  as  Mr.  Adams."— T.  H.  Bentou,  Thirtp 
Teari  Vieie,  ch.  85  (r.  1). 

Also  in:  O.  F.  Tucker,  Tk»  Uanroe  Doctrine, 
th.  3.— C.  Schurz,  Life  of  Ihnry  Clay.  eh.  11  (o.  1). 
— International  Am.  Ciinfereiu-e(of'\tS69):  Heptt. 
and  DtKuuioiu.  r.  4,  Hint,  apifnilix. 

A.    D.    1830-1886.  —  Revolutioot  mod  ciTil 
wars.— The  New  Confederation  (1863)  of  the 
United  States  of  Colombia.— The  Republic  of 
Colombia.  —  "New    Oranada  was   obliged   in 
1830  to  recognize  the  disruption   of  Colonilila, 
which    had    long  tieen  an  accomplished    fact. 
From  this  date  the  three  states  have  a  separate 
history,  which  Is  very  mucli  of  a  piece,  though 
Venezuela  was  for  some  years  pn'served  from 
tlie  intestine  commotions  which  have  from  the 
beginning  distracted  New  Granada  and  Ecuador.. 
.  .  .  Mosquera,  who  had  won  ilie  election  which 
ilecidcd  the  fate  of  Bolivar  diii  not  long  occupy 
the  presi.l.ncy.  .  .  .  Mosquera  was  soon  driven 
out  by  tieneral  Urdamie.  who  was  now  at  the 
head  of  the  conservative  or  Bolivian  party.     But 
after  the  death  of  their  leader,  this  party  suffered 
a  natural  relapse,  and  I  nlanete  wa-s  overthrown 
early  in  1831.     Tlic  history  of  New  Grana.lamay 
be  said  really  to  commerue  with  the  presidency 
of  Bolivars  old    rival  and  omipanlon  in  anns, 
Santaiiler,  who  was  eli-cted  under  the  constitu- 
tion ot    1S33.  .  .  .  llis   presiiieiicv  .  .  .  was  a 
comparatively    liright    episiKle:     ilnd    with    its 
termination  in  1836  In  gins  tlie  dark  and  troubled 
periisi  which  the  Or.iiiadineseniplialieaUydeslg- 
nate  by  the  name  of  the   'Twelv.!  Years.'    The 
sc«ntv  measure  of  llln'raliam  which  Santander 
had  dealt  out  to  the  people  was  now  withdrawn. 
Marquez.  his  siueessor.  was  a  sceptic  In  politics 
and  a  man  of  intlrni  will.  .  .  .  Now  began  the 
aseeniiaucy  of  clericalism,  of  alisolutist  oligarchy, 
and  of  government  by  the  gallows.     This  same 
sy.sten;  e  .otimi.fi  un.ler  Presi.lent  Herran,  who 
waaelei      1  in  1^*41;  and  then  appeariKi  on  the 
scene,  a.i    his   chief   minister,  the    famous  Dr. 
Oapina.  '  who  brought  back  the  Jesuits  and  cur- 
tailed the  constitution.     LilK'ralism  again  gained 
gnxinil.  electing  General  I»pez  to  the  presidency 
'  ■  "     -r.rni  ;;na- mnrr  rspriling  ;ri.".  T, nolto.     In 
i^M  a  radical  revolution  overturned  the 
■  m  iitd  Pn-sidi  nt  Ubando  \v:is  declared 
.•onwrvHtives  rallii'  i,    however, 
cssi.  ';  of  the  government  befort 


t^ 


II 


H  k 

I  [J 


COLOMBIAN  tTATES,  ISaO-lSM. 

tbo  clow  of  the  year.  In  1857  Ospiiui  entered  on 
tbe  presidency  and  civil  war  ioon  raged  througli- 
out  the  country.  "After  a  hundred  flghta  tbe 
revnlution  triumphed  in  July,  IMl.  .  .  .  Moa- 
quent,  who  wa«  now  in  pimaeaaion  of  tbe  Held, 
waaa  true  pupil  of  Bolivar's,  and  he  thought  the 
time  hod  come  for  reviving  Bolivar'a  plana.  .  .  . 
In  1N03  Moaquerti'it  ni-w  FulenU  Conitltution 
wa*  priM-lainutl.  Ilenri-fortli  each  State  [of  the 
eight  fnteral  Htatco  into  which  the  44  province* 
of  New  Oranaila  were  ilivided]  benimc  practi- 
cally independent  under  ila  own  Preaiilent :  and  to 
mark  the  change  tbe  title  of  the  lutioD  waa 
altered.  At  first  it  was  called  the  Uranadine 
Confederation :  hut  it  aftrrwanis  took  the  name 
of  Colombia  [the  Cnited  8Utes  of  Columbia], 
which  had  formerly  N-cn  the  title  of  the  larger 
Confeileration  under  Bolivar.  Among  tbe  moat 
Imporunt  facts  in  recent  ColumbUn  history 
is  the  indep<-n<lence  of  tbe  State  of  Panama, 
which  baa  l)ecome  of  great  Importance  through 
the  construction  of  the  railway  cunnectlDf  toe 
port  of  Colon,  or  Aspinwall,  as  it  was  named  by 
the  Americans,  on  tbe  Atlantic,  with  that  of 
Pannmaon  the  PaciBc.  This  railway  was  opened 
in  IKU;  and  in  the  same  rear  I*anama  declared 
itself  a  Koven>iKn  stale.  The  State  of  Panama, 
after  many  years  of  conservative  domination, 
has  now  |N'rhaps  the  most  democtatic  govern- 
ment in  the  world.  The  President  Is  ele^ed  for 
two  yiara  only,  and  is  incapable  of  re-election. 
Panama  luu  hiMl  many  revolution*  of  Ita  own ; 
nor  liHS  the  new  Knlcnil  Constitution  solved  all 
the  diini'ullii's  of  the  Omnailine  government  In 
IHOT  .M<i)M|Uera  was  01)11x1^1  to  have  rrcoum  to  a 
cou<<  il'etHt.  and  decUrrtl  himself  dictator,  but 
he  14  soon  afterwards  arrested;  a  conservative 
rcvoli.llon  toik  platv;  Mnauuera  was  lianiabed; 
and  Oiilirm'r.  UtanK'  Pn-aident.  The  lilierals, 
hoKi'Vcr.  lanie  back  iieit  year.  underPonce. 
Slutv  XHli  |||||.  i|,.|i,.  of  writing  being  18TS) 
Ueiiinil  I'rm.  lias  lieen  Prraldent of  Colombia. 
— K  .1.  I'ayur.  Hut.  of  A'u mania  Valmim,  rh 
Id—  Tiie  fnlcral  (•institution  of  IHU  w  ui 
clearly  furmiil  on  the  mmlel  of  tbe  Coaatitutlno 
of  the  I'nileit  Mlatea  of  Americ*.  It  remalneii  lo 
force  until  INM,  wlien  it  was  superseiled  by  a 
law  which  gave  the  Stale  a  centralliitt  organiia- 
tion  and  named  it  llie  '  Kepuhllc  of  Colombia.'  " 
— (J.M/  of  tkt  lUpulttifof  l\4»iHhia,  thth  Ilitt. 
Intr-ml.  hpU  Mom  {Snp  to  AnnnU  of  Am.  AeaU. 
of  lU   unit  Sr.  ScHitfr.  J,lM.,  lh|M). 

A.  D.  iM  .-iloi.-Th*  Rerolatioa  af  iMs. 
—The  eoutitatron  of  ilM.-Th*pr*aid«ac7  «l 

Or.  Nuft**.—  'Cnrlsgi'iia  is  virtually  the  centra 
of  poliiical  |Miwrr  III  Ciiiombia,  for  it  I*  tbe  rrsl' 
dewe  of  Prtaident  .Niiftrs,  a  dictator  without  the 
name  Ikfore  tlie  rrvolutliia  of  INN.-!  during 
which  Colon  waa  bunuil  and  tbe  Panama  Hall 
way  prolectnl  by  American  marinea,  tbe  States 
enjoyiil  a  large  measure  of  home  rule.  The 
insiirtfinls  « ho  were  defeateil  in  that  stniggle 
were  llailiials  ami  a.ivauced  I.lbrnUs.  Tbey 
werv  making  a  staiHl  against  centralised  govern- 
ment, and  they  wen'  overthrown.  When  tbe 
folkiweni  of  llr.  Niiftei  were  vietnrioUB,  they 
traiisfonm-d  tlie  conntitutiuoal  systtm  of  tlie 
(•ntnlry  .  I)r  Niiflen.  who  bad  entered 
pulilii  iitfrnm*  IbulU'alagil^Ukr,  iwytiffvuniitMlfly 
afiMiiid  the  <  Inle  As  the  h-ader  of  tbe  National 
party  tie  lirramr  the  allv  of  Clerlcaliaa.  and  the 
defemler  of  rcclraUatieal  tif1vlk-gs.  Being  a 
■M  uf  uarivalksd  capacity  fur  dlrectlaf  pubik 


COIiORADa 

affair*  and  enforcir  •  partv  dlacipline,  he  ht 
establlabed  a  highl)  ....rallzed  miliury  Rureni- 
ment  without  incurring  unpopularity  by  remsta. 
Ing  constantly  in  sight  and  openly  cii'irisinir 
authority.  .  .  .  Strong  government  hiu  not 
been  without  ita  advanuge*:  but  the  svmi  m  rag 
hardly  be  considered  either  republican'  or  ilinia- 
cratic.  ...  Of   all    tbe  tinvcsties   of   |i»pulw 

Sovemment  which  have  been  witneascil  in  .S|»inisli 
.merica,  the  political  play  enacte<l  in  itopiti 
and  Cartagena  is  tbe  most  gritewiue.  |)r 
Nullez  is  known  aa  tbe  titular  l*re!ii<li'iit  <>(  tk^ 
itepublic  His  practice  is  to  go  u>  the  ( apiul  t| 
tbe  beginning  of  tbe  preaidential  U'nii.  hihI  vhn 
he  has  taken  the  oath  of  office  to  n-niain  ilitm  i 
few  week*  until  all  matter*  of  poliir  anl 
diacipline  are  arranged  among  bis  follow  •  rii.  He 
then  retires  to  hi*  country  seat  In  (  anamiu, 
leaving  the  vIoe-PreaMeut  to  iKwr  the  biinli  m  u( 
slate.'— I.  N.  Ford,  Tyopieai  Amerim,  rh  vi 

A.  D.  119a.— Rs-slwtioa  of  President  Noau. 
—  In  IMIS,  I>r.  Kafael  Nuftez  was eleiliil  Pn<<.i. 
dent  for  a  fourth  term,  the  term  of  olllce  beiiu 
six  years.— fSltatsSNMn's  i'tarbvuk,  IWKI. 
» 

COLON!.    See  DBDrrtrirs. 

COLONIA  ACRIPPINENSIS.-Arrip 
plna,  tbe  daughter  of  Qermaiiicusaiiil  ilie  niotlwr 
of  Nero,  fouiMled  on  the  Itliine  the  ( 'oli  mln  .Vinip. 
pinensi*  (modem  Cologne)  —  pnihalilv  il.. 
colony  of  Roman  veterans  ever  establisluil  uixirr 
female  auspices.  The  site  liad  been  previnutlr 
occupied  by  a  village  of  the  I'hii.  li  ^ 
curious  that  thi*  alnormal  colony  luu.  alotir,  of 
all  it*  kindred  fouiKlallons.  n'taineil  lo  ibe 
preaent  day  tbe  name  of  Colonia."— C  .Mirivtie 
JJitl.  oflSt  Humaiu.  rk.  fit). 

COLONIA.  URUGUAY.  S.-e  Akokntixe 
Rkpvblic:  a.  D.   1.Wi^I7;7. 

COLONIZATION  SOCIETY,  The  Aatri- 

can.      Hee  SUkVKHT,    NcillUl:   A.    l>     l'*|ll  IN4; 

COLONNA,  Th*.  See  Komk:  |;:iii  Uti 
CBXTt'HiKa,  and  A.  U.  1847-1354;  alwi  I'ArAtT: 
A.  n   liW4-l840 

COLONUS,  Th*.  Bee  Slavkht.  Muuxvai 
Obknant. 

COLORADO:  A.  O.  iSoj-iM.  Ac^siii- 
tioa  of  the  oMtem  port  ta  the  Louisiana  Psr- 
cImm  aad  tki  wes>s«  part  from  Mtaico. 
See  LorisiAHA:  A  U.  17IM-I^<(KI,  aii<l  >U\ku: 
A.  n.  1848. 

A.  D.  iIoA-iItA.— Early  nptorstie**.- 
C«M  di*cev*ri«*.— Tsrritorial  and  stsit  tt- 
(■•isotioa.— The  flnt   Ann  riean    evi.l.irrr  lo 

Iienetiate  to  tbe  mountainn  of  (  oluriilii  wu 
.ieutenant  Zebulon  Pike,  sint  out  wiili  i  miuII 
^«rty  by  Ui-nerai  WllkinaiHi.  in  IHiiH  llr  4p. 
j>niach<-d  within  1.1  mik-s  of  the  lim  kv  M.'uuuis 
I'l-ak  which  bear*  his  name  A  more  ittintiir 
iifflcial  etiilontion  of  tlie  coiinlrv  «s«  iiixkiB 
INIt  bv  Major  Sieph<-n  II  l^onit!  «iio<M  rrpeft 
u|Mia  the  wliole  n-gloo  dmiiMil  bv  iIh  Mi^mrt, 
Arkansaa  au<l  PUlle  rivers  sihI  thrir  tni'uurtis 
was  unfavorable  and  dlsrotimglnx  rrummli 
rxplocatioos,  wbk'h  Umclteil  loliniil"  «tn 
m*''.  in  t84S-44.  "Tbe  onlv  |»  i»«i'.  .ik-iki*- 
Irred  in  tbe  Hocky  mnunuliMto  Ft>  iii<  m  tt  lUi 
time  were  the  fe«  remaining  imHrr-  nirl  tkrir 
former  emp!ot%.  Bt-w  their  !-.!!;••.!!=!-  » !:  >  li'f'^ 
with  their  Me'iican  and  Imllan  •ltr»  Mi.i  hslf- 
breeil  chihiren  In  a  primitive  umiimr  <'(  lifi, 
usually  under  the  piutection  of  some  ili  (railn 
BtrtMtun  cailsd  a  (oil      The   first   '     "  ~ 


GO'i 


COLORADO. 


COMTTATUS. 


fcmlWM  In  Colondo  wen  •  part  of  the  MormoB 
bitMlioa  of  IBM,  who,  with  their  wtrea  and 
cbildren,  redded  at  Pueblo  from  September  to 
the  ipring  and  lummer  of  the  following  year, 
when  they  Joined  the  Mormon  emigration  U>  Salt 
Uke.  .  .  .  Meaiurei  were  taken  earlv  in  March. 
1847.  to  lelect  location*  for  two  United  Statea 
(oru  brtween  the  MiMouri  and  the  Rocky  moun- 
ulm,  the  i\Ut  lelecled  beins  thoae  now  occupied 
br  Krarnfy  City  and  Fort  Laramie.  ...  Up  to 
ISSi  Cdlnradn'i  icant  population  ttill  lived  in  or 
near  tome  defeniive  eatabliabment,  and  had  been 
decrmitinK  nther  than  increaaing  for  tlie  paat 
decidi',  owing  to  the  hoatility  of  tu  Indiana. "  In 
liSi  the  flnt  organized  Marching  or  pioapecting 
(or  gold  in  tlic  n'gion  waa  begun  by  a  party  of 
Cherokee  Iniliao*  and  white*.  Other  partie* 
1000  followed;  the  aearch  aucceeded;  and  the 
Pike'i  Peak  mining  region  waa  ipeedilr  awarm- 
iig  with  eager  aiiventurera.  In  the  fall  of  18JS8 
two  riviil  town*  were  laid  out  on  the  oppoalte 
■ide*  of  Cherry  Creek.  They  were  namril 
mprrtirely  Auraria  and  Denver.  The  itruggle 
(or  f liitence  between  them  waa  bitter,  but  brief. 
Auraria  .tuccumbed  and  Denver  lurTived,  to 
become  the  mctropoli*  of  the  Mountalna.  Tlie 
flnt  •ttrinpt  at  political  organiiation  waa  made 
•t  the  Auraria  aettlement,  in  Noremlier,  1838, 
ud  took  the  form  of  a  pr:    '  'onal   territorial 

Xlzitlion,  under  the  name  of  the  Territory  of 
•  III;  but  the  nmvisional  goTrmment  did 
oot  tuit'i'f^  In  eatahliihlng  Ita  authority,  oppoard 
M II  Kan  by  rondirting  claim*  u>  territorial  Juria- 
dlftlon  i>n  the  part  of  Utah,  New  Meiico, 
KuM.".  Nebnuka,  and  Dakota.  At  length,  on 
the  2*ith  o'  February,  1841,  an  act  of  Congreaa 
became  Irw,  by  whicli  the  pro(MM<><i  new  tenitory 
wu  iliilr  rrealeil,  but  not  hearing  the  name  of 
.lifTiTu  'n  "  The  name  of  (.  olorado  waa  given  to  it 
n'  the  fii|rge«tion  nf  the  man  aelected  for  Ita  fliM 
k-'vemor  •  Iti'iimining  In  the  territorial  conll- 
li.in  iiiitil  July,  IHTll.  C'olorwlii  waa  then  admit- 
I"!  to  the  I  nlon  a*  a  sutv.— II.  II.  Baurroft, 
//«(  .Jih,  l\uifie  fUatf*.  r.  30 :  lUnnMl*, M.  »-4. 


COLOSSEUM,  OR  COLISEUM.  Tkc- 

The  rUvlan  Amphlthrwlrr,  or  Coloaaeum,  waa 
built  by  Vnpaaian  and  TItii*  In  the  loweat  part 
o(  the  valley  between  tiia  Cwlcan  and  Eiqullina 
Ilnia.  whii'h  wa*  then  ixrunlrd  by  a  large  artl- 
Wal  pool  for  naval  flghu  (•  NaumarhU  ).  .  .  . 
TV  r\»rt  (late  of  the  commencement  of  the 
ColoM  iiin  ii  ilimbtful,  hut  it  waa  opened  fur  UM 
la  A  l>  Ml  .  .  A*  built  by  the  riavlaa  Km- 
pefiin  ihe  upper  galleriea  ('moenlanl ")  wer»  ol 
wood.  «ii.|  Utnr.  a*  In  the  caae  of  the  Clrcu* 
lUitmiK.  at  many  timea  caught  Are  from  light- 
alni  and  other  caiiaea,  and  did  much  damage  to 
Itaftirtie  work  of  the  building  "—J.  H.  Middle- 
too.  AirifHl  Mow  I'a  1888,  M.  10, 
^  AlJ..i<.  J  II  IVkcr,  Arrtiamhni^lbmu.  pi. 
'  — R  Hum.  W«M«  dnrf  fAe  l\iirpafna,  eA.  9  pi 
<-*r.  aim  Hoiot-  A.  I»  7&-M 
^SFRii"'  °'  RHODES.  See  RRoma 
COLUMBAMCHURCH.Thr-Tbechurch, 
irtl.  fi;»n:jath>n  of  ChrialUnlly,  In  HoHland, 
wbl.  .  i.«ili„l  fnm  the  labora  ot  the  Iriah  mla- 
"(jBary.  ("lumlia,  la  the  ilith  OMtury,  and 
•j'r^ -rr-Tii  fr;:ir.  th.  tfrekl  iinmaaiery  iiiat  be 
^>«D.I.-.|  on  the  liiile  lafand  of  luoa.  or  la,  or 
nu.  11,, ,r  (|„,  ,n»ier  l»buid  of  MulL-W    T 

ALn>  m    Count  de  MoataUiBhatt,  A*  JfcnJto 


•f  M«  Win.  U  g  (t.  8X-8ee  Cbbistiakitt: 
Sth-Stb  CcNTUBiRa,  and  .'^-800. 

COLUMBIA,  Th*  Diatrict  of.— The  federal 
Diatrict  of  Columbia,  In  which  the  national  capi- 
tal of  the  United  states  U  situated,  wa*  orlgl- 
nallv  a  aquare  of  ten  mili<<<.  lying  on  both  sidt;* 
of  the  Potomac  lUver,  partly  cedud  to  the  United 
SUte*  by  MaryUnd,  in  \1hh,  partly  by  Virginia, 
in  1789.  The  portion  soiiUiwest  of  the  river 
wa*  retroceded  to  Virginia  iu  1848.  The  preaent 
area  of  the  Diitrict  la  7U  wguare  mile*.  The 
Diatrict  i*  controlled  by  the  fedtrel  government, 
through  a  board  of  three  commiiiaioners,  the  city 
of  Waabington  having  no  niunicipal  liicorpo- 
ration.  A  territorial  eoycmnient.  instituted  In 
1871,  waa  abolished  three  years  later,  and  the 
preaent  form  waa  adopted  'in  1878.— See,  alio, 
Wa*hii(otoh. 

A.  D.  iSso.— Abolition  of  alavc-trad*  ia. 
See  Ukitbo  Statu  or  A«.:  A.  1)  IS.TO 

A.  D.  iMf.— Estcnaioa  o^  auffrage  to  th« 
Ntfrots.    SeeUKiTKoSTAiiuur  Am.:  A.  D. 

18«7(jAaUAttT). 


COLUMBIA,  S.  C,  Th*  bnrniar  of.  Be« 
United  State*  or  Am.:  A.  D.  18«3  (Fedkuart 
— Makch  :  The  Carolimas). 

COLUMBIA,  Ttan.,  Eafagement  at.  See 
UiiiTEDSTATEaor  Am.:  a.  D  1864 (November: 

TRXXEasEE). 

COLUMBIA  COLLEGE.  See  F.nrcA- 
TICK,  Modern.  Amkhu  t :  A   0   1T4«-1T87 

COLUMBIAN  EXPOSITION,  Th« 
World's.    See  ('Fnr*<i<i    .\  1»   imri  imsis 

COLUMBIAN  ORDER,  The.    .V«  Tam- 

HAIT  SoriBTT. 

COLUMBUS,  VoTRfta  of.  See  America:' 
A.  D.1484-14M:  14W3:  UII»-141W.  1408-I.Vn. 

COMANA. —  Comnna.  ru  iimieiii  ell v of  r»p. 
padocla.  on  the  river  SaniH  iSiliooiii  wiu  the  seat 
of  a  prtesthwxl.  In  tlie  temple  of  Knyo,  or  l(cl- 
lona,  so  venerateil.  to  wraltliy  ami  so  iHiwerful 
that  the  chief  priest  of  Comanit  counted  among 
the  rreat  Aalat  ic  dlgnluriis  in  the  time  of  Cieaar. 
—  0.  Long,  ItteiiiM  of  th*  Uutnan  lUji..  r.  5, 
<•*.  24. 

COMANCHES,  Tb«,  See  Amehk  an  .Vbo- 
HiuiNEa:  SHoanoNEAN  Familv,  and  KiowaX 
Family,  and  Apaciik  ORoir. 

COMAMS,  The.  M<v  Kidiiaks.  I'ATi-m- 
SAKS;  CoaaACE*,  and  IIinhahy  .V  D.  1114- 
l»)l. 

COMBAT,  Jadicial.  S,^<  WtuKitof  IUtti.r. 

COMBS  LITTORiS  SAXONICI.  Sm 
Saxon  Hhorc.  Cocnt  or 

COMBS  PALATII.   Ar  Tmatink  Coi  nt*. 

COMITATUS.-COMITES.- CESITHS. 
— THBCNS.— Comliatil*  In  Iho  tnune  ^Iveii  liy 
Tacitu*  U>  a  hsty  of  warlike  i<<iiii|iiiiiioiis  among 
the  ancient  Oermana  "  wlmnttiK  licit  tin  iiiselves  In 
me  cloaest  manner  to  the  clili  ftiiiii  of  i!ieir  choli'e. 
Tlicy  were  In  many  cases  llw  sous  of  the  uolile* 
who  win'  amtiltlous  of  niiowii  or  of  a  mrfect 
education  In  arm*.  The  |ir{-iii'|»  |>r«vli[e<l  (or 
tliem  horae*,  arms,  an<l  siii  h  i>>iiuh  ei|iiipmeiit  a* 
Ihey  wanted.  These  anil  plentiful  eiitrrtainnicnt 
were  acivpted  Inaleail  of  watfis  In  lime  of  war 
the  nimllr*  fought  for  thi  Ir  ■  likf.  at  ihkv  hi* 
<lefeiitler«  aiid  Uie  rivals  of  iii-,  pniMtitn  .   in 

the  limes  of  forced  an<l  unwileiuiic  n-sl  they 
were  tlHmnigbly  hlh',  they  canil  miiber  for 
farming  nor  for  hunting,  bii*  s;h m  the  time  In 
feaatiitg  aad  la  alsep.  .  .  .  Like  the  Fraak  Ua^ 


SOS 


J ; 


coifTrA'nj& 

the  Anclo-Skzon  king  Mcmt  to  b«Te  entered  on 
the  fullpoueMinn  ofwbat  hwl  t>een  the  right  of 
the  el<>ctWe  principes  Tto  nomiDate  and  nuiintain 
•  romitatiu,  t<>  which  lie  could  give  territury  and 
political  p«wer]:  but  the  very  principle  of  the 
comitatun  had  undergone  a  cliange  from  what  it 
was  in  the  time  of  Tacitua,  when  It  reappean  In 
our  liiatorianii.  an<l  it  aermi  to  have  had  in  Eng- 
land a  prruliar  develnpmrut  and  a  bearing  uf 
■pecial  ini|><>rtunre  on  tlivconititutinn.  In  Taci- 
tu«  the  coiiiit^v  are  the  personal  following  of  the 
t)rincpps:  tbcv  live  in  his  house,  are  maliiuioed 
by  his  gifts,  tlglit  for  him  in  the  Held.  If  there 
ia  llltic  diffcrrmc  bctwcfn  companions  and  ser- 
vants, it  is  Ik-ghusc  rivilization  has  not  yet  Intro- 
duced TDluDtary  ht'lplesaneaa.  .  .  .  Kow  the 
king,  the  per|M'tunl  princcpi  and  representative 
of  the  race,  convys  to  hla  penonal  following 
public  ilignity  and  importance.  His  gealths  and 
thegus  are  among  the  great  and  wise  men  of  the 
land.  The  riglit  of  havinr  cuch  dependenu  Is 
not  restricted  to  him,  but  ue  gealth  of  the  eal- 
domian  or  lii.sliop  is  simply  a  retainer,  a  pupil  or 
award:  tbi:  free  liousehold  servants  of  the  ct^orl 
are  in  a  certain  m  nse  hU  geaiths  also.  But  the 
geslths  of  tile  kinx  arc  his  guard  and  private 
council;  they  may  IH.'  endowed  by  him  from  the 
foiklaud  and  admitte<l  liy  him  to  tlie  witenage- 
mot.  .  .  .  The  Daoixh  huacarlsof  Canute  area 
late  repriKiuetioii  of  what  the  familia  of  the 
Northumbrian  kings  must  have  been  in  the  eighth 
century.  .  .  Tliedetrlopmeatof  tliecomiiatus 
into  a  territ^irial  nobility  leeina  to  be  a  feature 
pectiliar  to  Englisli  history.  .  .  .  The  Lomlwnl 

Sisind.  and  llie  liavarian  sindman  were  originally 
p  snnie  thine  on  tile  Anglo-Haxon  gesith.  But 
they  sank  into  the  genenu  masa  of  vassalage  as 
It  gn'w  nil  ill  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries. 
.  .  (IomIv  coniiii'tHl  with  the  gesith  is  the 
thegn;  m>  clowly  that  it  is  scarcely  p<iaalhle  lo 
see  the  ililTennii'  emvpt  In  the  nature  of  the  em- 
ploy iiient.  The  tlnirn  strms  to  be  primarily  the 
warrior  gi-«ith,  in  diia  idea  Alfred  uaeathe  woni 
as  traiislatinK  the  '  miles'  of  Bede.  He  la  prob- 
ably the  genith  who  has  a  particular  military 
duty  in  his  niamerii  mTvice.  But  he  also  Bp|M>an 
as  a  landowner.  The  ceorl  who  has  acqiiireil 
Ave  hilled  of  jp-d.  and  a  special  appointment  in 
the  kini!  s  ha  «ith  other  Judicial  riglita,  lie- 
ctimes  theen  wi  rthy.  .  .  .  And  fMm  thia  point, 
the  time  of  Atlielstan.  tho  gesith  is  hist  sight  of, 
elitpt  very  (K<ai.ioiially ;  the  more  iiii|MirUiit 
menilirni  of  the  elans  having  lMK»me  thegns,  ainl 
the  tenser  sort  »liiking  inUi  the  ranks  of  mere 
lervani"  to  the  king  The  class  of  thegns  now 
widens,  on  tlir  one  hanil  the  name  is  given  Ui  all 
wlioiMiswils  the  |mi|i<'ri{iiantlty  of  land,  whether 
or  no  tliev  stand  in  the  old  relation  to  the  king: 
OB  the  other  the  renmins  of  the  old  nodillty  place 
themselves  In  the  king's  (rrviee.  The  name  of 
thegii  lovent  tin-  whole  clasa  which  afu^r  the 
t'onipiest  spixars  iiiiiler  the  name  of  knighu, 
Willi  .lie  same  i|iialilli'ation  In  Unit  an'*  m'arly 
the  name  olilitfaii,.ii.  It  also  rarHe>l  so  m-ich  of 
noMliiy  as   i«  Inipliinl    in.beraditary  pritilege 

The  theicn  N'm  are  eontraaled   with   tba  i rl- 

biirn.  and  are  p4  rlmps  much  the  same  as  the 
psiiliriind  I  iiderthe  name  of  ihegn  are 

Inelmlid  hi  Aevir  various  grwiea  of  dignity 
T!i-  tirt-ri  --f  Kinv :!  ihr^s  b  distiBjfuUbrrtfr.ini 
that  of  the  niiillal  thegns,  and  from  a  residuum 
tlial  falls  in  riuik  Is'low  the  latter.  .  .  .  The  very 
like  titat  of  the  gtailb,  htm  dlfftfant  leaaea 


COIOTIA  CTNTURIATii- 

in  dlfferaat  ages  and  kingdoms;  but  the  original 
idea  of  military  service  nma  through  all  the 
meaningi  of  tbegn,  aa  that  of  penonal  assiicia. 
tion  la  traceable  in  ali  the  applications  of  ge»\ti, " 
—  W.  Btubba,  Ohm*.  JIut.  of  Stu.,  th.  3,  src(  14 
and  uA  8.  <K(.  «8-<U. 

Alio  tx:  T.  Ilodgkin,  Italfand  Iftr  Innultn 
bk.  4,  eh.  7. — See,  also,  CotjiiT  akd  Uukk 

COMITIA  CENTURIATA.-"  Under  Um 
original  constitution  of    Rome,   the   patricisu 
alone  .  .  .  enjoyed  political  rights  in  the  ttate 
but  at  the  same  time  tliey  wen-  forcol  to  bear 
the  whole  burden  of  political  dutiea    In  Iheie 
last  were  included,  for  example,  the  tilling  of  Uw 
king's  flelda,  the  construction  of  publir  wnrki 
and  buUdinga  .  .  .   ;  citizens  alone,  also,  wtrc 
liable  to  service  in  the  army.  .  .  .  The  i>oliUcal 
burdena,   especUlly  those  connecU><l  with  tlie 
army,  grew  heavier,  naturally,  as  the  |H>wer  nf 
Rome  increased,  anil  it  waa  seen  to  lie  an  iojiu- 
tioethat  one  part  of  the  people,  and  that,  Um,  the 
smaller   part,   should  alone  feel  their  mlgbt 
This  led  t«  the  first  Importsmt  modilteaiioa  of 
the  Roman  constitution,  which  whs  nmile  even 
before  the  close  of  the  r»'gal  iM'rioii.    Ai .  ontinit 
totlBdItion,  iU  author  was  the  king  Servius  Tuf 
llus,  and  iU  gemnU  object  was  lo  make  all  men 
who  held  land  in  the  state  liable  to  militsrv  ler 
vice.     It  thus  conferml  no  |iolitieiil  rit'lits  on 
the  plebeians,  but  sssigned  to  Iheiii  their  ^liure  of 
political  dutiea  .  .  .  Accor<ting  to  inuliiinn.  all 
the  fn'eliolders  In  the  city  lietweeu  llie  sites  o( 
17aiHi(IU,  with  some  exceptions,  were  divliled. 
without  distinction  as  to  liirtli,  into  tite  ilsMri 
('cisstit,'  'a  summoning,'  'calo')  forservin  mtlie 
infantry  accunling  t<i  the  size  of  tlieir  i  >ut«t 
Those  who  were  excepted  scrviii  as  borwinia 
These  were  selected  from  among  the  verv  rii  best 
men  in  the  slate.  ,  ,  .  of  the  live  elaM«'i  (if  in- 
fantry, the  first  contained  Hie  rieiiest  nim    . 
The  members  of  ilie  first  cUss  were  n'<|>iin>il  D 
cooM  lothe  battle  array  ineomplele  anmr.  wiiile 
leas  waa  demanded  of  the  iitlier  four.     ¥m\i  ilau 
was  subdivkied  into  centuries  or  IsalleHnl  s  hun- 
drwl  men  each,  for  convenience  In  srrain;iii){  iIm 
army.      There  were  in  ail    lua  renlurn-.    .  . 
This  absolute  numlier  and  this  apimriitinment 
were  continued,  as  the  nopulatiou  ini'n';i'«'<i  and 
the  distribution  of  wealth  alten-d.  until  the  name 
centurycametohaveapun-ly  conventional  mean- 
ing.  even  if  it  bail  any  other  In  the  In  L-iiiniug 
Henceforth  a   caiyfiil  census  was  talon  •  very 
fourth   year     an.l    all  fnt-holders    om'    maile 
subject  to  the    'tributum.'     The  srrinirrmnt 
of    the    |>eople    thus  drscrilml    was    |irimsrilT 
made  simply  for  lullitary  piiriioM'«.        .  liraa 
ually,    however,     Ihli    orgaulMlion    mnie    to 
have  politk'al  slgnifieani.'.   until    tlii.illy    lime 
men,  got  together  for  iliat  Is  tl'e  >liii(  jBitiU' 
cal  duty   In    a    primitive  slate,    injii.M-l  «!if' 
political    privileges    there    were  .    in   tlie 

end,  this  '  eien-ilus '  of  I4rrvius  Tulli  i»  furmeil 
another  popular  assembly ,  the  ( 'omit  in  (  >  n\  urtata, 
which  supplanted  the  comilia  eun.iti  i  i'lrrlT. 
except  In  matters r  nneihii  with  ilie  r<  ii.inn of 
the  family  and  very  sism  of  pun-lv  (.irnil  »l|fnl- 
fleaace.  This  organiMtion.  llieref.r.-.  u.  niiieol 
the  bigliest  civil  rmtMirtance.  and  was  <  niloufd 
for  civil  purposr*  long  after  the  armt  *.umu 
fihali«ti  Oil  ouiu-  NiitiUi*  j  jMrtii.  "— .\  *  :»"»■,  ^*" 
ml»$m»Ht  ii/lht  Human  riout  .  rh.  4 

A  1^1 1)1    W   Ibnr,  //••<  •■/  H.m,,  l,k  t,  A.  1 
— W.  Bamiay,  Jfaawi^  </  Human  AhUh  ,  tk.  i 


604 


COXITU  CUBUTA. 


COMITCNE. 


COMITIA  CURIATA.— ■■  In  the  beginning. 
my  member  of  any  one  of  the  clans  whh^  were 
included  In  tiv  i'^ree  original  Roman  tribea,  waa 
t  Roman  citi.  i.  So,  too,  were  hia  children 
bom  Id  lawful  wedlock,  and  tJiote  wlio  were 
adopted  by  him  according  to  the  forms  of  law. 
lUeiitimate  children,  on  the  other  hand,  were  ex- 
cluJrd  from  the  number  of  ritizena.  These 
earlifAt  Romans  called  themaches  patricians 
(patricii.  'children  of  their  fHthers'),  for  some 
reason  about  whirh  we  cannot  bt:  surv  Perhaps 
it  was  in  order  to  liiatinguish  themselrea  from 
their  illt'jritlmate  kinsmen  and  fr'm  such  other 
people  as  lived  about,  havmg  no  pretense  of 
dIoikI  connection  with  them,  and  who  wer9,  there- 
fore, incapable  of  cuntractiiig  lawful  maiTiages, 
scconling  to  the  patrician's  view  of  this  religfous 
ceremony.  The  patricians  .  .  .  were  grouped 
tofethcr  in  families,  clans  and  tribes.  Partly  on 
the  basis  of  blood  relstionship,  but  chiefly  on  the 
basis  of  common  reli^Tlous  worship.  Besides 
these  groups,  there  was  still  another  in  the  state, 
the  curia,  or  '  ward,'  which  stood  between  the 
cisn  snil  the  tribe.  In  the  earliest  time*,  tradi- 
tion Fsiil,  ten  families  formed  a  clan,  ten  clans  a 
curia  and  ten  curia  a  tribe.  These  numbers.  If 
tliey  I'ver  had  any  historical  existence,  could  not 
have  Kustained  themselves  for  any  length  of  time 
in  till'  caar  of  the  cUna  and  famiUea,  for  such  or- 
guisni!!  of  necessity  would  increase  and  decreue 
quli«  irrrgulHrly.  About  the  nature  of  the  curia 
we  bnvi'  practically  no  direct  information.  The 
orgsnizatlun  tiad  become  a  mere  name  at  an  early 
pCTioii  In  ll><"  city's  history.  Whether  the  mem- 
ben  'it  a  curia  tnotight  of  themselves  as  having 
cliwr  kin»hi|>  with  one  another  than  with  mem- 
ben  r>r  lit liiT  curiae  Is  not  clear.  We  know,  how- 
ever.  Hint  tlie  c'lriie  were  drflnl'e  political  sub- 
dlvlkii'iM  of  the  city,  perhaps  like  modem  wards, 
tad  ilmt  each  curia  had  a  common  religioua  wor- 
ililpfor  iismembers' partlcipatior  Thus  much, 
St  any  rate.  Is  signincant,  iiecauae  It  has  to  do 
with  ttie  form  of  Rome's  primitive  popular  aa- 
semlilr.  When  the  king  wanttni  to  harangue  the 
people  (' populus.' cf  'populor,'  '  to  devastate ') 
Localleiltliem  toa  'contio'  (compounded of  'co' 
tnti  '  venlii ')  But  if  he  wantp<l  to  propose  to 
tliem  action  which  implied  a  change  In  the  or- 
gtaU  law  of  the  stale,  he  summon«i  them  to  a 
coniliiii  (compounde<l  of  'con'  and  'eo').  To 
thU  the  name  comllis  curiata  was  given,  twcause 
Its  niinilxr^  vhImI  by cuilic.  Knch curia  had  one 
roif.  tlie  charsicter  of  which  was  determined  by 
s  nujt'riiy  of  its  memlM-rs,  and  a  majority  of  the 
curiie  dnhM  the  mall4-r  for  the  comitia."— A. 
TIglif.  I>frtlm>mtnl  of  ttu  Homan  (hntt.,  eh.  8, 

Almiix:  T.  Mimimsen,  //u(.  if  Hmt,  lilt.  1, 
fh.i-r  Oe  CouKiiges,  Ths  Anfunt  Cilg,  Nt 
>.  f»  1.  I  ml  Mr.  4  r*.  f— See,  also.  CoMITIA  Cm- 
TCKivn  ami  C'oHTloNES. 

COMITIA  TRIBUTA,  Tlw.  Bm  Rom 
Be  *:>  VI 

COMMACBNB,  Kiagdom  of.- A  district  ot 
nof),.  T!!  •^yris.  which  was  a  kin»,ii(:ni  in  the  last 
c«murv  H  {.'..  afterwanis  a  Konukn  province. 

COMMENDATION.    h*<e  BcNaricitit. 

COMMBRCE.    HeeTKAKi 

COMMERCiUM.    He*'  Mi  niriPicM. 

COMMITTEE  OF  CORRESPOND. 
c»C£^   :^  U«[TK>  Btaiks  ur  Am.  :  A.  O. 

'committee  op  public  bapbtt, 

Tk«  PrwKh  Rwtttlwiy.     Hw  Tuamc*. 


A  D.  1798  (KABca— Jinii),  and  (Jmnt— Octo- 
ber). 

committee  on  the  conduct  of 

THE  WAR,  The.  See  United  Statks  or 
Am.:  a.  D.  t861-18«8  (Dbcember-March: 
ViRorwiA). 

COMMODUS,  Romoa  iaaetu.,  A.  D.  180- 
103. 

COimON  LAW,  EiK.:-  -'"he  munici- 
pal law  of  England,  or  the  .  ,i  of  jivil  conduct 
prescrilMl  to  the  inhabitants  of  this  kingdom, 
may  with  sufficient  propriety  be  diviiled  into 
two  kinds;  t' e  'lexnon  scriptu,'  the  unwritten 
or  common  law;  and  the  'lex  K.Hpta,"  the  writ- 
ten or  sututa  law.  The  '  lex  non  scripts,"  or 
unwritten  law,  includes  tuit  n-.ly  general  cus- 
toms, or  the  common  law  prop.'r:y  go  cidled,  but 
also  the  particular  customs  (  f  certain  paiis  of 
the  kingdom ;  and  likewise  thor  •  particular  laws 
that  are  by  custom  obstrvcd  only  in  certain 
couru  and  jurisdictions.  When  I  call  thes'- 
,  iru  of  our  law  '  leges  non  scriptse,"  I  would  i  t 
Ik  understood  as  If  all  those  laws  were  at  prescn 
merely  oral,  or  communicated  from  the  former 
ages  to  thepresent  solely  by  word  of  mout'i. 
.  .  .  But,  with  us  at  pixnent,  the  nionuni  ;i,ts 
and  evideiioes  of  our  legal  cusu>ms  arc  c mta  ned 
In  the  records  of  the  several  courts  of  justice 
In  books  of  reports  and  judicial  d.'cisious  am!  t-i 
tlie  treatises  of  learned  s-ges  of  tlie  profcwion, 
preserved  and  handed  down  to  us  from  the  lime* 
of  hir  -^t  antiquity.  However,  I  therefore 
style  I'  •  parts  of  our  law  •  le-e*  non  acripto: ' 
becau*  'leir  original  Institution  and  B'lthority 
are  n  c  aet  down  In  writing,  as  Acts  of  I>a'l|a- 
ment  are,  but  thev  receive  their  Mi.ding  power, 
and  the  force  of  laws,  by  long  and  immemorial 
usage,  and  by  their  universal  rrci'ption  through- 
out the  kingdom."— Sir  W.  Blackslone.  (Jumneit- 
tnrin.  int.,  tet.  8.    Bee.  also.  Law,  Commo.n 

Al.xo  IN  :  H.  S.  Maine,  Anriml  Law.  rA  I  _ 
J.  N.  Pomeroy,  Int.  to  Municifni  Late,  teitt. 
87-43. 

COMMON  LOT,  or  Commoo  Life,  Brcth< 
ren  of  the.  Sec  Bbetbbkn  or  the  Comhoh 
Lot. 

'•  COMMON  SENSE  (Paine't  Pamphlet). 
Pfv  '?fc*"5»  •'•  *•  I'wiTEU  States  or  A«. : 
A.  I)  1776  (Jabi'viit— June) 

COMMONS,  The.  .See  Estates,  Tm 
Tbhbb. 

COMMONS,  House  of.  See  Parliaxb-tt, 
The  Enolish,  and  Kmc-its  nt-  tuk  Siiihk 

COMMONWEALTH  OF  ENGLAND, 
Bstabliekment  of  the.    See  K.noi.and:  a    D. 

l«4»(PCBniARTV 

COMMUNE,  The -The  c.inmonaltv;  the 
comm  IDS.  In  feudal  \iaagr.  thi'  li  rtu  »lKnille<l, 
as  d  ■  xl  'ij  LIttK',  the  IhxIv  of  ihe  iKnirgrols 
(It  liurghiM  of  a  town  wh.i  hml  ni'  'ved  a 
charter  w  .ich  •tavu  them  niflita  of  t  If  gi^vem- 
iTiept  "In  Prance  the  eiiiiiiniunil  io„«tii,j||,in 
was  durinir  this  (x-riixl  (I'.'th  «'uturv)eii>'>uraged. 
s'lhough  lint  very  heartllr.  bv  lAw  -  VI.,  viho 
saw  in  It  .,nc  mi-ans  of  fetteriuV  t''  ■  a  'ion  of  the 
barons  an.l  blahops  and  secii,lni(  to  liiiiiM-lf  the 
support  iif  a  stmn;  portion  nf  hi<  (wople  la 
some  ca*"«  the  nminitme  of  r'ranei'  U.  like  the 
^tiilil.  •>  volunUry  association,  but  Itn  obiects  are 
inMc.  '.ir  fin  I  more  liistinciiy  poijiual  In  soma 
rsuts  of  till!  kingilom  tlie  u<wn«  had  risea 
'«n.ast  their  lonis  la  the  latter  half  i>f  the 
el-.'v«a(k  eMttW7,  Md  had  rsiolaed  tlie  truiit  o( 


606 


if- 


r 


comnrm. 

their  hard-won  rlctorlM.    In  othm,  ther  poa- 
^Med,    In    the   remaining    fragmenta   of    the 
Karollnglan  conatitution,  aome  organiaation  that 
formed  a    baais   for   new  libertiea.    The  great 
number  <if  cbartcra  ifranted  in  the  twelfth  century 
ahowa  that  the  poHcy  of  encouraging  the  third 
ewate  waa  In  full  sway  In  the  royd  ooondla,  and 
the  king  by  niuly  recognition  of  the  popuUr 
right*  gained  the  affectlona  of  the  people  to  an 
Mtentwhich  haa  few  parallelain  French  hiatnry 
The  French  cliartem  iiro  in  both  atyle  and  «ub- 
atance  very  different  from   the    English.    The 
libertiea  which  are  beiitiiwed  are  for  the  moat 
part  the  same,  cxpniption   from  arbitrary  tax- 
ation the  rijtht  t..  l.Hul  liiriKilcUon,  the  privilege 
of  enfraucliising  tin;  villein  who  haa  been  for  a 
year  and  a  day  receivwl  within  the  walls,  and 
the  power  of  rU-cting  the  offlcen.     But  whilst 
all  tlic  Lnglish  rhartera  conuin  a  conarmatlon  of 
free  and  ttotx]  custonw,  the  French  are  filled  with 
an  enumcraii.iti  .if  b,id  onea.  ...  The  Engliah 
have  an  ancient  local  conatitution  the  memben 
or  w  lUli  are  the  reclplcnu  of  the  new  grant,  and 
gullils  »f  at  lean  aulHclent  antiquity  h>  render 
their  ronflrmation  typical  of  the  freedom  now 
guaranlmi:   trench  cimmunla  la  a  new  iMxIy 
Which,  b)-  tho  action  of  a  awom  confederacy  liaa 
wrung  from  iu  nppreaaora  a  deliverance  from 
hereditary   bondage.  .  .  .  The  commune  lacks 
too  the  ancient   . Iiment  of  feative   religious  or 
merramili-  aKWH-iation  which  U  to  conaplcuous  in 
the  history  of  the  guild.     The  idea  of  the  latter 
is  tngllsh.  that   of   the   former   U   French  or 
Oallic.     ^pf  nntwlthsundhig  theae  diSerencn, 
the    siilwtautial    l.l.ntity    of    the     privliecet 
secured   by  these  charters   seems  to  prove  the 
eaisuncc    of    much    inteniational    sympathy 
The    aniiciit    liNrtirs    of    the    English    were 
not    uniutilligUik-   to   the   townamen   of   Nor 
mandy,    Uie    rising    freedom    of    the    German 
cities  rousMl   a  riirre»i)ondlng    ambition    In  the 
towns  of    Flanilcrg;  and    the   atruggle*  of  the 
Italian  muiii<  ip.ilities  awoke  the  energies  of  the 
cities  cif  I'n.v,  iiov     AH  took  difTcmit  ways  to 
win  the  same  lilHrties    ...  The  German  liansa 
may  hsveb.'.n  .lirive.!  fn.m  England;  the  com 
inuna  of    London  was  certainly    derived    from 
France.  The  communa  of  London,  and  of 

th.*.'  cih.  r  Knttlish  town*  which  in  the  twelfth 
century  umtnl  at  au.h  a  constitution,  was  the 
ol.l  tni:lisii  ^^liM  In  a  new  French  garb-  it  was 
the  an.l.r.i  uswiciatlon,  but  directed  tothealUin- 
mentof  m  iniclpal  rather  than  mercantile  prlvi- 
legea  -W  .siubbs.  Const.  IKtt.  of  Sng,  tk  It 
—  •Oppn-wionand  Insurrection  wore  not  theanle 
orlgln..f  the  communes  .  .  .  Two  causea,  quite 
dUllnct  from  feudal  opprraaloa.  vii ,  Ih.man 
tnititioni.  and  Cliristlan  sentiments  bad  their 
•hare  In  the  fomiatiin  of  the  i«mm  ne- and  in 
the  iDmrtilal  n-Kults  tliereof.  The  U'man 
municipal  n ulni.  n.  which  U  d«acribe<l  in  M 
Ouiiots  FiMtti,  ,ur  niutnlre  de  France  (lit 
^•V  •'''„! -^^  l«l- In  ■  ilist.  of  Clvlllaiil.m.' 
v_  «.  lect  3  did  iiui  ,vrry  wher»'  perish  with  the 
tmplre;  It  kept  its  f...iiiig  in  a  great  uumluT  of 
Uiwiis,  cspeciallv  in  tliinie  of  Siutliem  Gaul  "— 
.F    !•   Ouiiot    /<.iM,/-ir  IliM.  <^Fniiu».  rA    10 

Also  IM     .Sir  .)   KienlM-n,  Ln,.  on (V  llinl  «f 
rn»Hfr.  UtI   .%  -See  FhaIICK  :   ISth-IRtm  Cuk 

TiHiRK;  alao.  (I  HiA,  MimnraL;  and  Giilm 

PF  F! ^Sprh- 

COMMUNE.TbtFlMBlafc.    8«t Uuiijm  op 


506 


COMPABS. 

COMMUKE   OF   PARIS,  The  Revolt 
Monwy,  of  179a.    See  FBA^c«:  A.  D   1  tS 

1871  (Mabch— Mat).  ""  " 

COMMUNE,    Rnaaian  and  Swiss,     g- 
Mnt,  andHwiTZERi.AMD:  A.  I>.  lH4H-iNi)n 
IgCOMMONEROS.  Th..  'selZirA  D 

COMMUNISM.     See  Social  MovEmvi, 

COMNBNIAN  DyNASTY.-The^uSi 

^'1  ^y""""*  emperors  founded,  A.  1)  \m!l 

Alexiua  Comnenoa,  and  consisting  of  Aluiui  / 

John  IL.  Manuel  I..  Alexius  II.,  Li  AmlmnUi 

A.'g*ff»^?4'2f*=*=''  ■^''•-  «-  ^--« 
COMPASS,  UtrodneUon  of  the  Mariner-i 
-"It  la  perhapa  Impossible  to  amvrtain  He 
epoch  when  the  poUrity  of  the  magnet  w,«  dm 
known  in  Europe.  The  common  opinion  whfch 
aacribes  Iu  discovery  to  a  citizen  of  Anmlil  la 

Oulot  de  Provins,  a  French  poet  who  liv,-,!  about 
the  VMr  1300,  or,  at  the  latest,  under  ,si  CS 
i*!^^  'tr  °  ""'  "LT'  "Oequlv'xal  language' 

the  middle  of  the  18th  century.  a.i,l  Guide 
GuinlMelll,  an  lulian  poet  of  the  saii...  time  m 
equally  explicit.  The  French,  as  well  as  lialiin, 
cUim  the  discovery  aa  their  own;  but  wlutWr 
t  were  due  to  either  of  these  nations,  or  ratlur 
eame<l  from  their  intercoune  with  Uie  Saraceui 
ta  not  easily  to  be  aicertalned.  .  .  .  It  U  a  sinini: 

.^  •'I""™*"'?-  »™'  "n'y  to  •»  "pliiniHl  \, 
the  obaUnacy  with  which  men  are  apt  to  n'lert 
Improvements,  that  the  magnetic  n.iill,.  »»»  not 
generally  adopted  in  navigation  till  v.rv  loo» 
.  '  T*,  alscovery  of  iu  properties,  awl  even 
after  their  peculiar  iinporUni-e  liad  In  ,  n  per 
celled.  The  writers  of  the  13th  cvnlurv  who 
mention  the  polarity  of  the  needle.  m(riii'.ii  sIm 
IU  use  in  navlntion;  yet  Capinunv  ha.s  found 
nodUtinct  proof  of  Iu  employ  meul  till  UiKt  .i»l 
d<>ea  not  believe  that  it  was  fre.|u.-nilv  on  Ixsud 
Mediterranean  ships  at  the  latter  iwrt  of  the 
preceding  age.  "-n.  Hallam,  Th,  !i„i,iu  Asm 
p  ^iJ^  .•.."•(*  ""''-••IVHh  Clmu.Tr  tbf 
EnglUh,  and  Bartamr,  the  Scoltlsli.  |«p.i  alludo 
familiarly  to  the  compass  In  IIh'  Uih  r  i.art  of 
the  14th  century. "—O.  L  Crnik,  Hut  „t  llrituA 
a>mm*rr».  r.  1,  p  l!W.— ■' We  havr  n„  iTrtaiii 
Information  of  the  direillve  temli  iic  >  ..f  the 
natural  mairnet  being  known  earli.r  ihan  the 
middle  orewi  of  the  llth  ivntur>-  ■  Kiir..nf  of 
courw).  .  ,  .  That  It  was  known'  H.iatisnd 
iu  practical   value   recognlu'il  ii,.wu  bv  s 

passage  f^>m  an  Icelandii'  liUlon  .iu..ti-d"bT 
Hanatlen  In  hlslrratlacof  T.rrwin..  MiL-mtism. 
In  this  extract  an  expisiiti.m  from  V  .«ay|„ 
Iceland  In  tlw  year  86H  |a  dewrllK-il,  ^,.1  it  It 
stated  that  thret-  ravens  were  taken  s>  g,ii,\n. 
for,  ailila  tJie  histurian,  'in  iluMe  itm.-i  «.an»n 
had  no  Inailstone  In  the  nonlimi  <iiunirifS 
Tills  history  was  writh'u  alsiut  tin-  v.ar  A.  D 
UWH.  aiHl  the  allusion  I  have  ipioii'.l  oliviously 
shows  that  the  autlior  was  awan-  of  iialuni 
magneU  having  been  emi>!"V'.«l  a*  s  i-wup— 
At  the  same  time  It  fixes  a  limit  of  the  ill«  .irery 
In  northern  countries.  We  tiwi  no  nuniim  of 
artUkhU  nuf  neu  being  to  vinphiyed  till  about » 


B 


COMPASa 

eectniT  hter."— Sir  W.  Thompmi,  juoitd  ig 
R  F.  Barim  in  Ultima  TkuU,  •.  1,  p.  818. 

COMPIBGNE :    Captnrt  of  the  Maid  of 
Orlcuu  (1430).    Bee  Pbascb.  A.  D.  142»-1431. 

COMPOUND  HOUSEHOLDER.  The 
gee  Ekolako:  A.  D.  1865-1868. 

COMPROMISE.  Tht  Critteadea.  Bee 
CHmcD  Statu  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  1860(1)-  mmsB). 

COMPROMISE,  The  Flcmiih.  of  is«s.  Sm 
Nkturlaxd*:  A.  D.  116:.1S66. 

COMPROMISE,  The  MioMnri.  BeeCvmD 
States  op  Am.  :  A.  D.  1818-1881. 

COMPROMISE  MEASURES  OP  1850, 
The.    8ee  Uhitbd  Statb*  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  1850. 

COMPROMISE  TARIFF  OP  1833,  Tht. 
Bee  I'kitkd  Statu  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  18^-1888. 

COMPURGATION.— Amoog  the  Teutonic 
tnd  other  peoplea,  in  early  ttmei,  one  accund  of 
%  crime  might  clear  himaelf  by  hia  own  oath, 
lupportol  by  the  nathx  of  certain  compurgators, 
who  bon-  witness  to  hl«  tnistworthin)«i.  8ee 
WaokbofLaw  ;aml  Law, Criminai.:  A.I).1166. 

COMSTOCK  LODE,  Diacovvrr  ef  the 
SeeNnvADA:  A.  D.  imH-1864. 

COMUM,  BatUa  ef  (B.  C.  196).  See  Romx: 
B.  c  a)s-i»i. 

CONCIONES,ThtRoawa.  BeeCoimoim, 

CONCON,  BatUa  of  (il9i).  See  Criui: 
A  I).  IN(«-18»1. 

CONCORD.— BcKiimiac  of  the  War  of  tho 
American  Rerolutioa.  See  UnrnD  Statm  or 
Am.:  a.  1).  1775 (April). 

CONCORDAT  OP  BOLOGNA,  Th*.  See 
r»A.irE:  A  D.  1515-15ia 

CONCORDAT  OF  NAPOLEON.The  See 
F».»NiK    A   I).  1801-1804. 

CONCORDAT  OF  1813.  The.  BoePAPAcr: 
A  I).  IHUJ-ISU. 

CONDE,  Th*  flrat  Priaca  Leitia  da,  and  tha 
Frtach  wara  of  raUgion.  SeePRAUCK:  A.  D. 
1S«I>-1VI3  an<l  1S63-1570. 

^Pl'Sr-^''"''*  S?J»»*  '•'*»«  LoBia  da 
^led  TheCraat).-C«mpaicaa  ia  tha  Thirty 
Years  War,  and  th-  irar  with  Spain.  Se« 
Frasce:  A.  D.  lS48-l»(8i  1648 :  Obbm aht  :  A.  D. 

I«40-l«45,  1648-1644 Ia  tha  wara  of  tha 

Froadc.    Sw  Kramcr:  A.  D.  1647-1648:  16411 

l«.1u  iUl:  1651-1658 Campaina  anlaat 

f'^**i?«*'"»*'^""»'  8p^»nSee  FiSuica: 

A.  I)  l«.ta-Ui.V).  and  16S5-1658 Last  caai- 

sajfas.    (w  NrrBBRLAinM  (Holland):  A.  D. 
l«7f  1974  aiMl  1674-1678. 

CONDE,  Tha  Houaa  ot    See  BociMoif .  Trb 

Hoi  SI.  (IP. 

tv  the  Austriaaa.    See  Fraiicb:  A.   D.  1798 
(Jn.if- Deckmbbh). 

A.  D.  I794.-Rtc«t«r7  by  tha  Froaeh.  8ae 
PRAStK:  A.  1).  17»4 iMarcb-Jplt). 

CONDORE,  OR  KONDUR,  Battlaal  (1718). 

SwlsmA:  A  b,  1758-1761.  ''^'^ 

CONDOTTIERB  -In  the  »t»ral  meaalac 
!LL>,  '.  ;  ■  «»'>''uf««i'  or  leader;  applied 
•perUlly  In  lulUn  hisl«ry,  to  the  profeXMU 
military  ,*!,„  of  the  18th  awl  Mtfi  centuries. 
who  „i«.le  a  btuioeas  of  war  Tery  much  as  a 
«»«,?  ""•"»''i»  Tk"  »  Iwulneas  of  milroad 
nwirurtion,  and  who  were  open  in  eoir»«>m?nt 
•Hh  tin  tr.«n,  at  their  cnmrnand,  by  an/prlnce,' 

ToVDRfehT  trBB-r^'^ 


CONGO  FREE  STATE. 

CONBSTOGAS,  The.    See  Ambwcah  Abo- 
Riorau:  SusQCEaAiniAa 

nSPjy'^^f  "^'^^  °^  DELOS,  OR  THE 
DELIAN.  See  Obeece:  B.  C.  47S-477,  and 
Araufs:  B.  C.  466-454,  and  after. 

r£-u''»?°*"i^'r=  STATES  OF   AM.- 
conatitation  and  ornnixation  of  the  n 
ment.    See  U»rrED  States  or  Am  :  A.  D 
(Pbbrcart) 


1861 


A  CONFEDERATION,  Articlaa  of  (U.  S.  of 
irai  United  States  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  1777- 

CONFEDBRATION.     AuatraUaa.       See 
ArsTRALiA:  A.  D.  188.V18W 

.■?5''^°«='**'^'°'*'  ■f"'  Cenaaalc,  of 
1B14.  See  Oerhant:  A.  D.  1814-1 K20  Of 
tKrp.  See  Qermakt:  A.  D.  1870  (  ptember 
—December). 

Be?SS?r^"A*l'?ISi'^'"  "«'*''  ^"-• 

Sw^iSSrSS^^^^'^"'    -^    SwlM-      «" 

CONFEDERATION  OF  THE  BRITISH 

^■fPfiS^"  PROVINCES.    See  CaI:;" 

T5°*'f?^'^"*'^'°*'  O"  THE  RHINE, 
The.  See  Oermant:  A.  D.  180.5-1806:  1806 
(jAMAiiV— AiT.riiT) ;  and  lNi;t  ((),t  — Di  r  ) 

CONFESSION   OF   AUGSBURG.     See 
Papait    A.  n.  l.VW-l.Wl. 

E«^o?J7„"*l'W97^*"^«"--     «- 

A.'i?'?Sh^5f'   "^""^  •'      Be,   France 

CONFUCIANISM.    See  China;  The  Re- 

UOIONS. 

..  ^°^.  fl?  ''"t"^  ®,TM=>  "^  Foondiac  of 

!k  ~  r  .  ,?,  J^?"'"'  "•  «cc<"«»on  to  the 
throne  [of  B«-I»luml.  his  great  object  has  been  to 
secure  colonial  possessions  to  Belgium  for  her 
eicesa  of  population  and  production.  To  this 
end  he  founded,  in  October.  1876,  with  the  aid 
or  eminent  African  einlorers,  the  International 
African  Association.  lu  object  was  to  form 
committers  in  sereral  countries,  with  a  view  to 
the  collection  of  funds,  and  to  the  establishment 
of  a  chain  of  sutlons  across  Africa,  passing  by 

V*'"-I"'f"y'k'-   •"  »"''''  future   eipf'orers 
Accordingly  committers    were   formeii.    whoae 

K!*'''*°IV'f''  ?•  '''"<"»»:  'n  England,  the 
I^nceof  Wales:  in  Germany  the  Crown  IVInce 
in  Italy  the  Kings  brotli.r;  in  l'>anre,  M  de 
I^ps;  and  in  Belgium,  King  Ix-opold.  Sums 
of  money  were  subecribeil,  and  stations  were 
openeil  from  Bajomoyo  (Just  south  of  Zanilbar) 
.  ilf.,  Jsneanyika:  but  when  toward  the  close 
of  18.7,  Stanley  reappeared  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
and  reTealr<i  the  Immenik!  length  of  the  mar- 
velous Congo  Klvrr,  King  Ixn.nold  at  once 
turned  his  attention  In  that  dinTllon.  That  he 
might  not  put  hiniwlf  forwent  prematurely 
he  acteil   under  ever  of  an  asatxiation  and  a 


committee  of  rxnloratlon,  which  wei*  In"  reality 
ifri'lv  supporfeil   by   the   Kings 


fonne<l  ami  ent,,.,,  ,,.,,,„.,,„.  „^  ,„i,  R,ng, 
energy  and  by  the  largi-  sums  of  money  that  he 
lavishwi  upon  th.ni  Through  this  auMM-iiition 
King  Leopiilii  maintained  Stanley  for  Ave  vears 
on  the  Congo  During  this  time  a  nw.!'  was 
made  f^)m  the  oast  to  Stanley  I'ool,  when-  the 
BaTlgabSc  rtirtina  of  iho  \:i,\Kt  Congo  com 
mences;  and  thus  was  forme<l  the  basis  of  the 
future  empire.  During  this  period  Stanley 
ai|Bed  DO  lest  than  four  thoumud  treatiea  er 


507 


CONGO  FREX  8TATS. 

eeaocnkiiit  of  territoiy,  on  which  upwtiii  of 
two  thounnd  chiefs  bad  placed  their  nutrks  la 
■ign  of  adheaioa    At  •  coat  of  many  mootht  of 
transportation,  neceialtating  the  employment  o;' 
thounndi  of  porters,  liiht  steamer*  were  plau.d 
on  the  upper  river  which  was  explored  at  far 
as  Stanley  Falls.    lu  numeroua  tributaries  also 
were  followed  up  as  far  as  the  rapids  that  Inter- 
rupt their  cuunes.     Many  young  Belgian  officers 
and    other   adrenturous  ezploren    established 
themsplves  on  the  banks  of  the  Congo  anJ  the 
adjoining  river,   the   Kouiliou,  and  founded  a 
series  of  stations,  each  occupied  by  one  or  two 
Europeans  and  by  a  few  aoldters  from  Zanzibar. 
In  this  way  the  country  was  insensibly  taken 
powession  of  in  the  most  padflc  manner,  with- 
out a  struggle  and  with  no  bloodshed  whatever; 
for  the  natives,  who  are  of  a  veiy  gentle  dispo- 
sition, offered  no  resistance.    The  Mnate  of  the 
United  States,  which  was  called  upon,  in  1884, 
to  give  an  opinion  on  the  rights  of  the  African 
Aswiciatinn.  made  a  careful  examination  of  the 
matter,  and  recognized  the  legality  of  the  claims 
and   title  dcttls  submltu-d    to   them.    A  little 
later,  in  onlcr  to  mark  the  formation  of  a  state, 
the  Congo  Association  adopted  as  its  flag  a  gold 
star  on  a  blue  ground.     A  French  lawyer,  M. 
Deloume,  in  a  very  well-written  pamphlet  en- 
titled '  Lc  Droit  des  Oens  dans  I'Afrique  Equa- 
torlHlo. '  has  proved  that  this  proceeding  was  not 
only  legitimate,   but    necessary.    The   embryo 
state,    however,    larked    one    essential    thing, 
namely,  recognition  by  the  civilized  powers.    It 
exintt'd  only   as  a  private  association,  or,  as  a 
hostile    publicist    exiiressiil    it,    as   'a  sute  in 
shari's,  indulging  in  pretensions  of  sovereignty.' 
Oreat  dilticulties  st4XKl  in  the  way  of  realizing 
this  essential  eoniiillon.     Disputes,  on  the  one 
hand  with  Franei  and  on  the  other  with  Portu- 
gal.   Hppeared    inevitable.  .  .  .  King    Leomild 
did   not  lose  heart.     In  1883  he  obtidned  rri>ni 
the  Kri'mli  government  an  assurance  tliat,  wlille 
maintaining  its  rights  to  the  north  uf  Stanley 
Potil,  It  would  give  support  to  the  Intenuitiunal 
AsMX-iation  of    the  Congo.     With   Portugal   it 
seemed  very  dlfflcult  to  come  to  an  underatanil- 
Ing.  .  .  .  Prince    Bismarck    U)ok    part    in  the 
matter,  ami  In  the  Uerniun  Parliament  praised 
highly  the  work  of  tlie  African  Association.     In 
April,  1884.  he  pMpoaed  to  France  to  come  to  an 
understanding,   and   to  settle  all  difficulties  by 
general     af^reement.     From     this     pniposltlim 
sprang  the   famous   B«'rl':i  conference,  the  re 
markable  derisions  of  which  we  shall  mention 
later     At  the  same  time,  before  the  conference 
op<iie<l,  (lennany  signetl  an  agreement  with  the 
Intemutiiinsl  AsmxiHtion  of  the  Congo,  In  which 
she  ngreeil  Ui  recognise  iU  flag  as  that  of  a  sute. 
It  eji'liHiige  for  an    assurance  that  her  tnule 
should  lie  free,  and  that  Uvrman  subjecU  shoulit 
enjoy   all   the   privileges  of  the  most   favored 
nations.     Hinillur  agreements  were  entered  upon 
with  nearly  all  the  ot Iter  countries  of  the  glolKv 
The  oelegates  of  |)i«  Assnelatlon  were  accepted 
at  the  conference  uo  ilie  same  fixiling  as  those  of 
(lie  dllfen'nt  states  that  wire  reprt-si'nlnl  there, 
and  on  Feliniary  M.  the  day  on  which  the  art 
was  slgne<l,  Bismarck  expresaed  hlnwlf  as  fol 
lows;  'The  m'w  Hute  of  the  Congo  Is  destined 
to  (m-  one  of  the  rjijcf  iafe  ffuar-ls  uf  the  work 
we  lisve  In  view,  and  I  sincerely  trust  that  Its 
development  will  fulltl!  the  noble  sspiratkHis  of 
hs  august  foundar.'    Thus  ths  Cosfo  Inter 


CONORBOATION  OF  THE  ORATORY. 

astionsl   Aasodstion,  hitherto  only  a  prlvsts 
enterprise,  seemed  now  to  b«  reengnized  u  a 
sovereign  state,  without  having,  however  as  ret 
sriumed  the  title.    But  where  were  the  limlu  ot 
its  territory.  .  .  .  Thanks  to  the  hitcrfrtence  of 
France,  after  prolonged  negotUtioris  an  under- 
stunding  was  arrived  at  on  February  15  issj 
by  which  both  parties  were   satistleil     Thev 
agreed  that  Portugal  should  take  possesk.on  nf  the 
southern  bank  of  the  Congo,  up  to  il.i  junction 
with  the  little  stretun  Vango,  abo<re  Nokkl  and 
also  of  the  district  of  Kabinda  forming  a  «'«!» 
that  extends  into  the  French  territory  on  tbe 
AtUntic  Ocean.    The  International  Congo  Amo- 
elation— for  such  was  still  lu  title— was  to  bi\« 
access  to  the  sea  by  a  strip  of  Innd  esiendini 
from  Manyanga  (weat  of  l.«opoldvllle)  to  Hi 
ocean,  north  of  Banana,  and  comprising  In  wiiJI. 
tion  to  thlsport,  Boma  and  the  important  -Mtion 
of  Vivi.    These  treaties  granted  the  ssmx  ution 
081,280  s((uare  miles  of  terriuiry,  that  l»  to  ur 
a  domain  eighty  times  the  size  of  Belgium,  wiih 
more  than  7,800  miles  of  navigable  riven,    liie 
limits  fixed  were,  on  the  west,  the  Kusngo.  sn 
Important  tributsjy  of  the  Congo ;  on  the  snush 
the  sources  of  the  Zambesi ;  on  the  east,  the  Ijikea 
Boneweolo,  Moero,  and  Tanganyika,  ami  a  ling 
passliig  through  Lake   Albert  'Eilwani  to  the 
river  Quelle ;  on  the  north,  a  line  following  the 
fourth  degree  of  latituilv  to  the  Moliaiigi  River 
on  the  French  frontier.     The  whole  lorms  one 
eleventh  part  of  the  African   contlmiit.    The 
associatir>'>  became  transformeil  into  a  state  in 
August  1988,   whcu   King    Uopold.   wiih  th-! 
authorization  of  tlie  B«'lglan  Chanib.'rs,  noilHel 
the  powers  that  he  sliould  assume  the  tlilr  i>( 
Sovereign  of  the  Independi'nt  Stale  of  the  dmifo 
the   union  of  which  with   Bi'Iglum  vis  to  to 
exclusively  personal.    The  Congo  is,  tlunfoi*, 
not  a  Belgian  colony,  but  neverthelew  the  Hil- 
gUn   Chambers   have   recently  given  vnli!«ble 
assistance  to  the  King's  work;  fltst,  in  I  it  nj 
on  Julv  36,  I88»,    lO.OOO.OtW  francs'  wnnli  «f 
shares  in  the  railway  which  is  to  ronnect  ihi<  sea- 
port of  MatadI  with  the  riverport  of  Leopold. 
ville,  on  Stanley  Pool,  and  secondlv  liv  irraiiling 
a  loan  of  38,000,000  francs  to  the  luil.  ixiident 
HtaU  on  August  4,  181X).    The  King,  in  a  will 
laid  before  Parllarornt,   bequeaths  all  \m  Afri- 
can  possessions  to  the  Belgian  nation,  author- 
izing the  country  to  take  poMenaion  of   tlirm 
after  a  lapse  of  ten  years."— E.  du  Uveleye 
Thf  Dinoiim  <if  Atriea  {Thr  fWnm.  Jnn  .  Ml. 
See  Afiiiia  :  A.  D.  1H7«,  1HT9.  IMM.  ami  after. 

Al.M)I<i:  H    M    Stanley.  The  Ciimi.). 

CONGREGATION  OF  THE  ORATORY, 
The.- "Philip  of  Neri.  a  young  Kloreiilinei.f 
gooil  birth  (1818-1593;   c»iioiiiii.ir  lil-'-,'i  In 

1848  lnstltute<l  at  Itome  the  Saietv  <>r  ihi'  l|.>ly 
Trinity,  to  minister  to  the  wants  i/f  ihi'  pili:r<nM 
at  Home.  But  the  op<>rations  of  Iiih  ii>i»ion 
gradually  extended  till  tliey  emliruMl  the 
spiritual  welfare  of  the  Koiiian  ihii'uI  lion  st 
Urge,  and  tlie  reformation  of  the  Itom^in  clcrir 
In  particular.  No  figure  Is  more  biphc  anil 
more  sympathetic  to  us  In  the  liUtorv  of  ilie 


Catholic  reaction  than  llial  of  tkU  liiMinla' 

,pos' 
followed  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine.  H|>mn|{  in 


'  apostle  of  Rome. '    Fnmx  his  sasiM-ial  1^ 


aliirilar 
<ii,  whirh 


\KtH  ths  r.-»I!gT?=gRtir,ri  ---f  !hr  t>fn:-fV  1'   Iv-F-f, 

famous  as  the  seminary  of  much  that  U  most 
admirable  In  tbe  hiboura  of  the  Cstliolli'  ilergr" 
—A.  W.  Ward,  Tkt  OtunttrHtfomatun,  p.  ML 


608 


OONaBEQATION  OF  THK  ORITORT. 


CONKAUQHT. 


—"In  thereu  17M,  then  wereaboTea  hundred 
CoBgregatloni  of  the  Oratory  of  8.  Philip  io 
Europe  aod  the  Eaat  Indies;  but  iinoe  the  revo- 
Itttioiu  of  the  last  seventy  years  many  of  these 
bsrc  ceased  to  exist,  whfle,  on  the  contrary, 
within  the  last  twelve  years  two  have  been 
established  in  EngUnd."— Mrs.  Hope,  IaS*  of  8. 
PUUp  N<n,  ch.  24. 

Also  ih:  U.  L.  S.  Lear,  PrUttl}/  Lift  in 
fmnit,  eh.  4. 

CONGREGATIONALISM.    See  Ixoxm- 

DENTS. 

CONGRESS,  Colonial,  at  Albany.  See 
VxiTKD  Statks  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1754. 

CONGRESS,  Continental,  The  First.  See 
I'MTEO   Statu   or  Am.:    A.    D.   1774   (Scp- 

TUREH),  and  (Sbptbmbeh— October) The 

Second.  See  Uiiitkd  Stateb  or  Am.  :  A.  D. 
i;T5(M.\t— ArocsT). 

CONGRESS,  The  First  American.  See 
I'KrrEi)  States  or  Ambrica:  A.  1).  IflW). 

CONGRESS,  The  Pan-American.  Bee 
CxmD  Stater  or  Am  :  A.  D.  lt*»-1880. 

CONGRESS,  The  Stamp  Act.  See  Uhitco 
gTATEi«  oif  Am.  :  A.  I).  176.5. 

CONGRESS  OF  AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, 
The.    i^   Aix-LA-CiiAru.LE,   The  Conuhess 

A.\U  TllEATT. 

CONGRESS  OF  BERLIN.  See  Ttnuu: 
A.  11.  li<78. 

CONGRESS  OF  PANAMA.  See  Colom- 
IiIiNSnTfH:  A.  n.  WHS. 

CONGRESS  OF  PARIS.  See  RcsaiA: 
A.  P.  1X54-1H.58.  and  DErLAHATlos  or  Pahis. 

CONGRESS  OF  RASTADT,  The.     See 

FrANCK:   .V.  1>.  17»9(APHII.-SKI'TEMBKK). 

CONGRESS   OF   VERONA,  The.      See 
Vkhuna.  Thk  roxoKEsa  or. 
CONGRESS  OF  VIENNA.    See  VnciniA. 

CONGRESS    OF    THE     UNITED 

STATES.— ■' The  Cop stltution  rrrnted  Congn-iw 
sod  confi'mil  upon  it  powers  of  Uxislstion  for 
utional  purposes,  liiit  mmlc  no  proviHiou  ns  to 
tbe  mt'lliud  by  which  these  |>owers  should  be 
eierciard.  In  consequeocr  CoDftress  has  itself 
dfTeloprtl  a  methotl  of  tmnMU'tlni;  Its  business 
by  meanii  of  committers  The  Fe<ler»l  Li-glsla- 
lure  consUu  of  two  Houses  — the  Senate,  or 
l'pp<'r  and  less  numerous  bmnrh,  and  the  House 
of  Krpniwntatives,  or  the  I.ower  and  raorv 
nurafn>u»  |>opulAr  branch.  The  Senate  is  com- 
posed of  twi,  members  from  each  State  eli-cted 
bjr  the  State  V'sislatures  for  a  t»Tni  of  six  yciim. 
one  third  of  wlioni  retire  every  twi>  years.  The 
presiding  offlirr  is  the  Vlce-Pri'sldent.  Early  in 
escb  session  the  Senate  cIkhwps  a  IVsidcnt  pro 
tempiirr.  m  as  to  nrorlde  for  any  absence  of  the 
Vice  President,  whether  caused  by  death,  sick- 
ness, or  for  oltii>r  n-asons.  The  House  of  Repre- 
unutives  is  ai  |ir.-»  'nt  [1«>1]  composed  of  833 
members  anil  f  ..ir  .ItUyntes  from  the  Territories. 
These  dele^stM.  >i,.we>  r.  have  no  vote,  though 
lliev  msv  speak.  1  ii<  iiiiuso  is  prealiled  over  by 
•  Speaker,  elected  at  the  bi-gliining  of  each 
ICoDirrrss].  A  quorum  for  busliirsit  Is.  In  either 
lIi'iiN',  K  msjiirity  ConirriKH  nii  its  every  year 
In  the  lieitiunliiif  of  December.  Esch  Coogrrss 
•«!='»r-' jrnhi  ami  hiiMs  two  ge>«i  mi  —  »  Tiii^i 
sod  s  »lHirt  sesKlon.  The  long  semlon  lasts  from 
Oecemher  to  midsummer  [or  until  the  two  IIou>e4 
•CM  upon  an  adjournment].    Tbe  short  teaaiun 


latti  ftom  December,  when  Congress  meets  again, 
until  the  4th  of  Uarch.  The  term  of  office  then 
expires  for  all  the  men>  <ers  >f  the  House  and  for 
one-third  of  the  Senate  "  1  he  long  session  ends 
In  even  years  (1880  and  X'^i,  etc.),  and  the  short 
session  in  odd  years  (1881  and  1883).  Extra 
sessions  may  be  called  by  the  President  for 
urgent  businesa.  In  the  early  part  of  the  Nov- 
emoer  preceding  the  end  of  the  sliort  session  of 
Congress  occurs  the  election  of  ReprcsenUtlves. 
Congressmen  then  elected  do  not  take  their  seats 
until  thirteen  months  later,  that  is,  at  the  re- 
assembling of  Congress  Id  December  of  the  year 
following,  unless  an  extra  session  is  called.  The 
Senate  frequently  holds  secret,  or,  as  they  are 
called,  executive  sessions,  for  the  consideration 
of  treaties  and  nominations  of  the  President,  in 
which  the  House  of  Representatives  has  no 
voice.  It  is  then  said  to  sit  with  closed  doors. 
An  immense  amount  of  business  must  necessarily 
be  transacted  by  a  Consress  that  legislates  for 
nearly  63,(XK),000  of  people.  .  .  .  Lack  of  time, 
of  course,  prevents  a  consideration  of  each  bill 
separately  by  the  whole  legislature.  To  provide 
a  means  by  which  each  subject  may  receive 
investigation  and  consideration,  a  plan  is  used  by 
which  the  members  of  Uith  branches  of  Congress 
are  divided  into  committees.  Each  commlttea 
busies  itself  with  a  certain  class  of  bwiluess,  and 
bills  when  introduced  are  referretl  to  this  or  that 
committee  for  conalderation,  acconling  to  the 
subjects  to  which  the  bills  relate.  .  .  .  The 
Si'nate  is  now  divided  between  50  and  00  com- 
mittees, but  the  number  varies  fmm  session  to 
session.  .  .  .  The  House  of  liepresentatives  is 
orpmized  into  60  committees  [a|>pointiHl  by  the 
Speaker],  ranging,  in  their  number  of  members, 
fniin  thirteen  down.  .  .  .  The  Committi'e  of 
Ways  and  Means,  which  regulateM  customs 
iluties  and  excise  taxes.  Is  by  fur  the  most  im- 
porUinl.  .  .  Cimgress  ordinarily  assembles  at 
noon  and  remains  in  se«dou  until  4  or  5  P.  M.. 
tliouish  towards  the  end  of  the  term  It  frequently 
remuins  In  session  until  Inle  in  the  night.  .  .  . 
There  Is  still  one  feature  of  Congreitsional  govem- 
nieut  which  needs  explanation,  anil  that  U  the 
caucus.  A  caucua  Is  the  meeting  of  the  nu'inlicrs 
of  one  part>  In  private,  for  the  discussion  of  the 
attitude  and  line  of  policy  which  memlien  of 
that  party  are  to  take  oaquestions  which  are 
expect«l  to  arise  In  the  1.  gialative  halls.  Thus, 
in  senate  caucus.  Is  decidinl  who  shall  l>c  mem- 
bers of  tlie  various  cummlltcvs.  In  tbtse  meet- 
ings is  frequently  diiwussed  Vfhetlieror  not  the 
whole  party  shall  vme  fur  or  against  tlii.i  or  that 
important  bill,  and  thus  its  fate  is  ilecidi'il  before 
It  has  even  come  up  fur  debate  In  ('ouKresa." — 
\V.  W.  and  W.  F.  Wlllougiiby,  (i-rl.  a>ul  Ad- 
miniitration  of  the  I'.  S.  {JiJt'ti*  UojMnt  Vni: 
tVwIut,  leritiii.,  turn.  1-2),  (A.  9. 

Ai.ao  IM :  W.  Wilson,  d'ngrtmunal  Gortm- 
ment,  eh.  8-4.— J.  Brvce,  7fl«  Am.  VommoA- 
tteallh,  pt.  1,  M  lO-ai  (r  I).  — The  tMfr.itM, 
not.  51-85— J.  .Stury.  Cmnmtntiiritton  the  Vault. 
of  the  r.  S.  hk  il.  eh   K  :tl  (r   3-.1l. 

CONGRESSMEN  AT  LARGE.    See  Rxp- 

IlKSKNT'TIVICS  AT  LaHKE. 

CONI— Sieves.    See  Italt  :  A.  D  1744  :  a>\.l 
Kit\.MrK:  A.  D  I7B9  ( Al'ui'sT— Dii'KHUKii). 
COKIBO,  The.    S«  Amkiucam  Abohiuuies' 

A!(l>l,JUANa 

CONNAUOHT,  Tranaplaatation  of  the 
Irish  people  iato.    See  lBSi.ajii>:  A  D.  less. 


509 


mi 


CONNECTICUT. 


1%*  Mhtmdtn. 


CONNECTICUT:    The   RiTcr   and   the 

«^"~;<"  """^  ""*  discoveries  made  of  thb  part 
of  JNcw  England  were  of  its  principal  river  and 
the  toe  meadows  lying  upon  Its  bank.  Whether 
the  Dutch  at  New  Netherlands,  or  the  people  of 
IJew  Plymouth,  were  the  flist  discoveren  of  the 
river  Is  not  certain.  Both  the  English  and  the 
Dutch  claimed  to  be  the  first  dlscoTeren,  and 
both  purchased  and  made  a  setUement  of  the 
lands  uponit  nearly  at  the  same  time.  .  .  .  B-rom 
this  fine  river,  whfch  the  Indians  call  Quonehta- 
cut.  or  Connecticut,  (In  English  the  long  river) 
the  colony  originally  took  its  name."— B.  Trum- 
bull, JIut.  o/Gmn.,  M,  2.— Accordtag  to  Dutch 
accounu,  the  river  was  entered  by  Adriaen 
Block,  ascended  to  latitude  il"  48',  and  named 

16llo!'l614"'  *"  ""■    **  ^'^  ^°^    ^  ° 
The  Aboriginal  inhabitant*.    SeeAmiuCAX 

ABORIGINEH:  AuiON(<lIAN  Faiiilt 

Sele,and  otheiTi.-In  16ai,  the  Eari  of  War- 
fill  H?^'"ri",'  '^'"•S»y  ""'I  Sfle,  LonJ  Brooke, 
Bir  Iticharil  Saltonstail,  and  others,  "the  territory 
between  Namgan-seft  Klver  and  southwest  t<i 
wants  New  ^ork  for  120  miles  and  west  tci  the 
raclHo  Ocesa,  or,  acrorrflug  to  the  words  of  Pn-si. 
dent  t  lap  of  'V  ale  CVileg  •,  ' from  Point  Juilith  to 
£(ew  -i  ork,  and  from  thence  a  west  line  to  the 
South  Sea.  and  if  we  take  Narragansett  Hlver  In 
Its  wholf  length  the  tract  will  extend  as  far  nortli 
as  W  oro,.»u.r.    It  comprehends  the  whole  of  the 
colonv  of  Connecticut  and  more.  This  was  calle.1 
the  old  patent  of  Connecticut,  and  had  bein 
granted  the  previous  year,  1680.  by  the  Council 
of  Plymouth  [or  Council  for  New  England]  to 
the  Earl  of  H  arwick.     Vet  before  the  English 
hacl  Pliintwl  settlements  in  Connecticut  the  Dutch 
had  purchHsol  of  the  Pequota  Und  where  Hart 
font  now  »tan(l9«n.l  erecU'd  a  small  tmding  fort 
Oillid    -Tlie    House  of  Good  Hope.'"— C*  W 
»men,  H,umb,ry  IHtputtt  of  Conn.,  p.  15.— In 
18*5,  four  ytars  after  the  Connw-ticut  grant  said   i 
to  Imve  b.-,-n  (Icriv^l  originally  from  the  Council 

for  New  h„g|,ind.  n  IKW.  ha.l  fieen  transferre,!  bv 

i?h  ^''h'^^  *"?■'■''  '">"'  "»y  »"'!  Seal  anil   I 
othcm,  thc(ouncil  made  an  attempt,  in  counl    i 
Vance  with  the  English  court,  to  nullify  all  in  i 
grants,  to  regain  p<»«e«ilon  of  the  u-nitory  of  | 
New  England  and  tf)  P'irrel  it  out  by  lot  amon* 
Hs  own  -nembers.     I,:    hi,  attemptd  parcelling     ' 
which  pr.m,lineflreclual,  Connecticut  fell  to  th.' 
tot.d^tl.e  Eari  of  Cariisle,  the  Duke  of  Lennox. 
Md  the  Duke  of  Hamilton.     Modem  Investig..: 
lion  »^.ms  to  have  found  tlie  alleged  jrranl  fmm 
the  (  .„  n.ll  of  I'lymoutli,  or  Council  for  New 
I.ng  an.l   to  llie  Earl  of  Warwick,  In  1830  to  1m, 
mytliii-Ml.      ••  No  one  has  ever  seen  It,  or  li.tit 
iH-aril  of  any  one  who  cUlms  to  have  seen  li    \ 
It  1«  not  ininllonwl  even  in  the  grant  from  War    i 
Zu     !"  '.      '"*"•*'  *""'  •*''<■  PSI'-ntM-s  In  1931  ' 

lht..|,.,..|  u  »  mere  cjuit  claim,  which  wairant^   ! 
nc.iluinr  and  does  not  even  awert  title  to  the  soil 
tmn.frrr...l  Why  the  Warwick  transaction   i 

t..Ji  il.m  iKHultar  .Imp.,  ^,\y  Warwick  trans-  ■ 
ferre.1.  wu  „nit  showir*;  il,|e.  a  territory  which 
the  ori^ma  owmn.  graytH  »new  to  other  pal- 
enie.»  In  liiav  are  <iue«iinns  which  are  liev  .n.l 
coDjHti.r,.  "-A.  Jol.nHU.n,  (hnneetwmt,  eUi- 
Hec  Nl£W  Emoi  AND:  A    1)   18!« 

^1  ^;  J*J4-i637  -Th*  pioaacr  t«ttl«n*nts 
U«l  by  William  Holme..  ..ile.1  up  the  Cowim 


OONNICnCUT,  1684-1887. 


cut  riTjr.  and.  irfter  bandvlng  threau  with  . 
^L°U'^i'K'^^  ^  built  a  rude  fort  „n  uj 


filO 


selves  on  the  site  of  Windsor.  Next  year  ( loZ 
nor  Van  Twiller  sent  a  company  of  s^v.m  Z 
to  drive  away  these  intrudS;  but  afur  Ve«i„ 
no^tering  the  situation  the  Dutchmen  thou^u 
best  not  to  make  an  attack.  Their  liltle  "('roni 
i°\^t  Hartford  remained  unmolested  TZ 

»  .between  thU  advanced  outpost  and  New 
Amsterdam,  Van  Twiller  decldeJi  to  bu  Id  L 
cAherfort  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  but  tW, 
^t^',  ^«"*  ""1  beforehand.  Rumoun  o 
Dutch  dedgns  may  have  reached  the  nnlt 
Lord  Sapr  and  8ele  and  LoM  Bnx,ke  -1  •  fZt^ 

?T'£  ."J?"'*"*  blm  In  -Marmion-Ulio 
had  obtained  from  the  Council  for  New  Eairlud 
agrant  of  territory  on  the  sliore.  of  the  S 
]?Iff^S?^'K™°  <=''<»«" 'heir  agent  theyo^rr 
John  WInthrop,  son  of  the  Massachuseii,  row 
nor,  and  thU  new-comer  8rrive<l  up„n  tl,,  .cent 
just  In  time  to  drive  away  Van  Twill.r.v^ 
and  build  an  English  fort  which  in  honourT 
his  two  patrons  he  called  •  Say-Bro„ke. '    IhA  It 
not  been  for  seeds  of  dlaconu^nt  alrea-ly  sown  In 
Massachusetts,  the  English  hold  upon  Uh,  c"" 
necticut  valley  might  iH-rlmps  h.-,ve  Iwu  f.   , 
few  years  confliied  to  these  two  niilitarv  outpost' 
at   \Vlndsor  and  Saybreoke.      Hut  tf.ere  C 
people  in  MassachusetU  who  did  not  look  wiih 
favour   upon    Uie   aristocratic    and    th..,«Tatic 
feature,  of  iu  po  Ity.     The  provision  that  n.n» 
but  church-members  shoulil  vote  .,r  h.;l,l  „fflt« 
was  by  no  means  unanlinoiiHly  appn^vwl 
Cotton    declared    that    d(  inocrarv    was   no  fli 
government  either  for  church  or"  for  n.nimon 
wealth  wHl  the  majority  of  the  n.ini,t,  r,  »m.,j 
with  mm.     Chief  among  those  who  dill  imi  »m 
the  leanH^d  and  ehHiucnt  Tliomaa  Hook.r  reistor 
of  the  church  at   Newtown.  .  .  .  Then-  were 
many  in  N.-wtown  wlio  t.Hik  Hookers  vi,w  of 
the  matter;  and  there,  as  al.so  in  Watirtowa  ami 
IJorchester,  which  In  1933  took  the  Initiative  iu 
rmming  town  governments  with    wic.  tinen   t 
utronp  disposition  was  shown  (o  ev,uU-  ihe  're- 
sirictions  u|)on  thi-  Muffragc.     Wliil.'  hihI,  tliinn 
were  Ulked  about,  In  the  sumni.r  of  IIUI;)   the 
s-lventunms  John  Oldham  wan  niakini;  hinitsy 
through  the  forest  anil  over  the  mountains  into 
the  Connecticut  valley,  an.l  wh.n  he  Piuninl  t« 
the  coast  his  glowing  accounts  set  noiik'  i«,p|,. 
to  thinking      Two  y,.«ni  afterward,  a  f, »  pi,^ 
nwrs  fnmi  I)oreli««ter  puslieil  through  the  »ll 
derneiw  as  far  as  the  Plynioulli  miMi  s  fort  ,t 
Wliidsor,  while  a  party  fmm  Waterlown  went 
farther  an<l  came  to  a  halt  upon   the  site  nf 
Wethersfleld.       A  larger  party.  hrini:iiig  cattle 
and  such  girnds  as  they  coul  I  (^rrv.  m  t  out  is 
the  aiitumn  and  .ucttHlwl  iu  na. Iiing  Wiml*.r 
...  In  the  next  June,  19!».  the  .\.-wto»n  con 
grentlon,  a  hundn^l  or  more  in  nuuilHr.  led  liy 
their  sturdy  pastor,  an<l  liringiug  with  tliiin  ifti 
hcail  of  cattle,  m:idc  the  pilgriniag.  lo  the  Con 
necticut  valley.     Women  and  (hildr.n  to,.k  part 
in  this  pleasant  summer  Jounicv;  .Mrs.  lloiker 
thepastor's   wife,    bting  too  Ifl  to  walli.   ku 
carrleil  on  a  litter.    Thus.  In  the  nwmonilil.  year 
■"   "^     ""'  "f"*'  university   was  lioni.  did 
(  ambridge  lieciHue.  in  the  irui'rtrn'k  senw  of  s 
much-abused  word,   the  metro|H>lls  or  •moiher 
town"  of  Hartford.     The  migration  at  ome  he 
came  itiong   la   numbers.     DurUig   Uic  psit 


comncncxrr,  ism-imt. 


mmtM  Ordtn, 


COKNECnCUT,  188»-16a0. 


twdTnaoDth  •  icon  of  ihlpf  had  bnniKbt  from 
Enghnd  to  MamchuietU  mora  than  8,0flU  aouls, 
ud  10  gmt  an  acoearion  mado  further  inoTe- 
nenteasy.  Hooker's pjU^rimi  vert- soon  followed 
bT  the  Dorchester  and  Waterto-vu  ronf^ref^tions. 
ud  bj  the  next  May  800  pco|ilt>  weru  living  in 
Windaor,  Hartford,  and  WetlieniScM.  A»  '-o 
lead  of  the«e  moTementi,  not  of  l'.(i!viHuals,  i  ut 
of  organic  communities,  united  1r.  nV,.  ii^ce  t« 
a  church  and  its  pastor,  a>jd  hr'  K  with  iK ' 
iutinct  of  self-govemmert.  •":  seem  to  •«> 
Greek  history  renewed,  but  wit'i  centuries  of 
addeit  political  training.  For  one  year  a  board 
of  commiwionera  from  Massachusetts  governed 
Ihe  new  towns,  but  at  the  end  of  that  time  the 
towns  chose  representatives  and  held  a  Oencral 
Court  at  Hartford,  and  thus  the  sep»ntt«  •exist- 
ence of  Connecticut  was  begun.  As  for  Sprint;- 
Held,  which  was  settled  about  the  same  time  by 
a  putv  from  Roxburr,  It  remained  for  some 
rnn  doubtful  to  whicti  state  it  belonged.  "—J. 
rUke,  The  BeginninM  of  Hew  Bng.,  ek.  & 

Auout:  J.  O.  PiSfrey,  Hut.  <f  N.  Eng..  t.  1, 
A.  Il.-Q.  L.  Walker,  iKtt.  of  the  FinI  Ckurdk 
IS  HartfoM,  fh.  4-9.— M.  A.  Qreen,  BprintfiM, 
1«8»-1»<«,  rh.  1. 

A.  D.  1636-1639.— The  ceastitntioaal  eroln- 
tiOB.— ••  It  must  be  noted  that  [the]  Newtown. 
Wttrrtnwn.  and  Dorchester  mieratlona  had  not 
been  almgcthcr  a  simple  transR'r  of  indiviilual 
Mttli'fs  from  one  colony  to  another.  In  each  of 
these  migrations  a  part  of  the  people  was  left  be- 
hind, so  that  the  Massachusetts  towns  did  not 
cease  to  exist.  And  yet  each  of  them  bmught  its 
MMsacliuwIts  magistrates,  its  ministers  (except 
Watrrtiiwn),  and  all  the  poltllcal  and  ecciesias- 
tical  macliinery  of  the  town;  and  at  least  one  of 
tliem  (Dorrlicster)  had  hardly  cliangrd  its  struct- 
ure since  its  members  first  organizeti  in  163U  ut 
Donhi'ster in  England.  The  first  seltlrniont  of 
Connecticiit  was  thus  the  migration  of  three  dis- 
tinct snd  individual  town  organlziitiona  out  of  the 
iurisiiiction  of  Massachuai^tla  and  into  ah«ulut<! 
freeiiiim.  It  was  the  Haasachusetts  town  system 
let  liiow  in  the  wilderness.  At  first  tlie'three 
towns  ri'lHiiHii  even  their  MasRarhusetts  names; 
•mi  it  Wtt«  not  until  the  eighth  court  meeting. 
Febrii.ir.v  21  lfl;«J  (7),  that  It  was  decided  that 
'the  pl:mt«?on  nowe  calle<l  Newtowne  shulbc 
callfil  A-  named  by  the^name  of  Hurteforde 
Towno,  liki'wi.HC  tlic  plantaa>n  nowe  called  Water- 
townf  slmllie  calloii  &  named  Wyhersfeild,'  and 
'the  pliuitacon  calletl  Dorchester  shallie  called 
Wlnili-ir."  On  tlie  same  day  the  boundaries  be- 
tween the  three  towns  were  '  agreed  '  utmn,  and 
thuii  till'  germ  of  the  future  State  was  the  agree- 
ment mill  iiiilonof  tlic  three  towna  Acconlingly. 
the  milmiiiieMt  court  meeting  at  Hartford,  May 
1.  1«37.  for  the  first  time  took  the  name  of  the 
'Oenrnll  Curie,'  and  was  composed,  in  addition 
to  Uie  iiiun  n>agi»trat4-8  who  had  previously  held 
it.  of  ciiMiitlet's'of  three  from  each  town.  80 
Blm|>!y  ami  niiturally  did  the  migrated  town  sys- 
tem ivi.lve,  in  tills  hinal  aasemTilv.  the  seminal 
pHndple  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Kepreaen- 
UUvmnf  the  future  Sute  of  ConmHllcut,  The 
Asuenilily  further  showi-d  its  consciousness  of 
lepsnili'  enixU'nce  by  declaring  "an  olTensive 
larr :,/;  \u,.  i'«i|uoilt."  ansiguing  the  proportions 
of  It"  iiiiiilittiire  army  and  suppllea  to  ea<-li  town, 
•mi  spiKiiiitIng  a  commander.  ...  811  complete 
are  the  fi-stiin-aof  SUte-hoixl.  tliat  we  mav  fairly 
•««n  M-.v'  1,  JM7,  M  the  proper  biitiiday  of 


Coonectieut    No  Uns,  no  Codcrm,  presided 
over  the  birth :  ita  seed  waa  in  the  towns.    Jan- 
uary 14, 1688  (»),  the  Uttle  Commonwealth  formed 
"ae  first  American  Constitution  at  Hartford.    80 
Ut  is  ito  provl^ona  are  concerned,  the  King,  the 
I'arliament,  the  Plymouth  Council,  the  Warwick 
Trant,  the  Say  and  Sele  grant,  might  as  well 
nave  been  non-existent:  not  one  of  them  is  men- 
tioned. .  .  .  This  constitution  waa  not  only  the 
earlleat  but  the  longest  in  continuance  of  Ameri- 
lon  documenU  of  the  kind,  unless  we  except  the 
Rhode  Island  charter.     It  waa  not  essentiallT 
altered  by  the  charter  of  1663.  which  waa  prac- 
tically a  royal  confirmation  of  it ;  and  it  was  not 
until  1818  that  the  charter,  that  is  the  constitu- 
tion of  1689,  was  superseded  by  the  present  con- 
stitution.   Connecticut  was  as  absolutely  a  state 
In  168»  aa  in  1776.  "—A.  Johnston,  The  OenetU 
efa  XmSng.  Stale  (JahiulIopUiu  Unit.  Studiei, 
o*    11)— The  following   is   the  text  of  those 
"  FundamenUl  Orders"  adopted  by  the  people 
dwelling  on  Connecticut    River,    January    14, 
1638(9),  which  formed  the  first  of  written  consti- 
tutions:   "  FoRASMt-ca  as  it  hath  pleased   the 
Allmighty  God  by  the  wise  disposttion  of  his 
diuyne  p'uidence  so  to  Order  and  dispa«e  of 
things  that  we  the  Inhabiunts  and  Residents  of 
Windsor,   Harteford  and  Wethersfield  arc  now 
cohabiting  and  dwelling  in  and  vppon  the  Hivcr 
of  Conectecotte  and  the  Lands  thereunto  aiiloyne- 
ing;    And    well   knowing  where  a   people   are 
gathere<i  togather  the  word  of  0<kI  requires  that 
to  mayntaync  the  peace  and  vnion  of  such  a 
people  there  should  be  an   orderly  and  decent 
Uouerment    established  according  to   God,   to 
order  and  dispose  of  the  alTayres  of  the  people  at 
all  seasons  as  occation  shall  require;  doe  there 
fore  aaaoliate  and  conioync  our  seines  to  be  as 
one  Publike  State  or  Co'iiionwelth ;  and  doe,  for 
our  selues  and  our  Successors  ami  such  as  shall 
be  adioyned  to  vs  att  any  tyme  hereafter,  enter 
into  Combination  and  Confvdenition  togather  to 
mayatayne  and  n'searue  the  liberty  and  purity 
of  the  1,'ospcll  of  our  Lord  Jesus  w*  we  now 
p'fesae,  as  also  the  disciplyne  of  the  Churches, 
w*  according  to  the  truth  of  the  said  goapell  is 
now  practised  amonpt  vs;  As  also  ino'Ciuell 
Affaires  to  be  guided  and  gouemeii  according  to 
such  Lawes,  Rules,  Onlers  and  derrees  a.s  sliall 
be  made,    onlered  *  dirrecd,   as  followeth :  — 
1.     It  is  Ordered,  sentenced  and  decn-ed.  that 
there  shall  be  yer«'ly  two  gencrall  Assemblies  or 
Courts,  the  on  the  s«'coiiil  tliunidnT  in  Aprill,  the 
other  the  second  thiinKlav  in  Septenilwr  follow- 
ing; the  first  shall  lie  calliii  tlie  t'ourte  of  Elec- 
tion, wherein  shall  lie  yerely  Chosen  frO  tyme  to 
tvme  soe  many   Mageslrats  and   other  nulllike 
OIBcers  as  slull  be  found  requisitte:   Wliereof 
one  to  be  chosen  Ooucmour  fur  the  yeare  ensueing 
and  vntill  another  be   chosen,   and    noe  other 
Magestrate  to  be  clioaen  for  more  than  one  veare; 
p'ulded  allwayes  there  be  sixe  chosen  besids  the 
Oouernour;  w"  iH'inirchoiieu  and  swome  acconl- 
ing  to  an  Oath  recorded  for  that  purpost^  sliall 
haue  power  Ui  ailminister  iustice  acroniiug  to 
the  Lawes  here  eaublisheil.  and  for  want  tliirwif 
according  to  the  rule  of  the  word  of  Ooil .  w* 
choiae  shall  be  nuuie    by  all  tliat  nf  aiinijtied 
freemen  and  haue  taken  the  Oath  of  Fidellity, 
aiHl  d<ie  oilubitte  w'in  this  Jurisdiction,  (luiuing 
beene  admitte<i  Inhabitants  by  the  maior  p't  of 
the  Towne  wherein  they  liue.)  or  the  nwvor  p'te 
of  such  aa  shall  be  tliea  p'sent  1    It  is  (irdered. 


611 


I*  "•'« 


m:--M 


comrecncuT,  1688-16M. 


Katenced  and  decreed,  that  the  Election  of  the 
•foreiaid  lUgettnli  (hall  be  on  thia  manner: 
euery  p'aon  paent  and  quallifled  tar  cboyie  ahall 
urin^  In  (to  the  I'lons  deputed  to  receaue  tliC) 
one  oingle  pap'     '  the  name  of  him  written  In 
yt  whom  he  ut-auxn  to  haue  Qouernimr,  and  he 
that  huth  the  ^rrateat  odber  of  papen  ahall  be 
Gourrnor  for  tliat  vean".     And  the  reat  of  the 
MagestraU  or  pub! Ike  Officers  U>  be  choien  in 
thia  manner;  The  Secretary  for  the  tyme  bt'.ng 
ahall  first  read  the  names  of  all  that  are  to  be  put 
to  cboise  and  then  shall  seuerally  nominate  them 
distinclly,  and  cucry  one  that  would  haue  the 
p'son  nominated  to  be  rhnaeu  shall  bring  In  one 
single  paper  written  vppon.  and  he  that  would 
not  haue  him  chosen  shall  bring  in  a  blanke :  and 
euerr  one  that  hath  more  written  papers  then 
blanka  ahall  be  a  Msgistrat  for  that  yeare;  w" 
papers  shall  be  receaued  ami  told  by  one  or  more 
that  shall  be  then  chosen  by  the  court  and  swome 
to  be  favthfull  therein:  but  In  case  there  should 
not  be  sixe  chosen  as  aforesaid,  besids  the  Oouer- 
nor,  out  of  those  W  are  miiuinated,  then  he  or 
they  W  haue  the  moat  written  pap's  siiall  be  a 
Magestrai^  or  Magestrats  for  the  enaueing  yeare, 
to  make  vp  the  foresaid  ndlier.    8.    It  ia  Ordeivd, 
sentvnrni  and  dccn-ed,  that  the  Secretary  ahall 
not  nnminatc  any  p'son.  nor  shall  any  p'son  be 
chosen  newly  Into  the  Magrslracy  W  waa  not 
p'pownded  in  some  Henrrall  Cimrte  l)efore,  to  be 
nominated  tin-  next  Election :  and  to  that  end  yt 
ahall  be  lawfull  for  ech  of  the  Townes  aforraiJd 
by  their  deputyes  to  nominutv  any  two  who  they 
conceaue  ntte  to  be  put  to  ehiction:  and  the 
Courte  may  ail  so  many  more  as  they  ludgo 
reqiiisitt.     4.    It  is  Orden-d,  sent4-uee<l  and  de- 
creed that  ncM!  p'son  be  cluisen  Oouenior  aboue 
<!iue  in  two  yeares.  and  that  the  Uoucmor  be 
al«»vs  a  melxT  of  some  approve)!  congregation, 
and  fiirmerlv  nf  the  Magi'slracy  w*in  this  Juris- 
dieiiou;  anil  all  the  Magestrats  Fret  men  of  this 
Coniiiuwelth:  and  that  no  Magestratc  or  otiier 
publike  oDlcer  sliall  exi-eute  any  p'te  of  his  or 
their  Office  i>efore  they  are  seuerally  swome, 
w*  shall  be  done  in  the  face  of  the  Courte  if  they 
be  p'sent,  and  in  case  of  abHt>nce  by  some  deputed 
for  timt  purpose.     .V    It  is  Orderetl.  sentenced 
•nd   di'-reed,   that  to  tlie  aforesaid   (\iurte  of 
Eiectiiio  the  aeu'all  Townes  slull  send  i  (leir  depu- 
tyes, and  when   the   Elections  are  emled   they 
may  p'cee<l  In  any  publikc  sraruioe  as  at  other 
Courts.     Also  the  oilier  Uviierall  I'ourte  in  Sep- 
temlK-r  shall  be  for  inakeing  of  lawes.  and  any 
olhi-r  publike  occallon,  w*  consems  the  good  of 
the  Ciimonwelth.     6.     It  is  Onlered,  seiitencetl 
and  decreed,  that  the  Oou'nor  shall,  ether  liyhim- 
selfe  or  by  the  secreury,  sewl  out  sumons  to  the 
Constables  of  eu'  Towne  for  the  cauleing  of  these 
two  sUnding  Courts,  on  month  at  lest  before 
their  sru'all  tymes    And  als4>  if  the  Gim'nor  and 
thegn'test  p'teuf  tb<-  .Magestrats  see  cause  vppon 
any  siH-tiall  occatino  to  call  a  general!  Courte, 
they  may  glue  onier  to  the  secretary  s«c  t4>  doo 
W^n  fiiwerteene  dayes  wameing;  and  If  vrgeut 
necesnity  so  n^quire.  rppon  a  shorter  notice ,  glue- 
ing suttlrient  gniwmlsfor  v  t  to  the  deputy es  when 
they  meete,  or  e!s  be  qiit -ttioned  for  the  same; 
And  if  tlie  Oou'nor  and  Mayor  p'te  of  Magestrats 
shall  ether  negknt  or  refuse  to  call  the  two  Oen- 
erall  sUtudiug  <  uurts  or  ether  o(  thfi.  as  also  at 
other  tymes  whin  the  occations  of  the  Comon- 
welth  require,  the  Freemen  thereof,  or  tlie  Mayor 
P'te  of  them,  bhall  petition  to  them  loe  to  doc ;  if 


comnccncuT,  i6M-ie8». 


then  yt  be  ether  denyed  or  neglected  ih«  «m 
Freemen  or  the  Mayor  pte  of  them  shall  bsu 
power  to  glue  order  to  the  Constables  of  ths 
leuerall  Townet  to  doe  the  same,  and  so  nu 
meete  togatber,  and  chuse  to  themselues  s  Mod- 
erator, and  may  p'ceod  to  do  any  Acte  of  power 
w*  any  other  Oenerali  Courte  may.    7.   li  u 
Ordered,  sentenced  and  decreed  that  after  tlien 
are  warrants  giuen  out  for  any  of  the  wid  Om 
crall  Courts,  the  Constable  or  ConstaM.-s  of  «* 
Towne  shall  forthw*  give  notice  dUtine tlv  to  ths 
inhabitanta  of  the  same,  in  some   Pulilike  As- 
sembly or  by  goeing  or  sending  frO  howte  to 
bowse,  that  at  a  place  and  tyme  by  him  or  them 
lymlted  and  aett,  they  meet  and  aswmble  tU 
acluea  togather  to  elect  and  chuse  cerlen  dipu. 
tyea  to  be  att  the  Oenerali  Courte  then  folbwlns 
toaglutetheafayreaof  thecomonwelih;  w*Hia 
Deputyea  shall  be  choien  by  ail  that  an  ailmltted 
InhabitanU  in  the  ieu'all  Townes  ami  Iwueukea 
the  oath  of  fldellity ;  p'ulde<l  that  non  U  elmwn  s 
Deputy  for  any  Oenerali  Courte  w-"  is  not  , 
Freeman  of   this   Comonwelth.     The   fdrMsid 
deputyes  ahall  be  choaen  in  manner  fnllMwinic 
cuery  p'son  that  Is  p'sent  and  quallitieil  us  before 
exp'ssed.  shall  bring  the  names  of  sm  h.  written 
In  seu'rall  papers,  aa  they  desire  to  haue  c  Ijoeen 
for  that  Imployment,  and  these  8  or  4,  more  or 
lease,  being  the  nOber  agreed  on  to  lie  (lnwrn  for 
that  tyme,  tliat  haue  greatest  nnber  i)f  1*0,™ 
written  fortbe  shall  be  deputyes  for  that  Courle; 
whose  names  shall  be  endorsed  on  the  Im<  kr  title 
of  the  warrant  and  returned  Into  the  Courle.W  the 
CimstableorConstebleshand  vntotlieHunie.  8.  It 
isOnieretl,  sentenced  and  decreeil.  that  Wjoilsor 
llarifonl  and   Wethersfield  shall   haue  power] 
ech  Towne,  to  send  fower  of  their  freemen  ai 
deputyes  to  euery  Uenerall  Courte;  ami  wlisiso- 
euer  otiier  Townea  shall  be  hereafter  mUM  to 
thia  Juristliction,  tliey  slutll  send  si>  iiiuiiv  ilr|iu 
tycsasthe  Courte  sliall  Judge  meete,  »" reason- 
able p'porticm  to  the  nDber  of  Frwnn  11  that  are 
in  the  said  Townes  being  to  be  attende.1  ihin-in; 
w*  deputyea  ahall  have  the  power  nf  the  whole 
Towne  to  glue  their  voata  and  slonann-  to  all 
such  Uwcs  and  onlers  aa  may  lie  for  tlie  puMike 
good,  and  unto  w*  the  aaid  Towni-s  an'  lo  1« 
bowiid.     9.    It  isoniereii  and  deereiil,  that  the 
deputyes  thus    chosen  shall  haue    (Niwer  and 
liberty  to  appoynta  tymeanda  plaee  i.f  iiHTting 
togatlier  bi'fore  any  Oenenill  Coiirti'  to  ailuiae 
and  ci'iiault  of  all  such  things  as  mav  eonccnie 
the  gixxl  of  the  publike,  as  also  to  exaiiiini-  tlirlr 
owne  Elections,  wlu-tlier  acconllni;  t.>  Ihi-ivnler, 
anil  If  they  or  the  gretest  p'U-  of  llieni  Sud  any 
election  to  be  illegsll  they  may  serlu.l  such  for 
p'sent  frn  their  meetlug.  and  retviriio  the  same 
and  their  resons  to  the  Courte;  himI  if  vt  pnpue 
true,  the  Courte  may  fyne  the  p'lv  t>r  pivi*  so 
intruding  and  the  Towne,  If  they  see  1  .iiiii-.  uml 

f;iue  out  a  warrant  to  goe  to  a  uewe  eli-iiiou  in  a 
egall  way,  either  in  p'te  or  In  whole.  \'.t>  the 
saul  deputyea  ahall  haue  power  to  fyue  any  that 
shall  be  disonicrly  at  their  meviinv's.  cr  !i>rno( 
coming  in  due  tyme  or  pUce  aceonliri);  to  ap- 

K>y fitment;  and  they  may  retume  the  nhiI  fvuw 
lo  the  Courte  if  yt  be  refused  ti>  lie  |iaiil.  ami 
the  trraurer  lo  lake  notice  of  vt,  and  lo  estnnr 
or  levy  the  aame  as  hi' d'lth  iilntT  fv'O's  l'>  h 
is  Onlere<i,  sentence.i  and  deerl1^l,  tliat  emry 
Uenerall  Courte,  except  such  as  tlmiiiKh  ntj(lrtle 
of  tlie  Oou'nor  ami  the  greatest  p'te  uf  Mairiiiiniu 
the  Freemen  Utemtelvei  due  caU,  shall  consist  o( 


fiU 


ooinnccncTTT,  lest-iew. 


OWcxy. 


CONNECTICUT,  16n. 


tb«  Oeocnor,  or  Mmw  one  cboaen  to  modenito 
tlic  Court,  and  4  other  MageetimU  at  Ictt,  w" 
the  mayor  p'te  of  the  deputyea  of  tbe  aeueiall 
Townea  I  jiiiiU  >  choaeo ;  and  in  caie  the  Freemen 
or iii«jor  ;<■  )(  thC,  through  neglect  or  refuaall 
of  tbe  Oouernor  and  majror  p'tc  of  the  magea- 
tnu.  sliall  cull  a  Courte,  f  ihall  constat  of  the 
mayor  p'te  of  Freemen  tliat  are  p'sent  or  their 
dcputyea,  w*  a  Moderator  cboaen  by  thS:  In  w* 
laM  uenerall  Courta  aball  oonaiat  the  supreme 
power  of  the  Comonwelth,  and  they  only  shall 
bsue  power  to  nuke  Uws  or  repealc  thS,  to 
rraunt  leuyes,  to  admitt  of  Freemen,  dispose  of 
Unds  Tudispoaed  of,  to  aeuerall  Townes  or  p'sons, 
toil  also  shall  haue  power  to  call  ether  Courte  or 
JUgi'strate  or  any  other  p'son  wbatsoeuer  into 
question  for  any  mlademeanour,  and  may  for  just 
csu<e  I  displace  or  dcalc  otherwiae  aco>rding  to 
tbe  nature  of  the  offence;  and  also  may  drale  in 
any  other  matter  that  conccrna  the  rood  of  this 
cnmna  welth,  excepte  elertion  of  Mogcstrata, 
w*  shall  be  done  by  tbe  whole  Imtdy  of  i^«emcn. 
In  w*  Courte  the  Oouernour  or  Moderator  sbull 
bsue  power  to  order  the  Courte  to  kIuc  liberty 
of  spvch,  and  silence  vnctasonable  and  diaonlerly 
ipeakt'bigs,  to  put  all  tbinga  to  voate,  and  in 
case  the  voate  be  oquall  to  liaue  the  casting  voice. 
But  Don  of  these  Courts  shall  be  adiurned  or  dis- 
soluej  w*out  the  consent  of  the  miiior  p'tc  of  tbe 
Court  U.  It  is ordere<l.  8«-nU;ncti land  decreed, 
tini.  when  any  Qenerall  Courte  vpp<m  the  occa- 
tions  of  the  Comonwelth  haue  agreed  vppon  any 
sumo  or  somes  of  mony  to  be  leuyed  vppon  the 
scuiTall  Townea  W4n  this  Jiirisdictiou,  tliut  a 
Comittee  be  cboaen  to  sett  out  and  appoynt  w' 
■liall  be  tbe  p'portion  of  euery  Towne  U>  pay  of 
the  said  leuy,  p'vided  tbe  Comittees  be  moile  vp 
of  an  equall  nOber  out  of  each  Towne.  U*  Jan- 
uary, Wa,  tbe  II  Urdere  abouesaid  are  vote<l." 
—  I'uhiie  Becunb  of  the  Vuloiiy  of  Conneetieut, 
t.  1. 

A.  a.  1637.— The  Pequot  War.    See  New 
E-NiiLASD:  A.  D.  1837. 

A.  0.  1638.— The  planting  of  New  Haven 
Colony.— '■  In  the  height  of  tbe  llutcbiuaim  con- 
trivcmy  [iH-e  Mah.\ciil-8ETT8:  .\.  I).  16it<HB3H], 
Jolin  l»avtiinort,  an  eminent  noncunformixt  min- 
isur  from  Lonilon,  bad  arriv«l  at  Boston,  and 
with  liiiii  a  weidtby  company,  lc<l  by  two  mcr- 
cliauia,  Tlieopbilus  Eiktouand  Edwani  Hopkins. 
Alarmfd  at  tlie  new  opinions  and  rt-ligious  agita- 
tiuiis  of  whicli  MasaBobuHetIs  was  tbe  seat,  not- 
withstanding  very  advantageous  offers  of  setlle- 
mf nt  thire,  Ibey  preferred  U)  esublish  a  separate 
craniimuity  of  their  own,  to  be  forever  free  from 
llic  iauovations  of  error  and  lia'ntiousness. 
Ellon  and  otlicn  si'nt  to  explore  the  coast  west 
lit  llic  Connecticut,  selccuii  a  pliice  for  settle- 
ment iii-ar  the  head  of  a  spacious  bay  at  Quina 
piark  '  -  '>■  i-^   ■   '     ■  '  ■      .  ■      .  ^  .. 


.  it< 


[or  Ouinnlpiack],  or!  as  tbe  Dutch  caili>d 
d   Hill,  where  they  built  a  but  and  spent 


lln>  winlir 


Tbev  were  Joiiieii  in  tbe  spring 
l\pnl,  l&W]  by  the  rest  of  their  rompanv,  and 
l)iiveDp.irt  preached  his  first  sermon  under  tho 
•luiloof  a  spreadiuf  <mk.  Presently  they  enteretl 
lulo  what  tbey  culled  a  '  plantatiim  covenant,' 
•Oil  a  conimunication  being  opened  with  tbe 
Imliam.  who  were  but  few  in  that  neii{bl)orh«Ml. 
the  \»n,U  nf  QuSnapiack  were  piirrhawl,  except 
a  smiill  nervation  on  tbe  east  side  of  tbe  bay,  the 
Imliani  ni riving  a  few  presenU  and  a  promise 
of  pmuitiim.  X  tract  north  of  the  bay,  ten 
mUes  in  uoe  direction  and  thirteen  in  the  other, 

613 


wu  purchased  for  ten  eoeti;  and  the  coloniau 
proceeded  to  lay  out  In  squarea  the  ground-plan 
of  a  spacious  city,  to  which  they  presently  gave 
the  name  of  :;ew  Haven."— R.  Hildreth,  uSt.  0/ 
th*  U  a.,v.  1,  eh.  ».— "They  formed  their  pollU- 
cal  asiocbtlon  br  what  thev  called  a  'pUntatlon 
covenant,"  '  to  distinguish  ft  from  a  church  cov- 
enant, which  could  not  at  that  time  be  made.' 
In  this  compact  they  resolved,  'that,  as  in 
niatters  that  concern  the  gathering  and  ordering 
of  a  church,  so  likewise  in  all  public  olflcea 
which  concern  civil  order,  oa  choice  of  magis- 
trate* and  offlcers,  making  and  repealing  of 
laws;  dividing  allotmcnu  of  inheritance,  and  ail 
things  of  like  nature,'  tbey  would  '  be  onlered  by 
the  rules  wbiib  the  Scriptures  hold  forth."  It 
had  no  exh'rnal  sanction,  and  comprehended  no 
acknowledjiment  of  the  eovcmment  of  Enghtnd. 
The  compuny  consisted  mostly  of  Londoners, 
who  at  home  had  been  engaged  in  trade.  In 
proportion  to  their  numbers,  they  were  the 
richest  of  all  the  pinnutiona.  Like  the  settler* 
on  Xarragnnsett  Bay,  tbey  liad  no  other  title  to 
their  lands  than  timt  which  they  obtained  by 
purchase  from  the  Indians.  "—J.  O.  Palfrey,  llitt. 
0/  XcaEng.,  r.  1.  eh.   13, 

Also  i.n:  C.  H.   Levtrmore,  The  BepMie  of 
NealluKn.  eh.  1, 

A.  D.  1639.— The  Fundunental  Agreement 
of  New  Haven.— "In  June,  1839,  the  wliolo 
body  of  settlers  [at  Quinoipiuck.  or  New  Haven] 
came  together  to  fniuie  a  cimstitution.  h.  tra- 
dition, seemlnglv  well  foimded,  says  timt  the 
meeting  was  held  in  a  large  liam.  Accoiding  to 
the  some  arcount,  the  purpose  for  which  tiicy 
had  met  and  tiie  priuciples  on  which  tbey  ought 
to  proceed  were  set  forth  by  Davenport  in  a  ser- 
mon. '  Wisdom  hath  builded  her  house,  she 
hath  hewn  out  B«'ven  pillars,'  was  tbe  text. 
There  ii  an  obvious  connection  between  this  and 
the  subsequent  choice  of  seven  of  tbe  chief  men 
to  lay  the  foundation  of  tbe  constitution.  .  .  . 
Davenport  set  forth  tite  general  system  ou  which 
the  constitution  oujtbt  to  be  fruiued.  Tbe  two 
n,aln  principles  wliicb  he  kid  down  were,  that 
Scripture  is  a  perfeil  and  suttteient  rule  for  the 
conduct  of  civil  affairs,  and  that  churcb-member- 
ship  must  be  a  coudition  of  citizenship.  In  this 
the  coloni.su  were  but  Imitatiug  the  example  of 
Massachusetts,  ,  ,  .  After  the  sennou,  dye  reso- 
lutiona  [followeil  by  u  sixth,  constituting  together 
what  was  called  the  '  fundamental  agreement " 
of  New  Haven  Colony],  fommlly  iutrmluclng 
Davenport's  proposals,  were  carried.  If  a 
church  alreaily  existed.  It  was  not  considered  lit 
to  form  a  basis  for  the  state.  Aeenrdiugly  a 
fresh  one  was  fnmnl  by  a  curiously  eoinplicateil 
process.  As  a  Hr-l  step,  twelve  men  wen'  elected. 
These  twelve  were  instructed,  aft<T  a  due  inter- 
val for  consideration  to  cbmso  seyen  out  of 
their  own  niinilHT,  who  sboulil  saTve  as  a  nu- 
cleus for  tlie  church.  At  thi'  same  time  an  oath 
was  taken  by  the  settlers,  whieli  nmy  be  looked 
on  a*  a  sort  uf  prelimiimry  and  provisional  U.-s\, 
of  citizenship,  pledging  them  to  accept  the 
principles  laid  down  by  t)aven|M)rt,  Sixty  three 
of  the  iiiliabitunts  tisik  the  oath,  and  tlieir 
example  was  sism  followed  by  fifty  more.  By 
(>vto!M-r.  fuiif  iiiimlhs  after  the  original  mi  t  ting, 
the  seven  foniially  established  the  new  common- 
wealth. Tbey  granu-d  the  righu  of  a  freeman 
to  all  who  joined  them,  and  who  were  recognixed 
members  either  of  the  church  at  >'vw  Haven  or 


Um^M 


'i 


OONNBCnCCT,  int. 


coNNEcnccT,  ia«3-iee4. 


P  X 


of  any  other  *ppn>TMi  ciiuich  The  fr.  -men 
thus  cbown  rii'Tsd  Into  ma  a^  ^-cmeDt  'he 
tame  effect  u  ;be  oath  ainwl  taken.  !'  ..v 
tl>eu  riveted  a  (>i>rernoraodfuur  mgUumtet  r 
8»  tliey  were  lor  the  prearnt  c»i!  1.  a  Magiftr»  « 
•od  four  Deputi^  .  .  .  The  luctlona  of  i 
Governor  and  Ma$ri«tntet  »rre  not  defln. 
Irnit-.-,!,  but  one  -niaJ  reaolution  wu  paaed 
to  th.-  conntltutli  {  the  coloni  iam.ly.  '  that 
the  Wcnl  (,f  Oo(i  Dhall  be  the  onij  ruW  Httecded 
unto  111 , ml.  ring  the  affairs  of  govrmnwnt.'  "— 
J.  A.  DoyI  ,  r^  Kngluk  in  Am.;  Tht  f^Hlan 
Cotmier  •  1.  rt,  «.-"Of  all  the  New  En^Mwl 
cokmit'ii.  ^.■w  Haven  w»»  most  purely  a  govern- 
ment by  compact,  bv  >iK'ial  ri>iiirBct.  .  .  .  The 
fnc  filiihtcrs  .  .  signed  each  their  nauiet  to 
thfir  vo)'inti.r_'-  compact,  and  ordemi  that  'all 
planters  hcrv.ift'r  received  in  this  plantation 
should  submit  to  the  said  foi.MdamcnUll  agrt-;- 
ment,  and  li -title  the  satiu-  by  si:!»icribing  their 
namea'  It  h  iH'lieved  tliat  thm  Is  the  sole 
insunceof  tlic  furuution  of  un  i>iii<|x-ndrnt  civil 
govemmeut  bv  a  general  c  •niuuot  Hiun'in  all 
the  parties  totheairrepnH'Dt  » •  t.  le/{iUlv  miuir»'<l 
to  be  actual  i.ii;i-.  ■«  thereof  VVhta  this  event 
oocurn-d.  John  Ixxke  was  ii  his  seventh  vear, 
and  Itouanenu  was  a  centun  away." — ( '  u' 
Levcriin.r.-.  T7if  JlipufiUr  „f  Ae<«  J/aten   i,   23 

A.  D.  i639-i«a.-Th«  aUeged  Bli^e  Laws 
Of  New  Haven.—'  ua  when  or  by  whom  the 
acts  and  iinxtt'diiiE-i  if  New  Haven  coIumv  wet« 
nrst  sliKiimtiied  hs  .tiuo  LAvnt,  caniioi  now  be 
'  fi.  The  r  ri'«>iniiitiii!i  ljoti<ver  is 
Bi  that   the   n»nrt   iiad    it-,   •iri^in    u    \:.w 

YorU.  and  that  it  tfaii-l  ctirrpnt  >    ii Conv.  .ixut 
am.iiig  epi><'(>palian   and  .>thir'  : -.^rit,  •.   |t,i,l 
the  esublishcd  chiirc'.i,  belwieii  l7v'Uand  i'.Mi 
.  .      In  the  colony  of  Now  lla^.  i.  Uforc  llie 
uni'.n  with  fiinnecticut,  the  prinl.  ».sof  votinB 
and  of  bnldinir  civil  offlc-  wen-.  !iv  the  •funds 
ment.d    ierc.  nent,'   ii-stric'cl    i.' i  harch-m^rn 
b.'rs.      Ibis  i>.Tuliarity  of  Iw:  ccm»ii-ution  w.« 
enough  to  jrlve  color  to  tin-  aa*erti»ii  'hat  her 
Icffislaiiim  wHii,  preemineiitiv.  blue      That  her 
old  rcconi  iH-ik  containeil  a  itkIb  of  '  blue  law-i 
which   were  <llH.rcditablH    to   puritaiiiwi.    and 
which  t."-iified   to  the  ..    i^er  of   schism     be- 
came. aniLiic  ceruiii  cl».»,  -  an  aHSun-il  Udief 
To  this   imagina.y  cmle  wit  and  mal'c.    made 
U'gp  Hililitioiiii,  siinietinieK   liy  pure  Invt-ntlon, 
•omctiiiics    l.y   borrowing  at«imi  or  nrhitrary 
•aws  fniiii  •tic  rn-orJs  of  (rti(.r  colonics      .\nd 
lo  the   111  J  1,1  grew.  .  .  .  N.,  specimens  of  the 
tows  Ml  sti(tniati/,e<|  seem  lo  have  l)epn  publialied 
bef.ire  ITni.  when    a  sketch  of  some  of  them' 
wb:;  giv.n  |„  t!ic  worid   by   the  Kcv.    Samuel 
J  lUrt  HI  •  \  tJcneral  History  of  f.«inccticiit  ' ' 
In  this  •■  llisiiiry."  it  ')  said,  were  oijllecti-d  all 
the  extravagant  stories  tUt  had  been  "ct  afloat 
during  the  previou»   «fty  years. -J,  H.  Trum 
bu  I.  Tfu  frue  /Sue  LaWofCunn.  and  A',  Uarfii 
Jilt  'il. 

A.   D.   i640-i«S5.-Th«    attempted    New 
Haven coloniaatioa  oa  the  Delaware,— Fresh 
auarre:s  with  the  Dutch.    See  Niw  Jerset 
AD.  ltv»(H6.V. 

A.  D  1 643. -The  coofederatlon  of  the  colo- 
"'"•-The  progreii  and  ttate  of  New  Haven 
and  the  River  Co:ony.    Sea  Nkw  Emilahd. 

A.   P     I(r?"- 

,...^P-  '*5»'T^*"'«»»"'»'boundan«e  with 
the  Dnteh  of  New  HetberUn<l!.     ;i:r  Haw 

loUK:  A  I>    10W. 


I  ^A.  D.  i6s6.iMi.-Tht  pertccotioa  of 
Qnmkers.  H«e  MAsaACHUsxTTs  A  n  mT 
1661. 

A.  D.  1660-1663.-7  he  bccinaing  of  bonad. 
•ry  conflict,  with  Rhode  UlM.d.^Bef  Se 

'^  °J  "!^.'**lr^''*  pretention  of  tlie 
of  ?>ew  Haven  the  kn.j  bad  a  snecis!  cnidi./ 
Two  of  the  reglchie  I  uuges  ( Whalley  and  t;„H,  I 
who  had  sac  Tu  th.-  tribunal  which  cmdenm.li 
his  fatlier   escaped  U.  New  England  in  IBtiii  ■  • 
were  wili  received  there.  .  .  .  The  kinits  ii',- 
Jectlves  i.,)tly  pu.-su«l  them  throuidi  ihe  va,\ 
toDd  paths  of  New  England,  and  ilv  wo-il.l 
1000  have  been  taken  but  for  the  a iil  thev  n,., 
from  the  p.-r,ple.  .  .  .  Aft.-r  lurkiMt  about  Xew 
Haven  and  Milford  for  twi,  or  thr...  ve«r» 
they  aoiipht  a  more  ^.ciuded  hiUiuL-  place  n«, 
Haaiejr.-'-J.  Flake.  J'U  Beyinniny.  .„  S,r  ^. 
A.  D  i66J-iM4.-Th.  Royal  Chi  t„  Zi 
annesationof  New  Haven  tothe  R.v.:  Colony 
—    The  Restoration  in  Englan.1  left  tl„    \X 
Haven  colony  under  a  cloud  in  the  i,,v..r„f  il,, 
■    w   govemmtnt:  it   had   be«n   ii.nly  snd  ,„,. 
-nicious  m  iu  procUmation  of  Charles  II    j. 
:i.i.|  been  especially  rembia  iu  fearcliinn  for  il,e 
n-glckle  t-ii^la,  Ooffe  and  Wballey:  sn.i  anv 
aprillcatlon  for  a  charU'r  would  have  nv.-.t  fr„n 
N.  -  Haven  with  a  very  ill  grar,-.     (  ,    ,ie.ii,„ 
w.    iimler  Dosuchdi»abllilie«;  and  it  had  iii  in 
(1       rnor,  John  Winthrop  [;ho  v.urwr  .-^  ■,  .if 
iiii  first  goveniir  of  MasaachiiiH-i!       a  man  v,  | 
cai"uUt<sl  u>  win  favot  with  tlir  n  .,  Kine 
In  Jlarch,  1660.  the  Genera!  I'ourt  *  lenmlv  ,ie. 
claret  US  loyalty  to  Clmrles  II.,  »..„i  ,h,  i;,,,. 
emorto  i;ngto»l  to  offer  a  IovhI  ad.lres^  i„  tu 
."!)?,"""  "^  him  for  a  charter,  ami  laid  :i»id(j 
Vm  U>T  hiseipensea.    Winthr-.p  wn,  Mi,re»~',d 
and  thcclwrter  waa  grantwl  April  2"  \Mi     Tlie 
acquisili-j    of  the  charur  r>.ls.-,|  the  ( ..nuHii.ui 
k-ailera  U>  the  seventh  iaaven  of  sutisfMrti,,.i 
And  vvell  it  might,  for  itwaaagriint  of  privileii-j 
with  hanlly  a  limitation.     Hracticall-,  the  'iio. 
had  <iven  W  inthrop  •  carte  blanehe,    i;i.UlI..Wf.l 
him  to  frame  the  cliarter  to  suit  liiiiiM  1.     It  iu. 
corporatol  the  freemen  of  O  niiei'ticnl  iwa  ■  i^in' 
corporat"  and   fiollliique,- by  Uh'  «iim-  it    T;«. 
Oovemor  and  Company  of  wli.i  Ijii-l-i,  (     ■■ 
of   Conecticut    in  New   En^'uri 
.  .  .  The  people  were  10  b.ve  I,.-' 

and  Immunities  of  free  am',  nat,  -.ii. 

tlie  King,  as  if  bom  wiihin  thenar...  11  (!r!inti-.! 
to  the  Governor  and  (:<>'Ti|«ny  all  tl.ai  |ian  nt 
New  England  south  of  th.  Mnssu  I  .;^ii-  line 
and  west  of  the  •Nomiganaii  i'iver  ciu- 
monly  called  Norroganatt  liay '  |..  ihi-Suth 
Sea,  with  the  '  Ulanda  tlien>unU>  i..li..i..eitii;r 
.  It  isdillicul:  to  see  more  than  i».i  1  mij 
in  which  it  [the  charter]  altensi  the  ■.-rMiiuimo 
adopted  by  the  townj-  n  1639.  Thr.-  «ire  ow 
to  be  two  deputies  fr.im  each  li>»n,  aii.l  tlie 
>M>undarie8  of  the  I'ominonwealtli  now  eiiiliriiit  J 
thi  rival  colony  of  Nev  Haven.  .  .  .  Newll.iv.n 
Jid  not  submit  witliout  a  struitglc.  firmit  imlv 
her  pride  of  separare  cuistcDce  b>u  i  he  MipremiK  v 
of  her  eccleshuti'-al  system  wa.,  a!  .itake.  K..'r 
three  yiara  a  succession  of  dipl.imatic  notn 
passed  tx-tween  thc(}eneral  (■..minf  (•iiiiii..iiiMt 
and  •our  honored  frl-ndi  or  .New  llavin  Mii- 
fonl.  Branfonl.  and  Ouiiforti  ' .  .  .  In  (hi.ilrr, 
1664,  the  Connecticut  (jeaenl  Cnirl  «p|»ilntfd 
the  Mew  Haven  maflltiate*  coiuuissiooert  for 


6U 


OOIWECTiCUT,  l«6S-ia«4. 


a/  tk<  CKarbr 


iHireCTIClT   l<W5-tMT. 


tbeir  towu,  'whh  maghtimtion  powrre,'  es- 
UbIUhed  the  Kew  Harfn  kwal  offloera  in  th<'ir 
pUcet  f"r  th»-  time,  ^i d  ileclaml  olillvl.  n  fur 
tny  put  mliitsno!  t'  'he  iawa.  In  Dec<  hiImt, 
Unford  liavinr  alreiul  xilirnitted,  t/ip  remDsul 
of  the  New  tfnven  Otinr»l  Court,  rtpmentioK 
New  ir»iren,  Ouilford,  sui<l  Bnofori).  ^cll^  iw 
test  nuvting  and  v  >>k1  to  sulimit.  with  a  saivo 
jure  of  i)ur  former  iiifhts  and  laim.s,  ai  a  people 
who  hare  not  yet  hecu  heani  m  point  of  plea.' 
The  next  year  the  laws  of  New  Haven  were  laid 
taide  forever,  and  I.er  Ux^hh  sent  depiiiiiii  to  the 
General  Court  at  Uartf  r  I  .  .  In  1701  the 
Oenenil  Court  .  .  voted  tliat  its  annual  Octo- 
ber session  should  tin  ri  ufter  In-  held  at  New 
Haven.  Thisprovii.  f  a  double  capital  waa 
incorporated  into  the  ciaiJiMtutioa  of  l¥lH,  aod 
continued  until  in  1H78  Hartfori  waa  nu>le  sole 
capilJil.  ■'— A.  Johnston,  J'lu  Ottirtu  of  a  A«« 
Biu)  !^Ut,  pp.  25-28. 

.ii,«o  rs:  B.  Trumbuil,  ffitt.  tf  (vnn.,  e  1,  f* 
1       PuMie  Jiteordi  of  t/-  '  .lung  of  '  'mn     itjAV 

.V  D.  1M4.— Ronl  grmnt  to  •  Duke  of 
Vork,  in  conflict  with  the  charte  -^.v  Xkw 
VobK:  .V.  1)    1684. 

A.  D.  1666.  -The  New  HaTcn  migratioa  ' 
Newark,  N.J  Sec  Nkw  jEaatv:  A  D.  166 
16S7. 

A.  D.    1 674.1675. -Lonr    Iilan      and    the 
western   half  of  the   colony  f ranted  to  the 
Duke  ot  York.— In  1874,  nfter  '.       motneritiirv 
rcci'vcrj-  of  New  Vork  by   the  l»;uh,  and  its 
re  surrender  to  the  Kngliah.      ihe  kin*;  isaued  0 
n»w  mtent  for  the  provini.-    in  which  he  not 
only  imluiletl  Long  lalHod,  but  the  territory  up 
to  the   Conneotieut    Kiver,    wbi'  h     had    licen 
awigned  t'l  I'oiitiettlciit    by  the  roval  eommi!i- 
si.atrs.     7    ••  astelgnnient  of    Long  Island   waa 
re^retied,  1  it  not  resixttni ;  and  the  island  which 
is  the  natural  seawall  of  Connecticut  nniird.  by 
mval  ifrtw.  to  a  provime  whose  only  natural 
claim  to  it  waa  that  It  barely  touched'  It  at  oue 
rimer     The  revival  of  the  duke's  claim  t..  % 
part  uf  llie  malnlari,!  was  a  different  matter,  and 
irery  i>rcparatir,i  was  rr.oile  fi.r  reaiiitanre      In 
July,  ira,  ,<jx  m  King  I'liilip  s  war  liad  broken 
ou  in  Plymouth,  hastv  «iird  was  sent  from  the 
ai'tiiurities  at  llartfoni  to  CapUin  Tliomaa  Bull 
jt  Sayhrook    tliat    Governor    Andros    of    New 
liirli  w.ia  on  his  way  through  the  Sound  for  the 
purpose,  as  h<,-  a>owi-d,  of    aiding  the    people 
spunst  the  Indiana.     l)f  the  two  eWls,  Connecti- 
cut  ra-.her    preferre.1    the    Indians.     Bull    was 
iMtriKt.'d  to  inform  Androe.  If  he  should  call  at 
h«yhrr«ik,  that  the  colony   bad  taken    all  pre- 
C4uti.ms  against  the  Indians,  and  to  direct  lilm 
to  the  iidual  scene  of  conflict,  but  not  to  permit 
the  lauding  ..f  «ny  arme<l  loldlera.     ■  And  you 
are  to  keep    the  king'a  colors    standing  there, 
tiniler  lii..  inaJ.-«ty'B  iFeutenant,  the  governor  of 
lonnw  ti(u>   and  If  i.ny  other  colors  be  set  up 
I  here.  .v,.ii  are  not  to  ■(•iflfer  them  Ui  Hand. 
Hut  V  11  are  in  his  maiesty'g  name  rcquliwl  to 
■  -old  Kti.kiiig  the  first  blow;  but  V.  they  begin 
then  you  ure  to  defend  y.>unielvc8,  and  do  your 
t«t  lo  v,  ure    his    r.mjesty'a   Interest    and  the 
|H.ire  ,1  ilie  whole  colony  of  Connecticut  In  our 
pnw-5!-.:R       \T^^T^^  esmc  i.nd  landed  at  B..,- 
hrook.  hut  aonflued  his  proeee-lings  to  reailliig 
ic  (luke  «  patent  against  the  pmtest  of  Bull  aiij 
IhcConneriicut  reprMenUtlves."-A.  ,Iohnston. 


w  of 

took 

such 

Town 


'•<%    on  IM  Bmndanet    of  Ot  StaU  of 
p.  81 
.xL*.,  n«       W  Rowen,  Tht  Bovndarv  Dimm^ 
ofCmn.,     ;>  70-T  , 

A.  n  i674.|678.-Kiiig  Philips  War.  See 
j«i"     t-v  i^sD:   A     D,   16     -1875     1875;  1878- 

A  D.  n  ^t.,687._  The  hoiUle  kiocaad  tk* 
hidden  charter.— Si;  Edmund  Androa  in  bm> 
s«Mioa  of   he  Koreratncat.     "  DurinL'  the  latter 

*rs  of  I  reign  "f  tiiari,  s  U.  ti,e  kinir  ha-- 
Won  so  ■•cklesKof  his  pl.dgeaand  his  -.atj. 
that  1id  not  s<niple  to  »<-t  the  dan<reroui  ei- 
nmpl.      '   Tiolatin;t  the  charters  that  had  been 

Sl'I'i'.  ^•;  '  ■"'*"■  <J*'n»rt"  the  friendship 
•hat  the  king  !itertalne<l  f.  Winthn.p,  we  have 
seen  that  Connei  it  wni.  favo  ii  by  him  t.  a 
degn-i  even  after  ■■•  deal h  of  tl.it  great  miu 
But  no  looner  had  Charl.,  dcmlap<l  iui-,1  thf 
sceptre  panel  into  the  Imrxls  of  h  -  liigoied 
brother.  King  James  U.,  than  Conn,,  tient  waa 
called  upon  to  contend  .leainat  her  sovii  n  for 
liberties  that  bad  been  affirmed  to  her  the 
most  R.  :emn  muniments  known  to  the 
Knglan  i.  The  , ,  ..  „  „f  j.^^g  , 
lace  ou  the  6tli  :■.      ,it  iu,y  i88,'5,  :, 

.18  his  baste  to  violaii  .'  ,tmor  of  tli- 
i;iiii.e»rlyia  thesunimen.;  !*5.  a  quo  warranto 
*aB  isgu«l  agai: ;,j  the  governor  and  companv  uf 
(  oiim-cticut.  <  :ig  tliem  lo  app-,ar  before  Uie 
km.  *it(iiii  eijiit  days  of  .-t.  Slartin's.  to  show 
b  nght      id  tei    -  t he v  exercised  cerwln 

ih.Heni  jiiid  pn  iiege.;.  ■  Tins  was  quicklv  fol- 
lowed by  two  other  writ^  conveyed  t<.  Hurtfonl 
l)v  EdwanI  Raiido;!  the  Implacal'  enemy 
of    -he    colot^i,^.  ihe     lay    ,,f    appeurruif"-- 

nan     I  In  tlie^u  was  piisse<i  long  Ufore  tlie  writs 
weri  «rTe<i      Mr,  Vhiiinif  was  sent  U.  England 
as  the  agent  of  the  coloiiv.  to  exert  such  Influ- 
ences as  might  lie  brought  to  bear  against  the 
plainly  hostile  and  uiiscrupilous  intentions  of 
the  king:  but  hi^  errand  was  fruitlesa    "On  the 
28th  of  Decemt>er  another  writ  of  quo  warranto 
«.is  served  upon  the  goi emor  and  company  of 
the  OTiony.     This  writ    Vin-  date  the  23(1  of 
October,  and  required  the  defendants  to  appear 
before  the  king  'within  eight  iiays  of  the  purifl- 
cation  of  the  Bless.. I  Virgin,'  ,  .  .  Of  course 
the  day  named  was  not  known  to  the  English 
law,  and  was  therefore  no  day  at  all  In  legal  cou- 
templatiou."    Already,  the  other  New  England 
colonies  had  been  bniiight  under  a  pmvUiunal 
general  government,  by  i-ouimissloners,  of  whom 
.I(>9enb  Dudley  was  nameil  presidi'nt.    President 
Oudley  "addreaaeil  a  letter  to  the  governor  and 
TOuncIl,  advising  them  to  resign  the  charter  Into 
the  king's  hands.    Should  they  do  so,  he  under- 
took U)  use  his  influenco  in  iK'half  of  the  colonv. 
They  did  not  deem  it  ad\i»iilile  to  comply  with 
the  request.     Indeed  they  hud  l-anlly  time  to  do 
so  before  the  old  coiiiiuiasion  was  broken  up, 
and  a  new  one  gmnted,  superseding    Dudley 
and  naming  Sir  Edmund  Audros  governor  o"f 
New  England.    Sir  Ediiitiml  arriveii  In  Boston 
on  the  19lh  of  Dm'ni.Kr.  ICHfl,  and  the  next  day 
lie  publialieil  lilscominissiou  and  took  thegoveru- 
ment  into  his  hands.    Sear(^•ly  hail  he  cslablislied 
liin<self,  when  he  sent  a  letter  to  the  governor 
and  company  of  Coiinecti'Mit,  acqiialutiiig  them 
with  his  appointment,  and  infonning  them  that 
he   was  commiasioneti    by  the  king  t  >  receive 
their  charter  if  tliev  woulil  give  it  up  to  him."— 
0.  IL  UoUUter,  llitt.  of  Uunn.,  t.  1,  cA.  11— On 


515 


OOKNECTICUT,  l«S-l«n. 


Charttr. 


oovstcncvT,  iaM>mi. 


NcHpt  of  th»  oommunlcattoD  from  Aiulra*,  "  the 
Ornrral  (Jourt  wm  kt  once  conTeoed.  aod  by  iu 
dln^tioD  a  letter  wu  ■dd^tiani  to  the  English 
Berntary  of  8ute,  eameatly  plendinc  for  the 
prmerTation  of  the  priTilegn  that  Bad  been 
granted  to  them.  For  the  lint  time  tbey  admlt- 
te<l  the  poaalblllty  that  their  petition  might  be 
dcnlMl,  and  In  that  caae  requcated  to  be  united 
to  Mamac-huwtta.  Thii  waa  ronatnied  by  Sir 
Etimiind  asatirtua)  iurrrndcr;  but  aa  the  days 
went  by  he  Hiw  that  be  bail  mlaUken  the  spirit 
anil  purpose  of  the  colony.  Androa  fliially  de- 
cidt  i|  lo  (TO  in  (lenon  to  Connecticut  He  arrlTp<l 
at  ilartfonl  the  last  day  of  Octolier,  attended  by 
a  retinue  of  (Kl  officers  and  soldiers.  The  Aaem- 
biy,  then  in  st-xsion,  received  him  with  every 
outwnril  mark  nf  respect.  After  this  forma]  ex- 
chaniTf'  of  courtesies,  Sir  E<lmund  publicly  de- 
mnniletl  the  charb-r,  and  deilared  the  colonial 

Government  dissolved.    Tntilitlim    relates    thut 
iiivemor  Treat,  In  calm  but  earnest  wonls.  re- 
miinstralni  anlnst  this  action.  .  .  .  The  debate 
was  (\>ntinunl   until  the  shadows  of  the  earlr 
autumnal  evening  bad  lallen.   After  eandlea  were 
ll|(lil<ti,  the  govenH)r  and  his  council  seemed  lo 
yielil;  anil  the  box  supposed  to  contain  ttie  char- 
ter wan  hMught  Into  tie  n«m.  and  pitted  upon 
the  table.      Huildenly    the    lijrhta    were    extin- 
guishetl.     Oulet  reignnl  In  the  rt  am,  and  In  tin- 
deniie  crt>wd  outskie  the  buildinfr.     The  camll's 
wen-  MMin  relighted,    but  the  rharter  hail  di^- 
appi-areii,   ami   after  the   m<>«t  diligent  seanli 
cr.tilil  not  Ik-  found.     The  oimmnn  tnwiition  has 
l»iMi.  llmt  it  was  taken  umlir  cover  of  the  dark- 
neiis  hy  t'aplain  Joseph  WiulAWortb,  stiil  hidden 
by  him  In  the  Imlliiw  trunk  nf  a  vimri'lilo  and 
noble  "Ilk  tree  slanilinir  near  the  enlmncega'.  iti 
Gi'Virrinr  \V\  llyn's  maunlon.     The  charti-r  laken 
by  faplain  Waiiaworth  was  probably  the  d  ipl|. 
catc.  Hii.l  niiutined  «afely  in  his  ponarwloi    for 
wveml  jiarn      There  is  reason  lo  believe  .liat, 
some  lime  Infcre  llie  loming  of  An<lma  to  llsrt- 
fonl.   Ihe  iiriclnal   cimrter   lisil    liee.^   rarefully 
iecreUil.  and  tlic  tmillii.ii  nf   l«ier  limes  nukes 
ll  liroUhle  lliat,  while  the  iluplii-nle  charter  that 
was  iHki  n  from  the  table  was  lildilen  elsewhere. 
Ilie  oritrliial  charter  fmiml  a  iwfe  resling  place  lii  i 
Ihe  hiiirt  "f  the  In*  ikat  will  alwiivn  lie  reineni.   \ 
tienil  sa  The  Charter  (Ink      Thin  irii-  Is  saki  lo  ' 
have  l»<n  preserviil  by  the  early  selilers  at  the 
ni|ue»l  of   ilu>  IniilaiiB.     '  It  luis  Ix-eii  the  gulil» 
of  ouranrraior*  for  centuries,' ilir      -jH,  'asii. 
the  lime  of  planting  our  com.     Wli.-u  llie  leavi-s 
sre  Ihe  nlze  i.f  a  Ruiuae's  earn,  then  Is  Ihe  time 
to  put  it  ill   Ihe  ground'     The   rminl  of  the 
four'   l.rielly  suie*  that   Andnis,  having   been 
i..|ii  irteii    III    the  gnvemor'a  f»t  hv   Ihe  gov 
erii..r  him»  If  d>'<  Ureil  llial  he  Itad' Uvn  corn 
ml««ii.iMd  l.y  his  Majesty   to  lake  on  him  Ihe 
■toviriiment  of    Counei  lieu'      The  commission 
liaviiiii    lain    ri-iMl,    he    said    Ibal    It   was   hii 
.M.«|.-.ly  «  |.l.  aaure  lo  make  ihe   lute   gnvem..r 
Slid  t  iipiiilii  .l.ihn  Allvn  inemliim  of  bla  iminrll 
III.'  iMini.irv  liiindeil  IlK'ir  c<iinmon  si-al  l.i  hir 
Klih'iii.l,  niid  sfl.TwariN  wrote  ilie«<>  wonia  Iu 

'I'-'on   r.i..rd        His   Kjifllemy.  Hjr  l:.i 

in.i.d  .Voir.-.,  •\iilifht.  ( 'villain  (leneral  and 
ti..vi  rii.r  ..f  i,:.  Male.iv  s  Tirrliory  ant  Itomin 
|.«i  III  New  l.iiv-Uii.f.  In  onh  r  from  Ids  .Majesty 
Klnit  ..f  Kiirfl.ihd,  .Ni.iUihI  »u,|  Ireland,  llwSlat 
ol  i>.i..|ar   l*<;   l.aik  Inn.  hla  liaiida  Ihe  govern 

meiil  of  Ibis  .iiliti f  I  ..imiitUui,  ll  Islng  by 

liU  Jlajvsly  aoueini  w  'he  MaasaibuaelU  and 


"J.  sou  MAaBACHUBBTTa:  |S7)-|«WI 

^„D.   i6So-i«9r-Kiiic   Williams  War 

;  Canada  (New  Fbahcb):  A.  I).  IB-'g-idoo 


other ookwlM  under  his  Eioelleney's  gnvenunnt 
Finla'  Andma  soon  diacloaed  a  hand  nf  iM 
liencath  tba  velvet  f  love  of  plauaible  wnnU  and 
fair  Dromtaei."— E.  R  SMiford,  IKm.  of  Cn%, 

Aiao  m:  J.  O.  Pklfrey,  IKtl.  oT  An»  E,,,.  w 
?i:i  "  W'-**-  •""•  N«*  KNoi^KD   AD 
4  •  15"  **A'"**L"''*"T5?:  l«7i-i6H«, 

See 

and  ie»S-l8»7. 

A.  D.  1689-1701.— Tht  raioMattrntnt  of  the 
elMurtar  Kovtrament.—"  April.  18«»,  ,  ,iim.  m 
last.  The  people  of  Boston,  at  the  lir»i  nriri 
of  the  Engliah  Revoluibm,  clapped  Aiidh«,  into 
custody.  May  9,  the  olit  Connecticut  auihoritiM 
quiellv  resume<l  their  functions,  and  e«ll,d  the 
ijaemhly  together  for  the  following  ninmh. 
William  and  .Mary  were  proclalmni  wii:,  ™.,i 
fervor.  NiH  a  word  was  said  alxiut  the  dlj. 
appearance  or  reappearance  of  the  chart,  r  hut 
the  charter  Bovemment  waa  put  Inio  full  effm 
again,  aa  If  Androa  hail  never  Inlerrui  tul  It 
An  address  was  sent  u>  the  king,  askitii;  liiat  ihe 
charter  be  no  further  Interfv'rwl  with.  Imi  i.»r- 
aliona  uraler  It  went  on  aa  befot»-.  X.i  .In  i.le,| 
action  waa  taken  by  the  home  goveniih. m  f.r 
Slime  years,  except  Uiat  ita  appoinlmmi  ,.r  iho 
.New  lork  governor,  Fleleher,  to  the  i,.mm«ii.l 
of  the  Connecticut  mllliia,  implirtl  a  .|,,i,|..| 
that  the  Connecticut  cimrter  Itail  lavn  siipir 
I  seiletl.  Late  In  I(W8,  Fill  John  Wlnllir..].  s., 
I  sent  to  England  aa  agent  Ui  obtain  a  i-.mliiiiwti.fl 
j  of  Ihe  charter.  Ilo  s.viired  an  en.pliaii,  |,t'Hl 
j  opinion  from  Attorney  (Jeneral  8oni.ra  l.a.kid 
by  those  of  Tnliy  and  WunI,  tlial  lli.-  elurtrr 
t   was  entirely  VHlid.  Trebys  concumni  ..r.ini.o 

Uking  thU  shape:  'I  am  of  the  sail i.ini.iti 

and,  as  this  msller  Is  aUted,  there  la  i.n  i-ri.un.i 
of  doubt.'  The  basis  of  the  oplni..ii  wi,  that 
the  charier  hail  been  granleil  under  lli..  creii 
neal ;  that  It  bad  not  been  aurrenderiNl  uii.lcr  tlie 
common  seal  of  the  inilony.  nor  had  anv  Jm.|«. 
ment  of  record  been  enlert^l  agalnal  It ,  liiat  hi 
operation  bad  merely  lieen  liilerfen..|  uitli  Lr 
overihiwering  fnn-e;  thai  ilie  cli.irler  ilimf.ii' 
rrmaineil  valid ;  and  that  Ihe  peaceable  ..i!„iii»i„ii 
of  the  colony  In  Andnia  waa  men  ty  an  flli  i-HUut 
pension  of  hiwful  aulliorlly.  In  olh.r  H..r.|.  ihr 
passive  allltiiib' of  the  cilonlal  g.i\irnni.Mi  li«l 
disamml  Amlnis  so  far  as  to  slop  ihe  1.  v  d  pn. 
ceedlngs  nectwutrv  lo  forfeit  the  ehari.r.  ami 
Iheir  prompt  ai  lion,  at  llie  critical  iii.iniMi!. 
secun^d  all  thai  could  lie  a<rureil  uiid.  r  ll,.  .ir 
cu-nslanct*  William  was  willing  in.iiuli  t„ 
retain  all  p<«allile  fruit  of  Jamea'a  ivnnii.  «« hf 
sbo»ei|  by  enforcing  the  forfeltun'i<f  ili.  Ma».v 
ehusells  chsrU'r,  but  Ihe  law  In  lhi-.i«  an 
t.«i  plain,  and  he  ralillnl  the  lawyer*' .  [.mu  .11  li 
April,  lOM  The  clwrter  li«l  e«^;...|  iu 
eneirles  at  last,  and  iU  eaia|ie  la  a  i,...ii  unuit ..( 
ime  ipf  the  advaiilages  of  a  real  ileiM.«  1 1.  > 
Hi'iiimrBcy  hail  .lime  more  for  ■'.nitiei  11.  m  iliui 
liana  Inlluenee  b.oil  dune  for  Mi.  ...  hii.~iN  -\ 
Jnhnalon.  (hmtflirut.  <•*  11  —  The  I.k  i..i.i,4 
which    i.atabllalted    ihe    riglila    of    f..hi..i  n.  i.i 

IncliiilKl    lUiiate    laland       Tlieae   iw iiim.fl 

wealths  wen'  llie  |i.irlli>n  of  the  llriti-l,  mipii' 
diatinglllahetl  slaive  all  olhera  liv  lip.-  Ur»'...| 
llla'rly.  Karh  waa  a  nearly  perfe. «  ilrm.»rair 
under    Ihe    shelter    of    a    iiionsn  liv  Tlw 

eniwn.  by  reserving  l.i  llaelf  the  rl«lit  .f  ip|«Ti:. 
had  •till  a  OMrtiiod  uf  Inlvrfrrliig  Iu  the  lu^rjal 


comnEcncirr,  law-iToi.     n*Mn<auinm. 


coimEcncxn',  im. 


tCaln  of  the  two  republlci.  Both  of  them  were 
Included  ■moog  the  CDluniea  In  which  the  lord* 
o(  tude  advbnl  ft  complete  rcetontloa  of  tlie 
pieiontiTee  of  the  crown.  Both  were  aunrd  in 
the  bill  which,  in  April,  1701  wu  Intnxluced 
Into  parlUmeat  for  the  slirogation  of  all  Ameri- 
can cbartcn.  The  Jnumala  of  the  hoiuc  of  lonli 
Hate  that  Connecticut  wu  publicly  heard 
anlnat  the  meaaure,  and  cnntendnl  that  Ita 
librrtir*  were  held  by  contract  in  return  for 
•rnrioua  that  hod  been  perfnmiMl ;  iliat  the 
taklDK  away  of  ao  many  chnrtrni  would  dratrny 
aU  confldence  In  myal  pniiuiaca,  and  would  alTonl 
•  nremient  danfTcniua  to  all  the  cliartvreil  cor- 
poratioosof  Kngtaml.  Vet  the  bill  wu  read  • 
•ponnd  time.  .  .  .  The  Imprndins;  war  witli  the 
Frmih  iHwlpomii  tlie  pur|io«e  t!lT  tlie  arreuinn 
n(  ilieliou«eiif  Itimover  "— (}  Bancroft,  l/itt  of 
thtC.  f-  iAit'inr'n  liut  rrriinon).  ;.(  .S.  fh  H  (r,  «>. 

A.  D.  1690.— Tht  Artt  Colonial  CoSKrctt. 
Sv  I'mti-:)  St.\tf.«  or  .\>|  :  A    I>   ItlKti 

A.  D.  I70i-I7l7.-The  foundinic  of  Yftlt 
College.  See  Rul-catium,  Modbiin  :  Amkrk  a  : 
A  U.  1701-1717. 

A.  D.  1701-1711.— QuMB  Anne'.i  War.  Ser 
Srw  Kmoi  AHii:  .V  n.  17(ri-17IO;  and  C'aiiada 
(Nkw  FK\N<t:):  A.  I)   17ll-17i;i 

A.  D,  I744-I74l.-King;  CMrre't  War  Md 
the  takinf  of  Louiabourr.  S<'-'  >kw  Knoi.am)' 
A  I)  ITU;  174.1:  and  I   ilV-174f). 

A.  D.  1753-1709. -Wcatern  territorial  claimi. 
— Settlcmenta  In  the  Wyoming  Valley.— Coo- 
licta  with  the  Penn  coloniata.  Htv  Pen.niivl- 
TA-il*    A  I)   IT.VI-nw 

A.  D.  I7M--The  Colonial  Conrrctt  at 
Albany,  and  Franklin'a  pla.i  of  uaioa,  See 
I'xiTKii  .^TtTRO  or  Am      a    I>    17.V4. 

A.  0.  i7S5-i7«o.-The  French  and  Indian 
War,  and  coaqucat  of  Canada.  Hve  Ca.nada 
l\itw  KKA-to:)  A.  I>  I7.V>  I7M.  1755  17.W- 
i:.VH7.'i7;  17.W;  I7.MJ:  I76II.  Nova  8c«riA' 
A  l»  I74i>-I75,'»;  I7.V1;  Ohio  (Vai.|,bt).  A.  D 
i;4H-17%4;  1754;  1755;  Cafk  BRMtm  UlasD: 
A  l»  ITW  17(M» 

A.  D.  i76o.i7«c-Th«  ^uttlioa  of  taaatioa 
W  Parliament.  -Tht  Sufar  Act.-Tha  Stamp 
Act.-Tba  Stamp  Act  Confraaa.    »<■.•  I Mtkii 
St»tm  or  Am.:    A.    D.   I7«>-1775;    17<»-i:»4 
KM.  an.|  I7WI 

.  ^  °-  'J^i--'^^*  "*»»"  •«»l»»t  tht  Stamp  ! 

\ct.— ■TlM'    Knylinh    K'"^emiiieul    ■ioiler»iiNK| 
tin-    will    tluit    IIh'    coloniva    were    eartieHily   < 
opix«p,l  to  the  Hiamp   Art,   but   they  hail   uo  ' 
tbuudil  iif  the  utorm  of  wrath  aufi   rvnliii:iii,t.  '■ 
whlrh  it  woulil  arouiw       It  wnn  a  suri'riM'   to  : 
manv  .if  the  l<-i(i||.r»  of  public  afTKlm  in  Anieri.a, 
(lovini.ir  Kltih  and  Jnn'.i  liiKenoll,  wiih 
nthrf  |.r..niiiM>nt  i'lii/.en*  who  Ima  ilone  nil  in 
Ihrlr  iH.wir  to  opnoM'  iIh-  wlinne  of  ta.«Kll  >n 
.  i-<"in«lln|  >uliintul,in.     Thiy  mi»t<ail(  the 
f.illiik- uf  111,.  !HM,p|e    ,  .  ,  Thed.riry  wir.'«iill   I 
Uif  liarlint  i)f  puhlir  opinion,    iwid    they  wire  \ 
unlttil    III    iliniiiiriiiil.m    of   tlie    itn-al   wmmf.    | 
SvlHlf.  wirt.  iirtfiinUiti  un.ler  the  nnnie  of  i!ie 
Siii  of  l.lli.rtT.    ||„.  „.,.n.t  puriKMi'  of  whi,  h 
•m  1.1  n-«l»i  the  Hinmp  Act  hv  viok'nt  nieaKiini  i 
If  mHtiwrv       ,       Mr    InKer*.°>ll.  who  hiwl  <loiie   ' 
K\  111  hu  i»,w,.r  to  i.pp,w  tlie  1.111,  aft«-r  li»  tw> 
••(IP  i|.(|.|.-.l   to  ai^ept   tlie  p.Mltl.rii   of  •|,unn   i 
•«nt  f..rC,.uiieetlrii       Franklin  iiricnl  hlni  to  ] 
Ukf  iIk'  pl.uv,  ami  no  im-  d«iibie<l   fiu  niollrra  ; 
in  ...■.■i.tiii,,  It       The    n,,.n|,.  ,.f  t'onnwlkiit 
kuwev.r.  win  u<A  pivaacd  with  IhU  aitiuu 


He  wu  Tiaited  by  a  crowd  of  citizeni,  who 
inouiivd  Impatiently  If  he  would  reaign. "  Inger- 
ioll  put  them  off  with  evuive  repllea  for  aome 
time;  but  Anally  there  wa«  a  gathering  of  a 
tbouiand  men  on  horaeback.  fiom  Norwich. 
New  London,  Windham,  Ix'banon  and  other 
towna,  each  armed  with  a  heavy  peeled  club, 
who  aurmunde<l  the  obatlnate  atamn  agent  at 
«  ethemlield  and  made  him  undentnnd  that  they 
were  in  deadly  eameat  "•The  cause  U  not 
worth  dying  for,'  laid  the  intreplil  niuii.  who 
would  never  have  flinched  had  lie  not  felt  that, 
after  all,  thh  liand  of  earnest  men  were  in  the 
riv'ht  A  foiTiial  resignation  waa  given  hlin  to 
»ign.  .  .  .  After  he  had  signed  his  name,  tlic 
crowd  crieil  out,  '  8wear  to  it  I '  He  beggnl  to  Iw 
excused  from  taking  an  oath.  'Then  shout 
I.ilierty  and  Property,  said  the  now  gfKHl  natured 
ci.nipnny.  To  this  he  had  no  objertion,  and 
wav.-d  hishnt  enthusiastically  u  he  repeiiti>d  the 
'vcircls.  having  given  three  cheera,  the  now 
hiUrious  (mrty  <lin«;  together."  Ingerwill  waa 
then  escort«Hl  to  llartfonl,  where  he  n-nd  his 
feaiuimlion  piibli  ly  at  the  court  houae.—E.  B 
teiuifonl,  //i»f.  (/  C-nnrrlinit,  rh.  29 

A.  D.  t7M.-Th«  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act. 
—The  Declaratory  Act.  Sec  Lsitkd Statks or 
Am  :  A   :;   17M 

A.  D.  I7«6-I7«8.— Tht  Townahend  dutiea.— 
The  Circular  Letter  of  MuMchntetta.  See 
IMtkp  STATKa  or  Am.:  A.  1>.  17Wi-l767  a.nd 
i:«7-176H. 

A.  D.  17M-1770.— Tht  qnarttriar  of  troopi 
in  Botton.-Thi  "  Maaucn  "  and  the  removal 
ofthttroopt.    See  Boaru.x:   A.   I>,    ITHh    mi  J 

liTD. 

A.  D.  I7«9-I784.-Tht  tndiar  of  ilartry. 
Se«'  i^LAVEHT,  Nkiiho:  A.  !>.  17l«l-17i.'i 

A.  D.  l770-i773.-RtMal  of  tht  Townahend 
duties  tactpt  on  tta.— Committttt  of  Correa- 

Biadtnct  inititnttd.- 't  bt  tta  thipt  and  tht 
otton  Tta-partj.    SeerNrrrnSTATKsor.VM 
.VJV  1770,  and  1775-1773,  and  Boston    A.  1). 
17711 

A.  O.  1774.— Tht  Boaton  Port  Bill,  tht 
Maaaaehnatttt  Act,  and  tht  Quebec  Act.— 
The  Firat  Continental  Confreaa.  **  IMtku 
8TATK!<or.\M      A    I)    1774 

A.  D.  I775.-Tht  btcinninc  of  the  War  ol 
the  American  Revolntien.— Lenington.  Con- 
cord.-New  England  in  armt  and  Boston 
btleapred.  -  Ticonderofa.-  Bunker  Hill.- 
Thc  Second  Continental  Congrcaa.  Seel  .sited 
States  or  Am      A    D    1T7.V 

A.  D.  i77«.— Asaumea  to  bt  a  "free,  tovtr- 
eiga  and  independent  State."—"  In  \U) .  1778, 
the  pinple  hail  (hho  fornwlly  n'len<e.|  fn.'m  ih.ir 
alleglaiire  l.i  the  i niwn .  ami  In  thioluT  the 
general  aswmMv  (iiuwhI  an  set  auiiniing  the 
fuiirlionii  of  a  Siii.'  The  lniiK>nanl  i»ttl..n  nf 
the  ml  was  tlii'  Mmt.  as  follows;  'TIimI  the 
amiiiil  form  of  civil  itovemmeni,  enntnliied  In 
the  rhartrr  fn.m  thn..es  the  H.ivmil,  KInir  of 
Kinrliiil.  and  a.l.ii.'i-d  l.y  the  p,.,)p|(.  ,,r  this 
>'ate,  thall  lie  nncf  remain  the  civil  ('onsiliiitiMn 
of  ihU  Siiile.  iin.l.-r  the  xile  nulhorlty  ,<f  i|i« 
p«'op!e  thereof,  Indepen.lcnl  of  anv  liliii;  or  prliii-e 
whalevir  And  th.at  IhU  Hepiihllc  Is,  niHl  >lial| 
foriv.  -  W  and  remain,  a  fnv,  aoviTelxn  niiij 
liiih  pendent  .stale,  l.v  the  name  of  ilic  Siai.' i,f 
Conniiiieiit  ■  The  ^ortn  of  the  act  ^peik*  nhat 
was  di.iihtlcM  always  the  liellef  of  the  |K'op|e 
tuat  thtlr  charter  derived  It*  vaUdity.  out  (rua 


617 


k'- 


( 


II '  /: 


J- 

tii- 

it 


comracncDT,  im 

Hba  win  of  the  rrowD,  but  from  the  ■mrnt  of  ttw 
peoplr.  And  tbe  curioui  Uasiuge  of  the  lut 
•eoU'nce.  I-  whiih  ' tbii  liepulHic '  ilccUros  itai'lf 
to  hi!  'a  free,  •<ivfre(xn,  uiil  iDdepemlcnt  State." 
msy  M-rve  to  indicHle  •oinethiiiE  of  the  apiMsitr- 
Mice  wbii'li  Btalf  suvpreignty  doubtleai  pmenteid 
to  the  Americutui  of  lT?»-8»."— A.  Jobnuton, 
Cimiurtieul,  eh.  16. — 8oe,  alio,  Ukitko  Statu 
or  Am.  :  A.  1».  17:6-17;». 

A.  D.  1776-1783.— The  war  and  the  Tictory. 
— Indepaadcnca  achieved.  8ec  I'ihtkd  States 
OF  An. :  A.  D.  1778  U>  1783. 

A.  D.  1771.— Th«  maatacf*  at  tht  WmmiaK 
■cttlcmeot.  See  Uiciteu  Statu  or  Ax. :  A.  L>. 
177»(Jii.T) 

A.  D.1779.— Tryen'tmaraiidiagnpaditioBa. 
8«"e  Tnitkii  STATKHor  Am.  :  A.  l"  17.8-1779. 

A.  D,  17M.— Partial  cciiioB  of  weatem 
territorial  clatm*  to  the  United  Statei.— The 
Wettem  Reaerve  io  Ohio.  S«f  l'mTKi>ST\TEii 
or  Am  ;  A.  I)  I7k1-17»«;  l>i!(Miiri.VAMA:  A.  D. 
PSa-lTW;  Kud  Ohio:  A.  I>.  17M-17V6. 

A.  D.  I78t.— RatiAcatioa  of  the  Federal 
Conititation.  ivv  L'kitko  Statiui  or  An  - 
A.  1)   17M7-17H9. 

A.  D.  1B14.— The  Hartford  CeaTcntioa. 
Bee  I'niteu  Statu  or  Am.:  A.  D.   18U  (Us- 

CBMBKH). 

♦ 

CONNECTICUT  TRACT,  Th*    See  New 

YoHK:  A.  l>.  nm-i'm 
CONNUBIUM.    Si'MrxiripitM. 
CONON,  Pope.  A.  I>  8N6-887. 
CONOYS.    Nt'.VMKHiCA.<«  AHUBiniifU:  Al- 

OONUI  IAN   KaMILT. 

CONRAD  I.,  Kiac  of  the  Eait  Frank* 
(Gcrmaayi,  (the  Arit  of  the  Sazoa  lioe),  A.  1>. 
»M-»li'  Ciarad  II.,  Kincof  the  Romaae 
(KiOKOf  CennaaT),  A  I>  HJ^^KKW;  Kinf  of 
Italy,  !<>-.>A-lii:iu,  KinKof  ButKaady,  lIKIi-liKW 

Emperor,  Iii-JT-iikiu Coarad  III.,  Kiw  of 

Germany  ithe  Snt  of  the  Swabian  or  Hohen- 

■tauffen  dyaaityi,  Ii:i7  trU' Conrad  IV., 

Kine  of  Germany,  I'.i.'Ht^  \i.\i. 

CONSCRIPT  FATHERS-The  H..m»n 
««ti:iiiirt  Wirt-  M>  riilli-*!.  — "  I'liiri'e  Connripli  " 
Tin'  "fijrin  ■•(  till'  dinltriiiiiloii  luu  liwn  mm  li  ilin- 

rUI.Mll.    Hlld     till'    l'«|.llUIHlil.ll    Whlrh     llUlt    fcMlU.l 

nin»t  wif'iitaniT  tit  llii«.  llmt  »  hfn.  at  tlic  nritutil 
xatloii  iif  the  l<t  piililic,  tliiTi'  wiu  a  iww  rnuil»n 
iif  nfnitlom.  In  eil  tlif  miikn.  the  nrw  m  nainn 
Kiri' iiiIImI  "<<>niiirl|iii"  (  "wtili',)  in  Hi,-  ri,||  •) 
•  liile  llic  nldir  fiiiis  wrrr  I'nllnl  '  pnin-* 
(•■  falhcru'  I.  iw  li,f,,r»..  Th.n  IIh-  nhiili'  mimXr 
H«»  uddofix-.l  n»  •■  I'Hlnii  <l  C'onm'ripti,"  \klili  h 
lu|-H.l  liimllv  into  "  l*iiln-a(°iiOMri|iti.  "'-II  U 
Ll.1.1.  II.  //i-r      t  limnt.  M    I    rh    4 

CONSCRIPTION.  The  UrM  Freach.    S<* 

Fh%vk    a    I>   171IH  l71»»(.Vi..iirr-Ai-Riil 

CONSCRIPTION  IN  THE  AMERICAN 
CIVIL  WAR.    r*..-  IMtmi  Utatm  i.r  Am 
A    l»   I><«HiMah<iii 

CONSERVATIVE  PARTY.  1  he  Eorliah. 
— 111!'  nmiw  ('.in«i  rvntli  •.  "  to  rrpliin  th.il  .if 
TiTv  iwi>  KN«!.\>ii>  A  I)  l»"i  for  till' •iriiilii  "f 
III)'  Uliir)  iM  a  |wri\'  'l-i<lv'n«ih>ii.  wm  lint  In 
lr..|ijii-.|  In  \K\\  l.y  Mr  John  WIUoii  I  r.'k.r 
III  «niirlli'l<'  in  lliiQiurbrly  Krirlew  ■  ||  cnpt 
kliiMJ)  liii.i  Ki-ncrHl  fitviHir.  iiIiIikiikIi  enini-  fi  w 
tlirrr  wrn-  »lii.  alwaya  liikl  out  iKitiuiil  it.  .11 
«"iir«itMl  lij- llir  I  naiiipli' of  tht-  lair  Itn.li-rMf 
the  iMiriy,  r«>r.l  Ifcw ..ii«lltld.  »li.>  wm  imt  «i  ^11 
utly  Iv  wteMi  a  wvlcuutv  to  Miytiaeg  oUkU 


CONSTABLE. 

canw  with  Mr.  Croker'i  mark  upon  It  "— L  J 
Jennlnci,  r*#  Croker  htptn,  r.  a,  n.  |!»s 
CONSILIO  DI  CREOENZA.    Sti  Itali 

A.  n.  i05«-ii.w. 

CONSISTORY,  The  Papal.    S.«  Ct  u. 
Papau  ^ 

CONSISTORY  COURTS  OF  THE 
BISHOP&— "  ThodutlMof  tli.-..in.i«K„f  ,|^.I 
couru  mcmblnl  In  theory  the  dutlin  nf  ii,,. ,»,,. 
iors  undiT  tbe  liuman  Kvpiiblic.  In  tlir  niijille 
ages,  a  lofty  effort  hsU  iM'cn  iniulp  t<i  n\,.riw..a 
the  common  limitatlomi  of  ((ovcrnnunt  to  intm. 
dure  punikhment  for  sins  ««  « ill  aa  <  rji,,, ,  a,„i 
to  visit  with  temporal  penaltlia  tlio  bniu  li.,f  n,e 
moral  Uw.  .  .  .  The  adniinlntniiion  nf  m:,.),  , 
discipline  fell  ass  matter  of  ci.iirar,  tctl,",  l,rcr 
.  .  .  This  aniar  tbroii).'li<>iit  Kiin.|H.  u  svsNmJ.f 
sflrituil  Mirveilliince  over  the  buliiismi.!,  ,n,li,t 
ot  every  man,  cxU'mllng  fniMi  tlir  <nii;i::,.  |,,  i'|„ 
castle,  takiuff  note  of  all  wniii^'  diHliiu'  A  ill 
oppreaaLm  of  man  by  man.  of  nil  li. ,  i,ii,„,.„i..j 
and  pn>t11){acy.  and  letm'M'niini.'  u]>.iti  ,~,n\\  in 
the  priucjplea  by  whltli  it  »:u.  ifiii.lnl,  t|„.  i,,, 
of  tlie  great  triliumd  of  Aliiiii:hlv  (iol  >i,„u 
waa  the  origin  of  tbe  chun  li  ciHirtB,  pirliaii,  i!k. 
gn'atest  InHtltutloiis  Vit  ili-viM-,1  l.y  ihuii  Itiii 
t<i  iiim  at  tbeau  higb  Itli'uls  I.h  us  ihtIIoi.-.  lu  ii  u 
noble;  anil  weapons  wlilcb  may  1h'  khUU-  1nw.1l 
In  tbe  lisiida  of  aainia  Ih-ciiiii'  fitlal  iinpl.  uliiK 
(if  niiacblef  when  aainta  biivr  ii;,«n|  u  null 
tlii'ni.  .  .  TbcConalalory  I'.mrn  luul(,,|piiuii.il 
iut.ilheiixternllieenturv  with  iinriMri.  1.-.1  jurii 
dii'tion,  sIllMKigh  they  liiiil  Ui  n  f.ir  t  n.riui.iu 
mrnly    (K'n'tiuinlly   tl.'win^   f..iiiiliiiii-    fn.liii^ 

the  ncli-aiaalUiil  excbri|ui'r.     'I'lic nl  rumlii.t 

of  fvery  Eni;liah  man  ami  wimiim  niiii.ui,4  lul. 
Jerl  to  them.  .  .  .  But  .  .  .  llw  1  iM.«iin  ^  vm 
no  longer  apiritiial.  TIh'V  u.n'  etiitin.uiiil  in 
variiiua  grailati.int,  fur  (Mriiiiiury  lliir«  ..i.i  ..uh 
offi'ni-e  agninat  ninnility  »ii»  nt.il  nt  ii.  .|,,ii;c 
m.wy  value  In  tlK-  K|il»<'p«l  lulil.^  Hi- 

misilrmi'siiKuni  of  wbi.  Ii  iliii.'.rts  i<>.k  <  ;.iii 
aaii.e  wire  'i.tTiiirDS  apiiuM  ili.iMiii  Imr^v.' 
or  nialtrr  aamiiiliiii;  lliirriint  ■  viiihnHfl' 
' ilrunkruiii'ss,'  'Mnn.lal.'  '.Iifinhiiiini  iiii|« 
tient     wi>nl«,'    'bn.k.ii     proini- »  itmili.' 

'al«'nri'  fnnnebur.  b.'  •(Mnikiuk- .  itl  'if  .iml«.' 
'ui>n  paymiiit  of  off.  iiiiir».'  iit.l  ..ii..r  il.  liii- 
iiutmies  ini'spalilp  .if  Leal  .1.  hiuiiiiii  —J  A 
FriMlde.  i/ial.  uf  hnglm.il,  ,1,    A 

CONSOLS.— In  i;.'.!,  a  i»ri.  ir  ..(  Ilrillnti 
■OTcmmcnt  aecuritlia  Min-  rcM:«.iliilaU  !  Im  uw 
form  of  at'M'k  ralbnl  ■ri.ns.»lnl:ii.-"l  ai.tjuif.r*  ' 
By  abbri'viation  lilt y  i.'i>i  till  iiuihi  <!  .iiimiIh," 
wliU'b  baa  rhiiig  i<ihII  ^"i.il.r  ^i  1  'ii.ti.-i  x^it.r 

CONSPIRACY  BILL, The.  (*..  i;>..i4.<o 

A.    I»     I^IM    lH.-,». 

CONSTABLE,  The.--'  Tl..  imni.  1.  .1. rivr,! 
fmiii  till'  'r.inii's  atatiiili  .f  tin  lli/4iiini<  "'un. 
and  a|i|w«n  In  the  »i">i  m  earlv'ax  ih.  iiv-f 
Onjr.iry  of  Tuura.  Tlii' iliiitini.f  llw  (■■ii-ii!** 
i>i  France  .  and  Ilim..'  nf  ilic  .-..n'tiWo  ■.! 
Naples  are  not  rxnilly  piiMll.  I  Kitli  |ili.i« 

(if|  IhecdiiiiUjblmnf  Knglaiiil  In  \;i|i|.  ■,  tin  n* 
•table  ki'pt  ttie  kiuKa  vauoI.  hiiiiiiiiiiiiIhI  iI« 
army,  apiHiiulnl  ibn  i|iiiirtir«.  ili«.  iiiiiunl  ilw 
tnxiiis  amliliatrlhii, I'll  till' vniihi  U.  tin  iu.>r>iiiiu 
ami  nil  nlbt'riirtii'en  Im-Iuk  lii»  aulinriliiiiii^  Tiw 
FniH'h  nttlce  waa  iiearl>  ili.'  uuim'  In  I  ijUnii. 
bnwrver.  tlie  luambal  km  uhI  »iil«irilii>ii "  iii 
till'  niiiatable  I'mliulili  ibc  Kii|{li-Ui  luii'lialt 
fuiniliMl  Ills  ilulleH  wlii.liliail  i>iii  lu  N.niiiiiilr 
UfaH.'Uar(«il  by  tite  «.uuaubh».     TUe  iu.j^>1m1  ■ 


618 


CONSTABLE. 

■ore  dbtlnctlr  sn  officer  of  the  court,  the  con- 
■Uble  one  of  the  CMtle  or  nrmj.  .  .  .  The  con- 
■table  .  .  .  eierctafii  the  offloe  of  qturtermuter- 

rml  of  the  court  und  hnaj  and  sviccce<le<i  to 
duties  of  the  An|^Io-Hazon  italler."— W. 
StubiM,  Ci.nj<.  Ilitl.  of  Kng.,  c*.  11,  Mel.  183, 
•ml  t>"l*. 

CONSTABLE  OX  FRANCE.-- No oth.r 
dipilty  In  tlie  worlil  li.-w  bc-en  held  by  lurli  a 
iUcretiHion  of  ifrent  nildii-n  n*  the  olBce  of  Con 
■Ubie  of  France.     Tlie  Conatable  wa»  orl^'innllr 
t  mere  oRloer  of  the  Htablea,  but  hU  power  huil 
iacm'ted  by  the  lupprenion  of  the  office  of 
OfamI    Seneschal,   an(l   by   the  time  of  Phillri 
AapKtm  he  exert'lucd  control  o»pr  all  the  mili- 
tary firroi  of  the  crown.     He  waa  the  gen<-ml  In 
chief  "f   the    army    anil  the  hii(he«t    military 
authnrity  in  the  kincdom.    Thecomitablex  liad  for 
four  o-niurfc-s  b>  vn  liiulen  in  the  wars  of  Fram-e, 
u<l  tlicy  had  einerlirnceil  stranKc  and    Tarl<ii 
(nrt!mi-«.     Thf  olnce  hail  been  Ixiitowed  on  the 
ton  i>f  Himi)n  de  Montfort,  and  he  for  this  honor 
hni  k-ranteil  Ui  the  king  of  France  his  ri»bta 
orer  tiKMe  vast  domuins  which  had  tNfO  iivvn 
hi*  father  for  liiii  plou.s  coni}uests      [^^eo  Albi- 
at-iw.*     A     I)     1S17-I229)     It  had   been  U-- 
«nw<-ii  on  Itaoul  de  Nesle,  who  fell  at  Courtrai. 
whirr  llip    Kn>nrh    nobility    suffered    its    first 
defmt    fnim    Kli-nisli   boon;    on   Bcrtrand  de 
Oae»lin.  the  liwt  of  the  (treat  warriors,  whoan 
dei-.l«  wi-re  sunn  "'th  those  of  the  palailins  of 
Clisrli-msirni- ;  on  ClisMm,  the  victor  of  Kikmc- 
beck  I  .r   KiMelieniue];    on    Annaf^nac,    wliintu 
nami"    lias    a    bloody    iireemineni-e    among  the 
leailiTHiif  the  Aerce sflhllery  who  ravai^  Fraiic-e 
liuriiu'  tiH-   EnKllsh    wars;   on    Buchan,    win  we 
Scotoli  vaior  and  fidelity  Kslneil  him  this  gn-at 
tnnt  iiwmg  a  fiiri'i#(n  peoph?;  i,n  Kichemnnt.  the 
cnmpiiiioii  nf  J. am  lUrc;  on  Saint  l*ol.  the  allv 
o(  Cliirli-.  ilie  llold,  the  lietrayer  and  the  victim 
of  U'lni  .\l  ,  on  llie  Ihike of  liourlion.  who  won 
Ilie  tm'ili-  lit  l'.tilii  affainst  his  sovrreiirn.  and  liit   : 
bis  si'Mii'M  t.i  that  sack  of  Kihih-  whii-li  maile   ' 
the  r.iv.iif,.*  nf  (l.-iuM-ric  ami  .\larii-  awm  mild.   | 
iMi  Anm-  nf  Monlniiin-nrl.  a  pnmiiiieut  aiU-r  iii 
frery  ite«t  i-n-nl  in  France  from  the  battle  of  I 
ISvli  urainul  Charli-s  V.    to  that  of  St.    Drnis  I 
««in-i  ('..li^Mii.  on  his  son.  the  conipanlon   .if  i 
Hi'tirv  IV   ill  Iii-t  vouth.  and  hi»  trusuii  aitvix-r   '■ 
In  111.  im-  Till-  swonl  b..riie  bv  ituch  mi-n   '' 

lu.1 1.-,  n  li,..i„w«|  [  |«J|  ]  on  I.uln.-s.'ilie  hem  uf 
sn  s>>.i»iiiiitiiin.  wlKiroiiMnoldrlllacompanvnf 
laf.ii!r%  it  WAS  now  \\m>\  eUrn  (..  tl,..  |„.n',  „f 
rannv  l.-.|ih.'  Kuki-.if  U~.l,.,tiil*r.-»|.  and  tli.- 
fTvm  ,  •  .-  wn.  i„  ,.,.,!„.  in  the  ItaiiiU  of  n  tn-M 
•.I.I1.T  -J  U  I'l-rkins.  «vi«o«  tiiuier  Mtfinn 
'  lA.,^^  ^^••KK»^<K    A    n   ISSIUISTo 

CONSTANCB.Th. CmmtU af.  See  Pai-act 
A   l>   UK  Ills 

^CONSTANCE.  Pmm  of  iiUj).  A-e  Itai.t 

'^CONSTANSI..IJ,«MiEmp.ror.A   t.  «17- 

»•        Constaai  II.,  llaaaiiBmMror  lEaM. 

tmi,  \   II  tKi-*t>«  "^ 

CONSTANTINA.  Tk«  t.ki>c  of  (Uj?,. 

!*«■    H«KM1K>   SrtTM      A     I*     IH.lllllMM 

CONSTANTINB.  Po««.  A    !•  7.^  71.1 
CoBstantins  I.  icallad   Tho    Croati,   RomM 
t-«ror,  .V    1.    3,w  m         Tbo  Cokwr."^ 

jj^W  K  I,  ^ti      ru  Ponrod  do«.- 

UM.f  *,.  l.,n„j    A   H  774  ri         Conttaa- 
no*  II .  Roman  Bapcror,  A    l>  S37  .140 
tMMaatias  111.,  RomM  Bnporer  ia  tha  Baati 


CONSTANTINOPLE,  A.  D.  8S0. 

^-  ^  J";*! Conatantina  IV.  (caUed  Pmoov 

toa),  Roman  Emperor  ia  the  Eaat,  A.  I).  «»- 
«'«.  .CooaUotine  V.  (called  Copronymua), 
?'°?f"?.!"i'"  ^"'  (Byauitine,  or  Greak^ 

■     u    J**"^' Conatantine  VI.,  Emperor 

m  the  Eaat  (BTaaatine.  or  Greek),  A.  I )  780- 
797  .  CoaataotiBe  VII.  (called  Porphrronni- 
tua),   Emperor  in    the   East   (Bysantine,    or 

Greek),  A.  D.  Wll-fl.w Conatintine  VIII, 

(colleacue  of  Coaataatine  VII.),   Enperor  in 
the  Eaat  (Byaantine,  or  Creek),  A.  I).  941 
Conatantine  IX.,  Emperor  in  the  Eatt  (Bysan^ 

Une,  or  Greek),  A.  D.  fej-unw Conatitina 

r'i7??f."*,n'".*'**  ^  (By««ntine,  or  Greek), 

A''  I'M-i  Km Conatantine  Xi,  Emperor 

'.?«,''•  ^^  (Byaantine,  or  Creek).  AD   iTwi)- 
III87. .   .  .Conatantine  XII.,  nominal  Greek  En- 
peror in  the  Eaat,  al>out  A   I).  1071         Con- 
atantine XIII.  (Polaolocnsi,  Greek  Emperor 
of  Conatantinople,  A.   I).   1HH-14.-i;i    .    Con- 
•*i?i!S*  ""•  "•»'?•'•    *•«  BiiiTAiN:  A.  I>  4(»7 
CONSTANTIliOPLB:  A.  D.  33o.-Triu»: 
formation   of   Byaantium.— •(  .in»l:intiiie  liad 
for  some  time  ccmtempliitiii  the  cn-ction  of  a 
new  capit.il.      The  experience  of  nenriv  half  a 
century  had  condrmwl  the  haKadty  u(  Di.icle- 
tiiins  seln-tion  of  a  site  on  the  condui-s  nf  Kiirope 
and  Asia    [Nieomeilla]  as  the   wliintilHiuta  in 
which    the    political  centre    of   gMviiy   ,,f  tlio 
hmpire  rested.    .\t  one  time  Constantiii.-  lliimjrht 
of  wloptlnif  the  site  of  ancient  Trov,  and  U  wiij 
til  have  actually  cnnimenctil  huiidiii^  a  new  city 
I   ''"ii""'!      ■„;  *'""'  ?■■"*»''■  "•"""IS  iilliiiiau-lv  pre- 
valliil.      The    practical    Koiiis  of  C.mst.mtitie 
r«inni«ed  in  the  town  of  ltr):iintiuiii.  on   the 
!   l.iin)|»an  side  of  the  Imnlir'Uiie  Ivtwiin   the 
two  omtimiita.  the  site  U*\  a<la|iti'd  for  bin  new 
i.i|iitjil.     All  subai-quint  atfi-s  Inve  applaiideil 
lilt  discernment,  for  experiiiiii-  Imn  ciidontid  tha 
wisilora  of  the  choice.     Uy  luiid.  with  its  .VaUn 
siiliurh    of    l'hryso|Milis    [nuKlirn    Scutari  1     it 
practically  spanncil  the  narrow  Htrall  and  joined 
hiiroiH-  and  Asia :  by  sea.  it  w,w  oin-n  on  one 
side  to  Spain.  luly,  Oreece.  Afrii  a.  Krfvpt.  Syria 
on  the  other  to  the  Kuxine.  ami  wiliv  t)ie  ll;iiiulM 
It  had  easy  access  to  the  whole  of  that  liii|>.iriant 
frontier  lietween  the  Kmpin'  ami  the  IwrUrians; 
and  round  all  the  nortlii  rn  coasM  of  the  M>a  It 
took  the  barbarians  in  dank    .  ,      The  litv  was 
solemnly  diHilcateil  with  nlli.'ioiiH  c.Ti'ni.iiiii-s  on 
the  lllb  of  Mar.  iUW.  ami  lli-  m-iuiou  win  ivle- 
lirnte.1.    after  the    liomsn   fu»lii  .ii.    I.v    n   t'reat 
fiitlval.  Isrimvs  and  Banii-^  in  Ilie  lii|"ip.«|piine 
whleh  Instill  forty  ,Jay«.     The  KniiMmr  ^.wv  to 
the  lily  ln*iitulions  modelleil  alter  tliw.if  the 
aiieient   Komc'-E.    I.    <'uii«,   i-„„t.i, ,>,,»•  tki 
<lr,,if,  fA.  'JU  —"The  new  wM*  i.f  l'.m<tantine 
stn-trhiil  fnim  tlie  port  to  the  l'ii.p,.;i!j,  m 

the  .li«taiiiv  of  (If 11  «i:i,ii.i  fr..iii  ilie  ancient 

f.trtiflcation,  ami.  with  the  liiy  nf  Mv/tiiilium 
tlHV  enclihKil  five  of  the  m-viii  liill*'«  hi.  h.  |,> 
the  ryes  of  Ihow!  who  apprmeh  ('.iiistniiilnopic 
apiH-ar  to  riai<  als.vc  eai  ji  ..tli,  r  in  l.-aiiilfui 
nnler  Alwmt  a  crnliiry  iifter  llie  d,  uili  „f  tho 
fiumler.  the  new  hiiildliii;s  air  i.lv  i-.iieriil 

the  narrow  ridge  of  the  sixth  iiii.l  I'he  Lnnil 
summit  of  the  seventh  hill  riie  Iniil.lintfS 

i>f  the  new  city  Wen-  exii  iilwl  bv  «ueh  iiitilleer* 
s«  the  n-lirn  of  ('on«uuiiiiie  c'liM  «tT..ril  but 
ihrv  wen.  d«onit.il  by  tlu-  liamU  of  the  niiMl 
i«-l»lifate.|  luaak'rs  of  the  age  nf  I'erii  les  and 
.\letatider  Hy  his  iiimmaii.N  Ih-  cities  of 

*ir«««:«  BiiJ  Aata  wore  dtM|iuilt-J  uf  tiivlr 


619 


■i-  [■: 


coxsTAirrmoPLE,  a.  d.  sm. 

▼kluable  omamrata."— B.  Gfbbon,  DeHiiu  and 
tIMof  tXt  Hiim-nt  Bmpirt,  ek.  17.— "The  new 
city  wu  »n  exact  copy  of  ok)  Rome.  ...  It 
wu  InhabilMl  liy  Knatora  from  Home.  Wealthy 
Isdiriiluals  fmin  the  provinoea  were  likpwiM 
compellml  to  kn-p  up  houaea  at  CooitantiDople, 
penaioiu  were  iMnfi'ired  upon  them,  and  a  right 
to  a  certain  amount  of  proTliiong  from  the  public 
itorea  wa«  annrxtil  to  tbew  dwrllinn.  Eighty 
tbouaaod  loaves  of  bread  were  diatribuUid  A»ily 
to  the  inbabitanu  of  Conatantinoplc.  .  .  .  The 
tribute  of  grain  from  Egypt  waa  appropriated  to 
■upply  ConiUntlnople,  and  tliat  of  Africa  waa 
left  fur  the  contiumpi ion  of  Rome."— U.  Flnlay, 
Ontet  undfr  Iht  Hmmint.  eh.  3. 

AlM>  IX:  J.  B.  liiiry.  IIi$t.  of  the  taUr  Roman 
Empirr.  bk.  1.  (h.  S  (r.  1). 

A.  D.  363-518.— Tha  Eattem  Court  from 
Valeoa  to  Anaatatiut.— Tnmnlta  at  tha  capital. 
Bee  Komk:  A.  I>.  :«i:t-3T»  to  4IIU-.tl8. 

A.  D.  378.— Thrtateatd  by  tka  Goths. 
SeeGoTlIs:  A    I)   i)T»-a83. 

A.  D.  400.— Popular  riainr  acaiaat  tha 
Gothic  aoldiery.— Their  exBuIsioa  from  tha 
Citgr.     Se.-  HoMB;  A.  I).  40l>-318. 

A.  D.  sii-sia.— Tumulti  conceminr  the 
Triiagion.— During  tlie  reign  of  AnasUtTua,  at 
Corisl;mliiio|iIt',  the  Hem-  conlmvemy  which  liad 
ni).'eil  fnr  many  yoam  throughout  tlie  einpin-. 
Ntwwn  tlie  .Monnpliyaitea (who  maintaineil  Hint 
the  divine  anil  tlie  liiiman  Daturm  in  Christ  were 
one),  ami  the  ailhen'nU  of  llio  Coitnril  of 
Clialce<ion  (which  de<'lnre<l  that  t'hri«t  poineiinnl 
two  natureii in  one  iHrson),  waa emliiltered  at tlic 
imperial  cnpital  liy  oppoaliiou  iN'twern  (he 
em|M'n)r,  who  favon^l  tlie  Monophyaitei,  and  tlic 

Satriiirch  who  vim  mrict  in  ChaleedonUn  ortho- 
oxy  In  .'ill,  aiKl  again  in  SU,  it  ruvc  ri>e  lo 
two  aliinnliii!  riots  at  ConstantiDopU-.  On  the 
timt  iKdision,  n  .>|onophy«ite  or  Kutvchlan  party 
"liiirst  into  the  ChiiiMrof  the  Archangel  in  tlie 
Itn|»Tlal  riilmennd  dan-'i  to  chant  theTe  IVum 
with  tlio  uildilion  of  the  forliiihlen  wonia,  tlie 
War  rry  of  iimnv  an  Kiilvehi.in  moli,  '  Wlio  want 
criuirt.-,!  for  ui.'  The Triaagion.  a* it  wna called, 
the  thric  n  |«'iite.l  cry  to  the  Holy  (Jne.  which 
Isaiah  in  his  virion  li'earl  iitUTjsl 'hy  the  aj-ra- 
phim.  tx'cami-,  liy  the  aililition  of  tlieae  wonla. 
aa  cniphaiii-  a  atau-inent  aa  lliu  Monnphysitp 
party  could  ilisire  of  tiielr  favourilv  tenet  t tint 
liol,  not  iiiun.  hn-nthni  out  hit  aoui  unt<i  divth 
ouUide  tlie  gntea  of  Jeniaalem.  .  .  .  On  the 
DcJt  Sunday  the  Mouo|iliy»itea  aang  the  verae 
whii'h  was  tin  If  war  cry  in  the  gn«t  flaailica 
Itsilf"  The  riot  which  enaueil  waa  i^uletiil  with 
ditllcully  liy  the  iialrlnrch.  to  whom  the  cni|M'ror 
huinliled  hiuiscif  Hut  in  the  next  year,  on  a 
fast  ilay  (Nov  (1)  the  Monoplivailea  gave  a 
alinilar  <  Imilenge.  smiting  (Ik-  Trimgion  with  the 
pnihihittil  wonis  ndd!--!.  and  "again  paalrmslv 

ftave  pliii»r  to  hlfiws,  men  woundeil  and  dving 
ay  U...11  the  ti.i..r  of  the  church  .  .  "The 
orthislox  nn.'i  siri'aiiud  from  all  parta  Into  the 
gnat  fi.rum  Tlnre  they  awami>'<l  and  awayed 
to  and  fM  all  llmt  day  and  all  that  niiiht. 
•hoiiiini  fonh.  not  the  gn-atneaa  of  the  Kphi'alan 
Diana,  hut  ||,,ly.  ifily,  Unlv,'  without  the 
woM»  ■  Who  wasi  1  ru<'iliis|  '  Tiiev  hewe<l  down 
the  monk". -a  tniiiorily  of  their  ilaM.  — who 
were  on  thi  «i.|r  of  the  imperial  cree<l,  ami 
burned  their  in  >naiileriea  with  lire  "  After  two 
dayaof  riot  the  agiil  emperor  bumhieit  hlmaeir 
to  the    m.Oi,  lo    liiv    great   Clicua,   offered    Ui 


COKSTANTINOPLE,  A.  D.  86M7S. 

abdicate  the  throne  and  made  peace  by  pmmim 
to  reapect  the  decrees  of  Chalcedun.—T.  ll.sigkin. 
luUfand  Utr  Imfntkn,  ».V.  4.  eh.  10,— s,t,  »ljo 

Nk«TOMAX  AJtD  MoNOPHTalTB  CoirmoVEBlT     ' 

A.  D.  SSA— The  Sedition  of  Nika.    gn 
CiRCtra,  FACTioMa  or  tub  RoMAif. 

A.'\i.5vi3r-'"*  '"^•'  **  ••■•-" 

A.  D.  SS3-— C*'*'^  Cooacil.     See  Ton 
CnAmna,  THE  Diepuraor  rnc. 

A.  D.  «a6.— Attacked  by  the  Avari  aad 
Peraiana.    See  Komb:  A.  D.  .VI.'MnN. 

A.  0.  668-«7S.— First  aiece  by  the  Sara- 
cens.—"  Forty  •Ix  years  after  the  Hl«ht  of  JU 
hornet   from  Mecca   hia  diaciplea  apiieared  in 
amu  under  the  walla  of  Conatantioople     They 
were  animate<)  by  a  genuine  or  Hctitioua  Mytoi 
of  the  prophet,  that,  to  the  flrat  arrar  whicS 
beaieged  the  city  of  the  C«"«tra.  their  aiiia  were 
forgiven.  ...  No  aonner  had  tlie  ('all|.li  Moa 
wiyah  [the  flrat  of  Hie  Ommiaile  oillplis.  aealeil 
at  Damaicus,]  iiippreaiied  Ilia  rivals  ami  esuib 
liahoi  bis  throne,  than  he  aspired  to  expiiuc  tlif 
guilt  of  civil  blooil  by  the  aiiiveaa  of  tliisholr 
exp<-<lition:    hia  preparations  liy  ten  an<i  Itiill 
were  ade(|iiate  to  the  importance  of  Hie  ohject 
Ilia  alandnrd  waa  cntniatvd  tii  S<iphian,  a  veirran 
warrior.  .  .  .  The  (Jreeks  had  litlh>  toli,,|s'.  nor 
had  tbeir  enemies  any  n-aaiins  of  fear,  fr.m  the 
courage  and  vlgilaui^  of  tlie  reigniiii;  Kiuponir 
who  disgraced   tlie  name  of  t'oiistnuline.  »nj 
iniitate<l  only  the  Ingkirious  yearn  of  Ins  i;r»rnl 
father  lleracliua.     Without  Tlelny  or  (m[»B,iiii.u, 
the  naval  forres  of  the  Hnraivna'passist  tiirouitli 
tlie  unguarded  channel  of  tlie  llellea|Mint.  w)ii,li 
even  now,  under  the  feeble  ami  illsonieriy  gov 
eniiiient  of    the  Turks,    is  niaiutaiinsl   as  iIk 
iiitiiral  bulwark  of  tiic  capital       Tin'  .\r«lii«ii 
flci-t  caatanchorand  the  tnaipa  were lii.s.nilairkrcl 
near  the  palace  of  IlelNhimon.  aeven  iiiil.s  fnia 
the  city.     During  maiiT  days,  from  tin-  iLswo  of 
light  to  the  evening,  tlie  line  of  assault 'vm  ej 
ti'ndeil   fMm  the  golden  gate   to  the    Ei'tiro 
pmnionuiry.  .  .   .   Hut  thelH'aiei.-i'n  ha>l  (.nntd 
an  inaumcient  ealimate  of  the  stn-iiuih  sii.i  rr 
Kiurcesof  ConsUntinople.     The  sol ii I  an  I  l.if'r 
walla  were  guardeti  liy  numlaTu  and  ilU  iiilim'. 
the  spirit  of  the  liimmns  was  nkiiulliil  liy  Ibr 
last  danger  of  tln-ir  n-ligioii  nuil  einpire',  t!if 
fugitives  from    the  conipietvd   provinn .  mure 
auot-wfiilly  renewe<l  the  defence  of  Ihiiiasiiu 
and  .\lexaiidr1a:  and  the  Saracens  wen"li«nu(«l 
l>y  the  alranire  and  pr<slii;ious  elTi'<  isif  »nilii'i;il 
fl'ri'      This  llrm  and  elTectual  r<si«tame  ilinrusl 
their  arms  to  tlie  more  easy  ntiempts  of  |i!un.ier 
lug  tlio  Kurii|>enn  and  .Vsialic  coasts  ..f  Uk  I'm 
|»'U!is;    and.    after  keeping   the  s^a  fr'iii   l!ir 
in.'iilh  of  April  to  llm:  of  S  ptenilsr.    'O  tile 
iipiir.Mch  of  winter   they   ^•ln■al.-i  fmir  tcort 
iMilis  fniiii  the  capital.  Iii  the  l>le  <•(  i  v/nin,  la 
nliiih   till'    had    estnliMshiit  tluir  ini.  i/iir   if 
apiil  aiiii  j.niviahins      M<i  pailini  H.iailu:r  pir 
aeverance,  or  an  lamiuid  wen-  llnir  i'|sr»ii.'n». 
that  they  repeatetl  in  the  aix  followini;  Minimin 
the    a<ime    attack  ami   retreat,    with  n  trralul 
nliiilement  of  ho|H'and  vigour,  till  tie-  iiili  liiniin 
if  ahipwrrck  and  disease,  of  the  sw.pl  ami  ■  ( 
lire,  conipellnl  them  to  reliniiiii»h  Ihi'  fniilli'sa 
enterprise.     They  might  U-wnll  He  l'»»    r  iim 
iiiemiirnte   the  niarlvnlom.   of   ;ioi«»i  M  •ifim 
who  fell  intheplegrof  Ciai.tantin.ii'le  Tl» 

event  of  the  alege  revived.  Isilh  In  the  I. Ml  anil 
West,  the  rrputatiun  of  tlie  Itonian  amu,  aixl 


fi20 


OOlTOTAinTKOPUC  A.  O.  M»-«7B. 

cMt  ■  momentanr  (hade  orer  the  clorie*  of  the 
gtraceos.  ...  A  pmoe,  or  truce  of  thirty  vean 
wuimtifled  between  tlie  two  Empirei;  and  the 
■HpubtioQ  of  w>  annual  tribute,  flftir  hone*  of  a 
noble  breed,  flftjr  ilarei,  and  8,000  pieces  of 
foM.  dt-gnwied  the  majesty  of  the  commander  of 
the  faithful  "—£.  Gibbon,  i>M<iiw  and  fUt  of 
llu  Bumaii  Kmpin,  eh  53. 

A.  0.  <la— General  Conadl.  Bee  MoaoTHE- 
un  C'o."iT»ov«i««T. 

A.  0.  7I7-7IS-— The  aecead  elcfe  b7  the 
Saraeena.— '■  When  Ix«o  [the  laaurUn]  was  raised 
tathe[Byiantinc]tliroue  [A.  D.  7171,  the  empl'e 
wu  threatened  with  Immediate  ruin.  Six  em 
penirs  had  been  dethroned  witliln  the  space  of 
twcnlT'ODe  yrnrs.  .  .  .  The  Bulgarians  and 
SclsTooians  wasted  Europe  up  to  the  walla  of 
CoDstanilnnple;  the  Haracens  raraged  the  whole 
of  .Vila  Minor  to  the  shores  of  the  Boepborus.  .  .  . 
The  Cilipli  8\ili>iman,  who  had  seen  one  private 
ulrenturer  Kiicccvtl  the  other  in  quick  aucoeasion 
oa  the  imiH-rinI  throne,  deemed  the  moment 
fsTourable  fur  the  ti-<al  conquest  of  the  Chrls- 
tiani:  mid.  rc-infordng  his  bitither's  army  [In 
Alia  .Minor],  he  ordered  him  to  lay  siege  to  Con- 
•UDtln>'ple.  The  8sraoen  empire  bail  now 
R*ch<.i  lu  great)-st  i-itent.  From  the  banks  of 
tb«  Sihim  ami  tli>'  Indus  to  the  shores  of  the 
AtUntic  In  Mauri  iHnia  and  Hpain,  the  order  of 
ifiiilt'inun  wa«  implicitly  olieyeu.  .  .  .  The  army 
NiMlrniah  liil  against  Constantinople  was  the 
liMt  «p|Miint<H|  that  hiul  ever  attacked  the 
rhrisiiaus:  It  consiatiil  of  M),()UO  warriors.  The 
I'aiipli  announce)!  his  Inlriitlon  of  taking  the 
tli'iil  in  penm  with  a<iilitici-uil  forces,  should  the 
cipiliil  of  the  CbriKtians  offer  a  protractoi  rc- 
niian'F  to  liic  arm.s  of  IitUm.  Tlie  whole  ex|M> 
(liliuu  in  uiil  to  have  cmploywl  180,000  nun. 
Moilrnuh.  afUT  capturing  I'erganius, 
Runlit'l  to  .\li}-il(M.  where  he  was  Joined  by  the 
SsntiTU  tl«'t.  Ho  then  transptiiinl  his  army 
tctimi  111.'  IIelle«|i<int,  and  marching  Blong  the 
•bore  i.f  till'  rni|i<>ntia,  Investml  Ix«ln  hi»rHpit;il 
boih  iiv  land  ami  s«'«.  Tlic  str»ng  walla  of  Ci.o 
•ts.  tiuuplc.  the  entriiics  of  di-ft-m-n  with  which 
lionuu  and  (Junk  art  hud  covi-nnl  the  ramparts. 
Sbl  iIk' akill  of  llw  Uyuntine enginrera,  rrnilireii 
f»ery  aitrinpt  to  carry  the  place  liy  aaaaiitt  h.>iH'- 
lc«,  «<■  that  the  haracons  wi'recomtx'llnl  to  trust 
to  till- 1  Ifc.  t  of  a  strict  blockatli-  for  gaining  piw- 
«*.l.>n  nf  the  city.  .  .  ThcN-aicgerseucainiK'il 
Uf..rf  I'l.nauntlnoplp  <in  the  13th  August  .17 
The  ( .iliph  Suleiman  diiil  iM'fore  he  was  abli-  to 
•end  auy  rrinfnrci-nii'nU  to  his  brother.  The 
wintfr  pnneii  unuaually  severe."  Ureat  num 
hir>..f  til,,  narriiira  fMm  tlH-niuth  weredeatn>rn| 
by  the  ini Ii'miiu y  of  a  climate  to  which  tlity 
li«l  n..|  iHH'onif  lnim'<l;  many  more  died  ,if 
fsniim  in  thi'  Moahincamp,  while  the  braii-ccd 
lily  wm  pl.'ntifiilly  aiippilnl.  The  whole  unilt-r- 
taliiuif  KM  iliwistMiia  from  Its  tirglnning  to  its 
closr  aii.l.  c  laclly  one  v.>ar  fmra  the  pitching  of 
liia  (%:„n  uu.hr  the  ilyitaiitiue  walls,  "on  the 
15tli..f  AuitUiit  Tis.  MiMlrmah  raia<-il  the  siege, 

•tttr  r.iiiiiiiu of  the  fln»it  annleathc  Sarucciis 

rrer  unititilnl  Kew  niiliury  ilwulls  ci.n 

certiln.;  ft-,,,  .lif.-n,.,.  of  Coiutantinupli-  hnvp  I 
Iwn  pr..*rn,|.  \„n  there  can  he  no  doiilit  thai  I 
H  «»«  Hir  >.f  the  nimt  hrilliant  expb.its  of  a  I 
•»r!lk..  air<-  The  ranltr  .if  (Jalllc  writers  I 

I'M  ni..^i,irt.Hi  ihr  •<i<'<',.as  of  rharl.'s  Martel  over  ' 
•  i.lun.|.rihrf  r«|»iliti.«i  of  ihe  Hpanlsh  Amba 
lalu  a  niajTcUous  vicUiry,  and  altr'bulad  the  de- 


CONSTANTINOPLE,  A.  D.  MT-lOa 

llTeraaceof  Europe  from  the  Saracen  yoke  to 
the  Talour  of  the  Franka.  A  veil  has  been 
thrown  over  the  talents  and  courage  of  Leo,  a 
soldier  of  fortune.  Just  seated  on  the  imperial 
throne,  who  defeate<l  the  long-pliinned  srhrmes 
of  oooqueat  of  tke  Caliphs  Welld  bihI  Suleiman. 
.  .  .  The  Samceus  were  griMlually  exiu'lled 
from  moat  of  their  conquests  b.'vond  Mount 
Tauria"-G.  Finlay,  IIM.  of  the  Uytautine  A'm- 
jnnfrom  718  to  mi,  eh.  1. 

.  A;,R;747.-'nie Great Plafue.  S.ePiJioi»: 
A.  D.  74i-.4«. 
A  D.  754.— The  Icoaoclaatic  CennciL    See 

ICOROCUISTII'  CoNTHOVKIlHY. 

Stk-iotb  Ccatnriet.    See  Trade,  Medi.*. 

TAL:   BtZANTIKB. 

A.  D.  865.— Flirt  attKk  by  the  Rntaiana.- 
In  the  year  868,  a  nation  hitherto  unknown 
made  its  flrat  appearance  in  the  hiau.rv  of  the 
world,  where  It  waadeatlne.l  t.>act  no  unimport- 
ant part  Ita  entrance  into  the  |K>Utii'al  system 
of  the  European  nations  was  innrkiil  by  an 
attempt  to  take  Conatantinople,  a  pn>Jii-t  which 
it  haa often  revived.  .  .  .  In  the  r.arlW',!.  Uurik, 
a  Scandinavian  or  Varangian  efiief,  arrive<l  at 
Novgorod,  and  laid  the  drat  fdiin.latlon  of  the 
state  which  baa  grown  into  the  Ituxsian  empire. 
The  Russian  people,  under  Varniigian  domina- 
tion, rapitlly  Increased  in  power,  an.1  ^^luced 
many  of  their  nelghliours  to  sulmiiaaiim.  .  .  . 
From  what  particular  circunwtanee  the  Kiiaaians 
were  led  to  make  their  ilaring  ailaik  on  Cun- 
suntinople  is  not  known.  The  i;iiiiM-ri)r  .Micluel 
[III.]  had  taken  tlie  commuu.i  nf  au  army  to 
act  against  the  Saracens,  and  Oryihaa,  ailmintl 
of  the  fleet,  acted  as  govirnor  of  the  capital 
during  bia  aliaence.  Befon^  lhi>  Eniixror  had 
commemi'd  his  military  operatiom,  a  tli-et  of  800 
Kiinsian  vessels  of  small  size,  taking  advanUge 
of  a  favourable  wind,  suddenly  panMil  through 
the  Bospborus,  and  anchore.1  at  tin-  nioiiih  of 
the  BUck  Hiver  in  the  l'ni|H>iiil*,  ulmut  IH  miles 
from  Conrtantlnoplr.  This  Ituwiaa  exiMiiition 
hail  slnaily  plundered  the  sbor.a  of  the  lllmk 
S<'a,  and  from  lU  station  within  tliu  IkMphorua  it 
ravagni  the  (»untry  about  t'onstaiiiiuopl.',  and 
plundered  the  l»rin<i''s  lalan.la.  pillaKiiig  tlie 
iiionasteriea  anil  slaying  the  iiiuiiks  ui  w.ll  as  Ihe 
other  iubabitauu.  The  E»i|i.r..r,  iiifoniiMl  by 
Oryphaa  of  tlie  attack  on  hii  c  .ipiinl  ha-.i  nil  to 
itsdefence.  .  .   .   li  riiiiiin-il  n '(.'n.!!.  xcrtioiiaon 

the  part  of  the  in.;N'rlal  iilll.t  r-  I jiilp  u  force 

sufflcitnt  to  BttoiU  Hiul  put  to  ilL-lit  iIlm* 
invaders,  but  tlie  horriil  ennliv  of  tin'  Imr- 
Iwrians,  and  the  \,'ilil  ilarini,'  of  ili.  ir  Varnnuian 
Irailrrs,  made  a  prtifouml  inipn-iKion  on  liic 
t>e<ipleof  Conslanluiiiple.  "— (i  Kihlay,  //»»/.  uf 
Ihe  Humnlitu  Kmiirr,  ^A•.  1,  rh.  !l.  trt'  ,') 

A,  D,  907-1043. -Repeated  attacks  by  the 
Rueaiaaa.  — .VotwiiliBlaieliiii;  un  uilive  utiil  ill 
cn-aaing  .iiiiimeniai  liii<riMur«'  l«i«..ii  ilic 
(ireeks  auil  tll»  Kuaaiail*.  ('oii>l.illliili>pli  m>m  ex- 
ptiaril,  iluring  the  tenth  11  iitury  uinl  (uirt  of  the 
eleventh,  to  re|¥-«le<l  atla<  k«  frori  the  iiiai.ierful 
Vaningiaiii  and  their  aulijeet*  In  ili.-  1 1  ar  ■•.>.*. 
a  ih'«t  of  ■.'.INK)  liuMian  v.i»a.li  or  Ihkik  Knarnie  1 
int4i  the  itoaiihiirua.  and  laid  waaii-  lli.  i>)iiin'a  iii 
the  neighlMirhoial  of  ('oniiuntiiioplr  '  It  ia  no| 
linpn.lmble  tliat  the  i>x|H-ii,iioit  h:..*  unili-n  ikin  to 
olilaiii  inilemuity  for  sniiie  loriiiui  n  inl  l.i-uu  .  au«. 
taine<l  by  tiiijx'rial  negliK>'iiii .  itLni'iiolv  or 
oppn-aaion  The  subjicta  of  Ihe  1  in|i<T  >r  were 
murdered,  and  the  liusaians  amuani  tltiiuwlvet 


621 


i".it=^?-, 


V( 


I 


00N8TANTIX0PLE,  A.  D.  M7-10IS. 

with  tnrtuiHni;  their  captiret  In  the  moat  bar- 
banuM  nmiiner.     At  length  Leo  rVI.]  purehued 
tlieir  n'in-at  hr  tin-  payment  of  a  large  mm  of 
money.  .  .  .  'fhciie  h(wtilltie*  were  U'rmlnated 
by  n  oommerrlal  tn-nty   In  912."    There    was 
p<-aep  under  this  fn'aty  until  »4t,  when  a  thinl 
attark  (in  Conitantinnple  waa  led  by  Ijfor.  the 
ion  of  Itiirik.     Uiit  li  endnl  moat  dimittniualy 
for  the  Kiiwians  iind  Ijfor  eacaped  with  only  a 
few  IxmtH.     The  r.«iilt  waa  another  Important 
treaty,  ni^'otiatcd  In  IMS.     In  070  the  Byzantine 
Einpin-   waa  nmn-  M'rioiialy   threatened  by  an 
attempt  on  the  pnrt  of  the  Runaiana  to  kulHlue 
the  kingdom  of   I!iil;raria;   which  would   have 
bronpht  them  into  ihf  name danKcmiis  miv'hl«r- 
hoiKi  to  Conntanliiiiiple  that  the  Riiiwia  of  our 
own  il«y  haa  lali<ir<ii  no  hani  to  rea»-h.     But  the 
able  Biildier  John  Zimiwva  happened  tooc-cupy 
the  Ih/iintine  tliroii.-:  the  Ituwiau  Invaalon  ilf 
Rul>r»n.i  wiw  repelled  and  Bulgaria,  itaelf.  waa 
rpunni'\i'<l  to  the    Kmpire,   which    piutheil    iu 
bcmtidarii'it  to  the  Danube,  once  more.     For  more 
tlun  Imir  H  <'<'ntury.  Conatantinople  waa  undis- 
turlHil  liv  the  ( civcioim  ambition  of  her  Ruuian 
fellow  ClirialiHiH.     Then  they  invadetl  tlie  Uoa- 
phoris  aicain  with  n  fonnidalile  aminmi'nt ;  hut 
the  exiHiiilion  W!i»  wholly  diaaiitniua  and  they 
retn-Hlrd    with  a   I.'M  of  LVlNKI  men.     "Three 
veant  i'litpM'<i  li.r..n-  |>ea»  waa  r<' iiitaliliHheil : 
but  a  tnaiy  was  ihin  ronrludifl  an>l  the  Iraiie 
at   CiiiKtanlinoph'   plitec<l   on  the  old    footing; 
Knmi  tlii«  iMriixi  llie  alliance  of  tlie  Itumiiiiia 
with  tlie  Hvr,intim-  Kmpire  waa  lone   uniuu-r 
nipliii.  aitcl  UK  llie  (irecks  lierame  mow  deeply 
imiiui  I  with  eiciiHi.iMlcal  prejudlrea,  and  ni<iir 
hoHtil.'  Ill  tlie  Ijtiin  iiiiiionK.  tlie  I-jwtem  Chureh 
iM-miii'     in   tliiir    rvfn,    tlie    aymlxil    of    their 
naticiiiiilily.  and  tlif  liisoted  attachment  of  the 
HuwiiiiiK  to  I  lie  Hiiiiii'  reli^ioi^it  formalitie*  oh- 
tiim-d  for  tliciii  fruiii  the  Brzantlne  (Ircekx  the 
8J>|»llalii>ii  i.f  th.'  iii.»i   Chfiitiao  nation     -(}. 
Finl;iv.  //(»<     7'  !><•    ltii:,intiM  Kmikrr,   fnm  T18 
l4i  lo.-iT,  M    ','   rh    :i  »,/    i 

A.  D.  I o8 1,  Sacked  by  the  rvbcl  army  of 
Alcatua  Comnenus.— Alexluit  Comneniiit,  the 
enipi  r  T  wli.i  iHiupiid  the  llrzantine  thnnieat 
theiiiMii.f  ihi'  Kir«l  (  niMule.  and  wlio  lieeame 
hiKtoriially  i>riiiniriiMil  In  tliat  coniieilion. 
arijiiiriti  hU  invwn  liy  a  HUriviiaful  rilKlHun. 
He  WHS  (■..llnt.Tiilly  of  the  family  i-f  Immi' 
t'omririi'H,  lUiii.  1  I  nliiihail  rilifiied  liriellv  In 
IIWT  |o.".!t.  -he,  iim.  Iirtvinit  l»-.;i.  In  hli.  Iin- 
p.-riul  "tli<-.'.  tlie  pr.^luii  iif  a  n-Kiluii'>n  Hut 
the  iiiii  rviil  of  t».tint*o  yi-am  had  *fn  four 
em|«riir»  lome  mid  l'o  — two  to  liir  jfraie  anil 
t»"  iiii..  iii..ii,Mi(i,-  Ml  luni.in  It  waa  ilie  J-wt  of 
till--  Nin  jihorii-  III  liJi.taneites!  timt  .\lixiu« 
di-pl.iiiil  «illi  till'  ►u|i|nir(  of  au  arinv  wlileh 
he  Ihid  [•ri>itMi..lv  rommnmitHl.  Oiii-  iif  the 
(Iitii  ..f  Uii.  ,;i|,ti«l  waa  helrave.1  In  iiliu  hv  » 
(hriTiiii  n!vr. .  lmr^  and  Iw  irainiil  Uii-  ('(ly 
ainii.^i  « nil,. Ill  h  Ii|,,w  "Tlie  old  KmiH-mr 
con«nii-.(  I..  n-iiTM  ll!^  rrown  and  n^tiri'  inuia 
mimi-i.  v  AlixiiiMiiilenii  the  tininTiiil  palace, 
a.-id  ilw  nil.  I  army  ivimnirni'<'<l  pliiniierin^' 
rv.rv  .|iiirtcr  ..f  ih.-  dn  Native,  luiil  nier 
iiiwriis  II.. I  M.il,  .,t„.  nn"il«n-  in  imnw  an.l 
M|.in.  \.,  ,hini  I.f  m.-iriv  waa  wwml  from 
llirir  hikt  liii.l  ivarii  .■  and  Ihr  itimateo  of  mon 
a»lern-«  ,  twin  »».«.  aii,l  |Mila<.>'  -en.  alike  plmi 
d<r..|  :.ni  iii.iit!..|  Till.  »iici.  ..f  ('.iMniniiliiiiiiii. 
by  lie  («,|,(v-,.i,,„„  H>iii,artaii«,  ami  tirwka  li 
the  M-rviii  I.I  1^1,  r  i<nilii..a  of  IJoiuuruun,  Hum*. 


OONiTAiniKOPUE,  A.  D,  1M1-I4(t 

•nd  PkleotogtM,  who  crept  treachemimly  Igb, 
the  dty,  waa  •  lit  prologue  to  iu  sutferinn 
when  It  WM  Mormed  by  tlie  Cruaailem  in  IH^ 


A  I). 


From  thbdlunceful  conquest  of  (^onHtaniinonl, 
hj  Aieilua  Comnenua,  wc  must  date  the  ilrei> 
of  ita  wealth  and  civic  auprcmacy,  Ixiti,  „  i 
raplul  and  a  commerrfail  city,  .  ,  The  imwer 
which  waa  thua  esubliahnl  in  rapine  Unniniit«| 

?'Hi"J,.f  ""'""T  '•'?'  'n  •  >''">-ly  ven^ianie 
hinict4Hl  by  an  faifuriated  popiiliue  on  ll.c  Im 
Emperor  of  the  Comnenian  family,  Andninicui 
I,  ('onitantinople  was  taken  oii  th(.  i,i  „( 
April,  1081,  and  Ah'xiua  waa  eniwned  in  .St 
Sophias  next  day,"  — O,  KinUy,  llul  nf'th, 
Hgiarttiu  and  Vntk  Kmpira,  from'\ii  in\iSi 

OK.  8,  l!A.    1. 

A.  D.  1304.— Conquest  and  brutal  sack  br 
Craaodar*  aad  Venctiana.  S.-..  Chimde/ 
A,  I),  180I-IS08;  ami  Uyzantimi:  Kmiikk  t  n 
IStKt-iaM,  ■ 

A.  O.  ia04-ia«i.— The  Latin  Empire  and  its 
fall.—  Recawary  by  the  Greeks,  Sn  Hum  4.,u 
Tiia  Evmu  or,  and  Bviaxtisk  Kkiih 
latW-iattt, 

A. p.  ia6i.— Great  priTilcKcs  conceded  to 
the  Cenocsc.— Pera  and  its  citadel  Calau 
m»en  ap  to  thea.    8»-e  liK.No.t:  A    it    ijoi- 

A,  D.  1*61-1453.— The  restored  Creek  Em- 
pire.—«)n  the  i'Sth  of  July,  A.  I)    l.'tl!    I,„|HUU 
liiiiiple  waa  aurpriaeil  and  the  l.i>l  l.aM,i  •  mixnir 
exiM  lli.<l  by  tlie  fortunate  arms  i,f  .\|ii  |,  „  |  l>,i„. 
oIoj:us,  the  Ureek  uauriH.r  at  .Nii:ea.     iS-iUkeh 
KMI-IHRor  Nir.«A  )    Twenty  davs  l..'i  r  \|i,|„;i 
made  lib  triumphal  entry  into  the  urn  n  m  nini 
tal.     "But  after  the  It rst  Ininspiirl  i.f  ih  n>(ii,ii 
and  pride,  he  alKhi.||  nl  the  dnarv  |ir..s|»rt  i.( 
liolitude  and  ndn.     The  paiiKi' wns  ih  iili.l  »iih 
RniokH  and  dirt  and  tin-  ){ri»«  iini  ni|nr:iWT.i( 
the  Kranka:  whole  aln-eiK  luid  iHini  iiihiiimiiI  liv 
tin',  or  were  dentytsi  by  the  injuries  if  tinii .  iW 
saiTinl  and    profane  eililiics   mn-  ^lri|•|•l■ll  of 
tlieir  ornaments:  ami,  as  if  thiv  win-  i..ii-.iiiu» 
of  Iheir  aponaiching  exih-.  tin-'  iii.liixir\  ..f  tlie 
Ijiliiis  hail  lieen  confluNl  to  the  work  uf'  i.ilUiri. 
and  ili.«tni<-thin,     Traile  liad  i-\pin-.|  iiii,l.  r  liir 
pn-Miire  of  anan'hy  and  distp'ss.  nii.l  ih.  nuinlii  n 
of  iiihuliitauu  luul  di.«re«»<sl  wiih  Ihe  ..|.'il.iiir 
of  the  city.      It  waa  the  tiM  run- i.f  ih.    lin-rli 
miiimn'h  U)  rriuatate  the  iiolihs  in  Id.-  |.ul,iii-s .,f 
tluir  fatlM-ra.      ,   ,   He  n-iMiipli-iH  ,,n.tll,lj||,.!,l(■ 
l>y  alila-ral  Inritathio  ti.  ihi-  j.ri.vm,,.  Hi  i  ilir 
tirave    '  vi)lunte<'ni '  wen-   wninl   in  li.    ii|l(;il 
nliii'lihaillieen  ris-overi'd  li\  Hi.  irnrtns      I.,-t.al 
of  iHinlsidniC  the  factories  nl   Id.-   |'iviii«   Vrn.- 
lians.  ami  UeiioeM.,    the  pnidi  IJ  ii.ni(ii.  n.r  m' 
ceiilcl  ilwlr  oatlwiif  alieitmiii  i-  1  Mi..uri..  ■!  Ih. ;: 
liidiislry,  c.(>nHrm(.il  their  priiiii-.,i  «  at.  i  iUli  «iil 
them  to  live  uwler  the  Juii  ..lii  ii,,ii,.|  ih,  ir  |.M|.r 
iiiaitlstra'ea      Of  th(.Hi     niii-iiis  Ihe  I'lvui.  and 
ViiiellaiiM  prew'rve<l  tin  ir  ri-'|"riiii    ip,  ,rii  ra  ia 
till-  city  ;  but  Ihe  »  rvieis  niil  |i.ihi  r  .1  iln-  t»fn- 
i«-«f  (who  liail  a»i«islnt  in  lli.-  rn.m.i'i.  -'    f  I  iio- 
Htuullnople)  deaervisl  ni  Hh-  shiih-  lii-i.  in-  m'i 
liidi'   and    the  Jealousy   nf   tli,.   i;ri.l..     Tlii:r 
indi'pi'iidenliiihHiv  Kiullrnl  |l  itiii.hn  il-i  .1  H"ift 
liiwiiof  lieraclea  In  Tlinm-     Tin  i  «.  r.  -i-inlilr 
M'uIImI,  ami  wlilisl  in  iln-  i-xi  lu.ivi    (....^.i-swn 
of  the  auhurhof  Oalui.i  un  uiliani.ii-i   %- |".kl. 
In  which  Ihey  n-vlvisi  ih.  1  ..mm.  r. .  nn.i  ui'iilii^i 
till' niaJi.Kty  of  the  My/uJiiu-  I  nii'in      Tin- n 
eiiverv  of  ('ootlanliniijiii   »  .s  i-t  h  l.ra'    I  «  ll" 
era  ot  a  new  tnipin-  '    Tu.-  m  w  imiir-    iti^ 


.022 


OOmTANTINOPLE,  lMl-1481 

eMiblifhed  In  the  ancient  Roman  capital  of  the 
Mit  niaiie  mme  uliow  (if  vipir  at  Drat.     Michael 
I>»)aalugus  "  wrenuil  from  the  Praulca  leveral 
of  tlie  noblest  islands  of  the  Archipelago  —  Lea- 
bos,  Chios,  and  RluMles.     His  brother  Conatan- 
tine  wss  sent  to  command  in  Malvasia  and  Sparta; 
sod  tlic  Eastern  aide  of  tlie  Morea,  from  Argoa 
sod  Nspoll  to  Cape  Taiuarua,  was  repoaaeiwed 
by  the  Oreeks.  .  ,  ,  But  in  the  proaecutiun  of 
these  Western  conqtiesU  the  countries  berond 
the  Hellespont  were  left  naked  to  the  Turks; 
ud  their  depredations  vcrifled  the  pnipliecy  of 
tdyinif  senator,  tliat  the  recovery  of  Cunstanti- 
Bonle  would  lie  the  ruin  of  Asia, "    Not  only  waa 
.uia  .Minor  ahandoneil  to  She  new  race  of  Tur- 
jiishronquemn  — the  Ottomans — hut  those  moat 
ijpvsKive  of  tlic  prowlytea  of  Islam  were  In- 
viteil  in  the  next  )r<-neratlim  tocrosa  the  Boa- 
pluirus,  and  to  enU-r  Thrace  as  partiaans  in  a 
(iiwii  civil  war.     Their  footing  in  Kuroiie  once 
pilnei!,  tlicy  devoun-d  the  dixtnicted  and  feeble 
em\>irt  piece  i)y  piece,  until  little  remained  to  it 
b'vcrtid  t.'wcnpitiil  itwdf.     Long  lii'fore  the  IntU-r 
Ml,  the  empire  was  a  shadow  and  a  name.     In 
the  Tery  ■iilmrlm  of  <'onstantinople,  the  Oenoeae 
piidpsta.  St  I'em  or  Oaluta.  had  more  iMiwer  than 
lhe(}i«k  Kmi^mr;  and  tlie  rival  lullan  traders. 
orOenoa,  Venice  and  I'isB,  fought  their  haltkrs 
under  the  eves  (if  111.'  Hyzaotinea  with  indiffcr- 
fDce,  simiwt,  til  tlie  will  or  wislies,  the  opjiosi- 
tim  or  the  lii  Ip  of  the  Iatt4'r.     "  The  weight  of 
the  Riiiniin    Kiiipire  waa  scarcely  felt  fn  the 
bslaaee  nf  thew  opulent  and  powerful  republica, 
.  The  Ifcimiiii  Kmplre  (I  smile  intmnacrihing 
the  nstiH)  miirlit  siKin  have  aunk  Into  a  province 
(if  (^en.w.  if  the  ambition  r!  the  republic  had 
i»it  liecii  eheckeil  by  the  rul    of  her  fn-edom  and 
i!««l  iwm.r.     A  lung  conteat  of  ISO  years  waa 
(IrtrniiinnI  hy  the  triumph  of  Venice.  .   .   .   \Vt 
Iht  jplril  nf  coiiuiierce  »ur»  ived  that  of  conquest  • 
•Mi  the  c.lniiy  i.f  I'era  still  awed  the  capital  and 
mriirsl.sl  the  Kiuine.  till  it  was   Involved  liy 
tlieTurk-tinihe  tlnal  wrvitiideof  ('on.,i«nliiiople 
ii«lf  ■■  -K  Cililhin,  IhfUiuiHdFaUvfilu  Human 
Em/^r^,  i-h  Hi  na. 

.\|j.(.  IN  (1.  KinlHV,  /Hi.  of  Hit  n»-.,nlinf  and 
l.n.t  h.mi„r.,,  hk-  4,  eh.  S._Hee.  iil*.,  Tmaa 
(Tin  (iri..<HN.|    A    n.  t340-I3a6;  liJa«-l3S»- 


A.  D.  i34«-t355.-W«r  with  the  Cenecac.- 
aii. with  Venice    and    Ar8»ou.-J(>hn 


Alliaace  _ 

<  jnlsdiieniHi.  who  ii«iirp<ii  the  "limine  in  I.mV 

ImI  n..t  rcirned  a  vi-ar  before  he  waa  Involved 
l-ih.«ti!iii,.,  will,  ||„.  Uenoese  wdoiiy  of  (J»|aia 
"liHi  li,i.|  sUnys   contained  many  warm  nar- 

;  "»""•'  ""'  I *  "'  J^lw-'oit"*  [.li«plac„Uy 

(im*.,,,,,,.-!      TbU  factory  had  grown  intoi 
a.'un»l,iii<  i.iwn.  and  C(mmian(h-.l  a  large  ixir- 

).«  of  the  (riid,  n  Mom.  Duri.ig  the  civil  i,„ 
»K.  (h!  .,-«.  enpllallsu  had  SU|.|.;ie.|  i|,r  n-ge-icy 
«Mh  i,...r„  y,  «n.i  tliey  now  formed  almost  every 
knn(t,..f  il„.  nv.oi.,.  which  Uic  im|«  rial  govern 
««<  i^-nvijl  fnim  the  p,«  .  .  .  The  fin«ii>  Ul 
^f '  "'  '  "■  '"  *  enipcnir  reduced  Uielr 
&  ■  J'"'  '•"•"»»'«  lndii«lrv  of  the 
U^ek.,  ,.,.1  ,h,.  J,v,l„,„y„f  „,,  lU-nU-n-.  l.-d  l„ 

1WI10I.I  ||„.  »„  („  „  ,r,,rl.er..>i«  manner  with 
;LT'  ,".'".,'""'■-  '"•"'.  "■■■  "*l'"''"<-  of  tlen.ia 
L.-r  ,,'  '■  -^  "•■*•'  "'  ""^1  <  ll--bt  large  ,tnd 
"Z'r']  '■"'•> v  >.<t«.  Ui  (•(.n.tai.Hn.ipl' 

••dbunit^i   «v,ral   buiUiog,  aud  the  gil-ater 


CONSTAKTINOPLE.  1848-1861 

part  of  the  fleet  he  wa*  then  constructing.  The 
Empress  Iiwne,  who  administered  the  govern- 
ment in  the  absence  of  her  husband,  b«-haved 
with  great  prudence  and  courage  and  repulsed  a 
bold  attack  of  the  OemKsc.  Cantacuzeno. 
bastened  to  the  capital,  where  he  spent  the 
winter  in  npulring  the  loss  his  fleet  Iwd  ,u^ 
umed.     As  siHin  as  it  was  nadv  foradhm   he 

fj^^u  ."'**'''""™" '"  "«■  P"rt.  wlwre  he  hoped 
that  their  naval  skill  would  lie  of  no  avail  and 
Where  the    numerical   superiority  of   his  ahiiw 
would    Insure    him   a    victory.     He   expected 
moreover,  to  gain  poxaesslon  of  OalaU  llaelf  br 
on  attack  on  the    land  side   while    the  (hnoese 
were  occupiiHl  at  sea.     The  cowiirdly  conduct  of 
Uie  Oreeks.  I»,th  by  sea  and  land,  remlered  hli 
plana  abortive.     The  gnaler  jNirt  of  his  ships 
were  taken,  and    his  army    retreat.-d    without 
nuking  a  serious  attack.     Fortiinalclv  for  Can- 
tacuienoa,  the    colonisU  of    (iaUu  rw-eived  an 
order  from  the  Senate    of    Gen<«i    to  iniiclude 
pence.       .  .  Their     victory     enaliled     them     to 
oliliiin  favourable  terms,  anil  to  k(vp  powniion 
of  some  land  they  liad  sei»;c,|.  ,„„|  „n  wlih  li  they 
ijrjon  completed  the  conotrueti.ni  of  n  new  citadel. 
The    friemlly    (ljs|MMitiiin     iniinifeMed     hy    the 
government  of  (Jenoa  iinhuiil  <  ■.int.ieii/emw  to 
send  anibaiwiuion  Ui  the  Seiiule  to  demuud  the 
restoration  of    the  island  of  CIiIim,   whieh  had 
been  conquered  by  a  liand  of  fjeiioiii,.  esiles  in 
l!Ho.     A   trialy  was  coiieliided,  liy   which  the 
Genoese  were  to  restore  the  l-iliind  to  th(  Kmpen.r 
of  Constaiilinople    in    ten  vears.  ,  ,  .   But   this 
treaty  wiis  never  carried  Into  executloii   for  the 
cxilesat  Clii.w  set  Isith  the  republic  oftiitim  and 
the  Or<'ek  Eimilre  at  dellunce.  iiiii  niuiii.Hl  t||,.|r 
conquest."     The  peace  with  Genoa  was  of  shcit 
duration,    ('iiiitacuzenos  whs  Is^nt  upon  ex|K'll- 
Ing    the    Gen(Hse    from    Gnluta.    and    as    they 
were  now  involved  in  the  war  with  tlie  Vim  tlaiM 
T  hieh  IS  known  as  the  war  of  CalTa  he  hop«-il  » 
ttiriiniplish  his   purpisie  by  Ji.inliig   the  latter. 
"The  Genoese  had  drawn  Into  their  hands  the 
grealer  |«rt  of  the  commeree  of  the  Bliick  Sea. 
The  town  of  Tann  or  A/of  was  then  n  place  of 
gr»'at  commercial  iin|virtance,  as  inaiiv  of  the 
pnKluctioiia  of  India  and  China  f.iiiiid  i)„ir  «,iv 
to  western  KunqM-  Imm   its   wan  limi-is       The 
Gemsse,  in  eons,.(|iicni  .•  nf  a  quam  1   wlih  the 
Tartars.  h:iil  ls-.ii   eniii|i.'nei|    t.>    Miqiend  thiir 
InteMiurse  with  Tniia.  ..ml  l!i.'  V.ii.  tiain.  a>all- 
ing  lli.'m».'lvi's  of  the  oiqs.niiniv,  hii.l .  vT.ii.!,-d 
their  traih' and  imn-as...|  th.ir  pn.Iits.     Tli.invy 
of  the   G.'niHse   Lsl   them   In  nliHtriiil   tlii\,nt'. 
tian  traile  ami  ciiptiir.'  Vin.tiaii  slii|i«   uiit  I  at 
length  llu'.iispin.s  nf  i!i..  tun  opiiMii  s  I.Mke 
out  in    op.n    war    in    lais.     In  Ihe  v.ar  |:l.-.|. 
(|antucuA.'iiia«    (iitere.1     iiiin    an    allia'ii.e    w  itli 
Venice,  ami    Jnlned    iiis    forns  in   th..»..  nf  the 
VViietlans,  wlin  had  al*..  cum  lud.il  an  alliance 
with   I'lt.r  ihi Cn'mnninii,,  kiiiif  nf    Arumm 
Nicholas   l'l«aiil.  mil-  nf    the  al.l.Ni   ailininils  of 
the  au'r  a!i|i.-.-»rivi  l«  tnn'  CniistaiiijiiMiil,.  with  the 
Venetian  tim  .  but  li(H..|,i|„  had  •oitT.r.-.U.v.r.lv 
fmm    a    smrm.  aiil    \\\%    primlnal    nl.jnt  w,,', 
all«in..i  wli.ii   he  |.i;l  i.annv,,)  the  in  r(  h.int- 
nien.if  Veiii...  s.if.ly   Inln  tin"  Ilia,  k  S  a.     Cm- 
lacii/riiin,  hoHi.i.r,  had   im  .  Iij.-.t   lint   tn  t':ke 
Galala.  ami.  .\|s-.  tiinf  tn  nnlve  lni|«.ri.ii.i  M 
fnmi   I'isiini,    he  aiia.kiil   tin-   ti.ii.«.,i-  inlnnr 
bv  s.-»  ami   lami       ||u  s^viul!    was  ,|.  f.al.il  lit 

e.iii»-,.ui  11 f  th.«.akm,,  nf  tin  (ir-.  k,  „i,,| 

the  lukewarmiiiMof  the  Veuetliuu.   Iln.uii  I'tlred 


5U3 


'f '*■ 


'M.   S' al^'''  vi 


rt 


CONSTAMTmOPLE.  1S4S-1M& 

toKcgropont,  to rffoctn  Junction  with  theCatakii 
fleet;  aou  I'anno  Dorin,  who  hail  piiniueU  him 
with  «  •iipcnor  force.  In  n-ttirning  to  Uslata  to 
piw  the  winter,  sttirmwl  tlie  town  of  HcracieU 
on  the  Sea  of  Mttniion,  wlirre  Ciintaruieno*  had 
colln'teii  large  mHtiKzInt-*  uf  provUiona.  and 
carri)-)!  off  a  rich  Uxtty,  with  many  wealthy 
Oreek«,  who  were  cumpellfl  to  ransom  them- 
aelvra  by  paying  large  iiima  to  thtfie  captors. 
Cautucuzenoa  was  now  benii-gift  In  Conataoti- 
Bopif.  .  .  .  Thf  Uenotw,  unuhir  to  make  any 
inipn-SBlnn  on  the  city,  inili'mnlHctI  thcnuelvta 
by  ravaging  the  Urcrk  tcrritorr  on  tlie  Black 
8ea.  .  .  .  Early  In  the  year  IMS.' Pi-tani  rctunx'd 
to  Cnnatantinople  with  tlie  Cutalan  fli<<'t.  under 
Ponziu  da  8antnpn<v,  and  a  great  buttle  waa 
fought  between  the  alliea  and  tlie  Uentieae,  in 
full  rlew  of  C^oniitnniinople  and  Oalata.  The 
icene  of  the  conibut  wna  »!T  the  litlauil  of  Prote, 
and  it  rrceive<l  the  name  of  Vntchopli:igaa  from 
iome  sunken  rm-kfi,  of  which  the  Qenoeae  availed 
thrniselveH  In  their  inanfEutrtea.  The  honour  of 
a  diiutitful  and  bliKxIy  day  resteil  with  tlie 
OeuiH'ne.  .  .  .  IlmuiaiHingultt'iltlieDelghSour- 
liond  of  Coniitantimiple,  and  Cantacuicnna, 
having  nothing  more  to  hope  troni  the  Venetlun 
alliance  .  .  .  concludeil  a  imimi-  with  tlte  ivpub- 
He  of  Oenoa.  In  thia  war  he  lnul  exp<iap<l  the 
weakncM  of  the  Greek  enipir»,  hihI  the  detilne  of 
the  maritime  fortv  of  Oreece,  to  all  the  alatea  of 
Europe.  The  tti'aty  contirmed  ail  the  previous 
privilegea  and  encroachments  of  the  colony  of 
ualata  ami  oilier  Uenoew  I'-tiililishments  In  the 
Empire." — (J.  Finlnv.  Jlitl.  of  lite  ItftuHtimnnd 
Orcfk  Kmi>ir,».  7ltl^l«:i.  hk.  1.  ch.  2.  ttt.  4.— 
The  ntiri'tnent  of  tlie  Ure<-k'<  irom  the  contest 
dhl  not  ciieck  the  wnr  Utwcin  (iencia  and 
Veiili-e  mid  llie  oilier  nllles  of  llie  latter,  which 
was  •l>nlinlu^l  unlll  VXtX  The  OeniMite  were 
defeiii.il,  AuKiisi  i9,  \XiA,  liv  llio  VriiitUns  and 
t'atiiliiiiH,  ill  a  greitt  Imllle  fii'.ii;lit  near  I..<>]era, 
Oil  III!'  iiiirllicrn  coiint  of  .Sardinia.  liMing  41 
gallcvH  iind  4.. 'Ml)  or  S.DIM)  iihii.  Tliey  olitaineil 
their"  revenge  the  next  ynir.  on  the  4tb  of 
XovemtHT.  when  I'sgiiJ-  >  Doria  Rurpriaed  the 
VcnetiHii  admiral.  i'ii<ui.<  t  I'ortolongo,  oppoaite 
the  I'^IhihI  of  tSupiei.za,  »^  lie  van  preparing  logo 
Into  wiiiter-i|Uurteni.  "Tlie  Vimiianit  Hustulm il 
not  BO  much  a  ilcfi  at  as  a  total  iliiMi>mtitun\  iM 
weri'killeil;  an  eiiorni'xis  niinilHr  of  prisonern. 
lex  J'ly  ciilculHteil  HI  d.iNHI.  and  ii  lii^hly  valiialilu 
Imoly  In  priziit  and  slori'ii.  were  t«kcn. "  In 
June.  l:|.Vi.  tlie  wiir  was  eiideil  liV  n  In  tily  wliich 
excliideil  Venice  from  all  Klmk  .S.t  ixirtsetrept 
CafTii— W.  V  Hazlilt.  //.W.  ./  tlu  " 
ReimWf.  eh.  |S»-ll»(r  :t) 


CafTii— W.  l".     Hazlilt.     //iW.  ./   tlu     Ventlian 
V.  A.  r«rk.r,  7V  FL,U„fth4  World, 


Al.so  IN 

p;i.  Kjt^iu. 

A.  D.  1453.— Conqueit  bj  ch«  Turki.— 
Maiiomct  II  .  M>n  of  Amunitli  II  came  In  the 
Olliiiian  tliroiie,  at  the  aire  of  tweiiiy  one,  In 
H'll  "Tlie  (iini|iiea:  of  ( iiiisiaiitiiiiiple  was 
tlie  lintt  ol>Ji(  t  on  wiiich  his  llioiigl:is  were  flxed 
at  tlie  oiMiiing  of  his  niirii  The  nsolution 
Willi  »lii(  It  III'  liiul  fnniied  IliispTiriKweejpn'iw'd 
itself  ill  Ills  Ki.rn  reply  to  llie  HniliaMiidors  of  llie 
Kiiiptr  r  •■iTirihi;  him  triliule  if  he  woiild 
nnMUhie  the  pr.jiit  "f  In  Idinif  a  f.rt  on  the 
Kiir'>|H.'iii  «liiire  uf  ihe  |li»|Kirtii4.  wliiih.  nt  the 
lllnlall.e  of  ..iil\  live  mili'<>  fri.lti  llie  <!i|^llnl. 
woiilii  |.'i\.  Iiliii  llie  lomtiiniel  «t  the  ltln<  k  S<  .1 
Me  urdeoii  llie  tiiviiy«li.  r  ure  !iiic|  ilir<'»teiiei| 
%i  fliiy  alive  any  whosfaoiiM  iare  t<i  bring  him  a 


CONBTANTINOPLE,  14(»-148t 

ilmflar  meaafe  a^aln.    Tlie  fort  was  ani.ili«1  la 
three  montha  and  ganiioned  witli  4UU  Jimii^- 
•  tribute  waa  eiacted  of  all  vesseU  that  i««c<l, 
and  war  was  formally  declared  hy  the  SiUtu 
Cooataotiiie  [Cooatantine  Palieoliigus,  the  lut 
Orwk  Emperor]  made  the  best  preparnilDiu  Ig 
hia  power  fur  defence ;  but  he  coiilil  nmsiir  uoir 
600  Greek  soldiers. "     In  onler  to  secure  aid  froi-i 
the  P<>pe  and  the  Itallana,  Constaniine  uniiti; 
himself  with  the  Roman  Church.    A  few  hiindtnl 
trr.<.  lis  were  tlien  sent  to  bis  aasistaiiee:  hut,  it 
the  moat,  he  had  only  succee<led  in  manning;  thi 
many  miles  of  the  city  wall   with  H.iiiNi  vtn, 
wbeu.   In  April,   14.t3,  the  Siiltiui   inviFin]  \x. 
The  Turkish  army  was  said  to  iiuniUr  'J.VI.O(iO 
men,  and  430  vesMls  were counti'il  in  the  mixsm- 
panying  fleet.     A  summons  to  fitirmulir  wu 
answered  with  Indigiuuit  refusal  by  Cimsiantiiic, 
"  who  had  calmlr  resolved  not  tii  survive  tlw 
fall  of   the  dty,     and  the  final  a>wHi,li  u(  the 
furious  Turks  was  made  on  the  'jvth  nf  Muv,  \VA. 
The  heroic  Emperor  waa  slain  among  the  lut 
defemlen  of  the  gate  of  8t.  Komamw.  sinl  Uio 
janizaries  mde   over   his   dead    IkmIv  m  thrr 
cliarged  Into  the  streets  of  the  f^illen  Itomu 
capital.       "The   despairing    ixiiple  — nenabin. 
prlcsta,    monks,    nuns,     huslatmls,    whta  tnd 
children  —  sought  safety  in  the  rliunh  nf  !i|. 
Sophia.     A  prophecy  but  been  einulatni  ilia; 
here  the  Turks  would  be  am'steii  liv  an  an«ti 
from  heaven,  with  a  drawn  swoni;  ami  hllbtr 
the  inberable  multitude  cniwdeil.  in  liii'  eipK. 
tatlon  of  supernatural  help.      The  ihiki  loron 
fuUowed,    sword    In    hand,  siaiittliteriii);  thute 
whom   they  encountered  In  llie  Bin-et.    T'ler 
broke  down  the  doom  of  the  ciiiin  h  niihsii't. 
and,  rushing  In.  committed  every  art  >A  ninicitr 
tliat  a  frantic  thirst  for  bliKiil  aiui  the  ii:risiiji'tt 
passions   of  demons   could  Kii^rvevt.      .\ll  iIk 
unhappy  victims  were  divldeil  as  •.\»\i-»  smnni; 
the  soullera,  without  regard  to  M.>>l  .ir  ranlt. 
and  hurrioi  off  to  the  camp;   and  iIh'  niiiihty 
catheilml,  so   long   the  glory   of  tin    Climiiiiii 
world,  soon  presented  only  rrueis  uf  llu'  iritiu 
of  hell.      The  oilier  (piariers  nf  'he  riiy  were 
pluntleTcd  by  other  divisions  of  Ilie  ani;y.  .  .  . 
About  noon  tlie  Sultan  made  liix Irii.in|i|i>lrnt7 
by  the  gate  of  St.  IlomaiiiM,  pawini;  In  ihi'  lnnly 
of  the  Emperor,  which  lay  coiuiuIkI  :iii.<'iii;'.li't' 
slain.     Entering  the  church,  he  or.u n-l u iiu>iU!i 
to  aacend  the  liema  and  announce  lo  iln-  .MumuI- 
mans  that  Ht.  Sophia  was  now  a  iui>v|iii.  c>>ii' 
aecrated  to  the  prayers  of  tlie  Inn- 1»  lii  v.rs.    tie 
onlered  the  iHxIy  of  the  Kniix  mr  ii  I*  wiuelii. 
Ilia  head  to  be  expoaeil  to  the  pr. ';<l.'.  ami  <f'  r 
wsnis  'o  bi'  aeut  aa  a  trophy,  to  Ik   mmi  by  tlw 
Greekii,   !u  the  principal  cil'iea  r.f  iii,    iMtoman 
Empire.     For  three  days  the  riiy  v. ..i  clunup 
to  the  Indeacrlbalile  horrors  of  piili.-t-  an^l  tlif 
license  of    th"    Mussulnir.n    iml.liry       F.iny 
ihoiiaand  tierislietl  during  tlu-  !>.i>  k  • '  '\if  ci:, 
and  fifty  tliousand  were  ri'<lii.'-<l  !  •  -imry  - 
C.    V.     FelUin,    l)rtt*i,    Anrunt    .n.!    H'ltri: 
fimrlh  amnf,  Int  t. 

Aiwiii;  <1  Pinl.v,  Hill  .if!h,  lh:,i'.u-v --A 
O'nk  Kmrnrafmrn  "Tie  to  14.'.).  ! k  4.  '«  ■;  E 
OiblMin.  Drtlin,!  and  t'lM  ./ (V  li-n  .  ,■,-,11. 
M.  (IH 

A.  D.  1^3-litl.— The  city  resopuiat*!.  •'«' 
rebuilt.— Creation  of  the  Tiirkiin  Stsmboal.- 
"  Il  was  nec.-i-wry  fnr  .Mi.lmiiiii'  -II  I'.r.ivvrk- 
Consl.tnlinopie.  in  .■■der  1.1  n  n  I  r  ;i  hi  r»i'iul 
of  the  v/Jionuut  Empltv.    Tli<  in-i  illiii.c  of  « 


J24 


CONSTAIITINOPLE,  14S8-148L 

nrthodnx  Pstifarch  calmed  tb«  mlnda  of  the 
Otwlu.  and  many  who  had  emigTBted  before  the 
•ieite  gnduallf  returned,  and  were  allowed  to 
riaim  »  portion  of  their  propertr.  But  the  alow 
Increue  of  population,  cauaed  by  a  lenae  of 
HCuritT  and  the  hope  nf  min,  did  not  latlafy  the 
Sultan,'  who  waa  determined  to  aee  hia  capital 
one  of  the  greateat  cities  of  the  Eaat,  and  who 
kMW  thHt  it  bad  formerly  exceeded  Damaicua, 
Budail  and  Cairo,  in  wealth,  extent  and  popu- 
htioD.  Krom  most  of  his  subsequent  conquests 
Moharomed  compelled  the  wealthiest  of  the  in- 
htbitanu  to  emifrrate  to  Constantinople,  where 
be  granied  tlicm  plots  of  land  to  build  their 
hmun.  ■  ■  ■  Turks,  Orreka,  Serriana,  Bulgarl- 
tiu,  Alhssiana,  and  Laaea,  followed  one  another 
in  quirk  succession,  and  long  before  the  end  of 
hU  reign  Constantinople  was  crowded  by  a  num- 
miuADit  artlTe  popiilatinn,  and  presented  a  more 
flnuriahui);  aspect  than  it  had  done  during  the  pre- 
ceding rrntury.  The  embrlllshment  of  his  capital 
wu  also  tlic  ohjii't  nf  the  Hultan's  attention. 
.  .  M>w|ucs.  minarets,  fuuntains  and  tomba, 
the  (rmit  "liji'cts  of  architectural  magniflrencp 
tooDg   the  Milisiilmani,   were  oonstructeti    in 


coxsnTcnoN:  AROEirnin:  repitbuc. 

erery  quarter  of  tl>e  Hty.  ...  The  picturesnne 
lieauiy  of  the  Sumboul  of  the  present  day  owes 
most  of  lu  artiflrUI  features  to  the  Othoman  con- 
quest, and  wean  a  Turkish  aspect  The  Con- 
Btttfitlnople  of  the  Hyiuintlne  Empire  disappeared 
with  Ust  relics  of  the  Greek  Empire.  The 
trav  who  now  desires  to  view  the  Tcstlges  of 
a  B\ .  hotlne  capltel  and  examine  the  hM  relics 
or  Bvxantlne  arehltecture,  must  continue  his 
travels  eastward  to  Tn'bizond."—O.FInlay  Hitl 

'ili^  ,^"*i~  "**  ^'*'*  ^^Pirm,  /hm'nt  to 
14.18,  A*.  4,  «*.  8,  f«t.  7. 

A.  D.  iao7.-Threat«n«d  bja  Britidi  iMt. 

See  Tl'«M:  A.  D.  180«-I»(»7. 


CONSTANTINOPLE,    Conftrtnc*    ol 

(1877).     He<!  TlRBs:  A.  D.  1M«1-1877. 

CONSTANTIUS  I.,  Ronuui  Empwer.  A.  D 
30.V-306 Conataatins  II.,  A.  D.  887-Ml 

CONSTITUTION,  The  battlaa  of  tha  Mm- 
at*.  Hee  I'.nitkd  Statics  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  181»- 
1813.  and  1H14. 

,.fP.?.?I''^yT'°''  OP  ARAGON  AND 
CASTILE  (the  old  monarchy),  bee  Cortcs. 
Tub  Eaki.y  Spamuh. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 


Thenibjoincd  text  of  the  Coostitutiog  of  the 
Argpuilno  itcpubllc  la  a  translation  "from  the 
offlrial  nlltino  of  1M8."  taken  tmm  II  Napps 
woili  on  "The  Argentine  Republic,"  prepan^il 
(or  the  Central  Argentine  Commission  on  tlie  Cen 
tentry  Eiblbltlon  at  Philadelphia,  tH76.  AccoM 
Isj!  to  the  "8tatesman'a  Year-Book  "  of  liflKi, 
there  bare  been  no  modUlcations  since  1840: 

Parti. 

Article  I,  The  Argentine  Nation  adopta  the 
(edertl  republican,  and  representative  form  of 
Gorrratnent,  as  established  by  the  present  Con- 
■tltutkio 

Art.  a.  The  Federal  Oovemment  shall  maln- 
tsig  the  Annstolic  Roman  Catliolic  Faith. 

Art.  J.  The  authorities  of  the  Federal  Oovem- 
ment ahull  reside  in  the  city  which  a  special  law 
i.(  t'nnirrfss  may  declare  the  caplul  of  the  Re- 
[uMk.  iubaequently  10  the  cession  by  one  or 
ranre  of  the  I'roYtndal  Leglstotures,  of  the  tcrri- 
I  >nr  nimiit  to  be  federalixcd. 

Art.  4.  The  Federal  Oovemment  shall  arl- 
mlnlatertheeiDenses  of  the  Nation  out  of  tho 
rivcnue  In  the  National  Treasury,  derlve<l  from 
impiirt  an(le>|>ortdi.lk<a,  from  tho  sale  and  leane 
of  Ike  public  lands,  from  postsf^;  and  frxim 
such  other  uxes  as  the  Uencral  OonRress  may 
iquitaW)  anil  pm|>nrtlonahlv  l»v  ti|>on  the  p.-<i 
nil  ai  also,  fn>m  such  loans  and  crediu  as  may 
t«  ■Irrnvd  !.y  it  in  limes  of  national  necessity  or 
Ijr  I  til,  rj.rta's  of  national  utility. 

Art.  5.  f^ach  Province  shall  moke  a  Const  It  u 
i"r.  !,  r  iiv  If.  Rccwdlng  U)  the  republican  .i-iire- 
-nlatlri.  t)>tem.  and  the  prin<  li,|,.s.  d.-cUratlons   ; 
"?„'■'*""'**"''  "''•  t;«nsfltutl<in;  and  whi<h   1 
■ti!>  I  pf'VKic  for  (ie<ure)  MuoHpal  (Jovcrtinieiit     ' 
I  ri»i«i!  .-.lucation  sn.!  the  « Imlnlslmti.ui  „f  |u,!    ! 
««    I  iHlMth.'si.c.mdilio'u  the  F«ler.il  Govern-    ' 
nw!  mall  guaranlni  to  e  u-j  Ppivineo  tho  exercise 
nv;  i-njoymenl  of  lu  InW.  tlnni-. 

f^l'^nL'''&  ^f*^"*-  '■*'"""•'>«  •'>•»  Inter- 
TOt  ta  UK  Provl«»au.£  i..-uii«e  tUe rapublloui 


I  form  of  Oovemment,  or  to  repel  foreign  Invasion, 
i  und  nl«o,  on  application  of  ihelr  constituted  au- 
'  tlidriilea,  should  they  Imvt;  Ijeen  deposed  by 
sedition  or  by  invasion  fn)m  another  Province, 
for  the  purpose  of  sustiiinini;  or  re-csublishlng 
:  them. 

j  Art.  7.  Full  faith  shall  be  frivcn  in  each  Prov. 
!  ince  to  the  public  acU,  and  judlcUl  pmccedingt 
j  of  every  other  I'rovlnce :  and  Congresa  may  by 
I  general  laws,  prescrilie  the  manner  In  which  such 
•  nets  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the 
j  clleet  thereof. 

j      Art.  S.  The  citizens  of  each  Province  shall  be 
I  enlltlMl  to  all  the  risrhts,  privileges  and  imniuni- 
!  tiea.  Inherent  to  tli>'  t  itizens  of  all  the  several 
Provinces.    The  reclproeal  extradition  of  crimi- 
nals between  all  the  Pp)vlnces,  is  obligatory. 

Art.  9.  Throughout  the  territory  of  the  Nation, 
no  other  than  the  National  Cuntnin  Mouses  shall 
lie  Allowed,  ani'  they  ahull  be  regulated  by 'do 
tariffs  sanetlone<l  by  Conitress. 

Art.  la  Tho  drculatloii  of  all  givida  pnxluecd 
or  manufactureil  In  the  Republic.  Is  free  within 
Its  iHinlers,  as  also,  that  of  all  st)ecl,-»  of  mer- 
1  hanillw  whieh  may  be  dispatched  b^-  the  Cus- 
tom Houses  of  entry. 

Art.  II.  Such  articles  of  native nr  foreign  pro- 
duction, us  well  as  cattl.-  of  every  kind,  which 
p.iM  from  one  Provinc  to  anoihei,  simll  bf  free 
from  ull  transit-duiies.  no<t  nlxi  the  vehicles, 
venaeN  or  aiiimaU.  which  triniij..irl  them;  ami  no 
tax.  Ii  I  it  Ir-  what  I'-  may.  eau  be  lieneeforward 
fnitiii^id  up<m  Ihiru  on  account  of  auch  transit. 
Art.  12.  V(«itls  iKmni!  from  om;  I'Mvlncc  to 
nnoth.-r.  sliall  not  Iw  compelled  to  enter,  anebor, 
I't  pay  iranjildiitieit,  nor  in  any  caae  ean  pntfer- 
etiifii  lie  irrantnl  to  one  p<n  over  auoth-r,  by 
any  conimeri'ial  litwsor  regiila:lona 

Art.  13.  N< T  Pnivi  ,,<•«  may  l,e  admitted  Into 
ihe  N'liti.iu.  hill  no  I'rovlnce  sliall  U-  erected 
within  til  •  territory  ,,f  any  other  IVivliice,  or 
Provinces,  nor  say  Pnivinco  Ite  formed  by  iha 
junctlou  of  various  Pruvlucva,  without  the  coa- 


626 


COKSnTUnOK :  ARGKinTNB  RIPUBUC.      CONSTITUTIOX:  AROSMTIin:  RIPCBUc 


I 


!*, 


■;i:- 


■eat  of  the  teglsktum  of  tlM  ProitfiioM  eon- 
cenwd,  h  well  u  of  Coogma. 

Art.  14.  All  the  InUliltanU  of  the  Nation  ihall 
enjoy  the  foUowing  right*,  acoonling  to  the  law* 
which  renUate  their  exerciae:  rii.,  to  labor  ami 
to  nractice  all  lawful  ioduatry;  to  trwia  ami 
naTlnte;  to  petition  the  autboritiea;  to  enter, 
remain  in,  travel  over  and  kaTe.  Argentine  terri- 
tory: to  publish  their  ideaa  In  the  public- pnti 
without  prcTioua  cenaure;  to  enloy  ami  iliapoac 
of  their  property;  to  aaaociate  for  uaeful  pur- 
po«c«;  to  profeaa  freely  their  religioQ;  to  teach 
and  to  learn. 

Art.  IS.  In  the  Argentine  Nation  there  are  no 
tlnvea:  the  few  which  now  exiat  shall  be  tree 
from  the  date  of  (he  adoption  of  this  Constitu- 
tiuD,  and  a  special  tew  shall  regulate  the  imlcin- 
nity  acknowledged  as  duo  by  this  dcctei-atioD. 
All  contracts  for  the  purchase  ami  sale  of  persons 
Is  a  crime,  for  which  those  who  make  them.  a« 
well  as  the  noUry  or  functionary  which  author- 
Izcs  lliem,  shall  be  responsible,  and  the  slaves 
wbn  in  any  manner  whatever  may  be  intmducmi. 
shall  be  free  from  the  sole  fact  that  they  ticad 
the  ti-rritory  of  the  Republic. 

Art.  16.  The  Argentine  Nation  does  not  ail- 
mit  tlic  prerogatives  of  blooil  nor  of  birth;  in  it, 
there  are  no  personal  privileges  or  titles  of  no- 
bilitv.  All  its  Inhabitanu  are  equal  in  presence 
of  the  law,  and  admissible  to  ufflcc  without  other 
condition  than  that  of  aincss.  Enuaiity  Is  the 
basis  of  taxatioa  as  well  aa  of  nubile- piata. 

Art.  17.  Property  is  inviolalilo.snd  no  inhalilt- 
ant  of  tlio  Nation  can  be  deprived  of  it,  save  by 
virtue  of  a  sentence  based  on  law.  The  exproiiri 
slion  for  public  utility  must  be  authorized  by  Intv 
sod  previously  imiemnllled.  Congress  alone  shall 
iinpoiiu  ilie  ctmlributions  mentioned  in  Art.  -4. 
No  personal  service  sbsll  be  cxacteil  save  by 
virtue  of  law,  or  of  a  sentence  founded  on  law. 
Every  author  or  inventor  Is  the  exclusive  pro- 
prietor of  his  work,  invention  or  liiscovery.  for 
the  term  which  the  lawocconis  to  bim.  The  con- 
flsriilion  of  property  it  hem-eforward  and  forever, 
stricken  from  the  Argentine  penal-coile.  No 
anne<l  l>o<ly  can  make  requiaitloiu,  ixw  exact  as- 
sistance of  any  kind. 

Art.  18.  No  inhabitant  of  the  Nation  shall 
suffer  piinisliment  without  a  previous  Judgment 
foundtil  on  a  liiw  poMol  previounly  to  tiie  cause  of 
Juiltfmi-nt.  nor  be  Juddiil  by  upecial  commiaslonji. 
or  withdrawn  fmiu  the  JudKes  designated  l>r 
law  before  llie  o|N'ning  of  the  cause.  No  («ie 
shall  beohllKeil  U)  U-sllfyairalDst  himself;  nor  lie 
arrented.  save  bv  virtue  of  a  written  oriler  fnmi 
a  compt  tent  authority.  The  defense  at  law  both 
of  the  |H'rw>n  ami  his  rigfau,  Is  inviolable.  The 
"loniicll,  pnvste  papers  and  epistolary  com- 
s|Hindenei-.  are  inviolable;  and  a  law  shall  ddir 
mine  III  what  coses,  and  under  wliat  Imputationii, 
tt  M-arch  nurrunt  ran  nnKt-ed  SKainiitanil  occupy 
them.  Capital  piini>>iinieiit  for  |iolill(sl  causes 
as  wi-11  as  ev.-ry  upecicsof  torture  and  whippings! 
are  nliolisliMl  forever.  The  prisons  of  the  Natliiii 
»h.>ill  Ih-  heallhy  ami  clciui,  for  the  security,  ami 
not  for  the  puninliiiient.  of  the  criminals deUiiied 
ill  them,  ami  every  measure  which  under  pretext 
of  precaution  may  mortify  them  more  than  such 
security  requires.  Hhall  render  responsible  the 
Judge  whoauthoriu-s  it. 

Art.  19.  Those  private  actions  of  men  that  In 
nowise  offend  public  onier  and  morality,  or  In 
jurs  a  third  party,  betong  alone  to  Uod,  and  are 


bernod  the  authority  of  the  maghtrates  Xo !» 
habluntof  the  Nation  shall  be  c<im|>cil<  I  muo 
what  the  bw  docs  not  ordain,  nor  be  ilepnreii  ol 
anything  which  It  does  not  prohibit 

Art.  JO.  Within  the  tcnitory  of  the  Niiin. 
foreigner*  shall  enjoy  all  the  civil  rights  „f  clil! 
sens;  they  can  exercise  Uieir  industri<-<.  con 
merceor  profeaslona,  in  accordance  with  ib<  Uwi 
own,  buy  and  sell  rvaU-statc ;  nnvigato  tlK<  riv«j 
and  coasU;  freely jinifess  llieir  religion,  mnl  u... 
Ute  and  marry.  They  shall  not  be  obii)f.-<i  i«  be- 
come  citizens,  nor  to  nay  force<l  contrihuiioitt 
Two  year*  previous  residence  iu  the  Nstiou  aluli 
hereoutred  for  naturalizatiou,  but  the  suthoritlcs 
cmn  shorten  this  tcnn  iu  favour  of  bim  vtw  au 
desires  It.  under  the  allegation  and  piwif  of  ler 
vice*  rendeml  to  the  Kepubllc. 

Alt.  at.  EveiTT  Argentine  citizen  U  ohllgnl  to 
arm  himself  In  defense  of  bis  country  ami  of  tlUi 
Constltutioa,  acooidlng  to  the  laws  whidi  Cna- 
gras  shall  oidaln  for  the  piirpuse.  ami  the  ile- 
crue*  of  the  National  Executive.  For  die  perial 
of  ten  years  from  the  day  ou  which  thiv  nmy 
have  obtained  tiieir  citizeuship,  this  MTviee  sksU 
be  voluntary  on  the  part  of  the  natunlinil. 

Art.  sj.  The  |K>i>ple  sliuli  not  dellUnitc  dot 
govern  savo  by  means  of  their  Heim-*iitstiTef 
and  Autltorilh'S.  creatnl  by  this  (■oustiiutioo. 
Kvery  armetl  force  or  meeting  of  pemous  whicli 
shall  arrogate  to  itself  the  rights  of  th.-  [wihli. 
uud  petition  In  tlieir  name,  is  guilty  of  «<<litW 
Art.  aj.  In  the  event  of  lulerual  conimmionof 
foreign  attack  wiilch  miiflit  place  in  jii)psrjf 
tlio  practice  of  thia  C>'ii4tltutlon,  ami  tlie  fn-e 
action  of  llie  Authorities  created  liy  ii,  the  Pn,». 
inco  or  U-rriUiry  where  such  dlsturli-im-.-  eiiiu 
shall  be  decUre<l  In  a  state  of  sieKe,  nil  conttitu- 
tiouol  giiarant<-es  being  mesmliiie  iiii.<|ien(lc<l 
there.  Hut  during  such  suapeiuion  iht-  Vrnt 
ilent  of  the  Itepublic  cannot  condemn  uor  spply 
any  punishment  |icr  se.  In  tfs|K-ct  to  iienooi, 
his  power  shall  lie  limited  to  arrestlun  ssd  tr- 
nioviug  them  frimi  one  ptace  to  suotlur  Id  tlw 
Nation,  should  they  not  prefer  to  leave  .\rgt'n- 
tine  territory. 

Art.  af.  Congrrss shall  esUblUh  the  nfonnol 
existing  laws  in  all  branches,  as  also  tin-  trial  by 
Jury. 

Art.  as.  The  Federal  Oovemment  nliall  fi>m«iit 
Ettnipean  Immigration;  and  it  esnmii  n-slrict, 
limit,  nor  lay  itay  iui|«iat  upon,  the  eutry  upon 
Argentine  territory,  of  sucli  foreiijner^  lu  come 
for  the  pur[HMeof  cultivating  the  anil,  iiiiprorin^ 
inanufuctun-s,  ami  Introducing  and  teuclilD);  tlw 
arts  luitl  sclencim. 

Art.  a6.  TIm!  navigation  of  the  Interior  riven 
of  the  Nation  ia  fnv  to  all  tlaga.  auhjri  t  cmly  1.1 
such  reguhoioua  as  the  National  Autli'tiiv  nuy 
ilicUle. 

Art.  a?.  The  Feilcml  Oovemiiieni  UMMignliD 
atnnetlien  the  iMinila  of  (x-aie  ami  1  iiiinrrt* 
with  fonijtn  powers,  liy  meananf  in-iiii. •!  wliicli 
sliall  In  in  conformity  witli  tlie  primipii'. uf  pub- 
lic law  laid  drwn  in  thIa  Con*titiiti<in. 

Art.  aS.  The  principles,  riglits  nml  ).'u  irartiti 
laid  down  iu  the  foregoing  artiilfi.  chiiuo'  '« 
allere<l  by  any  laws  luteudol  li>  n-Kuln'r  Ibrlr 
practicv. 

Art.  19.  Congrrss  cannot  grant  to  ilir  Eiwu- 
tlve,  nor  the  provincial  hglsliiluivs  to  ilii-  t>fl»; 
ernorof  I'nivlnoes,  any  "extraonliiiary  faniliU'a, ' 
nor  the  "  suiu  of  the  pulilic  p<iwer,  nor  '  te- 
nuncUtions  or  supremacies"  by  which  the  llvo, 


520 


m- 


COSBnTCnON:  AKGEimnK  RIPDBUC.      CONSTTTUTIOW:  AROKNTINE  RBPUBUC. 

tnonror  fartWM  of  tite  ArfeaUiMt  shall  be  at 
Uw  mercy  of  ur  GoTenniKot  or  perm  what- 
em.  Acu  of  tliii  nature  ihall  be  Irremedlabtr 
lull  iiihI  Toid,  and  ahall  subject  those  who  fnme, 


Totr.  or  iln  them,  to  the  nUos  ami  penaltligs  in- 
cumil  by  tboie  who  are  infamous  trsiton  to  their 

country 

Art.  30.  This  Constitution  can  be  rvfonaed  In 
vIk'Ic  or  in  part.  Tbo  necearity  for  the  reform 
ilull  lie  ilrclarcd  by  Coofreas  by  at  least  a  two- 
tliinN  rnif :  but  it  can  only  be  accomplished  by 
1  onffDlloo  called  sd  hoc. 

Art  31.  This  Coostitutloa.  and  the  laws  of  the 
>'aliiiii  which  shall  be  maile  in  pursuance  there- 
of, mill  ill  treaties  made  or  which  shall  be  made 
wiih  Foreign  Powera,  shall  be  llio  supremo  law 
of  the  lnniT;  and  the  authoritiea  of  every  ProT- 
iscc  shall  be  boiiml  thereby,  any thio)(  in  tlie  Coo- 
nltuilon  nr  liwi  of  any  ProvlDcc  to  tiie  contrary 
Dutwitlutantling,  excepting  in  the  case  of  Buenoa- 
Alm.  iu  the  trealies  rallllod  after  the  compact  of 
Nor.  mil.  IU9. 

Alt.  31.  The  Federal  Congress  shall  not  dictate 
bwa  nstrietlDi;  the  liberty  of  tlie  presa,  nor  ea- 
Ubliih  my  fetleml  Jurisdiction  over  it 

Art  33.  The  enumeration  in  this  Constitution 
of  certain  r<KliU  and  guarantees,  sliall  not  be 
cootirued  to  ileny  or  disparage  other  rights  and 
fiianntecs.  not  enumerated;  but  which  spring 
fmin  the  principle  of  popular  sovereignty,  suu 
tlM  rcpuliliriiii  form  of  OoTemment 

Alt,  34.  The  Judges  of  the  Federal  courta 
ihall  nnt  lie  Juilies  of  ProTiocial  tribunals  at  tlie 
ume  lime:  nor  tliall  tlte  feileiai  scnrice,  ciril  as 
veil  an  military,  constitute  a  domlcil  in  the 
Prorince  where  it  may  be  cxerclied,  If  It  be  not 
habitually  that  of  the  employ^;  it  being  uniler- 
iioal  by  this,  that  all  IVuvfnciai  public'servlce 
Uoptlnntil  in  the  Province  where  such  employ^ 
may  cantially  reside. 

Art,  35.  The  names  which  have  been  siic- 
rcHJvcly  i<l<>ple<l  for  the  Nation,  since  the  year 
l»IU  up  to  the  present  time;  viz.,  the  United 
Pmvlaiva  of  the  Hlo  de  la  Plau,  Argentine  lie- 
public  auil  .Vrgentinc  Confederation,  shall  henoe- 
(irwanl  wrvc  without  distinction,  (iHlcially  U) 
dcsigiwie  the  Oflvemroent  and  tcrribiry  of  tlie 
I'rovinrea,  whilat  the  words  Argentine  Nslion 
ihall  lie  employed  in  the  making  and  sanction  of 
Uk  lawi. 

Part  II.— Sactioo  I. 
Article  3«.  All  legiilative  powen  herein 
jnnii-.!  »lia;l  lie  veated  in  a  CoogreM  composed 
"1  i«'i  llmnilHTi,  one  of  Nitional  Depiitie*  and 
ihf  oilier  of  Ueoaton  of  the  Provinces  and  of  the 
capiuL 

Chapter  I. 

Article  37.  The  Chamber  of  Depiitiei  shall 
be  c<)in|H«e<i  of  representatives  elccutt  clire<-tly 
I;  Ihf  [leople  of  the  Provinces,  for  which  imr- 
|«»«  wh  on?  ahall  be  c<>aaidere<l  ai  a  sinirlv 
tlwloral  ilUtrict,  and  by  a  simple  plurality  of 
TilM  In  the  ratio  of  one  for  each  3().0UO  inliabit- 
uiu,  or  for  a  fraction  not  less  than  10,000. 

Art  38.  The  depuii.a  for  the  flmt  Ix-gisla 
turcflmll  I,,  nominated  In  the  following  pniiw 
tl.>n  f„r  III,.  I'nivinceof  Huenn  Aires,  twelve 
f.;r  thai  of  (onlohs.  six;  for  CaUmarca.  thrte; 
l"rr1.nt.i.  f„i,r,  Entre-Kloa,  two;  Jujul,  two; 
MewloM,  three;  Uioja.  two;  Salta.  thrto;  8an- 
Bsf'.  f  ur,  8«r  Juan,  two;  8anta-F6,  two;  San 
LUM,  Iwo;  --  -■ 


;  aiK.  .or  that  of  Tucunin,  tbna. 


Art.  39.  For  the  second  Legislature  a  general 
census  shall  be  Ulten,  and  the  number  of  Depu- 
■   .."f  •*«"'•«•<•  by  it;  thereafter,  this  census 
shall  he  <iecennlaL 

Art.  4a  No  person  shall  b«  a  Deputy  who 
shall  not  liuve  altainol  tha  age  of  twenty  Ave 
years,  have  been  four  years  in  the  exercise  of  cili 
icnship.  siul  bo  a  native  of  the  Proviucv  which 
elfcu  liiin,  or  a  resident  of  it  for  the  two  years 
lmme<liulely  preceding.  t 

Art.  41.  For  the  flrat  election,  the  provincial 
legislature  shall  reguUte  the  methoil  for  a 
direct  election  of  the  National  Deputies.  Con- 
gress siiali  pua  a  general  law  for  the  future. 

Art.  43.  The  Deputies  shsll  hold  their  place 
for  four  years,  and  sre  re-eiigib'-i;  but  the  House 
shall  be  nneweil  each  biennial,  by  halves;  for 
I'hich  purpose  tlioae  elected  to  the  first  Legisla- 
ture, as  s<ion  la  the  session  opens,  shall  <lecide  by 
lot  who  slwll  leave  at  the  end  of  the  first  period. 
Art.  S3.  In  case  of  vacancy,  the  Oovemment 
of  the  Province  or  of  the  capital,  shall  call  an 
election  for  a  new  member. 

Art.  44.  The  origination  of  the  Ux  biws  and 
those  for  the  recruiting  of  troops,  belongs  exclu- 
sively lo  tlie  House  of  Deputies. 

Art.  45.  n  has  the  sole  right  of  impeaching 
before  the  Senate,  the  Preaident  Vice  Prcsiden' 
their  Ministers,  and  the  members  of  the  Hiiprcme 
Court  ami  other  inferior  Tribunals  of  the  .Nation, 
in  suits  which  may  be  unileruken  sir.iinst  Hieiu 
for  tiic  improper  diacliarge  of.  or  tlelleiency  in, 
the  exercise  of  their  functions;  or  for  common 
crimes,  sfter  having  heard  them,  and  declared  by 
a  vote  of  Iwo  thirds  of  the  members  present 
that  there  is  cause  for  proceeding  sgainst  them. 

Chapter  II. 

Article  46.  The  Senate  shall  be  composed  of 
two  Senators  from  each  Province,  chosen  by  the 
Legislatures  tliereof  by  plurality  of  vote,  sml  two 
fsDin  tlic  capital  elected  in  the  form  preacribeil 
for  the  election  of  the  Pri'sident  of  the  Nation. 
Esch  Senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

Art.  47.  No  person  sliall  be  a  Senator  who 
shall  mil  have  attained  tlie  age  of  thirty  years, 
been  six  years  a  citizen  of  the  Nation,  enjoy  an 
annual  rent  or  Income  of  twi  thoUHsnil  hanl 
dollars,  and  be  a  native  of  the  Province  «•'  ich 
clecu  him,  or  a  resident  of  tlie  same  for  the  two 
years  inimedistely  precedinir 

Art,  48.  The  Senat4irs  shall  enjoy  their  trust 
for  nine  years,  and  are  indefinitely  n- eligible; 
but  the  Senate  aliall  be  renewed  by  thinis  each 
three  years,  and  shall  decide  by  lot.  as  amm  as 
they  Ik-  nil  re-iinitiHi.  who  ahall  leave  at  the  end 
of  the  Unit  and  aectmd  triennial  periiHia 

Art.  49.  The  Viccl'resiilent  of  the  Nation  ahall 
lie  I'resiiient  of  the  Senate;  but  shall  have  00 
vote,  <  xcept  in  a  case  of  a  tie. 

Art.  5a  The  Senate  shall  choose  a  IVaident 
pft)  lemporv  who  aiiall  preside  during  the  nliaence 
of  tlie  \  ice  President,  or  wlien  he  ahall  exercise 
the  ortlce  of  Pn-siilent  of  the  Nation. 

Art.  51.  The  S«-iiate  shall  have  sole  power  to 
try  nil  irii|««rhmeut«  prcsenleil  by  the  llouac  of 
Depiilleit.  When  sitting  for  that  ptir|MMe  they 
shall  Ik'  iiniler  rath.  \Vhen  the  President  of  tlie 
Nation  ia  tried,  the  Chief  Justice  shall  preside. 
No  iK'raon  shall  be  convicted  without  the  ttm- 
currence  of  two  thinis  of  the  members  present 

Art.  5a.  .ludgment  in  caae  of  im|ieai'hiiient 
shall  not  eiuud  farther  than  to  removal  (rum 


627 


coNSTirtrrioN:  aroentinb  republic,    constitution:  argentine  repubuc. 

nfflce,  and  disqualtflcstion  to  hold  and  enjoy  any 
_oi       /v  .  ..       ,      ■  gallon 


U" 

U 


'fV 


office  of  honor,  truBt,  or  profit  under  the 
But  the  party  convicted  shall,  nererthefeM,  be 
liable  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment  and  punish- 
ment according  to  taw,  before  the  onlinarv  tribu- 
nals 

Art.  S3.  It  belongs,  moreover,  to  the  Senate, 
to  authorize  the  President  to  declare  martial  taw 
In  one  or  more  poinU  of  the  Republic,  In  case  of 
fon'ign  aggression. 

Aft.  54.  When  any  seat  of  a  Senator  be  va- 
cant by  death,  resignation  or  other  reason,  the 
Oovenimont  to  whlcTi  the  vacancy  belongs,  shall 
lmme<ilatcly  proceed  to  the  election  of  a  new 
member. 

Chapter  III. 
Article  55.  Both  Chambers  shall  meet  to  oidl- 
nary  wssion,  every  year  from  the  1st  May  until 
the  3(ltli  September.  They  can  be  extraordi- 
narily convoked,  or  their  session  be  prolooired  by 
the  President  of  the  Nation. 

Art.  56.  Each  House  shall  be  the  judge  of 
the  fieri  inns,  returns,  and  qualiflcatloca  of  lu 
own  members.  Neither  of  them  shall  enter  Into 
session  without  an  absolute  majority  of  Its  mem- 
l)ers ;  but  a  smaller  number  may  compel  absent 
memlH'nt  to  attend  the  sessions,  in  such  terms 
and  under  such  penalties  as  each  House  may  es- 
tablish. 

Art.  57.  Both  Houses  shall  begin  and  close 
their  wsHions  simultaneously.  Neither  of  them 
whilst  in  sessions  can  suspend  iti  meetings  for 
more  than  three  days,  without  the  consent  of  the 
other 

Art.  58.  Each  Rouse  mav  make  lu  rules  of 
pHM-eeding.  and  with  the  iimcurrence  of  two- 
tlilnls  punish  its  members  for  disorderly  behavior 
in  the  exiTrlse  of  their  functions,  or  remove,  and 
even  ex|Ml  ihem  from  the  House,  for  physical  or 
moral  innipiwity  occurring  »ft<'r  their  Incorpora- 
tlt.ii ;  1)111  II  majority  of  one  almvo  one  half  of 
the  niemln'm  present,  almll  suHlce  to  decide  ques- 
tions of  vcilunlary  nnignatlon. 

Art.  59.  In  the  act  of  their  incorporation  the 
Senators  and  Deputies  shall  take  an  oath  to 
properly  fulfil  tli.-ir  chnrp',  and  to  act  In  all 
thinifs  in  conformity  to  the  prescriptirns  of  this 
ConHtiiulion. 

Art.  60.  No  member  of  Congress  can  be  In- 
alct<il.  ludlrially  Intermgatetl,  or  molesteil  for 
any  (>|iiiiion  or  discoume  wlilrh  he  may  have 
utKrni  In  fiilfllment  of  bis  IxKislatlve duties. 

Art.  61.  No  Henator  or  IJeputy  during  the 
term  fi.r  which  he  may  have  been  elected,  shall 
bearnste.!,  except  when  taken  'in  flagrante' com- 
mlMloii  (if  some  crime  which  merits  capital  pun- 
ishment or  other  drgrailinK  sentence;  an  account 
thereof  sliiill  lie  rendin^l  to  the  Chamber  ho  be- 
lonifM  1.1,  with  a  verluil  process  of  the  facta 
.  Art.  6a.  When  a  complaint  In  writing  b«!  maile 
liefopi-  the  onlinary  court*  against  any  Hj-nator 
or  IVpiity  each  Chamlier  can  by  a  two  thinia 
vote,  sii.|M.rid  the  accu».il  In  hi*  fimctions  and 
Placi-  him  at  the  dispoajtioo  of  the  competent 
Juilge  for  trial 

Art.  63,  Kach  of  the  Chamhera  cao  cause  the 
Minlsli<rs  of  the  Gxerutlve  10  come  to  their  Hall 
to  gii.  siirh  eiplaoations or  Infonnatloo  ■•  nu 
be  ciiii-tdererl  movenlent. 

Art.  «4.  No  member  of  CoognM  can  neelve 
any  pom  or  eommlsalon  from  the  Executive  with- 
out the  previous  consent  of  bla  rapactlTt  Cham- 


628 


ber,  excepting  such  as  are  to  the  line  of  promo- 

Art.  65.  The  regular  ecclesiastics  cannot  be 
members  of  Congress,  nor  can  the  Governors  of 
Provinces  represent  the  Province  wliicU  thev 
govern.  " 

Art.  M.  The  Senators  and  Deputies  shall  he 
reinunerated  for  their  services,  by  a  compensation 
to  be  ascertained  by  law. 

Ch«pt«r  IV. 
.  ^'f'*  *7*  "^^  Congress  shall  have  power  _ 

'•■7^°..  ,*'''■•*  "P""  "'<'  Custom- Hoiws  and ej. 
tabllsh  Import  duties;  which,  as  well  as  all  an 
pralsemento  for  their  rollecllon,  slmll  Ix-  unifomi 
throughout  the  Nation,  it  U'ingclcarlv  unilirstdod 
that  these,  as  well  as  all  other  natioiial  oontrihu- 
liofis  can  be  paid  In  any  money  at  the  just  value 
which  may  be  current  In  the  respective  Provinns 
Also,  to  establish  export  duties.     8.  Tolaydirvct 
taxes  for  determinate  pcriixis,  whenever  the  com- 
mon defense    and    general   welfare  requir.    it 
which  shall  be  uniform  throughout  tlie  teminrv 
of  the    Natl<m,     8.  To  Iwrrow  money  on  the 
credit  of  the  Nation.     4.  To  determine  the  use 
and  sale  of  the  National  lands.     S.  To  estahllsh 
and  regutate  a  National  Bank  In  the  capital  with 
branches  In  the  IVovlnces,  and  with  power  to 
emit  bills.     6.  To  regulate  the  payment  of  the 
home  and  foreign  debts  of  the  Nation.    7  T.i 
annually  determine  the  estimates  of  the  is'ational 
.Administration,  and  approve  or  rejeet  the  ao- 
couiits  of  exp«nscs.     8.  To  grant  sulisiilies  fmm 
the  National  Treasury  to  those  l*rovinces  whose 
revenues,  according  to  their  budgets,  ilo  not  ml. 
flee  to  cover  the  ordinary  expenses.     9.  To  ft>"i 
late  the  free  navigation  of  tlie  Interior  rivit?, 
open  such  porta  as  may  lie  consldcre<l  niressary 
cn-ate  and  suppri'sa  Custom  Houses.  Imt  without 
suppressing  those  which  existed  in  each  Province 
at  the  time  of  ita  Incorporation.     10   To  coin 
money,  regulate  tha  value  thereof  ami  of  fonipi 
coin,  and  adopt  a  uniform  system  of  «  eights  and 
measures  for  the  wlx  c  Nation.     II.  To  <lemt 
civil,  commercial,  pe-al  and  mining  Co-lcs.  but 
such  Ccxles  shall  have  no  power  to  ilmnife  loc.il 
iurisdlction ;  their  applicatCin  shall  Islonif  to  the 
Federal  or  Provincial  courta,  in  Hceonlmice  with 
such  things  or  persona  as  may  come  umhr  ihdr 
respective  jurisdiction ;  es|Ki'liillv.  jreneml  laws 
embniciiig  the  whole  Nation,  slialf  N'  |iii,s»eil  upon 
naturalization  and   citizenship,   suhj^rt   to  the 
principle  of  native  citizenship;  also  ,iii.m  bank- 
ruptcy, the  counU'rfeiting  of  ciirniii  momv  mv\ 
liublic  HtatedcH'umenta;  anil  siieli  Uwi  ii«  nmy 
be   rel|llir(^l    for  the  estnlilMinunl  of  lri;il  by 
Jury.     13.  To  regulate  conmieriv  bv  buifl  :iiid 
sen  with  foreign  nations,  ami  lietwit  11  lii.'  I'mv 
Inces.     18.  To  establish  and  rnruhil.'  ib.  ci  mrsl 
IMisloffleesand  lusit  nmdsof  the  NhiImii     H   To 
llnally  settle  the  National  iKiiiniliiriii.  (1.x  ih.M 
of  the  Provinci's,  cn-ate  new  Piovim  . «,  ami  ili'- 

Icrmine  by  a  B|iecial  legislntlon,  tl ri;ani«nt|nn 

and  gorcmmenta,  which  such  Nallonul  iirritorlii 
as  are  liryond  tlie  limits  aaslgneil  to  the  I'rovluiY, 
should  have.  IS.  To  provide  for  tlir  «.<  iirilv  "t 
the  frontiers;  preserve  peaiefiil  riliiibmi  with 
the  Indians,  and  pntinoie  thilr  ouivi n-lou  u 
Calhollelsm.  16  To  pMvlde  all  lliinirs  eondu- 
cive  to  the  pmspcrlty  of  the  cinmtrv.  to  the  kI- 
vancement  and  happlnesB  of  the  l*ri>viMii>s.  sad 
to  the  locreiie  of  enlightenment,  ilecreelnif  plsni 
for  geiMnl  aad  uatvtnily  lastrucUon.  pn»uuUa| 


CONBTITUTION:  ARGBNTmB  RKPCBUC.      CONSTmJTlON:  AROENTINE  REPCBLIC. 


taiduitiy,  ImmlgntioD,  the  construction  of  niil- 
wiys,  and  navigable  canab,  the  peopling  of  the 
Kattonal  lands,  the  introduction  and  establish- 
ment of  new  industries,  the  importation  of  for- 
eign capital  and  the  exploration  of  the  interior 
riven,  by  protection  laws  to  these  ends,  and  by 
temporary  concessions  and  stimulating  recom- 
penaes.  17.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to 
the  Supreme  Court,  create  and  suppress  public 
ofScei,  fix  their  attributes,  grant  pensions,  decree 
honors  and  gencnl  amnesties.  18.  To  accept  or 
reject  the  resignation  of  the  President  or  Vice- 
President  of  the  Republic,  and  declare  new  elec- 
tions: to  make  the  scrutiny  and  rectification  of 
the  same.  19.  To  ratify  or  reject  the  treaties 
made  with  other  Nations  and  the  Concordats  with 
the  Apostolic  See,  and  regulate  the  patronage  of 
advowsona  throughout  the  Nation.  20.  To  admit 
religious  orders  within  the  Nation,  other  than 
tho9e  already  existing.  21.  To  authorize  the 
Executive  to  declare  war  and  make  peace.  22. 
To  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  to 
make  rules  concerning  prizes.  23.  To  fix  the 
laul  and  sea  forces  in  time  of  peace  and  war :  and 
to  make  rules  and  regulations  for  the  government 
of  Mid  forces.  24.  To  provide  for  calling  forth 
the  roilltia  of  all,  or  a  part  of,  the  Provinces,  to 
ciecuto  the  laws  of  the  Nation,  suppress  inaur- 
rectlons  or  repel  invasions.  To  provide  for  or- 
ganizing, arming,  and  disciplining  said  militia, 
and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be 
empkivcd  in  the  service  of  the  Nation,  reserving 
to  tlicl*rovlnces  respectively,  the  appointment  of 
the cdrriKponding chiefs  and  otHcers, and  tliv  au- 
thority ij(  tndning  the  militia  according  to  the 
diiicl|)llue  prescribed  by  Cinign-iis.  2!i.  To  p«T- 
mit  Ibe  introduction  of  foreign  troops  witliln  lb" 
terriuiry  of  the  Nation,  and  tlie  goiuif  iH'ymid  It 
of  tlie  National  forces.  2S.  To  declare  mnrtlul 
law  In  any  or  various  points  of  the  Nation  in 
csK  of  domestic  commotion,  and  ratify  or  sus- 
pend the  declaration  of  iuartial  law  made  by  the 
executive  during  the  recess.  27.  Tn  exerriae  ex- 
cluilve  legislation  over  Oie  territory  of  the  Na- 
tional laprtal.  and  over  such  other  plarri*  acmiired 
I))'  pun  hase  or  cession  In  any  of  the  I'rovinci'S, 
for  llie  i)ur|H)Sc  of  establishing  forts,  iiPM'nals, 
wan-Uouws.  or  otlier  ntixiful  national  buildings. 
W.  To  make  all  laws  and  regulatious  which  slmli 
be  m-o'iisary  for  carrying  intu  execution  tlie  fore- 
going powers,  and  all  others  vested  by  the  pres- 
ent Cuui<titutltiu  tn  the  Qovemment  of  the  Ar- 
gentine Nation. 


Chapter  V. 

Article  M.  Laws  may  originate  In  either  of 
ilio  lltiuMS  of  Congress,  by  hiiia  presented  by 
llitir  luiinbers  or  by  the  Exwutlve,  excepting 
those  n-lmlve  to  the  objecU  treated  of  in  Art.  441 

Art.  tf.  A  bill  being  apnrovetl  by  the  House 
wbcniii  It  originateil,  shall  pass  for  diwussiDii 
I"  the  Dilur  House.  Being  appniviil  liy  Inrth.  it 
•hull  iiHsH  to  tlie  Exeetilivu  of  tlie  Nation  for  his 
eiiuniimilon,  and  should  it  receive  his  approba- 
tion be  xball  publUh  It  as  law. 

Art.  70.  tvery  bill  not  relume<l  within  ten 
workliiK  It.vs  by  the  Executive,  shall  bo  ukeuas 
apiiniv,,!  liy  him. 

Art.  71,  No  bill  entirely  rejected  by  one 
Houw,  can  be  presented  again  during  that  year. 
Bui  ulii.uld  it  be  only  ampintrd  or  corrected  by  Uie 
retWng  House.  It  shall  return  tn  that  wherein 
K'.:f:£trat;:d,  and  if  limit)  Um  aJUlliuus  ur  cur- 

'*  629 


rcctions  be  approved  by  an  absolute  majority, 
it  shall  pass  to  the  Executive.  If  the  additions 
or  corrections  be  reiected,  it  shall  return  to  the 
revising  House,  and  if  here  they  be  again  sanc- 
tioned DT  a  majority  of  two-thirds  of  its  mem- 
bers, it  iball  pass  to  the  other  House,  and  It  shall 
not  be  understood  that  the  said  additions  and 
correctioiu  are  rejected,  unless  two-thirds  of  the 
membera  present  should  so  vote. 

Art.  7a.  A  bin  being  rejected  in  whole  or  In 
part  by  the  Executive,  he  shall  return  it  with  his 
objections  to  the  House  in  which  it  originated; 
here  it  shall  be  debated  again ;  and  if  it  be  con- 
firmed by  a  majority  of  two-thirds,  it  shall  pass 
again  to  the  revising  House.  If  both  Houses 
should  pass  tt  by  the  same  majority,  it  Kcomea 
a  law,  and  shall  be  sent  to  the  Executn-e  for 
promulgation.  In  such  case  the  votes  of  both 
H  luses  shall  be  by  yeas  and  nays,  aad  the  names 
of  the  persons  so  voting  shall  be  recorded,  as 
well  as  the  objections  of  the  Executive,  and  shall 
be  immediately  published  in  the  daily-press.  If 
the  House*  dufer  upon  the  objections,  the  bill 
cannot  be  renewed  during  that  year. 

Art.  73.  The  following  formula  shall  be  used 
in  the  passage  of  the  laws:  "The  Senate  and 
Chamber  of  Deputies  of  the  Argentine  Nation  in 
Congress  assembled,  etc..  decree,  or  sanction, 
with  the  force  of  law." 

Section  II.— Chapter  I. 

Article  74.  The  Executive  power  of  the  Na- 
tion shall  be  exerclscii  by  a  citizen,  with  the  title 
of  "President  of  the  Argentine  Nation." 

Art.  75.  In  case  of  the  sickness,  abNcncc  from 
the  capital,  death,  resignation  or  dismlssnl  of  the 
President,  the  Executive  power  shall  l)e  exer- 
cised by  tlie  Vice-President  of  the  Nation.  In 
case  of  the  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  in- 
ability of  the  President  and  Vicc-ftesldentof  the 
Nation,  Congress  will  determine  which  public 
functionary  shall  then  fill  the  Presidency,  until 
the  disability  be  removed  or  a  new  President  be 
elected. 

Art.  76.  No  person  except  a  natural-bom  citi- 
zen or  a  son  of  a  naturai-lxim  citizen  brought 
forth  abroad,  shall  lie  eligible  as  President  or 
Vice-President  of  the  Naliiin ;  he  is  reiiuiriKl  to 
liclong  to  the  Apostoliciioman-Catliollc  00m- 
munion,  and  posxess  tlie  otlier  qualifications  re- 
quired to  be  elected  Senator 

Art.  77.  The  IVsident  and  Vice  Pnaldrnt 
shall  hold  office  during  the  term  of  six  years; 
and  cannot  be  re-electetl  except  after  an  iuttrval 
of  an  equal  period. 

Art.  71.  The  President  of  the  Nation  "hall 
cease  in  hi*  functions  the  very  day  on  whicli  his 
period  of  six  years  expires,  and  no  event  what- 
ever which  may  have  iut«rrupted  It,  can  lie  a 
mntlve  for  complelliig  it  at  a  later  time. 

Art.  70.  The  Prcsl.ieiit  and  Vice-President 
shall  receive  a  compeiinatlon  from  the  Nntloual 
Treasury,  which  cannot  Ik>  altered  during  the 

Feriod  for  which  they  shall  have  been  elected, 
luring  the  same  peri<id  they  cannot  exirelse  any 
other  office  nor  receive  any  other  eimilument 
from  the  Nation,  or  aor  of  its  Provinces. 

Aft.  lo.  Tlie  Presldint  and  Vice  I'naident  be 
fore  entering  upon  tlie  execution  of  thiir  ollires, 
shall  take  the  following  oath  administered  bv  the 
Prtvident  of  the  Senate  (the  first  time  by  the 
President  of  the  Constituent  Congress)  in  Con- 
gress aasembiixi;  "i  tsuch  an  use;  swuar   ij 


CONSTirUTION :  ABQENTINE  REPUBLIC.      CONSTITUTION :  ABOKNTINE  REPUBUfl 

Art.  8s.  The  election  of  the  President  aai 
'reside-' -*"■--"  "        •   ■■  ■ 


W  i  I 


God  our  Lord,  and  by  these  Holy  Evangelists, 
that  I  will  faithfully  and  patriotically  execute 
the  office  of  President  (or  Vice-President)  of  the 
Nation,  and  observe  and  cause  to  lie  faithfully 
obBcrve<I,  the  Constitution  of  the  Argentine  Na- 
tion. If  I  should  not  do  so,  let  Ood  and  the 
Nation  indict  me." 

Chapter  II. 
Article  St.  The  election  of  the  President  and 
Vice-President  of  the  Nation,  shall  be  made  in 
the  following  manner: — The  capital  and  each  of 
the  Provinces  shall  by  direct  vote  nominate  a 
board  of  electors,  double  the  number  of  Depu- 
ties and  Senators  which  they  send  to  Congress, 
with  the  same  qualifications  and  under  the  same 
form  as  those  prescribed  for  the  election  of  Depu- 
ties. Deputies  or  Senators,  or  olflcers  in  the  pay 
of  the  Federal  Oovemment  cannot  be  electors. 
The  electors  being  met  in  the  National-caplul 
and  in  that  of  their  respective  Provinces,  four 
months  prior  to  the  conclusion  of  the  term  of 
the  out-going  President,  they  shall  proceed  by 
signed  ballow,  to  elact  a  President,  and  Vice- 
President,  one  of  which  shall  state  the  person  as 
President,  and  the  other  the  person  as  Vice-Presi- 
dent, for  whom  they  vote.  Two  lisU  shall  be 
made  of  all  the  individuals  elected  as  President, 
and  other  two  also,  of  those  elected  as  Vice- 
Pri'siilent,  with  the  number  of  votes  which  each 
may  have  received.  These  lists  shall  be  signed 
by  till-  electors,  and  shall  be  remitted  closed  and 
scaled,  two  of  them  (one  of  each  kind)  to  the 
President  of  the  Provincial  Legislature,  and  to 
the  President  of  the  Municipality  in  the  capital, 
among  whose  reconls  they  shall  remain  deposited 
and  closed ;  the  other  two  shall  be  sent  to  the 
Presiilent  of  the  Senate  (the  first  time  to  the 
President  of  th  j  Constituent  Congress). 

Art.  83.  Thj  President  of  the  Henate  (the 
first  tinii'  that  of  the  Constituent  Congress)  all 
the  li»t«  lieiug  received,  shall  open  them  in  the 
presi'iice  of  both  Uouses.  Four  members  of 
Congress  taken  by  lot  and  associated  to  the  Secre- 
taries, sliall  Immediately  proceed  to  count  tlio 
votes,  and  to  announce  the  number  which  may 
result  in  favor  of  oath  cjindlilate  for  the  Pn-gf- 
deniy  and  Vice-Presidency  i,f  the  Nation.  Those 
who  have  received  an  alwolute  majority  of  all 
the  votes  in  both  cases,  shall  be  immediately  pro- 
claimed I>resident  and  Vice-President. 

Art.  83.  In  case  there  be  no  absolute  ma- 
jority, on  account  of  a  division  of  the  votes.  Con- 
fTvM  shall  elect  one  of  the  two  persons  who  shall 
iuve  received  the  highest  numlmrof  votes.  If 
the  flrst  majority  should  have  fallen  to  a  single 
penuin.  and  the  soomd  to  two  or  more,  Congresa 
shall  elect  among  all  the  persons  who  may  hav 
olitJiini'd  the  first  and  second  majorities. 

Art.  84.  This  eh'Ction  sball  lie  made  by  abso- 
luU>  piurullly  of  votes,  and  voting  liy  name.  If. 
on  ciiumliig  the  first  vote,  no  alisolutc  majority 
shall  have  Tieen  oblaine)!,  a  second  trial  slull  be 
maiii',  limiting  the  voting  to  the  two  |H'rsons 
who  shall  have  olitainiil  the  greatest  numlier  of 
sultrages  ut  the  Bret  trial.  lu  casa-  of  an  eiiuul 
number  of  votes,  the  operation  shall  lie  repealetl, 
and  hIhiuIiI  tlie  result  lie  It:.;  same,  then  the  Presl- 
drnl  of  the  .Senate  (the  flrat  time  that  of  the  Con- 
slitiiint  (  iingreas)  nhall  decide  It,  No  scrutiny 
or  netilliaHiiu  of  these  elections  can  he  maile, 
unlcMi  three-fourth  parts  of  all  the  members  of 
the  L'uiigreaa  hv  priJKBt. 


Vice-President  of  the  Nation,  shall  be  concluae, 
in  a  single  meeting  of  the  Congress,  and  there 
after,  the  result  and  the  electoral  lists  shall  h 
published  in  the  daily-preaa. 

Chapter  III. 
Article  8&  The  President  of  the  Nation  hai 
the  foUowhig  attributes;—!.  He  is  the  supremf 
chief  of  the  Nation,  and  la  charged  with  tlit 
general  administration  of  the  countrj-.    2.  Ht 
tsaues  such  instructions  and  regulations  as  mat 
be  necessary  for  the  execution  of  the  laws  of  thj 
Nation,  taking  care  not  to  alter  their  spirit  with 
regulative  exceptions.    8.  He  is  the  immediate 
and  local  chief  of  the  National  capital.    4.  Ue 
partlcipatea  in  making  the  laws  acconliug  to  tlie 
Constitution;   and  sanctions   and    promulgates 
them.    S.  He  nominates  the  Judges  of  tlie  Su. 
preme  Court  and  of  the  Inferior  FiHlcral  tri- 
bunals, and  appointa  them  by  and  with  tlie  con- 
sent and  advice  of  the  Senate.    8.  He  lias  power 
to  pardon  or  commute  penalties  against  (iflccrs 
subject  to  Federal  Jurisdiction,  preceded  by  a 
report  of  the  proper  Tribunal,  eiceptlnir  in  case 
of  Impeachment  by  the  House  of  Depu'  ■».    7 
He  granU  retiring-penaions,  leaves  of  jljsence 
and  pawnbrokers'  licences,  in  conformity  to  tlie 
laws  of  the  Nation.    8.  He  exere'ises  the  rigliu 
of  National  Patronage  in  the  preseniutinn  o( 
Bishops  for  the  cathedrals,  choosing  from  a  ter- 
nary nomination  of  the  Senate.    9.  He  granU 
letters- patent  or  reiains  the  decrees  of  the  Coun- 
cils, the  bulls,  briefs  and  re'scripta  of  ilie  Holy 
Romap  Pontiff,  by  and  with  the  consent  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  and  mtut  require  a  law  for  tlie 
same  when  they  contain  general  and  |Hrinaiieot 
dlspoaitlons.     10.  He  appotnU  and  removes  llin- 
Istem  Plenipotentiary  and  Charge  d'AlTaires,  b/ 
and  with  f'vj  consent  and  advice  of  tin  Senate; 
and  himself  alone  appointa  and  lemuves  tUe  Min- 
isters of  hia  Cabinet,  the  officers  of  the  ISicretary- 
ships.  Consular  Agents,  and  the  ri'st  of  tlie  em- 
ployes of  the  Administration  vliow-  numiiiation 
Is  not  otherwise  ordained  by  this  Coiuiiiuiioa 
11.  He  annually  opens  the  Sessions  of  t'oiiKreM, 
both  Houses  being  united  for  this  pur|».se  lu  tlie 
Senate  Chamber,  giving  an  account  to  t'ougreaa 
00  this  occasion  of  the  state  of  the  Nittiun.  of 
the  reforms  provided  by  the  Constitution,  and 
recommending  to  ita  consideration  such  ineaauiei 
as  may  lie  Judgwl  necessary  and  convcnic  nt.    12, 
He  prolongs  the  onlinary  meetings  of  Cungreii 
or  convokes  It  in  extra  session,  wluii  a  (|iie»lkia 
of  progress  or  an  imixirtant  Intenst  mi  ri'iulres, 
18.  He  collects  the  renta  of  the  Nation  iiml  de- 
crees their  expenditun'  in  conformity  to  tin-  law 
or  estimates  of  tlie  Public  exixnsi's     14.  He 
negotiate!  and  signs  thoae  trpatle,<<  u(  [x-aee,  a( 
commerce,  of  navigation,  of  alliance,  ut  Imunda- 
ries  and   of   neutrality,   requisite  to  nutiuuua 
g(«id  nlallons  with  foreign  Iwiwers;  lie  nceives 
their  .MinisU'n  and  adniltii  their  I'lmxiils.    I'i   lie 
Is  commander  in  chief  of  all  the  sen  unit  laotl 
forees  of  the  Nation.     18.    He  i"n(ip<.  I'V  aiiJ 
with  the  consent  of  the  Si'nate.  tlie  bliili  ii'llltsrjr 
gnulea  in  the  army  and  navy  of  the  Nation;  and 
by  himself  on  the  field  of  liattle.     17.    He  dia- 
poaes  of   the  land    and   S(«  fnrce*,  and  lakes 
charge  of  their  organization  and  diairilnition  tc- 
coniiug  to  the  requirements  of  the  Niiiioii.    ID. 
Hy  tlie  authority  and  approval  of  Conttreas.  Its 
ik-i-lanm  «.»r  and  gnwts  letters  of  Biiir'jMi:  aa4 


630 


CONSTITUTION :  AHQBNTIKE  REPUBLIC.      CONSTITUTION :  ARGENTINE  REPUBUC. 


reprlnl.  18.  B"  and  with  the  conient  of  tlie 
Senate,  in  case  oiF  foreign  aggression  and  for  a 
limited  time,  he  declares  martial  law  in  one  or 
more  points  of  the  Nation.  In  case  of  internal 
commotion  he  has  this  power  only  when  Congress 
to  in  recess,  because  it  is  an  attribute  which  be- 
longs to  this  body.  The  President  exercises  it 
under  the  limitations  mentioned  in  Art  23.  20. 
He  may  require  from  the  chiefs  of  all  the 
branches  and  aepartments  of  the  Administration, 
and  tliruugli  them  from  all  other  employ^,  such 
reports  RS  he  may  believe  necessary,  and  they 
arc  compelled  to  give  them.  21.  He  cannot  ab- 
sent himself  from  the  capital  of  the  Nation  with- 
out permission  of  Congress.  During  the  recess 
be  can  only  do  so  without  permission  on  account 
of  important  objects  of  public  service.  22.  The 
President  sliall  have  power  to  fill  all  vacancies 
that  may  happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate, 
by  granting  commissions,  which  shall  expire  at 
the  end  of  their  next  session. 

Chapter  IV. 

Article  87.  Five  Minister-Secretaries;  to  wit, 
of  the  Interior;  of  Foreign  Affairs;  of  Finance: 
til  Justice,  Worslilp  and  Public  Instruction ;  and 
of  War  and  the  Navjr;  shall  have  under  their 
charge  the  dispatch  of  National  affairs,  and  they 
ihall  counter-sign  and  legalize  tlic  acts  of  the 
President  liy  means  of  their  signatures,  without 
which  requisite  they  shall  not  \k  etScacious.  A 
law  shall  determine  the  respective  duties  of  the 
Ministei's. 

Art  88.  Each  Minister  Is  responsible  for  the 
sets  wliicli  he  legalizes,  and  collectively,  for 
those  which  he  agrees  to  with  his  colleagues. 

Art.  89.  The  Ministers  cannot  determine  any- 
thing whatever,  by  themselves,  except  what  ciin- 
cems  the  economical  and  admlnistra*ivc  r<ginien 
of  their  respective  Departme:ils. 

Art.  90.  As  soon  as  C'oujr'ess  peuS.  'he  Min- 
isters shall  present  to  It  a  detudLif  repoif  of  the 
State  »f  the  Nation.  In  all  that  relates  to  tiicir 
respective  Departments. 

Art.  91.  They  cannot  be  Senators  or  Deputies 
wlthnut  realitning  their  places  as  Ministers. 

Art.  93,  The  Ministc-s  can  assist  at  the  meet- 
lni.'4  of  Congress  and  take  part  in  iu  debates, 
bu'  ii.y  cannot  vote. 

Art  93.  They  shall  receive  for  their  services  a 
cnmpeusaiion  estalillshed  bylaw,  which  shall  not 
be  Increamil  or  diminished,  iu  favor  or  against, 
the  actual  Incumbents. 

Section  III.— Chapter  I. 

Article  94.  The  Judicial  Power  of  the  Nation 
ihall  lie  exenlsed  by  a  Supreme  Court  of  Justin', 
ami  liy  >uih  other  inferior  Tribunals  as  Congress  - 
m»v  estiilillsh  wllliin  the  dominion  of  the  Nation. 

Art.  95.  The  President  of  the  Nation  cannot 
In  any  ease  whatever,  exercise  Judicial  powers,    i 
arrogate  to  himself  any  knowKilge  of  pending 
causes,  or  reopen  those  which  Imve  terminatetf 

Art.  06.  The  Judges  of  tin    .'Supreme  Court 
sad  nf  the  lower  Nallonal-Triliunals,  shall  ket'p  , 
their  pliiees  quamdiu  ae  bene  gesserit,  and  shall 
»K»lvi  fur  their  servUcs  •  ctinipensation  deter-   ' 
mine.!  l.y  law,  which  shall  not  Iw  diminished  In 
snv  Manner  whatever  during  their  continuance  i 
"    'ilice,  1 

Art.  97.  No  one  con  be  a  memlK-r  of  the  8u-  1 
prime  Court  of  Justice,  imleaa  he  shall  have  h«.n  I 
•a  .Uuruey  at  law  of  the  Watlon  for  eight  years,   j 


and  shall  possess  the  qualifications  required  for  a 
Senator. 

Art.  98.  At  the  first  installation  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  the  individuals  appointed  shall  take  an 
oath  administered  by  the  President  of  tlie  Nation, 
to  discharge  their  functions,  by  the  good  and  legal 
administration  of  Justice  according  to  the  pre- 
scriptions ot  this  Constitution.  Thereafter,  tlie 
oath  shall  be  taken  before  the  President  of  the 
Court  itself. 

Art.  09.  The  Supreme  Court  shall  establish 
its  own  Internal  an(f  economical  regulations,  and 
shall  appoint  its  subaltern  employ^. 

Chapter  II. 
Article  100.  The  Judicial  power  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  and  the  lower  National-Tribunals, 
shall  extend  to  all  cases  arising  under  this  Con- 
stitution, the  laws  of  the  Nation  with  the  reserve 
made  In  clause  11  of  Art.  67,  and  by  treaties  with 
foreign  nations;  to  all  cases  affecting  ambassa- 
dors, public  Ministers  and  foreign  Consuls;  to 
all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction; 
to  controversies  to  which  the  Nation  shall  be 

Party;  to  controversies  between  two  or  more 
rovinces;  between  a  Province  and  the  citizens 
of  another;  between  the  citizens  of  dilTerent 
Provinces;  and  between  a  Province  or  ito  citi- 
zens, against  a  foreign  State  or  citizen. 

Art.  tot.  In  these  cases  the  Supreme  Court 
shall  exercise  an  appelate  jurisdiction  according 
to  such  rules  and  exceptions  as  Congress  may 
prescribe;  but  In  all  cases  affecting  amba-ssadors, 
ministers  and  foreign  consuls,  or  those  in  which 
a  Province  shall  bo  a  party,  it  shall  exercise 
original  and  exclusive  jurisiiiction. 

Art.  102.  The  trial  of  all  ordinary  crimes  ex- 
cept in  cases  of  Impeachment,  shall  tenninate  by 
jury,  so  soon  as  this  institution  be  established  in 
the  Uepublic.  These  trials  sliall  be  held  in  the 
same  Province  where  the  crimes  shall  have  been 
committed,  but  when  not  committal  within  the 
frontiers  of  the  Nation,  but  against  International 
Law,  Congress  shall  determine  by  a  special  law 
the  place  where  the  trial  shall  take  effect. 

Art.  103.  Treason  against  the  Nation  shall 
only  consist  In  levying  war  against  it,  or  In  ad- 
hering to  Its  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  com- 
fort. Congress  sliall  fix  by  a  special  law  the 
punishment  of  trea.s<)n ;  but  it  cannot  go  b<>vond 
the  iierson  of  the  criminal,  and  r.'  attainder  of 
treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood  to  relatives 
of  any  grade  whatever. 

Art.  104.  The  Provlno's  keep  all  the  powers 
not  delegated  liy  this  Constitution  to  the  Federal 
Government,  and  those  which  were  expressly  re- 
served by  special  compacu  at  the  time  of  their 
iuei  rporation. 

Art.  105.  They  create  the'r  own  local  Inatttu- 
lliins  and  are  governed  by  these.  They  elect 
their  own  Governors,  theirliegislators  and  other 
Pnivlnilal  functionaries,  without  iutcrveutioD 
from  the  Federal  Government. 

Art.  106,  Kach  Pn>vince  shall  make  its  own 
Constitution  in  conformity  with  the  dispositions 
of  Art  5. 

Art.  107.  The  Provinces  with  the  consent  of 
('(ingress  can  celebrate  contracts  among  thcm- 
wlves  for  the  purposes  of  administering  ju.stlce 
and  promoting  economical  interests  and  worksof 
cimimim  utility,  and  also,  can  pass  protective 
|.iw«  fnr  the  pur«M»e  with  their  own  n-snuTm 
of  promoting  manufactures,   Immlgntion,  the 


dSl 


m 


l'<         »! 


CONSTITUTION :  ABGENTLNE  RBPUBUtt       CONSTITUTION :  AUSTRU-HUNQARy. 


building  of  railways  and  canals,  the  peopling  of 
their  lands,  the  introduction  and  establishment 
of  new  industries,  the  import  of  foreign-capital 
and  the  exploration  of  their  rivers. 

Art.  io8.  The  Provincea  cannot  exercise  any 
powers  delegated  to  the  NaUon.  They  cannot 
celebrate  compacU  of  a  political  character,  nor 
maltc  laws  on  commerce  or  internal  or  external 
navigation;  nor  establish  Provincial  Custom- 
Houses,  nor  coin  monev.  nor  establish  Banks  of 
emission,  without  authority  of  Congress;  nor 
make  civil,  commercial,  penal  or  mining  Codes 
after  Congress  shall  have  sanctioned  those  pro- 
vided for  in  this  Constitution;  nor  pass  laws 
upon  citizenship  or  naturalization ;  bankruptcy 
counterfeiting  money  or  public  Statedocumenta '; 
nor  u»y  tonnage  dues;  nor  arm  vessels  of  war  or 


m 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  AUSTRH. 
HUNGARIAN  EMPIRE.-l".7a  g™!K 
couut    of    the    Ausgleioh  or  airreement  uiul.-r 
which  the  duality  of  Uie  Austro  Hungarian  Em- 
pire was  arranged  In  lmi7,  sec  Austiua  :  A   1) 
lS86-lSUr,   and   1866-18S7.     The  following  de- 
scribes the  principal  featuresof  the  constitutiouui 
orgiiiuzation  of  the  empire:  "The  emperor  has 
an  absolute  veto  on  all  measuiea  in  all  of  the 
three  parliaments  after  named.      He  can  also 
•Iis»)lve  any  of  them.     The  legisUtivo  and  a<l- 
■.ini.<trali;c  assemblies  of  the  empire  are  four 
in  number,  viz.  :  (I).    The  Delegatlonen,  whi(  h 
is  ilie  imperial  parliament    (8).   The  Belchsratli 
and  the  Ik-ichstag,  which  are  the  parliaments 
for  Austria  pn)p<'r  and  Hungary  respectively 
(3).     The  Landtag,  which  is  the  parliament  for 
the  prci  mees of  the  empire  of  Austria.    (4),    Tlie 
Oemeinilerath  or  thi'  Oemeindeausschuss,  which 
are  the  coimriLs  of  the  communes,  but  they  have 
no  legislative  fuiietions  proper."    The  Delega- 
tlonen. or  imperial  parliament  of  the  d  lal  em- 
pire,  "acts  a.s  one   House,  but  meets  In  two 
cliamliers  or  bmiies,  one  for  Austria  and  one  for 
Hungary      Kacli  chamber  lias  60  members,  com- 
posed of  20  iiieiiiU.rs  elected  from  Uie   upper 
house  of  each  part  of  the  united  empire,  and  40 
from  the  lower.     It  is  electiil  for  one  vcar  only 
The  chambers  of  the  ini[wrial  parliament  niel't 
at  the  same  time  and  In  the  same  place  alter- 
nately in  Austria  and  Hungary,  and.  as  a  rule 
in  file  cities  of  Vienna  and  Buda-Pcsth      They 
legislate  for  the  united  empire  on  (1)  ''s  foreign 
policy    (2)  its  finances,  (»)  lu  army  and  navy 
and  (4)  for  the  affairs  of  Bosnia  and   Ilerzel 
govliia  as  they  have  no  Landtag  of  tlieir  own 
A  luiiilsler  of  state  for  each  of  the  first  three  of 
these  niatU'rs  controls  Its  departments,  while  the 
fourth  Is  under  the  management  of  th.'  common 
finance  minister.     The  ministers  arc  apis.lnted 
bv  tJie  emperor  after  consultation  with  leailers 
of  partl(|s.     The  presidents  of  the  Delegatlonen 
as  also  the  vie  presidenw,  must  be  members  of 
tlie  1  lumlK-rs,  butlhev  n-celve  no  ip.'clal  salarv 
They  are  il,.,i.sl  by  tile  members.     Each  chaiii 
bir  meets  siparaielv.  and  discusses  the  measures 
4ud  bills  sulimltusl  to  it  by  the  ministers  of 
•h  te,  or  by  any  i.ix  of  its  memben.     If  both 
cbambers  aitree  upon  il«.  matter  iubmitted  to 
tlieni    the  emperors  auiietion  is  obtained  to  it 
an.l   It  becomes  law.     If  the  chambers  cannoi 
agree,  after  each  of  them  has  discussed  the  mat- 
ter tline  times,    upon   writu-u   communication 
from  the  olli.r,  a  session  of  both  chambers  Is 
convened,   and   the  question  i«  decided   by  a 


raise  •rmies,  save  In  the  case  of  foreign  invadirm 
or  of  a  danger  so  imminent  tliat  It  admits  of  m 
delay,  and  tlien  an  account  thereof  must  be  im 
mediately  given  to  the  Federal  Oovernnient- or 
name  or  receive  foreign  agenta ;  or  admit  ww-I. 
ligious  orders.  " 

Art.  109.  No  Province  can  declare  or  makf 
war  to  another  Province.     Ita  complaints  must  be 

be  setUed  by  it.  Hostilities  de  facto  are  acts  oj 
civil-war  and  qualifiefl  as  seditious  and  tumultu' 
ouB,  which  the  General  Government  must  reoreis 
and  suffocate  according  to  law. 

Art.  110.  The  Provincial  Governors  ore  th« 
natural  agents  of  the  Federal  Ooverntmnt  to 
cause  the  fulHIment  of  the  laws  of  the  Na-ioa: 
See  AbokntinkUkpublic;  A    D.  IStJO-lSDl 


632 


majority  of  those  present,    lu,,  tliinis  of  tlie 
liiembers  of  the  house  must,  liowevir,  in  i',,-, 
case  be  in  atteiidunee.     In  the  ordinary  case  tiio 
quorum  of  each  chamber  is  30  members.    Tlic 
sittings  of  the  chambers  are  public,  but  tliev 
may  be  private  on  the  proposition  of  the  prisi 
ileiit  or  of  five  members,  and  voted  upon     The 
chambers  are  convened  by  the  writ  of  the  em- 
peror. .  .      Kach  chamber  appoints  24  liulEes 
to  hear  and  determine  any  et«ai-.s  wlilch  mav  be 
brought  against  the  ministers  of  tlie  er„«n  for 
breach  of  power.  .  .  .  Two  p.r  cent,  being  first 
•*'**   jf  """Sary.  the  balance  of  the  ininiria 
expenditure  is  liorne  in  the  proportion  of  TO  mr 
cent  by  Austria  and  80  per  c,  nt.  by  lluiiKaSr 
tlio  former  being  the  wealthier  eomilrv 
1  he  Keichsrath  [the  Austrian  purliaineutl 
consists  of  two  hoiisis  — one  eall.^l  tl,e  irerr™ 
House,  or  VpiKT  House ;  the  other  .all,  .1  tl,e 
Abgeordneten  Hoii.se.  I.  e.  the  lIoi:se  of  l),.pu. 
ties,  or  the  Lower  Ilousiv     It  is  ele.  ted  for  m.x 
years.     Tl>     ilerren  House  is  compose,!  of  a) 
1  rimes  of  ilie  imperial  houac,  wh,)  are  majors 
(2)  Chiefs  of  noble  houws,  owning  larire  i^iLes 
nominated   by   the  cmiM'ror,    who,  Isim;  iiiice 
uomlnatal,  are  members  for  life,  uinl  their  suc- 
cessors after  them,  and  so  tliis  class,  to  some 
extent.  Is  one  of  hcretlitarv  legislat,,rs.    (:|i  \rch. 
Iiishops  and  bishops  with"  the  dinnltv  of  prjua. 
(4)  Men  who  have  distingiiislutl  tliems,  1v,m  In 
science,  art,  commerce,  law,  ,)r  ni(Hli<in,',  who 
are  .lominiited  by  the  enineror  for  life  ,111  the 
advice  of  the  ministers  of  slate.     The'numlicr 
of  members  of  the  Upper  Hous.'  Is  not  Hxnl, 
but  it  Is  aliout  21K).   .  .  .  Tl„.   Lnw,.r  or  .\b- 
Kconineteii  House  is  that  of  tli,,l,  pull, »  ilattd 
by  the  people,  and  cinsists  of  «.-,:)  ni,  iiLliers.    It 
is  elccUxl  for  six  years.     The  p  ,)pl,.  vol,,  for  its 
members  in  four  classes  in  tliei,-  various  prov 
Inces.     The  first  class  are  the  owners  of  l«rp? 
estates,  who  elect  H!i  members.  .  .  ,  The  sietmil 
class  arc  those  who  pay  five  ll,>rins  of  dlr,i t  tsi- 
atlon  in  towns,  and  Iticliules  all  do,  tors  of  the 
universities,   whi'ther    they   pay   taxi-s  ,ir  not 
The  towns  are  gn>U|)ed  so  an  to'  give  one  mem- 
ber for  each  group.     The  groups  iiee,l  ii,.t  be  of 
eqiial  size.     Thiselass elecU  1  \h  memls  im     The 
third  class  Is  the  chambers  of  commerte  ami  in. 
dustry,    which    eliTt    9^i    inemt«Ts    .  .     The 
fourth  chtss  an'   the  menilurs  of  llii'  inimirv 
communi-s  who  pay  five  rtoriiis  of  ,lir,,t  inxa- 
tlon.     T' ey  elect  nil  memliers.     Tli,r,iiiinuiii,» 
for  this  purpose  atv  dlvidisl  into  groups  of  .Vki 
voters,  anil  a  certain  number  ,)f  coinmiiuisniske 
an  ete-jtoral  district.  .  .  .  The  cfcctiuos  aa-  sat 


CONSTITDTIOK:  AU8TRU-HUN0ART. 

all  held  on  o^e  day,  and  each  class  votes  by 
itsdf  in  each  province  on  a  particular  day.  The 
communes  vole  first,  then  the  citizens,  then  the 
chambers,  and  then  the  landowners,  all  on  dif- 
ferent days.  The  election  takes  place  in  a  pub- 
lic ball,  where  the  voters  gather ;  and  their  names 


CONSTITUTION  OF  BELGIUM. 

being  called  over,  if  present,  they  go  up  to  the 
presiding  officer,  and  vote  orally,  or  by  a  cai-d 
placwl  by  them  in  a  box.  If  not  present  when 
"'"ed  upon,  thty  can  attend  and  vote  later  on  " 
--J.  P.  Coldstream,  The  Inttitutioni  of  AuUria, 


On  page  2804  of  tbii  work,  under  Ksthsb- 
U5D8  (BsLOiuu):  A.  D.  1882-1893,  there  U 
given  some  account  of  the  revision  of  the  con- 
ititution  of  the  kingdom,  in  1898,  and  the  pecu- 
liar new  features  introduced  in  its  provisions, 
relative  to  the  elective  franchise.  The  follow- 
ing ii  a  translation  of  the  text  of  the  revised 
conititution: 

Title  I. 
Of  the  Territory  and  of  iti  DiTisient. 

Article  I.  Belgium  Is  divided  Into  provinces, 
there  provinces  are:  Antwerp,  Brabant,  West- 
em  Flanders,  Eastern  Flanders,  Huinaut,  Liige, 
Limburg,  Luxemburg,  Namur.  It  it  the  pn- 
rogative  of  law,  if  there  is  any  reason,  to  divide 
the  territory  into  a  larger  number  of  provinces. 
Colonies,  possessions  beyond  the  seas  or  pro- 
tectorates which  Belgium  miiv  acquire,  are  gov- 
erned by  particular  laws.  The  Belgian  forces 
appointed  for  their  defense  car  only  be  recruited 
by  voluntary  enlistment. 

Article  a.  The  subdivisions  of  the  provinces 
can  be  established  only  by  law. 

Article  3.  The  boundaries  of  the  SUte.  of  the 
provinces  and  of  the  communes  can  be  changed 
or  rectified  only  by  a  law. 

Title  II. 
Of  the  BelKiaas  and  their  Rights. 

Article  4.  The  title  Belgian  is  acquired,  pre- 
served and  lost  according  to  the  regulations  de- 
termined by  civil  law.  The  present  Constitution, 
and  otber  laws  relating  t:i  political  rights,  de- 
termine what  are,  in  addition  to  such  title,  the  con- 
ditloDi  necensiiry  for  the  exercise  of  these  rights. 

Articles.  Naturalization  Is  granted  by  the 
legiilatlve  power.  The  great  naturalisation, 
alone,  aasimllates  the  foreigner  to  the  Belgian 
for  the  exercise  of  political  rights. 

Article  6.  Tliere  is  uc  distinctloD  of  orders  in 
th«  SUte.  Belgians  ars  equal  before  the  law; 
they  alone  are  admisslMe  to  civil  and  military 
offices,  with  surh  excepti  ms  as  may  be  established 
by  law  in  particular  cases. 

Article  7.  Individual  iilierty  is  guaranteed. 
No  persnn  can  be  prosecuted  except  In  the  cases 
provided  for  by  law  and  in  the  form  which  the 
law  prescribes.  Except  in  the  case  of  flagrant 
miidernisnor,  no  person  can  be  arresteil  witliout 
the  onler  of  a  Judge,  which  must  be  served  at 
the  time  of  ilie  arrest,  or,  at  the  latest,  within 
twenty-four  hours. 

k.*".!?'*  ?•  •"*"  Pe"<">  am  be  deprived,  against 
hu  will  of  the  judge  assigned  to  him  by  law. 

Article  9.  No  punishment  can  be  esubllshsd 
or  sppMi'd  exrent  by  provision  of  law. 

Article  10.  The  domicile  is  inviolable;  no 
(lonilclli,ir>-  visit  can  be  made  otherwise  than  In 
U«  cases  pr,iv..led  for  by  Uw  and  in  ths  form 
which  it  prescribes. 

Aide  II.  No  u>rson  can  be  deprived  of  bis 
pperty  except  for  public  use,  in  the  cases  and 
"planner  esUbllshed  by  law.  sad  with  prior 


CONSTITUTION  OF  BELGIUM. 


ol 


Article  la.  The    penalty  of   confiscation 
goods  cannot  be  imposed. 

Article  13.  Civil  death  U  abolished:  it  cannot 
be  revived. 

Article  14.  Religious  liberty,  public  worship, 
and  freedom  of  expressed  opinion  in  all  matters  aia 
guaran  teeil,  with  a  reserve  for  the  repression  of  of  • 
fenses  committed  in  the  exercise  of  these  liberties. 
Article  15.  No  person  can  be  compelled  to 
Join,  in  any  manner  whatsoever,  in  the  acts  and 
ceremonies  of  any  worship,  nor  to  observe  Ita 
days  of  rest. 

Article  16.  The  State  has  no  right  to  interf'  re 
In  lie  appointment  nor  in  the  instellation  c'  the 
ministers  of  any  religion,  nor  to  forbid  them  to 
correspond  with  their  superiors  and  to  publish 
their  acts  under  the  ordinary  responsibility  of 
publication.  Civil  marriage  shall  always  pre- 
cede the  nuptial  benediction,  with  the  exceptions 
to  be  prescribed  by  law  in  case  of  need. 

Article  17.  Teaching  is  free;  all  preventive 
measures  are  forbidden:  the  repression  of 
offenses  is  regulated  only  by  law.  Public  in- 
struction given  at  the  expense  of  the  State  is  also 
regul.ited  by  liiw. 

Article  18.  The  press  Is  free;  censorship  can 
never  be  reestablished:  caution-money  from 
writers,  editors  or  printers  cannot  be  required 
When  the  autlior  is  known  and  Is  a  resident  of 
Belgium,  the  editor,  tlie  printer  or  the  distributor 
cannot  be  prosecuted. 

Article  19.  Belgians  have  the  right  to  meet 
peaceably  and  without  arms,  in  conformity  with 
such  laws  as  may  regulate  the  use  of  their  right 
but  without  the  requirement  of  a  previous 
authorization.  This  stipulation  dees  not  apply 
to  open  air  meetings,  which  remahi  entirely  sub- 
ject to  police  regulations. 

Article  20.  Belgians  have  the  right  of  associa- 
tion; this  right  cannot  be  subject  to  any  pre- 
ventive measure. 

Article  ai.  It  Is  the  right  of  every  person  to 
address  to  the  public  authorities  petitions  signed 
bv  one  or  several.  The  ciUMtltuted  authorities 
alone  have  the  right  to  aJdross  pe.ltions  in  a 
collective  name. 

Article  aa.  The  secrecy  of  correspondence  is 
inviolable.  The  law  determines  who  ara  the 
agenw  responsible  for  violation  of  the  secrecy  of 
letters  cont^ded  to  the  |«>st. 

Article  ai.  The  use  of  the  languages  spoken 
In  Belgium  fa  opilonal ;  it  can  1m?  prcscHbed  only 


by  law,  and  only  for  acts  of  public  auth-  rity 
and  for  judicial  traiisiwtions. 

Article  34.  Noprevi<iusaiithorizatlonisneces- 
sary  for  the  umlertakliig  of  proceei.ings  against 

fiubllc  officials,  on  arcount  of  acts  in  their  admln- 
stratiun,  except  that  which  laeLactedcoacerninc 
ministers. 

Title  III. 
O'  Powers. 
Article  15.  All  pon-e.-s  are  derived  frjm  tba 
naiiim.    They  an-  i-xcrHwd  In  the  laauter  pro- 
I  scribed  by  the  Constitution. 


633 


i 


m- ' 


CONSTITUTION  OF  BELGIUM. 

Article  at.  Legtslatire  power  ii  exercised  col- 
lectively by  ttie  King,  tbe  Ctuunber  of  Represen- 
tatives  sad  ttie  Senate. 

Article  37.  Ttie  initiative  lielongs  to  eacli  one 
of  tlie  three  branches  of  the  legislative  power. 
Nevertheless,  all  laws  relating  to  the  revenue  or 
to  the  expenditures  of  the  State,  or  to  the  con- 
tingent of  the  army  must  be  voted  first  by  the 
Chamber  of  Representatives. 

Article  38.  The  interpretation  of  laws  by 
authority  beloui;3  only  to  tbe  legislative  power. 

Article  39.  The  executive  power,  as  regulated 
by  the  Constitution,  belongs  to  the  King. 

Article  30.  The  iudicial  power  is  exercised 
by  the  courts  and  tribunals.  Decrees  and  judg- 
ments are  executed  in  the  name  of  the  King. 

Article  31.  Interests  exclusively  communal  or 
provincial,  are  regulated  by  tbe  communal  or 
provincial  councils,  according  to  the  principles 
established  by  the  Constitution. 

Chapter  First.— Of  The  Chamber*. 
Article  3a.  Members  of  both  Chambers  repre- 
sent the  nation,  and  not  merely  the  province  or 
the  subdivision  of  province  which  has  elected 
them. 

Article  33.  The  sittings  of  the  Chambers  are 
public.  Nevertheless,  each  Chamber  forms  itself 
Into  a  secret  committee  on  the  demand  of  Ita 
president  or  of  ten  members.  It  then  decides  by 
absolute  majority  whether  the  sitting  on  the  same 
subject  shall  bt'  resumed  publicly. 

Article  34.  Each  Chamber  veriflcs  the  powers 
of  iu  inumbera  and  decides  all  contests  on  the 
subject  that  may  arise. 

Article  35.  No  person  can  be  at  the  same  time 
a  meml)er  of  both  Chambers. 

Article  36.  A  memlwr  of  one  of  the  two 
Chambers  who  is  appointed  "jy  the  government 
to  any  salaried  olltcs,  except  that  of  minister, 
and  who  accepts  the  same,  ceases  immediately 
to  sit,  and  resumes  his  functions  only  by  virtue 
of  a  new  election. 

Article  37.  At  every  session,  each  Chamber 
elects  itji  president  and  its  vice-presidents  and 
forma  its  bureau. 

Article  38.  Every  resolution  is  adopted  by 
the  absolute  majority  of  the  votes,  excepting  as 
may  be  directed  by  the  rules  of  the  Chambers  in 
regard  to  elections  and  presentations.  In  case 
of  an  equal  division  of  votes,  the  proposition 
brought  under  ddilwration  is  rejecteif  Neither 
of  the  twoChanilwrs  can  adopt  a  resolution  un- 
less the  majority  of  its  members  is  present 

Article  39.  Votes  are  given  by  the  voice  or 
by  sitting  and  rising;  on  "I'ensemble  deslois" 
the  vote  is  always  Uken  by  the  call  of  the  roll 
of  names.  Elections  and  presentations  of  can- 
diilittes  arc  mode  by  ballot 

Article  4a  E'ir>:  Chamber  has  the  rl^ht  of  In. 
quiry  [nr  investigalion]. 

Article  41.  A  mil  can  be  passed  by  one  of  the 
ChsinlKTs  only  after  having  been  voted  article 
by  Hrtiole. 

Article  4J.  The  Chambers  have  the  right  to 
amend  ami  to  divide  the  articles  and  the  amend- 
ments propoM'il. 

Article  43.  The  presenting  of  petitions  In  per- 
son to  the  Chamlwrs  Is  forbidden.  Eiicli  Cham- 
ber has  ihi'  right  u>  refer  to  ministers  the  (letitions 
that  are  aiidrtuscd  to  it  Ministers  are  required 
to  give  explauatioQS  wbeneTer  the  Chamber 
requires  them. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  BELGIUM. 


neraber  of  either  Chamber  esq 

'ImI  to  account  for  opinions 

en  by  him  in  the  perform- 


Article  44.  y 
be  prosecuted  o 
expressed  or  vo' 
ance  of  his  dutii ». 

Article  45.  No  member  of  either  Chamber  cao 
be  prosecuted  or  arrested  in  affaini  of  reiiri'Mion. 
during  the  session,  without  the  authorization  of 
the  Chamber  of  which  he  is  a  menilwr  eiceot 
the  case  be  "de  flagrant  Jelit."  No  hiHlily  con- 
straint  can  be  exercised  against  a  member  of 
either  Chamber  during  the  session,  except  with 
the  same  authorization.  The  detention  or  tlie 
prosecution  of  a  member  of  either  (."Imralier  li 
suspended  during  the  whole  session  if  tlie  Cliam- 
ber  so  requires. 

Article  46.  Each  Chamber  determines  bv  Iti 
rules  the  motle  la  which  it  will  exercise  Itt 
powers. 

Section  L— Of  the  Chamber  of  Represents- 
tivet. 

Article  47.  Deputies  to  the  Chamber  of  Rep. 
resentati.es  are  elected  directly  umicr  the  fol- 
lowing  conditions:  A  vote  is  conferred  on 
citizens  who  have  complete<l  their  25ih  year 
who  have  resided  for  at  least  one  year  in  the 
same  commune,  and  who  are  not  witliin  one  of 
the  cases  of  exclusion  provided  for  by  law.  A 
supplementary  vote  is  conferred  on  each  citizen 
who  fulfills  one  of  the  following  conditions:  1 
To  have  completed  35  years  of  age,  to  he  married 
or  to  be  a  widower  having  legitimate  offspring' 
and  to  pay  to  the  State  a  tax  of  not  less  than  5 
francs  on  account  of  dwelling-houses  or  build- 
ings occupied,  unless  exempted  by  reason  of  lili 
Srofession.  2.  To  have  completed  the  age  oj 
5  vears  and  to  be  owner :  Either  of  real  property, 
valued  at  not  less  than  2,000  franca  to  be  rated 
on  the  basis  of  the  "  revenu  eudBstral,"orof  a 
"  revenu  cadastral  "  proportioniil  to  that  value' 
Or  of  an  inscription  in  the  great  boolt  of  il.c  pub- 
lic debt,  or  of  a  "carnet  de  rente  IM^' "  at  the 
aavings  bank  of  at  least  lOO  fmncs  of  "rente." 
The  inscriptions  and  bank  books  must  have  be. 
longed  to  the  incumbent  for  at  least  two  years 
and  a  half  The  property  of  the  wife  is  assigned 
to  the  husband;  that  of  children  under  age,  to 
the  'ither.  Two  supplementarv  votes  are 
assigned  to  citizens  fully  25  years'  of  age  who 
are  included  in  one  of  the  following  mws:  A. 
To  be  the  holder  of  a  iliploma  of  liiglur  instruc- 
tion or  of  a  similar  certifleatc  of  attenilniiie  an  t 
complete  course  of  medium  instnieliun  of  the 
higher  degree,  without  distinction  iKiwieii  pub. 
lie  and  private  establishments.  II.  Totillurto 
have  filled  a  public  ofBco.  to  oecu|iv  or  to  have 
occupied  a  position,  to  practise  or  "to  Imvc  prac- 
tised a  private  profession,  whieli  iniplies  the  sup- 
position that  the  titulary  has  at  least  m  average 
education  of  the  higher  degree  The  law  ilc- 
terminoa  these  functions,  posiiioiis  ami  profes- 
sions, as  well  OS,  In  given  cases,  llu-  time  during 
which  Uiey  shall  have  been  oerii|ile(l  or  prac- 
tised. No  person  can  accuniulaiu  more  than 
three  votes. 

Article  48.  The  constitution  of  the  electonl 
colleges  Is  regulated  by  law  for  eaeli  piovince. 
The  vote  is  obligatory  and  takes  place  In  th« 
commune  with  exceptions  to  he  determined  by 
law. 

Article  49.  The  electoral  law  flics  tbe  nun- 
ber  of  deputies  acconling  to  the  popiilstloi;; 
Uiis  uumher  cannot  exceed  the  propurtiun  of  s 


a- 


684 


CONBirnTTIOIT  OF  BELGIUM. 

deputy  for  40,000  InhtbituU.  It  detennfaiM 
tita  the  qualiflcations  of  an  elector  and  the  mode 
o(  the  electoral  operations. 

Article  50.  To  be  eligible,  it  li  necemty:  1. 
To  be  a  Belgian  by  birth  or  to  have  receWed  the 
"mod  naturalization";  9.  To  enjoy  civil  and 
poHticsl  righU;  8.  To  have  completed  3S  yean 
of  age;  4.  To  reside  in  Belgium.  No  other  con- 
dition of  eligibility  can  lie  required. 

Article  51.  The  members  of  the  Chamber  of 
RepreseatatlTes  are  elected  for  four  years.  Half 
of  tbem  are  changed  every  two  years,  according 
to  the  Older  of  the  series  determined  br  the 
electoral  law.  In  case  of  dissolution,  the  Cham- 
tier  Is  entirely  renewed. 

Article  53.  Each  member  of  the  Chamber  of 
BepresentatiTes  receives  a  yearly  indemnity  of 
4,000  franca.  He  is,  besides,  entitled  to  free 
travel  on  the  State  railways  and  on  the  "  con- 
ceded "  railways,  from  his  residence  to  the  city 
where  the  session  is  held. 

Section  II.— Of  the  Stoat*. 

Article  53-  The  Senate  Is  composed:  1.  Of 
memtjera  elected  in  proportion  to  the  population 
of  each  province,  conformably  to  Art.  47;  though 
the  law  may  require  that  the  electors  shall  be 
30  years  of  age,  the  provisions  of  Art.  48  are 
ipplicable  to  the  election  of  these  senators. 
8.  Of  members  elc  ed  by  the  provincial  coun- 
cils, to  the  number  of  two  from  each  province 
baring  less  than  600, 000  Inhabitants,  of  three  from 
each  province  having  from  500,000  to  1,000,000 
of  Inhaliltants,  and  of  four  from  each  province 
hivini;  more  than  one  million  of  Inhabitants. 

Article  54.  The  number  of  senators  elected 
directly  by  the  electoral  body  Is  equal  to  half 
the  numlwr  of  the  members  of  the  Chamber  of 
Represi'ntattves. 

Article  <$•  Senators  are  elected  for  eight 
years;  half  of  them  are  changed  every  four 
years,  according  to  the  order  of  the  aeries  deter- 
mined by  the  electoral  law.  In  case  of  dissolu- 
tion, the  Senate  is  entirely  renewed. 

Article  56.  To  be  eligible  for  ekctlon  and  to 
rtmain  a  senator,  it  is  necessary  -  1.  To  be  1 
Belgian  by  birth  or  to  have  received  the  "  grande 
natumllMtlon";  8.  To  enjoy  civf  ani  rilitiral 
rlghU;  8.  To  resldein  Belglu  .  •  I.j8t 

40  years  of  age;  8.  To  pay  1'  »  of 

the  State  at  leaat  l.aOO  fran.  xes. 

patents  included ;  Or  to  be  'o  •  or 

usufructuary  of  real  proper  Be! 

Kium.  the  cadastral  revenue  .  |a  at 

feast  12.000  francs.    In  the  pr>  .fhere  th. 

numlKT  of  those  eligible  does  not  attain  the  pn 
portion  of  one  In  8,000  Inhabltanta.  the  list  is 
Mmplpu-d  by  adding  the  heavleat  tax-payers  of 
the  pniviuce  to  the  extent  of  that  proportion. 
Utizens  whose  names  are  Inscribed  on  the  com- 
plementary Mat  are  eUgtble  only  In  the  province 
where  tlicy  reside. 

Article  sfl  bla.  Senators  elected  by  the  provin- 
cial couucils  are  exempted  from  all  conditions  of 
census;  they  cannot  belong  to  the  assembly 
wlilch  elects  them,  nor  can  they  have  been  a 
member  of  It  during  the  year  of  the  election,  nor 
ilunn)t  the  two  previous  yean. 
Indem  i'*  *''  *°'^"  receive  neltlMr  laltry  nor 

-.*"'u'*v!';  7^  ^'°f'i  sons,  or  in  their  ab- 
"nc.  the  &lgf«n  Princes  of  the  branch  of  the 
tioysl  family  called  to  reign,  ar«  b/  rifht  lena- 


CONSTITUnOlT  OF  BELOIUM. 

tor*  at  18  years  of  age.  They  have  a  delibera- 
tive voice  only  at  25  years  of  age. 

Article  S9.  Any  aasembly  of  the  Senate  which 
may  be  held  outalde  the  time  of  .he  session  of 
the  Chamber  of  RepreaentaMves  is  null  and 
void. 

Chapttr  II.-Of  th*  King  and  hia  Miaiatera. 
Section  II.— Of  the  Kins. 
Artlcl*  60.  The  constitutional  powers  of  the 
King  are  hereditary  in  the  direct,  natural  and 
legitimate  descent  from  His  Majesty  Leopold- 
Qeorge-Christian-Prederick  of  Saxe-Coburg  from 
male  to  male,  by  order  of  prinicgeniture,  and  to 
the  perpetual  exclualon  of  the  females  of  their 
line.  The  prince  who  marries  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  King  or  of  those  who,  in  his  absence, 
exercise  his  powers,  in  the  cases  provided  for  by 
the  Constitution,  shall  forfeit  his  rights.  Never- 
theless he  can  be  restore<l  to  his  righto  by  the 
King  or  bv  those  who.  In  his  absence,  exercise 
his  authority  in  the  cases  provided  for  by  the 
Constitution,  with  the  consent  of  both  Chambers. 

..''''  *'•  ^^  <l*''>ult  of  male  descendanto  of 
his  Majesty  Leopold-OeorgeChristian  Frederick 
of  Saxe-Coburg,  the  King  can  name  bis  succes- 
sor, with  the  assent  of  the  Chambers,  expressed 
In  the  manner  prescribed  by  the  following 
article.  If  no  nomination  has  been  made  ac- 
cording to  the  proceeding  here  stated,  the  throne 
will  be  vacant. 

Article  63.  The  King  cannot  be,  at  the  same 
time,  the  chief  of  another  State,  without  the 
consent  of  both  Chambers.  Neither  of  the  two 
Chambers  can  deliberate  on  this  subject  if  two- 
thirds  at  least  of  the  members  who  compose  It 
are  not  present,  and  the  resolution  la  adopted 
only  if  It  receives  two-thirds  at  least  of  the  votes 
cast. 

Article  63.  The  person  of  the  King  is  Invio- 
lable :  his  ministers  are  responsible. 

Article  64.  No  act  of  the  King  can  have  effect 
If  It  Is  not  countersigned  by  a  minister,  who 
thereby,  makes  himself  reapiiuslble. 

Article  65.  The  King  appoints  and  dismisses 
his  ministers. 

Article  M.  He  confers  the  grades  In  the  army 
He  appolnto  to  the  offlces  of  general  administra- 
tion and  of  foreign  relations,  with  tlic  exceptions 
determined  by  law.  He  appoints  to  other  ofHces 
only  by  virtue  of  express  provisions  of  a  law. 

Article  67.  Ho  makes  the  ruL'ulations  and  de- 
crees necessary  to  the  execution  of  the  laws, 
without  power  to  suspend  the  laws  themselves, 
nor  to  exempt  from  their  execution. 

Article  68.  The  King  commiimls  the  land  and 
naval  forces,  declares  war,  makes  treaties  of 
peace,  of  alliance,  and  of  conimerra.  He  an- 
nounces them  to  the  Chambers  as  soon  as  the  In- 
terest and  the  safety  of  the  Stote  admit  of  It. 
adding  to  them  appropriate  communications. 
Treaties  of  commerce  and  those  wlilcli  might 
burden  the  State  or  bind  Helgiims  imlivlilually 
become  effective  only  after  having  rcceivtil  the 
approval  of  the  Chambers.  No  cession,  nor  ex- 
change, nor  addition  of  territory  can  take  place 
without  authority  of  a  law.  In  no  case  can  the 
secret  articles  of  a  treaty  be  destructive  to  the 
open  articles. 

Article  69.  The  King  sanctions  and  promul- 
gates the  laws. 

Article  70.  The  Chambers  meet  by  right  every 
year,  on  the  id  Tuesday  In  November,  unleM 


iti 


535 


OONSTTTUTIOK  07  BSLOIUX. 

prevlouily  lummoned  by  ths  Kins.  The  Chtm- 
ben  must  remain  in  seHion  tt  MMt  40  dayi  in 
eadi  year.  Tlie  King  declares  tlie  cloeing  of  tbe 
eeuion.  Tlie  King  hai  the  right  to  call  extra 
leuions  of  tbe  CbsmlKn. 

Article  71.  The  King  hai  the  right  to  dlMolve 
the  Chambers,  either  simuitaDeou.Jy  or  sepa- 
rately ;  the  act  of  dissolution  to  contain  a  convo- 
cation of  the  electors  withiu  forty  days  and  of 
tbe  Chambers  within  two  months. 

Article  73.  The  King  may  adjourn  tbe  Cham- 
bers. Tbe  adjournment,  however,  cannot  ex- 
ceed the  term  of  one  month,  nor  be  renewed  in 
tbe  same  session,  without  the  consent  of  the 
Cbamt>ers. 

Article  73.  He  has  the  right  to  remit  or  to  re- 
duce penalties  prououcced  by  the  judges,  except 
those  which  are  enacted  concerning  the  min- 
isters. 

Article  74.  he  has  the  right  to  coin  money,  in 
execution  of  the  law. 

Article  75.  Ho  has  the  right  to  confer  titles  of 
nobility,  without  power  to  attach  any  privi- 
lege to  them. 

Article  76.  He  confers  the  military  orders, 
observing  in  that  regard  what  the  Uw  pre- 
scriljes. 

Article  77.  The  law  Axes  the  civil  list  for  the 
duration  of  each  reign. 

Article  78.  The  King  has  no  other  powers 
than  those  formally  conferred  on  him  by  the 
Constitution,  and  by  laws  enacted  pursuant  to 
the  Constitution. 

Aiticle79.  On  tbe  death  of  the  King,  the 
Chamlx^rs  meet  without  convocation,  not  later 
than  the  tenth  day  after  that  of  his  decease.  If 
tbe  Chambirs  bad  been  previously  dissolved,  and 
if  the  eonvoi'atlou  had  been  fixed  in  the  act  of 
dissolution  for  a  later  date  than  tbe  tenth  day, 
the  old  Chambers  resume  their  functions  until 
the  meeting  of  those  which  are  to  take  their 
place.  If  one  Chamber  only  had  been  dissolved, 
the  same  rule  is  followed  with  regard  to  that 
Charalier.  From  the  death  of  the  King  and 
until  his  successor  on  the  throne  or  the  i«gent 
has  takun  tbe  oatli.  tbe  constitutional  powers  of 
the  King  are  exercised,  in  the  name  of  the  Bel- 
gian nation,  by  tbe  ministers  assembled  in  council 
kod  under  tlicir  responsibility. 

Article  80.  Tbe  King  is  of  age  when  he  has 
completed  his  IStli  year.  He  takes  possession 
of  tbe  throne  only  after  having  solemnly  taken, 
In  the  midst  of  the  Chambers  assembled  together, 
the  following  oath:  "I  swear  to  observe  the 
Constitution  and  the  laws  of  the  Belgian  people, 
to  miiiutain  tbe  national  independence  and  to 
preserve  tbe  Integrity  of  the  territory." 

Article  81.  If,  on  the  death  of  the  King,  his 
succe.ssor  Is  a  minor,  both  Chambers  meet  in 
one  bixl)  for  tbe  purpose  of  providing  for  tbe 
regency  and  the  guardianship. 

Article  8>.  If  It  is  Impossible  for  tbe  King  to 
reign,  tlie  niinlsttTs,  after  having  caused  that 
Inability  to  Iw  established,  convoke  the  Cham- 
bers Inimeiliately.  Guardianship  and  regency 
are  to  he  provided  for  by  tbe  Chambers  con- 
vened. 

Article  83.  The  regency  can  be  conferred  on 
one  person  only.  The  regent  enters  upon  his 
duties  only  after  he  has  taken  the  oath  pre- 
scribed by  Article  80. 

Article  84.  N.)  change  can  be  made  in  the 
Constitution  during  a  regency. 


ooxroirruTioN  op  Belgium. 

...  ^^J!^*  •*  In  case  of  »  vacancy  on  tbe  throne. 
the  Chambers  deliberating  together,  arrange  pS 
vislonally  for  tae  regency  untU  the  meeting  of 
nt-»  Chambers,  that  meeting  to  Uke  place  withta 
two  months,  at  the  latest.  The  new  Chainben 
deliberating  together  provide  definitely  for  Uu 
vacancy. 

Section  II.— Of  the  Ministers. 

Artid*  86.  No  person  can  be  a  minister  who 
is  not  a  Belgian  by  birth,  or  who  has  not  re- 
ceived the  "grande  naturalization." 

Article  87.  No  member  of  the  royal  f»mll» 
can  be  a  uilnlster.  ' 

Article  88.  Ministers  have  a  deliberative  voice 
In  either  Chamber  only  when  they  are  memben 
of  it  They  have  free  admission  Into  each 
Chamber  and  must  have  a  hearing  when  tbey 
ask  for  it.  The  Chambers  may  require  the  pret- 
ence of  minlsten. 

Article  89.  In  no  case,  can  the  order  of  the 
King,  verbal  or  written,  relieve  a  minister  of 
responsibility. 

Article  9a  The  Chamber  of  Representatives 
has  the  right  to  accuse  ministers  n"d  to  r'\\m 
them  before  the  Court  of  Cassation  [.^iiicjl 
which  alone  has  tbe  right  to  judge  tin  m,  the 
united  Chambers  reserving  wh»t  may  be  enacted 
by  law  concerning  civil  action  by  a  psrty 
wronged,  and  as  to  crimes  and  miaderaeanoti 
which  ministers  may  have  committcii  outside  of 
th"  performance  of  their  duties.  A  luw  absll 
dt.  <  mine  tbe  cases  of  responslbilltv,  the  penal. 
ties  to  be  inflicted  on  V-  ministers,  iij  the 
manner  of  proceeding  against  them,  either  upon 
the  accusation  admlttedl)y  the  Chamber  of  Rep. 
resentatlves,  or  upon  prosecution  by  partlet 
wronged. 

ArticJe  01.  The  King  may  pardon  a  minister 
sentenced  by  the  Court  of  Cassation  only  upon 
the  request  of  one  of  the  two  Chaml)ers. 

Chapter  III.— Of  the  Judiciary  Power. 

Article  ga.  Contests  concerning  civil  rights 
are  exclusively  within  the  jurisdiction  of  tbe 
tribunals 

Article  93.  Contests  concerning  political  rights 
are  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  tribunals,  with 
exceptions  determined  by  law. 

Article  94.  No  tribunal  can  be  established 
otherwise  than  by  law.  Neither  conimlsilons 
nor  extraordinary  tribunals,  under  any  denomi- 
nation wtutever,  can  be  created. 

Article  95.  There  la  for  tlie  whole  of  Belgium 
one  Court  of  Cassation.  This  Court  d.iei  not 
consider  the  ground  of  causes,  except  In  tha 
judgment  of  ministers. 

Article  96.  Sittings  of  tbe  tribuunls  are  puh 
lie,  unless  such  publicity  be  dangerous  m  order 
or  morals,  and  in  that  case  the  triliurmi  dccltret 
it  by  a  judgment.  In  the  matter  of  political  or 
press  offenses,  the  exclusion  of  the  |iulilic  mutt 
be  voted  unanimously. 

Article  97.  The  ground  of  every  juileraent  It 
t~  be  stated.     It  Is  pronounctd  in  puhlic  Mttlng. 

Article  98.  The  jury  is  estubli.'^lic'ii  in  ullctim. 
IdsI  cases,  and  for  political  and  pnsM  olTensei. 

Article  99.  The  judges  uf  the  pcuce  and 
judTOS  of  the  tribunals  are appoiniiMi  dinitly  by 
the  King.  Councillors  of  tbe  Courts  of  appeal 
sud  presidents  and  vice-presidents  of  tlie  (»urti 
of  original  jurisdiction  are  appninteil  by  the 
King,  from  two  double  lists,  prcsi  nua,  r.nc  bf 
thoM  court*  and  the  other  by  the  provUicUl 


6S6 


CONSTITUTION  OP  BKLQIUlt 

Ooundlt.  Councillon  of  the  Court  of  CuMtlon 
in  appointed  bv  the  King  from  two  double  lUta, 
one  presented  by  the  Senate  and  the  other  by 
the  Court  of  Cassation.  In  these  wo  cases  the 
cudMstes  whose  names  are  on  one  list  may  also 
be  Inscribed  on  the  other.  All  presentations  are 
nude  public  at  least  fifteen  days  before  the  ap- 
pointment. The  courts  choose  their  presider'* 
uid  Tice-pre!idents  from  among  their  members. 

Article  loa  Judges  are  appointed  for  life. 
No  judge  can  be  deprived  of  bis  position  or  sus- 
pended, except  by  a  judgment.  The  displace- 
ment of  a  judge  can  take  place  only  through  a 
new  appointment  and  with  his  consent 

Article  loi.  The  King  appoints  and  dismissea 
the  public  prosecutors  to  the  courts  and  tribunals. 

Article  loa.  The  salaries  of  the  members  of 
the  Judicial  order  are  fixed  by  law. 

Article  103.  No  judge  may  accept  salaried 
olBies  from  the  government  unless  he  exercises 
tbem  gratuitously,  and  excluding  the  cases  of 
incompatibility  defined  by  law. 

Article  104.  There  are  three  courts  cf  appeal 
in  Belgium.  The  law  determines  their  jurisdic- 
tion and  the  places  in  wiilch  they  shall  be  estab- 
lished. 

Article  105.  Special  enactments  regulate  the 
organizntion  of  military  courts,  their  powers,  the 
lights  and  obligations  of  the  member]  of  such 
courts,  and  the  duration  of  their  functions. 
There  are  tribunals  of  commerce  in  the  places 
determined  by  kw,  which  regulate  their  organ- 
iiatlon.  their  powers,  the  mmle  of  appointment 
of  their  membiers  and  the  term  of  the  Utters' 
duties. 

Article  io4.  ConCicts  of  jurisdiction  are  set- 
tled by  the  Court  of  Cassation,  according  to 
proceediL.gs  regulated  by  law. 

Article  107.  Courts  and  tribunals  shall  apply 

emeral,  proTliiclal  and  local  decisions  and  regu- 
lions  only  so  far  as  they  are  conformable  to 
tbelawa 

Chapter  IV.— Of  ProTiodal  and  Communal 
Institutiona. 

Article  108.  Provincial  and  coirmunal  instl- 
tutlohs  are  regulated  by  the  laws.  These  law4 
sanction  the  application  of  the  following  r  -"nc;. 
•'"■>:    1.  Direct  election,   with  the   ei  is 

the  law  may  establish  in  regard  .e 

chle.  of  rninmunal  administration  and  tl  v- 
erament  commissioners  to  the  provincial  umn- 
cils:  2.  The  assigning  to  provincial  and  com- 
munal councils  of  all  which  is  of  provincial  and 
communal  interest  without  prejudice  to  the  ap- 
proval of  their  acts  in  the  cases  and  according  to 
the  proceedings  which  law  determines;  8  The 
publicity  of  the  sittings  of  tlie  provincial  and 
Kimmunal  councils  within  the  limits  established 
07  law;  4.  The  publicity  of  budgeU  and  ac- 
eounts;  5.  The  intervention  of  the  King  or  of 
the  iepislative  power  to  prevent  the  provincial 
uu  communal  councils  from  going  beyond  their 
powers  and  injuring  the  general  welfare. 

Article  109.  The  drawing  up  of  certificates  of 
Mrth,  marriage  and  death,  and  the  keeping  of 
the  r-gisters,  are  the  exclusive  pntogativM  of 
eoBuauaal  authorities. 

Title  IV, 
Of  the  FtiiancM, 
Artie!*  no.  No  tax  for  the  profit  of  the  State 
•abe  impoNd  otherwiM  Uu4  bj  •  Uw.    No 


CONSTrrCTION  OP  BELOIUM. 

charge  or  proTinnlal  assessment  can  be  imposed 
without  the  consent  of  the  provincial  council. 
No  charge  or  communal  assessment  can  be  im- 
posed, without  the  consent  of  the  communal 
(muncll.  The  law  must  determine  those  excep- 
tions of  which  experience  will  show  the  necessity 
in  the  matter  of  provincial  and  communal  impo- 
sitions. 

Article  »i».  Taxes  for  the  profit  of  the  State 
are  voted  annually.  The  laws  which  impose 
them  are  valid  for  one  year  only,  unless  renewed. 

Article  iia.  There  can  be  no  creation  of  privi- 
lege ir  the  matter  of  taxes.  No  exemption  from 
nor  diminut'"n  of  taxes  can  be  established  other- 
wise than  b    a  1a<.'. 

Article  113.  Btyond  the  cases  expressly  ex- 
cepted by  law,  no  payment  can  be  exacted  from 
citizens,  otherwise  than  in  taxes  levied  f3r  the 
profit  of  the  State,  of  the  province,  or  of  the 
commune.  No  innovation  is  made  on  the  actu- 
ally existing  system  of  the  polders  and  the 
wateringen,  which  remain  subject  to  the  ordi- 
nary legislation. 

Article  114.  No  pension,  nor  gratuity  at  the 
expense  of  the  public  treasury  can  be  granted 
without  authority  of  law. 

Article  115.  Each  year,  the  Chambers  deter- 
mine the  law  of  accounts  and  vote  the  budget 
All  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  the  State 
must  be  entered  in  the  budget  and  In  the  ac- 
counts. 

Article  116.  The  members  of  the  court  of 
accounts  are  appointed  by  the  Chamber  of  Rep- 
resentatives and  for  the  term  fl.ied  by  law.  That 
court  is  intrubted  with  the  examination  nnd  the 
settlement  of  the  accounts  of  the  general  admin- 
istration and  of  all  the  accountants  for  the  pub- 
lic treasury.  It  sees  that  no  article  of  the  ex- 
penses of  the  budget  has  been  exceeded  and  that 
no  transfer  has  taken  place.  It  determines  the 
accounts  of  the  different  administrations  of  the 
State  and  is  required  for  that  purpose  to  gather 
all  information,  and  all  documents  that  may  Iw 
I  ;cessary.  The  general  account  of  the  State  li 
submitted  to  the  Chambers  with  the  observa- 
tions of  the  court  of  accounts.  This  court  Is 
organized  by  law. 

Article  117.  The  salaries  and  pensions  of  the 
ministers  of  religion  are  paid  by  the  State;  the 
sums  required  to  meet  these  expenses  are  entered 
annually  In  the  budget 

Title  V. 
Of  the  Army. 

Article  118.  The  mode  of  recruiting  the  army 
is  determined  by  law.  The  law  also  regulates 
promotions,  and  the  rights  and  obligations  of 
the  military. 

Article  no.  The  coptingent  of  the  army  is 
voted  annually.  The  law  that  fixes  It  is  of  force 
for  one  vear  onlv.  unless  renewed. 

Article  130.  The  organization  and  the  power* 
of  the  gendarmerie  are  the  subject  of  a  law. 

Article  lat.  No  foreign  troops  can  00  admitted 
to  the  service  of  the  State,  nor  to  occupy  or  past 
through  iu  territory,  except  by  provision  of  law. 

Art  e  123.  There  Is  a  civic  guard ;  itaorganl- 
latiou  I  regulated  by  law.  The  ofilcers  of  all 
ranks,  up  to  that  of  captain  at  least,  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  g  ards  witi  exceptions  judged 
necessary  for  the     countant*. 

Article  133.  lue  mobilization  of  the  dvtc 
fuard  can  occur  only  by  direction  of  Uw. 


537 


CONSTITUTION  OP  BELGIUM, 

Article  134.  Military  men  can  be  deprived  of 
tneir  gnules,  honors,  and  peniiona  only  in  the 
manner  determined  by  law. 

Title  VI. 
General  Prorisioni. 

Article  135.  The  Belrian  nation  adopts  the 
colors  khI,  yellow  and  black,  and  for  the  arms 
of  the  kingdom  the  Belglc  Hon  with  the  motto- 
"  L'  Union  fait  l«  Force  "  [•■  Union  is  Strength  " ]. 

Article  138.  The  city  of  Bruss-ls  is  the 
capital  of  Belgium  and  the  seat  of  ite  Kovem- 
ment.  ° 

Article  137.  No  on:  U  can  be  imposed  except 
by  law.    The  law  also  determines  iu  formula. 

Article  138.  Any  foreigner  who  Is  within  the 
tcrritiry  of  Belgium  enjoys  the  protection  ac- 
cor.ieo  to  persona  and  goods,  with  the  exceptions 
donned  by  law. 

Article  139.  No  law,  decree,  or  administrative 
regulation,  general,  provincial,  or  communal  is 
obligatory  until  it  has  been  published  in  the  form 
prescribed  by  law. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  BRAZIL. 

Article  13a  The  Constitution  cannot  be  aui. 
pended,  either  wholly  or  In  part. 

Title  VII. 
Of  the  Rerition  of  the  Conititution 
^  ^r*.''!f  «3«-  The  legislative  power  ha,  th, 
right  to  declare  that  there  Is  occasion  for  revisin. 
such  constitutional  prr  '-ion  a.  It  .le,ii;„„ta? 
After  such  declaration,  me  two  Chainl.,  rs  m 
dissolved.  Two  new  Chamber.,  slmll  then  h^ 
convoked,  in  conformity  with  Artie  !,•  71  Thi » 
Chambers  act,  in  concurrence  with  tlie  kinj  on 
the  pointa  »ubmitt«l  for  revision.  In  8u,l,  Ja» 
the  Chambers  cannot  deliberate  unless  twcMliinli 
at  least  of  the  members  composing  each  one  of 
them  are  present,  and  no  change  which  dies  not 
receive  at  least  twothlrds  of  the  votes  in  iti 
favor  shall  be  adopted.  ^ 

[TheremainlngArticles— 132-1:19— are  "Tem- 
porary Provisions"  and  "Supplementarv  Pro- 
visions, the  latter  speclfving  certiiin  suhjecU 
on  which  it  is  declared  to  be  "  neceaaary  to  nro- 
vlde  by  separate  laws  and  with  the  Ijast  noasi!,  f 
delay.  ]  i-^^'iz 


m  ! 


CONSTITUTION  OF  BRAZIL 

The  following  text  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  of  Brazil,  adopted  February  24, 
1891,  Is  taken  from  a  translation  published  in 
Bulletin  No.  7  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Re- 
publics, Wasliington : 

Wc,  the  rcpreaiiitatives  of  'Brazilian  peo- 
ple, united  in  constitutional  cot.j,.  iS,  to  organize 
a  free  and  democratic  regime,  do  establish,  de- 
cree and  pn)mulgate  the  following  constitution 
of  the  Republic  ot  the  United  Sta'es  of  Brazil : 

Article  i.  The  Brazilian  nation,  adopting  as 
a  form  of  government  the  Federal  Republic  pro- 
claimed November  15.  1889,  constitutes  itself,  by 
the  perpetual  and  indissoluble  union  of  Its  for- 
mer provinces,  the  United  States  of  Brazil. 

Art.  3.  Each  of  the  former  provinces  shail  con- 
stitute a  State,  and  the  former  municipal  district 
shall  forin  the  Federal  District,  continuing  to  be 
the  capitjd  of  the  Union  until  the  following  arti- 
cle shall  be  carried  iuto  effect. 

Art.  3.  In  the  center  there  is  allotted  as  the 
property  of  the  Union  a  zone  of  U.-tOO  square 
kilometres,  which  In  due  time  shall  be  laid  off 
for  the  establinument  of  the  future  federal  capi- 
tal. Sole  p<trnyriii)/i.—\(teT  the  change  of  site 
of  the  capital,  the  present  Federal  District  shall 
constitute  a  State. 

Art.  4.  The  States  shall  have  the  right  to  In- 
corporate themselves,  one  with  another,  sub- 
divide themselves,  dismember  themselves  to  join 
with  others  or  form  m.  w  Slates,  with  the  consent 
of  the  respective  local  legislatures  In  two  succes- 
sive annual  sessions  and  the  ajiproval  of  the 
national  Congress. 

Art.  S,  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  each  State  to 

firovide.  at  its  own  e.tpensp,  for  the  necessities  of 
is  government  and  administration ;  but  the  Union 
shall  extend  asslstanre  to  any  State  which  in 
cas<'  of  public  calamity,  shall  demand  it. 

Art.  6.  The  Federal  (lovcmmentiall  not  inter- 
fere in  matters  pertaining  peculiarly  to  the  States, 
save:  (1|  To  repel  foreign  invasion,  or  the  Inva- 
sion of  one  State  by  another.  (2)  To  maintain  the 
federative  republican  form  of  government  (3) 
To  reestablish  order  and  tranqulllltv  In  the  States 
at  the  retiuebt  ul  the  respective  governments 


(4)  To  assure  the  execution  of  the  laws  and  fed- 
eral decrees. 

Art.  7.  It  is  the  exclusive  prerogative  of  the 
Ijnion  to  decree:  (1)  Duties  on  Imports  from  for. 
eign  countries.  (2)  Duties  of  entry,  .lepurture 
and  Stay  of  vessels ;  the  coasting  traife  for  nntionai 
articles  being  free  of  duties,  as  well  as  f.ir  for- 
eign merchandise  that  has  already  pnid  lui  hu. 
port  duty.  (3)  Stamp  duties,  save  the  nsiric- 
tlons  itnposed  by  article  9,  j- 1,  No.  1.  (Ji  p,«tal 
and  federal  telegraphic  taxes,  tj  1,  The  Union 
alone  shall  have  the  power  :  (1)  To  establish 
banks  of  emission.  (2)  To  create  uiiil  maintain 
custom-houses.  S  2.  The  taxes  decrewl  liy  the 
L  nion  shall  be  uniform  for  all  the  Statjs.  i  :i"  The 
laws  of  the  Union  and  the  acts  and  ileeisinns  of 
Its  authorities  shall  be  execuu-d  throiigh.uit  the 
country  by  federal  officials,  except  that  tlie  en- 
forcement of  the  former  may  be  coniniiti.d  to 
the  governments  of  the  States,  with  the  cnsent 
of  the  said  States. 

Art.  8.  The  Federal  Government  is  forl)iiiden 
to  make  distinctions  and  prefennces  in  favor  of 
the  porU  of  any  of  the  States  against  tliosc  of 
oiners. 

Art.  9.  The  States  alone  are  coniju-tent  to  de- 
cree taxes:  (1)  On  the  exportation  of  nnrihan- 
dlse  of  their  own  pnxiuction.  cii  On  hmiled 
property.  (3)  On  the  transmissioifof  iiroji,  rir. 
(4)  On  industries  and  professions,  s-  1  The 
States  also  have  the  exclusive  ri),'ht  tiMleerec- 
(1)  Stamp  duties  on  Inslrumentserauniiiin;;  from 
their  respective  governments  and  lui.sii.ss  of 
their  Internal  economy.  (2)  Contrihiitiii,'.  i.iiich- 
ing  the''  own    telegraph    and   iH.stul   wrvicr. 


638 


Tlie  -       ,.  -ts  of  the  other  States  are  e.\enipt 
from  Ir...  in  the  State  whence  tlicv  are  e.t- 

poiced.  S  ,1  It  Is  lawful  for  a  Slat.-  to  levy 
duties  on  Importa  of  foreign  giHxis  orilv  when 
intended  for  consumption  In  its  own  territory; 
but  It  shall.  In  such  case,  cover  Into  the  federal 
treasury  theamount  of  dutie8C(dleeted.  S  4.  The 
right  is  reserved  to  the  States  of  est;ililishin(t 
telegraph  lines  between  the  different  points  of 
their  own  territory,  and  !  •  (-.vren  lln-a-  x-.-.i  tlinse 
of  other  States  no"t  served  by  federal  lines ;  but 


CONSTITUTION  OF  BRAZIL. 

the  Tnlon  may  take  posienlon  of  them  when  the 
general  welfare  shall  require. 

Art.  10.  The  leveral  States  are  prohibited  from 
taxing  the  federal  property  or  reveaue,  or  any- 
thioK  In  the  service  of  the  Union,  and  vice  versa. 
Art.  II.  It  is  forbidden  to  th--  States,  as  well 
M  to  the  Unions:  (1)  To  Impose  duties  on  the 
produc  <■  of  the  other  States,  or  of  foreign  coun- 
tries, i-.  transit  through  the  territory  of  any 
State,  or  from  one  State  to  another,  as  also  on 
the  vehicles,  whether  by  land  or  water,  by  which 
thev  are  transported.  (2)  To  establish,  aid,  or 
embarrass  the  exercise  of  religious  worship.  (3) 
To  enact  ex  post  facto  Inws. 

Art.  13.  In  addition  to  the  sources  of  revenue 
Kt  forth  in  articles  7  and  9,  it  shall  be  lawful  for 
the  Union,  as  well  as  for  the  States,  cumulatively 
or  otherwise,  to  create  any  others  whatsoever 
which  may  not  be  in  contrsTention  of  the  terms 
ofsrtick'sT,  9,  and  U,  g  1. 

Art.  13.  The  rlcht  of  the  Union  and  of  the 
Stales  to  legislate  in  regard  to  railways  and  navl- 
Mtion  of  internal  vriitcrs  shall  be  regulated  by 
fwltral  law.  Sole  jxtraaraph.— The  coastwise 
Uaile  shall  be  carried  on  in  national  vessels. 

Art  lA.  The  land  and  naval  forces  are  perma- 
nent national  institutions.  Intended  for  the  de- 
fense of  the  country  from  foreign  attack  ind  the 
maintenance  of  the  laws  of  the  land.  Within 
the  limits  of  the  law,  the  armed  forces  are  from 
their  nature  held  to  obedience,  each  rank  to  lu 
superior,  and  bound  to  support  all  constitutional 
Institutions. 

Art.  15.  The  legislative,  cvecutlve,  an-'  judi- 
cial powers  are  organs  of  the  national  sover- 
eignty, harmonious  and  Independent  amons 
themselves.  ° 

Art.  16.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  In  the 
national  Congress,  with  the  sanction  of  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Itipublic.  g  1.  The  national  Con- 
gress is  compowd  of  two  branches,  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  and  the  Senate.  §  8.  The  elections 
for  senators  and  for  deputies  shall  be  held  slmul- 
Uneously  throughout  the  country.  §8  No  per- 
son shall  be  senator  and  deputy  at  the  same  tiiiie 
Art.  17.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  In  the 
federal  capital  oc  the  8d  day  of  May  of  each 
year,  unless  some  other  day  shall  be  fixed  bv 
law,  without  being  convoked,  and  shall  continue 
m  session  4  months  from  the  date  of  the  openinu 
and  may  he  prorogued,  at'Joumed,  or  convoked 
m  extr:„,r,l  nary  session.  §  1.  The  Congress 
alone  shall  have  the  power  to  deliberate  on  the 
prornpition  or  extension  of  ita  session.  6  3  Each 
legislature  shall  last  for  S  years.  S  8.  The  gov- 
ernor of  any  State  in  which  there  shall  be  a  va- 
S  M  '  ^P"-'«'';'atlon,  Including  the  case  of 
Se  °        '  "*"  '^'"^"on  to  ^  held 

Ioh","!  '?•  ''"'"'.  Chamber  and  the  Senate  shall 
S ';::''  ^'l":"' 'port  and  in  public,  uXss 
ddirr^. '"*?'''"'. "y  ?  '°"J°'''y  ^-"e,  aid  shall 
deliberat,  only  when.  In  each  of  the  chambers 
there  shall  be  present  an  absolute  majority  of  Us 

nfr^fhnL  "-,'.'"-'  ''b'"  to  verify  and  recog- 
Silrm'"'''  "*  ■»*">'«".  to  ch-bosc  Ita  own 
C  ?o^  ^*T'  to  organize  Ita  Internal  govern- 
ment,  to  regulate  the  service  of  Ita  own  Dollcc 
Art"!.  ";^""?*'  ""  ""•°  «<;retaries?       ^ 


CONSTITUTION  OP  BRAZIL. 

*  *■•  *»•  Piputles  and  senators,  from  the  time 
ot      ceivlng  their  certificate  of  election  until  a 

r*ri„  ."^L°°'.  '*,'?  °°'  "^  arrested  or  proceeded 
against  criminally  without  the  permission  of 
their  respective  chambers,  except  In  the  case  of  a 
flagrant  crime,  in  which  ball  is  Inad-  issible.  In 
such  case,  the  prosecution  being  cai .  r^  to  exclu- 
sive decision,  the  prosecuting  authority  shall 
T^rl,}^  ?!'"  "'^"^  to  the  respective  chamber 
for  ita  decision  on  the  prosecution  of  the  -barge 
unless  the  accused  shall  prefer  Immediate  Judg- 
ment. ^     * 

„..^!t'i  "•.?"!*  ■"=«*>«"  0'  the  two  chambers, 
on  taking  their  seata.  shall  take  a  formal  obllga' 

fa"thfuV"  "'  '°  P^^°™  "Je''  du«es 

AJt!^l  '\^^"^.  ""^  "essions  the  senatore  a-  1 
deputies  shall  receive  an  equal  pecuniary  sf  / 
and  mileage  which  shall  Ic  fixed  by  Con  ,  sj 
at  the  end  of  each  session  for  the  following 
.1.  .1  •  'h  I*,"  "'embe'"  of  the  Congress,  .  .n 
tJie  time  of  hla  election,  can  make  contracts  ,*ith 
the  e.\erutlve  power  or  receive  from  it  anv  paid 
t\r'n;?;,rLTP!°'-r^.'l,l»:,Exceptfon''sto 


039 


All  — ---- -^- .-."K.vj  uitiii.  g  1.  Hixcepiions  to 
this  prohibition  are:  (1)  Diplomatic  missions  (2) 
Commissions  or  military  commands.  (3)  Ad- 
vancement In  rank  and  legal  promotion.  S  2 
ISO  deputy  or  senator,  however,  can  accent  an 
appomtnr  .it  or  any  mission,  commission,  or 
command  u  ntloned  in  Nos.  1  and  3  of  the  pre- 
ceding paragraph,  without  the  consent  of  the 
chamber  to  which  he  belongs,  when  such  acrept-l 
ance  would  prevent  the  exercise  of  his  legUla-' 
tive  duties,  except  In  case  of  war  or  such  as 
Involve  the  honor  or  integrity  of  the  nation. 

Art.  24.  No  deputy  or  senator  can  be  presi- 
dent or  form  part  of  a  directory  of  anv  bank 
company,  or  enterprise  which  enjoys  the  favoii 
of  the  Federal  Government  defined  In  and  br 
law.  *ofo;joro^o;)A.— Xonobservanceof  the  pro- 
visions of  the  foregoing  article  bv  any  deputy  or 
senator  shall  involve  the  loss  of  his  seat. 

Art.  25.  The  legislative  commission  shall  be 
Incompatible  with  the  exercise  of  any  other  func- 
tions during  the  sessions. 

Art.  36.  The  conditions  for  eli-'bility  to  the 
national  Congress  are:  (1)  To  be  OMse.ssion 
of  the  righta  of  Brazilian  citizenship  md  t  j  be 
registered  as  a  voter,  d)  For  the  Chamber,  to 
have  been  for  more  than  4  veara  a  Brazilian  • 
zcn;  and  for  the  Senate,  for  more  than  6  vi  , 
1  bis  provision  does  not  include  thos  ci' 
referred  to  In  No.  4,  article  60. 
1  ^'*'j'7;  The  Congress  slm!)  bv  special  •  ,s. 
lation  declare  the  cases  of  el    i   ,  1  Im  ompetw.   . 

Art.  38.  The  Chamber  o'  ,).  luties  shall  J  ■ 
composed  of  the  representa  .  of  the  peo-Mc 
elected  by  the  States  aud  the  Federal  District  by 
direct  suffrage,  the  n'presentation  of  the  mlii- 
ority  being  g.--,ntle(f.  §  1.  The  number  of 
the  deputies  shad  be  fixed  bv  law  in  such  a  way 
as  not  to  exceed  one  for  each  70,000  Inliabltants 
and  that  there  shall  not  be  less  than  four  for 
each  State.  8  2.  To  this  end  the  Fetieral  Gov- 
ernment shall  at  once  order  a  census  to  be  t  <Ken 
of  the  population  of  the  Republic,  which  shall 
be  rcviik'il  every  10  yeara. 

Art.  29  To  the  Chamber  belongs  the  Initiative 
in  the  adioiirnment  of  the  legislative  sewions 
and  in  all  legislation  In  regard  to  taxation,  to  the 
determination  of  the  size  of  the  armv  .ind  nsvy 
m  the  discussion  of  propositions  from  the  cxcul 
uve  po  ver,  and  in  the  dedslon  to  proceed  or  not 


ir.i. 

'ID 


CONSTTrmON  OF  BRAZIL. 


coNSTmrrioN  of  buazxl. 


;»1 


II    -  f: 


In  chnrces  against  the  Preaidcnt  of  the  Republic 
undpr  the  terms  of  article  58,  and  against  the 
ministers  of  state  in  crimes  connected  with  those 
of  the  said  President 

Art.  30.  The  Senate  shall  be  composed  of  citt- 
ccns  eligible  under  the  terms  of  article  26  and 
more  than  85  years  of  age,  to  the  number  of 
three  senators  for  each  State  and  three  for  the 
Federal  District,  choaen  la  the  same  manner  as 
tlie  deputies. 

Art.  31.  The  mandate  of  a  senator  shall  con- 
tinue for  9  years,  and  one-third  of  the  Senate 
sliall  be  renewed  every  8  years.  SoU  paragraph. 
—  A  senator  elected  in  place  of  another  shall 
cxerrise  his  mandate  during  the  remainder  of  the 
term  of  the  latter. 

Art.  3a.  The  Vice  President  of  the  Republic 
shall  lie  the  pn^ident  of  the  Senate,  where  he 
shall  vote  only  in  case  of  tie,  and  shall  be  re- 
plarrd  in  case  of  absenre  or  Impediment  by  the 
vice  president  of  that  body. 

Art.  33.  The  Senate  alone  shall  have  ths  power 
to  try  and  sentence  the  President  of  the  Repub- 
lic and  the  other  federal  officers  designated  by 
the  constitution,  under  the  conditions  and  in  the 
manner  which  it  prescribes,  g  1.  The  Senate, 
when  sitting  as  a  tribunal  of  justice,  sliall  be 
presided  over  by  the  president  of  the  federal  su- 
preme court,  g  a.  It  shall  not  pasa  sentence  of 
condemnation  unless  two-thirds  of  its  membej 
be  present  S  3.  It  shall  not  impose  other  penal- 
ties than  the  loss  of  office  and  prohibition  from 
holiling  any  otiier,  without  prejudire  to  tlie 
action  (if  onllnary  justice  against  the  condemned. 
Art.  34.  The  national  Congress  shall  have  ex- 
clusive power:  (1)  To  estimate  the  revenue,  and 
lix  the  expenditures  of  the  Federal  Government 
anmi.illy,  and  take  account  of  the  receipts  and 
expindltures  of  each  flnancia'  budget.  (2)  To 
autliorizc  the  executive  to  contract  loans  and 
make  otiRT  operations  of  credit  (3)  To  legislate 
in  ncanl  to  tlie  public  debt  and  furnish  meuas 
for  its  payment.  (4)  To  control  the  collection 
ami  (ilspositlon  of  the  national  revenue.  (5)  To 
regnliite  Intematlon.'il  commerce,  as  well  aa  that 
of  the  States  with  each  other  and  with  the  Feil- 
cral  District;  to  establish  and  regulate  the  c«l- 
letilon  of  customs  duties  in  the  porta,  create  or 
alKili»h  wartUiouses  of  deposit  (8)  To  legislate 
In  reirurii  to  navijrntion  of  rivers  running  through 
more  fhnn  one  .State,  or  through  foreign  terri- 
tory (7)  To  dctcniiine  tlie  weight  value,  iu- 
scrihtion,  ty|>c,  imd  denomination  of  the  currency. 
(»)  To  create  banks  of  emission,  legislate  in  re- 
gunl  to  iliis  eminslon  and  to  tax  it  (B)  To  fix 
the  Kiandani  of  weigliU  and  measures.  (10)  To 
deti  rniine  defliiiU'ly  the  boundaries  of  the  Stales 
iH'twiTn  each  otlier,  those  of  ths  Federal  District, 
and  those  of  th?  national  territory  with  the  ad- 
joining natio  .  (II)  To  authorise  the  Oovern- 
ment  to  declare  war,  if  there  be  no  recourw!  to 
arbitmtion  or  in  case  of  failure  of  Ihlx.  ami  to 
maki'  pi'are.  (I;')  To  decide  definitively  in  reitani 
to  tnnlles  and  conventions  with  fori'lgn  Uutliiiis 
(l:ii  To  remove  the  capital  of  the  I'nlon.  (U)  To 
exl.tid  aid  I"  the  Slates  in  the  case  referred  to  In 
artli  I.-  .1  (I.-.)  To  legislate  in  regani  to  fiilcntl 
pontiil  and  Uliirmph  service.  (18)  To  adopt  tho 
niKi  ssarv  measiina  for  the  protection  of  the  fron 
tiers.  (17)  To  llx  every  year  the  numlier  of  the 
land  and  naval  forces.  (IM)  To  maks  laws  for 
the  crgaoizatioQ  i,i  the  army  and  navy,  ng)  To 
fTut  or  refuse  to  forclf  n  foroat  pumf  tlirouf  b 


the  territory  of  the  country  to  cnrry  on  mllltarr 
operations.  (20)  To  mobilize  and  mske  use  of 
the  national  guard  or  local  militia  in  tlie  cosm 
designated  bv  the  Constitution.  (21)  To  declare 
a  state  of  siege  at  one  or  more  points  in  the 
national  territory,  in  the  emergency  of  an  attjick 
by  foreign  forces,  or  internal  disturhance,  nnd  to 
approve  or  suspend  the  state  of  siei;p  pniclHlmed 
by  the  executive  power  or  its  rcspousilile  nifena 
in  the  absence  of  the  Congress.  (22)  To  rcpiilate 
the  conditions  and  methods  of  elections  for  fed- 
eral offices  throughout  the  country.  (2.1)  To  jej. 
islate  upon  the  civil,  criminal,  and  commercial 
laws  and  legal  procedures  of  the  federal  Judi- 
ciary. (24)  To  esublish  uniform  niiturnlizati.m 
laws.  (2.5)  To  create  and  almlish  federal  pub. 
He  offices,  to  fix  the  duties  of  tlie  same  nuil 
designate  their  salaries.  (26)  To  organize  tlie 
federal  judiciary  according  to  tlie  terms  of  ani- 
cle  55  and  the  succeeding,  section  H.  (27)  To 
grant  amnesty.  (28)  To  coimnute  and  pardon 
penalties  imposed  upon  federal  oBicers  for  of- 
fenses arising  from  their  resimnsiliility.  (29)  Xo 
make  laws  regarding  Government  lands  and 
mines.  (30)  To  legislate  in  reg.inl  to  the  miinici. 
pal  organization  of  the  Fedeml  District,  as  well 
as  to  the  police,  the  superior  instruction  and 
other  services  which  in  tlio  ciipitiil  may  be  re- 
served for  the  Government  of  tlie  Vnion.  (31) 
To  govern  by  special  legisintion  tlios.'  points  of 
the  territory  of  the  Republic  needeii  f„r  tlie 
esttiblishment  of  arsenals,  other  estnlilislimenn 
or  institutions  for  federal  uses.  (H2)  To  settle 
cas«'S  of  extradition  between  tlie  States.  (;t3)  Ti) 
enact  such  laws  and  resolutions  as  may  lie  nee.'i. 
snry  for  the  exercise  of  the  powi'rs  In'tonning  lo 
the  I'nlon.  (34)  To  enact  the  ornunle  laws  neeis- 
sary  for  the  complete  execution  of  the  niniiri'- 
ments  of  the  Constitution.  (3.5)  To  pruMgucaud 
adjourn  its  own  sessions. 

Art.  35.  It  shall  belong  likewise  to  the  Con- 
gress, but  not  exclusively:  (1)  Towniihovenhc 
Constitution  and  the  l:iws,  and  provide  for  neees- 
slties  of  a  federal  character.  (2)  To  pnimote 
in  the  country  the  development  of  literature, 
the  arts,  and  sciences,  together  with  iinnilsra- 
tlon,  agriculture,  manufactures,  nnd  romiiien-e, 
without  privileges  sucli  as  would  olwtniet  the 
action  of  the  local  governments.  (:i)  To  enate 
institutions  of  higher  instniition  and  of  liivh 
schisd  education  in  the  States,  (ti  r.i  provide 
for  high  school  instruction  in  the  K.dmil  Dii- 
triet. 

Art,  36.  Save  the  exceptions  named  in  article 
27,  all  bills  may  originate.  iiidHTertntly,  in  the 
Chiimlier  or  In  ific  S<'iiate,  and  may  W  iiilnsiiicwl 
by  any  of  tlieir  menilN-ni. 

Art.  37.  A  bill,  after  N inir  pasmd  in  one  n( 
the  ch.imbera,  shall  lie  suliiiillli.i  1.1  the  other, 
and,  if  the  latter  shall  n|ipniye  tin-  kumi',  Ii  slhill 
send  It  to  the  exeiulive,  »lio,  If  he  iippnne  It, 
shall  sanction  and  pMniiilifate  il.  {:  1  If,  linw- 
ever,  the  President  of  the  Itcpulilie  ^hnll  consider 
It  unconstitutional,  or  contrary  to  the  i.'i««lidlhe 
nation,  he  shall  nfuse  his  HHiirlioii  to  the  same 
williin  10  working  days,  coiuitoi  fri'iii  that  »n 
which  he  recidved  It  (llie  biill.  and  slmll  nlurn 
It.  within  the  same  periisl.  to  the  eiiiinlar  In 
which  it  originated,  with  his  r-asms  Tt  liiin- 
fusal.  S  3.  The  failure  of  the  exeeiiilve  10  «!.•■ 
nify  bis  dlsappnivftl  within  the  uUive  imined  li) 
days  siiaii  lie  cunsidcnti  as  an  apimivai,  and  iu 
case  bl«  suictioo  be  refused  afU'r  Uu  close  of  ths 


C40 


OONBITI'UTION  OF  BRAZIL. 

leMlnn  of  the  Congmt,  the  Prctldent  ihall  make 
public  hU  reaioni  therefor.  8  8.  The  bill  sent 
back  to  the  chamber  where  ft  originated  shall 
be  dlKuaaed  and  voted  upon  by  call  of  names, 
ind  iball  be  considered  as  passed  if  It  obtain 
two-thirds  of  the  votes  of  the  membeis  present ; 
ud,  Id  this  case,  it  shall  be  sent  to  the  other 
dumber,  whence,  if  it  receive  the  same  majoritv, 
it  ibaU  return,  as  a  law,  to  the  executive  to  be 
formally  promulgated,  g  4.  The  sanction  and 
promulgation  shall  be  effected  in  the  following 
fomis:  (1)  "The  national  Congress  enacts  and  I 
nnctioD  the  following  law  (or  resolution)."  (2) 
"The  national  Congress  enacts  and  I  promul- 
gate the  following  law  (or  resolution)." 

Art.  38.  If  the  law  be  not  promulgated  by  the 
President  of  the  Republic  within  48  hours,  in  the 
cases  provided  for  in  g  §  8  and  8  of  the  preced- 
ing article,  the  president  of  the  Senate,  or  the 
rice  president,  if  the  former  shall  not  do  so  in 
the  lame  space  of  time,  shall  promulgate  it, 
making;  use  of  the  following  formula:  "  I,  presi- 
dent (or  vice  president)  of  the  Senate,  make 
known  to  whomsoever  these  presents  may  come, 
that  the  national  Congress  enacts  and  promul- 
gates the  following  law  (or  resolution)." 

Art.  39.  A  bill  nnm  one  chamber,  amended  in 
the  other,  shall  return  to  the  former,  which,  if  It 
accept  the  amendments,  shall  send  it,  changed  to 
conform  with  the  same,  to  the  executive,  g  1.  In 
the  contrary  case,  it  shall  go  back  to  the  amend- 
ing chamber,  where  the  alterations  shall  be  con 
»i.lcreil  as  approved,  if  they  receive  the  vote  of 
uro'tliinis  of  the  members  present;  in  the  latter 
caie,  Mie  bill  shall  return  to  the  chamber  where 
it  nriginnutl.  and  there  the  amendments  can  bo 
rejerled  only  by  a  two-thlnls  vote,  g  8.  If  the 
«Ii.r  -i  ns  be  rejected  by  such  vote,  the  bill  shall 
he  s  1  iiiitted  without  them  to  the  approval  of 
the  executive. 

Art.  40.  Dills  flnallv  rejected  or  not  approved, 
•Inll  not  l>e  presented  again  in  tlie  same  Icgisla- 
Uvr  KMion. 

Art.  41.  The  executive  power  shall  be  exer- 
d«ed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States  of 
Bioiil.  aa  elective  chief  of  the  nation,  g  1.  The 
Vice  President,  elected  simultaneously  with  the 
Preti.lont,  shall  serve  In  place  of  the  latter  In 
csae  of  impediment  and  succeed  him  in  cose  of 
tacaniy  in  the  Presidency.  ^  8.  In  cose  of  im- 
PMllnirat  or  vscancv  in  the  Vice  Presidency,  the 
(■llniring  offli-ers,  in  the  onler  named,  shall  be 
nlW  to  tlie  IVsldency ;  The  vice  president  of 
the  S-niite.  the  president  of  the  Chamber  of 
IVpiiiie«,  the  preaident  of  the  feiieral  supreme 
'H'LI:,,,  ^  *  ''"''*  '""owlnif  «>«  the  conditions  of 
eligibilliy  to  the  Presidenry  or  Vice  Prrsldenry 
of  the  U,piibllc:  (I)  Must  be  a  native  <>'  Hraill 
(J)  Mii«t  Iw  in  the  exercise  ,.f  pnllticul  rights. 
(S)  .Mini  be  more  than  tH  yesra  of  age. 

Art.  ^a.  In  caae  of  vacancy  from  any  cause  in 
the  Prisiiiency  or  Vl<»  Presidency  before  tlie  ex 
piralinu  of  the  flrst  8  year*  of  the  Presidential 
terra,  a  new  election  aliall  be  held. 
.  **<•  43-  """he  Preslilent  shall  hold  his  offli>. 
S'lrln,.  4  yi'ars,  and  is  not  eligible  for  fe«lertl<>n 
lor  th.  m«t  aueceedinic  tenn  8  1.  The  Vice 
Prewienl  who  .ball  (111  the  l>rpsldency  during 
thpjMl  year  of  the  Prwidential  term  shall  not  U' 
ellftihle  10  tlie  Presidency  for  the  next  term  of 

ttij  I  'T  .  '  '  ""  ^^  •*'"'■ "'"/  "»  which  hu 
I^Mclenilal  term  shall  cease  the  Pnwldent  shall, 
without  fall,  ccoae  to  exerGise  the  fuoctloos  of 


641 


CONSTITUTION  OP  BRAZIL. 

his  ofBoe,  and  the  newly  elected  President  shall 
at  once  succeed  him.  |  3.  If  the  latter  should 
be  hindered  or  should  fail  to  do  so,  the  succes- 
sion shall  be  effected  in  accordance  with  88  1 
and  a  of  article  41.  §  4.  The  first  Presidential 
terni  shall  expire  on  the  15th  of  November,  1894. 
A^-  44-  On  taking  possession  of  his  ofl3ce,  tho 
President,  in  a  session  of  the  Congress,  or,  if  it 
be  not  assembled,  before  the  federal  supreme 
court,  shall  pronounce  the  following  ofBrmatlon : 
"  I  promise  to  maintein  the  federal  Constitution 
and  comply  with  iu  provisions  with  perfect  loy- 
alty, to  promote  the  general  welfare  of  the  Re- 
public, to  observe  its  laws,  and  support  the 
union,  integrity,  and  independence  of  the  na- 
tion. 

Art.  45.  The  President  and  Vice  President 
shall  not  leave  the  national  territory  without  the 
permission  of  the  Congress,  under  penalty  of  loss 
of  office. 

.Art.  4«.  The  President  and  Vice  President 
shall  receive  the  salary  fixed  by  the  Congress  in 
the  preceding  Presidential  term. 
^Art.  47.  The  President  and  Vice  President 
shall  be  chosen  by  direct  suffrage  of  the  nation 
and  an  absolute  majority  of  the  votes.  6  1.  The 
election  shall  Uke  place  on  the  first  day  of  March 
in  the  Ust  year  of  the  Presidential  term,  and  the 
counting  of  tho  votes  cast  at  the  different  pre- 
,  cincts  shall  at  once  be  mode  in  the  respective 
I  capitals  of  the  States  and  in  the  federal  capital 
The  Cooness  shall  make  the  count  at  iU  first 
session  of  the  same  year,  with  any  number  of 
memliers  present  g  2.  If  none  of  those  voted 
for  shall  have  received  an  absolute  majority,  the 
Congress  shall  elect,  by  a  majority  of  votes  of 
those  present,  one  of  the  tw^o  who,  in  the  direct 
election,  shall  have  received  the  highest  number 
of  votes.  In  case  of  a  tie  the  older  shall  Iw  con- 
sidered elected,  g  8.  The  manner  of  the  election 
and  of  the  counting  of  the  votes  shall  lie  regu- 
IoUkI  by  ordinary  Icgislotion.  g  4.  The  relatives, 
lioth  by  consanguinity  and  by  marriage,  in  the 
flrst  and  second  degrees,  of  the  IV'sident  and 
Vice  President  shall  bo  Ineligible  for  the  offices 
of  President  and  Vice  President,  provided  the 
said  offldals  are  in  office  at  the  time  of  the  elec- 
tion or  have  left  the  oHlcc  even  6  months  Iwfore. 
Art.  48.  To  the  President  of  the  Republic 
■hall  belong  the  exclusive  right  to— (1)  Sanction, 
nmmulgste,  and  make  puliTio  the  laws  and  reso- 
lutions of  the  Congress;  issue  (i<tn>e8.  iuatruc- 
lions,  htiil  regulations  for  their  faithful  execu- 
tion. (8)  Choose  and  dismiss  at  will  the  cabinet 
officers.  (8)  Exercise  or  appoint  some  (me  to 
exercise  supreme  command  over  the  land  and 
naval  forces  of  the  rnltwi  States  of  Hrajll,  as 
well  as  over  the  lix-nl  police,  when  callni  to  arms 
for  the  internal  or  exti'mal  defense  of  the  Union. 

(4)  Oovem  and  (llnlrihutc  under  the  laws  of  the 
Congress,  acconling  U>  the  neopssltlcs  of  the  Na- 
tional Oovemmcnt,  the  land  and  naval  forces. 

(5)  Dispose  of  the  offices,  both  military  and  civil, 
of  a  federal  character,  with  the  excep"llon«  sperl- 
fled  in  the  Constitution.  ((I)  I'anlon  crimes  and 
commute  penalties  for  offenses  subject  to  feiieral 
Jurisiilction.  save  in  the  coses  mentlomtl  In  artl- 
cle  84,  No.  9«,  and  article  M.  g  3.  (7)  Declsre 
war  and  make  peace,  under  the  pMvisJons  of 
article  H4,  No  11  im  n»c!«n'  war  at  imrt-  In 
case  of  foreign  invasion  or  aggression.  (»)  (Jive 
an  annual  statement  to  the  national  Congress  of 
the  conditlutt  u(  the  country,  with  a  reoommendo- 


;/  *■' 


coNSTmrnoN  op  brazil. 

tlon  of  preaslDff  provisions  and  refonn*,  through 
a  n-essnge,  wli'.cU  he  ihall  send  to  the  secretary 
of  the  Stnatc  on  the  day  of  the  opening  of  the 
Icgiiliitive  session.  (10)  Convoke  the  Congress 
In  extra  session.  (11)  Appoint  the  federal  judges 
when  proposed  by  the  supreme  court  (18)  Ap- 
point tlie  meml)ers  of  the  federal  supreme  court 
and  miuiaUrs  of  the  diplomatic  corps,  with  the 
Bppn)vul  of  the  senate ;  and,  in  the  absence  of  the 
C'linereas,  appoint  them  in  commlsatoo  until  con- 
Bidind  by  the  senate.  (18)  Appohit  the  other 
incnil)ers  of  the  diplomatic  corps  and  consular 
airentii.  (14)  Maintain  relations  with  foreign 
states.  (15)  Declare,  directly,  or  through  his 
responsible  agents,  a  state  of  siege  at  any  point 
of  the  natloual  territory,  in  case  of  foreign  ag- 
gnssiiin  or  serious  internal  disturbance.  (Article 
«,  No.  3 ;  article  34,  No.  81 ;  and  article  80.)  (16) 
Set  on  foot  international  negotiations,  celebrate 
nsn-ements,  conventions,  and  treaties,  always  ad 
referendum  to  the  Congress,  and  approve  those 
niado  by  the  States  in  conformity  with  article  63, 
Biibniitiing  them  when  neoeaaary  to  the  authority 
of  the  Congress. 

Art.  49.  The  President  of  the  Republic  shall 
be  assisted  by  the  ministers  of  state  (cabinet  offi- 
cers), agenu  of  his  confidence,  who  sign  the  acu 
and  pri'side  over  their  respective  departments 
into  which  the  fe<leral  administration  is  divideil. 
Art.  50.  The  cabinet  minister*  shall  not  exer- 
cise any  other  emnloyment  or  function  of  a  pub- 
He  nature,  l)e  ellgilile  to  the  Presidency  or  Vice 
Presidency  of  the  I'nion,  or  be  electe<l  deputy  or 
senaUir.  S>lt  namgroph.— Any  deputy  or  Sina- 
tor,  who  sliall  accept  the  position  of  cabinet 
minister,  shall  lose  his  seat  in  the  respective 
chiiiutpor,  and  a  new  election  shall  at  once  be 
held,  in  which  he  sliall  not  be  voted  for. 

Art.  SI.  The  cabinet  ministers  shall  not  appear 
at  the  sissious  of  the  Congress,  and  shall  coni- 
nmiiicate  with  that  body  in  writing  only  or  by 
p<'r».itiul  coiifirencc  with  the  committees  of  the 
chambers.  The  aunual  report  of  the  ministers 
shall  lie  addresseil  to  the  President  of  the  Itcpub- 
lie,  and  distributed  to  all  the  memben  of  the 
Congress. 

Art.  sa.  The  cabinet  ministers  shall  not  be 
TcspoHsihle  to  the  Congress  or  to  the  courU  for 
advice  given  to  the  President  of  the  Kepulillr, 
y  1.  They  shall  lie  responsible,  nevertheless,  with 
respect  to  their  acu,  for  crimes  deOned  In  the 
law.  ^  a.  For  common  crimes  snd  those  for 
whieh  they  are  responsible  tliey  shall  be  prose- 
culi-il  and  tried  by  the  fe<leral  supremo  court 
and  for  lh(w  committed  iolnlly  with  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  lUpuWic,  by  the  authority  competent 
t«ludge  this  latter 

Art.  53.  Tlie  Ihtialdent  of  the  United  Sutes  of 
Hraiil  sliall  Iw  brought  to  trial  and  judgment 
after  the  Chamber  of  I)eputlcs  shall  have  (Teeldcci 
that  he  should  lie  tried  ou  the  charges  made 
Bgalnst  him,  In  the  federal  supreme  c«urt,  lu  (he 
ease  of  romiiion  crimes,  snd  In  those  of  responsi 
blllty.  ill  the  S<'nale.  SUt  paragrapH.— At  amm 
as  it  shall  lie  dieiclod  to  try  him  on  the  cb«rg<-s 
hromflit.  till-  Pr.sldeiit  shall  Ih'  suspended  In  the 
Meniw  of  the  duties  of  his  olBre. 

Art.  54.  CriiiHs  of  res|Minsililllty  on  the  part 
of  the  Preslihnt  of  the  Itrpublic  are  such  as  are 
dlniUil  against  — (1)  Tlie  political  existence  of 
the  I  nloii.  {••)  The  Conititutlun  ani|  th«  r,.rm  ■'! 
the  Ffieral  t»ovrnimeut.  (8)  The  fr»>o  exerrlse 
uf  the  (Miililcal  jHjwers.    (4)  The  legal  snJoyiuGot 


ooNSTrrmoN  op  brazil. 

^l^^nS^'V^  °!  poittioa  or  Individual  riihts 
(5)  The  Internal  security  of  the  country  mi  ti^ 
puritv  of  the  administration.  (7)  Theeo,,  titi! 
Uonal  keeping  and  use  of  the  public  funds.  8) 
The  flnancialTegisUtion  enactej by  the  Cmztm 
8  1.  These  offenses  shall  be  defined  In  a  sGecS 
law.  §  8  Another  law  shall  provide  foTtSe 
charges,  the  trial,  and  the  Judgment.  133  Both 
these  laws  shall  be  enacted  in  the  first  ksslon  of 
the  first  Conness. 

H„^^'  ?S  .Tne  Judicial  power  of  the  Union  riisU 
be  lodged  in  a  federal  supreme  court,  sittinir  la 
the  capltol  of  the  Republic,  and  as  many  lS« 
federal  courta  and  tribunals,  distributed  throuirh 
the  country,  as  the  Congress  shall  c!«ate, 

Art.  sj.  The  federal  supreme  court  sUali  be 
composed  of  fifteen  Justices,  appointed  unJer  ths 
provisions  of  article  48,  No.  12,  from  amomrtte 
oldest  thirty  citizens  of  well-known  knowredm 
and  repuutlon  who  may  bo  eligible  to  the  S^Mte 
.  i^'  5?*,  "°*  '«l*™'  Justices  shai.  hold  offlcs 
for  life,  being  removable  solely  by  iuclltlal  sen- 
fence.  8  1.  ^helr  «ilaries  shafl  !«?  L-A  Z  u", 
of  the  Congress,  and  can  not  be  diminished  S  i 
The  Senate  sliall  try  the  members  of  the  fedeisl 
supreme  court  for  crimes  of  responsibility  sad 
this  latter  the  lower  federal  judges 

Art.  58.  The  federal  couru  shall  cluHMe  their 
presidents  from  sm<mg  their  owu  members  and 
shall  organise  their  res|)ectlvc  elerieal  cnrpi 
S  1.  In  these  corps  the  appoinlnieut  and  ilii- 
missal  of  the  respective  clerks,  as  will  as  the  fill- 
lug  of  the  judicial  oBlces  in  the  t\-speilive  juJ|. 
cial  districts,  shall  belong  to  the  presl.Uuts  of  the 
respective  .oiirta.  S  3.  The  Presidiiit  cif  the 
Uepublic  shall  apiwint  from  amount  Hie  iiierabeu 
of  the  federal  supreme  court  the  iittortiiy  general 
!  of  the  Republic,  whose  duties  shall  be  dedned  by 
law. 

Art.  59.  To  the  federal  supreme  court  tbsll 
liehing  the  duty  of  — (1)  Trying  snd  judirinitby 
original    and    exclusive    juriailk-tion  —  (.ii  Thi 
President  of  the  Uepublic  for  eonmi.in  crimes, 
and  the  cabinet  minisU'ra  In  the  ea»-  <  specifiea 
In  article  58.     (A)  The  ministers  of  ili,.  dlplumatlc 
corps  for  common  crimes  ami  tliosi'  .■!  ii»|m)mI- 
billty.     (<■)  Cases  and  disputes  iH-iweiu  the  Sutes 
and  the  Union,  or  between  the  8tul<s  one  with 
another.     ((/)  Disiiutes  and  claims  lieiweru  (of. 
eign  states  and  the  Union,  or  iHtwi-eii  frireln 
nations  ami  the  Suites.     (<)  ConHiels  Istwefo  the 
federal  courts  one  with  snollier,  or  l»lw,rn  these 
anil  those  of  tlie  SlaU-s,  as  well  as  tliow  lielween 
the  courts  of  one  8ut*  and  those  of  amiUier 
('.')  Dci'tdlng.  on  appeal,   i|Uesiloiis  pMiiimuad 
upon  by  the  lower  federal  courts  iin.l  irihunsls, 
as  well  as  those  nientioued  in  is  I  of  tin-  nrneiit 
article  and  In  article  fl(»      (11)  llevi.«  lii;<  iL,.  pro- 
cmllngs  of  Hulshed  trials,  undir  tlif  proyiJuas 
of  article  81.     ^  1.  Deilnoiia  of  .•<i,iti- icurts  la 
last  app-al  can  b<'  carried  to  tin  fi-dentl  supreoe 
court  — (11)  When  the  validity   t  Hpplhaif.in  of 
the  federal  laws  or  treaties  i«  ■  illiil  in  i|m»tloa 
and   ttiB    derishm  of    the  Sim.    cinirl  sliull  be 
against  the  same.     (A)  When  the  viilililv  "fiswi 
or  acu  of  the  govpnimenu.>r  theSlalitdin^peCt 
t«  tlie  Constitution  or  of  the  fidiral  hi««  Ucon- 
li'ste<l  and  the  Stale  court  kliiill  lia\i- .Iciiaeii  In 
favor  of  the  validity  of  the  sets  or  I«wh  In  ques- 
tion.    t(  3.   In  tlie  canes  w lileli  Involve  thi' sppll- 
ealinn  v.t  the  laws  of  the  Ht^i^i  ?!,«  ?«',»«!  .-.-.tirt 
sliall  cimsult  the  jurisprudence  of  the  l<H'ai  Iriba- 
nala,  aod  vice  vena,  tliu  State  court  shall  itiniltltt 


642 


OOMBTITUTION  OF  BRAZIL. 

(b*t  of  the  fedeni  tribunab  when  the  interpreU- 
tion  of  the  laws  of  the  Union  U  involred. 

Art.  6a  It  ihall  belong  to  the  federal  courts  to 
decide— (o)  Cues  In  which  the  plaintiff  or  the 
defendant  shall  rest  the  case  on  some  provision  of 
the  federal  C:k>nstltution.  (f)  All  suits  brought 
igiiiiit  the  Ooveniment  of  ibe  Union  or  tlie  na- 
tion*! treasury  based  on  constitutional  provisions, 
OD  the  laws  and  regulations  of  the  executive 
pover,  or  on  contracts  made  with  the  said  Oov- 
einmeDt  {e)  Suits  arising  from  compensations, 
cltims,  indemnification  of  damages,  or  any  others 
wliatsoever  brought  by  the  Qovemment  of  the 
tnioD  against  private  individuals,  and  vice  versa, 
(if)  LiiiKations  between  a  State  and  the  dtizcns 
of  snotiier,  or  between  citizens  of  different  States 
hariog  differences  in  their  laws,  (e)  Suits  be- 
tweea  foreign  sutes  and  Brazilian  citizens.  (/) 
Actions  begun  by  foreigners,  and  baaed  either  on 
contracts  with  the  Federal  Qovemment  or  ol 
conventions  or  treaties  of  the  Union  with  other 
mil"'.:  ig)  Questions  of  maritime  law  and 
nsricatlon,  whether  on  the  sea  or  on  the  rivers 
snd  lakes  of  the  country.  (A)  Questions  of  inter- 
nstioDsl  l«w,  whether  criminal  or  civil,  (i)  Po- 
litics! crimes.  %  1.  Congress  Is  forbidden  to 
commit  any  part  of  the  federal  Jurisdiction  to 
tlie  Swto  court*,  g  8.  Sentences  and  orders  of 
the  fciieral  Judges  will  be  executed  by  federal 
court  olflcers,  and  the  local  police  ahall  assist 
tliem  wlien  called  upon  by  the  same. 

Art.  6i.  The  decisions  of  the  State  courts  or 
lriliiinal.H  in  matters  within  their  comprttncu 
ilisll  put  an  end  to  the  suiu  and  qurstiouo  ex- 
cept as  to  (1)  hatieas  corpus,  or  (2)  effpofs  of  a 
foniirmr  dcccssed  in  cusca  not  proviiii-d  for  by 
conieiiiinii  or  tn-aty.  In  such  cases  there  shall 
be  voluntary  recouno  to  the  federal  supreme 
court. 

Alt  ti.  The  State  courts  shall  not  have  the 
riowcr  to  inu-rvcnc  in  questions  sulimltted  to  the 
federal  tril)uua!»,  or  to  annui,  alter,  or  siiniicDd 
the  sentences  or  orders  of  these  latur ;  and  retip- 
rwallv.  the  federal  Judiciary  can  not  inU^rfere  In 
quostidiis  submitted  to  the  State  cuurU,  or  annul 
titer,  or  suspend  their  decisions  or  oniers  except 
to  the  cases  jimTldr<l  in  this  Constitution. 

Art.  63.  Each  Stote  shall  Im-  governed  by  the 
[■..Mtiluiion  and  laws  which  it  shall  adopt,  respect 
Wlnjrutwrvol  for  the  couatitullonal  prlnciiilesof 
the  I  nil  in. 

Art.  64.  The  unexplored  mines  and  wild  lands 
IvlDK  wltliln  the  Stau-s  shall  belong  to  these 
^Uten  r.HT,rttively ;  and  to  the  Union  only  as 
much  tirrliory  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  de- 
/inNM.f  the  fnmtlcrs,  for  fortiflcatlons,  military 
Jiirk..  and  fttleral  railwaya  SuU  ,»r„gr„ph.- 
Tbe  nutinnal   nropertlea,  not  neccs«iry   for  the 

Zt' ;    '^  '^  ?'""•  ••*"  P»"  *°  *^'-  "''""••"  of 
the  Mai, ,  In  whose  territory  they  may  be  sltu- 

„  *^-  *?•  ,1"l'e  States  shall  have  the  right  to  — 
I .    ..n.  lurl,.  agrromenu  ami  conventions  among 

(Aftld"  i-^.  No   18.)    (2)  Exrreiw  In  general  any 

^f^ilii  (onsiltutlon.  or  Implicitly  in  its  I'xprei 

Art.  M.  It  Is  forbidden  to  the  8uu-s  to_(|) 
Kedi,.  i„  rHi.gniie  public  do.iim.mt.  of  th? 
.i„i"  '^'1  "">  "'  '"*  sutes,  of  a  leirlsiatlvc 
..lml,.,.,r,.iive.  or  Judicial  character.  <f)  He  m 
ta  cumii. y  or  noi«  issued  by  builu.  wfil^ 


643 


CONSTITUTION  OF  BRAZIL. 

«rM.'i'  ''^..'^  °'  *•■*  ''e<^«"l  Oovemment 
(3)  Make  or  declare  war,  one  with  another   or 

S'ifn»7''r*'''-..<:}1^'""  «"«  extradition  of 
or  ^f  .hi  P^r''?^,*'^.'^  J"^"*  "'  otJ""  States, 
or  of  the  Federal  District,  in  conformity  with  thi 

!rnicte4tr^.r'"=''  "■"*  "^  "^  •"'^j**^'- 

ro^lV.*f?l"  ^"^jht  r^frictions  specified  in  the 
n?.?iL.  l°^i  J?""*  ^'•«  '*^''™'  '»''».  the  Federal 
™f  ^..h^n", '  •*  »1?""^  '"'^«="y  by  the  munici- 
KJu-ttr  in^the^^pr  oTfepVb!.? 
pruteilL'-^  forexcl£..velyby5.e^Pul5!i^ 

ln^,fJh""  1'''«  States  Shall  organize  themselves 
n  such  a  inanner  as  to  assure  the  autonomy  of 
the  municipal  ties  in  everything  that  coucirns 
their  peculiar  hiterests.  "^nu 

,j!f^;f?-iJ}l^  following  shall  be  Brazilian  citi- 
zens:  (1)  Natives  of  Brazil,  though  of  foreign 
parentage  (father),  provided  he  be  not  in  the  sfr- 

Ji^tn  ^J.'"*'"''-  <*l^'"  "'  •  BrazilUn  father, 
and  illegitimate  sons  of  a  Brazilian  mother,  born 
in  foreign  part*,  if  thev  take  up  their  residence 
domiciFe)  in  the  republic.  (8)  Sons  of  a  Brazil- 
Ian  father  who  may  be  in  another  country  in  the 
service  of  the  Republic,  although  they  do  not 
make  their  domicile  In  Brazil.    (4)  Foreigners. 

T^  k'^P  ^,  f™,*"  °''  '•'«  "th  of  November 
1889,  shall  not  declare,  within  6  month*  from  the 
time  when  the  Con*titutlon  enters  into  force 
their  de»iro  to  preserve  their  original  nationality! 
5)  Jore  gners  who  possess  riroperty  (real  estate) 
a  Hrazil  and  are  married  to  Brazilian  women,  or 
have  Braz  Han  childitn,  provided  they  reside  in 
Brazil,  unless  they  shall  declare  theif  intention 
of  not  changing  their  nationality.  (6)  Foreiirn- 
crs  naturalized  In  any  other  way. 

Art.  70.  Citizens  of  more  than  21  years  of  aire 
and  "Igistered  according  to  law,  shall  be  elector*. 
Ss  1.  The  following  *hall  not  tie  regi*tered  a* 
electora  for  federal  or  Stote  elections:  (1)  Beg- 
gars (2)  Persons  ignorant  of  the  alphaU't  18) 
Soldiera  on  pay,  except  alumni  of  the  mllltarT 
schiwU  of  higlier  instruction.  (4)  .MemUrs  of 
monastic  orders,  companies,  congregations  or 
communities  of  wbataoevMr  denomination,  who 
are  subject  to  vowaof  oh.-<llencc.  rule,  or  statute. 
which  linplle*  the  surrender  of  indiviihml  lilvrty 
be  li  il S^"*  *'"'  °^  ""'  **  regUlend  shall  not 
Art.  71.  The  right*  of  the  Brazilian  citizen 
can  be  BU«peiided  or  lost  only  In  the  following 
cases:  ?  1.  The  rights  may  tie  suspended  —  (J) 
for  physical  or  moral  Incapacity.  (4)  Koreriml- 
nal  conviction,  during  the  ojieration  of  the  sen- 
tence. «  2.  They  may  In.  lost-(,i)  By  naturali- 
zation in  a  foreign  country.  (A)  By  accetitanc* 
of  employment  or  peti.lon  from  a  foreign  power 
witlioul  iwmiission  of  the  federal  executive  t}  8* 
The  m.>aim of  naruuiring  l.wt  rights  of  the  Bral 
zllian  citizen  sliall  Iw  s|M',iil,d  liv  federal  law. 

Art.  M.  Tlie  I'onstitutlnn  secures  to  Brazil- 
tans  and  foreljneni  resliling  In  the  country  tb« 
nvlolalillltv  of  their  righu  touching  individual 
llierty,  arl  wcurity  and  prop«-rtv.  in  the  fol- 
lowing teriun:  SI.  No  [lemon  slmll  lie  forced 
to  do.  or  leave  undone,  anything  whatever  ex- 
cept by  virtu.'  of  Uw.  i  ».  Before  the  law  aU 
prm.r^  ,r.=  ^.j.is!.  Thr  Republic  docs  nol  fe«,« 
nlie  privileg.  a  of  birth,  or  titles  of  nobility,  aiid 
anollshes  all  .listing  honorary  orders,  with  all 
tiMOr  prerogative*  and  decontloas,  as  well  as  all 


fW* 


mm. 
lip 


CWNSTITDTION  OF  BRAZIL. 

heredlta^  and  condllar  titles.    §  8.  All  persons 
and  rellKtous  professions  may  exercise,  publiclr 
and  freely,  the  right  of  worahip,  and  may  asso- 
ciate themselves  for  that  purpose,  acquire  prop- 
erty, observance  being  had  to  the  prurisions  of 
the  common  law.    §4.  The  Republic  recognizes 
only  the  cWII  marriage,  the  celebration  of  which 
shall  be  gratuitous.    §8.  Thecemetcries  shall  be 
secular  In  character,  and  be  manapoil  by  the 
numldpal  authorities,  being  free  to  all  religious 
nets  for  the  exercise  of  their  respective  rites  as 
reprds  their  members,  provided  they  do  not 
offend  public  morals  or  the  laws.    8  6.  The  In- 
struction given  in  the  public  Institutions  shall  be 
secular.    8  7.  No  sect  or  church  shall  receive 
offlrittl  aid.  nor  be  dependent  on,  nor  connected 
with,  the  Oovemment  of  the  Union,  or  of  the 
States.    §  8.  All  persons  have  the  right  of  free 
assoi-iatlon  and  assembly,  without  arms ;  and  the 
police  force  shall  not  Intervene,  except  to  main- 
tain the  public  order,     g  9.  Any  person  whatso- 
ever shall  have  the  right  to  address,  by  petition, 
the  public  powers,  denounce  abuses  of  the  authori- 
ties,  and   appeal   to  the  responsibility  of  the 
accused.     §  10.  In  time  of  peace  any  person 
may,  without  passport,  enter  or  leave  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Kepubllc,wlth  his  fortune  and  goods, 
whenever  an(l  however  he  may  choose.    §11. 
The  house  Is  the  inviolable  asylum  of  the  person ; 
no  one  can  enter  It  at  night  without  I  he  consent 
of  the  Inhabitant,  except  to  aid  the  victims  of  a 
crime  or  disaster;  nor  by  day,  unless  In  the  cases 
and  in  the  form  prescribed  by  law.    g  12.  The 
exi  ri'sslon  of  opinion  shall  be  free,  in  respect  to 
whatever  subject,  through  the  press  or  through 
the   tribune,  without  subjection  to  censorship, 
■■aih  one  being  responsible  for  the  abuses  he  mi-y 
r.iininlt,  in  the  cases  and  In  the  form  prescribei; 
by  law.     Anonymous  publications  are  forbidden. 
S  in    Cases  of  flagrante  delicto  alone  excepte<l, 
no   arrest  shall  bo  matle,   unless  after  declara- 
tion of  the  charge  (save  In  cases  determined  by 
law),  and  by   writU'n  order  of  the  competent 
authorities,     p  14.  No  person  shall  be  kept  in 
prison  without  charge  formally  made,  save  the 
exceptions  mentioned   in  the  law,  or  taken  to 
prison,  or  detained  there.  If  be  give  ball,  In  cases 
where  such  is  lawful.     §  15.  No  person  shall  be 
conilcinned,  except  ''v  competent  authority,  and 
in  virtue  of  law  already  existing  an<l  In  the  form 
pre«rih«>d  by  It.     g  18.  The  law  shall  secure  to 
the  airuneil  the  fullest  defense  bv   all  the  re- 
courses and  means  essential  to  the  same.  Includ- 
ing the  notice  of  the  charge,  delivered  to  the 
prisoner  within  Si  houn  anilsigiied  by  the  pD- 
per  authority  along  with  the  names  of  the  accu- 
sers and  witnesses.     8  17.  The  rights  of  proi>erty 
are  maintained    In  all   their  plenitude,  and  no 
disanpmpriatlon  shall  be  ma<le,  except  from  nc- 
cetsltv  „f  public  utility,  and  Imlemnlty  shall,  in 
such  cases,  be  made  beforehand.     .Mines  belong 
to  the  owners  of  the  soil,  under  the  limitations 
to  lie  ('Stslilislied  by  the  law  to  encourage  the 
devi'|i>pmi'iit  of  this  branch  of  Industry,     g  18. 
('orn'»|x>nilencc  underset  is  iuvioli-ble.  g  10.  No 

Senaliy  shall  extend  beyond  the  person  of  the 
eliiKiuent.  g  m  The  penaltr  of  the  galleys  Is 
abolished,  as  also  judicial  tmnishmeut.  g  SI. 
The  death  |>rnalty  Is  abolished,  except  In  the 
can  i  under  military  law  in  time  of  war.  i  22 
The  babeiu  oirpiu  shall  always  lie  granted  when 
the  individual  suffera  violence  or  compulsion, 
through  Illegality  or  abuse  of  |iower,  or  considers 


coNSTTnrnoN  op  brazil. 

himself  in  Imminent  danger  of  the  same  S  91 
There  shall  be  no  privileged  tribunal,  exceot  in 
such  cases  as,  from  their  nature,  belonir  to  sirnn.! 
rourts.  §  24.  The  free  exercise  of  any  pfS 
slon,  moral.  Intellectual,  or  Industrial  li  ™»n 
tied.  §25.  Industrial  Inventions  Mong  to  Uinir 
authors,  to  whom  the  law  will  grant  a  InnnniMr 
privilege,  or  to  whom  the  Congiv.ss  wi!l>ivet 
rcasjmablc  premium, when  It  Is  desirahle  u'malis 
the  invention  public  property.  §  36.  To  authois 
of  literary  and  artistic  works  Is  guarantied  tiie 
exclusive  right  of  reproducing  them  through  the 
press  or  by  any  other  mechanical  process,  and 
their  helra  shall  enjoy  the  same  right  durini:  the 
space  of  time  determined  by  the  law.  §  27  ti^ 
law  shall  also  secure  the  righte  of  prooertv  in 
trade-marks.  §  28.  No  Brazilian  can  be  iWved 
of  his  dvll  and  political  righto  on  accouot  of 
religious  belief  or  duty,  nor  be  exenipuil  from 
theperformanceof  any  civic  duty,  g  29  Those 
who  shall  claim  exemption  from  any  bunlcn  Im. 
posed  by  the  laws  of  the  Republic  on  its  ritlions 
on  account  of  religious  belief,  or  who  shall  occtpt 
any  foreign  decoration  or  title  of  nohilitv  slull 
lose  all  their  political  rights.  §  30,  No  tax  of 
any  kind  shall  be  collected  except  in  virtue  of  t 
hiw  authorizing  the  same.  §  81.  The  instituUon 
of  trial  by  Jury  Is  maintained. 

Art.  73.  Public  offices,  civil  or  mllltarv,  ti« 
accessible  to  all  Brazilian  citizens,  alwavsoWrr- 
Ing  the  conditions  of  particular  cap.i.'ity  fixed 
by  the  law :  but  tlio  accumulation  of  remuners- 
tlonp  is  forbidden. 

Art,  74.  Commissions,  offices,  ami  poslt'oni 
not  subject  to  removal  are  guarantied  In  all  their 
plenitude. 

Art.  75.  Only  such  public  ofllciaU  n»  Iwvc  be- 
come inllrm  in  the  service  of  the  nation  sUsU  be 
rctire<i  on  pay. 

Art.  76.  Olflcera  of  the  army  and  navy  «h»ll 
lose  their  commissions  only  in  ca.se  nf  oimitemo«- 
tion  to  more  than  3  years  in  |)riHon,  prdiiounccd 
in  ludgment  by  the  competent  tribunals. 

Art.  77.  There  shall  be  a  special  murt  for  the 
trial  of  military  offenses  committiHl  by  suldierj 
or  marines.  §  1.  This  court  shall  be  'n>mp«m4 
of  a  supremo  military  tribunal,  whip«  ,mberj 
shall  hold  their  seata  for  life,  and  of  lli.  .iindU 
necessary  for  the  formulation  of  the  <  Imrgc  snd 
the  Judgment  of  the  crimes,  g  3.  Tlu'  crCTnlis 
tion  andi>owera  of  the  supreme  military  iribumil 
shall  he  aetermlne<l  by  law. 

Art.  78.  The  enimieratiim  of  the  riirhls  and 
guaranties  expressed  in  theConslilutininliicsnot 
excluile  other  guaranllcs  i>n<l  ri^tlilH.  imI  cnumtr- 
ateil,  but  ri'suitlng  from  the  form  of  /jnviTiimcnt 
established  and  principles  settleil  by  8al<l  t'unsll- 
tutom. 

Art.  79.  The  citizen  ve«te<i  with  the  funcliniu 
of  either  of  tliese  three  federal  p.)w.r>  shall  ncit 
exercis<>  those  of  anothiT 

Art.  to.  Any  part  of  the  territory  «( i\u-  Union 
may  bi-  declared  in  state  of  siege  aii.l  ihicoBBtl 
tutlonal  guaranties  suipendiHl  for  a  ib !.  rrainiHl 
perloil,  whenever  the  security  of  the  lb'|iiibiic 
so  demands  in  case  of  fonign  sitgn'»>i"n  or  In- 
testine diaturbance.  (Article  S^i,  Nn  '.Ml  ill 
The  power  to  execute  the  alioye  pnw  i«iiiii  mar, 
if  the  Congress  be  not  In  session  ami  tli<'  (n  iiiirr 
!"-•  In  Imminent  peril.  1»  !!m-.!  h\-  •.'.::■  ft-ifrs! 
executive.  (Article  48,  No.  l.rj  ^  •.'.  in  tlic 
exorcise  of  this  [lower,  durini;  the  state  of  sieire, 
tho  executive  shall  be  restricted  lo  tlie  following 


644 


OOySTITXTTION  OF  BRAZIL. 

meuure*  of  repreMioii  against  penons:  (1)  To 
their  detention  m  a  place  not  allotted  to  penons 
accused  of  common  crimes.  (3)  To  bonisiiment 
to  other  parts  of  tlie  national  territory.  S  8.  As 
■nn  as  the  Congress  shall  have  assembled,  the 
President  of  the  Republic  shall  make  a  report  to 
that  body  of  the  exceptional  measures  which 
may  bare  been  taken.  §4.  The  authorities  who 
(hall  have  ordered  such  measures  shall  be  re- 
iponsible  for  any  abuses  that  may  have  been  com- 
mitted. 

Art.  8i.  In  criminal  cases,  trials  concluded 
may  be  reviewed  at  any  time,  in  favor  of  the 
condemned  parties,  by  the  federal  supreme  court, 
for  the  purpose  of  correetinff  or  of  confirming  the 
sentence,  g  1.  The  law  shall  determine  the  cases 
ud  the  form  of  such  revision,  which  may  he 
Mked  for  by  the  condemned,  by  any  one  of  the 
people,  or  by  the  attorney-general  of  the  Repub- 
lic, ex  olBcio.  §  3.  In  such  revision  the  penalties 
Imposed  by  the  sentence  reviewed  can  not  be  in- 
creased. I  3.  The  provisions  of  the  present  ar- 
tick'  are  applicable  to  military  trials. 

Art.  83.  Public  officers  shall  be  strictly  re- 
sponsible for  the  abuses  and  omissions  that  occur 
In  tbc  exercise  of  the  duties  of  their  offices,  as 
well  as  for  the  indulgences  and  negligences  for 
which  they  do  not  bold  their  suburdinates  re- 
«pon.<ible.  Suit  paragraph. — They  shall  all  bo 
bounil  by  formal  obligation,  on  taking  possession 
of  till  ir  offices,  to  discharge  the  lawful  duties  of 
the  same 

Art.  83.  Until  revoked,  the  laws  of  the  ancien 
regime  shall  remain  in  force,  in  as  far  as  they 
sre  not.  explicitly  or  implicitly,  Cf>ntriiry  to  the 
lyslem  of  government  established  bv  nhe  Con- 
■titutinn,  iiud  to  the  principles  laid  dowi  in  the 
same. 

Art.  84.  The  federal  government  guaranties 
the  payment  of  the  public  debt,  both  Internal 
and  lurt'ign. 

Art.  85.  The  officers  of  the  line  and  of  the  sn- 
Beteil  cliisses  of  tbc  navy  shall  have  the  same 
cumniis.siiins  and  advantage  as  those  of  the  army 
of  enmiipordlng  rank. 

Art.  86.  L.  -v  Brazi«Kn  shall  be  bound  to 
military  service  in  defense  of  the  country  s  J 
the  t'linititiitlon,  as  provided  by  the  federal  laws. 
Art.  87.  The  federal  army  shall  be  made  up 
of  ei.ntinifcnU  which  the  states  and  the  Federal 
District  are  bound  to  fumisli,  constituted  in  con- 
f<irnilty  with  the  annual  law  regulating  the  num- 
Ikt  ot  the  forces.  $  1.  Tlie  general  orgaiiization 
of  tlie  army  shall  be  detcnnineil  by  a  federal  law, 
in  seciiniiiiice  with  No.  18  of  article  34.  ^  8. 
The  rnli.n  shall  have  charge  of  me  militarv  in- 
•trudioti  of  the  troops  and  of  thn  biglur  military 
Instruiti.in.  §3.  Compulsory  recruiting  for  mili- 
tary purpcises  la  abolishcil.  |J  4.  The  army  and 
navy  shall  lie  made  up  by  voluut"ering  wlibout 
•iiiniieH.  or,  if  this  means  be  not  sii»lcleut  by 
I'll  previiiusly  detiTmlncd.  The  civwa  for  the 
luvy  Khali  lie  made  up  from  the  rnvvs;  scliooi, 
tile  H-hiKila  of  marine  apprentices,  an  1  the  mn- 
caanl  nmrine,  by  means  of  lot. 

Art,  88.  In  no  case,  either  directly  or  indi- 
rect y.  iilnnc  ..r  in  allUncc  with  another  nation, 
•hall  ilie  I  iiiu.d  SUtea  of  Brazil  engage  in  a  war 
of  con.|iiiT(i. 

.  ^w**'  * 'ribunal  of  accounu  shall  be  Insti- 
"■'•'  ■■•"""-  auditing  of  the  receipt  lUuI  iiufuiie 
Kcouiits  and  esaminlng  into  their  legality  before 
their  preaentatloB  to  tbe  ConctvM.    The  mem- 

U 


CONSTITUTION  OF  BRAZIL. 

hers  of  this  tribunal  shall  be  appointed  by  the 
President  of  the  Republic,  with  the  approval  of 
the  Senate,  and  can  lose  their  seats  only  by  sen- 
tence. 

.Art.  90.  The  Constitution  may  be  amended,  at 
the  initiative  of  the  national  Congress,  or  of  the 

l^M  "v""**  °'  "'^  S"***-  §  1-  -in  amendment 
sball  be  considered  as  proposed,  when,  having 
been  presenud  by  one-fourth,  at  least,  of  the 
members  of  either  house  of  the  Congress,  it  shall 
have  been  accepted  in  three  readings  (discussions) 
by  two-thirds  of  the  votes  in  both  houses  of  the 
Congress,  or  when  it  shall  have  been  asked  for 
by  two-thirds  of  the  States  presented,  each  one 
by  a  majority  of  the  votes  of  ita  legishiturc,  said 
votes  to  be  taken  in  the  course  of  1  year.  8  2 
The  proposed  amendment  shall  be  considered 
approved,  if,  in  the  following  year,  after  three 
discussions,  it  shall  have  been  adof  -.cd  by  a  ma- 
jority ot  two-thirds  of  the  votes  in  the  two 
houses  of  the  Congress.  §  8.  The  amendment 
adopted  shall  be  published  with  the  signutiircs 
of  the  prcsidenu  and  clerks  of  the  two  chambers 
and  be  incorporate<l  into  the  Constitution  ih  a 
part  of  the  same,  g  4.  No  project  having  a  t<.'n- 
dency  to  abolish  .  1  federative  republican  form 
or  the  equal  representation  of  the  States  in  the 
Senate,  shall  be  admitted  for  considcratio  the 
Congress. 

Art.  91.  This  Constitution,  after  ap]  -1 
shall  be  promulgated  by  the  president  .1  the 
Congress  and  signed  by  the  members  of  the 
same. 

Temporary  ProTiaioni. 
Article  1.  After  the  promulgation  of  thi.s  Con- 
stitution, the  Congress,  in  joint  assemlil;.  shall 
choose  consecutively,  by  an  absolute  miijnrilv  of 
votes  in  >he  first  balloting,  and.  if  no  ciitidiilati' 
shall  rerelvp  such,  by  a  pluralitv  In  the  second 
Imlloting,  the  President  and  Vice  "President  of  the 
Lniti-l  States  of  Brazil,     g  1.  This  election  shall 
beiu  two  distinct  ballotings,  for  the  President 
and  Vice  President  respectively,  the  ballots  for 
I'residcnt  being  uken  and  counte.|,  in  the  first 
place,  and  afterwanis  for  Vice  President.     S  3. 
The  l^esident  and  Vice  President,  thus  elected 
shall  occi:py  the  Presidency  and  Vice  I'residencv 
of   the  Republic  during  the  first  Presidential 
term,     g  3.  For  said  election  there  shall  1h;  no 
ineompatibiliiies  admitu.'d.     g  4.  As  six;  n  as  said 
election  shall  be  cnncludetl,   the  Congress  shall 
consider  as  terminated  iU  mission  in  joint  sc.s.si(in 
and,  si^parating  into  Chamlwr  ami  Senate,  shall 
enter  upon  the  exercise  of  its  functions  us  de- 
final  bv  law,  on  the  15th  of  June  of  the  prt.s<'nt 
year,  ai.d  can  not  in  any  case  be  dis*i|ve(f    ^  5. 
In  the  rtrst  year  of  the  first  legislature,  among  its 
prcpaiatory  mi-asures,  tlie  Senate  shall  deslgi.atc 
the  flrit  and  second  tliini  of  its  niemlirrs.  wliose 
term  of  office  shall  reasi'  at  the  end  of  the  first 
and  Bi\Hinil  Syear  terms.    ^  fl    The  discrinilna- 
tion  shall  be  made  in  lhre<    ;i.sts.  corresponiling 
to  the  three  eiasw's,  alli.tl;.g  to  them  the  senutors 
of  each  State  and  of  the  Federal  District  lUfonl. 
Ing  to  the  nuinlier  of  votes  received  hv  them 
respectively,  so  as  to  allot  ta  the  thlnl  fn    llie 
lastayenrs  the  one  receiving  the  highest  liiinilier 
of  votes  In  the  Federal  District  and  in  e»i  h  StaU', 
and  to  till-  other  two-thirds  the  remaining  two 
names  in  the  order  of  the  number  of  voioa  re- 
ceiveii  iiy  tliem  respectively.     ^  7.  In  ease  of  tic, 
the  oldest  shal'.  be  preferre'd,  and  if  the  ages  are 
equal,  the  choice  shall  bo  made  by  lot 


545 


CONSTlTCnON  OF  BRAZIL. 

Art.  s.  The  State  which,  by  tJ  •>  end  of  the 
tear  1893,  shall  not  have  adopteu  Ita  constttu- 
Hon.  shall,  by  act  of  the  federal  legislative  power, 
be  placed  under  that  of  oae  of  the  other  States, 
which  it  shall  Judge  most  suitable,  until  the 
State  thus  subjected  to  said  oonstitatioD  shall 
•mend  it  in  the  manner  provided  in  the  same. 

Art.  3.  As  fast  as  the  States  shall  be  organized, 
the  Federal  Oovenmient  shall  deliver  to  them 
Uie  administration  of  the  service*  which  belong 
to  them,  and  shall  settle  the  responsibility  of  the 
f>.'derei  u  J  ministration  in  all  that  rcKtea  to  said 
•ervices  and  to  the  payment  of  the  respective 
offlclals. 

Art.  4.  While,  during  the  period  of  organiza- 
tion of  their  services,  theStates  shall  be  engaged  in 
regulating  their  expenses,  the  Federal  Goveniment 
shall.forthis  purpose,  open  special  creditotothem, 
tmder  conditions  determhied  by  the  Congress. 

Art.  5.  In  the  Stetes  which  shall  become  or- 

Snlwd  the  classification  of  the  revenues  estab- 
heii  in  the  Constitution  shall  enter  into  foree. 
Art.  6.  In  the  first  appointments  for  the  federal 
magistrac/  and  for  that  of  the  States,  the  pre- 
ference  shall  be  given  to  the  Justices  and  magis- 
trates of  the  higher  courts  of  the  greatest  note. 
Such  88  are  not  admitted  Into  the  new  organiza- 
tion of  the  Judiciary,  and  have  served  80  years 
shall  l>c  retired  on  full  pay.    Those  who  have 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CALIFORNIA.- 

For  an  account  of  the  maht  features  of  this 


roNSTmrnoN  of  Canada. 

served  for  less  than  80  years  shall  continue  ta 
receive  their  salaries  until  they  shall  be  em 

?l°I'f'  2ru'*l*'*i.'''"'™P»J'  corresponding  u, 
their  leugth  of  service  The  payment  of  8aliri« 
of  magistrates  retired  or  set  aside  shall  be  nud. 
by  the  Federal  Government  ^^ 

«#^  I'  To  D.  Pedro  de  Alcantara.  ex-Emperor 

18th  of  November,  1889,  sufficient  to  guarantr 
him  a  decent  subsistence  during  his  lifetin,/ 
"The  Congress,  at  ito  first  session,  s>wU  fli  th. 
imiountof  saldL.:nsion. 

Art  8.  The  Federal  Qovemirsnt  shall  acoulm 
tor  the  nation  the  house  in  which  Dr.  Be  liamS 
Constant  Botelho  de  HagalhSes  died,  and  shaH 
have  placed  on  it  a  memorial  slab  in  mcmorv  of 
that  great  patriot,  the  founder  of  the  Ucpublic. 
Sols  paragraph.— The  vidow  jf  th.  said  Dr  Ben- 
Jamin  Constant  sl,all  Imve.  du-!ng  her  lifetime. 
the  usufruct  of  the  said  house.  We  oniir  tlien 
ail  the  authoritius  U>  whom  the  recocnition  and 
execution  of  this  C.-natitution  btlouijs,  to  exe- 
cute it  aud  have  it  executed  and  observed  faith- 
fully and  fully  in  all  its  provisions.  Let  the 
same  be  published  and  observed  tliroughout  the 
territory  of  the  nation.  Hall  of  tlic  sessions  of 
the  National  Constitutional  Congnss  in  the  city 

third  of  the  Republic.     See  Bbazii,-  lt)8»-i(j9i. 


singular  constitution,  see  CauroaNU: 
1877— looO. 


AD. 


a  A\  P-4P!'::;:''''"  Q"«>>«c  Act.  See  Canada: 
CAt!?;'i"D-?;'»!^~'"'""'"^A^-  See 
A.'^V°-8l?,V"'''°^'*-    S-Cakaoa: 

a.^-    T.  '"'7-The  British  North  America 

Act.— The  history  of  the  Confederation  of  the 

grov  n<i.»  of  British  North  America,  forming  the 
jominion  of  Canada,  Is  given  brieflv  under 
Canada  A  I).  18«7.  The  following  is  the  text 
of  tilt-  Act  of  the  Parilament  of  Great  Britain  by 
which  the  Confederation  was  fonned  and  Its 
constitution  established: 

An  Act  for  the  Union  of  Canada.  Nova  Scotia, 
and  New  Brunswick,  and  the  Oovemment 
tbenof :  and  for  purposes  connected  therewith. 
WTii  March.  1867. 

WiiKiiKArt  the  Provinces  of  Canada,  Nova 
Scolbi  Hiul  New  Brunswick  have  expressed 
their  .l.sire  to  he  federally  united  into  one 
Domiiiloii  under  the  Crown  of  the  United  I  ae- 
dom  of  (In  at  Britain  and  Ireland,  with  a  cofi 
rtltulion  similar  in  principle  to  that  of  the  United 
Kinjfdi.iii:  And  whereas  such  a  Union  would 
coniiiuy  Ui  111,,  welfare  of  the  Provinces  and  pro- 
mote the  int.  rests  of  the  British  Empire  ■  And 
Whenas  on  the  .•sUli.ishr  :it  of  the  Union  by 
aut  lority  of  'arliainent  it  u  expedient,  not  only 
that  tlie  (  oiisiltiition  of  the  I^egislatlve  Authority 
In  the  Dominion  lie  provided  for,  but  also  that 
the  nature  of  the  Executive  Government  therein 
be  deelHred:  And  whereas  it  is  expedient  that 
provision  lie  made  for  the  eventual  .iilm!=i!.^n 
inui  liic  L  nion  of  other  parU  of  Britlsli  North 
Amertua.  Be  it  tlietefors  eOMted  and  decUied 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


646 


by  the  Queen's  most  Excellent  Majesty,  hv  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  ihf  lonlj 
Spiritual  and  Temporal,  and  Con'nions  iu  iliis 
present  Parilament  Bsscmblt.ii.  and  by  the 
authority  of  the  same,  as  follows : 

1.  This  Act  may  be  cited  as  The  British  North 
America  Act,  1807. 

2.  The  provisions  of  this  Act  referring  In  Hit 
Majesty  the  Queen  extend  also  to  th,.  h,.jrs  an  I 
successors  of  Her  Majesty,  Kinirs  and  ()ii,  ,.n»  of 
the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ir,  land 

J.  It  shall  be  lawful  for  th,  Oun-n  byanfl 
with  the  advice  of  Her  Majesty's  M.wt  ilim.iur- 
able  Privy  Co-_ncil,  to  declare  by  rrmlaniati.u 
that,  on  aud  after  a  day  thendn  aiiiKiiniid,  not 
being  more  than  six  n-onths  after  tin.  Ilil^.inl;  nt 
this  Act,  the  Provinces  of  Cnnaila.  .N.na  S.iiia, 
and  New  Brunswick  shall  form  and  tie  one 
Dominion  under  the  name  of  C'anadu:  aiid  on 
and  after  that  da^  those  three  I'mvinc,.!!  shall 
form  and  be  one  Dominion  umicr  that  name 
acconlingly. 

4.  The  subsequent  provisions  of  tliU  .Vrt 
shall,  unless  It  is  otherwise  expressed  ,ir  iiiipli,..!, 
commence  and  have  effect  on  ami  aft,  r  tlie 
Union,  that  is  to  say,  on  and  after  tlu'  ,lav  ap- 

Pilntod  for  the  Union  taklngelleri  in  ihi.QiiWns 
rocliimntlon ;  ami  in  the  same  pr-'vi^iims.  «nli« 
It  Is  otherwise  expn-sscil  or  Implloil,  the  name 
Canada  shaM  be  taken  to  mean  Canada  as  con- 
stituted under  this  Act. 

8.  Canada  shall  be  diviile,!  into  four  Prov- 
inces, name<l  Ontario,  Quebec,  Nova  -Niilia,  and 
NrW  BfiiiiSwick. 

6.  The  psrU  of  the  Province  of  Canada  (as  it 
exists  at  the  passbigof  this  Act)  which  formerl; 


ooNSTmmoMr  op  cakada. 


XncMvtand 

I^ir'iament, 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


omstltuted  reapectlTeiy  the  Provincei  of  Upper 
Caiuds  and  Lower  Canada  shall  be  deemed  to  be 
levered,  and  shall  form  two  separate  Provinces. 
The  part  which  formerly  coratituted  the  Prov- 
ince of  Upper  Canada  shall  constitute  the  Prov- 
ince of  Ontario ;  and  the  part  which  formerly 
constituted  the  Province  of  Lower  Canada  shall 
constitute  the  Province  of  Quebec. 

7,  The  Provinces  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Bnmsvick  sUall  ha^e  the  same  limits  as  at  the 
pi  ~ineof  this  \ct 

..  In  the  geiicral  census  of  the  population  of 
Canada,  which  is  hereby  required  to  be  taken  in 
the  year  one  thousand  .u-ht  hiinilrei  and 
leventyonc,  and  in  every  tenth  year  thereafter, 
the  mpcctive  populations  of  the  four  Provinces 
shall  be  distinguished. 

9.  The  Executive  Government  and  authority 
of  and  over  Canada  is  hereby  declared  to  con- 
tinue and  be  vested  In  the  Queen. 

10.  The  pr  isions  of  this  Act  referring  to 
the  Governor  i  '.iieral  extend  and  apply  to  the 
Governor  General  for  the  time  being  of  Canada, 
or  other  the  Chief  Executive  Oracer  or  Ad- 
mlnintrator,  for  the  time  being  carrying  on  the 
Oovemmcnt  of  Canada  on  behalf  and  in  the 
name  of  tlie  Queen,  by  whatever  title  he  Is 
desiirnatrtl. 

1 1.  There  shall  be  a  Council  to  aid  end  advise 
in  the  Government  of  Canada,  to  be  styled  the 
Queen's  Privy  Council  for  Canada:  and  the 
persons  who  arc  to  be  members  of  tlut  Coimcll 
shall  be  from  time  to  time  chosen  and  summone<l 
hy  the  Governor  General  and  sworn  in  as  Privy 
Councillors,  and  membe.-s  thereof  may  be  from 
dme  to  time  removed  by  the  Governor  General. 

J  2.  All  powers,  authorities,  and  functions 
Thich  under  any  Act  of  the  Parliament  of  Great 
Britain,  or  of  the  Parliament  of  the  United 
Kinjfdoni  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  or  of  the 
Legislature  of  Upivcr  Canada,  Lower  Canada 
Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  or  New  Brunswick,  are  at 
the  I'nion  vested  in  or  exerciseable  by  the  re- 
spective Governors  or  Lieutenant  Governors  of 
thiMe  Provinces,  with  tlic  advice,  or  with  the 
odvioe  and  consent,  of  the  respective  Executive 
Councils  thereof,  or  in  conjunction  with  those 
Councils,  or  with  any  numlwr  of  members 
tliercof.  or  bv  those  Oovernors  or  Lieutenant 
Oovemotu  individually,  shall,  as  fur  as  the  same 
continue  in  extstenre  and  capable  of  being 
fserciscd  after  the  Union  in  relation  to  the  Gov- 
ornment  of  Cr.nnda,  be  veste<l  in  and  exercise- 
olilc  by  the  Governor  General,  with  the  nlvlce 
m  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  or  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  Queen's  Privy  Council  for  Canada 
or  any  incmlH'ra  thenof.  or  bv  the  Governor 
(•eninil  Indivi.luully,  as  the  case  fequiret,  subject 
nrvenlicliss (except  with  ri'spect  to  such  as  exist 
uiidcr  .\cis  i,f  the  Parliament  of  Great  Britain  or 
nf  Uie  l'.-.rl hunent  of  the  United  Kingdom  of 
Oneat  Britain  and  Indand)  to  be  aboQshed  or 
•lUred  liy  ihc  Parliament  of  Canada. 

1  J.  1  hi'  provisions  of  this  Act  referring  to  the 
tjovcrn,,r  (..nenil  in  Council  shall  be  construed 
asirfirrinff  to  the  Governor  Oenrrnl  actine  bv 
»nd»,th  the  advice  of  the  Queen's  Privy  Council 

14.  It  shall  l>e  lawful  for  the  Queen,  if  Her 
MsJiMv  thinks  lit,  to  suthoriie  Oic  {kivrranr 
l^ucrnl  from  time  lo  time  to  appoint  any  person 
jr.";"  I"'";"'''.  Jointly  or  severally,  to  bo  hU 
ueputy  or  Deputies  within  any  pah  or  p«ru  of 


547 


Canada,  and  In  that  capacity  to  exercise  during 
the  pleasure  of  the  Governor  General  such  of  the 
powers,  authorities,  and  functions  of  the  Gov- 
ernor General  as  the  Governor  General  de  r.»  't 
necessary  and  expedient  to  assign  to  him  or 
them,  subject  to  any  limitations  or  directions  ex- 
pressed or  given  by  the  Queen;  but  the  appoint- 
ment of  such  a  Deputy  or  Deputies  shall  not 
affect  the  exercise  by  the  Governor  General  him- 
l  m  *m?  P^wef-  authority  or  function. 

15.  The  Command-In-Chief  of  the  Land  and 
Naval  Malltia,  sud  of  all  Naval  and  Slilitory 
*orces,  of  and  in  Canada,  is  hereby  declared  U> 
contmue  and  be  vested  in  the  Queen. 

16.  Until  the  Queen  otherwise  directs,  the 
**V»   Go-  mment  of  Canada  shall  be  f»tawa 

1  ;•  There  shall  be  one  Pariiament  for  Canads 
conslsiing  of  the  Queen,  an  Upper  Fouse  style' 
the  Senate,  and  the  House  of  Commons. 
.  \  I  Tl'*  P'''''"*'ge8.  Immunitie-  and  powet» 
to  be  held,  eni,  ed,  and  exercised  jy  the  Senate 
and  by  the  House  of  Commons,  and  by  the 
members  thereof  respectively,  shnll  be  such  as 
are  from  time  to  time  dcflni'd  by  Act  of  the 
Parliament  of  Canada,  but  so  that  Jie  same  shall 
never  exceed  those  at  the  passi..;  of  this  Act 
held,  enjoyed,  and  exercised  by  the  Commons 
House  of  Parliament  of  the  United  Kingdom 
of  Gnat  Britata  and  Ireland  and  by  the  members 
thereof. 

ll».  The  Pariiament  of  Canada  shall  be  called 
together  not  Uter  than  six  months  after  the 
Lulon. 

20.  There  shall  be  a  Session  of  'he  "arilament 
of  Canada  once  at  least  In  evei>  year,  so  that 
twelve  months  shall  not  intervene  Iwtween  the 
last  sittipj,  of  the  Parliament  in  one  Session  and 
iU  flrsf  sitting  In  the  next  Session. 

at.  The  Senate  shall,  subject  to  the  pro- 
visK.nso'  this  Act,  consist  of  seventy  two  mem- 
bers, wh.  Bhai;  be  styled  Senators. 

22.  In  relation  to  the  constitution  of  the 
Senate,  Canada  s'  '1  be  deemed  to  consist  of 
threedlvisiras  — 1.  ntario;  8.  Quel)ec;  3.  Tiie 
Maritime  Provinces,  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswick;  which  three  divisions  shall  (subject 
to  the  provisions  of  this  Act)  be  equally  repre- 
sented in  the  Senate  ms  follows:  Ontario  by 
twcnt.--four  Semtors:  Quebec  by  twentv-four 
SenatoiL ;  and  the  Maritime  Provinces  by  twenty- 
four  Senators,  twelve  thereof  representing  Nova 
Scotia,  and  twelve  thereof  representing  Now 
Brunswick.  In  the  case  of  QucIh-c  eai  Ii  of  the 
twenty-four  Senators  repres ..tiling  that  Province 
s^iali  be  appointed  for  one  of  the  twonty-four 
Electoral  Divisions  of  Lower  Canada  spcel'tliMl  In 
Schedule  A.  to  chapter  one  of  the  Consolidated 
Statutes  of  Canada. 

23.  The  qualification  of  n  Senator  shall  be  a* 
follows:— <1)  He  shall  W  of  the  ful".  age  of 
thirty  years:  (2)  He  simll  be  eltlicr  a  natural 
bon.  subject  of  the  Quwn,  or  a  subject  of  iho 
Qu(rn  naturalizci  by  iin  Act  of  the  Parliament 
of  Great  Britain,  or  of  the  Pnrilamcnt  of  the 
United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  or 
of  the  I.eglslature  of  one  of  the  Provinces  of 
Upper  Canada,  Lower  Canada,  Canada,  Nova 
Scotia,  or  New  Brunswick,  l)efon>  the  Union  or 
of  the  Parliament  of  Canada  after  the  Union- 
m  If.-,  shfill  l>e  \i-gnHy  vt  rtiuitabiv  seised  as  of 
ffehohi  for  his  own  use  and  Iwnelft  of  lamls  or 

nements  held  In  free  and  common  socage,  or 
■elied  or  ponesied  for  bis  own  luo  and  benedt  of 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


and  Ctoiuwiu. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA 


if*'"  }'■ 


r^*-f 


lands  or  tenement*  held  in  franc-alleu  or  in 
roture,  within  the  Province  for  which  he  is  ap- 
pointed, of  the  value  of  four  thousand  dollan, 
over  and  above  all  rents,  dues,  debts,  charges,' 
mortgages,  ami  incumbrances  due  or  payable  out 
of  or  charged  on  or  affecting  the  same:  (4)  His 
real  and  personal  property  shall  bo  together 
worth  $4,000  over  and  above  his  debts  and 
liabilities:  (5)  He  shall  be  resident  in  the  Prov- 
ince for  which  he  is  appointed :  (6)  In  the  case 
of  (Quebec  he  shall  have  his  real  property 
qualification  in  the  Electoral  Division  for  which 
he  is  appointed,  or  shall  be  resident  in  that 
Division. 

24.  The  Governor  General  shall  from  time  to 
time,  in  the  Queen's  name,  by  instrument  under 
tlie  Great  Seal  of  Canada,  summon  qualified 
persons  to  the  Senate ;  and,  subject  to  the  pro- 
visions of  this  Act,  every  person  so  summoned 
shall  become  and  be  a  member  of  the  Senate  and 
a  Senator. 

25.  Such  persons  shall  be  first  uairmoncd  to 
the  Senate  as  the  Queen  by  warrant  under  Her 
Majcst  -s  Royal  Sign  Manual  thinks  fit  to  ap- 
prove, _nd  their  names  shall  be  inserted  in  the 
Queen's  Proclamation  of  Union. 

26.  If  at  any  time  on  the  recommendation  of 
the  Governor  Gencrul  the  Queen  thinks  fit  to 
direct  tliat  three  or  six  members  be  added  to  the 
Senate,  the  Governor  Oencral  may  by  summons 
to  three  or  six  qualified  persons  (as  trie  case  may 
be),  representing  equally  the  three  divisions  o"f 
Ciiniida,  add  to  the  Sinate  accordingly. 

27.  In  case  of  such  addition  being  at  any 
time  made  the  Governor  General  shall  n()t 
summon  any  person  to  the  Senate,  except  on  a 
further  like  direction  bv  the  Queen  on  tlic  like 
rcpommendntion,  until  each  of  the  three  divisions 
of  Canada  is  represented  by  twenty-four  Senators 
and  no  more. 

28.  The  number  of  Senators  shall  not  at  any 
time  exceeii  seventy-eight. 

29.  A  Senator  shall,  subject  to  the  provisions 
of  this  Act,  hold  his  place  m  the  Senate  for  life. 

30.  A  S«-nator  may  by  writing  under  his  hand 
addressed  to  the  Governor  General  resign  bis 
place  in  the  Senate,  and  thereupon  the  same 
shall  be  vacant. 

31.  The  place  of  a  Senator  shall  become 
vaaint  in  any  of  the  following  cases:  (1)  If  for 
two  consecutive  Sessions  of  the  Parliament  he 
fails  to  give  his  attendance  in  the  Senate:  (8)  If 
ho  takes  an  oath  or  makes  a  declaration  or 
acknowledgment  of  allegiance,  obedience,  or  ad- 
herence to  a  for(^gn  power,  or  does  an  act 
whereby  he  becomes  a  subject  or  citizen,  or 
entitled  to  the  righu  or  privileges  of  a  subject  or 
citizen  of  a  foreign  power:  (3)  If  In  is  adjudged 
bankrunt  or  insolvent,  or  applies  lur  the  benefit 
of  any  law  relating  to  insolvent  debtors,  or  Iw- 
comi'S  a  public  defaulter:  (4)  If  he  Is  attainted 
of  treiison  or  convicted  of  felony  or  of  any  in- 
famous crime:  (.'5)  If  he  ceases  to  bo  qualified  iu 
respiTt  of  property  or  of  residence;  provided, 
that  a  Senator  shall  not  be  deenie<l  to  have  ceasetl 
to  be  mialilliii  in  respect  of  residence  by  reason 
only  of  his  reoiding  at  the  seat  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  t'liuiula  while  holding  an  olfice  under 
"•at  Government  nquiring  his  presence  there. 

32.  When  a  vaoancy  liappins  in  the  Senate 
by  re«lgnati"U. death,  or  i.thirwisi'.  the  Goverrn'r 
tJeneral  shall  by  summons  to  a  fit  and  qualified 
ptrwD  mi  the  vacancy. 

548 


3^  If  any  question  arises  respecting  the 
qualification  of  a  Senator  or  a  vacancy  la  the 
Senate  the  same  shall  be  heard  and  detcrmiuirt 
by  the  Senate.  ^^ 

34.  The  Governor  General  may  from  time  to 
time,  by  Instrument  under  the  Great  Seal  of 
Canada,  appoint  a  Senator  to  be  Speaker  of  the 
Senate,  and  may  remove  him  and  appoint  another 
in  his  stead. 

36.  Until  the  Parliament  of  Canada  otherwUe 
provides,  the  presence  of  at  least  fifteen  -Sastors 
including  the  Speaker,  shall  be  necessiiry  to  coo' 
stitute  a  meeting  of  the  Senate  for  the  exeieiw 
of  its  powers. 

J  39'j9"**''°°*  '"^»*°5  tn  ^e  Senate  sliall  be 
decided  by  a  majority  of  voices,  and  the  .Speaker 
shall  in  all  cases  have  a  vote,  and  wliin  the 
voices  are  equal  the  decision  shall  be  deiracd  to 
be  in  the  negative. 

37.  The  House  of  Commons  shall,  subject  to 
the  provisions  of  this  Act,  consist  of  one  Immlred 
and  eighty-one  members,  of  whom  <ii;lity  two 
shall  be  elected  for  Ontario,  sixty-flve  forOutboc 
nineteen  for  Nova  Scotia,  and  fifteen  for  New 
Brunswick. 

38.  The  Governor  General  shall  from  time  to 
time,  in  the  Queen's  name,  by  instrumiut  under 
the  Great  Seal  of  Canada,  sun.mou  and  call 
together  the  House  of  Commons. 

SO.  A  Senator  shall  not  be  capable  of  beinr 
elected  or  of  sitting  or  voting .«  a  nienilxrof  th« 
House  of  Commons. 

40.  Until  the  Parliament  of  Canada  otherwise 
provides,  Ontario,  Quebec.  Nova  S<otia  and 
New  Brunswick  shall,  for  the  purpo.-. ,  o.'  the 
election  of  members  to  serve  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  be  divided  into  Electoral  l)i,tricu  as 
follows:— (1)  Ontario  shall  be  dividi,!  into  the 
Counties,  Ridings  of  Counties,  Citle.i.  parts  of 
Cities,  and  Towns  enumerated  in  the  first 
Schedule  to  this  Act,  each  wher«ir  sh.ill  be  an 
Electoral  District,  each  such  I)istri<t  m  num- 
bered in  that  Schedule  being  entitled  to  ntura 
one  member.  (2)  Quebec  shall  be  divi.lci  Into 
sixty-five  Electoral  DlstricU,  compowil  of  the 
sixty-five  Electoral  Divisions  into  whirh  Lower 
Canada  is  at  the  passing  of  this  Ait  divided 
under  chapter  two  of  the  Consolidated  Statutes 
of  Canada,  chapter  seventy-live  of  the  Con- 
solidated Statutes  for  Lower  Canada,  and  the 
Act  of  the  Province  of  Canaita  of  tlic  twenty- 
third  year  of  the  Queen,  clmptir  on.-,  or  any 
other  Act  amending  the  .same  in  font'  at  the 
Union,  so  that  each  such  Electoral  Division  sliall 
be  for  the  purposes  of  this  Act  an  Elciioril  Dis- 
trict entitled  to  return  one  inember.  (:!>  Eachof 
the  eighteen  Counties  of  Nova  Scoti  i  .^hall  be 
an  Electoral  District.  The  County  of  ICalifai 
shall  Ik)  entitled  to  return  two  niVinlxrs.  and 
each  of  the  other  Counties  one  meralMT  ( 1 1  Each 
of  the  fourteen  Counties  Into  which  Xiw  Bruns- 
wick is  <livided,  including  the  City  iiml  County 
of  St.  John,  shall  be  an  Electoral  Disirict;  the 
City  of  St  John  shall  also  lie  a  septiralc  Klictoril 
District.  Each  of  those  fifteen  El.ri.  ml  Dis- 
tricts sliall  bo  entitled  to  return  one  ni.inlier. 

41.  Until  the  Parliament  of  Canada  other- 
wise provides,  all  laws  in  force  in  tin;  several 
Provinces  at  tlie  Union  relative  to  thi'  following 
matters  or  an^  of  them,  namely,— the  qualiflca 
liotis  iuid  disquatitli Hti.iiis  of  iKmoii.--  to  t* 
elected  or  to  sit  or  vote  as  members  of  the  Uouie 
of  Assombly  or  Lefislatlve   Aiivmbly  la  U>e 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


Bcmtt  of 

CtMMKMU. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


MTeral  ProTinces,  the  Totera  at  electiona  of  such 
members,  the  oaths  to  be  taken  bv  voters,  the 
returning  officers,  their  powers  and  duties,  the 
proceedings  at  elections,  the  periods  during 
which  elections  may  be  continued,  the  trial  oi 
controverted  elections,  and  proceedings  incident 
thereto,  the  vacating  of  seats  of  members,  and 
the  execution  of  new  write  in  case  of  seats 
vacated  otherwise  than  by  dissolution,— shall  re- 
gpectlvely  apply  to  electiona  of  members  to  servo 
in  tL.  House  of  Commons  for  the  same  several 
Provinces.  Provided  that,  until  the  Parliament 
of  Canada  otherwise  provides,  at  any  election 
for  a  Member  of  the  House  of  Commons  for  the 
District  of  Algoma,  in  addition  to  persons 
qualified  by  the  law  of  the  Province  of  Canada 
to  vote,  every  male  British  subject  aged  twenty- 
one  years  or  upwards,  being  a  householder,  shall 
have  a  vote. 

42.  For  the  first  election  of  members  to  serve 
in  the  House  of  Commons  the  Governor  General 
iIiaU  cause  writs  to  he  issued  by  such  person,  in 
tuch  form,  and  addressed  to  such  returning 
officers  as  ho  thinks  fit.  The  person  issuing 
writs  under  this  section  shall  have  the  like 
powers  as  arc  possessed  at  the  Union  by  the 
officers  charged  with  the  issuing  of  writs  for  the 
election  of  members  tj  serve  in  the  respective 
House  of  Assembly  or  Legislative  Assembly  of 
the  Province  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  or  New 
Brunswick;  and  the  Iletuming  GlHccrs  to  whom 
writs  ure  directed  undtr  this  section  shall  have 
the  lik(!  powers  as  are  possessed  at  tlie  Union  by 
the  oi^cers  charged  with  the  returning  of  writs 
for  thi;  election  of  members  to  serve  in  the  same 
rtspiTtive  House  of  Assembly  or  Legislative 
Assembly. 

43.  In  case  a  vacancy  in  the  representation  in 
the  House  of  Commons  of  any  Electoral  Dis- 
trict happens  before  the  meeting  of  the  Parlia- 
ment, or  after  the  meeting  of  the  Parliament  be- 
fore provision  is  made  by  the  Parliament  in  this 
behiilf,  tlie  provisions  of  the  lost  foregoing 
section  of  this  Act  shall  extend  and  apply  to  the 
issuing  and  returning  of  a  writ  in  respect  of  such 
vacant  District. 

44.  The  House  of  Commons  on  its  first  as- 
scmlilinij  after  a  general  election  shall  proceed 
with  ,all  practicable  speed  to  elect  one  of  its 
members  to  be  Speaker. 

4<}.  In  case  of  a  vacancy  happening  In  the 
office  of  Sptaker  by  death,  resignation  or  other- 
wise, the  House  of  Commons  sliall  with  all 
practicable  speed  proceed  to  elect  another  of  iu 
memlKTi  to  be  Speaker. 

40.  The  Speaker  shall  preside  at  all  meetings 
of  the  House  of  Commons. 

47.  Until  the  Parliament  of  Canada  other- 
wise provides,  in  case  of  the  absence  for  any 
reason  of  the  Speaker  from  the  chair  of  the 
House  of  Commons  for  a  period  of  forty-eight 
coMecutive  hours,  the  House  may  elect  another 
of  its  nieniliers  to  act  as  8|>eaker,  and  the  mem- 
fer  »o  electwi  shall  during  the  continuance  of 
iiich  absence  of  the  S|>cakcr  have  and  execute 

i«  'i',"'"'  privileges,  and  duties  of  Speaker. 
♦  I  IT  I""*^^*''""  of  «t  le<«t  twenty  members 
01  the  House  of  Commons  sliall  be  necessary  to 
consiituie  a  meeting  of  the  House  for  the  exercise 
or  is  powers,  and  for  Uwt  purpose  the  Speaker 
•nail  !»■  n tkomMl  as  a  member, 
ml  ,Q''™t'ons  arising  in  the  House  of  Com- 
now  shall  be  decided  by  a  majority  of  voice* 


other  than  that  of  the  Speaker,  and  when  the 
voices  are  equal,  but  not  otherwise,  the  Speaker 
aiiall  have  a  vote. 

OO.  Every  House  of  Commons  shall  continue 
for  five  years  from  the  day  of  the  return  of  the 
Write  for  choosing  the  House  (subject  to  be 
sooner  dissolved  by  the  Governor  General),  and 
no  longer.  " 

51.  On  the  completion  of  the  census  in  the 
year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy- 
one,  and  of  each  subsequent  decennial  census 
the  representation  of  the  four  Provinces  aball  be 
re-adjusted  by  such  authority,  in  such  ni,-.nner 
and  from  such  time  as  the  Parliament  of  Canada 
from  time  to  time  provides,  subject  and  accord- 
ing to  the  following  rules:  — (1)  Quebec  shall 
ra^Thil!  ^»«l,''>'™f  f  of  sixty-five  members: 
g)  There  sliall  be  assigned  tc  each  of  the  other 
l^vinces  such  a  uuml)cr  of  members  as  will 
Dear  the  same  proportion  to  the  number  of  its 
population  (ascertained  at  such  census)  as  the 
number  sixtv-flve  bears  to  the  number  of  the 
population  of  Quebec  (so  ascertained):  (3)  In  the 
computation  of  the  number  of  members  for  a 
ttovince  a  fractional  part  not  exceeding  one-half 
of  the  whole  number  requisite  for  entitling  the 
Province  to  a  member  shall  be  disregarded  but 
a  fractional  part  exceeding  ore-lia!f  of  that 
number  shall  be  equivalent  to  the  whole  num- 
ber: (4)  On  any  such  readjustment  the  number 
of  members  for  a  Province  shall  not  be  reduced 
unless  the  proportion  which  the  number  of  the 
population  of  the  Province  bor«  to  the  number 
of  the  aggregate  population  of  Canada  at  the 
then  last  preceding  re-adjustment  of  the  number 
of  members  for  the  Province  is  ascertained  at  the 
then  latest  census  to  be  diminished  by  one- 
twentieth  part  or  upwards:  (.5)  Such  readjust- 
ment  shall  not  take  effect  until  the  termination 
01  the  then  existing  Pariiament. 

52.  The  number  of  riembcrs  of  the  House  of 
Commons  may  be  from  t.me  to  time  increased  by 
the  Parliament  of  Canada,  provided  the  propor- 
tionate represenUtion  of  the  Provinces  prescribed 
by  this  Act  is  not  thereby  disturbed. 

53.  Bills  for  appropriating  any  part  of  the 
public  revenue,  or  for  imposing  any  tax  or  im- 
pMt  sliall  oriiflnate  in  the  House  of  Commons 

04.  It  sliall  not  be  lawful  for  the  House  of 
Commons  to  adopt  or  pass  any  vote,  resolution 
address,  or  bill  for  the  appropriation  of  anj  part 
of  the  public  revenue,  or  of  any  tax  or  impost 
to  any  -jurpose  that  has  not  been  first  recom- 
mended to  that  House  bv  message  of  Uie  Gov- 
ernor General  in  the  Session  in  which  such  vote 
resolution,  addri'ss,  or  bill  is  proposed.  ' 

65.  Where  a  bill  passed  by  the  Houses  of  the 
Pariiament  is  presented  to  the  Governor  General 
for  the  Queen's  assent,  he  shall  declare  according 
to  his  discretion,  but  subject  to  the  provisions  of 
this  Act  and  to  Her  Majesty's  instructions,  either 
that  he  ossente  thereto  in  the  Queen's  name  or 
that  he  withholds  the  Queen's  assent,  or  that  he 
reserves  the  bill  for  the  signilication  of  the 
Queen's  pleasure. 

60.  Where  the  Governor  General  assents  to  a 
bil!  in  the  Queen's  name,  he  shall  by  the  first 
convenient  opportunity  send  au  authentir  copy 
of  the  Act  to  one  of  Her  Majesty's  Prin.iniil 
Seerctarius  of  State,  and  if  the  Quieu  iu  Council 
within  two  years  after  receipt  thereof  by  the 
Secretary  of  State  thinks  fit  to  disallow  the  Act 
such  UiMlluwaucc  (with  a  certillcutu  uf  the  Secie- 


649 


ooNSTmmoN  op  cakada. 


OownuMnti, 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


■iV 


tuy  of  State  of  the  day  on  which  the  Act  whi 
re(xived  by  him)  being  signified  bj  the  Oovernor 
GeBeral,  by  speech  or  message  to  each  of  the 
Houses  of  the  Parliament,  or  by  proclamation, 
shall  annul  the  Act  from  and  after  the  day  of 
such  signification. 

07.  A  bill  reserved  for  the  signification  of  the 
Queen's  pleasure  shall  not  have  any  force  unless 
and  until  within  two  yean  from  the  day  on 
which  it  was  presented  to  the  Governor  General 
for  the  Queen's  assent,  the  Governor  General 
signifies,  by  speech  or  message  to  each  of  the 
Houses  of  the  Parliament  or  by  proclamation, 
that  It  has  received  the  assent  of  the  Queen  In 
Council.  An  entry  of  every  such  speech,  mes- 
sage, or  proclnmation  shall  be  made  in  the  Journal 
of  each  House,  and  a  duplicate  thereof  duly  at- 
tested shall  be  delivered  to  the  proper  officer  to  be 
kept  among  the  Records  of  Canada. 

08.  For  each  Province  there  shall  be  an 
officer,  styled  the  Lieutenant  Governor,  ap- 
pointed by  the  Governor  General  in  Cnuncll  by 
Instrument  under  the  Great  Seal  of  Cai.    ia. 

00.  A  Lieutenant  Governor  shall  hold  office 
during  the  pleasure  of  the  Governor  General; 
but  any  Lieutenant  Governor  appointed  after  the 
commencement  of  the  first  Session  of  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Canada  shall  not  be  removable  within 
five  years  from  his  appointment,  except  for  cause 
assigned,  which  shall  be  communicated  to  him 
in  writing  within  one  month  after  the  order  for 
hig  removal  Is  mode,  and  shall  be  communicated 
by  message  to  the  Senate  and  to  the  House  of 
Commons  within  one  week  thereafter  If  the 
Parliament  Is  then  sitting,  and  if  not  then  within 
one  week  after  the  commencement  of  the  next 
Session  of  the  Parliament. 

60.  The  salaries  of  the  Lieutenant  Governors 
shall  be  fixed  and  provided  by  the  Parliament  of 
Cannda. 

61.  Every  Lieutenant  Governor  shall,  before 
assuming  the  duties  of  his  office,  make  and  sub- 
scribe before  the  Governor  General,  or  some 
person  authorized  by  him,  oaths  of  allegiance 
and  office  similar  to  those  taken  by  the  Governor 
General. 

62.  The  provisions  of  this  Act  referring  to 
the  Lieutenant  Governor  extend  and  apply  to  the 
Lieutenant  Governor  for  tlie  time  being  of  each 
Province  or  other  the  cMt»  executive  officer  or 
administrator  for  the  time  being  carrying  on  the 
government  of  the  Province,  by  whatever  title 
Ub  Is  designated. 

63.  The  Executive  Council  of  Ontario  and  of 
Quebec  shall  be  composed  of  such  persons  as  the 
Lieutenant  Governor  from  to  time  thinks  fit,  and 
in  the  first  InsUnce  of  the  following  officers, 
namely:— The  Attorney-General,  the  Secretary 
and  Registrar  of  the  I'rovince,  the  Treasurer  of 
the  Province,  the  Commissionerof  Crown  Lands, 
and  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  and  1'  'blic 
Works,  with  in  Quebec  the  Speaker  of  the  Legis- 
lative Council  and  the  Solicitor  General. 

64.  The  Constitution  of  the  Executive 
Autliorlty  in  each  nf  the  Provinces  of  Xova 
8coti»  and  New  Brunswick  shall,  subject  to  the 

trovlslons  of  this  Act,  continue  as  It  exists  at  the 
nion  until  altered  under  the  authority  of  this 
Act.  ' 

60.  All  powers,  authorities,  and  fiinctinns 
whioh  under  any  Act  of  the  Parliament  of  Great 
Britain,  or  of  the  Parilament  of  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Irelaod,  or  of  the 


Legislature  of  Upper  Canada,  Lower  Canada  01 
Canada,  were  or  are  before  or  at  tlic  I'n'loB 
vesf<!d  in  or  exerciseable  by  the  respective  Gov. 
emoii  or  Lieutenant  Governors  of  those  Pro». 
inces,  with  the  advice,  or  with  the  advice  and 
consent,  of  the  respective  Executive  Councila 
thereof,  or  in  conjunction  with  those  Councils, 
or  with  any  number  of  -nembers  thereof,  or  bj 
those  Oovemora  or  Lieutenant  Oovernora  in. 
dividually,  shall,  aa  far  as  the  same  are  capable 
of  being  exercised  after  the  Union  In  relation  tt 
the  Government  of  Ontario  and  Quebec,  rrapco 
tlvely,  be  vested  in,  and  shall  or  may  he  ex- 
ercised by  the  Lieutenant  Governor  of  Ontario 
and  Quebec  respectively,  with  the  advice  or 
with  the  advice  and  coui«'nt  of  or  In  cmijunciion 
with  the  respective  Executive  Councils,  cir  anv 
members  thereof,  or  by  the  Lieutenant  (iovermir 
individually,  as  the  case  reijulres,  Bubitct  never- 
thelesa  (except  with  rp»p«'ct  to  such  as  exist 
under  Acts  of  the  Parilament  of  Great  Britain 
or  of  the  Parliament  of  the  United  Kiimiiom  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland),  to  be  aliolislied  or 
altered  by  the  respective  Legislatures  of  Ontario 
and  Quebec. 

66.  The  provisions  of  this  Act,  referrinr  to 
the  Lieutenant  Governor  In  Council  shall  l>e  lun- 
strued  as  referring  to  the  Lieutenant  Governor 
of  the  Province  acting  by  and  with  the  advice  of 
the  Executive  Council  thereof. 

67.  The  Govcnior  General  in  Council  may 
from  time  to  time  appoint  an  admiiiistmtor  to 
execute  the  office  and  functions  of  Lieuteiunt 
Governor  during  his  absence.  Illness,  or  other 
inability. 

68.  Unless  and  until  the  Executive  Govern- 
ment of  any  Province  otherwise  directs  with  re- 
spect to  that  Province,  the  seats  of  Goveniment 
of  the  Provinces  shall  be  as  follows,  niiinelv  - 
of  Ontario,  the  City  of  Toronto;  of  Qiiiliec,"llic 
CItv  of  Quebec:  of  Nova  Scotia,  the  Citv  of 
Halifax;  and  of  New  Brunswick,  the  Citvof 
Fredericton. 

69.  "^here  shall  be  a  Legislature  for  Ontario 
consisting  of  the  Lieutenant  Oovernor  and  of  i^ne 
House,  styled  the  Legislative  Attsembly  uf  On- 
tario. 

70.  The  Legislative  Assembly  of  Ontario 
shall  be  composed  of  elghtv-two  mcnilxrs,  to  lie 
elected  to  represent  the  eighty-two  Electoral 
Districts  set  forth  in  the  first  Schedule  to  thij 
Act. 

71.  There  shall  be  a  Legislature  for  Qiieliec 
consisting  of  the  Lieutenant  Governor  and  of  t«o 
Houses,  8tyle<l  the  Legislative  Council  of  Quebec 
and  the  Legislative  A8senil)lv  of  QiietHc. 

72.  The  Legislative  Council  of  Quelicc  shall 
bo  composed  of  twenty-four  nicmlnrs,  to  lie  ap- 
pointed by  the  Lieutenant  Governor  in  the 
Queen's  name,  by  instrument  under  the  Gnat 
Seal  of  Quebec,  one  being  a|ipointcil  to  n  pres<nt 
each  of  the  twenty-four  Electoral  I)ivi>iom  of 
Lower  Canada  In  this  Act  rcfi mil  to,  nn.l  each 
holding  office  for  the  term  of  his  life,  m\W<<  t!ie 
Legislature  of  Quebec  otherwise  provides  under 
the  provisions  of  this  Act. 

73.  The  quallflaitions  of  the  I^ojrislaiire 
Councillors  nf  Quebec  shall  be  the  same  as  those 
of  the  Senators  for  Quebec. 

74.  The  place  of  a  Lr;:!slalivr-  Co-j::!i;!.'f  -f 
Quebec  shall  become  vacjint  In  the  cases,  ■  mulatii 
mutandis'  in  which  the  place  of  Senator  be- 
come* vacaot 


550 


coNSTmmoN  of  cakasa. 


ProDlneiat 
(humrmmmU. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  CANADA. 


T5.  When  k  Tseancy  happeni  In  the  Legli- 
Ittire  Council  of  Quebec,  by  realgnation,  death, 
or  otherwise,  the  Xieutenant  Oovernor,  in  the 
Queen's  name,  by  Instrument  under  the  Great 
Seal  of  Quebec,  shall  appoint  a  fit  and  qualified 
person  to  fill  the  vacancy. 

76.  If  any  question  arises  respecting  the 
qualitlration  of  a  Legislative  Councillor  of 
Quebec,  or  a  vacancy  in  the  Legislative  Council 
of  Quebec,  the  same  shall  be  heard  and  de- 
termined by  the  Legislative  Council. 

77.  The  Lieutenant  Governor  may  from  Hme 
to  time,  by  instrument  under  the  Great  Seal  of 
Quebec,  appoint  a  member  of  the  Legislative 
Council  of  Quebec  to  be  Speaker  thereof,  and 
msv  remove  him  and  appoint  another  in  his  stead. 

78.  Uutll  the  Legislature  of  Quebec  other- 
wiie  provides,  the  presence  of  at  least  ten  mem- 
bers I  if  the  Legislative  Council,  including  the 
Speaker,  shall  be  necessary  to  constitute  a  meet- 
lag  for  the  exercise  of  its  powers. 

70.  Questions  arising  in  the  Legislative 
Council  of  QucVc  shall  be  decided  by  a  majority 
of  voices,  and  tlie  Speaker  shall  in  all  cases  have 
s  vole,  and  when  the  voices  are  equal  the  decision 
ihtll  be  deemed  to  be  in  the  negative. 

80.  The  Legislative  Assembly  of  Quebec 
iball  lie  composed  of  sixty -five  members,  to  be 
elected  to  represent  the  sixty-Sve  Electoral 
Dlvisiims  or  Districte  of  Lower  Canada  in  this 
Act  referred  to,  subject  to  alteration  thereof  by 
the  Legislature  of  Quebec:  Provided  that  it 
shall  not  be  lawful  to  present  to  the  Lieutenant 
Governor  of  Quebec  for  assent  any  bill  for  alter- 
tag  the  limlu  of  any  of  the  Electoral  Divisions 
or  Districts  mentioned  in  the  second  Schedule  to 
this  Act.  unless  the  second  and  third  readings  of 
tuch  bill  have  been  passed  in  the  LegisUtive 
Assemlily  with  the  concurrence  of  the  majority 
of  the  members  representing  all  those  Electoral 
Divisions  or  Dlntritts,  and  the  assent  ^11  not  be 
given  to  such  bills  unless  an  address  has  been 

E resented  by  the  Legislative  Assembly  to  the 
ieutenont  Governor  stating  tha   it  has  been  so 
passed. 

81.  The  Legislatures  of  Ontario  and  Quebec 
rtspeetively  shall  be  called  together  not  later 
than  six  months  after  the  Union. 

82.  The  Lieutenant  Governor  of  Ontario  and 
of  Queliec  shall  from  time  to  time,  in  the  Queen's 
name,  by  instrument  under  the  Great  Seal  of  the 
Province,  summon  and  call  together  the  Legis- 
lative .\s.sembly  of  the  Province. 

83.  Until  the  Legislature  of  Ontario  or  of 
Queluc  otherwise  provides,  a  person  accepting 
or  hcilding  in  Ontario  or  in  Quebec  any  office, 
commission,  or  employmeut,  perma.  it  or 
tempiirary,  at  the  nomination  of  the  Lieuuoant 
Governor,  to  which  an  annual  salary,  or  an"  fee, 
allowiiucc,  emolument,  or  ( -oflt  of  any  kin-i  or 
amount  whatever  from  the  l^rovlnco  is  attached, 
uiall  nut  be  eligible  as  a  member  of  the  LegUla- 
""  -"tiiembly  of  the  respective  Province,  nor 
ihsll  he  sit  or  vote  as  such;  but  nothing  in  this 
section  shall  make  ineligible  any  person  being  a 
mcmlHT  of  the  Executive  Council  of  the  respec- 
tive I  Mvince,  or  holding  any  of  the  following 
^ces,  tliat  Is  to  say.  the  offices  of  Attorney- 
OeneMl.  becretary  and  Rejristrarof  the  Provtaee 
masurT  of  the  Province,  Commissioner  of 
.^"S  >'?,;„*'"'  Commissioner  of  Agriculture 
ud  Public  Works  and,  in  Quebec,  Solicitor- 
Utneral,  or  shall  dlaqualify  him  to  eit  or  vote  In 


the  House  for  which  he  Is  elected,  provided  he  li 
elected  while  holdli     such  office. 

84.  Until  the  J.  gislaturea  of  Ontario  and 
Quebec  respectively  otherwise  provide,  all  laws 
which  at  the  Union  are  in  force  in  those  Prov- 
inces respectively,  relative  to  the  following 
matters,  or  any  of  thtm,  namely.— the  qualifica- 
tions and  disauallflcations  of  persons  to  be 
elected  or  to  sit  or  vote  as  members  of  the  As- 
'*'",,/  "'  Canada,  the  qualifications  or  dls- 
qualiflcations  of  voters,  the  oaths  to  be  taken  by 
voters,  the  Returning  Officers,  their  powers  and 
duUes,  the  proceedings  at  elections,  the  perioda 
during  which  such  elections  may  be  continued, 
and  the  trial  of  controverted  elections  and  the 
proceedings  incident  thereto,  the  vacating  of  the 
seats  of  members  and  the  issuing  and  execution 
of  new  wriu  in  case  of  seats  vacated  otherwise 
than  by  dissolution,  shall  respectively  apply  to 
elections  of  members  to  serve  in  the  respective 
legislative  Assemblies  of  Ontario  and  Quebec 
Provided  that  until  the  Legislature  of  Ontario 
otherwise  provides,  at  any  election  for  a  member 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly  of  Ontario  for  the 
District  of  Algoma,  in  addition  to  persons  quali- 
fied by  the  law  of  the  Province  of  Canada  to 
vote,  every  male  British  subject,  aged  twcuiy- 
onc  years  or  upwards,  being  a  householder,  shall 
have  a  vote. 

85.  Every  Legisbtive  Assembly  of  Ontario 
and  every  Legislative  Assembly  of  Quebec  shall 
continue  for  four  vcars  from  the  day  of  the  re- 
turn of  the  writs  for  choosing  the  same  (subject 
nevertheless  to  either  the  Legislative  AssemUy 
of  Ontario  or  the  Legislative  Assembly  of  Quel>ec 
being  soonc'  dissolved  by  tlic  Lieutenant  Gov- 
ernor of  the  Province),  and  no  longer. 

80.  There  shall  be  a  session  of  the  Legislature 
of  Ontario  and  of  that  of  Quebec  once  at  least  in 
every  year,  so  that  twelve  months  shall  not 
intervene  between  the  last  sitting  of  the  I .  gisla- 
ture  in  each  Province  in  one  session  and  in  first 
sitting  in  the  next  session. 

87.  The  following  provisions  of  this  Act  re- 
specting the  House  of  Commons  of  Canada,  shall 
extend  and  apply  to  the  Legislative  Assemblies 
of  Ontario  and  Quebec,  that  is  to  say,—  the  pro- 
visions relating  to  the  election  of  a  Speaker 
originally  and  on  vacancies,  the  duties  of  the 
Speaker,  the  absence  of  the  Speaker,  the  quorum, 
and  the  mode  of  voting,  as  if  those  provisions 
were  here  re-enacted  and  made  applicable  in 
terms  to  each  such  Legislative  Assemlily 


88.  The  constitution  of  the   Lecislature  of 
of  the  Provinces  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New 


each 


Brunswick  shall,  subject  to  the  pmvisions  of 
this  Act,  continue  as  it  e.\ists  at  the  V  .don  until 
altered  under  the  authority  of  this  Act ;  and  the 
House  of  Assembly  of  New  Brunswick  exi.<ting 
at  the  passing  of  this  Act  shall,  unless  sooner 
dissolved,  continue  for  the  period  for  which  it 
was  elected. 

80.  Each  of  the  Lieutenant  Governors  of 
Ontario,  Quebec,  and  Nova  Scotia  shall  cause 
writs  to  be  issued  for  the  first  election  of  mem- 
bers of  the  Legislative  Assembly  thereof  in  such 
form  and  by  such  person  as  he  thinks  fit,  and  at 
such  time  and  addressed  to  such  Keturning 
Officer  as  the  Governor  General  directs,  and  «o 
that  the  first  election  of  member  of  Assembly  for 
any  Electoral  District  or  any  sutxiivision  thereof 
shall  be  held  at  the  same  time  and  at  the  same 
place*  a*  the  election  for  a  member  to  serve  in  th« 


651 


CONSTITCTION  OP  CANADA. 


at  Pootn. 


coNsrmjTioK  of  canaoa. 


i  >'•■ 


]  (- 


lu- 

lit; 


'3 ' 


Houte  of  Commoiu  of  Canada  for  that  Electoral 
District 

00.  The  fullowing  proTlilont  of  this  Act  re- 
specting tlio  I'lirliament  of  Canada,  oumely,— 
toe  provisions  rt'lutioK  to  appropriation  and  tax 
bills,  the  recoinmcndation  of  money  votes,  the 
assent  to  biiis,  the  disallowance  of  Acts,  and  the 
signification  of  ilcaaure  on  bills  reserved,—  shall 
extend  and  apply  to  the  Legislatures  of  the 
several  I'rovinies  as  if  those  provisions  were 
here  reenacti'd  and  made  applicable  in  terms  to 
the  respective  Provinces  and  the  Legislatures 
thent-f,  with  the  sul>stitution  of  the  Lieutenant 
Oo-i  mor  of  tlie  Province  for  the  Governor 
G<  .-al,  of  the  Governor  General  for  the  Queen 
anu  for  a  Sicretjiry  of  State,  of  one  year  for  two 
years,  and  of  the  Province  for  Canada. 

01.  It  simll  be  lawful  for  the  Queen,  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Commons,  to  m.alie  laws  for  the  peace, 
order,  and  good  government  of  Canada,  in  rela- 
tion to  all  matters  not  con'-'ng  within  the  classes 
of  subjects  by  this  Act  .assigned  exclusively  to 
the  Legislnturi's  of  the  Provinces;  and  for 
greater  certainty,  but  not  so  as  to  restrict  the 

f generality  of  the  foregoing  terms  of  this  section, 
t  U  hereby  diclared  that  (notwithstanding  any- 
thing in  this  Act)  tlie  exclusive  legislative 
authority  of  the  ParlUment  of  Canada  extends 
to  all  matters  ,ming  within  the  classes  of  sub- 
jects next  hereinafter  eoumerattd,  tliat  is  to 
say,— 1.  Tlie  Public  Debt  and  Property.  2.  The 
regulation  of  Trade  and  Commerce.  8.  The 
rafsinjf  of  money  by  any  mode  or  system  of 
Taxation.  4.  Tlie  borrow^ing  of  money  on  the 
putdic  credit.  5.  Postal  service.  S.  The  Census 
and  St«ti»tics.  7  Militia,  MlUtaiy  and  Naval 
Servia',  and  Defence.  8.  The  fixing  of  and  pro- 
viding for  tlie  salaries  and  allowances  of  civil 
and  otlier  ofiiccrs  of  the  Government  of  Canada. 
9.  Beacons,  Buoys,  Lighthouses,  and  Sable 
Island.  10.  Xuvigatiou  and  Shipping.  11. 
Quaniutiuc  ami  the  establishment  and  mahi- 
tenancc  of  JI:irine  Hospitals.  13.  Sea  coast  am. 
inland  Fislicri(  s.  13.  Ferries  between  a  Prov- 
ince and  any  itritisli  or  Foreign  country,  or  be- 
tween two  Proviucc's.  14.  Currency  and  Coin- 
age. 1.1.  Hanliiiiir,  incorporation  of  banks,  and 
the  issue  of  papir  money.  16.  Savings  Banks. 
17.  Weights  and  teasurcs.  18.  Bills  of  Ex- 
change and  Promissory  Notes.  10.  Interest. 
20.  Legal  Under.  21.  Bankruptcy  and  In- 
solvency. 22.  PatenU  of  invention  and  dis- 
covery. 23,  Copyrights.  24.  Indiana,  and 
lauds  reserved  for  the  Indians.  25.  Naturaliza- 
tion and  Aliens.  26.  Marriage  and  Divorce. 
27,  The  Criminal  Law,  except  the  Constitution 
of  Courts  of  Criminal  Jurisdiction,  but  includ- 
ing the  Procedure  in  Criminal  Matters.  28.  The 
Eatablislinuut,  Maintenance,  and  Management 
of  Penitentiaries,  29.  Such  classes  of  subjects 
as  arc  exprcwly  exapU'd  in  the  enumeration  of 
the  classes  of  sjbjecta  by  this  Act  assigned  ex- 
clusively to  the  Legislatures  of  the  Provinces. 
And  any  matter  coming  within  any  of  the  classes 
of  subjecU  enumerated  in  this  section  shall  not 
be  deemed  to  come  within  the  ciosa  of  matters  ut 
a  local  or  private  nature  comprised  in  the 
enumeration  of  the  classes  of  subjects  by  this 
Act  assigned  exclusively  to  the  Legislatures  of 
the  Provinces. 

92.  In  each  Province  the  Legislature  may  ex- 
clustvely  make  laws  in  relation  to  matters  coming 


within  the  datset  of  lubjecto  next  heriimfi 
enumerated;  that  Is  to  say,— 1.  The  ain.mlmei 
from  tUne  to  time,  notwithstanding  anythloi: ' 
this  Act,  of  the  Constitution  of  the  I'rovino 
except  as  regards  the  olBee  of  Lieutenant  G<)> 
emor.    9.  Direct  Taxation  within  tlie  I'ruviD( 
In  order  to  the  raising  of  a  Revenue  fur  Pn 
vinclal  purposes.    3.  The  borrowing  of  mont 
on  the   sole   credit  of   the   Province,    4.  Tl 
establishment  ond  tenure  of  I^vinclal  otBa 
and  the  appointment  and  payment  of  I'mvincii 
olUcers.      S.  The  n.auagenient  and  siile  of  tli 
Public  Lands  belonging  to  the  Province  ami  c 
the  timber  and  wood  thereon.    6.  The  cstablisl 
ment,  maintenance,  and  management  of  puiiU 
and  reformaU)ry  prisons  in  and  for  the  I'rovincf 
7.  The  establishmjiit,  maiuUnance,  and  niaium 
ment    of    hopuitala     asylums,    chariiUs    am 
eleemoavnarv  Institutions  hi  and  for  the  Pmv 
Incc,  other  than  marine  hospitals.     8.  .Murikina 
tastitutions  in  the  Province.    9.  Shop,  s-iKml 
tavern,  auctioneer,  and  other  licenses  iu  uriiert 
the  raising  of  a  revenue  for  Provincial,  loi.,il  o 
municipar   purposes.      10.    Local    vmU   im 
undertakings  other  than   such   as  are  of  Ui, 
following  classes,- a.  Lines  of  sU^am  !ir  (>tbii 
ships,   railways,   canals,   telegraphs,  ami  othei 
wor'as  and  undertakings  connecting  tliu  I'rovina 
with  any  other  or  others  of  the  Proviuci*  or  ti 
tending  beyond   the    limits   of   the   l'r.n-ince 
ft.  Lines  of  steamships  between  the  Province  and 
any  British  or  foreign  country,     c.  Such  worki 
as,  although  wholly  situate  within  tlic  lYjvince 
are  before  or  after  their  execution  dedurcj  lij 
the  Parliament  of  Canada  to  be  for  tlie  iiLnerd 
advantage   of   Canada   or   for   the  adviuitai;" 
of  two  or  more  o.'  the  Provinces.    11.  TheS- 
corporation  of  companies  with  Provincial  objects. 
12.  The  solemnization  of  marriage  in  ilie  Kiv- 
ince.     18.   Property    and   civil    rights  in  tbe 
Province.     14.  The  administration  of  jiwice  in 
the  Province,  including  the  constituiinn,  ui:ua. 
tenance,  and  organization  of  Provimial  (jurts, 
both  of  civil  acd  of  criminal  jurisdicticm.  and  in- 
eluding  procedure   In   Civil    matters   in  tbose 
Courts.     15.  The  imposition  of  puiiLshnunt  bv 
li..<,  penalty,  or  Imprisonment  for  enforcing  any 
law  of  the  Province  miuie  in  relation  to  any 
matter  coming  within  any  of  tiic  chisw  s  of  sub- 
jects enumerated  in  this  section.     10.  OnetiUy 
all  matters  of  a  merely  local  or  private  nature  iii 
the  Province. 

93.  In  and  for  each  Province  the  Lc),'i>lature 
may  exclusively  make  laws  in  a'laiidn  to  niuca- 
tion,  subject  and  according  to  the  following 
provisions:  (1)  Nothing  in  any  such  law  6h,,|| 
prejudicially  affect  any  riglit  or  privilege  with 
respect  tc  denominational  schools  which  a-iv 
class  of  persons  have  by  law  in  the  Province  at  lb'; 
UnioiL  (2)  All  the  powers,  privibx'' ■■,  anJ 
duties  at  the  Union  bylaw  eonfcrn  if  and  im- 
posed in  Upper  Canada  on  the  wjianitc  scbooU 
and  school  trustees  of  the  Queens  itoman '.  atboiic 
subiects  shall  be  and  the  same  are  lnnbyci. 
tended  to  Uie  dissentient  schinils  of  tin  (Queens 
Protestant  and  Koman  Catholic  sii  ;  (ts  in 
Quebec  (3)  Where  in  any  Province  a  sv-iim  of 
separate  or  dissentient  bcIiooIs  exists  b'v  law  al 
the  Union  or  is  thereafter  establi.-.licil  bv  the 
Legislature  of  the  Pnivinci-.  an  Htip-^il  «ball  bv 
to  the  Governor  General  in  Council  fmm  any 
Act  or  decision  of  any  Provincial  authority 
affecting  any  right  or  privilege  of  the  Prutestut 


552 


coKsnTcnoN  op  cakada. 


JwtMart 
ami  Unooet. 


CONSTTnmON  OP  CANADA. 


gr  Roman  Catholic  mlnoritr  of  Uo  Queen's  lub- 
]ect«  in  relation  to  education:  (4)  In  case  any 
lucli  Proviacial  law  as  from  time  to  time  seems 
to  the  Uoremor  Ocneral  In  Council  requisite  for 
the  due  execution  of  the  provisioi  i  of  this  section 
li  not  made,  or  in  case  any  decision  of  the  Oot- 
emor  Ge'.'''Til  in  Council  on  any  appeal  under 
Ibis  acctiuo  is  not  duly  executed  by  the  proper 
Pn)vinclal  authority  in  that  behalf,  then  and  in 
oven'  such  case,  and  as  far  only  as  the  circum- 
ttanops  of  each  case  require,  the  Parliament  of 
Canada  may  make  remedial  laws  for  the  due 
execution  of  the  provisions  of  this  section  and  of 
any  decision  of  the  Governor  General  in  Council 
under  this  section. 

94.  Xotwithstanding  anything  in  this  Act, 
the  Parliament  of  Canada  may  make  provision 
for  the  uniformity  of  all  or  any  of  the  laws 
relative  to  property  and  civil  rights  in  Ontario, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick,  and  of  the 
proanlure  of  all  or  any  of  the  Courts  in  those 
three  I'rovlnces;  and  from  and  after  the  pascing 
of  any  Act  in  tlmt  behalf  the  power  of  the  Farlia- 
ment'uf  Can-oda  to  make  laws  in  relation  to  any 
matter  comprised  in  any  such  Act  shall,  notwith- 
standing anything  in  this  Act,  be  unrestricted; 
but  uuy  Act  of  the  Parliament  of  Canada  mak- 
iog  pnirlsion  for  such  uniformity  shall  not  have 
em'Ct  in  any  Province  unless  and  until  it  is 
adopted  and  enacted  as  Uw  by  the  Legislature 
thereof. 

95.  In  each  Province  the  Legislature  may 
malte  laws  in  relation  to  Agriculture  in  the 
ProviniT,  and  to  Immignitiun  into  the  Province; 
and  it  is  hereby  dcclan^d  that  the  Parliament  of 
Canadii  may  from  ti'iiu  to  time  make  laws  in  re- 
lation » '  ^  ifriculturc  in  all  or  any  of  the  Prov- 
hices,  an.,  to  Immigration  into  all  or  any  of  tlie 
Provinics;  and  any  law  of  the  Legislature  of  a 
Province  relative  to  Agriculture  or  to  Immigra- 
tion shiil!  have  effect  in  and  for  the  Province  as 
long  ami  as  far  only  as  it  is  not  repugnant  to  any 
Act  of  the  Parliament  of  Canada. 

90.  1  ill.  Governor  Ocneral  slvall  appoint  the 
Judges  of  the  Superior,  District,  and  County 
Courts  in  ciirh  Pit)vincc,  except  those  of  the 
Courts  of  Probate  in  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Bninswii'k. 

97.  Until  the  laws  relative  to  property  and 
civil  riiihu  In  Ontario,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New 
Brunswick,  and  tl.c  procedure  of  the  Courts  in 
those  Pnjvince.s,  are  made  uniform,  the  Judges 
of  the  l'ourt.s  of  those  Provinces  appointed  by 
the  Governor  General  shall  be  selected  from  the 
resnective  Bars  of  those  I*rovinces. 

98.  The  Judges  of  the  Courts  of  Quebec 
shull  I.e  selected  from  the  Bar  of  that  Province. 

99.  The  Judges  of  the  Superior  Courts  shall 
hold  ollice  during  good  behaviour,  but  shall  be 
rem.-vi;ilile  by  tlie  Governor  General  on  address 
of  the  Stniite  and  House  of  Commons. 

100.  I'he  salaries,  allowances,  and  perisions 
cf  the  Juil«es  of  the  Superior,  District,  and 
County  Courts  (except  the  Court  ,)f  Probate  in 
Xov;i  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick),  and  of  the 
Adtnirilty  Courts  in  cast's  where  the  Judges 
therinr  lire  for  the  time  being  paid  by  salary, 
shall  !ic  tixi'd  and  provided  by  the  I^liament  of 
Canad;i. 

101.  The  Parliament  of  Canada  may,  not- 
withst  Hiding  anything  in  this  Act,  from  time  to 
time,  provide  for  the  constitution,  maintenance, 
•M  organization  of  s  general  Court  of  Appeal 


for  Canada,  and  for  the  eatablishment  of  any 
additional  Courts  for  the  oetter  admiuistratiou 
of  the  Laws  of  Canada. 

102.  All  duties  and  revenues  over  which 
the  respective  Legislatures  of  Canada,  Nova 
Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick  before  and  at  the 
Union  had  and  have  power  of  appropriation, 
except  such  portions  thereof  as  are  by  this  Act 
reserved  to  the  respective  Ixgisiuturcs  of  the 
Provinces,  or  are  raised  by  them  in  accordance 
with  the  special  powers  conferred  on  them  by 
this  Act,  shall  form  one  Consolidated  Revenue 
Fund,  to  be  appropriated  for  the  public  service 
of  Canada  in  the  manner  and  subject  to  the 
charges  in  this  Act  provided. 

103.  The  Consolidated  Revenue  Fund  of 
Canada  shall  be  permanently  cliarged  with  the 
cosU,  charges,  and  expenses  iuciilent  to  the 
collection,  management,  ajd  receipt  thereof,  and 
•iio  same  shall  form  the  first  cliarge  tlier  on,  sub- 
j'lct  to  be  reviewed  and  audited  in  sucli  manner 
as  shall  be  ordered  by  the  Governor  General  in 
Council  until  the  l^arlfament  otherwise  provides. 

104.  The  annual  interest  of  tlie  public  debts 
of  the  several  Provinces  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia, 
anil  New  Brunswick  at  the  Union  sliiill  form  the 
second  charge  on  the  Consolidated  Revenue 
Fund  of  Canada. 

lOo.  Unless  altered  by  the  Parliament  of 
Canada,  the  salary  of  the  Governor  General  shall 
be  ten  thousand  pounds  sterling  money  of  the 
United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
payable  out  of  the  Consolidated  Revenue  Fund 
of  Canada,  and  the  same  shall  form  the  third 
charge  thereon. 

lOO.  Subject  to  the  several  pavments  bv  this 
Act  charged  on  the  Consolidated  f{<'venue  "'und 
fif  Canada,  the  same  shall  be  npjiropriateil  by 
the  Parliament  of  Canada  for  the  public  service. 

107.  All  stocks,  cash,  bankers  balances,  and 
securities  for  money  belonging  to  each  P-  .incc 
at  the  time  of  the  Union,  except  as  in  this  Act 
mentioned,  shall  be  the  property  of  Canada,  and 
shall  be  taken  in  reduction  of  the  amount  of  the 
respective  debts  of  the  Provinces  at  tl:c  Union. 

108.  The  public  works  and  propcrtv  of  each 
Province,  enumerated  in  the  third  scl'iedule  to 
this  .\ct,  shall  be  the  property  of  C'Miada. 

lOO.  All  lands,  mines,  minenil*.  ami  royal- 
ties belonging  to  the  several  Provinces"  of 
()>nadtt,  No"'a  Scotia  and  New  Bninsv  ic  k  -t  the 
Union,  and  all  sums  thenduc  or  payntilc  for  such 
lands,  mines,  minerals,  or  royalties,  sluill  Ik  loi^'  to 
the  several  Provinces  of  Ontario.  i^iicIh.c.  X  ,-a 
Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  in  whicli  tlie  same 
are  situate  or  arise,  subject  to  any  trusts  existing 
in  respect  thereof,  and  to  any  interest  oilier  than 
that  of  the  Province  in  the  slitiie. 

1  lO.  All  assets  Co  :.ected  with  such  portions 
of  tlie  public  debt  of  each  Province  as  are 
assumed  by  that  Province  shall  lielong  to  that 
Province. 

111.  Canada  shall  be  liable  for  the  debts  and 
liabilities  of  each  Provi.ice  existing  at  the  Union. 

112.  Ontario  and  Quebec  conjointly  shall  be 
liable  to  Canada  for  the  amount  (if  anv)  by 
which  the  debt  of  the  Province  of  Canaila  ex- 
ceeds at  the  Union  sixty-two  iiiilli<  n  tivi-  hun- 
(Inil  t!in!!s::nd  (inlh-rs,  and  sliull  lu'  cliarged  with 
interest  at  the  rate  of  live  per  centum  per  annum 
thereon, 

1  i:i.  The  assets  enumerated  in  the  fourth 
Schedule  to  this  Act  belonging  at  the  Union  to 


553 


r  H 


% 


«« 


ll-i 


coNSTmmoN  of  Canada. 


DMtamt 


the  Province  of  Canada  ihall  be  the  propertv  of 
Ontario  and  Quebec  conjointly. 

1 14.  Nova  Scotia  gfiall  be  liable  to  Canada 
for  tbf  amount  (If  any)  by  wliich  iu  public  debt 
cxciils  at  the  Union  eight  million  dollars,  and 
■Imll  bf  cliurged  with  interest  at  the  rale  o(  five 
per  centum  per  annum  thereon. 

1 15.  New  Brun«wlclc  diall  be  liable  to 
Canada  for  the  amount  (if  any)  by  whiili  iti 
pulilic  debt  ex<-eeila  at  the  Union  seven  million 
diilliiw,  and  shall  >«•  charged  with  interest  at  the 
rate  of  live  per  centum  per  annum  thereon. 

1  lO.  In  case  the  public  debt  of  Nova  Scotia 
and  .New  lirunswick  do  not  at  the  Union  amount 
to  elKht  million  dollars  and  seven  million  ilollara 
jCTiH.tiv.ly,  they  stiiilt  respi-ctively  receive  by 
half-yeiirly  payments  In  advauce  from  the  Uov- 
emment  of  Canada  interest  at  five  per  centum 
per  annum  on  the  dllTerence  between  the  actual 
amounts  of  tlielr  respective  debts  and  such 
•timilaicd  amimnts. 

117.  The  several  provinces  shall  retain  all 
their  respeclive  public  property  not  olhirwise 
dispipwil  of  in  this  Act,  subject  to  the  right  of 
Canailii  to  lissume  any  lands  or  public  pni|)erty 
reciiilnd  for  furtitlcations  or  for  the  defeuct  of 
the  counlry. 

IIH.  The  following  sums  shall  be  paid 
yearly  by  Ciinailti  ti,  the  several  Provinces  for 
the  »u|i|«irt  of  their  Oovemmeuts  and  I-i^rlsla- 
tures:  Onurio,  el^'hty  thousand  dollars;  Qu.Ih-c, 
seventy  thou.sand  (i.illars;  Nova  Scotia,  sixty 
thousand  dollars;  New  Rrunswick,  lifty  thou- 
Mild  diilliirs:  [toliill  two  hundred  ami  sixty 
thuusiiriil  ilolliirs;  iiml  an  annual  grant  in  aid  of 
each  I'riiviiHi'  hIihII  Ih)  made,  e-jual  to  eighty 
cents  per  liiad.  cif  the  population  as  asiTrtiiined 
by  Ihr  I  iiisiis  of  one  thousand  eight  himdn  d  and 
sixty  cifie,  and  in  the  case  of  Nova  Seolia  uud 
New  ItriiiHwi.k,  by  eiich  subsequent  di'ienniid 
cen.HiH  until  lli.'  p.'pulalionof  each  of  tliosi'  two 
I'ninn.'.s  aniounls  to  four  hundred  thousand 
souls,  lit  which  rail-  such  gnuit  shall  thereafter 
remiiiu.  «uiligMht  sliiilllic  in  full  .Siiil.ni.nt 
of  all  futnr.' ilciiiHiids  on  Canada,  and  shall  Ik; 
paid  li:Uryiiirly  in  lulvniiiv  to  eaih  I'rovince; 
but  llii<ioMiiimintof  fiiniuliinlnill  thduct  fn,m 
sncli  irriiiils,  as  ngiiiiist  any  Mrcivlnce,  all  sums 
chnrjinilil..  ns  inler<«t  on  the  I'ubllc  Debt  of  that 
I''oviiirc  Inemessof  the  several  amounts  stlim. 
l>.e.l  111  tills  .Vet. 

1  ll».  .\iw  llrunswick  shall  reciivi'  bv  half- 
yearly  lull  nil  Ills  ill  Bilvance  from  CimaiVi,  f.ir 
lhip.ri..,|  of  tin  yi-ars  from  the  Union,  iin  ud 
dilioiml  !illo»j,ii.c  of  sixty  thret!  thousand  dol- 
Kirs  III  rniirmm,  biil  ns  long  as  the  I'ublii  liiM 
<if  lliat  rrovlini.  rt-iimlns  under  B<'Vin  inillioii 
iloll.irs  M  d.du.lion  i  <,un|  tu  the  Interest  ni  tin. 
I'lr  riritiiiii  iHrHiinum  on  such  dellclcii.y  slmll 
!"■  Ill  1.1.  fr..ni  that  allow»»  j)  of  slxty-thrve 
Ihoiivo.il  .|..lliirs. 

I2».  All  priynunlii  to  »»  maile  under  this 
All,  ..rill  iliv,  hiirge  of  linbillth-s  crealid  un.li  r 
any  Ail  ..(  ili.  I'mviims  of  Canada,  NovaSotla 
and  .\.«  Itrii.i.tti.k  n.»|HKtlvi  Iv.  and  nssuniid 
by  fiiiiiii:.,  sii.ii,  iiniil  the  IWIlamenl of  1  iiimd« 
oth.THi-s  din  lis,  Is.  made  In  such  form  and 
niiimi.  r  us  nmy  (rom  llnie  to  lime  Ih'  onhnsi  by 
the  «...v,  rn..r  til  II.  ml  in  (ounell 

lUI.  All  nrll.  lis  of  till.  gn)Wth,  prisliice.  or 

lli.'iMiifiii't  iifi'    i.f    M'-V  :;*■!■  ::f    thi-    l*r;±v:!;-      -      I      t* 

ff.m  iin.l  iilK  r  Hi.-  Union,  \k  admitted  }r«t-  i'nll'i 
rai  h  of  the  otlii  r  I'rovlnces, 


COOTTmjTION  OF  CANADA 


128.  The  Customs  and  Eiclie  Laws  of  ~c 
Prortnoe  shall,  subject  to  the  provisions  of  til 
Act,  continue  In  force  until  altered  by  tlic  P«i 
Uwnentof  Canada. 

1 28.  Where  Customs  duties  are,  at  the  Unlet 
evUble  on  any  goods,  wares  or  nienlwiid|« 
In  any  two  Provrnccs,  those  goods,  wans  an. 
merchandises  may,  from  and  after  the  Inion  b 
Imported  from  onu  of  those  Puvinees  inio'th 
other  of  them  on  proof  of  payment  of  tin.  Cuj 
tonu  duty  leviable  thensm  In  the  I'm;  iiu-e  o 
exportation,  and  on  payment  of  su  ,  hn\u! 
amount  (if  any)  of  Customs  duly  as  is  livi«bli 
thereon  in  the  Province  of  importation 

124.  Nothing  In  this  Act  shull  ulTiit  tlu 
right  of  New  Hninswiek  to  levy  the  lumb,., 
dues  provided  In  chapter  fifteen,  of  tilh-  Dm,. 
of  the  Revlsoil  Statutes  of  New  Itniiih«i,k  oi 
in  any  Act  anu'iiding  that  act  Ufore  or  uliir'tlK 
tnion,  and  not  inen-asing  the  an'oiim  i.f  mui, 
dues;  but  the  lumlK-r  of  any  of  ilie  I'rnvim-ij 
other  than  New  Uruuswick  shall  not  Is-  Mil.k-cuJ 
to  such  dues.  ' 

120.  No  lands  or  property  In  loin;inir  to 
Canada  or  any  Province  sliall  li^.  li,il,|,.  i„  J;,,.. 
tlon. 

126.  Such  iwrtlons  of  the  diitlis  imd  rt- 
enues over  « liiih  the  n-siieiiive  hci-luiiirM  nf 
Canada,  Nova  Sioiiii,  hiiiI  New  i;imi-.«i,  k  InJ 
JH'fore  the  Union  power  of  npproiiriiiii..ii  ;l,  i^. 
by  this  Act  reservid  to  the  i.^pmiM-  (i..viro 
incntsor  Irfglsliitiires  of  the  l'ro\iiii,,  ,i,i,|  iH 
dutlw  and  revenues  ndsed  bv  tin m  in  m  ,„hlan',T 
with  the  s|H'ciiil  powers  confirn  d  ii|i..ii  ihnu  i,.- 

this  act.  shad  Iu  each  Proviiiie  f..i-iii ( ..iwill 

dated       venue  Kund  to  Ih'  appnipriati.l  f,,r  the 
public  8»'rvlce  o»  the  Provim  i-. 

127.  If  luiy  person  iMiiig  at  llie  ['a^^iiie  .if 
this  Act  a  menilu-r  of  the  UegislaliM-  ( ..iimij  „( 
Canada,  Nova  Scolin,  or  New  ItriiiiMii.k  M 
whomaplaieln  the  Senate  is  olTiriil  il.,s'ii,.| 
within  thirty  days  Iheriufter,  b\  uriiiiii:  iimlir 
his  land,  addrrsm-d  to  the  (Jovi-rnor  (J. mml  .if 
the  Provim-e  of  Canadii.  or  to  the  l.-uiinitnt 
Governor  of  NovaSi-oiii,  ,>r  New  ltniiis«i,ki»ii 
the  case  may  Is),  aceipt  the  Niim  .  In  >ii,ill  W 
deemed  to  have  decliiiisl  the  same,  aii.l  :.in  inr- 
son  who,  iK-ing  at  the  passingof  tlii.  An  ii'iium- 
iH'r  of  the  I.«.gihlative  Couiiiil  of  Nova  N  ..lis.r 
New  Brunswhk,  luiipts  a  plare  in  ili.  Miaii- 
sliall  then-by  viwate  his  s<at  Insmh  l.i  tii-lativi; 
Council. 

12H.  Kvery  inendK'r  of  the  Sin.ii.  .r  Ili.mir 
of  Coninioiis  of  t'annda  shall  ls-f..i,-  i.,kjiii;  lii, 
Biat  then  In,  take  and  sulisi  rils-  Is  l,.ri-  Ih.  ti..v- 
ennir  Oemml  or  some  |Mrson  aiilli..ii/.  .1  l.v  lilra, 
and  every  member  of  »  LegMaiii.-  i  .  .ni.il  i* 
l.ejflslatiw-  Assiiiilily  of  Hiiv  |'r,,M,i,,.  ,|uJl 
lie  on-  taking  bis  seat  ilien-in,  lake  iiii.l  -:il.sril« 
Ih'  ore  the  l.ii  nteiianl  (ioM-rnorof  ll.i  l'i..ili.(r, 
or  some  iH.rsoii  aiiiliorl/id  bv  liiiii,  li,.  ...iili  of 
alleglaine  eonialiinl  In  Ihe'liltli  ;<.  I,.,i.ili.  tn 
this  Act,  and  e\iry  nii-nils-r  of  lli.  .s.iuii.  if 
Canada  and  every  nirniln  r  of  Hi.  |.  i'Uti<l 
•  •oiim-ll  of  yihiiiv  sliall  ,il»o.  !.,  |,.r,  t..,iiiil,i 
si-al  Ihenln.  take  and  snlisi  rlls-  I.,  t.i.  ih.  (!..\. 
ernorOinend.  or  soiiie  |Krs..!i  uulli..ii/.  I  l.i  lilm, 
tlie  di'diirnlion  of  ipmliliralioii  n.ii:  ...i.  ,1  in  tliC 
same  Sriii  dide 

121>,  Kxn-pl  ss  othir«ls..  proiil 
Art,  uil  l.ii*.  In    r..ii.-    ill  (  aiiiiiia,  N. 


or  New  Kriinswlek  al  tin   I  iii..n,  aii.l 
of  civil  end  rrlinlnal  Jiirlwlhlinn,  ui 


.1  lir  tliU 

1  I    .Sfltiis 


niurti 
1  .ill  kj-al 


C54 


OOKSnTUTION  OF  CANADA. 


Ootarte 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


eommtailoin,  powen  and  authoriUei,  and  all 
aStixn.  judicial,  adminiatrative,  and  mlniitcrial, 
cxiDtiug  theruin  at  tlie  UniuD,  shall  continue  in 
Onlarlo,  Quebec,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New  liruns- 
wick  respectively,  as  if  the  Union  had  not  been 
maili',  subject  ncvcrthclcM  (except  with  respect 
to  such  as  are  enacted  by  or  exist  under  Acts  of 
the  rarlismcnt  of  Oreat  Dritniu  or  of  the  i'urlia- 
mont  o(  tlie  UniU-d  Kingdom  of  Oreat  Britain 
ud  Inlniul),  to  Iw  reimiletl,  abolished  or  altered 
by  tlie  I'arliiuncnt  of  (.'anala,  or  by  the  Legisla- 
ture of  the  respietive  I'roviuce,  according  to  the 
authority  of  the  Parliament  or  of  that  Legisla- 
ture iniiler  this  Act. 

lilO.  Tntil  the  Parliament  of  Canada  other- 
n  i>e  provides,  all  ollleers  of  the  several  IVoviuces 
luviiii;  (lutieH  to  tiisclmrf^e  in  relation  to  matters 
ntbiT  than  those  condn^  within  the  classes  of 
sulijiHls  liy  this  Ai' .  aiuiigned  exclusively  to  the 
U'cisliitures  of  the  Pr,;vince8  shall  Iw  ollleers  of 
Ciuiwln,  and  shall  coutiuuc  to  discliarge  the 
duliis  of  their  respctive  otlices  under  the  same 
liiiliilitii'S,  respouitiliilitics  and  penalties  aa  if  the 
Union  Iwd  nut  been  made. 

131.  I'ntil  the  Parliament  of  Canada  other- 
wise provides,  tile  (lovernor  General  in  Council 
nmy  (nun  lime  to  time  ap|H>int  such  officers  as 
thi'OovirHorOeiiend  In  Council  deems  necessary 
or  nropir  for  the  elTectiud  execution  of  this  Act. 

I:t2.  Tim  I'lirliunu'iil  and  Oovenimeut  of 
r.Hn;iila  hIihII  have  all  p<iwers iieo'ssary  or  propir 
fur  |»  rformiii){  the  ol>lij;ailon.t  of  Canada  or  of 
nuy  l'ro\iii(e  thereof,  'is  part  of  the  Urilish 
Ijiipirc  towards  forelffn  countries,  arising  uucUr 
iniiiirs  iHtween  the  Knipire  and  such  foreign 
countries. 

liM.  Kilher  the  Kuglish  or  the  French  lati- 
fuaci  Miuv  Im>  uhcI  by  any  iH'rsou  in  the  debates 
(if  till'  lloious  of  Parliament  of  Caimda  and 
cjf  the  llousesof  the  lj'>[islatur(3 of  CJueU-c;  and 
Uiili  th.jw  liiii^mi>:iHsh'ill  Ihi  ust-d  in  the  re«|H(t- 
Ive  riH  >nU  ami  Jiuirimls  of  those  House's;  and 
lillur  "f  tlios<'  luodininis  may  \<v  usihI  bv  nnv 
iHr>on  or  in  uny  ph  udlnK  or  prmt'ss  in  or  Issuing 
from  loiy  (  oiirt  of  Canada  estnlillslied  unchT  this 
Ad.  HMil  ill  or  from  all  or  any  of  the  Courts  of 
t^iii l«r  The  Ai  Is  of  the  I'urllmmtit  of  Canailii 
uu'lof  liie  l.eirisliilureof  QueUr  kIiuH  be  printed 
sti'l  i^iliii'liiil  ill  IkiiIi  thiiHe  louKUages. 

I<'i4.  I  iilil  the  l,<'):islaturu  of  OntJirlo  or  of 

SUelHc  i.llicrwiM'  provhles,  Ihi'  I.h'Uteimiit 
juriii.rsof  (liilurio  and  yuelsc  iioiy  eai  li  up- 
point  iiiiihr  the  (inut  Seal  of  the  Province  the 
lolloHMo;  i.tlUen..  lo  hold  olllce  durlnif  phusure, 
tlmtistoxiv.-  ilie  ,\iior»ey  (Jenerul,  the  Sei  n  ■ 
Uiry  mil  ltrti^l^:lr  of  the  Provinec,  the  Tniw 
unrof  ihel'mvinir,  llu'Commisahmer  of  Crown 
IjimU  mil  the  t  oniiiil»,hiiier  of  Agriculture  and 
I'uhlie  Work*,  mid.  ill  the  caw  of  yuela-c.  the 
Solieiinr  (Hiienil.  Slid  may,  bv  order  of  the 
Liriih iiiiiii  (tinernor  In  Coumll  from  lime  to 
linn-  prmrilie  ths  iliiths  of  thow  ollleers  and 
uf  the  w  i.nil  de|.urtmeiils  over  wlilrli  they  shiill 
fmu\,  or  to  whieh  they  sliull  belong,  and  of 
the  e!!!,,  r-t  uml  .  i,  ik«  tli.reof ,  uiid  iiiav  aUi  ho- 
poiiil  oih.  r  ao.l  uililitioiml  onirers  lo  imhl  ollhe 

(luriiiiT  ]  I,  ,.M,ri ,   nnil    iiniv    fnuii   lime  to   II 

prii" rill  the  .liiiieiof  tliiHH' ollleers,  ami  of  the 
venil  ihpiirliiii  iiln  over  wlileli  thev  shall  pre- 
je  or  1.  »l,i,  h  they  Hliall  bilong."anil  of  the 

iiM.,,  (.  itii'I  .  i,  tR-,  liiereot. 

l;W,  I  mil  tlu'  l,,tUlBlure  of  Ontiirlo  or 
(JutUi  iiherwlK'  provldos,  all  right*.  |mwers. 


■iili 


duties,  functloni,  rciponsibilitlcs  or  authori- 
ties at  the  passing  of  this  Act  vested  in  or  im- 
posed on  the  Attorney  General,  Solicitor  General, 
Secretary  and  Itegistrar  of  the  Province  of  Can- 
ada, Minister  of  Finance,  CommiHsioner  of  Crown 
Lauds,  Commisaionerof  Public  Works,  and  Minia- 
ter  of  Agriculture  and  Heceiver  General,  by  any 
law,  statute  or  onlinauce  of  Upper  Canada, 
Lower  Canada,  or  Canatia,  and  not  repugnant  to 
this  Act,  sliali  bo  vested  in  or  imposed  on  any 
ollicer  to  be  appointed  by  the  Lieutenant  Gov- 
ernor for  the  discharge  of  the  siime  or  any  of  them ; 
and  tlie  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  and  Public 
Works  shall  iierfonn  the  duties  and  functions 
of  the  olllce  of  Minister  of  Agriculture  at  the 
passing  of  this  Act  inipos<'d  by  the  law  of  the 
Province  of  Ciinaila  as  well  as  those  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Public  Works. 

laO.  Until  altered  by  the  Lieutenant  Gov- 
ernor in  Council,  the  Great  Seals  of  Ontario  and 
Quebec  respectively,  shall  U'  the  same  or  of  the 
same  design,  as  tlioae  uwil  In  the  Provinces  cf 
Upper  Canada  and  Lower  Canada  respectively 
bi'fon-  their  Union  as  the  Province  of  Ciiniidii. 

137.  The  words  "and  fnim  thenci!  to  the 
end  of  the  then  next  ensuing  Session  of  the  Ix'g- 
islature,"  or  words  to  the  same  elfect,  usihI  in  any 
te'mnorary  Act  of  the  Province  of  Canada  not 
explnil  liefort!  the  Union,  hliall  be  coiistrueil  to 
extcn<l  and  apply  to  the  next  Session  of  Par- 
liament of  Canada,  if  the  subject  matter  of  the 
Act  is  within  the  |)owers  of  the  simie  as  defined 
by  this  Act,  or  to  the  next  Sessions  of  the  Legis- 
latures of  Ontario  and  QinU-c  nspectively,  if 
the  subject  matter  of  the  Act  is  within  the  ixiwers 
of  the  Kunie  as  defined  by  Mn  .\et. 

i;W,  From  and  after  the  Uidou,  the  use  of 
the  words"  Upper  Cuimila.'iiisleiid  of  "Ontario," 
or  "Lower  Canada"  insUiid  of  "Qinlwr,"  in 
any  de<il,  writ,  process,  pleading.  diKiiimut, 
matter  or  thing,  shall  not  invalidate  tlie  sumi'. 

1;M>.  Any  l*roclainathiii  under  the  Great  Seal 
of  the  I'nivliKT  of  Caioida.  Usued  liefore  the  Union 
to  take  ellect  at  a  time  wliii  li  is  siibseiiuent  to 
the  Union,  whether  nialing  to  that  Provlnee  or 
to  Uplier  Canada,  or  to  l/iwi-r  Caiiaih,  uiiii  the 
scvenU  nmltcra  and  tliliiL's  Ihenlii  proeliiimeil 
shall  Is-  and  continue  of  like  foiie  aiul  elfei  t  us 
if  the  Union  had  not  Is-en  iiiioli'. 

140.  Any  priM'lamullon  which  Is  autliorizetl 
by  Biiv  Aet  of  the  Ix'gUhilure  of  the  Pnivin,  e  of 
Caiimla  lo  Is'  Issued  under  the  Great  Seal  of  tin. 
Province  of  Cuniida.  wlnllor  rehiiiiig  to  ihat 
Pniviiiieor  to  Upper  Ciiiiiida,  or  to  I.oHirCan- 
lula,  and  whiih  Is  not  isxiieil  Isfore  the  Uioon, 
may  Ih'  Issued  by  the  l.ic  iileiiaiit  tiovi  riior  of 
Oiiljtrhi  or  of  Qiiels'i'.  ax  iu  Milijivt  nialirr  re 
Hulres,  undir  the  (iiiai  Sml  ihereof;  and  from 
and  .ifler  llie  Issue  cif  ^tn  h  I'lm  laiiiiiHoii  the 
same  and  Hie  several  iiialier^  and  llilims  therein 
pns  lalined  shall  Is'  and  eiuiiliiiie  of  the  like 
lone  and  elli-et  in  Ontario  or  Qinlsc  as  If  the 
Uiihiii  hud  not  Iweii  iiiailr 

141.  The  Peiiiteiiliarv  of  the  Pnivlnir  of 
iHiiiola  fhnll.  until  Ihe  I'ailoiiiieiil  of  Caiuula 
olherwiie  pri>vii|es.  1k'  and  lontliiiie  the  PenileU' 
llarv  i'f  <  liilnrhi  and  id  Qii<  Ihi  . 

142.  The  dl\i>ion  and  adjuslmeiit  of  the 
delils,  iri'ililt.  Ilabllilh't.  pro|H'rties  and  asm'ts 
iif  rppiT  Ciitiuila  atiil  |.i>uer  i'liiijitltt  !^h!i!l  Ih*  !%- 
ferml    In  the  arlillninienl   of  iliree  urliilrutors, 

lii>!«ii   by  the  Govi  riiiiieiii  nf  Ontario,  one 


by  the  Uuvcrument  of  tjiiilHc,  luid  oue  by  the 


u55 


\m 


i 


t!^^:/ 

:li' 


CONSTmmON  OF  CANADA.   «iw«j»«l»r»    CONBTmmON  OF  CANADA. 


OoTcrament  of  Caoadn;  and  tlie  selection  of  the 
Arbitratura  shall  not  1k'  made  until  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Canada  and  the  Logisluttires  of  Ontario 
and  Quebec  have  met ;  and  the  arbitrator  chosen 
by  the  Oovemmcnt  of  Canada  shall  not  be  s 
resident  cither  in  Ontarii)  or  in  Quebec. 

143.  The  Governor  General  in  Council  may 
from  time  to  time  onler  tlmt  sucli  and  so  many 
of  the  records,  iKmks,  and  documents  of  the 
Province  of  Canada  ns  lie  thinks  lit  sliall  be  ap- 
propriated and  di'livere<l  either  to  Ontario  or  to 
Quebec,  and  the  same  sliall  henceforth  he  the 
property  of  that  Province:  and  anv  copy  thereof 
or  extract  tlieri'from.  duly  certilied  by  the  officer 
having  cliarKe  of  the  original  thereof  shall  be 
admitted  as  evidence. 

1-M.  The   Lieutenant  Governor  of   Quebec 
may  from  time  to  time,  by  I>roclamation  under 
the  Great  Seal  of  the  Province,  to  take  effect 
from  a  day  to  In-  appointed  therein,  constitute 
townsliins  in   tliiwe  parts  of  the    Province  of 
Quelicc  in  which  townships  are  not  then  already 
constituted,  and  fix  the  ineU's  and  iMunds  thereof. 
_  140.  Iimsinuch  as  the  Provinces  of  Canada, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick  have  jolnej 
lu  a  declaration  that  the  construction  of  the  In- 
tcrcoliinial  Itailway  is  es.sential  to  the  consolida- 
tion of  thi^  I'niiin  of  British  North  America,  and 
to  the  asai-nt  tiiireto  of     -ova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswiik,  and  have  conseiiuently  agn^cil  tliat 
provision  should  lie  made  for  its  immediate  con- 
struction 1)V  the  Government  of  Canada:  There- 
fore, in  onfer  to  give  efft-et  to  that  agreement, 
It  sliall  1m'  the  iluly  of  the  Government  and  Par- 
liament of  (':iiinila  to  provide  for  tile  coinnieiice- 
ment.  within  six  months  ofler  the  Union,  of  a 
railwiiy  (■■iniie<ling  tlie  Hiver  St.  Ijiwrence  witli 
the  City  (if  Halifax  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  for  the 
conslriiclinri  tliinof  witliout   intermission,  and 
theeoinphtiuii  tliereof  withal!  practlcal)le s|H'ed 
m\.  ll  >.liall  Ik'  lawful  for  tlie  Queen,  by  and 
wltli  till-  adviie  of  Her  Majesty's  Most  Honour- 
able Privy  fiiiiiii  il.  on  .\diln'»sesfrom  the  Houses 
of  the  I'arliaiiienl  of  Canaila.  and  fnini  tlie  Houses 
of  the  re»perlive  Ugisialiires of  the  Colonies  or 
Provineea    of    .Ni'wfoun.lliind.    Prince    EdwanI 
Island,   ami    lliitish   Coluiiilila,   to  admit   those 
Colonies  i>r  PniviiieeH,  or  any  nf  them.  Into  the 
Union,  ami  on  .\ddre»s  fMin'the  Hmises  of  the 
Parliament  of  Canada  to  adinil  ltii|H'rt's  Ijiud 
and   the    North  western  Terriiorv,  or  either  of 
them,  into  the  I'lilim,  on  siieh  terms  nml  cDndi- 
tions  in  each  <  a»e  as  arc  in  the  .Vdilnsses  ex- 
pn'SMil  ami  as  the  Quiin  thhik.H  lit  to  approve 
subJiK't    to   the  pnivislons  of  this  .Aet,  niid  the 
pnivjshin^iif  any  (Inhr  in  Cnuneil  in  thai  la'half 
shall  haveelTeet  as  If  they  had  liei'n  enacted   liy 
the  Parllumeul  of  the  UiiitMl  Kingdom  of  Onnl 
Uriliiin  niiii  In  luml. 

147.  liie:i!Mof  the  admlaslim  of  Newround- 
land  ami  Prime  Kdwaril  Uliuid.  ortltliernf  them, 
eittli  hIiuII  111' eiiiiih'd  to  u  npnxntatliin  in  tlie 
»<-nule  iif  (  aiiiiila  of  four  memlnrs.  and  (not- 
wltli«tHiii|iriv'  iiiiyihiiig  ill  lliin  Act)  in  ra.HM)f  tlie 
■wlniiHoiiiii  ,,f  Ni  wfiiuiidhinil  tlw  normal  num- 
t»r  of  .s,  ,i,,i.,rs  shall  !»■  wveiity  six  and  their 
niaxiiiiiMii  niiiiilHr  shall  ]»•  eighty  two;  but 
I'rinee  lvl«;iii|  Ishinil  wiien  admllteil  shall  lie 
deemed  In  In-  enmpriiM'd  In  the  tiilnl  of  the  three 

diviiitrlis  illlii  wliich  Cmiifilji  {»    fn  ft>Uil..t;  *.-:  ii-r. 

con-iiiiiiiiui  of  ihe  Siiale.  divined  by  this" Act 
and  Hcdiriliiiu'lv,  afu-r  the  ailmlssion  of  Prince 
Uwanl  Inliuid,   whether  NcwfouiHlUud  is  wl- 


6o0 


mittcd  or  not,  the  representation  of  Nova  Scoti 
and  New  Brunswick  in  the  Senate  slnill,  as  v, 
canciei  occur,  be  reduced  from  twelve  to  u 
members  retpectlvely,  and  the  representation  o 
each  of  those  Provinces  shall  not  lie  inen  used  a 
any  time  beyond  ten,  except  under  tin-  pmi-l 
slons  of  this  Act  for  the  appointment  of  thre, 
or  six  additional  Senators  under  the  direetlono 
the  Queen. 

A.  D.  i89i.— British  North  America  Art 
Jo?'-— An  Act  respecting  the  Esialilishmcnt  o 
Provinces  in  the  Dominion  of  Canaihi.  rjOrt 
Jtok,  1871.]  ^^' 

WiiKREAS  doubts  have  Ikwu  entertained  re 
spccting  the  powers  of  the  Parliament  nf  Caosilj 
to  establish  Provinces  In  territories  :i,i,iiiiui|  oi 
which  may  hereafter  be  nilmitted.  in,,  tlw  Do- 
minion of  Canada,  and  to  provide  fur  tin-  rvprc- 
aentatlon  of  such  Provinces  in  tlie  s:ii.l  I>arli«. 
ment,  and  It  Is  expedient  to  remove  such  dimhti 
and  to  vest  such  powers  in  the  said  I'lirliami-iii 
Be  It  enacted  by  the  Queen's  .Most  Exolltnt 
Majesty,  by  and  with  the  ailvlw  ami  ( onsent  of 
the  Loids,  i  -Irltual  and  Tempoml.  am!  Com- 
mons In  this  present  Parliament  assemliliil  aaj 
by  the  authority  of  the  same,  as  fiillows-' 

1.  This  Act  may  lie  cited  for  all  imriiiisct  u 
The  Bri'Mi  North  America  Act.  ls:i. 

iS.  'l.j  IMrllament  of  Canada  niiiv  fmni  time 
to  time  establish  new  I'^)viIll•e»  In  uiiv iirriK.rin 
forming  for  the  time  lieing  part  of  il,,".  D.niini.in 
of  Caniula,  but  not  Incluiii-d  in  my  I'mvim-e 
thereof,  and  may,  at  the  time  of  sm  li  i>tiililisli- 
ment,  make  provision  for  the  cnii^titiilinn  m\ 
administration  of  any  such  Pnivlmv,  mid  f,,r 
tlie  passing  of  laws  for  tile  peace,  nnh  r  lunl  f;nn! 
(jovemment  of  such  Province,  and  fur  its  n-pre- 
sentation  in  the  said  Parliainc-iit. 

3.  The  Parliament  of  Caiiiiil;i  in:iv  fn.m  lime 
to  time,  with  tlie  consent  of  the  Li'-i-luinn-  n( 
any  I>rovince  of  the  sidd  Itdmini.m.  iiirrense. 
diminish,  or  otherwise  alter  the  limits  ..f  stuii 
Province,  uiwin  such  terms  and  (..ii,liii,iris  a. 
may  be  agn-ed  to  by  the  said  l,<-i.|;iiun-,  aul 
may,  with  tiie  like  consent,  niaki-  |in,visi,iii  n 
specting  the  elTe<t  and  opemlimi  of  nrr,  surli  in 
crease  or  diminution  or  allenilliin  nf  ii  rrilory  in 
rt'latiim  to  any  IVovlnce  alTeeinl  tlnn  In 

4.  The  I'lirilament  of  Caiiaihi  iu;iv  frun  llnif 
to  lime  make  provision  fur  tin-  iiilmiMi-irilimi. 
IH-are,  onler,  and  giKni  governim-n!  .f  :i!:v  iiri 
lory  not  tor  the  time  U-iiig  imiihii.l  lu  sny 
Province. 

n.  The  following  Acts  p.isseil  l.v  ih,.  uid 
Parllamentof  Canwla,  and  intiiiili  d  n"«|Ki  livtly: 
"  .Vn  Act  for  the  tem|K)r:irv  civirMiniit  ill 
liupert's  Ijuid  and  the  Nnrtli  \Vi  sti  rii  i,  rrilory 
when  united  with  Canada.'  mid  .\ii  .\it  to 
amend  anil  continue  the  All  Ihlrlv  twnaiililiirlv 
llm'e  Victoria,  chapter  Ihn-e.  iiml  to  isuMiJi 
nml  provide  for  the  goveriiimiTl  uf  tln'  IVivlnoj 
nf  Manltolia,"  shall  Ui  and  In-  ili.  mil  i.i  liav« 
liirn  valid  and  elfectuul  fur  all  |iiir|i,.s. ,  »lni»» 
ever  fnim  the  dale  at  whli  h  ih,  v  h«i«.iiiily 
h-e<-lve<l  the  asuent,  in  the  l^iiii  ii  -.  n  im'.  .if  tiw 
(fovemor  Uenenil  of  the  said  iinmiiiiin  of 
Canada. 

O.  Kxo-pt  as  provldtil  liv  the  iliird  Miilmiof 
this  Act,  it  shall  not  1h'  eoiii"|Hieiil  tiriln  I'srlls- 
}r,:-t;t  ,.f  CiihrKlrx  in  aitrr  tlir  pnivi;:  •:..  :  :::r  iwi 
nieiitliiiH<<l  Act  of  the  said  Purliinunl  inmhr 
as  it  relau-s  t4i  the  Pnivliiee  nf  Mitiitilii.  iT"! 
any  other  Act  itctiikftcr  esubUshiiig  in  w  Prur- 


CONBTITTJTION  OP  CANADA. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  ENGLAND. 


beei  in  the  uid  Domtnion,  subject  always  to 
tbe  right  of  the  Legislature  of  the  Province  of 
Xinit'iba  to  alter  from  time  to  time  tbe  pro- 
ritiuns  of  any  law  respecting  the  qualification 
of  electors  and  members  of  the  Legislative 
Anembly.  and  to  make  laws  respecting  elections 
in  the  said  Province. 

A  D.  1875.— Parliament  of  Canada  Act, 
1I75.— An  Act  to  remove  certain  doubts  with 
respect  to  the  powers  of  the  Parliament  of 
CaDiula.  under  Section  18  of  the  British  North 
imericu  Act.  1867.     [19th  July,  1875.] 

Whereas  by  section  18  of  The  British  North 
.America  Act,  1867,  it  is  pmvide»l  as  follows  :— 
"The  privileges,  immuuities,  and  i«)wers  to  be 
held,  cnjoywl,  and  exercised  by  the  Senate  and 
by  the  lioiiae  of  Commons,  and  by  the  memliers 
thereof  respectively,  shall  l)e  such  as  are  fn)m 
time  to  time  ileflncd  by  Act  of  the  Purllament  of 
Caiuida.  hut  so  that  the  same  shall  never  exceed 
thiise  at  the  passing  of  this  Act  held,  enjoyed, 
and  excnisecl  by  the  (Commons  House  of  PaVlia- 
ment  of  the  L'liiteii  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
sod  Inland,  and  by  the  memlK-rs  thereof. "  And 
whrniis  iloubts  have  arisen  with  rejjiinl  to  the 
pciviTof  defining  by  an  Act  of  thi'  I'lirliament 
uf  Cauaila.  in  pursuance  of  the  said  section,  the 
said  privileges,  powers  or  immunities:  and  it  is 
ripedient  to  remove  such  doubt  .  Be  it  there- 
fore iiiactcii  by  the  Queen's  .i!oht  Kxccllent 
)!»]•-•  V.  Iiy  ami  with  the  lulvice  and  consent  of 
l!if  i  rils  .'ipiritiinl  and  Temponii.  and  dim- 
niHDv  ill  tills  pn'M'iit  Parliament  mownilileil,  and 
In  tlie  iiuiliorlty  of  the  sanu-,  iw  follnws: — 

1,  Si  lion  IS  iif  The  BrilUli  Nurtli  Anu'rica 
\i\  !-ilT.  Is  hereby  ie|M'ale<l,  witliout  prijudice 
tu  iiinlliini,'  ilone"  under  'hat  section.  lUiil  the 
(lul.miii:;  section  .shall  lie  sulisliiuied  for  the 
jiitiMii  -1  re|HaliHl ; — The  privilev''s.  iinniiiiiiticH, 
;ind  |«)»i  r>  to  Ik>  held,  enjoyi'ii  mid  ixcnl'oil  liy 

l.i'  tknste  and  by  the  House  of  ('oiiinKiiis,  anil 

J  the  mdiilum  lliiriof  ns|M(tivcly.   shall  Im' 

Mi.  li  :i<  !irf  friiiii  time  to  time  ilctinnl  liy  Act  of 

.'   I'^rli mil  III  of  Ciuinda,  but  so  that  any  Ai  t 

:    '.:,'■    I'ailiainiiil   of    taiiada    ditinlnir  "such 

[irivih x'r^.    Iiiiniiinllies    and   powers    shall    not 

I'liifi-r  :iiiy  privilctfi'H.  Imniiiiiities,  or  jwiwcrs  ex- 

tiidiiii-  iii.i»<'  at  the  piiKsliii;  nf  such  Act  lield, 

'iij 'Viil,  anil  ixirri-uil  by  the  I'liiiinions  House 

'f  I'iirlwniiiit  of  the  Tnltcil  Kliigdimi  of  (Jrent 

Hriuin  ami  Inland,  and  by  (In-  im  niUrsthr  n>of. 

2.  The  .V(t  (if  ilie  Parllaniiiii  .if  ('ainula 
I'.--.c|  in  the  thinytlrst  year  of  the  niiin  of  her 
I'Pivnl  Majesty,  thaptcr  twenty  f-r  iiilimled 
■V.I  .\i[  t.i  nroviile  for  oathn  to' \.  ,«  Udng 
a.liniiiMi  ri'il  in  certain  cases  for  tin-  puipiisi's  uf 

CONSTITUTION  OF   (OR  FOR)   THE~ 

CAROLINAS  (Locke's),     tne  NoiiTii  I  aiio- 
.iN>    A   II   IrtHIl- ltiu:|, 

CONSTITUTION  OF  CHILE.  S,^Cmi.K 
.\  IP  I«:l;t-1SM,  anil  INH.'i-lsui 

CONSTITUTION  OF  CLEISTHENES. 
See  Athivs    I)  (■   .MU_.VI7 

CONSTITUTION  OF  COLOMBIA.  S..e 
(oi.oiimAS  Statks:  A.  I>.  l»3(l-lK«itl  and  18M- 
l«ll 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  CONFED- 
ERATE STATES  OF  AMERICA,  ikf 
'  'iffi'  fcTAti-.3  or  Aa. :   A.  Ii    isdi  (t-^bm  - 

AST  I 

C0H8TITUTIOH  OF  CONNICTICUT 
litJt-ibt  Psadaaaatal  Agmaaal  of  N«w 


either  Rouse  of  Parliament,  shall  be  deemed  to  be 
valid,  and  to  have  been  valid  as  frcmi  the  date  at 
which  the  royal  assent  was  given  thereto  by  the 
Oovemor  General  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

3.  1  his  Act  may  be  cited  as  The  ParliameDt 
of  Canada  Act.  1875. 

A.  O.  18M.— British  North  America  Act, 
1886.— An  Act  respecting  the  Representatiim 
in  the  Parliament  of  Canada  of  Territories  which 
for  tlie  time  being  form  part  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  but  are  not  included  in  anj-  Province. 
[25TII  .IisE,  1886.] 

WiiEKKAs  it  is  expedient  to  empower  the 
Parliament  of  Canada  to  provide  for  the  repre- 
sentation in  the  Senate  and  House  of  Common* 
of  Canaila,  or  either  of  them,  of  anv  territory 
which  for  the  time  Ix-ing  forms  part  of  the  Do- 
minion of  Canada,  but  is  not  included  in  any 
Province :  Be  it  therefore  enacteil  by  the  Queen's 
Most  Kxccllent  Maiesty,  by  and  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  Lords  Spiritual  i\w\  Tem|)oral, 
and  Commons,  in  the  present  Parliament  as- 
sembled, and  by  the  authority  of  the  same,  as 
foHows: — 

1.  The  Parliament  of  Canada  may  fnmi  time 
to  time  mike  provision  for  the  ri'pn'sentation  in 
the  Senate  and  Hoiw  of  Common.,  of  Canada,  or 
in  cither  of  them,  of  any  territories  nhicli  for  the 
time  ladng  form  part  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
bill  are  not  iiicludisl  in  any  Pnivlnce  thereiif. 

2.  Any  .\ct  pa.s«cil  by  the  Parliainciit  of 
Canadii  liefore  the  passing  of  this  Act  fur  tho 
purpose  mentioneii  In  this  .\ct  shall,  if  not  ills- 
allowed  by  the  Qinvn,  Ik-,  anil  sliail  tie  decineil 
to  have  \nvo,  valid  and  elfcctiial  fniiii  Ilic  ilatu 
at  which  it  receivisi  the  assent,  in  Her  .Majisiy* 
name,  of  the  Govcrnor-Ocnenil  of  Caiiada  It"  is 
hcri'by  ileclan'd  that  any  Act  passisl  by  the 
Parliament  of  Canada,  wlictlier  iK'fore  or  after 
the  passing  of  this  Act,  for  the  purpose  niin- 
tioned  ill  this  Act.  or  in  The  Uriiisli  XurtU 
.\iiicrica  Act.  I^^TI.  has  ellect,  iiotw  itlisiaiiiling 
aiiythinv'  In  The  HHtlsli  Nnitli  .Vinerica  Act.  1N17. 
and  tlic  nunilMT  nf  .Senators  or  the  nuiiiUr  of 
-MeiiilM'rs  nf  the  House  of  Cmiimnus  spcriliid  in 
the  liLst  nientiontsl  Ait  is  incnasiil  by  the  inini- 
Iht  of  .Snators  or  nf  Miiiilsrs,  as  the  ciim  may 
Im',  pmvided  by  any  such  -Vet  nf  the  I'arliaiiiiiit 
nf  Canada  fnr  llie  n'pnsentalinn  nf  any  pmvliii es 
nr  lerrilnries  nf  Canada. 

H.  Tliis.\(t  mavlsTitiil  as  Tin  Itriiish  Xnrili 
America  Ad.  l.HNt\  Tin,  An  and  Tlic  Uiiii-li 
Nnrth  .Vmerica  Ail,  l^T.  ami  The  llriiisli  Xorih 
Aiiierica  .Vet.  I^Tl,  shall  Is-  cniistriiiil  touillier, 
and  may  Ih'  cited  tnk'i  Hier  as  Tl.<'  liritisli  Nnrtli 
Anieriia  Aits.  lKrt7  In  1s.n(1 


Haveni,    .S-c  Connkcticit;  A.    !>    I«;m-lfl,')9, 
and  lii;l!l 
CONSTITUTION  OF  DENMARK,     Sic 

SlAMllSAVIAN  .HlAlhs  iDl-XM  \«K  — ll  KI.AMU): 
AD    IS  tit  1><TI 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  DUTCH 
REPUBLIC,  or  the  United  Netherlandi.  See 
Nktiikhi.amis    a    |i    I.V«4-|.Vi.'\ 

CONSTITUTION  OF  ENGLAND.--t)ur 
Knglish  Constitution  was  never  maiie,  in  tlie 
sense  in  which  the  Constitutions  of  many  other 
countries  have  Invn  made.  There  never  was 
ttiiv  Ihonit-iit  MiH-ii  EiigiUliiiK'ii  iliew  nut  iiieir 
political  system  in  the  shH|K'  of  n  fomul  dmu- 
nH'nI.  wliether  as  the  carrying  nut  of  anv 
•helmet  |N<litical  theories  or  as  the  iniitatiuu  tif 


567 


I  I 


CONSTITUTIOIT  OF  ENOLAND 

ttw  past  or  present  lyitem  of  any  other  nation. 
There  are  indeed  certain  great  political  docu- 
ment*, each  of  which  fomu  a  landmarit  in  our 
political   history.     There  is  the  Great  Charter 
Jjee  Esolaxd:    A.    D.    12151,    the  Petition  of 
Mght»[9ame:  A.  D.  1885-1628,  and  1628],  the 
Bin  of  Righu  [aame:   A.  D.    1689  (October)]. 
But  not  one  of  these  gare   itself  out  as  the 
enactment  of  anything  new.     All  claimed  to  set 
forth,  with  new  strength,  it  might  Iw,  and  with 
new  clearness,  those  rights  of  Englishmen  which 
were  already  old    ...  The   life    and    soul   of 
English  law  has  i  ver  been  precedent ;  we  have 
always  held  thxt  whatever  our  fathers  once  did 
UJeir  sons  Iiave  a  right  to  do  again."— E  A 
Freeman,    The  Onieth  of  the  EnglM  Conttitu- 
Hon,  eh.  a.— "It  is,  in  the  first  place,  necessary 
to  have  a  clear  understanding  of  what  we  mean 
when  we  talk  about  'the  English  Constitution.' 
Few  terms  in  our  language  have  been  more  laxl . 
employed.      .  .  Still,    the   term,    'the  English 
Constitution  is  susceptible  of  full  and  accurate 
explanation:  though  it  may  not  be  easy  to  set  it 
lucidly   forth,    without  first    ir.vestigating    the 
archaeology  of  our  history,  rather  more  deeply 
ttan    may    suit    hasty    talkers  and   superficial 
thiiiki-rs.  .  .  .  Some   furious    Jucobins.    at    the 
close  of  the  last  centurv,  used  to  clamour  that 
there  was  no  such  thing  as  the  English  Constitu- 
tion,  bei'auso  it  could  not  be  produced  in  full 
written  form.  like  that  of  the  United  SUtes. 
But  an  impartial  aud  earnest  investigator  may 
Mill  satisfy  himself  tliat  England  has  a  constitu- 
tion,  and   that  there  Is  ample  cause  why  .she 
should  cherish  it.     And  by  this  it  is  meant  that 
he  will  recognise  ami  admire,  in  the  history   the  i 
laws  and  the   institutions  of  England,    certain   i 
great    leadiUK   principles,    which    have    existed 
from  the  earliest  period  of  our  nationality  down  : 
to  tlie  present  lime;  expanding  und  adapting  ! 
themselves  I    ilie  progress  of  society  and  civlf.   '■ 
iiation,  aiivM     ing  and  varying  in  (fevelopment    ' 
but  still  ess.    iially  the  same  in  substance  and 
ipint        Til  M-   gn-at    primeval    and    enduring 
princip!         If    the    principles  of    the    English 
Consti'       n.     .\nd  we  are  not  obllge<l  to  learn 
them  (rum   imperfect  evideures  or    pre<'arious 
•pe<ulati(m;  for  they  are  imperishablv  n-coitled 
In  the  Great  Charter,  and  In  Charters"  and  Stat- 
utes connecteii  with  and  confirmatory  of  Mairna 
Chart*  [i««  Esoi  ksx>:  A.  D.  K'I5]. ".  .  .  These 


CONSTITUTION  OF  FRANCE. 

great  primeval  and  enduring  principlts  of 
Constitution  are  aa  follows:  The  govenu 
of  the  countnr  hy  an  hereditary  sovereign 
ing  with  limited  powers,  and  bound  to  sum 
and  consult  a  parliament  of  the  whole  it, 
comprising  hereditary  peers  and  elertive  re 
•entatives  of  the  commons.  That  without 
sanction  of  pariiament  m  tax  of  any  kind  ca 
imposed ;  and  no  Uw  can  be  made,  repeal« 
altered.  That  no  man  be  arbitrarily  nm 
imprisoned,  that  no  man's  property  or  libei 
be  impaired,  and  that  no  man  be"  in  anv  ' 

{lunishcd,  except  after  a  lawful  trial  Tfiil 
ury.  That  justice  shall  not  be  solil  or  d,  lai 
hesc  great  constitutional  principles  can  al 
proved,  either  by  express  terms  or  by  fair  ini 
cation,  from  Magna  CarU,  and  its  ."  s„r, 
ment  [the  statute  'Confirmatio  Cariarun 
Their  vigorous  development  was  ai.lnl 
attested  in  many  subsequent  statulen.  tsimP 
in  the  Petition  of  Righu  and  the  Hill  of  Rii;i 
I  .  .  .  Lord  Chatham  called  these  tlirw  ■' 
Bible  of  the  English  Constitution,'  to  wh 
appeal  is  to  be  made  on  every  gmvi.  politi 
question."— E.  8.  Creasy.  liiie  and  lYmn 
the  Eng.  Contt.  ch.  1.— "The  fact  thatourc 
stitution  has  to  be  collectetl  from  statute  fr 
legal  decisions,  from  observation  of  the  coum 
conduct  of  tlie  business  of  politics;  tluit  much 
what  is  written  is  of  a  negative  w.rt,  stati 
what  vuo  Crown  and  its  mlnlstiTs  cannot  i 
that  there  la  no  part  of  it  which  an  ..ninirh.t, 
Parliament  may  not  change  at  will ;  all  iliis  i 
puzzle  not  only  to  foreign  jurists  wlio  are  p 
pared  to  say,  with  Di  Toc.;ueville,  ihal  i 
English  constitution  does  not  exist.  liutt....i 
selves  who  are  prepared  to  niaiiuuin  that  it  i. 
monument,  if  only  we  can  find  it.  of  i„,|iti, 
sagacity.  Those  who  prais.-  it  call  It  ti.iilil 
those  who  criticise  it  unstable  "—.Sir  W, 
Anson,  The  Laie  and  CuHotn  af  tht  C„nii.,  pi. 

Also  W:  W.  Stubbs,  ContI  Hi,t  ,.f  £„ 
in  iU  Origin  and  Derelopmrnt  —  II  ilaHa, 
Chtul.  Iluitof  Eng.:  Utnry  Vll  l<.  H,o  //_ 
E.  May,  Contt.  llitt.  <^  Enij.,  i:«()-lH«ii_l 
Gnelst,  ni»t.  of  the  Eng.  C'oiuil  —  K  Fi«t, 
The  Eng.  ,ntt.—yf.  Bagehot,  Thr  h:„.,.  C.nM- 
h.  Boutmy,  The  Kng.  C'oM<,_StT,  also  P,i 
i.i.\inc.<«T,  Ta«  E«ouia,  and  Cabwkt,  Ta 
Enolish. 


rr 


CONSTITUTION  OF  FRANCE 
t  ^•.  Ri,'Z''r'^!i*  Conititution  accepted  by 

17»1  (.Irtr— Sk.ptkmukb) 

A.  p.  1793  (or  the  Year  One),-The  Jacjbin 
Lonititution      See  Kranck:  A.   P.  r!«  (Jt  nk 

— CkTOllEHI. 

^uP  ''?lu""J','"  ^**'  Three>.-The  Con- 
•Wtution  of  the  Directory.  See  Fran,  r ;  A  I) 
iTvri  (.l;>F.— Septkmmkk*. 

A.  D.  i-99._Th«  Constitution  of  the  Con- 
sulate. f=.-e  Fka-Nck:  a.  t>  17l«(NovKMn|.:n- 
1)K(KMBRH> 


A.  D.  1851.— The  Constitution  of  the  Secot 
Empire.     SeeFHANcK:  .\.  I).  IN.TI-ls-, 


A  D.  iSia^^-The  Constitution  ofthe  Rcstor- 

•tion      SeefR.4Nrij:  A   U   1NI4  1  APHIi.-.It  nk, 

A.  D  iS48._The  CoBStittttian  ofthe  Second 

Republic,     See  FiuacK:   A.  U.  1848  (Apkil- 


_  A.p.  I»75.i889.— The  Constitution  of  tk 
Third  Republic— The  clniinntaiun  of  tli 
framing  and  ailoption  In  1H7.1  of  tli<'  ('.mslituti.i 
of  til).  Third  |{<.nubllc  will  1h.  foun.l  narrsto 
under  Kka.xck:  A.  I).  lS*l-lM7rt  TIim  follt 
ing  Is  the  text  of  the  organic  law  of  Isn.  «iil 
the  laUT  amendatory  and  i.up|ili  im mal  ponct 
ments,  down  to  July"l7,  1889.  «<  iriin«la!"l  a.-*! 
edited,  with  an  historical  InlnKluc  ti.m  l>v  Mr 
Charles  P.  A.  Currier,  and  puliliKh,.!  in  Ihi 
AnmiU  vf  the  Amen'ran  AMttmii/  .f  IWIi'.!! 
nnd  HieitU  »ienet.  March.  1N93 '  li  u  nw- 
ilui-<-<i  here  with  the  kind  pernilmion  .f  ttij 
President  of  tile  AcademT,  Profeaaur  Edmuni 
J.  James: 


rM 


CONSTITUTION  OF  FRANCE. 

1875.  Law  on  the  Orguiizatioii  of  the  Pol>- 
lie  Power*.    February  »S. 

Article  1.  The  legislative  power  ig  exer- 
dssd  by  two  auemblies:  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties and  the  Senata.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies  ig 
elected  by  universal  guffrage,  under  the  condi- 
tioM  determined  by  the  electoral  law,'  The 
Mmpoeition,  the  method  of  election,  and  the 
powers  of  the  Senate  shall  be  regulated  by  a 
special  law.' 

Art.  2.  The  President  of  the  Republic  is 
chosen  by  an  absolute  majority  of  votes  of  the 
Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies  uniteii  in 
Sational  Assembly.  He  is  elected  for  seven 
years.    He  is  re-eligible. 

■  Art.  3.  The  President  of  the  Republic  hag 
the  initiative  of  the  laws,  concurrently  with  the 
members  of  the  two  Chambers.  He  promul- 
gates the  laws  when  they  have  been  votetl  by 
the  two  Chamlwrs;  he  looks  after  and  secures 
their  execution.  Ho  has  the  right  of  pardon; 
amnesty  can  be  granted  by  law  only.  He  dis- 
poses of  the  armed  force.  He  appDinis  to  all 
civil  and  military  positions.  He  pre.si<les  over 
national  festivals;  envoys  and  ambaiisaiiors  of 
foreiirn  powers  are  accrediteil  to  him.  Every 
set  of  the  President  of  the  Republic  must  be 
countei>igned  by  a  Minister, 

Art.  4  As  vac.-mcies  occur  on  and  after  the 
ppimuliriiliimof  the  present  law,  the  President  of 
the  Kcimblie  appoint  in  the  Council  of  Minis- 
ters, •'  "ouncilors  (It  state  in  ordinary  service. 
Thet^  .  Oors  of  Stnti' thus  chosen  may  he  dis- 
missed 'ly  bv  ilecree  rinderi'd  in  the  Council  iif 
Ministe-.,  The  Councilors  of  State  chosen  by 
vinue  uf  the  law  of  .May  H,  1872.  canndt,  iK'fore 
tlieixpinition  iif  their  powers,  lie  dismissed  ex- 
cept in  the  manner  <leteriiiiii<(l  liv  that  law. 
Atltr  the  dissolution  iif  the  National  Assembly! 
revnati.m  iiiav  be  pronminced  oidy  bv  resolu-  ' 
tion  of  the  Senate, 

AiiT  j  The  IVsideiit  of  the  Republic  may. 
with  till'  advice  of  the  senate,  dissolve  the 
Cli.imbir  of  Deputies  In-fore  the  legal  expiration 
of  its  t.  nil,  [In  that  ca«e  tlio  eleclonil  colleges 
are  suiiiinoned  for  new  elections  within  the  space 
of  thrir  moiilbs,]' 

Akt  II.  The  Ministers  are  jointly  and  »ev. 
erally  (  wilidaln-m.  )  n'»i>onsible  to"  the  Cham- 
bers fur  the  genei  .  policv  of  the  government 
wl  imlividually  for  thiir  1..  rsonal  acts  The 
Pnslilent  of  the  Republic  is  ri'sponsible  In  case 
of  hi«h  treasion  only,' 

Art  T  In  ease  of  vacaiicv  bv  deatli  or  for 
»ii,v  other  reas..n,  the  two  Chamlxrs  assembled 
to.'fthcr  imweed  at  once  to  the  election  of  a  new 
PreMilint.  In  the  meantime  the  Council  of  .Min- 
liters  Is  invested  with  the  executive  |>ower.' 

Akt.  n     The  Chaml)ers  shall  have  the  right 
br  wpaniie  resolutions,  taken  In  each  by  an  ab- 
to  lite  nmjority  of  votes,  either  tipim  tlieir  own    i 
Initiative  „r  upon  the  request  of  the  I'^sldent  of   ' 
the  Kepublle.  to  <|pclare  a  revision  of  the  Consti- 
tutional Laws  necessary.     After  each  of  the  two 
Ihamliers  slmll  Imv,.  lome  to  this  di-cl«ioii    tliev 
"hall  iios  I  ti.gilher  ill  National  Aiwemblv  to  pn'i-    , 
^■"••t   with   the    rivlsi.m.     The    acts   .■•iTectinir   ' 
nuslnn  i.f  the  constitutional  laws.  In  whole  o-   , 

I  S.-'-  Illw  ,if  V.»v»nil>f*  5(1.  t*^?*.  :r.fr.i  ! 

■  T,T„!n7"r'i  '■"''"'•'■V  ''*■  ""■'  Auinwt  J,  is;s,  ,„f„,         I 
wfr.,  •    '"""'""'I"""!   law  "f  .Vuiniat   U,  ISM,    j 


CONSTITUTION  OF  /RANGE. 

in  part,  must  be  bv  an  absolute  majority  of  the 
members  composmg  the  National  Assembly. 
IDunng  the  continuance,  however,  of  the  pow- 
ers conferred  by  the  law  of  November  20  1878 
upon  Marshal  di  MacMshon,  this  revision  can 
take  place  only  upon  the  initiative  of  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Republic,]' 

[Art.  9,     The  seat  of  the  Executive  Power 
and  of  the  two  Chambers  is  at  Versailles.]' 

1875.  Law  on  the  Organization  of  the 
Senate.    February  34. 

[.Article  1,'  The  Senate  consists  of  three  hun- 
dred members;  Two  hundred  and  twenty-flve 
elected  by  the  departmenu  and  colonies  and 
seventy -Ave  elected  by  the  National  Assembly,] 
[Art,  2,  The  departments  of  the  Seine  and 
£iorU  elect  each  five  senators.  The  following 
departments  elect  four  senators  each-  Seine- 
Infen,  ure.  Pas-de-Calais,  Gironde.  RhSne  Finis- 
lere,  Cotes-du-Nord.  The  following  depart- 
lints  elect  three  senatoffl  each;  Loire-fnferieure 
loneet-Loire,  Ille-et-VilalDe,  Seineet-Oise' 
Isen-,  Puy-de-D6me,  Somme,  Uouches-ilu-Rhone' 
Aisiie,  Loire,  Blanche,  Malneet-Loire.  .Morliihan' 
Doniogne,  Haute-Garonne.  Charente-Iiiferieure' 
Calvados,  Sarthe,  Herault.  Basses-Pvrenees' 
Oaril.  Avevron,  Vendee,  Onie,  Oise',  "Vosgcs! 
Allier,  All  the  other  denanmcnts  elect  twu 
senators  each.  The  followmg  elect  one  senator 
each:  The  Territory  of  Belfort,  the  three  de- 
partments of  Algeria,  the  four  colonics  Marti- 
iiiiiuc,  Guadeloupe,  Reunion  and  the  Krench 
Indies,] 

[Art,  3,  No  one  can  be  senator  unless  he  is 
a  French  citizen,  forty  years  of  age  at  least,  and 
enjoying  civil  and  political  rights] 

[.\RT.  4,  The  senators  of  the  departments 
and  colonies  are  elected  bv  an  absolute  majoritv 
and  by  •  scrutin  de  liste',  fiy  a  college  meeting  at 
the  capital  of  the  department  or  colony  and 
composed:  (1)  of  the  deputies;  (2)  of  the  gViiernl 
councilors;  (3)  of  the  arrondissement  councihirs; 
(•I)  of  ilelegaleg  elected,  one  by  each  municipal 
council,  from  among  the  voters  of  the  com- 
mune. In  the  French  Indies  the  memliers  of 
the  colonial  council  or  of  the  local  councils  are 
substituted  for  the  general  councilors,  arrondisse- 
ment councilors  and  delegates  from  the  niun'i  i- 
pal  councils.  They  vote  at  the  capital  of  each 
district] 

[Art,  5.  Thi'  senators  chosen  bv  the  .\>sitn- 
hly  are  electeil  l)y  'scrutin  de  li-'i  '  luid  bv  an 
absolute  majority  of  votes  ] 

[Akt,  6,     The'  senators  of    tli 
and  colonies  are  elected  fur  t 
uewiiblo   by   thinis  everv   llir 
U'glnning  "of  the  rtrst  sessioii 
shall  1h'  divided  into  three  sen. 
eijual    number    of    senators  iiid,      .,   ,.„„„   „. 
determined  by  lot  wlii<  li  wries  shall  1k'  renewed 
at  the  expiration  of  the  lir.tt  and  ae'cond  triennial 
|)erli»ls.  ] 

[.\«t  7  The  senators  elected  by  the  .Vsseni- 
bly  an'  irremovable  Vacancies  by  death,  by 
n-slgnatlon,  or  for  any  other  reason,  shall,  within 
the  spiHV  of  two  months,  bo  tilled  by  the  Senate 
itself  J 
'  Amended  by  roBslllullniuU  law  of  Augmi  14    |nm 


•  partments 

"S  and  re- 

At  the 

jiartments 

::iining  an 

It   shall  b' 


•iw,Vrt..  3«ii(lll,l«wor  ■ 


r  of  July  la,  iw»,  infra. 


>  KrpHalpd  hf  ciniitltutlonal  law  of  June  Jl,  tSTD,  oi/m 

'  Bv  tli-  isiimiliu  .„n*l  law  of  AustKi  14,  ti»q.  11  mu 

pmrM^I  that  Arlli  les  I  10  r  nf  thia  law  nhmilil  n<.  hniii-r 

h»re«,..,ii.Mliil|..n»l  eharai'ter;  wd  they  w«c»  r«>(«led 

by  Uw  law  u(  Iwvraibw  V,  IHM,  mfru. 


569 


CONSTITUTION  OP  FRANCE. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  PRANCE 


r\: 


1%' 


Art.  8.  The  Senate  has,  coocurrently  with 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  the  initiative  and 
r^asing  of  l?ws.  Money  bills,  however,  must 
llist  be  introduced  in,  and  passed  by  tlie  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies. 

Art.  9.  The  Senate  may  l)c  constituted  a 
Court  of  Justice  to  jud^e  either  the  President  of 
the  Republic  or  the  Mmisters,  and  to  talie  cog- 
nizance of  attacks  made  upon  the  safety  of  tue 
State. 

Art.  10.     Elections  to  the  Senate  simll  take 

5 lace  one  month  before  the  time  fixeil  l)y  the 
National  Assembly  for  its  own  dissulutiou. 
The  8<'nate  sliull  organize  and  enter  u|>on  its 
duties  the  same  day  that  the  National  Asse'ubly 
is  dis.siil  red. 

Art  U.  The  present  law  shall  be  promul- 
gated only  after  the  passage  of  the  law  on  the 
public  powers.' 

1875.  Law  on  the  Relations  of  the  Public 
Powers.    July  >6. 

Article  1.  The  Senate  and  iLc  Chamber  of 
Deputies  shall  assemble  eaci'  year  the  second 
Tuesday  of  .lanuary.  unless  convened  earlier  by 
the  President  of  the  Republic.  The  two  Chani- 
bers  coutinue  in  sessicui  at  least  tlve  months 
each  year.  The  sessions  of  each  Itegiu  and  end 
at  the  Siime  time.  [On  the  Sumlay  following 
the  opening  of  the  session,  public  prayers  shall 
he  a(lilres.seil  to  0(h1  in  the  churches  and  tem- 
ples, to  invoke  His  aid  in  the  labors  of  the 
Chanil)ers. )' 

Akt.  ■.'  Tiie  President  of  the  Republic  pro- 
nounces the  closure  of  the  session.  He  may  con- 
vene the  t'li.imbers  in  extra  sesoion.  He  must 
convene  them  if,  di', mg  the  nrcss.  an  absolute 
majority  of  the  nienilH'rs  of  euili  ChamlKT  re- 
ijuest  it  Tlu'  President  may  adjcmru  the  C'liani- 
bt'rs.  The  adjournment,  liowi-ver,  must  not 
exceed  one  month,  nor  taki;  |>]:u.'e  more  than 
twire  in  llic  same  session. 

AiiT.  ;t  < )ne  month  at  least  Ixfon?  the  legal 
expiration  of  the  jniwers  of  tlie  Presiileut  of  ll 
Renulilir.  the  (hanilHTs  must  l>e  called  togctlii  1 
in  National  Assi'mbly  anil  priKwd  to  the  election 
of  a  new  President.  In  default  of  a  summons, 
this  meetini;  shall  take  place,  as  of  riirht.  the 
tifteenlli  ilay  l«fur>'  the  expiration  of  thosi' 
powei"s.  In  case  u'  tlu'  iliatli  or  nsignation  of 
tlie  President  of  ilie  Uepnlilie.  the  two  (liam- 
Ixrs  shall  n^at-si'mlile  iiiuneiliately,  as  of  right. 
Ill  eav  the  Ch.iinlier  of  Deputies.  In  eanse- 
c|Meiiee  of  Artieir  .  uf  the  law  of  Keliruary  'J.*!. 
IsT.'i,  is  dissolved  at  the  lime  when  tlii'  |m«i- 
cleui  >•  of  the  lieplllilie  Iweonies  vaealll.  the 
elei'tural  colleges  shall  1h*  convened  at  unee,  and 
the  Senate  shall  reii.s.s4'niltle  as  of  right. 

All!  4.  Every  meeting  of  either  of  the  two 
'.  Iiambers  whhh  shall  be  lulil  at  a  tiiiieotlur 
than  the  common  session  of  Imih  is  illegal  and 
void,  except  the  case  provided  for  ill  the  pre- 
ceding article,  anil  that  when  the  Senate  meets 
■B  a  court  of  justice;  and  in  this  last  case,  Juili- 
clal  duties  alone  shall  l)e  performed 

Art.  ,5.  The  sittings  of  the  SenaU^  and  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  are  public  Nevertheh'ss 
each  ChamlN'r  may  meet  in  secret  session,  upon 
the  requrat  of  a  Ilxe<l  number  of  its  memliers, 
detemiliictl  hv  the  ruli*  U  dwldr*  !>v  absnlutji 
majority  whether  the  sitting  sltsll  b«  returned  in 
public  upon  the  same  subject. 

■  <  >  ,  lh«  law  of  rebruarr  «.  lira,  fMpra 

•  IHiiialiil  bjr »«  ol  Au«iK  14.  IIM.  tn/m. 


Akt.  6.  The  President  of  the  Republic  coo 
mimicstes  with  the  Chambers  by  message 
which  are  read  from  the  tribune  by  a  Minisie 
The  Ministers  have  entrance  to  both  ClumlKr 
and  must  be  heard  when  they  ret^uest  it  The 
may  be  represented,  foi'  the  discussiuri  of 
specific  bill,  by  commissioners  desiguainl  h 
decree  of  the  President  of  the  Republic. 

Art.  T.  The  President  of  the  Republic  pn 
mulgates  the  laws  within  the  month  fnll.iwiu 
the  transmission  to  the  Government  of  tlie  la 
finally  passed.  He  must  promulgate,  with! 
three  days,  laws  whose  promulgaii  •  siiuH  liav 
tieen  declared  urgent  by  an  expre>  ' '  in  cac 
Chamber.  Within  the  time  fixed  1  iirniiiiilB 
tion  the  President  of  the  Republic  may.  by 
message  with  reasons  assigned,  reipii'st'iif  tli 
two  Chambers  a  new  discussion,  whieli  laniif 
be  refused. 

Art.  8.  The  President  of  the  Repulilie  hcik 
tiates  and  ratifies  tn-aties.  He  couiniuuiciti 
tliem  to  the  Chamliers  as  so<m  as  the  interests  an 
siifety  of  the  State  permit.  Tnalies  el  in-m 
and  of  commerce,  treaties  which  involve  n 
finances  of  the  State,  those  relating  to  tia'  pt-i 
sous  and  property  of  French  citizens  in  fnni^ 
countries,  shall  become  definitivi'  only  afti 
having  bw-n  voted  by  the  two  I'liainln  in  X 
cession,  no  exchange,  no  annexation  of  ti  iritor 
shall  take  place  excejit  by  virtue  of  a  law 

Art.  ».  The  Presideiit  of  the  Hipulilii  lai 
not  declare  war  except  by  the  previous  awut  0 
the  two  ChanilK'rs. 

Art.  10.  Each  Chamber  is  the  juiIl'o  uf  th 
eligibility  of  its  memlx'rs,  and  of  ilie  leitality.i 
their  election:  it  alone  can  receive  tlifir  resii 
iiatiim. 

Art.  11.  The  bureau  of  eaili  ('liariilur  i 
electeil  each  year  for  tlu'  entire  .sissimi.  muI  f.i 
every  extra  ses.sioii  which  iiiuy  be  hell  1m (or 
the  ordinary  sessiim  of  tin'  folluuin,-  jiar 
When  the  two  ChumlM'rs  meet  tu;;.!li.r  as 
National  Assembly,  their  biinaii  eiiii-i-t>ei  t!i 
President,  Vice-Presidents  and  .Seereto  i.  s  i,f  tli 
^^^'nate. 

Akt.  12.  The  President  of  the  liepiiWIi  nu] 
lie  impeached  by  llie  CiianilxT  of  Itepmii  -  niily 
and  tried  by  the  Senate  only.  The  Mmisiir 
may  Ik'  impeached  by  the  (haiiilHr  nf  1),  initii- 
for  olfeiicc's  conuiiilted  in  the  peril iriiiaiiic  n 
their  iliilies  In  this  ease  tliey  are  In.il  \<\  Ihi 
Snate.  Tin' Snate  may  be  <on>iiiiiinl  an'ur 
of  ,liistiee.  by  a  dieree  uf  the  l're^ir|l  ni  ,if  tin 
Hepnblie.  ixinil  in  tin' t '.nineii  "f  .^IilJl-Il■r^  i 
try  all  per>ons  aeeumd  of  attenipt^  ii|">m  tli. 
safi'ty  of  the  State.  If  priK'eiliire  i»  l.i  :.'uii  b; 
the  ordinary  ciairts,  the  deeni'  eoiiveiiiiu'  tb 
.Senate  ma'.  !»•  issued  anv  time  In'furr  the  t'raiii 
iug  of  a  ilisebarge.  A  law  shall  ileitnniuc  tl.' 
iiietliiMl  iif  proci'dure  for  the  uceusalinii.  ira 
auil  judgment.' 

Art.  13  No  member  of  either  I'luinilMrniial 
Ik*  prosecutefl  or  held  n'S|>i»nsible  on  ;ireuuiiti' 
any  opinions  expressed  or  votes  eu'.t  lo  liimi: 
the  (lerformauct'  of  his  duties. 

Art.  14  No  memlier  of  either  (liamlie 
shall,  during  the  st-ssion,  Ih'  pro*  1  uleil  er  ar 
ri'sted  for  anv  olTence  or  mlsileme^iaer.  cscfp 
ofi  the  iiitthiirfly  iif  the  ('hunils nif  »ljiih  lie  it  1 

'  The  iHlfMu  of  the  8«lutt<>  >i>ulitii  <if  «  |>r»Hii.lMil.  t<m 
Ttce-prMltlf^Dts.  Ill  aecivtarlfs  wid  tlire*-  .luwtl.'ii.  t" 
bunwinf  thKOuunbm'  nt  I>v|>uUk  U  iIm'  mIUc.  rinF 
that  tht>n«  an  dxht  acvrstartM  liist«ad  uf  sui 

>  riud  bj  law  at  iipril  tu.  imt. 


56U 


coNBTmrnoN  of  prance. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  PRANCE. 


member,  unless  he  be  caught  in  the  reir  set. 
The  detection  or  proeecution  of  a  member  of 
eitber  Chamber  is  suspended  for  the  session,  and 
(or  its  [tlie  Chamber's]  entire  term,  if  it  de- 
mands it 

1879.  Law  RerisinK  Article  o  of  the  Con* 
ititutional  Law  of  February  25, 1875.   Juneai. 

Article  9  of  the  constitutional  law  of  February 
25,  18715,  is  repealed. 

1884.  Law  Partially  Revising  the  Con- 
ititutional  Laws,  August  14. 

Article  1.  Paragraph  2  of  Article  5  of  the 
constitutional  law  of  February  25,  1875,  on  the 
OrganiZiition  of  the  Public  Powers,  is  amended 
as  follows:  "  In  that  case  the  electoral  colleges 
mfct  (or  new  elections  within  two  months,  and 
tbc  Chamber  within  the  ten  days  following  the 
close  of  the  elections." 

Art.  2.  To  Paragraph  3  of  Article  8  of  the 
aunc  law  of  February  25,  1875.  is  added  the  fol- 
lowing: "  The  Republican  form  of  the  Oovem- 
m»nt  cannot  be  made  the  bubject  of  a  proposed 
revision.  Members  of  families  that  have  reizned 
in  France  are  ineligible  to  the  presidency  of  the 
Rcpiilillc." 

.Vht.  3.  Articles  1  to  7  of  tlie  constitutional 
law  (if  February  24,  1875,  on  the  Organization 
of  till-  .Si'nate.  shall  no  longer  have  a  constitu- 
'iouiil  character.' 

AuT  4.     P:iragraph  3  of  Article  1  of  the  con- 

itituti il  ■  !«■  of  July  18,  187.'>,  on  the  Relation 

of  the  I'.ililic  Powers,  is  repealed. 

1875.  Law  on  the  Election  of  Senators. 
August  2. 

•Vhticle  1.  .\  decree  of  the  President  of  the 
Rcpiililic,  isKiied  at  least  six  weeks  in  advance, 
determines  the  day  for  the  elections  to  the 
ienate,  and  at  the  same  time  that  for  [the  choice 
of  ilelcgates  of  the  municipal  councils.  There 
must  1m'  an  interval  of  at  least  one  month  be- 
twiin  the  choice  of  delegates  and  the  election  of 
senatnrs. 

Art.  2.  Kacli  municipal  council  elects  one 
ilelepite.  Tlie  election  L  without  debate,  by 
tetret  liiillot,  and  by  an  alisolute  majority  of 
Tiites  .\ft<  r  two  ballots  a  plurality  is  sulllcu'ut. 
anil  in  ease  of  au  e(|Ualitr  uf  votes,  the  oldest  is 
Jrcliired  ile( ted.  If  tlie  Mayor  is  not  a  nienilH'r 
of  tlie  municipal  council,  he  presides,  hut  shall 
not  vote '  Hu  the  same  ilay  imd  in  the  same 
way  iin  iiltemale  is  elected,  who  takes  the  place 
oltliedi  leciite  in  case  of  refusal  or  inability  to 
•erve  '  The  choice  of  the  municipal  councils  slmll 
Dot  extend  to  a  deputy,  a  general  councilor,  or 
u  amiiidi'isi'nicnt  councilor'  .\11  communal 
fleetiirs.  Irii  liidinit  the  municipal  councilom.  are 
flijrihle  nillinut  illstinction. 

.\rt.  :1.  In  the  communes  when'  a  municipal 
fdnniiillee  exists,  the  delegate  and  alternate 
•hill!  1k'  eiioscu  by  the  old  council." 

Akt  4  If  the  delegate  was  not  present  at 
the  ele<'!i(in,  tile  .Mayor  shall  wr  to  it  that  he  is 
notilied  within  twenty-four  hours.  He  must 
transmit  to  the  Prefcc't,  within  Hve  days,  notice 
lit  Ills  III  I cptaiue.  Ill  case  of  refusal  or  silence, 
lie  is  n  [iliMiil  by  thi^  alternate,  who  is  then 
|il.iiid  upon  the  list  as  the  delegate  of  the  < 1- 

iuu;:i-  ' 

'  VdiI  ni«r  thrrrfnrv  hr  amrnilnl  hy  onllnarr  l(>Kiilii. 
Unn     SwIllfl«l»Mf  Il»,-Miil»T!l.  1*1,  1../™ 
'  Anii-ncli^  liy  Art  »,  law  ,,r  Divrmlur  11.  I(M,  infra 

Jw  An.  f  l«w  uj  Frlipuar.v  a<.  1K7».  «|,ru. 

■  »«»  Art.  «,  law  of  llvcembrr  »,  ISm,  in/ra 

3( 


Akt.  5.  The  official  report  of  the  election  of 
the  delegate  ard  alternate  is  transmitted  at  once 
to  the  I^refect ;  it  states  the  acceptance  or  refusal 
of  the  delegates  and  alternates,  as  well  as  the  pro- 
tests raised,  by  one  or  more  members  of  the 
municipal  council,  against  the  legality  of  the 
election.  A  copy  of  this  offlcial  report  is  posted 
on  the  door  of  the  town  hall.' 

Art.  6.  A  statement  of  the  results  of  the 
election  of  delegates  and  alternates  is  drawn  up 
within  a  week  by  the  Prefect;  this  is  given  to  all 
requesting  it,  and  may  be  copied  and  published. 
Every  elector  may,  at  the  bureaux  of  the  prefec- 
ture, obtain  information  and  a  copy  of  the  list, 
by  communes,  of  the  municipal  councilors  of  the 
department,  and,  at  the  bureaux  of  the  sub- 
prefectures  a  copy  of  the  list,  by  communes, 
of  the  municipal  councilors  of  the  arrondisse- 
ment. 

Art.  7.  Every  communal  elector  may,  within 
three  days,  address  directly  to  the  Prefect  a  pro- 
test against  the  legality  of  the  election.  If  the 
Prefect  doems  the  proceedings  illegal,  he  may 
request  thi.t  they  be  set  aside. 

Art.  8.  Protests  concerning  the  election  of 
the  delegate  or  alternate  arc  decided,  subject  to 
an  appeal  to  the  Council  of  State,  by  the  council 
of  the  prefecture,  and,  in  the  colonies,  by  the 
privy  council.  A  delegate  whose  election  is  an- 
nulled because  he  docs  not  satisfy  the  conditlon.s 
demanded  by  law,  or  on  account  of  informality, 
is  replaced  by  the  alternate.  In  case  the  elec- 
tion of  the  delegate  and  alternate  is  rendered 
void,  as  by  the  ri'fusal  or  death  of  lioth  after 
their  acceptance,  new  elections  are  held  by  the 
municipal  council  on  a  day  fixed  by  au  onler  of 
the  Prefect.' 

Akt.  9.  Eight  days,  at  the  latest,  tiefore  the 
election  of  senators,  the  Prefect,  and,  in  the  colo- 
nies, the  Director  of  the  Interior,  arranges  the 
list  of  the  electors  of  the  department  in  alplia- 
iK'tical  order.  The  list  is  communicated  to  all 
demanding  it,  and  may  lie  copied  and  published. 
No  elect^ir  has  more  than  one  vote. 

-Vrt.  10.  The  deputies,  the  memliers  of  the 
general  council,  or  of  the  arrondissemcnt  <  oun- 
cils,  who  have  been  announced  by  the  rcturniiij; 
committees,  but  whose  powers  have  nut  Imcu 
verified,  an'  enrolled  upon  the  list  of  electors 
and  are  allowed  to  vote. 

\m.  11.  In  each  of  the  three  departments  of 
Algeria  the  electoral  college  is  compose,!:  (1)  of 
the  deputies;  (2)  of  the  members  of  the  neneral 
councils,  of  French  citizenship;  (it)  of  <li legates 
( leeteil  by  the  French  memliers  of  each  muni- 
cipal council  from  among  the  communal  (lectors 
of  French  citizenship. 

Art,  12.  The  tiectoral  college  is  presided 
over  by  the  President  of  the  civil  tribunal  of  the 
capital  of  the  deiiartmint  or  colony.  The  Presi- 
dent  is  luwistecl  by  the  two  oldest  and  two 
youngest  electors  present  at  the  opcuing  of  the 
meeting.  The  bureau  thus  constituted  chmwes 
a  secretary  from  among  the  electors.  If  the 
l*resident  is  pri'veuted  [fnim  presiding]  his  place 
is  taken  by  the  Vice-Preslilent  [of  the  civil 
tribunal],  and,  in  his  alisence,  by  the  oldest 
jiittic: 

.\iiT  1:1,  The  bureau  ilivides  the  electors  in 
alphalietical  order  into  sections  of  at  leitst  one 
hundreil  voters  each.     It  aptHiints  the  President 

I  He*  Art  s.  l«i»  of  Dminbrr  »,  ism,  in/ra. 


501 


CONSTITUTION  OP  PRANCE. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  FRANCE. 


>} 


i  ' 


and  Inipectora  of  each  of  these  sections.  It 
decides  all  questions  and  contests  which  may 
arise  in  the  course  of  the  election,  without, 
however,  power  to  depart  from  the  decisions 
rendered  by  virtue  of  Article  8  of  the  present 
law. 

Art.  14.  The  first  ballot  begins  at  eight 
o'clock  ia  the  morning  and  closes  at  noon.  The 
second  begins  at  two  o'clock  and  closes  at  four 
o'clock.  The  third,  if  it  takes  place.  l)egins  at 
six  o'clr.rk  and  closes  at  eight  o'clock.  The 
results  i>f  the  biillotings  are  determined  by  the 
bun  an  and  announced  the  same  day  by  the 
President  of  the  electoral  college.' 

Abt.  15.  No  one  is  elected  senator  on  either 
of  the  first  two  ballot.s  unless  he  rtccives:  (1)  an 
absolute  majority  of  the  voU'S  cast ;  and  <i)  a 
number  of  votes  ('([ual  to  one-fourtli  of  the  total 
number  of  electors  registered.  On  the  third  bal- 
lot a  plurality  is  sulticient,  and,  in  case  of  an 
equality  of  votes,  the  oldest  is  elected. 

AuT.  16.  Political  meetings  for  the  nomina- 
tion of  senators  may  take  place  confonnahlv  to 
tlie  rules  laid  down" by  the  law  of  June  0,  18tl»' 
8ul)ject  to  the  following  conditions:  I.  Th'se 
meetings  may  Ik-  held  from  the  date  of  the  elec- 
tion of  delegates  up  to  the  <Iay  of  the  election  [of 
senators]  inclusive;  II.  They  must  be  preceded 
by  a  declaration  made,  at  latest,  the  evening 
iK'fore,  by  seven  senatorial  electors  of  the  arron- 
tlissement,  and  indicating  the  place,  tlie  day  and 
the  hour  the  meeting  is  to  take  place,  and  the 
names,  occupation  and  n-sidence  of  the  candi- 
dates to  be  presented;  III.  The  muniiipal 
authorises  will  see  to  it  that  no  one  is  admitted 
to  the  niei'ting  unless  he  is  a  deputy,  gem-ral 
ciiun(  ilor,  arr(indis.<U'Mu'nt  councilor,  delegate  or 
cauiliilnte.  The  di'legiile  will  present,  as  a 
means  of  idintitirutinn,  a  certificate  from  tlie 
Mayor  of  bis  ccminiune.  the  candidate  a  certifi- 
cate from  the  otlicial  who  shall  liave  received  the 
deilaratiiin  mentioned  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph.' 

Aht.  17.  Delegates  who  take  part  in  all  the 
ballotings  sliall.  if  llicy  dcniiind  it,  receive  from 
tlie  State,  upon  tlie  preseiilalion  of  tlirlr  lellir  iif 
summons,  countersigned  In  the  President  of  the 
elecloral  college,  a  remuneration  for  traveling 
e.viKUses.  which  shall  be' paid  to  them  upon  the 
Kinie  basis  and  ill  the  siune  manner  as  that  given 
til  jurors  bv  Articles  3."),  DO  anil  iolloninL'.  of  lln' 
diirie  of  .lune  1*<,  IHU,  A  pulilic  administra- 
tive regulation  shall  ilelermini'  the  mithiiil  of 
li.vin^  the  amount  and  the  metlio<l  of  pavment 
of  lliis  reniuniratiiin.' 

\UT.  18.  Eviry  ihlegate  who.  without  law- 
ful reason,  shall  not  laki'  iiart  in  all  llie  hal- 
Icllii-s.  or,  having  beei.  hindeicd,  sli.ili  ml  have 
given  notice  to  the  alteniate  in  siitllricnl  season, 
sliall.  upon  the  deinand  i.f  the  puhli.-  prcisrciilnr. 
I'l'  imnlshed  by  a  fiiii'  of  fifty  Irani  s  by  the  civil 
IrilMinal  of  the  capilal.'  The  same  pc'nally  may 
lu-  inipiisi'd  upon  the  atternate  h  ho.  aflir  liaviuir 

bi- tilii'd  by  Ii'Iter.  telegram,  or  milici  per- 

sniially  ih  livend  in  due  st'ason,  shall  not   have 
takrn  part  in  the  elntion. 

Am.  III.  Kvery  altinipt  at  corruptiim  by  th.' 
enip|iiyni(  nt  I'f  means  enunienited  in  Articles 
177  ami   fiilliiuini.-,  nf  iln.  I'l  naj  C.Kle.  to  infiu- 


I*     ' 


•  S...  .\rt   ".  t'..v..f  Iit.i'.riil.fr  It.  IsKi 
»  'IliiH  Ui«   Uah  1h...|i  Mii.«'i-s^lt.il  U\   A  I 

l«si , 
'  I>«>n.'  I.y  iLvDH-  i.f  Ittn-fuitier  'J»I.  isr5. 

•  t*f  thi' Ut'iiartiuui^t 


II  r'r,7 

i  law  uf  June  Sn, 


>Ia 


ence  the  vote  of  an  elector,  or  to  keep  him  ft 
voting,  shall  be  punished  by  imprisonmeot 
from  three  months  to  two  years,  and  a  fine 
from  fifty  to  five  hundred  francs,  or  hv  one 
these  two  penalties  alone.  Article  4a^  of 
Penal  C<xlc  shall  apply  to  the  penalties  impo 
by  the  present  article.' 

Aht.  so.  It  is  incompatible  for  a  spn.itnr 
be:  I.  Councilor  of  State,  Maitre  de  licmSi 
Prefect  or  Sub-Prefect,  except  Prefect  of 
Seine  and  Prefect  of  Police;  II  Menilierofi 
couru  of  appeal  ("apiH-l,")'  or  of  the  tribuo 
of  first  instance,  except  public  prosi'cut.ir  at ! 
court  of  Paris;  III.  General  Pavniast< r.  Sp^ 
Receiver,  official  or  employe  of  the  ivnirali 
ministration  of  the  ministries. 

Art.  21.  The  following  shall  not  lie  tlwi 
by  the  department  or  the  colony  ineludiil  who 
or  partially  in  their  jurisdiction,  during  tin-  n 
else  of  their  duties  and  during  the  six  inoni 
following  the  cessation  of  their  duties  Iir  n-s 
nation,  dismissal,  change  of  residenei-.  uV  jtl 
cause;  I.  The  First  Presidents,  PreM.liuts,  a 
members  of  the  courts  of  appeal  Capiiel 
The  Presidents,  Vice-Presidents,  E.vaniinini; 
istrates.  and  members  of  the  tribunals  ,  f  tii 
instance;  III.  The  Prefect  of  Polid-;  I'r.fH 
and  Sub-Prefects,  and  Prefectorial  (Jiik ral St 
retaries ;  the  Governors,  Directors  of  ilu-  Innrii 
and  General  Secretaries  of  the  (uloniis;  I 
The  Clilef  Arrondissement  Engineers  ami  (.'hi 
Arrondissement  Hoad-Surveyors;  V.  Tin  s,i« 
Iteetors  and  Inspectors;  VI.  The  PriniarvNh 
Inspectors;  VII.  The  Archbisho|K.  lii-lnp,  ai 
Vicars  General;  VIII.  The  ollieers  of  all  >rr;«l 
of  the  land  and  naval  force;  IX.  Tin- Ilivi-i, 
Commissaries  and  the  Military  Depiitv  (..iim,! 
saries;  X.  The  General  Paynlastirs  aiii  ^|<•^i 
Heceive-s  of  Money;  XI."  The  Su|i.iviv,r« 
Direct  and  Indirect  Ta.xes,  of  Hi  iri^tniiion 
Lands  and  of  Posts;  XII.  The  Guariliaus  ai 
Inspecttirs  of  Forests. 

Art.  22.  A  si'iiator  j'lected  in  sivi  ral  ili|iai 
nients,  must  ht  his  choice  beknimii  i.  iln  Pro 
dent  of  the  senate  within  ten  ilavs  f..lln\iiiii;  tl 
verifleathin  of  the  elections.  If  a  il,..i,v  i,ii, 
maile  in  this  time,  tlie  quisiiun  is  seitliil  la  I 
in  open  session.  The  vac;inrv  sh.ill  !«•  tlj 
within  one  month  and  by  the  .sinie  elwi.r 
Ixxly.  The  .same  holds  true  in  cav  if  an  ii 
validated  election. 

Art.  23.  If  by  death  or  resignalimi  llu'  iiuu 
Ix'r  of  si'uators  o"f  a  departnanl  i»  riiliini!  1' 
one  half,  the  vacancies  shall  In  lillnl  within  ll 
space  of  three  months.  unli-.s>  lla-  vuanrii 
occur  within  the  twelve  ni.uitlis  pn niliu;  111 
triennial  elections.  At  the  liriu-  li\i.l  f-r  it 
triennial  elections,  all  vacamii  s  >\iM  Ik  t;:ii 
which  have  (xcurred.  whatcvir  tluir  iiuiiilii 
and  date  ' 

fAuT,  24.  Theelection  of  >ciiat.'r-ilii'>.i;!i 
the  National  .\ss..|iililv  takes  plan  in  puhli 
hitting,  by  •'scrutjn  de'll-ii ."  ami  bv  .■m  al'viut 
majority  of  votes,  «h.-ilever  tin  nuialii-r  ■•!  W 
lotings. 

AiiT.  2.'5.  When  it  is  nice^-:in  i"  ilnt  >u( 
cessors  of  senators  chosen  by  \iriiii  ol  .\m]t 
of  the  law  of  Keliniary  24,  1x71.  Ilie  N  imtt  pTC 

'  S*-»-  .^Hh-ir-  ^.  law  ■■:  i i'i,'(-nihi.r  ■.-.  i-'-i        --: 
•  Krane*.  is  illvldnl  luui  tneiilvntx  ju.li.ml  .Iwlrii-IM' 
Maeli  ill  w  lileh  th"r»*  Is  h  iiiiir  il''Mt>ti**t     Tlt.-r..  nrr  •ii'.ilii 

e.iurti*  ill  ,\lKeha  nnil  tln»  eo(iiiiii«»     Tli ir -tf  i  a^w 

(I'lll    IN    the    Hlllirel! lurt    lit    apiieal    !    i     .lU    t'nux 

Algeria  oud  llie  culuules. 


f)Cl 


coNSTrnmoN  of  france. 


CONSTITCTION  OF  FRANCE. 


fiti.  In  the  iuuuier  indicated  In  the  preceding 

Art.  26.  Members  of  tlie  Senate  receive  the 
nme  salary  as  members  of  the  Cliamber  of 
Deputies.'  

Art.  37.  There  are  applicable  to  elections  to 
the  Senate  all  the  provisions  of  the  electoral  law 
lelatin/r:  I.  to  cases  of  unworthiness  and  in- 
capiicitv ;  11.  to  offences,  prosecutions,  and  pen- 
slties ;  ill-  to  election  proceedings,  in  all  respects 
not  lontrar)'  to  the  provisions  of  the  present  law. 

TemporaiT  Proriaioni. 
;  Art.  '2S.  For  the  first  election  of  members  of 
the  Senate,  the  law  which  shall  determine  the 
date  of  the  dissolution  of  the  National  Assembly 
shall  flu.  without  regard  to  the  intervals  estab- 
lishiil  bv  Article  1,  the  date  on  which  the 
Biunicijiil  councils  shall  meet  for  the  election  of 
delegati-s  and  the  day  for  the  election  of  Sena- 
tots.  Before  the  meeting  of  the  mimicipal 
councils,  the  National  Assembly  shall  proceed  to 
the  election  of  those  Senators  whom  it  is  to 

Art.  29.  The  provisions  of  Article  21.  by 
vhu'h  an  interval  of  six  montus  must  elapse 
tetwoen  the  cessation  of  duties  and  election, 
shall  not  apply  to  otUcials.  except  Prefects  and 
Sub-Prefects,  whose  duties  shall  have  ceased 
either  before  the  promulgation  of  the  present 
law  or  within  twenty  days  following. 

1875.  ^*^  °°  *'"  Election  of  Deputies.' 
November  3a 

Article  1.  The  deputies  shall  \>e  chosen  by  the 
voters  registered ;  I.  upon  the  lists  drawn  up  in 
acconlancf  with  the  law  of  July  T,  1874;  II. 
upon  the  supplementary  list  including  those  who 
have  lived  in  the  commune  six  niontlis.  Regis- 
tration upon  tlic  supplementary  list  shall  take 
place  eonfomiablv  to  the  laws  "and  regulations 
now  governing  the  political  electoral  lists,  by 
the  committees  and  acconling  to  the  forms 
established  by  Articles  1,  2  and  3  of  the  law  of 
July  7.  1!<T4. "  Appeals  relating  to  the  formation 
and  revision  of  either  list  shall  l)e  carried 
directly  Infore  the  I'lvil  Chamber  of  the  Court  of 
Appeal  ("  Cussalion").  The  electoral  lists  drawn 
up  March  31,  Wl^,  shall  serve  until  March  31, 

.\rt.  2.  The  soldiers  of'  all  ranks  and  grades, 
of  Ikith  the  land  and  naval  fonea.  shall  not  vote 
whin  Iliey  are  with  their  regiment,  at  laeir  post 
or  on  duty.  Those  wao,  on  election  day.  arc  in 
private  resilience,  in  non-activity  or  in  possi'ssion 
of  a  n'lrular  leave  of  absence,  may  vote  in  tiie 
commune  on  llie  lists  of  which  tliev  are  duly 
ivilistereil.  This  last  pmvislon  applies  equnlly 
to  ortleers  on  the  unattachc.l  list  or  nn  tuc  re- 
siTve  list, 

-Vm  3  During  the  electoral  peril"!,  cinnilars 
hiA  (ilatfonns  ( ' ■  pn)f ession.s  do  fid  "1  signed  by 
ihi  eandidales,  placards  and  nmnifcstiH-s  signed 
by  one  or  more  voters,  may,  after  iH'iug  deposited 
^itli  the  public  p.Tiseculor,  be  posted  antl  dis- 
triliuiiil  without  previoup  authorization.  Tin' 
di.strilniiii.ii  of  ballots  is  not  subjected  to  this 
diln■^it '  Kvery  publicor  municipiilotlicinlisfor- 
l'ilu.  11  1.1  distribute  ballots,  platfonns  and  circii- 

'  Anti-Im  '.'Ituid  JS  reiii'alml  by  law  of  Deceuitjer  9, 


'  N-  -Vrii.l,-  :r.  law  of  Novenilier  *>.  IWS.  infrn 

•  V-    r„rr„.  til.-  laws  c.f  June  lU,  1*5,  and  Fiibnmrj-  IS, 
!■*■ '  .Tifii.lMiir  till-  t.!f<'l4>rftl  law. 

*  Si.  [i,.«,.vt>r.  a  UiM  of  lH>ceuber  80,  It*Ttt,  bjr  which 


Ian  of  candidates.  The  proTisions  of  Article  1( 
of  the  organic  law  of  August  3,  18TS,  on  the 
elections  of  Senators,  shall  apply  to  the  elections 
of  deputies. 

Art.  4.  Balloting  shall  continue  one  day 
only.  The  voting  occurs  at  the  chief  place  of 
the  commune ;  each  commune  may  nevertheless 
be  divided,  by  order  of  the  Prefect,  into  as  many 
sections  as  may  be  demanded  by  local  cir- 
cumstances and  the  number  of  voters.  The 
second  ballot  shall  take  place  the  second  Sunday 
following  the  announcement  of  the  first  ballot, 
according  to  the  provisions  of  Article  65,  of  the 
law  of  March  15,  1840. 

Art.  5.  The  method  of  voting  shall  be  ac- 
cording to  the  provisions  of  the  organic  and 
regulating  decrees  of  February  2,  1852.  The 
ballot  is  secret.  The  voting  lists  used  at  the 
elections  in  each  section,  signed  jy  the  President 
and  Secretarv,  shall  remain  deposited  for  eight 
days  at  the  Secretary's  otlice  at  the  town  hall, 
wliere  they  shall  be  communicated  to  every 
voter  requesting  them. 

Art.  6.  Every  voter  is  eligible,  without  any 
tax  qualiflcation,"at  the  age  of  twenty-five  years. 

Art.  7.  No  soldier  or  sailor  forming  part  of 
the  active  forees  of  land  or  sea  may,  whatever 
his  rank  or  position,  be  elected  a  member  of  the 
ChamlK'r  of  Deputies.  This  provision  applies  to 
soldiers  and  sailors  on  the  unattached  list  or  in 
non-activity,  but  does  not  extend  to  ofticers  of 
the  second  Wt ion  of  the  list  of  the  general  staff, 
"or  to  those  who,  kept  in  the  first  section  for 
having  been  commander-in-chief  in  tlie  field, 
have  ceaseil  to  be  employed  actively,  nor  to  offi- 
cers who,  having  privileges  acquiii>d  on  the  re- 
tireil  list,  are  sent  to  or  maintained  at  their  homes 
while  awaiting  the  settlement  of  their  pension. 
The  liccision  by  which  the  olticer  shall  have  been 
permitted  to  establish  his  rights  on  the  retired 
list  shall  t)ecome,  in  this  case,  irrevocable.  The 
rule  laid  down  in  the  first  paragraph  of  the 
present  Article  shall  not  apply  to  the  reserve  of 
the  active  army  nor  to  the  territorial  army. 

Art.  8.  Tlie  exercise  of  public  duties  paid 
out  of  the  treasury  of  the  State  is  incompatible 
with  the  ollice  of  deputy.  Consequentlv  evetj 
ollieiul  elected  lieputy  shall  be  superstnle^  in  his 
duties  if,  within  the  eight  days  following  the 
veritlcatiou  of  powers,  he  has  not  signified  that 
be  diM's  not  accept  the  oltiie  of  deputy.  There 
are  excepti'il  from  the  |preci'iling  provisions  the 
duties  of  Minister.  Tncier  Secretary  of  State, 
Amlmssador.  Minister  l*leni|>ot('iitiary.  Prefect  of 
the  Seine,  Pre  fed  of  Police.  First  Pnsident  of 
the  Court  of  Appeal  t  "cassation.")  First  Presi- 
dent of  the  Court  of  .\icouiil».  First  Pnsident  of 
the  Court  of  Appeal  i'a|ipel  ")  of  Paris,  .\ttorney 
tJencml  at  the  Court  of  .^|i|ieal  ("  c:i.ssation.")  Xt- 
tornev  (tei,  ral  at  llie  Court  of  .Vocounts,  .\ttomey 
General  lit  tlii'Cipurt  of  .VppeaU  "appid")of  Paris, 
.\relibisliop  ai\d  ^i^llllp.  Consistorial  Presiding 
Pastor  ill  consisiorial  di>lrii'ts  whose  capital  has 
two  iir  more  paMors.  (  hiif  liabbi  of  the  Central 
icuisistorv.  Cliiifliahlii  of  the  Consistory  of  Paris. 
.\iiT  !•  Till  re  are  also  excepted  fmni  the 
prnvi>i.iiis  of  .\rticK'  8:  I.  titular  professors  of 
eliairs  wliieli  are  tilled  bv  competition  or  upon  the 
uotuiniitif'U  'if  tiio  IwmIIc.*  whi-ro  the  vaejincy  oc- 
curs; II.  persons  who  have  been  charged  with  a 
teinpor.iry  mission.  All  missions  continuing 
more  tliuii  six  nionllis  ci-ase  lo  lie  temporary  sna 
a-e  governed  by  Article  8  above. 


503 


•I 


I.  i 


CONSTITUTION  OF  FRANCE. 

Art.  10.  The  official  prewrrpg  the  rights 
which  he  hu  acquired  to  a  retiring  prngidn,  and 
may,  after  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office,  be 
restored  to  active  service.  The  civil  official  who, 
having  had  twenty  years  of  service  at  the  date  of 
the  acceptance  of  the  office  of  denutv,  and  shall 
be  fifty  years  of  age  at  the  time  of  the  expiration 
of  this  term  of  office,  may  establish  his  righu  to 
an  exceptional  retiring  pension.  This  pension 
shall  he  regulated  acconline  to  the  thini  Para- 
graph of  .\rticle  12  of  the  law  of  June  9.  18.W. 
If  the  official  is  restored  to  active  s<rvice  aft-r 
the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office,  the  provisions 
of  Article  3,  Paragraph  2.  an<i  Article  28  of  the 
law  of  June  9.  1853.  eliall  apply  to  him.  In 
duties  where  the  ninlt  is  distinct  from  the  em- 
ployment, the  official,  by  the  acceptance  of  the 
office  of  deputy,  loaeg  the  emplovment  and  pre'- 
serves  the  rank  only. 

Akt.  11.  Every  deputy  appointed  or  pro- 
moted to  a  salaried  public  position  ceases  to 
belong  to  the  Chamber  by  the  very  fact  or"  his 
acieptancc;  but  he  may  lie  re-elccteil.  if  the  office 
which  he  occupies  is  compatible  with  the  ollicc 
of  deputy.  Deputies  who  become  Ministers  or 
Under  Secretaries  of  State  arc  not  subjected  to  a 
re-election. 

Akt.  13.  There  shall  not  be  elected  bv  the 
arrondissement  or  the  colony  included  wiiolly  or 
partially  in  their  jurisdiction,  during  the  exercise 
of  their  duties  or  for  six  months  follnwing  the 
expiration  of  their  duties  due  to  resignation,  dis- 
mis.s.il,  change  of  resilience,  or  anv  other  cause: 
I.  The  First-Presidents,  Presidents,  anil  mem- 
bers of  the  Courts  of  .Vppeal  (•appil '):  II.  The 
Presidents,  Vice- Presidents,  Titiii;ir  ,T(i(li:es,  Ex- 
amining .Miigi.sirates,  imd  memlHTs  of  the  tribu- 
nals of  first  instance;  III.  The  Prefect  of  Police; 
I  lie  Prefects  and  General  Secretaries  of  the 
I'rifeituris;  the  Govemrrs,  DInctors  of  the  In- 
tiTiiir.  and  (TeikTuI  Si  eretaries  of  the  Colonies; 
IV.  The  Cliiif  .\rronillssenieiit  Engineers  and 
Chief  .Vrronilissenient  Uoai I  Surveyors;  V 
The  SehiHil  Heiinrs  iuid  Inspectors;  VI  Tlie 
Primary  Sihiml  Inspectors;  VII.  The  .Vnh- 
bishops,  Risli,  ,,s.iui.l  Vicars  General;  VIII.  The 
General  Priymasters  and  Special  Uecelvirs  of 
-Moriev;  I.X.  The  Supervisors  of  Hireet  aud  Indi- 
rect Taxes,  of  Kegistnition  of  Lands,  and  of 
Posts;  X.  The  Guardians  and  Inspectors  of  For- 
ests. The  Sub-Prefects  shall  not  Ir>  elected  in 
any  of  the  arrondissenients  nf  the  department 
when-  they  perform  their  duties. 

.\HT.  13.     Every  imperative  ni;iniiiite  is   null 
and  Void. 

.\nT.  14.  .Memt)ers  of  the  Chamlxr  of  Deputies 
are  elected  by  sinirlc  illstriits.  Each  administra- 
tive arrondissem.iit  shall  elect  one  ileputv.  Ar- 
ronilisMinents  having  more  than  KKl.iioo  i'nliaMf- 
ants  shall  elect  one  deputy  in  addition  for  everv 
additional  lUU.tKK)  inhabitants  or  fnutlon  of 
KXI.IHKI.  .\mm(liss»'meni8of  this  kind  shall  Ih" 
divided  into  districts  whose  iHiundaries  shall  1h' es- 
tablished liy  law  and  mav  Ixehiuiired  nniv  by  law. 
Art.  1.5,  Deputies  shall  Ik-  chosen  for  four 
years.     The  ClianilKr  is  renewable  integrally. 

AllT.  16.  In  ease  of  vacancy  by  death  resig- 
nation, or  otherwisi'.  a  new  election  shall  U-  held 
within  three  months  of  the  date  when  the 
VaeaiKV  imurriil.  In  e;iM.  „f  option,'  the 
T»caacy  shall  be  fllUd  within  one  month. 
■tore  diitTicu  *  ''''""^  '^  ■*"■  el«t«<l  from  two  <.r 


CONSTITUTION  OP  FRANCE. 

Akt.  17.  The  deputiei  shall  receive  a  soj. 
This  salanr  is  regulated  by  Articles  96  ami  a 
the  law  of  March  15,  1849,  and  by  the  .m.vi.i 
of  the  law  of  February  16.  1872. 

Art.  18.  No  one  ia  elected  on  the  first  ha 
unless  he  receives:  (1)  an  absolute  maii.riiv 
the  votes  cast;  (8)  a  number  of  votes  cm,;, 
one-fourth  of  the  number  of  voters  rcfi.itci 
On  the  second  ballot  a  plurality  is  sufflelent 
case  of  an  equality  of  votes,  the  oldest  is 
clared  elected. 

Art.  19.  Each  department  of  Algeria  eli 
one  deputy. 

Art.  20"  The  voters  living  in  Almria  ii 
place  not  yet  Made  a  commune,  shall  lien'. 
tered  on  the  e  ectoral  list  of  the  nearest  ce 
mune.  When  ii  is  necessary  to esubllsb  elMio 
districta,  either  for  the  purpose  of  grnupi 
mixed  commutes  in  each  of  which  the  niim' 
of  voters  sha!i  lie  insufficient,  or  to  bring  toL-pil 
voters  living  in  places  not  formed  into  commui 
the  decrees  for  fixing  the  scat  of  tliese  liistri 
shall  be  issued  by  the  Oovemor-General  ur 
the  report  of  the  Prefect  or  of  the  General  co 
manding  the  division. 

Art.  21.  The  four  colonies  to  which  km 
h.-ive  been  assigned  by  the  law  of  Kebnian- : 
1875,  on  the  organization  of  the  Senate,  Vh 
choose  one  deputy  each. 

Art.  22.  Every  violation  of  the  proliiliti 
provisions  of  Article  3,  Paragraph  3,  cif  i 
present  law  shall  be  punished  tiv  a  tine  of  fn 
sixteen  francs  to  three  hundred  frines.  Xfvc 
theless  the  criminal  courts  mav  ajiply  .\rtit 
483  of  the  Penal  CchIc.  The  provisii.ns  nf  \r 
cle  6  of  the  law  of  July  7,  1874,  shall  anpi,- 
the  political  electoral  lists.  The  deene  nf  .Ia"n 
ary  29,  1871,  and  the  laws  of  April  10  i^: 
Jlay  2,  1871.  and  February  J8,  1873  arr  r 
pealed.  Paragraph  U  of  Article  1,5  ,.f  ii 
organic  decree  of  February  2,  18.5;'.  is  alsn  r 
pealed,  in  so  far  as  it  refers  to  the  law  nf  .May  ■-' 
1836,  on  lotteries,  reserving,  linwevcr.  to'  tl 
courts  the  right  to  apply  to  conviiiiil  p,ri,i 
Article  42  of  the  Penal  Ctnle.  The  prnvlsioc- , 
the  laws  and  decrees  now  in  foree,  viith  »lm 
the  present  law  does  not  conflict,  shall  inntici: 
to  tie  applied. 

Art.  23.  The  provision  of  Article  Ii  if  ;t 
present  law  by  which  an  interval  of  six  m.  :i!l 
must  elapw  lietween  the  expiration  of  ilutiis  m 
chrtion,  sliall  not  apply  to  officials,  cvnpt  lYi 
fects  and  Sub-Prefects." whose  duties  .shall  liav 
ceasc'd  either  before  the  promiilgatinn  if  t 
present  law  or  within  the  twenty  ilavs  M;  •« 
Ing  it. 

1879,  Law  Relating  to  the  Seat  of  th 
Executive  Power  and  of  the  Chambers  a 
Paris,    July  2». 

AiiTict.E  1.  The  seat  of  the  Exerullve  r.wf 
and  of  the  two  Chambers  is  at  Paris. 

Art.  2.  The  Palace  of  the  I.u.vi  mhuri-  an. 
the  Palais-Bourbon  are  assigned,  the  first  t.i  ila 
use  of  the  Senate,  the  eeciuid  to  that  of  tl;i 
Cliamberof  Deputies.  Nevertheless  eaih  if  tlii 
ChamlK'rs  is  authorl/.ed  to  choose,  in  llu'  eiivil 
Paris,  the  palace  which  it  wishes  tniKiiipr  ' 

Art.  3.  The  variousparfsof  the  palani'ifVif 
sallies  now  occupied  by  the  Si.nali'  iitiil  Chanilii 
of  Deputies  preserve  theirarrangenienis  \Vii.:i 
ever,  according  to  Articles  7  and  H  nf  the  law  I 
February  2.j,  1875,  on  the  orgnni/niinn  nf  ik 
public  iiowers,  a  meeting  of  the  National  Asmih- 


GG4 


CONSTITUTION  OP  FRANCE. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  nUNCE. 


blj  Ui  es  place,  it  «ball  sit  at  Venailles,  in  the 
nretent  ball  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
Wbenever,  according  to  Article  9  of  the  law  of 
February  24,  1875,  on  the  organization  of  the 
Senate,  and  Article  12  of  the  constitutional  law 
of  July  16,  187.5,  on  the  relations  of  the  public 
powers,  the  Senate  shall  be  called  upon  to  con- 
stitute itself  a  Court  of  Justice,  it  shall  indicate 
the  town  and  place  where  it  proposes  to  sit. 

Art.  4.  The  Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies 
will  sit  at  Paris  on  and  after  November  3  next. 

Art.  a.  The  Presidents  of  the  Senate  and 
Chamber  of  Deputies  are  charged  with  the  duty 
of  securing  the  external  and  inter  'oty  of 

the  Chambers  over  which  thev  pres  o  this 

end  the/  have  the  right  to  call  upon  the  armed 
force  arid  every  authority  whose  assistance  thev 
judge  necessary.  The  demands  may  be  ad- 
dreswd  directly  to  all  officers,  commanders,  or 
officials,  who  are  bound  to  oliey  immediately, 
onder  the  penalties  established  by  the  law's. 
The  Presidents  of  th;  Senate  and  Chamber  of 
Deputies  may  delegate  to  the  questors  or  to  one 
of  them  their  ri^ht  of  demanding  aid. 

Art.  6.  Petitions  'o  either  of  the  Chambers 
c«D  be  made  and  prf  ^ted  in  writing  only.  It  is 
forbidden  to  presen     nem  in  person  or  at  the  bar. 

.\RT.  7.  Every  lolatioi;  of  the  preceding 
srtiile.  every  provocation,  by  spc'cches  uttered 
publicly,  or  by  writings,  or  printed  matter, 
p<«t<.'d  or  distributed,  to  a  crowd  upon  thi  iiiblic 
»ay9,  hanug  for  an  object  the  discussion,  drr.w- 
ing'  up,  or  carrying  to  the  Chambers  or  either  of 
them,  of  petitions,  declnrations,  or  addressi's — 
whether  or  not  any  results  follow  such  action  — 
shall  be  puni8he<l  by  the  penalties  enumerate<l 
in  Paragraph  1  of  Article  5  of  the  law  of  June 
7,184s. 

Art.  8.  The  preceding  provisions  do  not 
diminish  the  force  of  the  law  of  June  7,  1848,  on 
riotous  assemblies. 

Art  !*.  Article  463  of  the  Penal  Code  applies 
to  thi'  cffences  mentioned  in  the  pn'sent  l,»w. 

18&4.  Law  Amending;  the  Organic  Law* 
)n  th-  Organization  of  the  Senate  and  the 
Elect.jns  of  Senators.    December  9. 

Artk  i.K  1.  The  t*enate  consists  of  three  hun- 
dred meniliers.  elected  by  the  departments  and 
the  ocilnnies.  The  present  memlHrs.  without 
iny  dii-Iinction  U'twcen  senators  elected  by  the 
Natimial  Assembly  or  the  Si'nate  and  "those 
elfttiii  by  the  departments  and  colonies,  main- 
tain their  term  of  office  during  the  time  for 
whiili  tluy  have  t)een  chose'U. 

•UiT.  e.  The  department  of  the  Seine  elects 
ten  wnalors.  The  department  of  the  Xord  elects 
?iEht  senators.  The  following  departments  elect 
liie  Hiiators  each:  C6te»-du-Nord.  Finistt-re'. 
Gimnile,  llle-et-Vilaine.  I^iire-,  Liiiri'-Inferieure. 
Pii.<  lie  lalais,  Rhone,  daone-et-Loire,  Seine-lu- 
feriiiire.  The  following  departments  elect  four 
lenatcrseach:  Aisne.  liouches-du-Rhone,  Char- 
ente  •  Inferieiire.  Dordogne,  Haute  -  GaMnne, 
Isere,  -Maine-et-Loire.  Manche,  Morbihan,  Puy- 
de  Dome,  Sine-et-Oise,  Somme,  The  following 
depannunts  elect  three  senators  each:  Ain, 
Allitr,  .^rdeche,  Ardennes,  Aube,  Aude,  Avev- 
ron.  Calvados,  Charente,  Cher,  Corrize,  Corse, 
(■""■  d'Or.  Creusi-.  Dnuhs,  DrAme,  Eure.  E-ir--- 
ft  L<iir,  Oanl,  Gers,  Herault.  Indre.  Imireet- 
piire.  Jura.  Undes.  Loiret-Cher,  Haute  Loin, 
I^iret.  Ix)t,  Lot  et- Garonne.  Manie.  Haute-Mame, 
Mayenne,   Meurthe-et-Moselle,   Meuse,    Niivre, 


Oise,Ome,Baaie»-Pyr«n&g,  Haute-8a6ne,  Sarthe, 
Savole,  Haute-Savoie,  Seine-et-Mame,  Deux- 
Sivres,  Tarn,  Var,  Vendfe,  Viennc.  Haute- 
Vienne,  Vosges,  Yonne.  The  following  depart- 
ments elect  two  senators  each:  Basses- Alpes, 
Hautes-Alpes,  Alpes-Maritimes,  Aiiige,  Cantal, 
Lozire,  Hautes-Pyren^es,  Prr^nees-Orientoles, 
Tam-et-Oaronne,  Vancluse.  "The  following  elect 
one  senator  each :  the  Territory  of  Belfort,  the 
three  departments  of  Algeria,  the  four  colonies: 
Martinique,  Guadeloupe,  Reunion  and  French 
Indies. 

Art.  3.  In  the  depariments  where  the  num- 
ber of  senators  is  increased  by  the  present  law, 
the  increase  shall  take  effect  aa  vacancies  occur 
among  the  life  senators.  To  this  end,  within 
eight  days  after  the  vacancy  occurs,  it  shall  be 
determined  by  lot  what  department  shall  be 
called  upon  to  elect  a  senator.  This  election 
shall  take  place  within  three  months  of  the  de- 
termination by  lot.  Furthermore,  if  the  vacancy 
occurs  within  six  months  preceding  the  triennial 
election,  the  vacancy  shall  be  tilled  at  that 
election.  The  term  of  office  in  this  case  shall 
expire  at  the  same  time  as  that  of  the  other 
senat'.fs  belonging  to  the  same  department. 

art.  4.  No  one  shall  be  a  senator  unless  he 
is  a  French  citizen,  forty  years  of  age,  at  least, 
and  enjoying  civi!  and  political  rights.  Mem- 
bers of  families  that  have  reigned  m  France  are 
ineligible  to  the  Senate. 

Art.  5.  The  soldiers  of  the  land  and  naval 
forces  cannot  be  elected  senators.  There  are 
excepted  from  this  provision:  I.  The  Marshals 
and  Admindsof  Fmnee;  II.  The  general  officers 
maintained  without  limit  of  age  in  the  first  sec- 
tion of  the  list  of  the  general  staff  and  not  pro- 
vide)! wit  h  a  command ;  III.  The  general  olflcers 
placed  in  the  second  section  of  the  list  of  the 
general  staff;  IV.  Soldiers  of  the  land  and  naval 
forces  who  belong  either  to  the  reserve  of  the 
active  .irmy  or  to  the  territorial  army. 

Art.  6.  Senators  are  elected  l)y'"scnitin  de 
liste."  by  a  college  meeting  at  tlie  capital  of  the 
department  or  colony,  and  composed:  (Dof  the 
Deputies;  (2)  of  the  General  Councilors:  (3)  of 
the  Arrondissement  Coimiilors;  (4)  of  delegates 
elected  from  among  the  voters  of  the  conmuine. 
by  each  Mimicipal  Council.  Councils  c<iniposeil 
of  ten  nienilHrs  shall  elect  one  delegate.  Coun- 
cils composeil  of  twelve  members  shall  elect  two 
delegates.  Councils  composed  of  si.xteen  mem- 
bers shall  elect  three  delegates.  Councils  com- 
posed of  twenty-one  members  shall  elect  six 
delegates.  Councils  composed  of  twenty-three 
memliers  shall  elect  nine  delegates.  Councils 
composeil  of  twenty-seven  menilwrs  shall  elect 
twelve  delegates.  Councils  ciimposed  of  thirty 
memlwrs  shall  elect  fifteen  delegates.  C^nmcil8 
composed  of  thirty-two  members  shall  elect 
eighteen  delegates.  Councils  composed  of 
thirty-four  members  shall  elect  twenty  one  dele- 
gates. (Vumeils  composed  of  thirty-six  memliers 
or  more  shall  el;'ct  twenty-four  delegates.  The 
Municipal  Council  of  Paris  shall  elect  thirty 
delegates.  In  the  French  Indies  the  members  o'f 
the  IcKal  councils  take  the  place  of  Arron<lisse- 
ment  Councilors.  The  Municipal  Council  of 
Pfiitliohi-ry  shall  cit-ct  five  dcU-gatcs.  The 
Municipal'  Council  of  Karikal  shall  elect  three 
delegates.  All  the  other  communes  shall  elect 
two  delegates  each.  The  balloting  takes  place 
at  the  capital  of  each  district. 


r 


565 


CXJNSTITUTION  OP  FRANCE. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  PRANCE. 


I    i 


;1  : 


1 


i 


■  ■  -f . 


Abt.  7.  Membon  of  the  Senate  arc  elected 
for  nine  yean.  Tbe  Senate  Is  renewed  every 
three  years  according  to  the  onlcr  of  the  present 
series  of  departments  and  colonies. 

Art.  8.  Articles  3  (paragraphs  1  and  2),  8.  4, 
S,  8,  U.  16.  19  and  23  of  the  organic  law  of 
August  3,  1875,  on  the  Elections  of  Senators  are 
amended  as  follows:  "Art.  2(|>amgraph8  1  and 
S).  In  each  Municipal  Council  the  election  of 
delegates  takes  place  without  debate  and  by 
secret  ballot,  by  ' '  scrutin  de  llste  "  and  by  an  abso- 
lute majority  of  votes  cast.  After  two  balloU  a 
plurality  is  sutticieut,  and  in  case  of  an  equality 
of  votes  the  oldest  is  elected.  The  procedure 
and  method  is  the  same  for  the  election  of  alter- 
nates. Councils  having  one,  two,  or  thri'c  dele- 
gates to  choose  shall  elect  one  alternate.  Those 
choosing  six  or  nine  delegates  elect  two  alter- 
nates. Those  choosii  twelve  or  fifteen  dele- 
gates elect  three  «  es.  Those  choosing 
eightee-  or  twenty-one  u  gates  elect  four  alter- 
nates. Those  choosuig  t  entr-four  delegates 
elect  five  altcmute.s.  The  Municipal  Council  of 
Paris  elects  eight  alternates.  The  alternates 
take  the  place  of  delegates  in  case  of  refusal  or 
inability  to  serve,  in  the  order  deU'nuined  by  the 
number  of  votes  received  by  each  of  them. 
Art.  3.  In  communes  where  the  duties  of  a  Munici- 
pal Council  are  performed  by  a  special  delegation 
organized  by  virtue  of  Article  44  of  the  law  of 
April  5,  1884,  the  senatorial  delegates  and  alter- 
nates shall  be  cluraen  by  the  old  council.  Art.  4. 
If  the  delegates  were  riot  prest'Ut  at  the  election, 
notice  is  given  them  by  the  Mavor  within 
twenty-four  hours.  They  must  within  Ave  davs 
notify  the  Prefect  of  their  acceptance.  In  cim' 
of  declination  or  silence  tliey  sliall  be  re- 
placed by  the  alternat  s.  who  are  tlien  placed 
upon  the  list  as  the  delegates  of  the  cmnniune. 
Art.  .5.  The  offlcial  report  of  tlie  elietiou  of 
delegates  and  alternates  is  transinitttii  at  once 
lo  the  Prefect.  It  indicates  the  ae<-eptanee  or 
deilinatimi  of  tlie  delegates  and  alternates,  as 
well  as  tlie  protests  made  bv  one  or  more  meni- 
iK'i^of  the  Municipal  Council  against  tlie  legality 
of  flic  ilectiiiii.  A  i-opv  of  this  oltieial  report  is 
posted  on  the  di«ir  of"  tlie  town  hall.  Art.  8. 
Protests  concerning  the  election  of  dcleirates  or 
alternates  are  <ifeided,  subject  to  an  ajipeal  to 
the  Council  of  Suite,  by  the  founcil  of  tlie 
Prefecture,  and,  in  tlie  colonies,  by  the  I'rivy 
Council.  Delegates  whose  I'liTtion  is  set 
aside  because  tliey  do  not  satisfy  the  conditions 
drnianded  by  law,  or  because  ofiiifoniialitv,  are 
replaced  liy  the  alternates.  Incase  tlie  election 
of  a   (hlegate   a-  '      '  an  alternate  is  niiihred    ■ 


ihof  bothaft<'r  their 

Id  liy  the  Munici- 

'•ree  of  the  Pre- 

•gins  at  eight 

noon.    The 

loses  at  four 


Si,- 


void,  as  by  the 
acceptance,  n; 
pal  Council  on  u 
feet.     Art.  14.     Tl 
o'clock  in  the  mornii.f, 
seeoihi  begins  at  two  o'l 

o'clock.  The  lliird  Ingiiis  at  seven  o'clink  and 
closis  at  ten  oel.K  k.  The  results  of  the  l>al- 
lotings  are  determined  by  the  bunau  ami  an- 
nounced iininediatelv  bv'  the  Prtsiilcnt  of  the 
electoral  colli'ge.  Art.  'ifl.  Political  nii'etings 
for  ilie  nomination  of  .si  nators  iiiav  lie  held  from 
the  date  of  tile  promuliration  of  tfie  ileene  kuiii- 
moiiiiig  the  electors  up  to  the  day  of  the  election 
inclusive.  The  declaration  prescrilied  bv  Article 
2  of  the  law  of  June  »),  1881,  shall  be  "made  bv 
two  voters,  at  least.     The  forms  and  regulatioiis 


of  this  Article,  h  well  as  those  of  ArtI 
shall  be  observed.  The  members  of  Parlii 
elected  or  electors  in  the  department,  the 
torial  electors,  delegates  and  alternates,  an 
candidates,  or  their  representatives,  niav 
be  present  at  these  meetings.  The  niiin 
authorities  will  see  to  it  that  no  other  p 
is  admitted.  Delegates  and  alteriiutt's 
present  as  a  means  of  identification  a  iirti 
from  the  Mayor  of  tbe  commune;  can<!iil;r 
their  representatives  a  certificate  from  tin- ,, 
who  shall  have  received  the  declaniiimi 
tioned  in  Paragraph  2.  Art.  19.  Everv  ntt 
at  corruption  or  constraint  by  the  einplnv 
of  means  enumerated  in  Articles  177  and  f'u 
ing  of  the  Penal  Code,  to  influiiice  the  vu 
an  elector  or  to  keep  him  from  Mitinjr,  sin 
punished  by  imprisonment  of  from  time m( 
to  two  years,  and  by  a  fine  of  from  fifty !: 
to  five  himdred  francs,  or  by  one  of  these  p 
ties  alone.  Article  483  of  the  Penal  ( .ule  i; 
plicable  to  the  penalties  provideii  f,,r  hv 
present  article.  Art.  23.  Vacancies  c:iiis,', 
the  death  or  resignation  of  st'iiators  shall  lit 
within  three  months;  moreover,  if  the  vai 
occurs  within  the  six  months  pnreiinii; 
triennial  elections,  it  shall  be  fliled  ut  tliosi 
tions. " 

Art.  9.  There  arc  repealed:  (1)  .Vrtielis 
7  of  the  law  of  February  24.  1875.  on  the  ,,ri 
zati.m  of  the  Senate:  (2)"  Articles  24  and  2.MI 
law  of  August  2,  1875,  on  the  eleetiuus  of , 
tors. 

Temporary  Proviiioo. 

In  case  a  special  law  on  parlinment.irv  iui 
patibililies  shall  not  have  been  puss.".l  at 
date  of  the  next  s»>uatorial  elections.  .Vrlidi- 
the  law  of  Xovemlxr  3(1.  187'i,  sliall  appl 
those  elections.  Every  olficial  aireitnl  hv 
provision,  who  has  had  tweutv  vi  urs  (.f  sir 
and  is  fifty  years  of  age  at  tiie'ihile  uf  hi: 
ccpta'ice  of  the  office  [of  senator),  niav  e«tal 
his  r.ght  to  a  proportional  ri'iirinL'  i»ii- 
which  sliall  be  governed  bv  the  ihinl  parjti 
of  Article  12,  of  the  law  of'juiie  !»   \-y-i 

1885.  Law  Amending  the  iiiecto.. '  . 
June  16. 

[Article  1.'  The  members  of  the  (ban 
of  Ih'puties  are  elected  by    ■  scniliii  ih  li.^Il. 

Art.  2.  Each  depiartment  elects  the  nun 
of  deputies  assigned  to  it  in  the  table'  imuvxv 
the  present  law,  on  the  basis  of  one  (li|iiitv 
seventy  thousand  inhabitants.  forei;;n  rvsiih 
not  included.  Account  shall  be  taken.  111 
theless,  of  every  fraction  smaller  tlj.in  nvi 
thou.sand.'  Each  department  ihits  at  t 
three  deputies.  Two  deputies  .ire  a>sii:urt 
the  territory  of  Belfort,  8i.\  to  .Vlu'eria,  aud 
to  the  colonies,  as  is  indicated  by  the  taMi .  1 
table  can  be  changed  by  law  only. 

Art.  3.  The  department  forms  a  sinirle  t 
toral  district.  1 

AUT.  4.  Members  of  families  that  have  ri'ii.' 
in  Fnince  are  ineligible  to  the  t'lianihef 
Deputies. 

Art.  a.  No  one  is  elected  on  tlic  lir-t  ha 
unless  he  receives:  (1)  mi  absoltiie  niajnriiy 

'  .\nlcle«  l.a  outl  A  reiM'uled  In-  (lie  law  ,'f  »lir^ 
J  3.  l^j,  in/m, 

"  ThiH  table  may  lie  f.nin'i  in  the  PuU*ti>i  'W  I 
twelfth  aerini.  No.  I5.51S  ;  Ulul  in  the  Journal  '  •pctfl 

June  ir.  iMhfi.  p.  !»r:i. 

'  I.  f.,  fractions  of  leas  tliau  TO.OiO  are  entitled  t 
dsput}'. 


oGG 


CONSTITUTION  OP  FRANCE. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  OEIUIANT. 


UieTotes  cut;  (3)  a  number  of  votes  equal  to 
one-fourth  of  the  total  number  of  voters  regis- 
teied.  On  the  second  ballot  a  plurality  Is  suf- 
drient.  In  case  of  an  equality  of  votes,  the 
oldest  of  the  candidates  is  declared  elected. 

Art.  6.  Subject  to  the  case  of  a  dissolution 
foreseen  and  regulated  by  the  Constitution,  the 
general  elections  take  place  within  sixty  davs 
preceding  the  expiration  of  the  powers  of  the 
Clumber  of  Deputies. 

Art.  7.  Vacancies  shall  not  be  filled  which 
occur  in  the  six  months  preceding  the  renewal  of 
the  Chamber. 

18S7.  Law  on  Parliamentary  Incompati- 
bilities.   December  26. 

Until  the  passage  of  a  special  law  on  parlia- 
mentary incompatibilities,  ^Articles  8  and  9  of 
the  law  of  November  80,  1875,  shall  apply  to 
senatorial  elections.  Every  offlcial  affectod  by 
this  pnivision  who  has  had  twenty  years  of  sef- 
Tjcc  ami  is  tifty  years  of  ape  at  the  time  of  his 
acceptance  of  the  office  [of  senator],  may  estab- 
lish bis  riiihts  to  a  proportional  retiring  pension, 
which  sliall  be  governed  by  the  third  paragraph 
of  .\rti(  ie  13  of  the  law  of  June  9,  1853. 

1889.  Law  Re-establishing  Sinrie  Districts 
{or  the  Election  of  Deputies.    February  13, 

Article  1.  Articles  1,  2  and  3  of  the  law  of 
June  16.  18.85.  are  repealed. 

Art.  i.  Members  of  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties are  tltcted  by  single  districts.  Each  ad- 
miuislnitive  arrondissement  in  the  departments. 
aij.l  eu(  li  municipal  arrondissement  at  Paris  and 
at  Lyuus.  ele<ts  one  deputy.  Arrondissements 
uliiise  population  exceeds  one  htmdred  thousand 
iiihaliitauts  elect  an  additional  deputy  for  every 
fine  liuiulred  thousand  or  fraction  of  one  hun- 
dn:d  tkiiusand  iiilmbitauts.  The  arrondissements 
are  in  this  case  divided  into  districts,  a  tabic'  of 
vbicli  is  annexed  to  the  present  law  and  can  be 
chanseii  by  a  law  only. 

'  TliiN  tal>te  nuy  tie  found  tn  the  Journal  Offlcirl  fnr 
F'linian'  14.  VVi.  pp.  r» and  foUowtng  ;  and  In  the  Bulle- 
tin d€t  Lots,  twelfth  aertea,  Xu.  :M,479. 


Abt.  3.  One  deputy  Is  assigned  to  the  terri- 
tory of  Belfort,  six  to  Algeria,  and  ten  to  the 
colonies,  as  is  indicated  by  the  table. 

Akt.  4.  On  and  after  the  promulgation  of 
the  present  law,  until  the  renewal  of  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies,  vacancies  occurring  in  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  shall  not  be  filled. 

1889.  Law  0.1  Multiple  Candidaturei.  July 
'7- 

Article  1.  No  one  may  be  a  candidate  in 
more  than  one  district. 

Art.  8.  Every  citizen  who  offers  himself  or 
is  offered  at  the  general  or  partial  elections  must, 
by  a  declaration  signed  or  countersigned  by  him- 
self, and  duly  legalized,  make  known  in  what 
district  he  means  to  be  a  candidate.  This  de- 
claration is  deposited,  and  a  provisional  receipt 
obtained  therefor,  at  the  Prefecture  of  the 
department  concerned,  the  fifth  day,  at  latest, 
before  the  day  of  election.  A  definitive  receipt 
bliall  Iw  delivered  within  twenty-four  hours. 

Art.  3.  Every  declaration  maile  in  violation 
of  Article  1  of  the  present  law  is  void  and  not  to 
lie  received.  If  i'  larations  are  deposited  by 
the  same  citizen  '  nore  tlian  one  district,  the 
earliest  in  date  is  le  va.id.  If  they  bear  the 
same  ilate,  all  are 

Art.  4.  It  is  fcirluciclen  to  .sign  or  post  pla- 
cartis,  to  carry  or  ilistrilmte  ballots,  circulars,  or 
platforms  in  tlie  iiiii-nst  of  a  candidate  who  has 
not  conformed  to  the  renuireinents  of  the  present 
law. 

Art.  5.  Ballots  Ixaring  the  name  of  a  citizen 
whose  c.indiiiucy  is  put  forward  in  violation  of 
the  present  law"  shall  not  tie  included  in  the  re- 
turn of  votes.  Posters,  placards,  platforms,  and 
ballots  posted  or  distributed  tti  support  a  candi- 
dacy in  a  district  where  sucli  camiidacy  is  con- 
trary to  the  law,  sliall  be  removed  or  seized. 

AiiT.  t>.  A  fine  of  t<n  tliousand  francs  shall 
be  imposeii  on  the  candidate  violating  the  pro- 
vinious  of  the  present  l.iw,  anil  one  of  five  thou- 
sajid  francs  cm  all  persons  actiug  in  Tioiatiou  of 
Article  4  of  the  present  law. 


no  an-  ("utitled  to  t 


CONSTITUTION  OF  GERMANY. 


t3th-i7th  Centuries.— The'  Old  (Holy  Ro- 
Dini  Empire, — The  Golden  Bull.  See  Gek- 
>HNv:  A    1).  I12.i-I152;  1347-14»3-  and  Diet, 

TmK  liKUMAMC. 

A.  D,  1815.— The  Confederation.    See  Oek- 

SANV:  A.  1).  1814-1820. 

A.  D.  1871.— The  New  Empire.— On  the  18th 
day  .if  .lanuary.  1871 ;  at  Versailles,  Kinir 
William  <jf  Prussia  assumed  the  title  of  German 
EmptMr.  On  the  18th  of  April  following  the 
Empinr  issued  a  proclamation,  by  and  with  the 
ciuwut  cif  the  Council  of  the  Gorman  Confeder- 
a!i"ti.  ami  of  the  Imperial  Diet,  decreeing  the 
al'liticin  (f  a  constitution  for  the  Empire.  See 
Gkumvnv;  a.  I).  1871  (J.vxL-.vRY)  and  (April). 
Tli>  filli>vvinjr  is  a  translation  of  the  text  of  the 
Oiistiiiiti.iii,  as  transmitted  bv  tlic  American 
Miiii-ii  r  at  licriin  to  his  Oovemment : 

Hi-  Majesty  the  King  of  Prussia,  in  the 
i..ihi'  •  f  liu-  Xiirth  German  Union,  His  Majestv 
tlir  Kiiii:  af  Bavaria,  His  Majestv  the  King  of 
» ttrtcinlHrir,  His  Hoyal  Highness  the  Grand 
liiikr  iif  Ilailcn,  and 'His  Uiiyal  Highness  the 
brauj  Duke  of  Ilesse,  and  by  Rhine  for  those 


part.s  of  the  Graml  Duchy  of  Hes.se  which  are 
situated  south  of  the  .Main,  conehule  an  eternal 
allianci'  for  the  pn.teetii.uof  the  territory  of  the 
confi  'cniiiiin.  and  of  tlif  laws  of  tlie  same,  as 
well  a  fur  the  iiromotion  of  the  welfare  of  the 
CJennan  peoplf.  Tiiis  eonfederation  sliall  bear 
the  name  of  the  German  Empire,  and  shall  have 
the  followinir  cnustitution. 

I. — Territory. 

Article  1.  The  territory  of  the  confederation 
shall  eonsisi  of  thr  States  of  Prus.sia.  with  Lauen- 
burg.  Bavaria.  .Slxiiuv,  WUrtemlierg.  Biiilen, 
Hesse.  Miekli  nliurft-.Siliwerin.  Saxe- Weimar, 
Meekleiiliuii:-.Si  relit/..  lUdenlmrg,  Brunswieli, 
Saxi -Meininjten,  Sa.\e-Alteuburg,  Saxe  l^r.'jvri 
Goiha,  Aiihalt.  8ehwarzl>urir  -  IJudoNli.  , 
SehwarzliiirL'  Saiilersliausen.  \Valil(  ek,  Heus  .  1 1 
the  elder  I'r.mili.  iieu»  of  the  youni;er  branch, 
Miaunilmrt  Lijipe.  LipiK".  Liibeck,  "-  len, 
and  lianitiurtr. 

II. — Legislation  of  the  Empire. 

Article  2.  Wiiliin  this  lirritory  the  Empire 
shall  have  the  right  of  legislation  according  to 
the  provisions  of  this  coustitution,  and  the  laum 


5G7 


L 


*  !i 


if 

if 
I  i< 

i  ! 


'■■  1 


CONSTITUTION  OP  GERMANY. 

of  the  Empire  »hsll  takp  precedence  of  those  of 
ench  individual  «tatc.  TUe  laws  of  the  Empire 
shall  be  rendered  binding  by  imperial  pr.K-lama- 
tion,  such  prnclaiiiation  to  lie  piihlishrd  in  a 
Journal  devoted  to  the  publication  of  the  laws  of 
the  Empire,  (lleicbBgcsetzblatt.)  If  no  other 
p<ri<Hl  shall  be  designated  in  the  published  law 
for  it  to  fake  effect,  it  shall  take  effect  on  the 
fourteenth  day  after  the  day  of  its  publication 
in  the  hiwjoumal  at  IJerlin. 

Article  3,  There  is  one  citizenship  for  all 
(Jernuiny,  and  the  citizens  or  subjects  of  each 
state  of  the  federation  sliall  be  treii'ed  in  every 
other  state  thereof  as  natives,  and  shall  have  the 
right  of  liecoming  permanent  residents,  of  carry- 
ing c.n  business,  of  tilling  public  olHces,  and  may 
acijuire  all  civil  rights  on  tue  same  conditions  as 
tliose  lM>m  in  the  state,  and  shall  also  have  the 
same  usage  as  regards  civil  prosecutions  anil  the 
protection  of  the  laws.  No  German  shall  lie 
limited,  in  the  exercise  of  this  privilege,  liy  thi- 
authorities  of  his  native  state,  or  bv  the  authori- 
ties of  any  other  stale  of  the  confedeniiion. 
The  regulations  governing  the  care  of  piiu[)ers, 
and  iheir  admiwion  into  the  various  parishes, 
are  not  affected  liy  the  principle  enunciiiteil  in 
the  first  piiragraph.  In  liki'  manner  those  treaties 
shall  nniain  in  force  whii h  have  N^en  concluded 
bitwetu  the  various  stalls  i.f  the  fedemtion  in 
relatiou  to  the  custiHly  of  persons  who  lire  to  be 
banished  the  cure  •")f  sick,  and  Ihi'  burial  of 
dCv-eaM  il  eiti/ens  With  n'giir.l  to  tlie  n  ndering 
of  military  'vice  to  the  vi^rious  states,  the 
neces.«,iry  I  M   Iw  passed  hereafter.        All 

(}ernuiiis  counlries  shall  have  einml 

claini'.  ii|  iiicn  .,f  the  Kmpin'. 

Article  following    miilters  shall    be 

un<lir  the  siou  of    the  Knipire  ami  its 

legislature:  1.  The  privilege  of  carrying  on 
trade  111  iiii,re  ilmn  one  plaie,  doniolie  alTairi 
and  matters  n  lating  to  the  seiilenieni  ..f  natives 
of  niie  stall'  ill  i!i<'  territory  of  aiiutliiT;  the  right 

of  lilizi'nship.  the  issuing  and   ev inatioii' of 

pa.ssports;  «urveillauee  of  f.iniL'iHTs  anil  of 
maiiufailiiri  s.  together  with  iiisiiraiiee  business, 
so  far  as  tli.se  matters  are  imt  alrea.lv  pnivided 
for  by  anil  1.- :i  .f  this  eonstitiiti..ii.  lili  Havana, 
howevi-r.  e\i  liisive  .if  cl.imestir  affairs  and  mat^ 
ters  relating  ti.  ilie  wttlement  i.f  nativ.suf  m,.. 
etatii  in  the  t.  rrilory  of  another.!  and  likewise 
mailers  n  laiingtoe.ilimizati.m  aiiileiniu'nition  to 
fori'igu  ciuiiitriis  U.  Ij'gislati.m  eoiieeminir 
custiiius  duties  ami  e.itiinierce,  and  such  iiii|nis|ii 
as  are  to  Ih'  applied  i.i  the  usis  of  tin  Knipire 
a.  liegulalion  of  Wrights  ami  tin  asiins  i.f  the 
loiliagi',    lo^'ilher  with    the   iiiiissi..ii   i.f  fiiii.hd 

ami  unfunded  p.iner  1111 v      4      Hatikinir  regu- 

lalii'hs  in  giiii  ml.  .-i.  I'ulents  fi.r  itiventi..iis 
tt.  Till'  prnteilion  of  literary  prnperti'  7.  Th- 
orL':iiii/.iti.in  of  a  general  sysleni  >•(  pri.tntion 
foriii  rmaii  trixlein  foreign e'ounlries,  of  (iirnian 
navig.itiiiii.  and  of  the  Gennan  thig  on  the  hiirh 
seas,  liki«i«e  the  organi/atlun  of  a  gi  tii  ml 
consular  nprrsfutal  inn  of  the  Kinpire  H  Kail- 
way  iiLitters.  i»iili),,  t  in  llavarialn  the  pmvisions 
of  anil  le -lit.)  ami  the  (onslruction  of  nieans  of 
(ommuiiicalioM  by  land  and  water  for  the  pur- 
|M>»es  of  home  d.  Ii'iisi'  and  of  general  lommen-e 
'.*      Itaftiiig  ami  iiaviga'iod  iiisin    thosi^  Waleni 

which    are    (oninintl    tn   Heverri)    .Stittes.  attd    !!:e 

condition  lit  suih  Haters,  as  likewise  river  and 
other  water  dues       |ii      l',,.ia|  ami   l<li  graphic 
but  iu  ItavnrU  aud  Hungary  these  shall 


affairs, 


coNSTmmoN  of  Germany. 

be  subject  to  the  provisions  of  article  .12  ] 
Regulations  concerning  the  execution  i.f  ju,lici. 
sentences  In  civil  mstterg,  and  the  fiiltillnunil 
requisitions  iii  g»neral.  12.  Theautlieiiti,,ui„ 
of  public  documei.t.8.  13.  General  !egi.slai,„ 
regarding  the  law  of  obligations,  criminal  i-in 
commercial  law,  and  the  law  of  exchange  lit, 
wise  judicial  proceefilngs.  U.  The  inmr. 
army  and  navy.  1,5.  The  surveillanee  „f ,]] 
meilical  and  veterinary  professions.  16.  Tl 
press,  trades'  unions,  Ac. 

Article  S.  The  legislative  power  nt  it 
Empire  shall  be  exercised  by  the  fedenil  cudij 
and  the  diet.  A  majority  of  the  votes  ..f  boil 
houses  shall  be  necessary  and  suffleient  f,ir  ih, 
liassage  of  a  law.  When  a  hiw  is  |ir..|,..Hil  ii 
relation  to  the  army  or  navy,  or  to  the  imii,B,l 
specified  in  article "ai,  the  vote  of  the  iin'si'lin, 
otticer  shall  decide;  in  case  of  a  liilT.  r.n.i'  .. 
opinion  in  the  fedemi  council,  if  sai.i  v.iti-  -l^ 
lie  in  favor  of  the  retention  of  tlie  eiistin- 
arrangements,  '  ' 

III.— Federal  Council. 
Article  6.  The  feileral  council  shall  ivinsist  1 ! 
the  npresentatives  of  the  states  of  tlieinnfcl,.,! 
tion,  among  whom  the  votes  shall  he  ilivi.1,,1  ij 
such  a  manner  that  Prussia,  includim;  the  f.inii'^ 
votes  of  Hanover,  the  eh^ctorate  of  |li>s'  \ii. 
stein,  Xas.saii,  and  Krankfort  shall  hav.'  K  v.,tn 
Bavaria,  6  votes:  .Saxony,  4  votes;  WHrt.iiil»r' 
4  votes;  Baden,  I!  voles ;'ness<',  a  v.iti  s;  Mukiia- 
burg-.Schwerin,  J  voles;  Saxe- Weimar.  1  v.  v 
-Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  I  vote;  Oldenl.ur-  lt.,if' 
lirunswick,  i  votes;  Saxe..Meiiiiri^'i  a.  1  v.itrj 
Saxe-Altenburg,  1  vote;  Saxe-t'olnir.- (i.ilw,  i 
vote;  Anhalt,  1  vote;  Schwarzlmrg  l!ii.l..i,t.iiir 
1  votcSchwarzhurg-Sondershaii-iii,  1  v..ii'.W,.;. 
deck,  Ivote;  Keuss,  ehlerbram  li.  1  v.t.  .  l!,.;,... 
younger  brunch,  1  vole;  Schaiiiiiliiir-li  i.i|.|...  i 
vote;  Lippe,  1  vole;  Luls'ik,  I  v. it.-,  Ilriniiii!l 
vote;  llambiirgh,  1  vote;  total  ."iSvi.tis  Ejrh 
memlsr  of  the  lonfedemiioii  shall  aii|i..iiit  m 
many  delegates  lo  the  fedemi  (..iiii.il  :i<  ii  Im 
voles;  the  total  of  the  votes  of  eai  li  stale  ijiiill. 
however.  Ih'  east  hv  only  one  dele:;  it. . 

Article  7.  The  feilera"l  eouneil  shall  lak.MOlin 
upon— 1.  The  measiin-s  t.>  }<•■  |.r.i|i.i^.l  t,.!li« 
did  and  the  resolutions  iKisse.l  by  tli.  sime,  i. 
The  general  pnivisions  and  n.gul.'iti.ins  ii,,,,MrT 
for  the  exiHUthmof  the  laws  of  the  Km|ii^  si 
fur  as  no  other  provishm  is  ma.i.' by  vii.l  l,-. 
a.  The  defects  wlihh  may  Is- ilisi  u'n  nil  in  m 
exciiilion  of  the  laws  of  "the  Kiiipiri .  .r  .f  ilie 
pmvisi.ins  and  ngulations  hen  ti.fi.r.  in.  nii.im.l 
Each  memtH'r  of  the  confeilenlioii  slj.ill  havelln 
right  III  iiilrisluce  inotions,  ami  ii  shall  lie  iln 
duty  iif  the  prisiding  olllcer  l.i  sul.mir  !|]iml..r 
delilHmlion.  I cgishitive  action  shall  l.ik.'|.U» 
by  siinph.  majority,  with  the  e\i.  |.ti..iis  ..f  tt» 
provisions  in  articles  ,5,  a*,  aii.l  >  V  .t.-«  n.it 
n.pnsi.nlid  or  instnictisl  shall  m.l  Is  ...uuinl 
In  the  case  of  a  tie.  the  vote  of  tin  |insi.liiij 
otilier  shall  d.  eide  When  li  L'islatin'  sni'ii 
upon  a  subjM't  which  diss  not  atTeet.  lucopliiit 
to  the  provisions  of  this  const  11  lit i.m,  Ilie  wli.k 
Knipiri'  Is  taken,  the  v.iies  of  ..iilv  lh..«i'  uLiik 
of  the  ciinfiideraiion  shall  In'couiiIi.I  nhiihulijU 
Is'  inleresUsI  in  the  nwller  In  i|iie«ti.iii 

Article  8.  The  fisleral  eouneil  sliull  s|i|ii.iiil 
fr-ti:  :!x  ::v:;  nw.Hi!ii-r*  in-f«haiivi;i  :-.•:■;!■•■-—- 
I  Oil  the  army  and  the  fiirlllleaiii.il-  .'  tta 
naval  alTalrs.  !t  On  duties  and  ta\. «  I  Ot 
comuirrce   and    trade.     9.      Ou   railr.ia.!<    )>»! 


f.8 


CONSTITUTION  OF  GERMANY. 


C0N8TITUTI0N  OF  GERMANY. 


i^cM,  and  telegraphs.  «.  On  the  judiciarj-. 
7  On  accounts.  In  each  of  these  committees 
thore  shall  be  rcpiesentatives  of  ot  least  four 
sutes  of  the  confederation,  beside  the  presiding 
ottlrer,  and  each  state  shall  Iw  entitled  to  only 
one  vote  in  the  same.  In  the  committee  on  tlie 
araiv  and  fortifications  Bavaria  shall  have  a  per- 
niauent  seat ;  the  remaining  members  of  It,  as 
well  as  the  memlwrs  of  the  committee  on  naval 
iffairs,  shall  l)e  appoint^'d  by  the  Emperor  ;  the 
mi'DilKTSof  the  other  committees  shall  beelMtiil 
by  tlic  fnlirai  council.  These  eommitties  shall 
be  newl.v  formed  at  each  session  of  the  federal 
oiumil,  v.  c,  each  year,  when  the  retiring  mem- 
bers shall  again  Iw  eligible.  Resides,  there  shall 
be  appoiiileil  in  the  federal  council  a  conimittw 
on  fiin'iijn  affairs,  over  which  Bavaria  siiall  pre- 
siile,  til  W  composed  of  the  plenipotentiaries  of 
the  kiuiilomsof  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  WUrtem- 
berit.  iiuil  "f  two  plenipotentiaries  of  the  other 
gtstes  "f  the  Empire,  who  shall  l)e  eleited 
sunuallv  by  the  federal  council.  Clerks  sliall  lie 
pliKivl  at  tlie  disposal  of  the  committws  to  |>er- 
forai  the  necessary  work  appertaining  then-lo. 

Article  9.  Each  member  of  tlie  federal  coun- 
cil sliall  have  the  right  to  appi'ar  in  the  diet,  and 
Miall  Ih'  heanl  there  at  any  time  when  he  shall  so 
wiuesl.  to  n  pri'sent  the  views  of  his  unviTii- 
mrQt.  even  \vli<  11  the  same  shall  not  have  l»i'n 
jilopieil  liy  tlie  majority  of  the  council.  Nobody 
ihall  !»■  at  the  same  time  a  memlierof  the  federal 
i.muiil  anil  of  the  diet. 

Articlt  10,  The  Eini>eror  shall  allonl  the 
iiW'iniirv  iliiilomatic  protection  to  the  meiulHTs 
,.f  liiifi.'liTjii  rouiicU. 

IV.— Presidium. 

Article  II.  The  King  of  Prussia  shall  In'  the 
pn-^iiliiit  of  llie  I  oiifeiteration.  and  shall  have 
till-  litle  "f  (ierni^iii  Emperor.  The  Eiii|Mriir 
shall  nprcMiit  the  Kiii|)ire  nmoni;imli<<ii'<.  drclare 
war.  and  rniicliiilt'  {H'tice  in  the  name  -if  the 
Minr,  I'lilir  into  alliances  and  other  eniiveiiiiiiiis 
Willi  ft'n-iirii  t  ouhlries,  accredit  enil>a!*s:idi>rs.  iitid 
rinive  thcni  For  a  declaration  nf  war  in  ilie 
naim  'if  llie  Knipln'.  the  coiisi  ut  of  the  federal 
ixunii!  sliall  Is'  n'i|uireil.  exii'pt  in  ca.se  of  an 
ait.ic  k  ii|inii  the  territory  of  thi'  confederal i.ni  nr 
it<rii;ii.l.s  Si  far  as  treaties  with  turt  iiiii  coiiu 
iriispfer  111  mailers  which,  lu'eordiiiit  to  article 
4  .ri  111  Ih-  reiiiiLiteil  by  the  le^'lslaliire  of  the 
tiiipii  ■.  Ilh- loiiseiit  of  the  federal  council  shall 
In  iii(iiinil  furtlieir  ratillcation,  and  the  approval 
.it  the  iliit  shall  lie  necessary  to  ri'lider  them 
vali.l 

Article  t2.  The  Emperor  shall  liave  the  right 
luruiiviiii  till  federal  council  and  the  diet,  and 
t<ni|i.ii,  ailjuiiru.  and  ch>se  them. 

Article  13.  The  convoeatliui  of  the  fcderul 
r  iiiii  il  and  llie  diet  shall  take  iilai  e  annually,  and 
tlir finliral council  may  !«•  called  together  for  the 
Jiriparatliui  uf  business  without  the  diet  .  the 
Uttir.  Ihiivever,  shall  not  li«>  eunvokitl  without 
till-  fi-tli  ral  iiiuncil. 

Article  14,  The  convueallon  of  the  fislenil 
ceuniil  shall  take  platv  u  noon  a*  deiimndiNl  by 
onr  tliinl  uf  its  members. 

Article  15.  The  ehauecllor  of  the  Empire,  who 
•liaP  lie  spixiinltsi  liy  the  Eu>|ienir,  shall  preside 
In  the  federal  council,  uid  •upervUr  the  conduct 
n!  !!i  hutir„-.=!  Thp  rhanr»=!li-.r  .-.f  ?!-,<=  Emr-!r*> 
■lull  k*vt  the  right  to  deleratc  the  power  to 
nprrwnt  Um  to  any  mamSer  of  the  tedual 
eoiudl 


bv 


of 

01;  I 


Article  16.  The  necessary  bills  shall  ]>e  laid 
before  the  diet  in  the  name  of  the  Em|>eror,  in 
accordance  with  the  resolutions  of  the  federal 
council,  and  they  shall  be  represented  in  the  diet 
by  niemlH'rs  of  the  federal  council  or  by  special 
commissioners  appoiute<l       said  council. 

Article  17.  To  the  Emperor  shall  Ijelong  the 
right  to  pri'parc  and  publish  the  laws  of  the 
Empire.  The  laws  and  regulations  of  the 
Emperor  shall  be  published  in  the  name  of  the 
Empire,  i<ud  niiuire  for  their  validity  the  signa- 
ture of  "  . '  'nceHor  of  the  Empire,  who  tliere- 
'■'■^  r.-s,".i,  Ible  for  their  execution, 
icle  iS,  ii.e  i-;!!  --ror  shall  appoint  the 
s  I'f  the  Ei.i;ii.'e,  1  ■  uire  them  to  take  the 
'f  I'liijianie,  iiid  ,-iniss  them  when  neces- 
811  ■  uiiiciuU  ai.poi;  ted  to  an  otHce  of  the 
El  .-,'  '1  trimi  ■.•11  )f  tl  states  of  the  confedera- 
tio..  ■:<''  e  .>  he  rame  rights  to  which  they 
were  entitledir  thci.-  lative  states  by  their  ortlcial 
position,  provided  no  other  leijislative  provision 
shall  have  been  made  previously  to  their  entrance 
into  the  service  of  the  Empire. 

Article  19,  If  states  of  the  confederation 
sliall  not  fullill  their  constitutional  duties,  pro- 
ce<'iliui.'s  may  be  instituted  against  them  by  mili- 
tary execution.  This  execution  shall  lie  onlered 
by  the  federal  council,  and  eiiforttd  by  the 
Em|ieror. 

V,-Diet. 

Article  30.  The  meralH'rs  of  the  diet  shall  be 
elected  by  universal  sutfrage.  and  byiiirect  secret 
ballot  I'ntil  regulated  liv  law,  which  is  re-«rved 
by  section  '>  of  the  election  law  of  .Mav  111,  1W19 
(fluude-L'esi'tzlilatt,  IStlU.  .section  14").'l  4^  dele- 
gates shall  Is'electisl  in  Havana.  17  in  Wuriein- 
berg.  14  iu  Haden.  0  in  Hesse,  south  of  the  river 
Main,  and  the  total  ii'imlKTof  delegates  sliall  be 
-.is-i 

Article  ai.  OlUciuls  shall  imt  rei|tiin'  a  leave 
iif  aliv  nee  ill  onUr  to  enter  the  dill  When  a 
ini-iulier  ot  the  diet  accepts  a  salaried  olliee  ■>( 
the  Kiiipire,  or  a  salaried  olHn-  in  one  of  the 
stales  of  the  eunfeileration,  nr  aece|>ls  any  olliee 
if  the  Knipire,  or  of  a  state,  with  whii  li  a  IiIl'Ii 
rank  or  salary  is  coinieeteil,  he  shall  forfeit  his 
si-:it  and  vote  in  the  diet,  but  may  recover  lii» 
place  ill  the  same  by  a  new  election. 

Article  33,  The"iiriKee.iiiigs  of  the  dii  t  .-hall 
Ih- imhlii'.  Truthful  reports  of  the  procee.lings 
of  tile  imlilic  si-ssioiis  of  tile  diet  iliall  subject 
those  making  them  to  110  respoiisiliility. 

Article  33.  The  diet  shall  have  the  richt  to 
propose  laws  within  the  jiirisilictioii  of  the 
Empire,  and  to  refer  pctilious  addressid  to  it  to 
the  federal  council  or  the  cliaucellor  of  the 
Empire 

Article  34.  Each  li  k'Islallve  periisl  of  the 
diet  shall  last  time  years  The  diet  may  1k'  ills- 
iioheil  by  a  nsoliilli  11  of  the  federal  council, 
with  thieiillMllt  of  tin    ElupeMr 

Article  3J.  Ill  the  cus<>  of  a  dissolution  of  the 
diet.  iie»  elections  shall  take  place  within  a 
inriisl  of  IM)  days,  and  the  diet  sliall  reassemble 
within  a  iH'riod  of  Ui)  days  after  the  dissolution. 

Article  at.  I'nless  by  coiis<  iit  of  the  diet,  an 
adjournment  of  that  Issly  tlull  not  exceeil  the 
IH'riisl  of  UU  days,  and  shall  not  be  n'peated 
during  the  same  seiaion,  without  such cuiistnt 

Article  »7  Tlw  -iict  »h»U  cn»i5!lr.e  !:-,!::  ;h« 
legality  of  the  election  of  Ita  members  and  drctda 
tliereuii  It  ahall  regulate  the  mode  of  traniact- 
tog  bmtmaa.  and  ha  owa  diadpUae.  by  eatabtlaii- 


^ 


669 


L 


i  ■•■ 


CONSTITUTION  OF  GERJIANY. 

tog  rules  therefor,  and  elect  its  president,  vice- 
presidents,  and  secretaries. 

Article  28.  The  diet  shall  pass  laws  1<r 
absolute  majority.  To  render  the  passape  .if 
laws  valid,  the  presence  of  the  majority  of  the 
legal  numtier  of  members  shall  be  required. 
When  passing  laws  which  do  not  affect  the  whole 
Empire,  according  to  the  provisions  of  this  con- 
stitution, the  votes  of  only  those  members  shall 
be  counted  who  shall  have  been  elected  in  those 
stales  of  ilii-  confederation  which  the  laws  to  be 
passi-d  shnll  alTecf. 

Article  29,  The  members  of  the  diet  shall  be 
the  representjitives  of  the  entire  people,  anti  shall 
not  lie  subject  to  orders  and  instructions  from 
their  constituents. 

Article  30.  No  memlwr  of  the  diet  shall  at 
any  time  suffer  legal  prosecution  on  account  of 
his  vote,  or  (<n  account  of  utterances  made  while 
in  the  performance  of  his  funilions,  or  lie  held 
resnonsible  out.side  of  the  diet  for  his  actions. 

Article  31.  Without  the  conM'iit  of  the  diet, 
none  of  ils  inemlHTs  shall  Ix'  tried  or  puniKhed. 
duriuit  the  session,  for  any  offense  committed, 
except  when  arnsted  in  the  act  of  ctmimitting 
theoffeus*',  or  in  the  courw  of  the  following  day. 
The  same  rule  shall  applv  in  the  case  of  arrests 
for  debt.  At  the  n'ciuest  of  tlu  >.iet,  all  legal 
proceedings  instituted  against  one  of  its  mem- 
bers, and  likewisi'  imprisonment,  shall  be  sus- 
pended liuring  its  8<-8sion. 

Article  3a.  The  mi'mUrs  of  the  diet  shall 
not  lie  allowed  to  draw  any  salarv,  or  be  compen- 
siitnl  as  such. 
VI.— Cuitomi  and  Commerce. 
Article  33.  tienuaiiy  >liall  fonn  a  customs 
anil  conimcn  ial  union,  having  a  common  frontier 
for  ilie  colliction  of  ilutics.  Sudi  territories  as 
cannot,  liy  nason  of  their  situation.  1k'  suitably 
embraci-il  within  the  said  frontit  r.  shall  In. 
excluded  It  shall  lie  lawful  to  intn«luie  all 
anil  lis  of  c.imniiTce  of  a  state  of  the  confe.lera- 
tion  into  any  othir  stale  of  the  confederation, 
without  paying  any  iliity  thereon.  ej(..|it  so  far 
as  suih  artidis  are'suliiiV;  t.>  taxation  theniii. 

Articif  4.  Till'  llansiatir  towns,  llnmen 
and  llanilMirg,  shall  remain  free  ports  out.si.le  of 
the  common  boundary  of  the  ciislonis  union, 
retnininif  for  that  purpose  a  dlsiriit  of  tlii  ir  own! 
or  of  the  surroundiiiK  tirritorv,  until  Ihev  shali 
ifiiuist  to  W  aiimltted  inlo  the  Niid  union! 

Article  35.  The  Kmpire  shall  have  the  exclu- 
sive iniwer  to  legislate  concirninif  evcrvlhing 
relating  to  Ihe  customs,  the  taxation  of  salt  and 
tobacco  manufariund  or  rais.1l  in  the  territory 
of  the  confedenillon  :  lonierning  the  taxation  of 
manufactund  lirandv  and  N-er,  and  of  suitar  and 
lirup  prcpariil  fnin  (h-i'Is  or  other  domi-slic  pro- 
ductions. It  shall  have  CXI  liisive  powir  lo  hid,, 
late  conicrnin«  the  miilual  proteition  ..f  taxes 
uponartichsof  n.nsumption  leviid  in  lhcs.-vcral 

sUtes  of  Ihe  Empire  ;  nirainst  emlM'^zlen t  ;  as 

Well  as  <iincemln){  the  measures  which  are 
ri'nuired.  in  granllnjf  inemplion  from  Ihe  iMiy- 
ment  of  duths,  for  llie  wi  .irilv  of  the  cmmon 
cusiomsfMntier  In  lUvaria.  <VUrteml«Tg,  and 
Bwlin.  Ihe  matter  of  Imposing  duties  on  domes. 
lie  hrinily  and  Ut-T  is  n  «,rv.s|  f,.r  the  hgislalure 
of  each  country.  The  stales  of  the .  onfeileration 
•hall,  however,  endeavor  to  hrtiiir  alsmt  unif.inii 
ii  si»Uti.iii  ri mihliiiu  iiietniniionot  tin  M^artii  lei. 
Article  3*.  Tl.  im|««.init  of  dmies  and 
Kdies  ua  artlcUn uf  luuauutpllon,  and  Iheiollec- 


CONSTITUTION  OP  GERMANY. 

tlon  of  the  same  (article  85,)  Is  left  to  earh  si 
of  the  confederation  witliin  iu  own  tiriiturt 
far  as  this  has  been  done  by  each  state  hiretoff 
The  Emperor  afaall  have  the  supervision  nf 
institution  of  legal  proceedings  by  olIicinls(.f 
empire,  whom  he  shall  designate  as  adjiimi. 
the  custom  or  excise  ofBcei,  and  boards  ef  dj, 
tors  of  the  several  states,  after  hearinj  1 
committee  of  the  Confederate  Council  on  oust., 
and  revenue*.  Notices  given  by  these  otiicial, 
to  defecu  In  the  execution  of  the  laws  of  i 
Empire  (article  85)  shall  be  submitteil  to  i 
confederate  council  for  action. 

Article  37.  In  taking  action  upon  the  ni 
and  regulations  for  the  execution  of  the  \„^ 
the  Empire,  (article  35,)  tlie  vote  of  the  pn«ii|. 
officer  shall  decide,  whenever  he  shall  |ir.,ii,iun 
for  upholding  the  existing  rule  or  ngnlati..ii 

Article  38.  The  amounts  accruing  fmma 
toms  and  other  revenues  designated  in  artii  Ir 
of  the  latter,  so  far  as  they  are  subjei  t  to  leji 
lation  by  the  diet,  shall  go  to  the  treasumf  11 
Empire.  This  amount  Is  made  up  of  the  t  .1 
ri'ceipts  from  the  customs  and  other  revcnuf 
after  deducting  thertfrom— 1.  Tax  iimiM, 
lions  and  reductions  In  conformity  wiiii  exi«tit 
laws  or  regulations.  2.  Keimbursinii nl>  ', 
taxes  unduly  impos«Hl.  8.  The  costs  fm  (,,]],, 
tion  and  administration,  viz. ;  ,1.  In  tin-  iliiar 
ment  of  customs,  the  costs  which  are  n  uuir. 
for  the  protection  and  collection  of  cust.m,.  . 
the  frontiers  and  in  the  frontier  liistriit-  '.  I 
the  dejiartment  of  the  duty  on  salt  the  o«! 
which  are  used  for  the  pay  of  Iheoillierseharj!. 
with  collecting  and controllinK  lhesi.  .lurii » in  ik 
saltmines,  c.  In  the  departineni  of  iliiii,<,.| 
b<.etsugar  and  tobacco,  the  com|ii  riviii,.n  »hid 
is  to  1m'  allowed,  according  to  the  n  vhiiiinii  n 
the  confederate  council,  lo  the  sei.ril  >t«li 
governmenis  for  the  costs  of  the  cIIiiUmu 
these  duties  r/.  Fifteen  \wr  cent,  of  the  i.t;, 
receipts  in  ihe  departments  of  tlie  ntln  r  .luiin 
The  territories  situated  outside  of  the  e.mrii.: 
custoi  frontier  shall  contribute  to  the  u|ntisi 
of  the  Kmpire  liy  paying  an  'aversufn.'a  «imin| 
acquittance  )  Bavaria,  WOriemti.rir.  nn.l  l!«.l.i 
•hall  not  share  in  the  n'venius  frni  .liiiiis  .n 
liquors  and  lieer,  which  go  inlo  the  tmisurv.l 
the  Empire,  nor  In  the  corresiHiniiing  |«.rtioo  •! 
the  aforesaid  '  avenum. ' 

Article  39.  The  quarterly  statements  t.i !« 
regularly  made  by  the  n'venue  olllnn.  nf  <\« 
federal  slates  at  the  end  of  every  .|Tiiirter,  i.l 
the  Dual  arttlemenU  (to  lie  made  lit  the  en,!  f 
the  year,  and  after  the  chwing  of  the  seci.iic! 
b<»ik«)of  the  receipts  from  customs,  wliiihluii' 
lieiHime  due  In  Ihe  course  of  the  quartrr  it 
during  Ihe  flacal  year,  and  the  n'veimn  et  Ik 
treasury  of  the  Empire,  according  lo  srtli  Ir  :i- 
sball  be  srrang«l  by  the  Iswrds  of  ilimi.n 
of  the  federal  stales,  alter  a  previoiHuamitisiin 
in  general  summaries  In  which  evirv  liiiti  i-.  M 
tie  sliown  sepaniU'ly  ;  these  siimnmrii  s  «liiti  ■• 
transmitted  in  the  federal  committee  on  nrroun> 
The  latter  provisionally  Axes,  everv  three  mwtlif. 
taking  as  a  basis  these  summaries,  the  smiiucl 
due  lo  the  treasury  of  the  Empire  fnni  \\w  \Tt^t^ 
ury  of  each  sUte,  and  It  shall  Inform  tlie  fi.lfrd 
Council  and  the  fetleral  Hiates  of  this  sit ;  (u^tbl^ 

inon*.    U   shall     SUbRlit     to    the    fe:!rrs!    e-.^llSlil 

annually,  the  final  statement  of  lln «'  :imeuiil>, 
with  its  remarks.  The  fi-deral  couuill  tUU  »(1 
uiHiu  the  axiag  of  itieie  MuvtuiU. 


5711 


CONSTITUTIOK  OF  GERMANY. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  GEIIMANY. 


Article  40.  The  terms  of  the  ruHtoms-uDioa 
tieatv  "f  July  8,  1867,  remain  in  fcirce,  so  far  as 
thfv  liave  not  been  altered  by  the  provisions  of 
this  cnnstitution,  and  as  long  as  the^  are  not 
ilterrd  in  the  manner  designated  in  articles  7  and 

78. 

VII.  — Railway*. 

Article  41.  Railways,  which  are  consi  i  red 
necessarj-  for  the  defense  of  Germany  or  for  pur- 
poses  of  freneral  commerce,  nmy  Im'  Imilt  for  the 
iccount  of  the  Empire  by  a  law  of  the  Empire, 
even  in  opposiiion  to  the  will  of  those  members 
of  the  confederation  through  whose  territory  the 
nil'.  >iil9  run,  without  detracting  from  the  rights 
of  tlie  sovereign  of  that  country  ;  or  private 
perwms  may  be  charged  with  their  constniction 
ud  nwive  rights  of  eipropriation.  Every  ex- 
iitin^t  railway  company  is  bound  to  permit  new 
niln>ad  lines  to  be  connected  with  it,  at  the 
eipensc  of  those  latter.  All  laws  granting 
fiintinir  railway  companies  the  right  of  injunction 
igaiDst  till'  building  of  parallel  or  competition 
lines  HD'  liereby  iiluilisbed  tlmiilghout  the  Empire, 
without  ilctrirneut  to  rights  alremlv  iicquired. 
Such  riL'ht  of  injunction  can  hencefortli  not  be 
granted  in  conccHwions  to  Ih*  given  hereafter. 

Article  42.  The  govenuuents  of  the  federal 
«t»t<-»  lilml  themselves,  in  the  inten^t  of  general 
comnn-riT,  to  have  the  German  railwiiys  managed 
waiinifinn  network,  and  for  this  purpose  to 
ball'  the  lines  constnu  ted  and  e(|Uipped  accord- 
iii(r  to  11  uniform  system. 

Article  43.  Aeconlingly.  as  soon  as  possible, 
unifonii  urrangemeiitN  as  to  maimi^enient.  shall 
bf  niHili'.  iiiidcBpecially  shall  ntiilMrin  regulations 
beiu-lituted  for  the  police  of  tlu-  niilronds.  The 
Empiri'  sliiill  taki-  can'  tlnit  tlii'  administrative 
nllii.  rs  'f  tlir  niilw  ,iy  Imes  keep  tlie  Mad*  iilwiivs 
in  Mil  h  .1  eonrlitiou  hs  is  reijuiri'd  for  public 
Iffir  ty.  and  that  they  1h'  eiiuip|H(l  with  the 
unwary  rolling  stink. 

Article  44.  Railway  companies  an'  Isnind  to 
fft^lilish  such  pHH.senger  tniiii.'i  of  suitable 
tei.K'iiy  as  may  1h'  n'<iiiired  for  onliiiury  travel, 
111(1  fir  tl'e  establishment  of  harmonizing  sched- 
ulcBiif  travel  :  also,  to  make  provision  fc>r  su' ' 
frpii'l}!  trains  as  may  1h'  necessary  forcommerci 
piir]""«'9.  anti  to  establish,  without  extra  ren.u.. 
rnij.in,  ortlres  for  the  dire<'t  forwunling  of  pas 
ttnL-iTHaiui  fnight  trains,  tola-  transferred,  when 
ni'ii'ssary.  from  one  naid  to  another 

Article  4S.  The  Enipiri'  shall  have  ( "nttol 
cavr  the  tarilT  of  fan's.  The  same  shall  ■  nleavor 
tiiiaiiv—  1  lidform  ngulalions  to  In-  s|M'edily 
intriHiucfil  on  all  (German  niilway  lines,  ',V  The 
I«n!l  to  lie  nduied  anil  made  unifonn  as  far  as 
Hissilili',  mid  partli'ularly  to  cause  a  nduitiou 
of  the  tiirilT  for  the  transport  of  ii>al.  coke. 
»'»»l.  minirals.  stone,  salt,  iriide  iron,  tnantin'. 
M'l  MMiiliir  articles,  for  long  dlstaiii'is,  as  de- 
niaD'li  i  ly  the  inten'sts  of  agrii  ultiin'  and 
ImliKlry,  and  to  introduce  a  oiii'  penny  tariff  u 
»>'n  »•  iiriMticable. 

Article  46.  In  case  of  distress,  especially  iu 
cax  uf  an  ■  ilrai>nllfiarv  rise  in  llie  priit- of  "pni- 
vi»l"ii»  it  shall  Im'  the  iluty  of  the  railway  com- 
puiii-slo  ailuiit  tem|>oraril"y  a  low  special  tarilT, 
til  t»  tixid  Iry  the  Emperor,  on  motion  of  the 
nimiifteut  niinmiltee,  for  the  forward'ng  of 
fTsiu,  Hi'ur.  vegetables,  and  fKitatiH's.  This 
Uriil  sii.iii,  however,  not  be  less  than  the  lowest 
««■  f,,r  raw  pnsluce  eiisting  on  the  said  line 
The  fureguiiig  prurUluBs,  and  thoic  of  articles  4S 


to  45,  shall  not  apply  to  Bavaria.  The  imperial 
government  has,  however,  the  power,  also  with 
regard  to  Bavaria,  to  establish,  bv  way  of 
legislation,  unifonn  rules  for  the  construction 
and  equipment  of  such  tailwavs  as  may  be  of 
importance  for  the  defense  of  the  country. 

Article  47.  The  managers  of  all  railways 
shall  be  required  to  obey,  without  hesitation, 
requisitions  made  bv  the  authorities  of  the 
Enipirc  for  the  use  of  their  roads  for  the  defense 
of  Germany.  Particularly  shall  the  mil- 'arv  and 
all  niaU'rial  of  war  be  forwarded  at  uniform 
reduced  rates. 

VIII.  —  Mails  and  TelcKraphs. 

Article  48.  The  mails  and  telegraphs  shall  be 
organized  and  managed  as  state  institutions 
throughout  the  German  Empire.  The  legislation 
of  the  empire  in  regard  to  postal  and  telegraphic 
affairs,  provided  for  in  article  4,  does  not  extend 
to  those  matters  whose  regulation  is  left  to  the 
managerial  arrangement,  according  to  the  princi- 
ples which  have  controlle<l  the  North  German 
administration  of  mails  and  telegraphs. 

Article  49.  The  receipts  of  mails  and  tele- 
graphs are  u  joint  affair  thmughout  the  Empin-. 
The  exfwnses  shall  Ix-  paid  from  the  general 
n-ceiiits  The  surplus  goes  Into  the  treasury  of 
the  tmpln-.     (Section  12.) 

Article  50.  The  Emperor  has  the  supreme 
supervision  of  the  administration  of  mails  and 
teligniphs.  The  authoritii's  appointed  bv  him 
are  in  duty  liouiid  and  aiithori/.ed  to  s<'e  that 
uniformity  be  established  and  maintainid  in  th» 
organization  of  the  adtiilnistmtion  and  in  tne 
trinsai'tion  of  business,  as  also  in  regani  to  the 
qualitleations  of  employes.  The  Emperor  shall 
have  the  power  to  malic  general  administrative 
rei;iilations.  and  also  exclusively  to  regulate  the 
n-latious  which  an'  to  exist  iHtween  tlie  iswt  and 
telegraph  olHces  of  Oermanv  and  those  of  other 
countries.  It  shall  Ih'  the  duty  of  all  olHiers  of 
the  post  ottlee  and  telegraph  department  to  oliev 
imperial  onlers.  This  obligation  shall  he  included 
in  their  oath  of  olHce.  The  appomfment  of 
s'-'wrior  olHcera  (such  as  dln'ctors.  counselors. 
'  sup«'rintendents,)  as  they  shall  lie  renuinil 
•■  administration  of  the  niails  and  telegraphs, 
varii  us  districts  ;  also  the  appointment  of 
i  of  ihe  posts  am!  telegmph ;  (such  as 
...siM'ctors  or  comptnillers.l  acting  for  the  afore- 
said authorities  iu  the  siveral  dlstriits,  iu  the 
capacity  of  sujiervisors,  shall  be  maile  by  the 
EmiK'ror  for  the  whole  i.rritory  of  the  (JeVman 
Empin',  and  these  ollii  ers  shall  take  the  oath  of 
fealty  to  him  as  11  part  of  their  oath  of  otiiie. 
The  govemnunts  of  the  several  states  shall  lie 
informeil  in  due  time,  by  means  of  im|>erial  con 
hrnialion  and  olHi iai  publication,  of  the  afore- 
mentioned appointments,  so  far  as  they  may 
nlate  to  their  territories.  <  liherotncers  nMiuired 
bv  the  de|>artiiient  of  mails  and  lelegniphs.  as 
also  all  olllcers  to  tie  eniployisl  at  the  various 
St  itions,  and  for  technical  purpiws,  and  heiico 
olflclatiug  at  ithe  actual  cent«'r«  of  communica- 
lion,  i.Ve.,  shall  lie  apiHiluted  by  the  n'a|H>ctivu 
governments  of  the  states.  Wnen-  then'  is  no 
inde|M'ndent  ailminislration  of  inland  mails  or 
telegraphs,  the  terms  of  the  various  treaties  arv 
to  la*  enforceil. 

Article  51.  In  aaslgoing  the  surplus  of  the 
post  olllce  department  to  the  tn-ssury  of  the 
Empire  for  general  nurisisei,  (article  4tt.)  the 
following  procvvding  la  tu  bo  observed  iu  cod- 


u\ 


L 


» 


-  K 


ft 


CONSTITUTION  OF  GERMANY 

■ideration  of  the  difference  which  has  heretofore 
existed  in  the  ^'  ■«  n-ceipts  of  the  postotBce 
department!!  of  the  several  fcrritorics,  for  tlie 
purpose  of  securing  a  suitable  equalization  dur- 
inif  the  iH'riiMl  of  transition  below  named,  Of 
tho  post-olHce  surplus,  which  accumulated  in  t'.e 
several  mail  districU  during  the  live  years  f-om 
1801  to  1863,  an  average  yearlv  surplus  shall  be 
ooinputed.  ami  the  share  which  every  w'pamte 
mail  district  liiw  had  in  the  surplii,  resulting 
therefrom  for  the  whole  territorv  of  the  Kmpire 
sliall  be  lixcd  upon  by  a  iH'rcentiitfe.  In  acconl- 
am-e  with  the  proporlion  thus  made,  the  sevi'ral 
states  shall  be  creiiited  on  the  account  of  their 
otiier  contributions  to  the  cxpeuM's  of  the  empire 
with  their  quota  accruing  from  the  postal  surplus 
in  the  Empire,  for  a  pf'ri.xi  of  eight  years  subse- 
quent to  their  entr.ince  into  the  post-oftice 
departmeiit  of  the  Empin\  At  the  end  of  the 
said  eight  years  this  distinction  shall  cease,  and 
any  surplus  in  the  post-oiUce  department  shall 
go,  without  division,  into  the  treasury  of  the 
Empire,  according  to  the  principle  enunciated  in 
article  48.  Of  the  ((uota  of  the  postcitllce 
department  surplus  ri'sulting  during  the  afon'- 
mentioned  period  of  eight  years  in  favor  of  the 
llanseatie  towns,  one-half  shall  everv  year  1)<> 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Emperor,  "for  the 
purnose  of  proviiling  for  the  establishment  of 
unifiirni  post  otiices  iu  the  H.inseatic  towns. 

Article  52.  The  stipulations  of  the  foregoing 
articles  4S  to  .'.1  ilo  net  iippiv  to  Havana  and 
Wdrtenibirg  In  their  st. ad  the  followingstipu- 
lation  sha!l  Im'  vali.l  for  Ihise  two  states  of  the 
confederation.  The  Empire  alone  is  anthori/i>d 
to  legislate  upon  the  |>rivileges  of  the  piwt-ol'ic  e 
and  telegniph  departments,  on  the  let'al  posiii.m 
of  lioili  iiistilu  ions  Inward  the  public,  upon  the 
f ninlving  privilege  an  1  rili's  of  iwwtage.  ami  uiwrn 
the  oialilishnicnt  of  rates  fur  tclii?  .  Iiic  eorres- 
poiidiiiee    into    Uan.«eatic    town  E.xrlusive, 

hnwever.  uf  mauat'erial  arningements.  and  Ihc 
tlsiiig  (.f  tarilfs  for  internal  ii>mmiini(  ation 
within  Havana  and  Wilrtembenr.  Inlliesanie 
manner  the  Eiii|iire  shall  ngnlate  pnsial  and 
telegraphic  eomniuiiication  with  f.tn  i:;ii  couu- 
trii'S,  excepting  the  inimediate  coiiirnuniialinn  nf 
Bavaria  and  Wiinenilierir  with  their  iieiu-hboring 
•tales,  not  belonging  to  the  Empire,  in  regaril  to 
which  reu'iilation  the  .Htipidati  iis  in  articli  4»  of 
titr  postal  tn'aty  of  XoviiiiIm  .  JU,  IxtlJ,  ri.,,,,,;  , 
in  force  Uavaria  anil  Wilnetnlier:.'  shall  not 
sliari'  in  the  postal  ami  teleuriphic  n  ,  eipts  which 
Islongtoth.  tnasuryof  the  Empire. 
IX,  —  Marine  and'  NaTigation, 
Article  53.  The  navy  of  ilii-  Empire  is  a 
united  one,  under  the  supreme  <'omiiiatid  of  the 
Emperor  The  Emperor  Is  chargi-d  with  its 
organiialloH  ami  arrangement,  and  he  shall 
appoint  thi'  olll.  .rs  and  otneials  of  (he  naw  ami 
in  his  name  these  and  the  seami'n  Arr  to  Ih' 
■worn  iu  Thi'  harlnir  of  Kiel  and  the  harlkpr  of 
the  lade  are  imperial  warharlKim.  Theexpeudl- 
luri's  required  for  the  esUibllshmcnt  and  main- 
tenance of  the  navy  and  the  institutions 
i-onneeted  therewith  thall  Ik<  defmTe<l  from  the 
treaaury  of  the  Emplr«.  All  wa  faring  men  of 
the  Empire,  inclu<llng  machinbt«  and  b'nds 
employed  in  oliip  buil.lliig,  are  exempt  from 
aervlce  in  the  army,  but  obllgtsl  to  lervc  In  the 
imperial  na»y.  The  apportlunmrnt  uf  m^n  ;•-. 
•upply  the  wanU  of  the  navy  aliall  he  made 
acconllas  «o  ««•  •ctual  leafariliv  population. 


67i 


CONSTITUTION  OP  GERMANY. 

and  the  quota  furnished  In  acconlance  herew 
by  each  state  shall  be  credited  to  the  ar 
account. 

Article  54.  The  merchant  ve8-...ls  of  all  sta 
of  the  confederation  shall  torm  a  imiirl  ,„ 
mercial  marine.  The  Empire  shall  deterrain,.  1 
process  for  ascertaining  the  toimageof  sei  •„! 
vessels,  sliall  regulate  the  issuing  of  tomiv 
certificates  and  sea-letters,  and  shall  tix  the  !■' 
ditions  to  which  a  permit  for  cotnni.imliu , 
sea-going  vessel  shall  be  subject.  Th.'  inercua 
ves-sels  of  all  the  states  of  the  cor}f,.,l,.rjti 
shall  Ik."  admitted  on  an  equal  footing  to  t 
harbors,  and  to  all  natural  and  arfidiial  wau 
cours.-sof  the  sever  ,  'atesof  theconfe.leratin 
and  shall  receive  the  same  usage  theniu  T 
liuties  which  shall  be  collated  from  se^ oi, 
vessels,  or  levied  upon  their  freights,  for  tlif  u 
of  naval  ins'itutions  in  the  harliors.  shall  n 
exceed  thi'  amount  reiiuinHl  for  the  iiwintVnaii 
and  oniinar;-  repair  of  these  institutions  1  Iq  a 
natural  water  coursi's,  duties  are  only  to  lie  livi, 
for  the  use  of  special  establishment^  »,; 
serve  for  facilitating  eoniniercial  i;,tirn)uri 
These  duties,  as  well  as  the  duties  for  naviiratin 
such  artilicial  chamiels,  which  are  prop,.nvi 
the  state,  are  not  to  excivd  the  amount  nenr, 
for  the  maintenance  and  orilinary  repair  1!  it 
institutions  and  establLslimenis.  Tli>-.  ruli 
apply  to  rafting,  so  far  as  it  is  carri.'l  ,ju  „ 
navigable  water-cour.sts.  The  h-vvii;- „[  .,!!i, 
or  higher  duties  uiiou  foreign  ves'siU  ,ir  thri 
frei^rhts  tlian  those  which  are  paid  In  lii,'  v,«^] 
of  the  federsil  slates  or  their  fnigliis  ,|,h,  n, 
U'long  to  the  various  states,  but  to  tin  .Knipin 
Article  55.  The  Hag  of  the  war  an.l  i.utiIuu 
navv  shall  Im'  black,  wliiti:,  am!  red. 

X.  —  Cooauiar  Affairs. 

Article  56.  The  EmpcMr  shall  hiv-  t!i 
supervitiou  of  all  consular  alfairs  of  tin'lJi-::!,:; 
Enijiire,  and  he  shall  appoint  ronsiils.  aft.r  In  j 
ing  the  committee  of  the  t,;l,r.i\  c.nin.i;  .; 
commerci.' and  t rathe.  No  new  stall- roi.siilatwari 
to  l)e  established  within  the  jurisiliiiiuu  nf  th. 
(Jerinan  consuls.  (.}erin.in  consuls  sliall  iHrf-rii; 
till'  fuuclions  of  state  consuls  for  tin-  slat.*  o! 
thecoufeili'rjitioniiot  represintril  in  Ih.  ir.!i*;ri! 
-Vll  the  now  existiiii  state  (onsulali  s  slull  l« 
abolished,  as  so.ni  us  ilii.   on;aui/aiion  nf  tk 

German  consul.iles  shall  Ik'  i ipleii.,1,  in  ,11,  In 

manner  that  the  lejiiesiiiiation  of  tlie  s..|urau- 
inleri'sisol  all  the  l^i-dera:  stati's  shall  1k' mvi.- 
niicd  by  the  federal  council  as  secunsl  li\  iW 
(SiTMUin  consulates 

XI.  — Military  Affairs  of  the  Empire, 
Article  57,     KviTv  (rerman  is  smI.j,,,!  t.ituili 

tary  duly,  and  in  the  iIIm  harire  .1  •Iu.  duivao 
substitute  can  1k'  aiei'piiil. 

Article  58.  The  costs  and  the  liii,-.liu  nf  jil 
the  military  system  of  the  Empire  an  to  I* 
bonie  e.iually  by  all  the  federal  states  mul  tliiit 
lubjiits,  and  no  privileges  or  ni.jlestaii.ins  to 
the  several  states  or  cla.sses  are  a.liiiis,itil« 
Where  an  equal  distribution  of  the  Inmleuji  can- 
not be  effecmi  "III  nalura'  without  pnjuiiire  tc 
the  public  welfare,  affnln  shall  lie  equaiizid  bv 
legislation  In  accordance  with  the  principles  J( 
justicv. 

Ariicit  59.  Every  German  capable  of  l»«riiif 
anna  shall  serve  for  seven  yi-ars  in  t  le  «t3uUiii| 
8fr::y,  ofrilnariiy  fmm  the  ead..f  ii.s  iw<ii!i.;iiB 
the  beginning  of  bis  twenty -elgiith  vear,  tin 
first  UtTN  yeii-s  in  the  army  of  the  deKl,  Nw  UK 


CONSTrrUTION  OF  GERMAXY. 


COXSTITUTION  OF  GERMANY. 


(our  yean  in  the  reaerre ;  during  the  next  five 
rears  be  sbftU  belong  to  the  militia.  In  those 
itatesof  theconfederati"  in  which  heretofore  a 
longer  term  of  service  liian  twelve  years  was 
required  by  law,  the  gradual  reduction  of  the 
required  time  of  service  shall  fake  place  in  such 
a  manner  as  is  compatible  with  the  interests  ami 
the  war-footing  of  the  army  of  the  Empire.  As 
reifitds  the  emigration  of  men  belonging  to  the 
fosiTrc  ocly  those  provisions  shall  be  Tu  force 
wliifli  iipply  to  the  emigration  of  members  of 
tlie  militia 

Article  60.  The  strength  of  the  German 
army  <n  time  of  peace  shall  be,  until  the  31.'«t 
D«Traliir.  1871,  one  per  cent,  of  the  population 
(if  IS67.  ami  shall  be  lumished  by  the  several 
tedcral  stalls  in  proportion  to  their  population. 
In  futuR'  the  strength  o'  the  army  in  time  of 
peace  shall       flx"!  by  legislation. 

Article  t».  After  the  publicntion  of  this  con- 
stitution the  full  Prussian  military  system  of 
legislition  shall  Iw  introiluoed  without  delay 
tlmiut'liKUi  the  Empire,  as  well  the  statutes 
tliemsi'lvi'S  as  the  re?".lations,  instructions,  ami 
onliuances  issued  fo'  heir  execution,  explana- 
tion iir  completion;  thus,  in  particular,  the 
military  |>enal  code  of  April  3,  1845:  the  military 
onlrrsof  the  penal  court  of  April  3,  184.);  the 
onlinanre  cuneeniinB  the  couitsof  honor  of  .luly 
Jl,  l!*4;i:  the  rcfiulutions  with  respect  to  recruit- 
ini:.  tinii'  "f  si'rvicf,  mat'trs  ri'lating  to  the 
afTioe  liiiil  stilisistem-e,  to  the  quartering  of 
tii»ip<.  iluiins  fur  iiaina|.rc's.  inobili/iiig,  Jcc. ,  fur 
tim«>  <'t'  piaee  ami  w.ir.  Onh-rs  for  the  attend- 
anre  'if  the  military  up»>:i  religious  .si-rviees  is, 
iiimivi  r. «  xrhidiil.  When  a  unifonu  uruMiii/a- 
tiiin  cif  tile  tlirinnii  army  slmll  Lave  Ihiu  1  .-itah- 
Ijjhni,  a  cnriipr.lieiisive  military  law  fut  tlie 
EinpiD'  nliall  tK'  suhmitie<l  to  the  diet  and  the 
fiiliral  niiinril  for tliiir  action iu  aeeoniaiice  with 
tiii'('iii«iitution. 

Article  62.  For  the  purpose  of  ihfmyin:^  tlic 
.ipiiws  iif  the  whole  (Jermiin  army,  ami  tin- 
iii*lil:iii'ins  eniiiieiled  ilMTi'witli,  tlie  sum  of  '2'2'> 
!n  '  liini'ln-d  and  twentytive)  tlialcrs  shall  1h> 
pUtil  at  tl]i' cl,.p.iBal  at'  till'  Emperor  until  the 
;)I»I  nf  IhciiiilKT.  1871,  f.ir  each  man  in  tii" 
arm  V" 'in  th'-  piaie  foi:tiiii.',  i,i-i'inliinr  to  urtiele 
6'i  iNvMfti'ih  r.'.)  Aft-r  till' ;llst  of  D.eein. 
I»T,  l-ri.  tia'  puymenl  "f  tln-M'  eoritrilMiti'ins  of 
Ihr -iviral  ^latrs  tu  tl"'  iiiiprrial  Ir  .i-uiy  must 
li-i 'iitinwiil.  Til.'  slniij-lii  of  till'  anny'iiiliini' 
'if  [I- lice,  wliich  luis  lie,  11  tciuiM  rarily  tlxi'l  iu 
■ini'lellii.  shall  iM'taki'Ti  iisa  basis  f'Ti'iiliMihitiiiir 
llii-x' ;ini'  nts  until  it  shall  InmiMiT'iI  bv  a  law 
"t  the  Kni|Mre.  Tlie  expeiMlii  lire  "f  I  his 'sum  l.«r 
till'  r  i|olf  :irniy  of  the  Empire  ami  il'^  i-Malilish- 
mi'UI*  »hail  hr  di'termiiUMl  liy  a  liii'li.'it  Ian  In 
il'-iirniuiini:tli,'bnd;:i't  of  iiiiiiturvexiMii.llture,, 
±<-  laivfiilly  rstablished  oriiaiiizali'in  of  the 
iai|n'rlal  iirniy.  ii\  aeronlaiii-e  with  this  euiistitii- 
li"!i.  r\\M  he  takrn  as  a  lM«i-. 

Article  63.  The  total  land  foree'if  the  Knipire 
>lii!l  f.'riii  "lie  army,  xvhieli.  iu  war  ami  in  peace, 
-riul  h  uri.lir  the  iinniiiaml  of  tiie  Ein[M'Mr. 
Till  n  .liimrits.  Ai  ,  thMiiirli'iiil  the  whole  Uer- 
mm  inny  ^h  ill  Iv,  ar  eoi.tiiiU'ius  numlH'rs  Tlie 
pniipil  ,,.|,is  1,11,1  the  cut  of  the  gannents  of 
'!i'  H.'yal  I'ruwian  army  shall  wrve  as  a  paltrm 
t'|rtliiri«t'if  the  army. '  It  i>  left  to  i'otnmH>|iii'r» 
•1  I'liiiiur'nt  limit  to  oht«»e  Ihe  external 
•  •Mii-i  .'.kinleii,  Ae  It  nhall  'le  the  dutv  aU'l 
lUf  riih,   .if  the    EmiKTor    to  take  care 'that. 


throughout  the  German  army,  all  divisions  be 
kept  full  and  well  equipped,  and  that  unity  be 
established  and  maintained  in  regard  to  organiza- 
tion and  formation,  equipment,  and  command  in 
the  training  of  the  men,  as  well  as  in  the  qualifi- 
cation of  the  offleers.  For  this  purpose  the 
Emperor  shall  be  authorized  to  satisfy  himself  at 
any  time  of  the  condition  of  the  several  contin- 
gents, and  to  provide  remedies  for  existimr  defecU. 
The  Emperor  shall  determine  the  stn-niftli,  com- 
position, and  division  of  the  contingents  of  the 
■niperial  army,  and  also  the  organization  of  the 
militia,  and  he  shall  have  the  riglit  to  designate 
garrisons  within  the  territory  of  ilie  confedera- 
tion, as  also  to  call  aiiv  portion  of  the  army  into 
active  service.  In  order  to  maintain  the  iieces- 
sary  unity  in  the  care,  arming,  and  equipment  • . 
all  triHips  of  the  G^niiun  armv,  all  orders  here- 
after to  \>e  issued  for  tlie  Prussian  armv  shall  be 
communicated  in  due  form  to  theconiniamlers  of 
tlie  remaining  contingents  tiy  the  committee  on 
the  armv  and  fortifications,  provided  for  in  article 
8,  No.  1. 

Article  64.  All  German  tnwps  are  bound 
implicilly  to  otjey  the  orders  of  the  Enijicror. 
This  olibgation  sliall  lie  included  in  Uie  uatli  of 
allegiance.  Tlie  commander-in-chief  of  a  eon- 
tin;Tint.  as  well  asall  ollicersconimamling  tnn'iis 
of  more  than  oner.inlinirent,  ami  all  eommamiers 
of  f'lrtresses.  shall  be  appointed  liv  tlie  Emperor. 
The  oltieers  appointiil  liy  thi'  EinpcT'.r  shall  take 
the  oath  of  fi'ally  t"  him.  Tlie  app'iintnient  of 
gi'iiera's,  or  of  ulli'-ers  perfurming  the  duties  of 
generals,  in  a  eoutiiigeiit  force,  siiall  lie  in  each 
ease  subject  to  tiie  appr'ival  uf  the  Emperor. 
Tiie  Emperor  has  the  right  witli  nganl  tu  the 
transfer  of  otiicers,  witli  or  with'iut  prumotion, 
tu  p'..;itiuns  wliicli  an' to  lie  rtlhil  in  t hi' service 
'if  till'  Empiri',  l>e  it  in  the  I'rii.s.-.ian  army  or  in 
iith'T  euntinirenls,  tu  select  fmni  tlie  "tlliirs  'if 
al!  til iiiliiii;'nts  of  tlie  army  uf  the  Kiiipiri- 

Article  65.  The  rit'ht  tu  imild  furiri's.s«-s 
within  the  tirritury  uf  tiie  Enipiri'  shall  lulong 
to  till-  Eiiipiror.  whu,  aeor'Hii.'  Iu  seitiun  12. 
shall  .ask  fur  tin-  apiirupriatiun  uf  th.'  iieiissarv 
111.  aiLs  r.''|iiir.'i  fur  that  piirpuM',  if  nut  already 
im  lu'l'-'i  in  Ilie  ri'i.Milar  a|>|>,.'|iriatiuti. 

Article  66.  If  nut  otiurwisi'  siipiilalcl.  the 
prinei'suf  the  Empire  ami  tin- si-nat's  shall  a  |ip"int 
theotlicrs  uf  ihiir  n-spi-itivi'  euiitliiv'' nl».  sub. 
jeet  tu  the  re-tririion  'if  artieh-  lit  Tley  an-  tile 
chiefs  of  all  the  truups  In  I'liiitiii:;  tu  their 
respective  territ'iries.  aiel  an'  iiiiitli'I  tu  the 
hum  li-s  connected  tlienM  itii,      Tli'\    shall   have 

•  's| iaily  tlie  riiilil  t.'  Iiuhl  iti>p"'ii"n-'  at  any 

ti'ii'',  aii'i  reeciv.  Insi'li.*  the  regular  ri'iiona 
.ami  anmeiiH'eiii'iiis  uf  i  haiices  f,ir  piililieali'in, 
tine'ly  iiil.'riii.iliuii  "f  all  pruiiiuli'iiisaiii  appuint- 
1111  nts  I'.ii.' rniiii:  lliiii'  n'-piTiive  c-uiitingents. 
Tiny  shall  aK'i  have  the  rivrht  t'l  1  iiipiuy.  for 
pulire  piiipiisis,  h"!  uiily  ilnir  uwii  truups  but 
all  utlirr  1 'iniiiu'i  lit-,  "f  [',if  army  uf  tin'  Empire 
who  af  slatiiin''i  ill  tin  ir  n-speitivi'  tiTrit'iri's 

Article  67.  Tin-  urn  \pimhi|  p'lrti'.ii  uf  'lie 
militiiry  a|iprupii  itiuii  siiill,  umlcr  no  clniim- 
staii'i  s.  fill  t'l  tlie  siiar''  uf  a  sinclc  guviriimi'iit. 
but  at  all  tinii  s  t'l  Ilu'  treasury  uf  ilu-  Knipiri' 

Article  68.  The  Em|ienir  shall  liav  tlie 
power,  if  the  iiiiblic  security  of  the  Empire 
demuielsit.  t"  'leeiar"  martin!"  law  in  auv  part 
thereof  tiutil  theiiuhiicationof  a  law  regulating 
the  gmumls.  the  form  of  announcement,  and  the 
etiects  of  siieb  a  declaration,  the  provisions  of  the 


57;i 


coNBTmrrioN  op  oermany. 

PniiiUa  Uw  of  June  4, 18S1.  shall  b«  lubatitated 
therefor.     (L«wi  of  18S1,  page  431.) 
Addition  to  wction  XI. 

Tlie  proriaions  contained  in  this  section  shall 
go  into  effect  in  Bavaria  as  provided  for  in  the 
treaty  of  alliance  of  November  2a,  1870  (Bun- 
desgesetzblatt,  187i,  section  9,)  under  III.  section 
8,  in  Wttrtemberif ,  as  provided  for  in  the  military 
convention  of  November  81-25,  1870,  (Bundes- 
gesetiblatt.  1870,  section  688.) 
XII.— Finances  of  the  Empire. 
Article  69.  All  reciipu  and  expenditures  of 
the  Empire  shall  be  estimated  yearly,  and 
included  in  the  financial  estinwte.  The  latter 
shall  be  tiled  by  law  before  the  beginning  of  the 
fiscal  year,  according  to  the  following  princi- 
ples: 

Article  70.  The  surplus  of  the  previous 
year,  as  well  as  the  customs  duties,  the  com- 
mon excise  duties,  and  the  revenues  derived 
from  the  posul  and  telegraph  service,  shall  be 
applied  to  the  defrayal  of  all  general  expendi- 
ture. In  so  far  as  these  expenditures  are  not 
covered  by  the  receipts,  they  shall  be  raised,  as 
long  as  no  taxes  of  the  Empire  shall  have  been 
established,  by  assessing  the  several  states  of 
the  Empire  according  to  thiir  population,  the 
amount  of  the  assessment  10  be  fixed  by  the 
Chancellor  of  the  Empire  in  accordance  with  the 
budget  agreed  upiin 

Article  71.  The  general  expenditure  shall 
oe,  as  a  rule,  grantid  f(ir  one  vear;  they  may 
however,  in  special  eii,se».  be  granted  for  a 
longer  [jeriod.  During  the  pi  riiwl  i>f  transition 
fixed  in  Article  80,  the  flnniuial  estimate,  prnp- 
eriy  classitied,  (if  the  expenditun-s  (if  tl.i-  armv 
shall  IH-  laid  iM'fore  the  federU  council  and  the 
diet  f(ir  their  informatidn. 

Article  •ji.  Xn  annual  report  of  the  expen- 
diture (if  all  the  receipts  (if  the  Empire  shalllH' 
rindcrcd  lo  tli.<  federal  oduucil  and  the  diet 
thniiiifh  tile  Clianiell.ir  (if  the  Empire. 

Article  73.  In  caws  of  extraonlinary  re- 
Hiurcments.  a  hian  may  Ih'  contracted  in  aecdpl- 
anie  wi'h  tlic  laws  nf  iIr.  Empiri'.  such  loan 
to  be  granted  liv  tlie  Emjiire. 
Addition  to  iection  XII. 
.'rtiilcsrtO  and  Tl  apply  to  the  expenditures 
for  the  Uiivarian  arniv  (mlvaecdnling  to  the  pm- 
vi.sidiis  of  111,,  addiliofi  to  sicii.m  .\l  of  tlie  treaty 
of  .NovcnilKT  -a.  IHVil;  and  article  7\i  only  so  far 
as  is  r((iiiire(l  to  inform  the  federal  coiinVil  and 
the  diet  of  the  assignment  to  Havana  of  the 
re(iiiired  sum  for  the  IJavarian  arniv. 

XI II. -Settlement  of  Disputes  and  Modes 
of  Punishment. 

Article  74.  Every  attempt  asainsi  the  exist- 
ence, the  integrity,  the  seeuritv,  or  tlic  eoristiiu. 
lidiidfthe  Herman  Empire;  flnallv.  aiiv  of  n«e 
iiimmilteil  ajrainsl  the  federal  ■(mihk  il  the 
(llcl.  a  rncnilLTof  ihe  federal  ((.iin.il,  orof  ihe 
diet,  a  niav'istrate  or  jiulillc  dtll(  i.il  of  the   Km- 


C0N8TITCTI0N  OF  ITALY. 

pire.  while  In  the  execution  of  his  duty  or 
reference  to  his  olfleial  position,  by  word 
ing,  printing,  signs,  or  caricatur«8,  aha 
judiciallv  investrgated,  and  upon  convi 
punished  in  the  several  states  of  the  Kit 
according  to  the  laws  therein  existing,  or  v 
shall  hereafter  ejiist  in  the  same,  sccordii 
which  laws  a  simiUr  offense  against  any  0 
the  states  of  the  Empire,  ita  constitutidn  ] 
Isture.  memben  of  iu  legislature,  authoriti 
otScials  is  to  be  judged. 

Article  75.    For  those  offenses,  speciBf 

Article  74,  against  the  Qerman  Empire  w 

if  committed  against  one  of  the  states  of  the 

pire,  would  be  deemed  high  treason,  the  sup 

court  of   appeals  of  the   three  free  Hang 

towns  at  Lubeck  shall  be  the  competent  d 

Ing  tribunal  In  the  first  and  last  resort 

definite  provisions  as  to  the  competency  and 

:  proceedings  of  the  superior  court  of  api 

I  shall    be    adopted    by    the   Legislature  of 

i  Empire.      Until  the  passage  of  a  law  of 

I   Empire,  the  existing  competency  of  the  o 

In  the  nspective  states  of  the  Empire  and 

provisions  relative  to  the  proceedings  of  I 

;  courts,  shall  remain  in  force. 

I      Article  »6.     Disputes  between  the  diffe 

i  states  of  the  confederation,  so  far  as  tliev 

j  not  of  a  private   nature,  and  thenfnre  in 

I  decided  by  the  competent  authorities  nhal 

j  settled  by  the  fe<lera(  council,  at  the  re.iui- 

I  one  of  the  parties.     Disputes  relating  to  cm 

tutional   matters  in  those  of  the  states  of 

confederation     vhose   constitution    c.iiiiaiiis 

provision  for  the  .settlement  of  such  diircnn 

shall  be  adjusted  by  the  federal  cduniil,  at 

re.juest  of  one  of  the  parties,  or,  if  tliis  cann.ii 

ddiie,    they  shall   be  settled  by  the  leirislai 

j   jKiwer  of  the  confederation. 

j       Article  77.     If  in  one  of  the  stat.  s  .  f 

confisleration  justice  shall  be  deTii(,l,  and 

sufficient  relief  can  be  procured  by  i(  "il  m( 

I  ures,  it  shall  Ik-  the  duty  of  the  federal  (.mi 

to  n-ceive  substantiated  complaints   c.nura 

denial  or  restriction  of  justiw.  wiiiih  urc  to 

judged  according   to  the  constituiioa  an.j 

existing   laws  of   the   resiwctivt;  stales  (.1 

confederation,  and  thenupon  to  obtain  judi< 

relief  from  the  confederate   gdvenmieni  in  ! 

mallei    which  shall  have  given  risi' t.i  itn'.i 

plaint 

XIV.— General  ProTition. 

.Vinendnients  (if  the  constitution  kliall  Iw  ma 

by    legislative'   enactment.     They  shall   1*  n 

sideted    as    rejected    when    14  Vd.  <    m   11 

against  them  lu  the  fwleral  cuineil     Tlif  pi 

visions  of   the   constitutidn  ..f   li.e    Kniplrc 

which  lived    righ's  of   individual  »i  ,1  s    .f  t 

(■(.nfedenii.in    are   eslHlilished    in    ih.ir  r.lali 

to  tlie  wliole.  shall  only  Ik'  nKKlith.l   wlili  [ 

cdiisenl  of  iliat  slate  of  "the  confudcratiiinwU 

is  iiniiiediately  concerned. 


b^ia^ 


CONSTITUTION  OF  ITALY. 


The  kingdom  of  Italy  is  governed  under  the 
consiiuiiioii  gi  iiiol  In  imh,  ),,•  t  harles  Allirt, 
tx>  hU  Sanliiiiuii  siihlects.  Tlie  fcHn-.vi:!--  trm;-- 
l.'itiim,  by  Drs.  Mml-jiv  and  l^lWe,  of  ifi,.  luj. 
verslty  of  IVonsyhauia,  is  from  the  "  Annals  of 
the  Ameri(»u  Academy  of  I'olltlciU  and  Social 


tVienee,'  Novemlier,  li*M.  Theconstilulionhi 
no  jirovision  for  its  own  amendmcni  .  Iml  m.> 
liHriiii  Jiirisis  hdid  that  it  fan  U  ..1.,.  li.i..!  s 
rarilanieiit.  with  the  king's  approval  V«t.i 
the  translators  nniark  iu  their  hisi..rl.al  ii 
troiiuctiou,    an   immutable   et.nsii.iin.u  U  a 


coNSTmrnoN  of  italt. 

iMtniment  "contrary  to  the  true  conception  of 
an  or^nic  law.  As  a  matter  of  fact  several 
provi»i"Ms  have  been  either  abrogated  or  ren- 
dered null  and  void  through  diange  of  con- 
ditioiii.  Thui  the  tecond  ciauae  of  Article  28, 
requiring  the  previous  consent  of  the  bishop  for 
the  printing  of  Bibles,  prayer  books  and  cate- 
diisms,  baa  been  rendered  of  no  effect  through 
lubaequent  laws  regulating  the  relations  of 
rhurch  and  State.  Article  76,  which  provides 
for  the  establishment  of  a  communal  militia, 
has  been  abrogated  by  the  military  law  of  June 
14.  1874.  The  fact  that  no  French-speaking 
provinces  now  form  part  of  the  kingdom  has 
mwie  Article  62  a  dead-letter.  8o  also  Articles 
(3  and  5S  are  no  longer  strictly  adhered  to.  At 
all  events  their  observance  baa  been  suspended 
(or  the  time  being. " 

The  translated  text  of  the  Constitution  is  as 
follows: 

(Cbsries  Albert,  by  the  Grace  of  God, 
Eing  of  Sardinia,  Cyprus  and  Jerusalem,  Duke 
of  savoy,  Genoa,  Monferrato,  Aosta,  of  the 
Chlablese,  Oenovese  and  of  Piacenza ;  Prince  of 
Piedmont  '.id  Oneglia;  Marquis  of  Italy, 
Saluzzo,  Ivrea,  Susa,  Ceva,  of  the  Maro,  of  Oris- 
tano,  of  Ccsaua  and  Savona ;  Count  of  Moriana, 
Geneva.  Nice,  Tenda,  I{omonte,  AstI,  Alexandria, 
Gofenno.  Novsra,  Tortona,  Vigevami  and  of 
Bobliio;  llanin  of  Vaud  and  Faucieny;  LonI  of 
Vercelll.  I'iniTolo,  Tarantasla,  of  the  LonuUina 
mil  i>f  till'  Vallcv  of  Sesia,  etc.,  etc.,  etc.) 
With  the  liilellty  of  a  king  ami  the  affection  of 
>  lutlier,  we  are  alwut  to-day  to  f ulllll  all  that 
we  promised  our  most  Ix-lovcd  subjects  in  our 
procliimatlon  of  the  eighth  of  last  February, 
»herel)y  we  desired  to  show,  In  the  niiilst  of  the 
eitriiiinlinary  events  then  transpiring  through- 
out the  cnuntry,  how  much  our  cuntidente  in 
our  siilijiits  intreawd  with  the  gmvity  of  the 
fituatioii,  iiml  how.  oi^nsulting  (inly  tlieimpulse 
(if  our  liciirt.  Wf  Imil  fully  determined  to  make 
llirlr roiicliiioii  ii.nforin  to  the  spirit  of  the  times 
an.l  to  the  Interests  and  dignity  of  the  nation. 
Wf,  lielleving  llmt  the  liroad  ami  permanent 
representative  luslltutiims  established  by  tills 
fumUmentttl  statute  an'  the  furest  means  of 
ceminling  the  Uinds  of  Indissoluble  affeetion 
that  bind  toourrniwn  a  pwple  that  has  so  often 
glrin  us  ample  proof  of  their  faithfulness. 
oMlcnce  iind  love,  have  determined  to  simetlon 
aoil  promulgate  this  statute.  We  believe. 
furtlur.  thiit  (itid  will  bless  our  grenl  intentions! 
•Oil  that  this  free,  strong  and  ha'ppv  nation  will 
erer«hii\v  itself  nicre  des<-rving  of  Us  ancient 
fame  ami  thus  merit  a  glo.ious  future.  There- 
.'ore,  We,  with  our  full  knowledge  and  royal 
authorllv  ami  with  the  advice  of  our  Council, 
have  ..nliihied  and  do  hereby  onlalu  and  deelare 
In  tone  the  fuiiilamvntal  perpetual  and  IrreviKa- 
We  siiilule  ami  law  of  tlie  monarchy  as  follovs- 

Article  I.  The  Catholic,  Apostolic  ami  Iloman 
relliiloii  is  the  only  religion  of  the  State  [see 
U«-  of  the  Papal  Guarantees,  under  P.tPACV 
A  I>  INTO  (p,ige  2478)1.  Other  cults  now  ex 
IKlnii  are  tolerated  conformably  to  the  law. 

Article  a.  The  Stale  is  governed  by  a  repre- 
leniailve  monarchical  government,  and  the 
thtom- 1>  herHitarv  :^ccfiM!ng  t<i  t!ir  Si»ljr  Uw 

Articis  J.  The  legislative  power  shall  be  exer- 
cjjfd  collectively  by  the  King  and  the  two 
Uambert.  the  S«nat«  and  Uia  Chamber  of 
Ufputles, 


CONSTITUTION  OF  ITALY. 

Article  4.  The  penon  of  the  King  If  Mend 
and  inviolable. 

Article  5.  To  the  King  alone  Lelongt  the 
executive  power.  He  is  the  supreme  head  of 
the  State;  command*  all  land  and  naval  force*; 
declares  war;  makes  treaties  of  peace,  alliance, 
commerce  and  other  treaties,  communicating 
them  to  the  Chambers  as  soon  a«  the  interest  and 
security  of  the  State  permits,  ic<<ompanying 
such  notice  with  opportune  explanations;  pro- 
vided that  treaties  involving  flnancUl  obligations 
or  change  of  State  territory  shall  not  take  effect 
until  they  have  received  the  consent  of  the 
Chambers. 

Article  6.  The  King  appolnto  to  all  the  office* 
of  the  St  'e  and  makes  the  necessary  decree* 
and  regui  -lon*  for  the  execution  of  the  law*, 
provided  i  -at  such  decree*  do  not  suspend  or 
modlfjr  their  observance. 

Article  7.  The  King  alone  sanctions  and  pro- 
mulgat  1  the  lawa 

Article  8.  The  King  may  grant  pardon*  and 
commute  sentences. 

Article  9.  The  King  convoke*  the  two  Cham- 
bers each  year.  He  may  prorogue  their  session* 
and  dissolve  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  which 
case  he  shall  convoke  a  new  Chamber  within  a 
period  of  four  months. 

Article  10.  The  initiative  in  legislation  be- 
longs both  to  the  King  and  the  two  Houses.  All 
bills,  however,  imposing  taxes  or  relating  to  the 
budget  shall  first  be  presented  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies. 

Article  n.  The  King  shall  attain  hi*  majority 
upon  completion  of  his  eighteenth  year. 

Article  13.  During  the  King's  minority,  the 
Prince  who  is  his  nearest  relative  in  the  order  of 
Burcession  to  the  throne,  shall  be  regent  of  the 
realm,  provided  he  lie  twcnty-ono  years  of  age. 
Article  13.  Should  the  Prince  upon  whom  the 
regency  devolves  be  still  in  his  minority  and  this 
duty  pass  to  a  more  distant  relative,  the  regent 
who  actuallv  takes  offlce  shall  continue  in  the 
same  until  the  King  becomes  of  age. 

Article  14.  In  the  absence  of  male  relatives, 
the  regency  devolves  upon  the  Queen-Mother. 

Article  15,  In  the  event  of  the  prior  (leccasa 
of  the  tJueen-Mother,  the  regent  shall  lie  elected 
by  the  legislative  Chamliers,  convoked  within 
ten  days  by  the  Ministers  of  the  Crown. 

Article  16.  The  preceding  provisions  In  refer- 
ence to  the  regency  are  also  applicable  In  case 
tlio  King  has  attained  his  majority,  but  is  phy*- 
Ically  iueii liable  of  reigning.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstau< .  ■.,  If  the  heir  presumptive  to  the  throne 
be  eighteen  years  of  age.  he  shall  be  regent  of 
full  rijtht. 

Article  17.  The  Queen-Mother  has  charge  of 
the  education  of  the  King  until  he  has  com- 
pleted Ills  seventh  year;  from  this  time  on  hi* 
guardianship  passes  into  the  hands  of  the  regent. 
Article  18.  All  righu  pertaining  to  the  civil 
power  In  matters  of  ecclesiastical  benefices  and 
in  the  execution  of  all  regulations  whatsoever 
coming  from  foreign  countrie*  shall  bv  exercised 
by  the  King. 

Article  19.  The  civil  list  of  the  Crown  shall 
remain,  during  the  present  reign,  at  an  amount 
ftjual  !•)  tiit?  svrfftge  vt  the  same  for  the  past 
ten  years.  The  King  shall  continue  to  have  the 
use  of  the  royal  palaces,  villas,  gardens  and 
their  appurtenances,  and  also  of  all  chattels  in- 
tended for  the  use  of  the  .^rown,  of  wbicb  • 


ii«< 


■JK 

ii. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  ITALY. 

ipeedy  ioTentory  ■hall  be  madr  hy  a  respoosible 

iture  thi  pre- 

il  be  fixed  for 

t  Legislature 

lo  the  throne. 

lie  King  pos- 

n)  his  private 

whicli  he  mav 

tttion  Mr  gnuui- 

The  King  may 

y  either  by  deed 


!     * 


ministerial  department.  In  t 
scribed  dotation  of  the  Cronr 
tl»e  duration  of  each  reign  by 
sul)se()uent  to  the  King  s  ac' 
Article  ao.  The  proper!  ^ 
sesses  in  his  own  right,  si 
patrimony,  togetlier  with 
acquire  title  eitlier  for  a  r 
tously  in  the  course  of  his 
dispose  of  his  private  pati 
or  will  exempt  from  the  pr.v  isions  of  tlie  civil 
law  lis  to  the  amount  thus  disposable.  In  all 
oilier  cases,  the  King's  patrimony  is  subject  to 
the  lawstliat  govern  other  property. 

Article  3i.  The  law  shall  provide  an  annual 
civil  list  for  V.  heir  apparent  to  the  throne 
when  he  hiis  attained  his  niajority.  and  also 
earlier  on  occasion  of  his  marriage;  for  tlie 
allowances  of  the  Princes  of  the  royal  family 
and  royal  1)Ij<h1  within  the  speciUfd  conditions; 
for  the  dowries  of  the  Princesses  and  for  the 
dowrit's  of  the  Queens. 

Article  33.  Upon  ascending  the  throne,  the 
Kiiij  shall  take  an  oath  in  the  presence  of  the 
two  (hanilK'rs  to  observe  faithfully  tlie  present 
constitution. 

Article  23.  The  regent  before  entering  on 
the  duties  of  tliat  otflce.  -.  ill  swear  tidelity  to 
the  King  and  faithful  ohsi  tvaiice  of  this  consti- 
tution and  of  tile  laws  of  tlic  State. 

Article  34.  AH  the  iiilialiitaiits  of  the  King- 
dom, whatever  their  rank  or  title,  shall  enjoy 
equality  iK'fore  the  law.  All  shall  e<iually  enjov 
civil  and  political  riglits  ami  In-  eligible  to  civil 
and  military  otBce,  except  as  otherwise  provideil 
by  law 

'Article  35.  All  shall  coiitriliute  without  dis- 
criniiiiaiion  1  .  the  bunlriis  of  the  State,  in  pro- 
p(.»rtlnn  to  tln'ir  [)oss4'Ssioiis. 

Article  36.  liHliviilual  lilierty  is  guaranteed. 
No  one  shall  be  urnsted  or  brought  to  trial  ex- 
cept in  rnsis  iinivid.'d  for  and  according  to  the 
fortns  I^rl■^(■riU■^l  bv  law 

Articles?.  I'liednniic  il.>  shall  be  Inviolable. 
No  lioiHe  sean-h  sli.ill  takr  place  except  in  the 
end .rcenient  of  law  anti  in  1  lie  manner  prescribeil 
by  law 

Article  38.  Tht!  press  sli.ill  be  free,  but  the 
law  may  suppress  abuses  of  this  freedom. 
Ni-vi-rlheless.  IJibles.  catechisms,  liturgical  and 
pru.r  books  shall  not  be  priiili-d  without  the 
previous  consent  of  the  bishop 

Article  29.  I'roperty  of  all  kinils  wliats.M-ver 
shall  !»■  iuMolable.  In  all  cases,  bowever,  where 
the  public  Wflfarc.  legally  asccnaine.l,  d<  iiiaiids 
it,  property  may  lie  iinideinriiil  and  tiansfc  rml 
in  >vli.ilc  or  in  part  after  a  just  iiiilemnily  has 
tieeu  paid  aei-ording  to  law. 

Article  30.  No  tax  shall  lie  levied  or  collected 
without  iln>  eohseiit  of  the  fhainbers  anil  the 
samtioii  of  the  King. 

Article  31.  The  public  debt  is  guaranteed. 
All  oiiii:r„|j,„„  i„.i  «,.,.„  ii„.  st^tp  n,„|  (^  credit- 
ors shrill  Ih>  inviotui/l^ 

Article  33.  The  h/tlii  to  peaceful  assembh , 
williou;  arms,  !;-.  ,<eogiii/ed.  subjict,  however, 
to  the  laws  that  may  regulate  the  exin-iscof  this 
privileir,'  iii  tUt>  jriterest  of  th-j  'lublic  welfaj;^ 
Ibis  privileu'  is  not  applicable,  however,  to 
meetings  in  public  places  or  places  ojieii  to  the 
public,   which   shall  remain 


police  law  and  ri'gulntion 


entirely  siitiject  to 


CONSTITUTION  uP  ITALY 

Article  33.  The  Senate  aiuU  be  compote 
members,  having  attained  the  age  of  1 
years,  appointed  for  life  by  the  King,  wit 
limit  of  numbers.  Tbey  shall  be  selected 
the  following  categories  of  citizens:  1  j 
bishops  and  BUhops  of  the  State.  3.  The  F 
dent  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  3.  Depi 
after  having  8erve<i  in  three  LeKialatutw 
after  six  years  of  membership  in  the  Chaml* 
Deputies.  4.  Ministers  of  State.  .'5.  tjecreu 
to  Ministers  of  State.  6.  Ambassadors  7 
voys  Extraordinary  after  three  vinr^  of  . 
service.  8.  The  First  Presidents'.!  t\K  Cn 
of  Cassation  and  of  the  Chamber  of  Accou 

9.  The  First  Presidents  of  the  Courts  of  Apt 

10.  The  Attorncy-Oeneral  of  the  Courts  cif  i 
sation  and  the  Prosecutor-General,  after 
years  of  service.  11.  The  Presidents  of 
Chambers  of  the  Courts  of  Appeal  after  tl 
years  of  service.  12.  The  Councillors  of 
Courts  of  Cassation  and  of  the  Chamber  of 
counts  after  five  years  of  service.  13  The 
Tocates-Ocneral  and  Fiscals-Oeneral  of  theCoi 
of  Appeal  after  five  years  of  service  14. 
military  officers  of  tfie  hind  and  imval  foi 
Willi  title  of  general.  Major-generals  and  n 
admirals  after  five  years  of  active  service  In 
capacity.  I,').  The  Councillors  of  State  s 
five  years  of  service.  16.  Tlie  menil)ers  of 
Councils  of  DIvishai  after  three  elections  toti 
presiileney.  17.  The  Provincial  Govirnoisi 
tendenti  generali)  after  seven  years  of  strr 
1^.  Members  of  the  Iloyal  AcHilcmy  of  .S-ie 
of  seven  years  standing.  "l9.  Ordinnrv  member 
tlie  Superior  Council  of  Public  InstVuclion  ai 
seven  years  of  service.  20.  Those  who  iiytl 
services  or  eminent  merit  have  doiu'  honor 
their  country.  21.  Persons  who,  for  at  le 
three  years,  have  paid  diri'ct  propirtvoroccu 
tion  taxes  to  the  amount  of  8,(KKI  lire 

Article  34.  The  Princes  of  tlie  Itovul  Fait 
shall  be  memliers  of  the  Si'iiale  "riii  v  »1 
take  rank  Inimeiiiately  after  the  I'resiileni"  Ti 
shall  en'er  the  Senate  at  the  age  of  twemjH 
and  have  a  vote  at  twenty  live. 

Article  35.  The  President  and  Vice  Preside 
of  the  Senate  shall  lie  appointed  by  the  Kii 
but  the  Senate  chooses  fnmi  anioTii;  ||»  0 
inemt>ers  it-s  secretaries. 

Article  36.  The  Senate  mav  be  <  iin«tituiivl 
High  Court  of  Justice  bv  decree  of  the  Kl 
for  judging  crime?  ,f  high  treason  aii.l  i\iitni| 
upon  the  safety  of  the  State,  also  fur  tryl 
>liiMsters  placed  in  accusation  by  \\w  fliailil 
of  Deputies.  When  acting  in  this  ciipndty,  t 
Senate  is  not  a  political  IhmIv.  It  shall  rot  III 
"iciiipy  ilmdf  with  any  other  judiiial  m«il( 
I  ban  tlmsi"  for  which  it  was  convened:  anyrli 
anion  Is  null  and  void. 

Article  ;7.  No  Senator  shall  be  iirrested  e 
repi  by  virtue  of  an  order  of  the  S  imte.  iinle 
Incases  of  Hagrant  commission  of  rriine  T; 
Senate  slutll  lie  the  sole  judge  of  the  Impute 
misdenx  aiHirs  of  lljt  inemlKrH. 

Article  38.  I.,<>gal  doriiments  ns  10  birtb 
marriages  awl  deaths  in  the  Koval  Family  «lu 
be  prest'iited  to  the  Senate  and  deposiusl  bj  tti 
Ixsiy  aiixng  its  archives. 

A'rticle  39.  Th*"  rhH-tiv-  Chairi'-^  r  i*  •----tip^ 
of  deputies  chosen  by  the  ek'ctorul  collegei  1 
provided  bylaw.  ['The  election  law  loDg  I 
force  was  that  of  Decemtier  17.  Ifido.  wbloli  »i 
subsequently   modified   in    .Inly     l^T')    sod  I 


57ti 


II 


CONSTITUTION  OP  ITALY. 

MiT,  1877.  Id  January,  1889,  a  compreheniire 
electorel  reform  wu  inaugurated  by  which  the 
electoml  age  quallQcatioa  was  reduced  from 
twentyfive  to  twenty-one  years,   and  the  tax 

riliDcatioD  to  an  annual  payment  of  nineteen 
eigbty  centesimi  as  a  minimum  of  direct 
nies.  Tills  law  introduced  a  new  provision  re- 
quiring of  electors  a  Icnowledge  of  reading  and 
writing.  It  is  an  elaborate  law  of  107  articles. 
The  '-revisions  relating  to  the  elections  by 
genei  ticltet  were  further  revised  by  law  of 
Jl^v  1  .id  deertc  of  June,  18b3.  and  the  text  of 
tc;  wliole  law  was  co-ordinated  "  ilh  the  preced- 
ing laws  by  Royal  Decree  of  Septf  inber  24, 1888. 
it  was  again  modidcd  May  Stb,  1891,  by  the 
iboUti'.p  of  elections  on  general  tickets  and  the 
creation  'f  a  Commission  for  the  territorial 
dirisicin  of  the  country  into  electoral  colleges. 
Tbe  number  of  elect-  •*]  colleges  is  at  present 
fiieil  «t  508,  each  electing  one  Deputy.  Twelve 
trticies  of  this  law  of  1882,  as  thus  ameutl  d, 
lure  li«en  again  amended  by  a  law  dated  June 
28, 1^193.  prescribing  further  reforms  in  the  cot- 
'.rol  and  supervision  of  elections,  and  by  law  of 
July  11.  lfl)4,  on  the  revision  of  electoral  and 
registration  lists." — Footnote.) 

Article  40.  No  person  shall  be  a  member  of 
the  Clianiber  who  is  not  a  subject  of  the  King, 
thirty  vears  of  age,  possessing  all  civil  and 
political  rit'lits  and  the  other  qualifications  re- 
quireil  by  law. 

Article  41.  Deputies  shall  represent  tbe  nation 
-  large  and  not  the  several  Provinces  from 
which  they  are  chosen.  No  binding  instructions 
nav  tlierefore  Ik."  given  by  the  electors. 

Article  42.  Deputies  shall  be  elected  for  a 
ttrm  of  tivi-  years;  their  power  ceases  ipso  Jure 
ut  the  t.xplraiiiin  of  this  iwriiKi. 

Article  43.  The  President.  Vice  presidents  and 
Si-"\iarii 9 of  the  Cliambir  of  Deputies  shall  be 
ih(.a.|]  frcini  among  its  own  nieniliers  at  the  be- 
i'iiiiiiiiir  of  each  session  fur  the  entire  session. 

Article  44.  If  a  Deputy  oeiises  for  any  reason 
JTliMsiK-vcr  to  perform  his  duties,  the  electoral 
nilire  tiiat  cIhwc  him  shall  Iw  convened  at  once 
»|r.>((il  with  a  new  election. 

Article  ^5.  I>«>putles  shall  be  privilecid  from 
irTKt  ■Innni;  the  sessions,  except  in  oases  of 
Ijitrant  lonimission  of  crime;  but  uo  Deputy 
mu  ■  III.  oriHi^lit  to  trial  in  criminal  nnitters  with- 
out till  ]irevii>iis  consent  of  the  Chamber. 

Article  46.  No  wammt  of  arrest  for  debts 
may  !»■  cxeeiited  nfrainst  11  Deputy  during  the 
lessionsof  tlft.  Cliainlier,  nor  within  a  period  of 
Iht\i'  Weeks  prei  eiliiTg  or  following  the  same. 
I  ■Tliis  article  baa  lieen  pnictlcally  abolished  by 
ihe  Manrini  law  of  Deeinilier  6.  1877,  doing 
«Kiiy  with  [H-rsonal  arrest  for  debts. "— Foot- 
null'  ] 

Article  47.  The  Chamlwr  of  Deputies  shall 
have  |»nver  to  impeach  Ministers  of  the  Crown 
snd  t„  liring  them  to  trial  before  the  High  Court 

of  .lusIilT. 

Article  48:  Tlie  sessions  of  the  Senate  pnd 
lliaiuthTof  Deputies  shall  begin  and  end  nt  the 
anie  tlnie,  and  every  meeting  of  one  Cusmber, 
«t  a  time  when  the  other,  is  not  In  session,  Is  II- 
•(tal  and  its  acU  wholly  null  and  vokl. 

A'*'''!*  49.  Seiiaturs  and  Deputies  befi.re  en- 
leflng  upon  tbe  duties  of  their  office  shall  take 
uiosih  of  fideUty  to  tbe  King  and  swear  to  ob- 
•trve  fsi  jfully  tie  Constltutron  and  laws  of  tb« 
BUI*  tod  to  futam  ttwir  duties  with  tiia  joint 

^  R- 


CONSTITUTION  OF  ITALY, 

welfare  of  King  and  country  aa  the  sole  end  In 

view. 

Article  50.  The  ofBce  of  Senator  or  Deputy  does 
not  entitle  to  any  compensation  or  remuneration. 

Article  51.  Senators  and  Deputies  shall  not  be 
held  responsible  in  any  other  place  for  opinions 
expressed  or  votes  given  in  the  Chambers. 

Article  52.  The  sessions  of  the  Chambers  shall 
be  public.  Upon  the  written  request  of  ten  mem- 
bers secret  sessions  may  be  held. 

Article  53.  No  session  or  vote  of  either  Cham- 
ber shall  be  legal  or  valid  unless  an  absolute 
majority  of  iu  members  is  present  [This  article 
is  not  observed  in  actual  parliamentarv  practice. 
—Foot-note.] 

Article  54.  The  action  of  either  Chamber  on 
any  question  shall  be  determined  by  a  majority 
of  tlie  votes  cast. 

Article  55.  All  bills  shall  be  submitted  to 
committees  elected  by  each  House  for  pielimi- 
naiy  examination.  Any  proposition  discussed 
and  approved  by  one  Chamber  shall  be  trana- 
mitted  to  the  other  for  iU  consideration  and  ap- 
proval ;  after  passing  both  Chambers  it  shall  be 
presented  to  the  King  for  his  sanction.  Bills 
shall  be  discussed  article  by  article. 

Article  s*.  Any  bill  rejected  by  one  of  the 
three  legislative  powers  cannot  again  be  intro- 
duced during  the  same  session. 

Article  57.  Kvery  person  who  shall  have  at- 
tained his  majority  has  the  right  to  send  peti- 
tions to  the  Chambers,  which  in  turn  must  order 
tliem  to  be  examined  lyr  a  committee;  on  report 
of  the  committee  each  House  sliall  decide  whether 
they  are  to  be  taken  inU)  consideration,  and  if 
voU'd  in  the  affirmative,  they  shall  be  referred  to 
the  competent  Minister  or  shall  be  deposited  with 
a  Government  Department  for  proper  action. 

Article  jS.  No  petition  may  be  presented  in 
person  to  ei.hcr  Chamber.  No  persons  except 
the  constituted  authorities  shall  have  the  right 
to  submit  petitions  in  their  collective  capacity. 

Article  59.  The  Chambers  shall  not  receive 
any  deputJition,  nor  give  hearing  to  other  than 
their  own  members  and  the  tlinlsters  and  Com- 
missioners of  the  Government. 

Article  60.  Each  Chamber  shall  be  sole  Judge 
of  the  qualifications  and  elections  of  its  own 
members. 

Article  61.  The  Senate  as  well  as  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  shall  make  its  own  rules  and  regu- 
lations respecting  its  methods  of  prooeilure  in 
he  (.trforniauce  of  its  respective  duties. 

Article  63.  Italian  shall  lie  the  official  lan- 
guage of  the  Chambers.  The  use  of  French 
shall,  however,  be  perndttcd  to  those  members 
coming  from  French  sneaking  districts  an  '  to 
other  members  in  reiilying  to  the  same. 

Article  63.  Votes  sl'mll  lie  taken  by  risii  by 
division,  and  by  secret  ballot.  The  latter  n^  uod, 
however,  shall  always  l)e  employed  for  t;  j  final 
vote  on  a  law  and  In  all  cases  of  a  personal 
nature. 

Article  64.  No  one  shall  bold  the  offlce  of 
Senator  and  Deputy  at  the  same  time. 

Article  65.  The  King  appoints  and  dlimlnes 
bis  ministers. 

Article  66.  The  HInisten  shall  have  no  vote 
iu  ellher  Chamber  unless  they  are  members 
thereof.  They  shall  bare  entrance  to  both 
Cbambeni  and  must  be  heard  upon  request. 

Article  6f .  The  Miniiten  shall  be  retpontible. 
Law*  and  decreeaof  tiM  (OTMumtnt  thall  not 


L 


I 


ri.iii 


)  ■ 


m 


V 


'■<  f 


m^ 


CONSTITUTION  OF  ITALY. 

take  effect  until  they  shall  have  received  the 

signature  of  a  Minister. 

Article  68.  Justice  emanates  from  the  King 
ami  shall  be  mlniiuistered  in  his  name  by  the 
Judges  he  apiMints. 

Article  69.  Judges  apjiointed  by  the  King 
except  Cantonal  or  District  Judges  (di  manda- 
Juento),  shall  not  be  removed  after  three  years 
of  service 

Artirl- 70.  Courts,  tribimals  .nd  judges  are 
retain.  ,  at  present  existing,  Xo  modifica- 
tion shiL.i  be  intrcHluced  e.\ce|it  by  law. 

Article  71.  Xn  one  shall  lie  taktn  from  his 
ordinary  legal  jurisdiction.  It  is  thcrcfurc  not 
lawful  to  create  e.\traordinary  tribunals  or  com- 
missions. 

Article  72.  The  priH-i-edinirs  of  tribunals  in 
civil  cases  and  the  hcarings^iu  criminal  cases 
shall  l)e  public  as  provided  by  law. 

Article  73.  The  intcrpri'tation  of  the  laws,  in 
the  form  obligatory  upon  all  citizens,  belongs 
exclusively  to  the  legislative  power 

Article  74.  Conununal  and  provincial  institu- 
tions and  till'  Ixiunilarics  of  the  coninmnes  and 
provincis  shall  lie  regulated  by  law. 

Article  75.  The  military  conscriptions  shall  be 
regulatiii  by  law. 

Article  76.  A  commimal  ndlitia  shall  be  es- 
tablished on  a  basis  tixi^d  by  law. 

Article  77.  The  State  retains  its  flag,  and  the 
blue  ciH'kiide  is  the  only  national  one. 

Article  78,  The  knightly  order  now  in  exist- 
ence shall  U' maintained  with  their  endowments, 
whii  li  shall  not  be  used  for  other  purposes  than 
those  specified  in  the  acts  bv  whiiu  thev  were 


CONSTITtlTI'    .  OF  JAPAN 

established.  The  King  may  create  other  ord 
and  prescribe  their  constitutions. 

Article  79.  Titles  of  the  nobility  are  guar 
teed  to  those  who  have  a  right  to  thenj  1 
King  may  confer  new  titles. 

Article  80.  No  one  may  receive  orders  tit 
or  i>ensioDS  from  a  foreign  iwwer  without  1 
King's  consent. 

Article  81.  All  laws  contrary  to  the  nroi 
ions  of  the  present  constitution  are  hereliv  ah 
gated. 

Given  at  Turin  on  the  fourth  day  of  Mardi 
the  year  of  Our  Lord  o  le  thousand  ei-lit  hi 
dred  and  forty-eight,  and  of  Our  lid -a  1 
eighteenth. 

Traniitory  Provisions. 

Article  82.  This  statute  shall  go  int„  ,.ff, 
on  the  day  of  the  first  mwting  of  th.-  Cliami,. 
which  shall  take  place  Immediatelv  alter  t 
elections.  Until  that  time  urgent  pu'hli,  «,rvi 
shall  be  provide<l  for  by  royal  ordinaiK  ,-*  , 
cording  to  the  mode  and  form  now  in  vnin 

ex<-eptin^'.  however,  the  ratifications  I  ri-c 

trations  in  the  courts  which  are  froni  nun- 
abolished. 

,  *^t'.*'*  *3-  lo  the  execution  of  this  slam 
the  King  reseives  to  himself  the  Hdit  to  ma 
the  laws  for  the  press,  elections,  conuuiinal  mi 
tia  and  organization  of  the  Coiiiuil  nf  siai 
I  ntil  the  publication  of  the  laws  for  the  mr 
the  regulations  now  in  force  on  this  .1  hif 
remain  valid.  ' 

Article  84.  The  Ministers  are  cntrusiiil  wit 
and  are  responsible  for  the  exi-cutini,  ami  li 
observance  of  these  transitory  provisions. 


This  text  of  the  Constitutioi  .  ailgatcd  by 

the  Kniperor,  February  11,  "H:^!)  „„  »  p„ui. 

idilet  published  jt  Johns  Kopk  .  .niversitv: 
Chapter  I. 

Article  I.  Thi>  Kinpire  of  Japan  shall  be 
reia:ne<l  overand  governe.l  bv  a  line  of  Emperors 
unbroken  for  agj's  eternal. 

Article  11.  The  Imperial  Throne  shall  Ik- suc- 
ceeded to  by  Imperial  male  descendants,  acconl. 
ing  tothe  provisionsof  the  Imiicrial  IIousi'  Law 

Article  HI.  The  Emperor  is  sacred  and  in- 
violalih-. 

Article  IV.  The  Emperor  is  the  head  of  the 
h-  :>ire,  combining  in  Himself  the  riithts  of  sov- 
er.  .^nty,  and  exercises  them,  according  to  the 
pnivisiims  of  the  present  Constitution, 

Article  V.  The  Eiu|)eri>r  exercisi-s  the  legis- 
lative power  with  the  consent  of  the  Imperial  Diet, 

Article  VI,  The  Emperor  gives  sam-tion  to 
laws,  and  orders  them  to  be  promulgateil  and 
executed. 

Article  VII.  The  Emperor  convokes  the  Im- 
IM-rial  Diet,  oiK-ns,  closes,  and  prorogues  it  and 
dissolves  the  House  of  Hepresentatives 

Article  VIII.  The  Emperor,  in  conseqiienco 
of  an  urgent  necessity  to  maintain  public  safety 
or  to  avert  public  calamities,  issues,  when  the 
ImixTial  Diet  is  not  sitting.  Imperial  Onllnances 
in  the  plaix-  of  law.  Such  Imperial  Ordinances 
are  to  b.-  laid  iwf.-^ro  tl,^  luiptria!  Diet  at  its 
next  session,  and  when  the  Diet  drx's  not  approve 
the  said  Ordinanci-s.  the  Government  shall  declare 
them  to  be  invalid  for  the  future. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  JAPAN. 


578 


Article  IX.  The  Emperor  issues  .ir  cau* 
to  be  issued,  the  Ordinances  neces,sarv  f.jr  tl 
carrying  out  of  the  laws,  or  for  the  iiiaiMi.-naii, 
of  the  public  peace  anil  order,  and  for  tli,-  up 
motion  of  the  welfare  of  the  subjei-ts  Dm  t 
<  Inlinance  sliall  in  any  way  alter  anv  of  the i.\i. 
Iiig  laws 

Article  X.  Thi  Emperor  determines  the  u 
ganizatiou  of  the  different  branches  of  th.a. 
ministration,  ami  the  salaries  of  all  civil  an 
military  ofBcers.  and  appoints  ami  dismisses  ili 
s.-iine.  Exceptions  especially  provi.hil  |,,r  inth 
present  Constitution  or  in  otlier  laws  sliall  lit  i 
iicconlance  with  the  rt-spective  provi^inusd^ai 
ing  thereon  I, 

Article  XI.  The  Emperor  has  the  siiim>m 
command  of  the  Army  and  Navy 

Article  XII.  The  EmiHror'determim-s  th 
organization  and  pea<T  stjmding  of  th.  .Vriiivam 
Navy, 

Article  XIII.  The  Emperor  declares  war 
makes  peatv.  and  concludes  treaties. 

Article  XIV.  The  Emperor  proclaims  !h( 
law  of  siege.  The  conditions  and  elTi-.i^of  ihi 
law  of  sic)n- shall  be  determined  by  hi« 

Article  XV.  The  Emi>eror  <o'nfi rs  title  0 
nobility,  rank,  onlers,  and  other  marks  of  Imaor 

Article  XVI.  The  Emjieror  onlers  amni-str 
pardon,  commutation  of  punishment,  and  re 
habilitation. 

Article  XVII.  A  Regency  shall  he  institiit« 
In  conformity  with  the  provisions  of  the  lnii»rii 
House  Law,  The  Regent  shall  exercise  the 
powers  appertaining  to  the  Emperor  in  I  lis  nsme. 


COXSTITUTION  OF  JAPAN. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  JAPAN. 


Chapter  II. 

Article  XVIII.  The  conditloiu  Decenary  for 
boin);  a  Japsneie  subject  shall  be  determineu  by 
law. 

Article  XIX.  Japaoeie  subjects  may,  ac- 
cording 'M  qualiflcadons  detemuned  in  law  or 
ordinances,  oe  appointed  to  dvil  or  military 
offices  equally,  and  may  fill  any  other  public 

Offi.TH, 

Article  XX.  Japanese  subjects  are  amenable 
to  MTvice  in  the  Army  or  Navy,  according  to 
the  provisions  of  law. 

Article  XXI.  Japanese  subjects  are  amenable 
to  the  (liity  of  paying  taxes,  according  to  the 
provisions  of  law. 

Article  XXII.  Japanese  subjects  shall  bare 
tlie  liberty  of  aUxle  and  of  changing  the  same 
within  tlie  limits  of  law. 

Article  XXIII.  No  Japanese  subject  shall  be 
arasted.  detained,  trie<i,  or  punished,  unless  ac- 
conliutr  to  law. 

Article  XXIV.  No  Japanese  subject  shall  be 
deprivolof  his  right  of  being  tried  by  the  judges 
iletennincd  by  law. 

Article  XXV.  Except  in  the  cases  provided 
for  in  the  law,  the  house  of  no  Junauese  subject 
shall  be  entered  or  searched  without  his  con- 
scut. 

Article  XXVI.  Except  in  the  cases  mentioned 
ia  the  law,  the  sicreoy  of  the  letters  of  every 
Japaiii"*!-  subject  shall  remain  inviolate. 

Article  XXVII.  The  right  of  property  of 
fverj-  Japanese  subject  shall  remain  inviolate. 
.Measures  necessary  to  be  taken  for  the  public 
btnetit  shall  bi'  provided  for  by  law. 

Article  XXVIII.  Japanese  subjects  shall, 
within  limits  not  prejudicial  to  peace  and  order. 
auil  II'  t  antiigonistic  to  their  duties  as  subjects, 
tuj'iy  frcidutn  of  religious  belief. 

Article  XXIX.  Japaneiie  subj  ots  shall. 
within  the  limits  of  law,  enjoy  the  liberty  of 
spiTih.  writing,  publication,  public  meetings, 
auil  a^soeiations. 

Article  XXX.  Japanese  subjects  may  present 
petitiiins,  by  observing  the  proper  forius  of  re- 
sp«i.  and  by  complying  with  the  rules  specially 
pruviiliil  for  the  same. 

Article  XXXI.  The  provisions  contained  in 
thi'  pnsint  Chapter  shall  not  affect  the  exercise 
o(  the  powers  appertaining  to  the  Emperor  in 
timrs  of  war  or  in  casi's  of  a  national  emergency. 

Article  XXXII.  Each  and  every  one  of  the 
provisions  eoiitained  in  the  preceding  Articles  of 
the  present  I'hapter,  that  are  not  in  conHiet  with 
the  laws  or  th  ■  rules  and  discipline  of  the  .\rmy 
ami  .Navy,  shall  appiv  to  the  officers  and  men  of 
the  .Vrmy  and  of  the^avy. 

Chapter  III. 

Article  XXXIII.  The  ImperUl  Diet  shall 
consist  of  two  Iloutes,  a  House  of  Peers  and  a 
Hnise  of  Representatives. 

Article  XXXIV.  The  House  of  Peers  shall, 
in  an  cmlancH;  with  the  Onlinanee  courerniiig  the 
lliiise  of  Peers,  be  composed  of  the  memlH-rs  of 
the  Imperial  Family,  of  the  ortlers  of  nobilitv, 
and  ot  those  persons  who  have  been  nominated 
;„t:rp:,-.  ^,Y  !}.(.  Empcnir. 

Article  XXXV.  The  House  of  Representa- 
tives shall  be  composed  of  members  elected  bv 
the  people  according  to  the  proTiaioni  of  the  Law 
of  Election. 


Article  XXXVI.  No  one  can  at  one  and  the 
same  time  be  a  member  of  both  Houses. 

Article  XXXVII.  Ever)-  Uw  requires  the 
consent  of  the  Imperial  Diet. 

Article  XXXVIII.  Both  Houses  shall  vote 
upon  projects  of  law  submitted  to  it  by  the 
Government,  and  may  respectively  initiate  pto- 
i  ects  of  law 

Article  XXXIX.    A  Bill,  which  has  been  re- 

Iected  by  either  the  one  or  the  other  of  the  two 
louses,  shall  not  be  again  brought  in  during  the 
same  sessioi 

Article  \i^.  Both  Houses  can  make  repre- 
sentations to  the  Government,  as  to  laws  or  upon 
any  other  subject.  When,  however,  such  repre- 
sentations are  not  accejited,  they  cannot  be  made 
u  second  time  during  the  same  session. 

Article  XLI.  The  Imperial  Diet  shall  be  con- 
voked every  year. 

Article  ^Lll.  A  session  of  the  Imperial 
Diet  shall  last  during  three  mouths.  In  case  of 
necessity,  the  duration  of  a  session  may  be  pro- 
lougetl  by  Imperial  Order. 

Article  XLIII.  When  urgent  necessity  arises, 
an  extraordinary  ii"!«.ion  may  be  convoked,  in 
addition  to  the  ordinary  one.  Tlie  duration  of 
an  extraordinary  session  s'.all  be  determined  by 
ImjKrial  t)riler. 

Article  XLIV.  Tt  opening,  closing,  pro- 
ioniration  of  session,  and  prorogation  of  the 
Im[M'rial  Diet,  shall  be  effeeted  simultaneously 
for  both  Houses.  In  case  the  House  of  Heprc- 
sentatives  has  lieen  ordered  to  dissolvi-.  the  House 
of  Peers  shall  at  the  same  time  be  prorogued. 

Article  XLV.  When  the  House  of  Hepresen- 
tatives  has  been  ordered  ti.  dissolve,  lueinbeta 
shall  Iw  caused  by  Iniperiid  < 'rder  to  Im.' newly 
eleetetl.  and  the  new  House  shall  be  eiinvcked 
witliin  tive  months  from  the  day  of  'lis.s(iluii<)u. 

Article  XLVI.  Nodebat"ean  !»  o|K'ned  and 
no  vote  can  be  'aken  in  either  House  of  the  Im- 
perial Diet,  unless  not  less  than  one-third  of  the 
whole  number  of  the  mcmbiTS  thereof  is  present. 

Article  XLVII.  Votes  sliall  be  taken  in  both 
Houses  by  absolute  majority.  In  the  case  of  a 
tie  vote,  tlie  President  shall  have  the  easting  vote. 

Article  XLVIII.  The  delilierations  of  both 
Houses  shall  be  held  in  public.  The  deliberations 
may.liowever.upoudemaiidof  theGoveniment  or 
bvfesolutionof thellousi  .bebeldiiiseenlsittini:. 
'Article  XLIX.  Both  House's  of  the  Imperial 
Diet  may  respectively  present  addresses  to  the 
Empe'ror. 

Article  L.  Both  Houses  may  receive  peti- 
tions prewnted  by  subjects. 

Article  LI.  Both  Houses  may  enact,  besides 
what  is  provided  for  in  the  present  Constitution 
and  in  the  Law  of  the  Houses,  rules  neces.sary 
for  the  management  of  their  iutenial  affairs. 

Article  Lll.  Xo  menibei  of  either  House 
shall  be  held  res|xmsible  outside  the  respective 
Houses,  for  any  opinion  uttemi  or  for  any  vote 
given  in  the  House.  When,  however,  a  member 
himself  has  given  pidilicitj  to  his  opinions  by 
nublic  speecli.  by  docimients  In  printing  or  in 

iting.  or  by  any  other  similar  niei.ns.  he  shall, 
.:.  the  matter  'leamenable  to  the  general  law. 

Article  ulll.  The  memliers  of  both  Houses 
shall,  durins  the  srswion,  be  free  from  aireiit, 
unless  with  iIk'  consent  of  the  House,  except  in 
cases  of  flagrant  delict  j.  or  of  offences  count  cted 
with  a  sta  of  internal  commotion  or  with  a 
foreign  trouble. 


579 


L 


I' 


n 


H 


?  ■-■ 


•^■^'! 


mi 
m 


CONSTITUTION  OF  JAPAN. 

Article  LIV.  The  Mlniitem  of  Sute  and  the 
Deli-gate«  of  the  Guvernment  may,  at  any  time 
talte  scats  and  speak  in  either  House. 

Chapter  IV. 

Article  LV.  The  respective  Ministers  of 
State  shall  give  their  advice  to  th..'  Emperor 
and  lie  responsible  for  it.  All  Laws,  Imperial 
Orilinances,  and  Imperial  Hescripts  of  whatever 
kind,  that  relatr  to  the  affairs  of  the  state,  re- 
quire the  couutersignuture  of  a  Minister  of 
State. 

Article  LVI,  The  Privv  Council  shall,  in 
accordance  with  tlii'  provisions  for  the  orpaniza- 
tton  of  the  Privy  Council,  deliberate  upon  im- 
portant matters  of  State,  when  they  have  been 
consulted  by  the  Emperor. 

Chapter  V. 

Article  LVII.  The  Judicature  shall  be  exer- 
ciswl  by  the  Courts  of  Ijjw  accordini;  to  l-,w  in 
the  name  of  the  Emperor.  The  ori;aiiizutiim  of 
the  Courts  of  Law  shall  be  determined  bv  l.iw 

Article  LVIII.  The judj:.ssha!lbe»p"point..d 
from  among  those  who  possess  proper  qualiti- 
catious  accorriinjr  to  law.  No  judjje  shall  be 
deprived  of  his  iH)sition,  unliss  liv  wav  of  crimi- 
nal senteme  or  disciplinarv  punishment.  Uulis 
for  disciplinary  punishment  shall  be  determine.1 
by  l;iw. 

Article  LIX.  Trials  and  judjrments  of  a 
Court  sh.dl  be  conducted  puliliiiv.  When,  liow- 
ever,  there  exists  any  fear  that  such  publieitv 
niav  be  frcjudieial  to  pwice  and  unliT.  it  tii  tli'e 
niaintenanee  ,if  piiliji,-  nioralitv,  the  publir  trial 
may  be  suspcndi-il  liv  provision  of  law  or  bv  the 
diiisiim  or  the  C.iurt  ..f  l,;iw. 

Article  LX.  All  uiatt.rs  tli;it  f;,|!  wi-hin  the 
competency  of  a  spieial  Court  shall  be  siK-eiallv 
providiil  for  by  law.  ^ 

Article  LXl.  N'o  suit  at  law.  whiili  relates 
to  n-liis  all.L.'ed  to  have  been  infringed  by  the 
lejal  measures  of  the  exeeiitiv,>  aiitlioritic  s"  and 
whh'h  shall  eoiiie  within  tin-  e.nnpeteney  of  the 


Court  of  -Vcliiiinisiralivc  Litiirati 
est.ahlisheil  by  law.  shall  be  taken  e 
by  a  Court  of  i^iw. 


Ml    specially 
'guiiauee  o'f 


Chapter  VI, 

Article  LXII.     The  imposition  of 

or  till-  luchlirie.ition  of  the  rates  .of  ai 

one,  shall  lie  .leierriiined  bv  law.     Ho 

sueh  admiiiistraiive  feesor oihen-eveniK 


ni'W  ta.x 
exisliii:.' 
ever,  all 
liaviiu: 


the  iialureof  conipiMifjition  shall  not  fall  uitliin 
the  eatejr.iry  of  the  above  elausi-.  The  raisin  '  of 
national  loans  and  the  contracting- of  oflierlii 
bilitiestotheeharu'e  of  the  N'atio;,;,|  Treasiirv 
exrept  those  that  ar.>  proviMnI  in  the  H<ul",'t 
shall  rei|iiire  tln^  consent  of  the  Imperial  Diet  ' 
Article  LXIII.  The  taxes  l.vi,,!  at  present 
sli all,  in  S.1  far  as  thevar.'  not  rem.»lelle.|  bv  new 
law.  be  co,,eet,sl  aeconlini:  t..  the  ol,l  svsteni. 

Article  LXIV.  The,x,„.„,lit„reand  revenue 
of  the  >tate  re,|ii,re  the  consent  of  the  Imperial 
1)  et  by  imans  of  an  annual  Hudt'et.  Any  and 
all  expenditures  ..verp.ussirm  the  appropriations 
set  f.irth  in  the  Tilhs  and  I'ari!;raphs  of  the 
«udi,'it.or  that  are  not  providctl  for  in  the  Bud- 
get, shall  subse(|uentlv  reipiire  the  apnrobation 
of  the  Imperial  biet. 

Article  LXV,    The  Budget  shall  be  first  laid 
before  the  House  of  Uepn-sentatives 
Article  LXVI.    The  expenditures  of  the  Im- 


580 


CONSTITUTION  OF  JAI'A.V 

perial  House  shall  be  dcfra-ed  everv  veir 
the  National  Treasury,  ace  .-ding  to  the  r 
axed  amount  for  the  lame,  and  shall  nut  , 
the  consent  thereto  of  the  Imperial  Di,  i  ,. 
in  case  an  increase  thereof  is  found  iicdssn 
Article  LXVII.  Those  already  live.iT 
dilutes  based  by  the  Constitution  upon  ||„. 
ers  appertaining  to  the  Emperor,  and  «u( 
pcndituri'S  as  may  have  arisen  bv  the  c  ff, 
law  or  that  appertain  to  the  legal" oblieati, 
the  Government, shall  be  neither  reje.ieil  „ 
duced  by  the  Imperial  Diet,  without  the  c„ 
rence  of  the  Government. 

Article  LXVIIl.  In  order  to  meet  speci 
quirements.  the  Government  niav  ask  the  c„i 
of  the  Imp«"rial  Diet  to  a  certain  aiiH.iint 
(  ontinuing  E.vpeuditure  Fund,  for  n  mm, 
fixed  number  of  years. 

Article  LXIX.  Inonlerlosupplvdilicin 
which  are  unavoidable,  in  the  Budm  t  ii, 
meet  reqiiin-ments  unprovided  for  in  the « ,, 
Keserve  Fund  shall  be  provide<l  in  tl:.  Biu'l, 
Article  LXX.  When  the  Imperial  Hiet 
not  be  convokisl,  owing  to  the  external  r  ii 
nal  condition  of  the  country,  in  case  of  ur 
11(1^1  for  the  maintenance  of  public  safctv 
Government  may  take  all  neces.sarv  tiiia' 
mciisures,  by  means  of  an  Imperial  Onlini 
In  the  case  mentioned  in  the  pri cedinL'  (K 
tne  matter  shall  be  submitted  to  the  Inn, 
Diet  at  its  next  si'ssion,  and  its  approbations 
be  obtained  thereto. 

Article  LXXI.     When  the  Imperial  Diet 
not  voted  on  the  Budget,  or  when  th  ■  lii,) 
has  not  been  brought  into  actual  existeim 
Government  shall  carry  out  the  Budiiet  et 
pn-cedini;  vear. 

Article  LXXII.  The  final  accoimi  ,.' 
cxiienditurcs  and  nn-enue  of  tin'  .stale  -li,i; 
verified  anil  <-onfirnicd  tiy  thi  Hoanl  ,1  \;„ 
I  and  it  shall  1h'  submitted"tiy  the  (ioveniniii' 
'  the  ImiM'rial  Diet,  together  with  the  r.  i,..rt 
'  verification  of  the  .said  lioanl.  The  or-.mi/r 
I  and  competency  of  the  Board  of  Aiulft  -l,;,l| 
I  determiui'd  by  law  separately. 

Chapter  VIL 
Article  LXXI II.  When  it  has  l^-eonie  mr 
I  sary  in  futiin.'  to  aim-nd  the  provlsi.ms  .if  • 
pres.'ntC(mstitiition,  a  project  toiliai  etfrttsli 
be  submitt.-d  to  the  Imperial  Di<  t  by  In, jut 
Order.  In  the  above  ,  .,,se,  iieiilier  If  iim- e 
o|vn  the  debate,  uiilcs  m.t  less  ihau  iH,.!liir 
ot  the  whole  numlK-r  of  members  an'  prisrt 
and  no  amendnieiit  can  be  passeil  unless  „  n 
jontyof  not  lessthan  two-thirds ,,'f  th.  iiemlK 
lircsent  is  obtaiiie.1. 

Article  LXXIV.  X.,  nio<liticaii..n  ..f  •! 
Imperial  Ibm.s.'  I.a«  shall  !..■  rcjuind  h>U-.:: 
niittc-il  to  the  delilieration  of  the  Imperial  fii, 
No  pr.ivisioii  of  the  present  Con.stituti.'ii  ran  1 
nnslifi.-d  bv  till.  Imperial  House  Ijiw 

Article  LXXV.  No  m.»|itlcati..n  can  1*  i: 
tri<lMce(l  into  the  Constitution,  or  int..  thelniji 
rial  House  Law.  during  the  time  of  a  Hix'en.T. 

ArtK  ie  LXXVI.  Existing  legal  .  naetim-iit 
such  ii-s  laws,  n'gulations,  orilinaiins,  ur  h 
whatever  names  they  mav  be  callnl.  sleiil.  so  f. 
■A.t  they  do  iK-l  cinllict  with  thr  pr, .,.  hlC.i.itit; 
tion,  continue  in  force.  All  existing  cntractsc 
orders,  that  entail  obligations  ui>on  the  0.}ven 
inent,  and  that  are  connected  with  ex|«ri(litiii 
shall  come  within  the  scope  of  Art.  LXVIL 


CONSTITUTION  OF  JIEXICO. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  MEXICO. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  MEXICO. 


The  following  tnuiBlatcd  text  of  the  Constitu- 
tionof  Mexico  i»  from  Bulletin  No.  9of  the  Bureau 
o(  the  American  Republics,  published  in  July, 

1891: 

Preamble. — In  the  name  of  God  and  with  the 
authority  of  the  Mexican  people.  The  reprewn- 
lativfs  of  the  different  states,  of  the  District 
iinii  Territories  which  compose  the  Republic  of 
Mexico,  called  by  the  Phin  priK-lainied  in  Ayutla 
the  1st  of  .March,  1H54,  amended  in  Acapuico  the 
nth  (lay  of  the  same  month  ami  year,  and  by 
the  summons  issued  the  ITtli  of  October,  1B53.  to 
ivnstitute  the  nation  under  the  form  of  a  popular, 
rfpriscntative,  demi*'nitic  rcjiublic,  exercisin); 
the  powers  with  which  they  are  invested,  comply 
witbllie  n'(|Uirement8of  their  high  office,  decree- 
iue  the  following  political  Constitution  of  the 
.Mixicin  Ripiitilic,  on  the  indestructible  basis  of 
its Itfiiiniate  in<ie|>endence,  proclaimed  the  16th 
of  Stptfinlier.  IflU,  and  completed  the  2Tth  of 
Seplt'iulKT.  IHJl. 

Article  i.  The  Mexican  people  recognize  that 
the  rights  of  man  are  the  basis  and  the  object  of 
social  iiisiimiinus.  Consequently  they  dechire 
that  all  llu-  hiwsand  all  the  auihoritiis  of  the 
country  iiiu>t  r(•^|)ect  and  maintain  the  iriiarantecs 
whiih  iliv  pnsint  ('crn^tituti<l^  establislie 

Art.  2.  In  the   Republic  all   are   Ixr 
Sl;ivrs  who  s*-t  f<M>t  upon  the  national 
iMfviT,  tiv  iliat  act  ahme,  tluir  lilnrty,  ' 
»ri:;ht  to  the  protection  of  the  laws. 

Art.  3.  lii-truction  is  free  The  law  slinil 
ilelirtiiiiu'what  professions  n  -luiroa  diph»niii  f'T 
Ibi  irr\(  riise,  and  with  what  recjuisites  they  must 
bci-MUil. 

Art.  ^.  Kvery  man  is  free  to  adopt  the  pro- 
ffs\i<  II.  iniliislriiil  pursuit,  or  occitpatiou  wiiicli 
suissiiijii.  the  sinie  Ikmiil'  us.  ful  ami  huunnililc. 
au.l  li  I  av;iil  himself  of  iis  |.i.»luit.s.  Nor  shall 
any  vur  U'  hindered  in  the  e.\iToisi'  of  such  pro- 
ft'.i'>ij.  iiKlustrial  pursuit,  or  oci-upation,  unless 
I'V  ju'li(  ial  siutence  winu  such  e.\ercise  atiaiks 
the  ri;:litsof  a  third  parly,  or  bv  i;overnmenial 
n'solulion.  die  talcd  in  terms  w  hi.  Ii  tlie  law  marks 
out,  whin  it  oll.iiils  the  rit'hts  of  s<.iiety. 

Art.  5.  No  line  ~hall  !«■  olili::iv|  to  give  per- 
s.iii;u  -ervices  nithout  just  compensation,  and 
with  iiit  liis  full  consent.  Tlie  si.ite  sliaH  '-it  jm  r- 
mit  any  efinlr.ac'.  pait.  oraL'reement  !•.  '.learrii  d 
int.nllVit  HJiich  has  for  its  object  theuiinimilion. 
li'ss.  (ir  ii  revocable  sjicriliie  of  the  liUTiy  of  man. 
whi'lier  it  lie  for  the  sake  of  lalior,  education,  or 
a  rt  iiiritMis  V4,^v.  Tlie  law,  ctni.s«.ijm-ntly,  mav 
U"'  rn'iriize  monastic  orders,  nor  may  it  larmit 
th.  ir  istahli.shment,  whativer  may  bo  liie  lie- 
ii'iiiiiuaticn  or  c.lij.vt  with  which  they  1  laim  to 
!«'  f"nneil.*  Xciilier  may  an  agreement  !»•  per- 
iiiitt.il  in  which  anyone  stipulates  for  liis  pro- 
strii.iiiin  or  liauishin'ent. 

Art,  6.  The  expression  of  ideas  slndl  not  be 
theelije.t  of  any  judicial  or  adniin'sirative  in- 
<liii>iiii  11,  except  in  case  it  attacks  morality,  the 
riirlita  i,f  a  third  party,  provokes  some  crime  or 
misiltuuaiior,  or  di.stiirlw  ^.tblic  onler. 

Art.  7.  The  lilnrty  to  write  and  to  publish 
writinirs  on  any  subject  whatsoever  is  inviolable. 
>••!  !:iw  cr  sDThority  sImH  tr-tabii=h  previous  ccn- 
^"re,  uiir  reijuire  security  from  authors  or  printt  rs, 

*  Tlii«  wntTOce  »  u  Introduced  Irto  the  original  art  k-le 
»pt,.mbM  aj,  i>n,  with  other  lew  Important  nueud- 

melit«. 


nor  restrict  the  liberty  of  the  preee,  which  has  n« 
other  limiu  than  respect  of  privati;  life,  morality, 
and  the  public  peace.  The  crimes  which  are 
committed  by  means  of  the  press  sliall  be  judged 
by  the  competent  tribunals  of  the  Federation,  or 
by  those  of  the  SUtes,  those  of  the  Fe<IerBl  Dis- 
trict and  the  Territory  of  Lower  California,  in 
accordance  with  their  penal  laws.* 

Art.  8.  The  right  of  petition,  exercised  in 
writing  in  a  peaceful  and  respectful  manner,  is 
inviolable;  but  in  political  matters  only  citizens 
of  the  liepublic  may  exercise  it.  To  every  peti- 
tion must  be  returned  a  written  opinion  by  the 
authority  to  whom  it  may  have  been  addressed, 
and  the  latter  is  obliged  to  make  the  result  known 
to  the  petitioner. 

Art.  o.  No  one  may  be  deprived  of  the  right 
peacefully  to  assemble  or  unite  with  others  for 
any  lawful  object  whatsoever,  but  only  citizens 
of  the  Republic  may  do  this  in  order  to' take  part 
in  the  political  affairs  of  the  country.  No  armed 
asM  mbly  1ms  a  right  to  delilterate. 

Art.  10.  Every  man  has  a  right  to  possess  and 
carry  arms  for  his  security  and  legitimate  de- 
fence. The  law  shall  designate  what  arms  are 
jirobibited  and  the  punishment  which  those  shall 
incur  who  carry  them. 

Art,  II.  Every  man  has  a  right  to  enter  and 
to  go  out  of  the  "Republic,  to  inivel  thro.'irh  its 
territory  and  change  his  residemc.  without  the 
niiessityof  a  letter  of  security,  passpi'rt,  safe- 
condiici.  or  other  similar  rctpiisitc.  Thi  exercise 
of  this  riiilit  slial!  not  prejudice  he  legitimate 
faculties  of  the  judicial  or  udmiiiislrative  au- 
thority in  cases  of  criminal  or  civil  responsi- 
bility. 

Art.  12.  There  are  not,  nor  shall  then'  be 
recognized  in  the  Hepublic,  titles  of  nobility,  or 
|ircrogatives.   or    hereilitary    honors.     Only"  the 

I pie.    legitimately    represented,    may    decree 

reconiiienses  in  lionor  of  those  who  may  have 
rcnilcpd  or  may  render  einiueut  services  to  llie 
country  or  to  hiimaiiily. 

Art.  13.  In  the  .Mexican  Republic  no  one  m.iy 
be  ju.lcedby  spe(  ial  law  nor  by  special  tribnnaN. 
No  p<  isou  i>r  corporatioti  may  have  privih  1:1  s. 
>  '■  enjoy  emoluments,  which  are  not  conipt  ii^a- 
Ii- .11  for  a  public  service  and  ari-  establish. -I  by 
law.  .Martial  hiw  may  e.\ist  only  for  crim.-s  auil 
olTences  which  jiave  a  ilclinite  connecti.  111  with 
military  discipline.  The  law  shall  determine 
with  all  clearness  the  cases  include.l  in  this  ex- 
leption. 

Art.  14.  No  niroaciive  law  shall  be  enacted. 
No  one  may  Ik-  jinU'id  or  sentenced  e.\ccpt  In- 
laws made  prior  to  the  a.'t,  and  esactiv  applica- 
ble to  it,  and  by  a  tribunal  w  hicU  shall  Lave  been 
previously  estalilislieil  by  law. 

Art,  15.  Treaties  shall  never  be  made  for  the 
.  .vtra.litiou  of  political  offen.lers.  nor  for  the  ex- 
tra.iili'iEt  of  those  violators  of  the  public  order 
who  may  leivu  held  in  the  country  where  they 
committed  the  olTitice  the  position  of  slaves;  n.ir 
airnt-ments  or  tnati.s  iu  virtue  of  which  may  be 
altered  the  guarantees  and  rights  which  "this 
Constitution  grants  to  the  man  and  U>  the  citizen. 

*  This  article  was  amended  May  IS,  1S3S.  by  Introducing 
the  last  Kfnleiiee  as  a  subfiUtuTe  for  the  foUowinic  :  "  The 
erimes  .>f  the  pretM  shAll  b«  judsed  by  one  jury  wbicfi  at- 
XvstM  the  fact  and  by  another  which  appUas  thd  law  and 
dtial^sattis  tho  punlHUneBl." 


581 


I  i 


It 

I 

r 

I 


1  '  -; 


CONBTITTTION  OF  MEXICO. 

Art.  l6.  No  rne  may  be  im.leited  in  Us  pcr- 
•on,  family,  dumictle,  papc  rs  and  poaaessions, 
except  in  virtue  of  an  order  written  l,y  tlie  com- 
petent autliorily,  wliicli  sliiill  eaUblisli  and  as- 
siirii  tlie  legal  (  i  ise  for  the  pnx-eedings.  In  the 
cane  of  in  flagrunie  delicto  any  person  may  ap- 
prehend the  offender  and  his  accomplices,  placing 
them  without  delay  at  the  disposal  of  the  nearest 
authtirities. 

Art.  17.  No  one  may  be  arrestc<l  for  delrts  of 
a  purely  civil  character.  No  one  may  exercise 
violence  in  order  to  ri'claim  his  rights.  The  tri- 
bunals shall  always  Iw  prompt  to  ailmiuisUr 
justice.  This  shall  lie  Rratuitous,  judicial  costs 
beiu»5  conseiiucnlly  alH)lished. 

Art.  18.  Imprisonment  shall  take  place  only 
for  crimes  wliiili  deserve  corporal  punishment. 
In  any  state  of  the  process  Ju  which  it  shall  ap- 
p<!ir  that  such  a  pimishment  mJKht  not  \k  im- 
pcis<  cl  up.)M  the  accused,  he  shall  be  s<a  at  lil>t'rty 
uiiiler  bail.  In  no  case  shall  the  imprisonment 
or  ilitentiou  1k'  prolonged  for  default  of  payment 
of  fees,  or  of  any  furnishing  of  money  "what- 
ever. 

Art.  10.  No  detention  shall  exceed  the  timi 
of  three  days,  unless  justified  by  a  writ  showing 
cau.se  of  imprisonment  and  other  reiiuisites  whieh 
the  law  establishes.  The  mere  lap»e  of  this  term 
shall  reniler  responsible  the  authority  that  orders 
or  consents  to  It.  and  the  agents,  ministers,  war- 
liens,  or  jailers  who  exi-cute  it.  Auv  nudtreat- 
ment  in  the  appri'hension  or  in  the  confinement 
of  the  prisoners,  any  injury  which  may  !«•  in- 
ttlcUHj  without  Ileal  gnmnd,  any  tax  or  cnrilri- 
bution  in  the  prl.~.»<,  is  an  abuse  which  the  laws 
mu.st  correct  aud  th.  authorities severallv  punish. 
Art.  JO.  In  every  1  riininal  trial  the  accused 
shall  have  the  folliiwini;  guarantees:  I  That  the 
griiiinds  of  the  proci  ediiigs  and  the  name  of  the 
ariusir,  if  there  slialllK'ime,  shall  lie  made  known 
111  him.  II.  That  his  pn^paratorv  declaration 
shall  Ih'  taken  within  forty-eight  hours,  counting 
from  the  linu'  he  mav  W  placed  at  the  ilisiMBal 
of  ilie  judge.  III.  That  he  shall  !»•  ci.nfnmted 
with  the  wllnesses  who  testify  against  him.  IV. 
Tliat  he  shall  lie  furnished  with  the  data  which 
he  nnuins  and  which  appiar  In  the  pMi-t'sg  In 
onler  to  prepare  for  his  defence.  V.  Tliat  he 
shall  be  heard  In  defence  by  himself  or  by  coun- 
sel, or  by  lx)lh,  as  he  may  desire  In  i'as<'  he 
should  have  no  one  todefen  Ihini,  a  list  nf  tiilldal 
defenders  shall  U'  presented  to  him.  in  order  thai 
he  may  choose  one  or  more  who  mav  suit  him. 

Art.  ai.  The  application  rf  penalties  pMiHTly 
so  called  Ixliings  exiluslvely  to  the  jiidieial  an 
thorily  The  piililiialor.ulndnlstralive  aulhori 
lies  may  only  im|H>sr  fines,  at  e.irr>clion.  tu  the 
extent  of  live  hundriHl  dollars,  nr  imprisonment 
to  the  extent  of  one  month,  In  the  caws  and  man 
ner  which  the  law  shall  expresslv  delermiui' 

Art.  aa.  I'unishmcnU  by  mutilation  sml  In 
faray,  bv  branding,  flogging,  the  tmstluado, 
tortun-  of  whatever  kiml,  excesalve  Hues  confis- 
caiion  of  pMperty,  or  any  other  unusual  orextra- 
onlinary  |>eiutlties,  shall  lie  forever  pMhIMteil 

Art.  aj.  In  onler  to  abolish  the  |H-naltv  of 
lii'iilh,  the  ailminlslretive  power  laeharKinl  loei- 
t  iblish,  as  BiK.n  as  |»wsible,  a  |>enltentiary  system 
In  the  meantime  the  ju  nalty  of  death  shall  Iw 
alsilisbed  for  |>olitieal  oltinees,  and  ihall  not  lie 
e>ti-iu|eii  to  other  eases  thsa  lrt-*s.--i!  d'irlrtg  fi>f 
Jlgn  war,  highway  n.bUry.  armin.  parricide 
bomlcWe  with  trcach«Ty,  preiuedlutiou  or   ad' 


n   ' 


581 


CONSTITUTION  OP  MEXICO. 

vantage,  to  grave  oilencea  of  the  milltarv  01 
and  piracy,  which  the  law  shall  define 

Art.  34.  No  criminal  proceeding  mav  1 
more  than  three  instances.  No  one  shall  [« t 
twice  for  the  same  offence,  whether  by  the  ii 
mcnt  he  be  absolved  or  condemned.  Tin-  n 
tice  of  absolving  from  the  instance  is  ahulisl 
Art.  25.  Seafed  correspondence  wlii,h  cii 
lates  by  the  mails  U  free  from  all  registr%-  ■ 
violation  of  this  guarantee  is  an  offence  wl 
the  law  shall  pun^^h  severely. 

Alt.  a6.  In  time  of  peace  no  soldier  nmv 
mand  quariers,  supplies,  or  other  n'aliirpif« 
service  without  the  consent  of  the  prupriri,,r 
time  of  war  he  shall  do  this  only  in  the  man 
prescribed  by  the  law. 
Art.  37.  Private  property  shall  not  In- 

propriau-d  without  the  consent  of  tl nmr 

cept  for  the  sake  of  public  use.  and  wiih  pri-vii 
imlenmlflcatlon.  The  law  shall  delirmiu,  ih,. 
thority  which  may  make  the  apiiroprinlion  » 
the  conditions  under  which  it  may  !»■  chit 
out.  Xocorporation,  clvilorecclesia'Mi,,il  wl, 
ever  may  be  its  character,  denominMiun.  .ir  1 
ject.  shall  have  legal  capacity  to  aiiniin^  in  i. 
prietorship  or  admiid.^ier  for  itsilf  n -il  i-«t, 
with  the  single  exception  of  edifices  di  «tiuiii'i 
meiliately  and  din-ctly  to  the  si-rviee  nu.l  olii( 
of  the  institution.*  ' 

Art.  at.  There  shall  lie  no  nioncip,,|i,.s  1 
places  of  any  kind  for  the  sale  of  privileirid  t... 
nor  prohibitions  under  titles  of  pruli.  ti.,ri  to  i 
dustry.  There  shall  be  i  xeepteil  imlv  i' ,,,  .i. 
live  to  the  coining  of  money.  t„  ihu  ii"iiiil.».  ai'd 
the  privileges  which,  for  a  limited  tiin, .  iln-  l,i 
niay  concede  to  inventors  or  perfectnrs  .rf  >.* 
inipMvemeul 

Art.  39,  In  eases  of  invasion,  grave  ilismr 
anceof  the  imlilie  jieace,  oranv other i,im-««Ii;i 
siK^ver  which  mav  pliu^e  siK-ietv  in  gn  mI  i1:u.  • 
or  eonlliil,  only  the  President  of  ili,-  U,  piilili, 
ciiiicurrenee  with  the  t'ouiicil  iif  .Miiii>i,n)  at 
withthcapproliationof  theCongressi.filieliitu 
and.  in  the  recess  theriKif,  of  the  |k  rmum  nt  ili  in 
tation.  may  susiHnd  the  guaraiitns  i-iaMi.li. 
by  this  Constltuthin,  with  the  cxiepliuii  cif  iIub 
which  assure  the  life  of  man;  but  surh  susi»i 
Sinn  shall  be  made  only  for  a  liiniieil  tirm  li 
means  of  general  nrovlsiims,  and  wiiliciit  tmo 
Umlteil  to  a  determined  penon  I  f  t  lie  «ii«|ieusj<i 
should  take  place  during  the  M-ssimi  ..f  ( ■,mim 
(his  iHsly  shall  cnnceile  the  »ulhori7jiti..u«  »lilc, 
it  may  eslerin  necessary  In  onlir  lluii  iIm-  Kutu 
tivc  may  meet  pro|K'rly  the  sltuati.in  If  11, 
susiHiisiiin  should  take  place  ilurin>:  tin-  nrw 
the  iMTinanent  deputation  shall  iouvnk.ilii(i.ii 
gress  without  ilelay  In  onler  that  ii  iimv  nuki 
the  authorizations. 

Art,  30.  Mexicans  are— I.  All  'li'w  Nra 
within  or  without  the  Hi'publle,  nf  M.  »lian  |«ir 
ents.  II,  Kori'lgnera  whoari'naMirali/iil  Innm 
formily  with  the  laws  of  the  Kediniii.,ii  III 
Foreigners  whoacouire  real  estate  In  Ih.' l[i|iulJn 
or  have  Mexiimn  cliildren;  providiil  ilu-v  Ai  W 
manifest  their  molutinn  to  preserve  ilairnslitni 
allty 
Art.  Jl.  It  Is  an  obligation  of  everj-.Mixlinii- 

I  To  defend  the  indetN-niienre.  III.  i' rnt.irr,  Ihf 
himor.  the  rights  and  InteniiU  u'  i.i-  i..iintrv 

II  ToiimlHImtvforthe  public  ts!^.;:=5  -sKfl! 
ofUeFVdCTatlon  aaof  the  t«Ute  sud  iiiuiilil|itlity 

•Im  Arttcl*  I  of  AddlUoM  lu  Um  (.XwUtuUga 


CONSTITXrnON  OF  MEXICO. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  MEXICO. 


in  which  he  reside*,  in  the  proportional  and  equi- 
Ubie  manner  wliich  the  laws  may  proTitle. 

Art.  33.  Hezicans  sliall  be  prelerred  to  (or- 
cignera  in  equal  circumstances,  for  all  employ- 
menu,  charges,  or  commissions  of  appointment  by 
tlw  suthoriues,  in  whicii  the  condition  of  citizen- 
ibip  may  not  be  indispensable.  Laws  shall  be  is- 
(uedti' improve  the  condition  of  Mexican  la  borers, 
icwanling  those  who  distinguish  thtmselves  in 
toy  science  or  art,  stimulating  labor,  ami  found- 
ing practical  colleges  and  schools  of  uru  and 
tnuU's. 

Art.  33.  Foreigners  arc  those  who  do  nut 
po88i'98  llic  qualifications  detemiim'<l  in  Article 
SO.  Thi'y  have  a  right  to  the  guarantees  estab- 
liiiiwl  liy  .  .  .  [Articles  1-2BJ  of  the  present  Con- 
stitution, except  that  in  all  cases  the  Guvenimeut 
hutbe  right  to  expel  pernicious  foreigners.  They 
tK  under  obligation  to  coutributv  to  the  public 
eilwDM'!!  iu  the  manner  which  the  luws  may  pro- 
Tiile,  and  to  obey  and  respect  the  institutions, 
Isws,  und  authorities  of  the  country,  subjecting 
tbemst'lves  to  the  Judgments  and  sentences  of  the 
tribunals,  without  power  to  seek  other  protection 
than  tbut  which  the  laws  concede  to  Mexican 
citiU'ua. 


will!, 


Art.  34.  Citizens  of  the  Republic  arc  all  those 
lianng  the  quality  of  Mexicans,  have  uImi 


tlif  following  qualitications:  I.  Eighteen  yinrs 
of  «>:i' if  married,  or  twenty -one  if  not  murriid. 
II.  .\tt  houcKt  means  of  livelihcHHi. 

Art.  35.  The  prewgatives  of  the  <ilizen  are 
—I.  Tu  vote  St  popular  elections.  II.  Tlie  privi- 
lege of  iH'ing  Toted  for  for  any  ofHre  sulijtct  to 
popular  election,  and  of  lieiug  selected  for  any 
oUier  employment  or  coinmission,  having  the 
quaiiticationiicstaliliiihcd  liy  law.  III.  To  asso- 
tiate  to  dinciiits  the  political  aSalrsof  the  country. 
IV.  To  lalie  up  arms  in  the  army  or  iu  tlie  u'a- 
tioual  guard  for  the  defence  of  the  liepublic  and 
iuin!itiluti(ms  V.  Tu  exercise  iu  all  coses  the 
riglit  of  [it'tiiinn. 

Art.  36.  Everv  citizen  of  the  liepublic  la  under 
the  following  obligations:  I.  To  be  inMribed  (m 
tlie  niuiiiciiml  roll,  stating  the  property  whi>  li 
Iw  has.  or  the  Industry,  profession,  or  labor  by 
vliich  be  Kiilmisls.  II.  To  enlint  in  the  national 
(uani.  IU.  To  vote  at  popular  elertiuns  iu  the 
(li«lriit  to  which  he  belongs.  IV.  To  discharge 
llie tlullia  of  the  olHces of  |>opularelectiou of  the 
Fnli-ration,  which  In  noease  shall  be  gratuitous. 

Art.  37  The  character  of  citizen  is  lost— I. 
Br  iiatunili/atlon  In  a  foreign  country.  II.  Uy 
KTving  ollltially  the  government  of  another  couii- 
trToramiiiing  its drcoratiims,  lilies,  oreinplov- 
mmiH  nitiiout  previous  pemiiiuion  from  ifie 
IVIcral  t'ongnss;  excepting  literary,  scliutiUi , 
sni!  huinaiiitariau  titles,  which  may  Vie  acceptol 
fnrlr. 

Art.  38.  The  law  shall  prescrilie  the  casi>a  and 
tlw  form  In  which  may  lie  lost  or  sus|ieuiieil  the 
riitliu  of  cliiicnsldp  and  tiie  manm'r  in  whicli 
thfV  iiuy  Ik'  regaim'd. 

Art.  jg.  Tlie  national  sovereignlT  n-aidi'a  fa- 
Mtially  ami  originally  in  the  |MH>plc '  All  public 
powfrimaimli'sfnim  thi'  (x'ople.  and  iainntitiitnl 
for  iliiir  Ih  iM'Ilt.  The  pvople  have  at  all  times 
tlw  iiuiliiual)!).  right  to  alter  or  modify  the  for  • 
"f  Ihdr  government. 

Art  4a  T  M?jlrari  propk  Vulualarilr  cun 
Mliute  ihemK.es  a  demortmtic,  fedemt.  repre- 
irnutive  r<  t>ubllc,  compuied  of  Hlstes  fit*  and 
•ownigu  iu  all  that  cooMnH  their  latvnuU  (or- 


emment,  but  imited  in  a  fedetation  established 
according  to  the  principles  of  this  fiudamental 
law. 

Art.  41.  The  p<~ople  exercise  their  sovereignty 
by  nieanii  of  Federal  olticers  iu  cases  lielonging  to 
the  Federation,  and  through  those  of  the  States 
iu  all  that  relates  to  the  Internal  affaire  of  the 
States  within  the  limits  resjiectiyely  established 
by  this  Federal  Constitution,  and  by  the  special 
Constitutions  of  the  .States,  which  latter  shall  in 
no  case  contravene  the  stipulations  of  the  Fed- 
eral Coni|>act. 

Art.  4a.  TheXationalTerritorycomprisesthat 
of  the  integral  parts  of  the  Fedenition  and  that 
of  the  uiljtttvut  islands  iu  both  oceans. 

Art.  43.  The  integral  parts  of  tlie  Federitlon 
are:  the  States  of  Aguascalientes,  Colinm,  Clda- 
piis, Chihuahua,  Durango,  Guanajuato,  Uuerrero, 
Juliscti,  Mexico,  Michoacan,  Xuevo  Leon  and 
Coabuila,  Oajaca,  Puebia,  ()ueretan>,  San  Luis 
I'otosl.  Sinoloa,  8<Juora,  Tafiasco,  Tumaiilipas, 
TIa.seala,  Valle  de  ilexico,  Veracruz.  Yucatan, 
Zueatecaa,  and  the  Territory  <if  Lower  California. 

Art.  44.  The  StJites  of  Aguascalientes,  Chia- 
pas, Chihuahua,  Durango,  GuerriTo,  Mexico, 
Puebia,  IJuereiaro  Sinaloa,  Sonor.i.  Tamaulipits, 
and  the  Territory  of  Lower  California  shall  pre- 
serve the  limits  wliich  they  now  have. 

Art.  45.  The  States  of  Colinm  and  Tliiscala 
shall  pre8«TVe  in  their  new  character  of  States  the 
limits  which  they  have  had  as  Territories  of  the 
Federation. 

Art.'46.  The  State  of  the  Vulley  of  Me.\lco 
shall  lie  fomietl  of  the  territory  uctmillv  <om|i.i8- 
iiig  the  Federal  Uistriet,  but  tiii'  eri'ctlon  inin  a 
State  shall  only  have  effect  when  the  supreme 
Federal  authonties  are  removed  toamitlier  place. 

Art.  47.  The  State  of  Nuevo  Leon  ami  Ciai- 
huila  sliall  comprise  the  territory  which  has  lie- 
longed  to  the  two  distinct  States  of  whicli  it  is 
now  fomieil.  exo'pf  the  part  of  tlie  hacieiiila  of 
lionaiiza.  which  shall  be  reiucorp<inited  in  Zaeate- 
CHS.  on  the  same  tenns  in  which  it  was  liefore  its 
iui'or|Hiration  iu  Coaliuila. 

Art.  4>.  The  States  of  Guanajiialo,  .lulisco, 
Michoacan,  t)ajaca,  San  Luis  Potosi,  Talinsco. 
Veracnii.  Yucatan,  and  Zacatecos  slitill  neover 
the  extension  and  limits  which  tliev  h:i<i  on  the 
•Slst  of  IXiimlHT,  \H.\i,  with  the  alterations  the 
following  Article  establishes. 

Art,  49.  The  town  of  Contepec.  whi<  h  has  lie- 
longed  to  Guanajuato,  shall  be  incoriionited  in 
Michoacan  The  municipality  of  Aliualulco, 
which  Inis  Is'longeil  to  Zacutecas.  shall  lie  iueor- 
IMirated  in  San  Luis  I'oliwi.  The  municipalities 
of  llJo'Cnllenleand  San  Francisco  du  los  Adanies, 
which  have  Is-longi'il  to  San  Luis,  as  well  as  the 
towns  of  Nueva  Tlttsciila  and  San  Amin-s  del 
Teiil,  whicli  have  Islougeil  to  .lalisiii,  shall  Ik'  Iu- 
corpomtetl  in  Zaeali-cas.  Tlie  itepartinetit  of 
Tuxpan  shall  continue  to  form  a  part  of  Vcm- 
cruz.  The  eanton  of  lIuinianKnlllo,  whleh  has 
Is'longed  to  Vi-racruz,  shall  lie  iuoor|M>ralitl  Iu 
Taisiseo.  • 

•llmliln  ilw  twriitjf  tour  Hiatn  whk'li  af»  mentiumal 
In  tills  «*<elion  tlii-n'  usth  \w**u  crMUtsl  subMsiiitHitlx,  »'■ 
ennliiiK  to  xxts-utivt*  (Ircrw*  lasum)  ta  atvomiiae*.  wltli 
tin-  ruuatiiiition.  tliv  r"ur  fiiUowinit  : 

XXV  Tttst  of  t'smi»'4  Its,  a^iaratwl  from  Yucatan 

XXVI  tim;  ..r  r.Mi.t.tU.  M4«uatM]  riuu,  ^t*.-»«  ij^^m. 

XXVII  TtislorHkUlcu,  lnlMTlU<r)r'<ftlMa»-lnitHI«b> 
at  Metleo,  whicli  fonwHl  ttM  ssoond  mllltanr  dlatnri 

XS  VIII  That  <>r  MneMos,  In  Mttton  oho  of  the  aaelMI 
■ut«  irf  M«Uv,  wUok  turtM*  Ito  IkMBlliUirr  dMtnst. 


683 


!! 
if 

i  * 


•I 


CONSTITtrnON  OF  MEXICO. 

.  ^:.  59-  The  supreme  power  of  the  Federation 
It  diTlde<i  for  iu  exerciie  into  legislative,  execu- 
tive, and  judicial.  Two  or  more  of  these  p<>wen 
shall  never  be  united  In  one  person  or  corporation 
nor  the  legislative  power  be  deposited  in  one  in- 
dividual. 

I  ^'*'  f'.T''*  legislative  power  of  the  nation 
UdcjKwited  in  a  general  CongresK,  which  shall  Ik; 
dlvlilnl  Into  two  houses,  one  of  Deputies  and  the 
other  of  Senators.* 

Art.  52.  The  House  of  Deputies  shall  be  com- 
pose.! of  represcnutives  of  the  nation,  eleited  in 
their  entire  number  every  two  years  bv  Mexican 
citizens. 

Art.  S3.  One  deputy  shall  I>e  elected  for  each 
forty  t  huusand  InhabitauU,  or  for  a  f riicticm  which 
exctcls  twenty  thousand.  The  territory  In  which 
the  population  is  less  than  that  detennined  in  this 
article  shall,  nevertheless,  elect  one  deputy. 

Art.  54.  Foreuch  deputy  there  shall  be  elected 
one  alternate. 

Art.  55.  The  election  for  deputies  shall  be  in- 
diri'Ct  111  the  lirst  lleg^M•.  ami  bv  secret  ballot  in 
the  manner  which  the  law  Bhslfpri^rib*'. 

Art.  s6.  In  onhr  to  he  clljtilile  to  the  position 

of  :i  deputy  it  is  re<|Uire<l  that  the  camliilate  be 

a  Mexinin  citizen  In  the  enjormentof  Ms  riglitit- 

that  he  k'  fully  twenty. rtve  years  of  age  on  the 

day  iif  the  opening  of  the  se»»iun;  that  he  lie  a 

re»i.|eut  of  the  State  or  Territory  which  makes 

the  ilerilon,  uikI  that  he  lie  not  an  ecclesiastic. 

HoidfiH'c  is  not  loot  bv  absence  In  the  dlwhargij 

i>f  any  public  truiit  iH's'towi.l  by  (xipular  cle<iion. 

Art.  57.  The  positions  of  Dipnty  and  of  Slim- 

tor  lire  iiicompatilile  » iih  anv  Federal  commission 

or  ollice  whatnoevcr  for  which  u  salary  h  received. 

Art.  58.  The  IVpiiilcs  and  the  Siimtors  fnim 

\Ur  clay  of  their  election   to  the  duv  on  which 

th.  ir  trust  isconcliiihil,  may  iiotaccejit  anv  com- 

mi»»i..ii..rolllc..  olfcr.d  by  the  Federal  fcxecu- 

tlve,  for  whhh  a  s.ilary  ls"rcciived.  except  with 

the  previous  licenscof  the  r<  >i|Hrtlve  house.     TIh- 

Mill.'  re.|uifite»  arc  nee.  s.Kary  for  the  alteniat.'n 

of  l>e|uiiiesan.l  Siiai.irs  when  in  the  excniseof 

thiir  fum  lions      A.  The  .Seual.' is  coinpo*d  .if 

two  .Senators  for  each  .Siale  ami  two  for  the  Kisl- 

eral  l»i.slrl.t.     Th.' elecli.m  of  .Senators  shall  Ik- 

indirect  In  the  tlrst  decn.       The  U'trishiture  of 

ea.  1  Mate  shall  il.<  laiv  ,  le.tcd  the  (KTHon  who 

shall  li  ive  .iliiaiiicil  the  alisoluii-  majority  of  the 

Vnt.sia-t.  or  shall  eliit  from  unioiii;  thoM-  who 

shall  luive  olitulmd  Ihc  relative  majority  in  the 

manner  which  the  .  I.etoral  law  shall  p'riwrllie 

for  c»<  h  Senator  there  simll  U-  eli-cte<l  an  all.rn- 

ate,      H.    Vbf   .Senate  shall  lie  renewed  one  half 

every  two  v.  ar-      Th<'  .S.  milors  iiam.d  In  th.' 

wcoud  place  sh.iil  >;„  out  at  III.'  .  n.l  of  the  Ami 

iwo  )car«.  and  ihin-aftertlie  hail  who  have  held 

I'lnger,     (',   The  shiii.'  i|UuliIlcalionsiire  niiiiired 

fora  Senator  as  for  a  Ik  i.iity,  excpt  that  .if  a;;.- 

whh  h  iiiiut  lie  at  host  thirty  years  on  the  day  of 

the    .tHiilinr  'if  the  sewiou. 

5».  The  l»i.putii-sand  Si-iiatorsare  privi 
'  r..m  arrest  for  their  oplnhiin  manlfMt.il 

in        I-.  rformaiice  of  their  iluth's,  «n.|  shall  never 
be  Malile  to  !h-  callnl  to  ac.  auit  for  them 

Art.  «o.  Each  house  W    A  lu,|gi.  of  lUe  eke 
tion  of  its  meiiilH'ra,  ami  -liall  solve  1 
Willi  h  may  arise  regarding  them 


CONSTITUTION  OF  MEXICO. 

Art.  61.  The  houses  may  not  open  their  sm- 
slons  nor  perform  their  functions  without  vS 
presence  in  the  Senate  of  at  least  tw.,  thirds  ,»! 
fn  the  Hou«  of  Deputle.  of  more  than  Z-^, 
of  the  whole  numhr  of  their  members,  hutth«P 
presentof  oneor  the  other  body  must  mw™ 
the  day  indicted  by  the  tow  and  ..imHt^ 
attendance  of  abwnt  members  under  r^asZ 
which  the  law  shall  designate.  ** 

Art.  6a.  The  Congress  shall  have  ea.li  vat 
two  periods  of  onllnary  sessions:  the  first  vM 
may  be  pron.guiKl  for  thirty  days,  shal'l  1^; 
on  the  l«th  of  September  anj  end  oi  nTm,") 
December,  and  the  second,  which  may  |».  ml 
rogiied  for  fifteen  days,  shall  biggin  the  Isf  „f 
April  and  end  the  hist  day  of  May 

Art.  63.  At  the  opening  of  the  sessions  ,.f  tU 
Congn«  the  President  of  the  Vnio,,  shall  '* 
present  and  shall  piwnouncc  a  discourse  iiiwl,i,'h 
he  shall  set  forth  the  state  of  the  eounirv  Tl,° 
^ms        "   ""^  ^""^^^  »'""  "^P'y  '"'ginml 

Art.  64.  Every  resolution  of  the  Conjin-MfLall 
have  the  character  of  a  tow  or  .Iccrec.  Tlie  ht, 
and  drerees  shall  be  communicated  t.ithe  E«.',  / 
tlve,  signed  by  the  Presi.lentsof  IkhIi  Imuy,.,,! 
by  a  hecretary  of  each  of  them,  «i„|  shaii  ,^ 
promulgateil  in  this  form :  "The  Conjr,s,„f  ,1., 
tnlted  States  of  Mexico  decrees:'  (Text  ,.t ,,', 
law  or  ih-cree.) 

Art.  65.  The  right  U>  inlttote  laws  or  (Imt,,. 
Moiigs:  I.  TothePn-sidcntoftlu-l-„i„„  n 
To  the  Di'putles  and  fk-nators  of  the  ir,  i„  r  ,1  ( „« 
gress.     III.  To  the UgUtotnns  ,if  il„.  >,,,,,,. 

the  Hcipiil.llc,  by  the  U-gislaluns  of  tl„  v,.<., 
or  by  deputations  from  the  Mini.',  shall  iiav.  jm' 
incdnit.ly  to  a  committee.  Tims,  „l,i,h  Ilw 
I  K-putns  or  the  Senators  limy  pnsintshilll,-,  ill. 
J.'ct..l  to  the  pnHvdure  which  tin-  rules  ,.f  ,i,.|ov 
may  pres<  rilM'. 

Art.  67.  Kvcry  bill  which  shall  W  rei.,:,!  a 
the  Iliiis.'  where  it  originated.  In  fun-  i,:„.iu>.  -, 
thclhcrhoiisi',  shall  n.il  upiin  lie  pn„iiN.l fljr 
lug  the  wsjii.ins  of  that  year. 
.  Art.  6i.  The  second  |«-ri<«l  of  s.ssi„u!i  skj] 
IH-  <h-stiii,H|.  in  all  pnf.r.  n,-,..  to  the  .  .viii.ii«ti,.!i 
<if  iiii.l  a.lii.n  U[>.in  the  estliumesof  the  i„||„i,i,. 
tiscal  year,  to  i>iu»liig  ihc  ii.veMarv  a|i|ir<.|,n4 
tlons  to  .-over  the  some,  ami  to  tlie'iviiuliaiinj 


the  iloubts 


.'_I!!l."IWf^  '"""  "'  "^  *nielm  «■•  as  foU.»i   ••  Th. 
tfmnMf.  wkiek  shaU  be  dfMMaslMiavl  Ciin«re«  o?  tte 


If  the  a.-,  ounts  of  the  past  year,  which  the  tv,  j 
tlvi-  shall  jin'M-nt. 

Art.  69.  Th.-  lust  day  but  on.-  ..f  tin  dr-t 
IHriisI  of  s,s,|,,nH  the  Kxcullvi-  shall  yp  <nr  u 
th.'  Il.ius,.  of  I),  pull.-,  the  hill  of  a|.|,r.|riiiii.iia 
f"r  the  ii.-»l  y.-ar  foHowing  and  li.e  a...i  lOts  .f 
Ih..  pn-r.-.liiig  year  Ifcith  shall  pass  |„  ,  omi. 
mltt,-,'  of  live  Ib'pn-N-iilativcs  »p(«.i„ie.|  m,  iL, 
satin-  day.  whii  h  «liall  Is-  und.r  ol.l:,-riii,,ii  ion 
iiinlm-  mill  chKuiiients,  ami  iiri sem  a  ^ imr)  .a 
Ih.^ni  III  the  siuiin.l  m-ssIoii  of  the  weoml  |»ri..| 

Art.  70.  The  formatU.Hof  the  laws  iii,|,.|!l» 
.Icini-s  may  liegin  ln.lls«riinlnately  ia  . iikr  if 
the  two  h.Mises,  with  the  exception".. f  lulls  wind 
tn-«t  of  loans,  taxes,  or  linixiats.  or  i.f  the  b- 
criililug  iif  tr.H)|)s,  all  of  whi.  h  must  Is-  .liscuwl 
Urst  In  the  House  of  Deputies. 

Art.  71.  Every  bill,  theeimslderati..n..f»hiilj 
vTw"'  I**""*  exclusively  t.)  one  .if  ili.  Ii..u«> 
shall  liT  iiiiM  UmnhI  sueueaairely  iu  t»iiii.  me  nn 
•>f  ih-liaU'  bring  obarvetl  with  ^fi  r. mi.  t..  iIk 
form,  the  Intervals,  and  manner  of  pM.r<shB<ia 
diwuMloMaiHt  voting.     A    A  Mil  hadim  Uti 


684 


CONSTITUTION  OF  MEXICO. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  MEXICO. 


ippiored  to  the  bouM  where  It  originated,  *h>U 
put  for  lt<  diKiudon  to  tbe  other  house.  If  the 
Utter  body  ihould  spprove  it,  it  will  be  remitted 
to  the  Ezecutire,  who,  if  he  Bhali  iiare  no  ob- 
wrntiona  to  main,  sfaaU  publiih  it  immediately. 
B.  Every  bill  ihall  be  coniidered  ai  approved  by 
the  Executive  if  not  returned  with  obeerrationg 
to  the  house  where  it  originated  within  ten  worl^. 
iag  liars,  udIvh  durins  tiila  term  Congreai  (ball 
hare  cloaed  or  suspended  it*  aesiiona,  in  which 
case  the  n'tum  must  be  made  the  flret  wortcins 
dav  ou  which  it  shall  meet.  C.  A  bill  reiected 
whollr  or  in  part  by  the  Executive  must  be  re- 
turiH-il  with  his  obscrratlons  to  the  house  where 
It  originated.  It  shall  be  discussed  again  by  this 
body,  ana  if  it  should  lie  conHrmed  by  an  absolute 
majority  of  votes,  it  shall  pass  again  to  tbe  other 
bouw.  '  1  f  by  this  house  it  should  be  sanctioned 
with  the  same  majority,  tbe  bill  shall  be  a  law 
(ir  iliTier,  and  shall  be  returned  to  the  Executive 
fur  |irt>mulgatioa.  Tbe  voting  on  the  law  or  de- 
rnee  shall  be  by  name.  D.  If  any  bill  should  be 
rtjeiteti  wholly  in  the  house  in  which  it  did  not 
oriinnate.  it  shall  be  returned  to  that  in  which  it 
oriiiinalc'l  with  the  observatiiins  which  the  former 
tliall  hari'  inaiie  upon  it.  If  havlnir  iiit'n  examined 
ani'w  it  «hould  lie  approved  by  the  aliaohite  ma- 
jiiritr  of  the  memliers  present,  it  shall  be  naurned 
111  the  house  which  rejecte<l  it,  which  shall  UKuin 
t:ik''  it  intiiconaiileratidu,  and  if  it  ahixihl  approve 
it  liy  till'  mime  majority  it  shall  pasa  to  the  Execu- 
tjviv  ti)  he  treatol  in  acconiaiu^'  with  division  A ; 
tHit  if  it  should  reject  it,  it  shall  not  be  presented 
u.M  until  the  following  sessions.  E.  If  a  bill 
sh  .iilil  1k' n^jicted  only  in  part,  or  modideii,  or 
^H^irl'  aii'litions  by  the  house  of  revision,  tbe 
ntn  diw'ussion  iu  the  house  where  it  originated 
shall  treat  only  of  the  rejected  part,  or  of  the 
umi'ndnients  or  additions,  without  being  able  to 
slur  in  any  manner  the  articles  aiiiirovej.  If  the 
al'liti'inAoranieiidnients  made  li>  tlie  house  of 
ri'ii«i"ti  sliiiuM  lie  approval  by  the  absolute  ma- 
J' rily  "f  llie  voles  presint  iu  the  house  where  it 
ortk'inali'il.  the  whole  bill  shall  l>e  pusseil  to  the 
KmiuiIh',  III  lie  treatvtl  in  aeconlunc-e  with  di 
vl-i.in  .V  Hut  if  the  adiiitions  or  nnieiidnients 
lii.ilf  liv  till'  housrof  revision  sboulil  Ih'  n-Ji-ctwl 
In  the  niaji'rity  of  the  votes  Iu  the  I'liuae  where 
ii  "tidnati  d.  they  shall  lie  returmil  In  the  former, 
i"  •l^l^r  iliut  tlif  n'ssiins  of  the  latter  iimy  !»• 
'..vH  into  I'onsiileration:  and  if  liy  tlie  alakilule 
roaji>riiy  of  the  votes  present  saiil  additions  or 
aiiMiiiinnnts  shall  Ih-  ri'jecteii  in  this  second  re 
VIM  >n  ilii'  liill,  in  so  fur  as  it  lias  U-en  aiiproriil 
In  Imlii  hiMiM'B.  sImII  Im-  passed  toihe  Kxerutivi'. 
1.1  Is-  in-niid  In  ncitmUiice  with  division  A;  but 
it  111!  Ikiuw  of  revision  shouhl  insist,  by  the  ab 
•■■liilf  maj.irlly  of  the  voU-s  present,  on  said  ad 
diii.insnr  aiiii'iitliniiiis.  thi<  whole  bill  shall  not 
Ik  .u'alii  iinaented  until  tlie  following  si'ssioiis. 
uiiI'Mlspih  lioiisesagn-e  by  the absadute  majority 
"I  tin  ir  nitinlMTs  presi'nt  that  the  law  or  ilecrve 
tliall  (v  i«Mie.l  mililr  With  the  arlirlrs  spuroved. 
iirt'l  tliuf  ilif  |iaft»  Mtlilisl  tir  anieiiiled  siiall  Im'  n'- 
•  rMd  t'l  Isexainlned  ami  vnUil  Iu  the  fidlowiug 
»'»i"ii«  K.  In  llie  interpretalhm.  ainriidment. 
'<'  n  |»  al  of  the  Uws  or  decrees,  the  rules  estali- 
Iflu^l  tor  iluir  formation  shall  be  oliwrve<l  0 
lV.!li  Imiivs  iliall  reside  in  the  same  phiiiv  ami 
liii  \  sliali  not  remove  to  anoUier  without  Brut 
«<f<i-iiii(  lo  thv  removal  and  on  the  time  and 
tmuu-t  .if  nuiking  it.  designating  the  same  |iulnl 
l>r  ihe  iiMvtIug  of  both.     But  If  both  boutes. 


agreeing  to  the  removal,  should  differ  ai  to  time, 
manner,  or  place,  the  Executive  shall  terminate 
the  difference  by  choosing  one  of  the  plate*  in 

Suestion.  Neither  house  shall  suspend  its  sea- 
ons  for  more  than  three  days  without  tbe  con- 
aent  of  the  other.  H.  When  tbe  general  Con- 
gress meets  in  extra  sessions,  it  shall  occupv  itself 
exclusively  with  the  objector  objects  designated 
in  the  summons:  and  if  the  special  business  shall 
not  have  been  completed  on  the  day  on  which  the 
regular  session  should  open,  the  extra  sessions 
shall  be  closed  nevertheless,  le.iving  the  point* 
pending  to  be  treated  of  in  the  regular  session*. 
Tile  Executive  of  the  Union  shall  not  make  ob- 
servations on  the  resolutions  of  the  Congress  when 
this  body  prorogues  its  sessions  or  exereises  func- 
tions of  an  electoral  body  or  a  jury. 

Art.  7*.  The  Congress  has  ixjwer — I.  To  ad- 
mit new  States  or  Territories  into  the  Federal 
Union,  incorporating  them  in  the  nation.  II.  To 
erect  Territories  into  States  when  they  shall  have 
a  population  of  eighty  thousand  inhabitants  and 
tlie  necessary  elements  to  provide  for  their  polit- 
ical existence.  III.  To  form  new  Mtaies  within 
the  limiu  of  those  existing,  it  being  necessary  to 
this  end  —  1.  That  the  fraction  or  fractions  which 
aslied  lo  tie  encti-d  into  a  State  shall  number  a 
population  of  at  li'ust  one  lumdred  and  twenty 
thousand  inhabitants.  2.  That  it  Himll  be  proved 
liefore  Cougri'.ss  I  hat  they  have  elements  sulticient 
to  provide  for  their  piilitical  existence.  3.  That 
the  Li'gislatunsof  the  States,  the  territories  of 
which  are  l^'  question,  slmll  have  been  heard  on 
tlie  t'X|M'diency  or  biex|)<ilieiiiy  of  the  es''>blish- 
ment  of  the  niw  Slate,  iiml  tliey  sliall  be  diged 
to  make  tbi  Ir  n'pi.rt  witliin  six  months,  counted 
fnini  Ilii'  d.iy  on  wlilili  thi'  <'ommunicaiion  re- 
lating to  it  shall  Imvr  iM-eu  remitted  to  them.  4. 
That  llie  Exi-cuiire  of  the  Fi-denillon  shall  like- 
wise lie  heard,  wlio  shall  siiid  his  report  within 
Bt^ri'ii  days,  couuii'd  from  the  ilute  ou  which  he 
shall  have  Im'cu  asiiisl  fur  it.  Ji.  That  the  estab- 
lishiiunt  of  tlie  new  Slate  shall  have  iK-in  voted 
for  liy  two  thiriN  of  tho  Deputies  and  Senators 
im'stul  iu  thiir  n  vjiedive  houses.  B.  Thai  the 
resolution  of  l'oiii;n»s  shall  h  .vc  be<'n  ratillwl  by 
the  luajority  "f  the  U'gislalun's  of  the  Slates, 
afler  examining'  a  copy  of  Iho  priKwilincs,  pro- 
vided that  the  I,<'i:i'<latures  of  the  .states  whose 
lerritorvis  iu  iiuisii.ui shall  have  given  tlieircon- 
s»'nt  .  If  the  Ucislaluns  of  the  Slates  whose 
territory  U  In  i|iii'»iiiiii  sliall  not  have  civen  their 
lonsini.  the  nil  ill.  alii. ii  iiii  iill.nieil  in  Ihepreced- 
luir  elaiisi'  iiiosi  Is-  m.iiie  liy  t«ii  thirds  of  the 
l>ei;islatuns  .if  the  .iihir  Males  .\  The  exclu- 
sive puwers.if  il»  lli.ii«iif  |)i  |>ulie»an— I  To 
eoiisiitute  ilsi  If  all  Kiel  t.iral  I  idlege  in  onler  to 
exercise  the  |i.>«er>  whiili  tlie  law  may  tissiitn 
toil,  in  n'«|H'i  I  t.i  Hie  I  III  Ii. Ill  of  the  I'onKliHi 
tional  Pnsidi  111  of  the  Itepiililic,  .Magistrates  of 
the  Siipnine  t'..iiri,  ami  .NMialors  for  tile  Federal 
IHstrici  11  T'l  judjie  ami  decide  U|h)n  the  res- 
iiCiittiiiHis  which  the  i'resident  of  the  Ih  pulilic 
or  the  .Mai!i«iraie«  "f  liie  Supreme  Court  of  Jus- 
tlO'  mar  inalii  Tin'  »ame  jmner  Udongs  to  it 
iu  treatlnir  of  lii'i'lis.i  ..  In  ited  br  the  Hrst  ill. 
To  watch  over,  by  iinaiis  uf  an  lns|iei'ting  emu 
mituv  from  lis  own  ls»lv.  liie  exact  |Hrforniaiice 
of  the  hllsitii.iuiif  llie  chief  j^iiillUir«liin  iv  fn 
ap|«<liit  Ihe  prineliHil  olllcers  and  other  euiployis 
of  the  aanir  v  To  conatttiite  Itself  a  jury  of 
I  functlouaries  of  whom 
To 


\ 


acouaalhin,  for  the  higli 

Artl«'le  ma  uf  this  Coiiatltutiou  trrau 


686 


'I 


coNSTmmoN  of  Mexico. 

raamlne  the  accounU  which  the  Executive  mutt 
prewDt  annumlly,  to  tpproTe  the  annual  estimate 
of  expeniet,  and  to  IniUatethe  taxea  which  in  iu 
Judgment  ought  to  be  decreed  to  cover  thrte  ex- 
pense*.    B,  The  excluiire  poweri  of  the  Senate 
••«—«■  To  approve  the  treaties  and  diplomatic 
conventions  which  the  Executive  may  make  with 
fortien  powers,     ii.  To  ratify  the  appolntmenU 
which  the  President  of  the  Republic  may  malce 
of  niinisfers,  diplomatic  arents,  consuls-general 
superior  employes  of  the  Treasury,  colonels  and 
otlier  superior  officers  of  the  national  array  and 
nnvT.  on  the  terms  which  the  law  shall  provide 
III.  To  authorize  tlie  Executive  to  permit  the  de- 
parture of  national  troops  beyond  the  limiuof  the 
KtpiiWic.  the  passage  of  foreign  troops  through 
thi-  niitional  territory,  the  sution  of  squadrons 
of  (ithir  powers  for  more  than  a  month  in  the 
waters  of  the  Republic,     rv.  To  give  its  consent 
In  onlcr  that  the  Executive  may  dispose  of  the 
national  ijuanl  outside  of  their  respective  States 
or  Terrilnries,  determining  the  necessary  forre 
V.    rodeilare,  when  the  Constitutional  legislative 
anil  excrutive  powers  of  a  State  shall  have  dis- 
npiH-antl.  that  the  case  has  arrived  for  appoint- 
Init  to  it  a  provisional  Governor,  who  shall  call 
ekTtii.ns  in  conformity  with  the  ("onstitiitlimal 
laws  of  the  sai<l  Slate.     The  appointment  of  Oov- 
enior  sliall  U-  made  by  the  Fiwieral   Executive 
with  the  approval  of  the  Senate,  and  in  its  re-   i 
cesses  with  the  approval  of  the  I'emianent  Com-   I 
mission.     )inU\  functionarv  shall  not  t,e  elected   i 
Constitutional  Oovemor  at  the  eleetlons  which 
are  lm<l  In  virtue  of  the  summons  which  he  shall 
l«ii,..     VI.  To  .leei.le  political  questions  which 
may  arise  lietween  the  powers  of  a  State,  when 
any  «S  tliei-.  may  api^-ar  with  this  purpow'  in  the 
Niiate.  IT  vi.  -n  on  aiwunt  of  said  (|Ue»tiiiiis  f(in- 
BtituiiiitiH;     <ier»liall  have  Iwen  interrupteil  diir- 
llii:  ,-1  iMiitl  .1   „f  arras.     In  this  case  the  .Senate 
shall  iliiuile  its  ri'SdIuiion,  Mng  sulijeet  to  the 
gineriil  ConMitiiiion  of  the  Repiil.li,-  and  to  that 
of  iliiSi,iti',     The  law  shall  nifulalettieexenlse 
of  iliiH  |M,«(r  anil  that  of  the  preieillntr      vit 
Ti>r.iii»titiite  itwlf  a  jury  of  tuilvment  In  acconl. 
anie  «itli  Artiile  10.^  of  this  Cnnstitiition      C 
Eaih  nl  the  hiMises  may.  withmit  the  interven. 
tioii  (f    the  oilier  — I.    nictate  iiiinomie  resulu- 
tiimn  relative  to  its  Internal  recinien      ii    Com- 
muniiHte  within  Itself,  ami  with  the  Executive 
of  the  I  ni.in.  hy  means  of  ciimniliteeH  fnim  its 
own    l«Hty.     III.    Apiwilnt   the   empli.ves   of   its 
wi  niarvship.  and  make  the  internal  ri'trulatlons 
fi't  ilie  same       IV    Issue  summons  for  extnior- 
.lin.iry  ilin-llons.   with  the  nlijeet  of  Itllliiit  the 
v.ii  .1111  Us  iif  their  re»|M-ctlve  inemlK'rs      |V    To 
nvMl.u..  iletlnltely  the  limits  ..f  the  Siaii-«   ter- 
iniiiiiiiiif  till' ililTereni es  whli  h mav arise  l»-twei  n 
thiiii  n  hitive  til  tlie  demarcatlnnof  their niiMii. 
ivelirrttMr|e.,,X(ept  wlien  thew  illffli  uiti,  .Imve 
a  n.iii,  i,ilmi«rhameter     V    To  ehanifc  ilie  rt»|. 
•Iiii.  ent  Hie  .iipri'me  powers  of  the  Fnlenitii.n. 
M.    r.M.tahlKlithe  Internal  onlerof  the  Feileral 
IHstriit    ami  Territories,  takinir  as  a  liasts  that 
the  eiii/eiis  shall  ehcsise  liy  pcipular  election  the 
|H.I  Heal  nni  ilelpal.  and  Judicial  aiilhoritles.  and 
.le.tjtniitinir   the  taxes  m-ci>«sary  to  cover  tlieir 
I..aIeMHnillture     VII    Toapprovethecimates 
»f  till-  l-eileral  exiiendlliire.  which  the  Ex«  utlve 
mii.l  «n„„s!!v  pr,.s.nt  to  !•    ,r..!  <..  iminM-  fhr 
niysMry  taxes  In  cover  them.      VIII    To  eive 
rule,  under  whirh  the  Executive  may  make  I.Vans 
on  the  credit  of  the  iiatlon ,  to  approve  siUd  luaos 


CONSTITUTION  OF  .13X100. 

and  to  rea)gnlie  and  ordsr  the  payment  of  tin 
national  deK  IX.  To  ettabUsh  uriffs  on  fo? 
clgn  commerce,  and  to  prevent,  by  means  of 
general  laws,  onerous  rertrictlons  from  beinir  n! 
Ublished  with  reference  to  the  commerce  li 
tween  the  States.  X  To  issue  codes,  oblint„„ 
throughout  the  Republic,  of  mines  and  commen? 
Kwnprehending  in  this  last  banking  institutioM.' 
Al.  To  create  and  suppress  public  Feileral  em 
plovments  and  to  esUbfish,  augment,  or  rtiminii 
the  r  salaries.  XII.  To  ratify  the  appointmenu 
which  the  Executive  may  make  of  ministers  ilio! 
lomatic  agents,  and  consuls,  of  the  hiirhir  em 
ployfe  of  the  Treasury,  of  the  colonels  ami  other 
vff7*Z  "*«■"  »'  'he  national  army  and  narr 
AIU.  To  approve  the  treaties,  contracts,  or  din; 
lomatic  conventions  which  the  Executive  nar 

""HK    PI    To  declare  war  in  view  „f  the  lUii 
wnich  the  Executive  may  present  to  it     JV 
To  regulate  the  manner  in  which  letters  of  mamu. 
may  be  issued ;  to  dictate  laws  accoittlnK  to  whici 
must  be  declared  good  or  bad  the  prizes  „n  »» 
and  land,  and  to  Issue  laws  relating  to  maritime 
rights  in  peace  and  war.      XVI.  To  permii  nr 
deny  the  entrance  of  foreign  troops  into  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  Republic,  and  to  conmnt  to  tbe 
station  of  squadrons  of  other  powers  for  more  ihin 
a  month  In  the  waters  of  the  Repiililir     XVII 
To  permit  thodepartureof  national  tri«u.s  Wns\ 
the  limits  of  the  Republic*     XVllI    Tn'raije 
and  maintain  the  army  and  navy  of  lii,.  fnion 
vVl-''V*''"'"'*  "*'■''  '"■g»ni««tioii  an,!  wrvin.' 
\l\.  To  establish  regulations  with  the  ii'iriviee 
of  organizing,  arming,  and  dlseipliniiiL'  tlir  na- 
tional guard,  reserving  n-»pectively  tntl.iciiizeM 
who  compose  it  the  app<ilntment  of  the  ii,niraaii.l 
ers  and  offlci'rs.  and  to  the  Slates  the  |ion,r  nf 
I    instructing  it  in  conformity  with  the  ilisciiilirif 
;   prescrilKiIby  said  regulations.     XX    Tirini-j 
consi-iit  in  onler  that  the  Executive  vm\  loninj 
the  natiiinal  guard  outside  of  its  riB|>ii  live  Slates 
and  Territories,  determining  the  iiiiivsary force. 
XXI.  Todlrtale  lawsonnatunillzaii.in.  i.'.Ionira. 
t  on.  and  citizenship      XXII.  To  ilii  i„i,.  ];,«,  uj 
the  general  means  nf  inmraiinicatioii  :iii,|  ,.ii  tlie 
post-offlreand mails    XXIII.  Tiiestahli.limlnl! 
Hxing  the  conditions  of  their  operation,  to  ,lri,r- 
inlne  the  value  of  foreign  monev.  ami  .lImp!  t 
ginenil  system  of  wcighu  and  miiisun ,     X.XIV 
111  fix  nilea  to  which  must  lie  suhiort  iIh-  .otu- 
patliin  nnil  sale  of  nubile  lands  ami  the  |,riff  .if 
these  lamis      XXV'.  To  grant  |ianlons  for rrimn 
cogni/alile    by  the  tribunals  of  the  Kiil.  mti.in. 
XX\  1    Til  grant  rewanlanr  recoiii|«ii«i>  Tirimi- 
'vv'.^r'''*'" "■"''''"■'''""'•■  <^""" "  or Immanitv, 
-X.WII    To  pMnigiie  for  thirty  "uorkini;  il«i< 
llicllnit  |«-rii«liif  llsonlinarvs.'ssl.iiH     X.WIIl 
To  form  riih-  f  .r  its  Internal  n»tulaiion.  to  take 
the  im-essary  iiieasuo's  to  ciiin|N'l  tin-  iiiiiiiilaoiT 
of  alwiiit  memlM'rs.  and  to  correct  the  fiinlin  ..r 
omtasi.inB.ifthiMi- present.     XXIX    T..  «|.|«iiiit 
and  remove  fnt-ly  the  employes  of  lt<  m  ,  n  larv 
ship  and  those  of  the  chief  auilitop.lilj.,  nhiih 
shall  lie  ..rgauizMl  in  acr.-nlame  «itli  lln-  p^► 
vUiiins  of  the  law.      XXX.  To  make  all  Isw» 
wlileh   mav  lie  necessary  and  pmiMT  to  rrmlrr 
effcflive  the   forrgoing ° powers  ami  ail  olhen 
graiitiil  hv  this  Coualllution  and  the  aiithorilin 
of  the  I'nlon  t 


•  AmeikW  by  Htnina  11.  Ckuse  HI .  AHklf  n.  o<  ito 
law  ,.f  iiu.  isth  "f  N.»railiw,  IW4 

•  IW  n«|>«iiiic  this  Artlrk-  Uw  mMiiIoim  a  n  SKI  !• « 
Artk'l*  ni  ti(  tb>  law  .if  tW  IMk  <■(  Mortakw.  tintir  atd. 


580 


CONSTITUTION  OF  MEXICO. 


C0N8TITXJTI0N  OF  MEXICO. 


Art.  73.  During  the  receu  of  CongreH  there 
■lull  be  a  Permanent  Deputation  compoied  of 
twenty-nine  memben,  of  whom  fifteen  shall  be 
Deputie*  and  fourteen  Senaton,  appointed  by 
tlwir  respective  houiei  the  evening  before  the 
clow  of  tlie  sesaiona 

Art  74.  The  attributes  of  the  Permanent 
Deputation  are  —  I.  To  rfve  its  consent  to  f 
lue  of  the  national  guard  In  the  cases  mentioned 
in  .Article  73.  Clause  XX.  IL  To  determine  by 
itielf.  or  on  the  proposal  of  the  Executive,  after 
bearing  him  in  the  first  place,  the  summons  of 
ConjrrrM,  or  of  one  house  alone,  for  extra  sessions, 
the  vote  of  two-thirds  of  the  memlK-rs  present 
beini  necessary  in  both  cases.  The  summons 
ibalf  ileslgnate  the  object  or  objects  of  the  extra 
iFWons.  III.  To  approve  the  appointments 
which  are  referred  to  in  Article  85,  Clause  HI. 
IV,  To  administer  the  oath  of  office  to  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Republic,  and  to  the  Justices  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  In  the  cases  provided  by  this 
Constitution. •  V.  To  rept)rt  upon  all  the  busi- 
new  nut  disposed  of,  in  order  that  the  l^^gislaturo 
whirh  follows  may  immediately  take  up  such 
nnllnished  business. 

Art.  75.  The  exercise  of  the  supreme  execu- 
tive power  of  the  Union  is  vested  in  a  single 
iiKl!vitl\ial.  who  shall  be  called  "  President  of  the 
Vnited  !<t»tes  of  Mexico." 

Art.  76.  The  election  of  Pri'sident  shall  be 
imlireot  In  the  Urst  degree,  e'\i.  '>y  secret  ballot, 
in  nuch  iniuiner  as  may  be  |-rt:scribed  by  the 
(lectiiml  Inw. 

Art.  77.  To  be  eligible  to  the  position  of 
President,  the  candidate  must  t>e  a  Mexii'iin  cltl- 
wn  by  liirth.  in  the  exercise  of  his  rights.  U- 
fully  thirty-live  years  ohl  at  the  time  of  the  elt-c- 
tiiiii.  not  iN'long  to  the  ecclesiastical  onier,  and 
mvU-  in  the  country  at  the  time  the  election  is 
hrU 

Art.  78.  The  President  shall  enter  upon  the 
ptrfciniiiince  I  if  the  duth-sof  his  ottire  on  the  first 
c>(  iKrinilHr.  mill  shall  ciuitinue  in  olllce  four 
Tnim.  I»ing  eliirible  for  the  I'lmstltutiopul  |>eriii<l 
immi-ili;itely  folhiwing;  b,it  he  bIihII  n-main  in- 
mpalilr  tlureiifter  to  iKi-ujiy  the  imwiiiency  by 
i  new  I  li  rtiiiR  until  four  years  shall  have  passetl, 
fiiwniiiig  from  the  day  on  which  he  cciuhiI  to 
pert  nil  lii'<  functions. 

Art.  79.  In  the  temporary  default  of  the  I'rcsi- 
Hrtii  "f  till-  Kepiiblic,  and  In  the  vacancy  In-fore 
till-  iiiMiillntion  of  the  newly-clMti-d  Pfesiilent, 
Iherili/in  who  may  have  m'rfornuil  the  Jiities 
of  IV-KMent  or  Vlce-I'tesiclent  of  the  .Scniilc,  or 
III  llie  I'ermiiiHMt  t'onimission  in  tlie  perlodH  of 
rHi"»i,  iliiriiig  the  month  prior  to  that  in  which 
Hill  ilef;iiilt  iHiiy  have  oceum'd,  shall  enter  uinin 
thii\ini.<-  iif  the  cxenitive  power  of  the  Tnion. 
k.  The  l're«hlcnt  and  Vlce-l'ninliient  of  the  t*cn 
iltaii.li.f  the  Permanent  Commission  shall  not 
he  nfliriiil  to  those  ofllces  until  a  year  after 
Ininnir  In M  them.  H.  If  the  period  of  sessions 
Kf  Ihr  Simte  nr  i.f  the  Permanent  (.ommisslon 
tliiill  1.  i;in  in  tlie  WKimii  half  of  a  month,  the 
ile!»ull .( tlie  Pn-sident  of  the  Krpubllc  shall  lie 
roven-il  I.;  the  l>n'si(ient  or  Vice-1'resldrnl  who 
msy  luive  »(HkI  In  the  ttenate  or  in  the  Perma- 
otiii  ( iininiiMhin  during  the  Hrst  half  of  the  said 
""•""  '  ThrHruatran.i  Ihr  Prrmiiiieiiil  will- 
miKii.ii  ,hiill  nnew.  the  last  ilay  of  each  month. 
!*•  ir  l'n.iihni» and  Vice-I*rBaldenu.     Tor  iIm-s* 


>  AawntesM  of  aopiwBtwr  ».  IRI,  Art  4. 


office*  the  Permanen.  Commiision  shall  elect, 
alternatively.  In  one  mantb  two  Deputies  and  in 
the  following  n-inth  two  Senators.  D.  When 
the  office  of  President  of  the  Republic  is  vacant, 
the  functioii^ry  who  shall  take  i»  constitutionally 
as  his  substitute  must  issue,  within  the  definite 
term  of  fifteen  days,  the  summons  to  proceed  to 
a  new  election,  which  shall  be  held  within  the 
term  of  three  months,  and  in  accordance  with 
the  provisions  of  Article  76  of  this  Constitution. 
The  provisional  President  shall  not  be  eligible  to 
the  presidency  at  the  elections  which  are  held  to 
put  an  end  to  his  provisional  term.  E.  If,  on 
account  of  death  or  any  other  reason,  the  func- 
tionaries who,  acconling  to  this  Inv,  should  take 
the  place  of  the  President  of  the  liepublic,  might 
not  be  able  in  any  absolute  manner  to  do  so,  it 
shall  be  taken,  under  prcfletemiined  conditions, 
b^  the  citizen  who  may  have  been  President  or 
\  ice-President  of  the  Senate  or  the  Permanent 
Commission  in  the  month  prior  to  tliat  in  which 
thev  discharged  those  offices.  F.  When  the  office 
of  President  of  the  Republic  shall  become  vacant 
witliin  the  last  six  months  of  the  constitutional 
period,  the  functionary  wlio  shall  take  the  place 
of  the  President  slntll  terminate  this  period.  O. 
To  lie  ellgilile  to  the  position  of  President  or 
Vice-President  of  the  Senate  or  of  the  Permanent 
Commission,  one  must  be  a  Mexican  citizen  hv 
birth.  H.  If  the  vacancy  in  the  office  of  Presi- 
dent tif  tlie  liepublic  sliouid  occur  whin  the 
Senate  and  Permanent  Commission  arc  perform- 
ing their  functions  in  extra  sessions,  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Commission  shall  fill  the  vacancy, 
under  conditions  indicateil  in  this  article.  I. 
The  VicePn-siilent  of  the  Senate  or  of  the  Per- 
mamiit  Coniniission  shall  enter  upon  the  pcr- 
fomiuiice  of  the  functions  which  this  Article 
confers  upon  thciii,  in  the  vacancies  of  the  office 
of  Presiilent  of  the  .S-nate  or  of  the  Permanent 
Commission,  and  In  the  peri<Kls  only  while  the 
iniirtMlinient  last.s.  .1.  The  newly  elected  Presi- 
dent shall  enter  U|)on  the  ilischarire  of  his  liuties, 
at  the  latest,  sixty  days  aft  -rtliiit  of  theeh'clion. 
In  case  the  llousi'  of  Deputies  shall  not  Ik-  in 
session,  it  sliail  lie  convened  in  extra  s<ssioii.  In 
onier  to  make  the  conipiitntion  nf  votes  within 
the  term  nientiuneii. 

Art.  80.  In  the  vacancy  of  tin-  ulHcc  of  Presi- 
dent, the  iM-riiHl  of  the  new ly  elected  President 
shall  Ik-  coinpiitiil  from  the  first  of  iMi  enilxr  of 
the  year  prlur  to  lliiil  nf  his  election,  provhiiii 
he  may  not  have  taki  n  pnsscssion  of  his  office  on 
the  ihite  wl  ■  h  .Vrlirlc  TS  ililerniines. 

Art.  St.  Thcoillciof  Pnsiihiit  of  the  Vnlon 
may  luit  lie  reslcmd.  ixccpt  for  grivc  caim-.  ap- 
proved by  Ciinitri'vi,  iN-fore  whom  flic  resignation 
shall  !«■  pnsciili'il 

Art.  82.  If  for  any  rias.111  t'le  election  of  Presi- 
dent sirill  nut  have  iKin  niiule  .ind  published  by 
the  first  of  IHieiiilMT,  m  which  the  transfer  of 
the  oflice  slioulil  1"  iniiih',  or  the  President-elect 
shall  not  have  In  en  ready  to  enter  upon  the  ills- 
(  harireof  his  duties,  the  term  of  the  former  Presi- 
dent shall  (lid  lie  \  I  rt  lie  less,  and  the  supn  iiii- 
cxi-tulivi  |iiiwi  r  sliiill  Ik-  depositeil  provisionally 
in  the  fiiiiiiliinarr  to  whom  it  belongs  acconling 
to  the  ;ir'ivi»liins' of  the  reformisl  Article  71»  of 
thUC«!!M!!!!i!!i;!: 

Art.  S3,  The  Pt4>si(h'nt,  on  taking  poaaessiim 
of  hU  oftiie,  shall  lake  an  oath  li<>fon<  Congress, 
and  In  Its  recess  lN>f<in>  the  IVmmncnt  C<  mniis- 
sion.  under  the  fulluwing  formula;    "  I  swear  t« 


587 


'.Hi 


i 


pi  f 


?4'' 


CONSTITCTION  OF  MEXICO. 

perfonn  loyally  and  patriotically  the  duties  of 
Piwildent  of  the  United  States  of  Mexico,  accord- 
ing to  the  Conatitution,  and  seek  in  everything 
for  the  welfare  and  prosperity  of  the  Union. "  • 

Art.  84.  The  President  may  not  remove  from 
the  place  of  the  residence  of  the  Federsl  powers, 
nor  lay  aside  the  exercise  of  his  functions,  with- 
out grave  cause,  approved  by  the  Congress,  and 
in  iu  recesses  by  the  Permanent  Commission. 

Art.  85.  The  powers  and  obligations  of  the 
President  are  the  following :     I.  To  promulgate 
ami  execute  the  laws  passed  by  the  Congress 
of  the  Union,  providing,  in  the  administrative 
splure,  for  their  exs'    observance.    II.  To  ap- 
point and  remove  freely  the  Secretaries  of  the 
Colilnet.  to  remove  the  diplomatic  agents  and 
sunerior  employM  of  the  Treasury,  and  to  ap- 
point and  remove  freely  the  other  employes  of 
the  Union  whose  appointment  and  removal  are 
not  otherwise  provided  for  in  the  Constitution  or 
in  the  laws.    III.  To  appoint  minisu-rs.  diplo- 
matic agents,  consuls-general,  with  the  approval 
of  Congress,  and,  in  its  recess,  of  the  Permanent 
Commission.     IV.  To  appoint,  with  the  aproval 
of  Cimgresa.  the  colonels  and  other  superior  offi- 
cers of  the  national  army  and  navy,  and  the  su- 
perior employes  of  the  ta-asur)-.    V.  To  appoint 
the  othiT  officers  of  the  national  armv  and  navv, 
ncconllnK  to  the  laws.     VI.  To  contn)!  the  pe'r- 
m.ment  armed  force  by  sea  and  laud  for  the  in- 
t.-nml  security  and  external  defence  of  the  Fed- 
enition.     VII.  To  control  the  natio.ial  guard  fcr 
the  same  objects  within  the  limits  eslubliHliiii  by 
ArtUle  72.  Clausi.  XX.     VIII.  To  deihiri'  war 
in  the  name  of  ilie  United  States  of  Mexico,  after 
the  passuige  of  the  necessary  law  by  the  Congn-ss 
of  the  Union.     IX.  To  gnmt  letters  of  maniue. 
Bubjiit  to  iMises  flxi-d  by  the  Coiii:res..4.     X.   To 
iliriit  iliplomatic  iiegotintinns  and  make  treaties 
with   fonign  jxiwcrs.  sulmiittiiig  them  for  the 
riiliticaliou  of  the  Keileral  Congress.    XI.  Tore 
ci'ive  ministers  nnd  otIiiT  envoys  from  foreijiu 
|M)wers     XII.  To  convoke  Congress  in  extra  ms- 
8ioii.<  when  till'  IVrinanent  ConiinU. ion  shall  con- 
sent to  It      XIII.  To  furnish  the  judiiiul  jxiwer 
with  that  assistance  whirh  may  Ik'  iieeissary  for 
the  priini|>t  exercise  of  its  functions.     Xl\'.   To 
op<n  all  classi-s  of  ports,  to  e.stalpllsh  niarilliiii> 
and  frontier  custDm-houses  and  disl^rnale  ihi  ir 
situation.     XV.  To  grunt,  iu  nceurdamr   with 
the    laws,    pardons   to    criminals  seutenceil    for 
<rimes  within  the  Jurisill.tion  of  the  Kcih  ral  tri 
luinals.    XVI.   To  grant  exclusive  iirivilit'is.  fur 
a  lhnite<l  lime  ami  aeconllnsr  to  the  proper  ia», 
I"  discovinrs.   inventors,  or  perfceters  of   any 
liranrh  of  iiulnstrv. 

Art.  86.  For  the  dispatch  of  the  business  of 
till'  adiiiiiiistmtive  department  of  the  Fe.lerillon 
tliiff  shall  lie  the  number  of  Secretaries  whii  li 
till  Con  cri'ss  may  establish  by  a  law,  wlii.li  shall 
pr..vl,lr  for  the  distribution  of  business  and  pn  ■ 
scriU-  what  shall  lie  in  charge  of  each  .SH-relary. 
Art.  87.  To  In- a  Secretary  of  the  Cabinet  It 
s  n.|iilred  that  one  shall  U-  a  Mexican  eitiien 
by  l.irtli.  Ill  III.,  ixercis.'  of  his  rights,  anil  fully 
twenty  livr  vi-ars  old. 

Art.  88.  .Ul  thr  n'gulations.  decrees,  and  orders 
of  the  I'n  slihnt  must  \w  signeil  by  the  h.'eretary 
of  the  Caliiiiii  wl„,  Is  In  charge  of  the  deiiart- 
nirni  i,i  which  the  mhj.j-t  ti..!..:.gi  Wllhou! 
this  requlsiU'  they  shall  not  lie  obeyed 


^Rw  tbs  Anmailnwtt  ud  Additlou  of  a^Mwiitar  S, 


CONSTITUTION  OF  JfEXICO 

Art,  80.  The  Secretaries  of  the  Cabinet  u 
soon  as  the  sessions  of  the  first  peri™l  shall  h! 
opened,  shall  render  an  account  to  the  ConmM 
of  the  state  of  their  respective  departments " 
.1  ^?j'**-  The  exercise  of  the  judicial  [xmerof 
the  Federation  is  vested  in  a  Supreme  Omrt  n 
Justice  and  in  the  district  nnd  circuit  ci.uns 

Art.  91.  The  Supreme  Court  of  Justici.  ,,w 
be  compose.!  of  eleven  judges,  four  su|«  rniT 
cranes,  one  fiscal,  and  one  attomev-gemral 

Art.  oa.  Each  of  the  members  of  tli,.  Sunivm, 
Court  of  Justice  shall  remain  in  office  six  y.are  -Z 
his  election  sluill  be  indirect  In  the  Hrit  Av'-nr 
under  conditions  esUblished  by  the  eleiinMll,! 
Art.  93.  In  order  to  Ik-  electe.l  a  mimlierot 
the  Supreme  Court  of  Justice  it  is  necis.s.irv  ilai 
onelH"  leariie.1  in  the  science  of  the  law  in  the 
judgment  of  the  electors,  moiv  than  tliirtv-Sve 
years  old,  and  a  Mexican  citizen  by  hinli  in  ,|„ 
exercise  of  his  rights. 

Art.  94,  Thememl)ers  of  the  Supn  ni.  I ,,.« 

of  Justice,  on  entering  up<m  the  exen  ixuf  tlir- 

charge,  shall  Uke  an  oath  iK'fore  Coii-n**  ani 

in  its  reo'sses,  before  the  PermaneniC.mmissiin 

in  the  following  form;    "  Do  vou  sw.ir  1.1  r,. 

form  loyally  and  patriotically  the  char  •.  ,.f  M  ,- 

Lstrale  of  the  Supn-me  Court  of  JiiMi,,.  ,i,i,"i, 

the  people  have  conferral  upon  vou  iiiioni.iniiir 

with  the  Coiistitutiiin,  .s.-..kinit  in  eviTviliiiii:iiK 

1    welfare  .and  prospi.rity  of  the  liiioii  ■•  '  » 

I       Art,  95,  A  menilH'rof  the  Siipnim.  Ciurt.it 

i   Justice  niuy  nsign  his  othce  only  lor  i;r;in(ui„ 

I   approveil  by  the  Congri'ss.  to  vi'lionuhc  n-,i' la- 

!   tlon  shall  lie  presenteil.     In  tin-  n..  ,■„,.<  ,,f  ,|^ 

,   Congri'ss  the  judgment  shall  Is.  nn.l.  n.l  !,v  iIk 

j    Peniianent  Commission 

Art,  96,  The  law  shall  istalilish  and  orcauift 
j  the  rireuit  and  district  courts 
1  Art.  97.  It  Ix'lonL's  to  the  Fi-il.  r.il  iriliuniiLito 
I  take  .■.n.'iiizaiiei'  of— I.  .VII  c"nir..v..r«i.v  wiiicii 
;  may  ari..e  in  reganl  to  the  tiiliilimiii  .m,!  m.'i. 
cation  of  the  Fediral  laws,  i  xci  pt  :ii  line,,' in 
which  the  application  airicts  only   privuir  in- 

len-sts:  such  a  case  falls  wiiliin  tin'  1 |.,i,Kt 

of  the  liM'.'il  judges  and  trilninals  of  !|„ ,,111.11 

onliTof  the  States,  of  thr  Ffihral  Hisiri.l  and 
of  the  Territory  of  b.wer  Califoni,,  H  .U! 
cttsis  tM'rtaiiiIng  to  niaritiiin-  law  111  Tli.« 
In  whiili  the  KiHliration  may  Iw  u  pirty  IV. 
Tliosj'  that  may  ariMlstwiiii'i  woor  iii'.ri' Slaw 
V.  Thox-  that  may  arise  Imiwciii  i  Mali' and 
one  or  luori' citiiensof  uiioilnr  Si:ii.  VI  tivil 
or  criinin.il  nist's  that  iii,iy  arise  iiiuli  r  in  iiirt 
wiih  f.irei'.-n  powirs.  VII.  Ciu-smrMirtiinj.-'lIp' 
loiiialie  am  Ills  ami  consuls 

Art.    98,    it    b.  lolics   to   till'   Supr.111.    CliR.il 

Jiistiif,  in  ihe  llrsi  instance,  to  t,ik.  .  ..i'liiciiu* 
of  coiitroyersiis  whi,h  may  arisi'  IstHni,  .iiu 
State  and  anolliir,  and  of' those  iu  nhi.li  lie 
Union  niiiy  1h'  a  parly 

Art.  99.  It  ImIoiiu's  also  to  the  Siipnun  ( ..i,n 
of  Jiislii  I'  to  deteniiiiie  the  ipii  siioiis  of  jun«lii' 
lion  whii'h  may  arise  Isiwisn  Ihe  K.  i.nl  !P.' 
buiials.  Isiwien  thes«-  ami  ihox-  ol  iln  sim™ 
orls'iwiH'ii  till'  eiMirtsof  oiii-  Siati-  ati'l  n.  s  .'1 
anoihir 

Art.  100.  Ill  the  otiicr  rases  coaipr.  hcii'li'lio 
Artirli-  UT.  th,'  .Supri-nii'  Court  of  .lii.ii..'sl,alll» 

l|  l-olirt  of  npp...i!  ,'r,  rrtliifr    ::f  la-:!  r-.t^-.rt    :i:~.".:rd- 

Ing  to  the  giadiiatiiin  wliii  h  the  law  inav  iimki'll 
the  jurisilii  tioiiof  Ihi'  ilniiit  and  .lisirill  miirti 


.'.S.S 


»  AddltkHis  Iu  tli»  l'>iul|iutk«.  li)Tt<'ml>'r  &  l<n 


coNBimmoN  OP  mexico. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  MEXICO. 


Art  loi.  The  tribunals  of  the  Federation  nhall 
decide  all  que«tion>  which  arise  —  I.  Under  laws 
or  acta  of  whatever  authority  which  violate  in- 
diridual  guarantees.  II.  Under  laws  or  acts  of 
tbc  State  authority  which  violate  or  restrain  the 
giircrelgnty  of  the  States.  III.  Under  laws  or 
aru  of  the  State  authority  which  invade  the 
ipliere  of  the  Federal  authority. 

Art.  102.  All  the  judgments  which  the  pre- 
rniini;  article  mentions  shall  be  had  on  petition 
lit  the  aggrieved  party,  by  means  of  judicial 
iiiucMiiings  and  forms  which  shall  be  prescribed 
Iv  law.  The  sentence  shall  be  alwavs  such  as 
111  affect  private  individuals  only,  limUing  itself 
tn  ilifrtiil  iind  protect  them  in  the  speciiil  case  to 
which  the  process  refers,  without  making  any 
pL-niT..!  <li'claration  respecting  the  law  or  act 
whiib  pivc  rise  to  it. 

Art.  103.  The  Senators,  the  Deputies,  the  mem- 
licre  I'f  the  Supreme  Court  of  Justice,  and  the 
S^n'taries  of  the  Cabinet  are  resiwnsible  for 
ihc  cDminon  crimes  which  they  may  commit  dur- 
ing' tlii'ir  tinns  of  office,  and  for  the  crimes,  mis- 
iliWaiiiirs.  and  negligence  into  which  they  may 
fill  in  Ihi'  |>erformance  of  the  duties  of  said  olBce. 
TIh'  (Jiivirnors of  the  States  are  lilicwise  respon- 
hIiU-  fiir  the  infraction  of  the  Constitution  and 
Kiihnil  Ihws  The  President  of  the  Itepublic  is 
al*p  r*p<>nsible ;  but  during  the  term  of  Ins  office 
he  may  1h'  accused  only  for  the  crimes  of  treason 
ai.'aiii.-t  the  country,  express  violation  of  tlie 
l.iustitution.  attack  on  the  freetlom  of  election. 
anil  er.m  crimes "f  the  common  onler.  The  liicli 
fuiutii>naric'S  of  the  Federation  sluill  not  eiijov 
any('"Usiitutiooi|i  privilege  for  tlie  official  crimes. 
miiaUnuaUMrs,  or  negligence  int4i  which  they  may 
fall  in  tin-  |Hr(iirmance  of  any  employment,  "office. 
I  r  pMlilii'  commission  which  they  may  have  ac- 
(r|iinl  iluring  the  |K'rio<l  for  whicli,  in  conformity 
niih  the  law,  they  shall  have  been  elected.  The 
Mine  shall  hap(>en  with  respect  to  those  common 
I  rimes  which  they  may  commit  during  the  per- 
fiirnianci'  of  said  employment,  office,  or  commis- 
.M.m.  In  onlir  that  the  cause  may  t)e  initUted 
whin  the  high  functlonarj-  shall  have  retumeil 
imhe  1  xereise  of  his  proiier  functions,  proceeding 
should  lie  undertaken  in  accordance  with  the 
pMvision  of  Article  UH  of  this  Constitution. 

Art.  104.  If  the  crime  should  Ih'  a  common 
one,  the  llouse  of  Hepn^entalives,  formi'd  Into 
I  );raud  jury,  shall  declare,  by  an  almolute  ma- 
Jorily  (if  V(iti"s,  whether  there  is  or  is  not  gMund 
M  proceed  against  the  accused.  In  the  negative 
csM'.  there  shall  be  no  ground  for  further  pro- 
ceedings, in  the  afflnnativi,  the  accumHl  shall 
lie,  liy  ihe  .said  act.  deprived  of  his  offiie,  and 
•uiijecteil  to  the  action  of  the  ordiuary  tribunals. 

Art.  105.  The  house*  shall  take  cognizance  of 
ntfli  ial  erinies,  the  House  of  Deputies  as  a  jury 
iif  aci  iiaulion.  the  Senators  as  a  jury  of  judgment. 
Till  Jury  iif  accusation  shall  have  for  its  object 
til  ihilari',  by  an  absolute  majority  of  votes, 
» hi  till  r  the  accused  is  or  is  not  culpable.  If 
tlie  ihi'larai  Ion  should  be  absolutory,  the  fuiic- 
ti.narv  shall  continue  in  the  exenrlae'of  his  office ; 
if  it  ihiiiihl  !»•  condemnatory,  he  shall  be  imme- 
(liatelr  ill  priveil  of  his  ulBce,  and  shall  be  placed 
■I  tile  ilis|M»al  of  the  Senate.  The  lalh'r,  fonneil 
intiia  jury  of  judgment,  and,  with  the  pieaence 
nf  ih-  ;r;tr,!!>ai  Sir!  of  the  socaser,  if  there  should 
t*  one.  shall  proceed  to  apply,  l>y  an  alMolute 
nMinriir  of  Tot«a,  tlM  punlaUMnt  which  the  law 
ile«i|fuites. 


Art.  106.  A  judgment  of  responsibility  for 
official  crimes  having  been  pronounced,  no  favor 
of  pardon  mav  be  extended  to  the  offender. 

Art.  107.  "fhe  responsibility  for  official  crimes 
and  misdet  ^.eanora  may  be  required  only  during 
the  period  in  which  the  functionary  remains  in 
office,  and  one  vear  thereafter. 

Art.  108.  W'ith  respect  to  demands  of  the  civil 
order,  tliere  shall  be  no  privilege  or  Immunity 
for  any  |>ublic  functionary. 

Art.  109.  The  States  shall  adopt  for  their  In- 
tenial  regimen  the  popular,  representative,  re- 

f)ublican  form  of  government,  and  mav  provide 
n  tlieir  respective  Constitutions  for  the  reelection 
of  the  Governors  in  accordance  with  what  .\rticlc 
78  provides  for  the  Presiiicnt  of  the  Republic, 

Art.  no.  The  States  may  regulate  among 
thenist'lves,  bv  friendly  agreements,  their  re- 
spective boundiiries;  but  those  regulations  shall 
not  lie  carrieil  into  effect  without  the  approval 
of  the  Con,i,'ress  of  the  Union. 

Art.  III.  The  States  may  not  in  any  case  — 
I.  Form  alliunc>es.  treaties,"  or  coalitions  with 
nnolher  State,  or  with  foreign  powers,  excepting 
the  conlitiou  which  the  frontier  States  may  make 
for  offensive  or  defensive  war  against  "the  In- 
dians, II.  Grant  letters  of  marque  or  reprisal. 
Ill,  Coin  money,  oremit  paper  money  or  stamped 
paper 

Art.  113.  Neither  may  any  State,  without  the 
consent  of  the  Congress  of  "the  Union;  I.  Es- 
tablish tormage  duties,  or  any  port  duty,  or 
impose  ta,\es  or  duties  upou  importations  or  ex- 
portatious  II,  Have  at  anv  time  permanent 
triKips  or  vessels  of  war.  III.  .Make  war  by 
itself  on  any  foreign  power  except  in  coses  of 
invasion  or  of  such  inmdnent  peril  as  to  admit 
of  no  delay.  In  these  cases  the  Statu  sliull  give 
notice  iinnieiliately  to  the  President  of  the  Re- 
public. 

\rt.  11^.  Each  State  is  under  obllgattou  to 

.iver  without  delay  the  criminals  of  other 
States  to  the  authority  that  claims  Iheni, 

Art.  114.  The  Giivernors  of  the  States  are 
obliged  to  publish  and  cause  to  be  obeyed  the 
Federal  laws. 

Art.  115.  In  each  State  of  the  Fi'deration  en- 
tire faith  and  credit  shall  lie  given  to  the  public 
ai'ts,  reconis,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  all  the 
other  States,  The  Congri'ss  may,  by  means  of 
general  laws,  prescriln'  the  mariner  "of  proving 
said  acts,  ri-cords,  and  proceedings,  and  the  effect 
thenof 

Art.  1 16.  The  powers  of  the  Union  are'  liound 
to  protect  the  States  agaii'st  all  invasion  or  ex- 
ternal violence.  In  autv  of  insurrection  or  in- 
ternal disturbann-  thev  shall  give  them  like  pro- 
tection, pMvideil  the  l^'gislature  of  the  State,  or 
the  Executive,  if  the  lA'gislature  Is  not  in  session, 
shall  reques'  it. 

Art.  117.  The  ptiwers  which  are  notexpressly 
grnntisl  by  this  Constitution  to  the  Federal 
authorities  are  understood  to  be  reserved  to  the 
States. 

Art.  Its.  No  person  may  at  the  same  time 
hold  two  Fiileral  elective  offices:  but  If  eli-cted 
to  two,  he  ma^'  choose  which  of  tliem  he  will  till. 

Art.  119.  No  payment  shall  be  made  which  t* 
not  comprehended  in  the  budget  or  determined 
by  a  suljarqumt  law. 

Art.  lao.  The  President  of  the  Republic,  the 
meulieni  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Justice,  the 
Deputies,  and  other  public  olUccn  of  the  Fedcnt- 


689 


I 


CONSTITUTIOK  OP  MEXICO. 

Hon,  who  an  chown  by  popuUr  election,  shall 
recelre  a  compeniation  for  their  eerTice*,  which 
"»J' jMdetennlned  by  law  and  paid  by  the  Fed- 
eral Treaiury.  Thia  compeniation  may  not  be 
renounced,  and  any  law  which  augments  or  di- 
minishes it  shall  not  have  effect  during  the  period 
for  which  a  functionary  holds  the  office. 

Art.  lai.  Every  public  officer,  without  any 
exception,  before  Uking  possession  of  his  office, 
shall  take  an  oath  to  maintain  this  Constitution 
and  the  laws  which  emanate  from  It.* 

Art.  laa.  In  time  of  peace  no  milltanr  au- 
thority may  exercise  more  functions  than 'those 
which  have  close  coimectlon  with  military  disci- 
pline. There  shall  be  fixed  and  permanent  mill- 
taiT  commamis  only  In  the  castles,  fortresses, 
and  magazines  which  are  immediately  under  the 
government  of  the  Union ;  or  in  encampments, 
barmcks,  or  depots  which  may  be  established 
outside  of  towns  for  stationing  troopa 

Alt.  laj.  It  belongs  exclusively  to  the  Federal 
authorities  to  exercise,  in  matters  of  religious 
worship  and  external  discipline,  the  interrention 
which  the  laws  may  designate. 

Art.  114.  The  States  shall  not  Impose  any  duty 
for  the  simple  passage  of  goods  in  the  internal 
commerce.     The  Oovemment  of  the  Unir    alone 
mav  decree  transit  duties,  but  only  with  respect 
to  foreign  goods  which  cross  the  country  by  In- 
ternational or  Interoceanic  lines,  without  being 
on  the  national  territory  more  time  than  is  nec- 
essary to  traverse  it  and  depart  to  the  foreign 
countrr.    They  shall  not  prohibit,  either  directly 
or  Indirectly,  the  entrance  to  their  territory,  or 
the  departure  from  It,  of  any  merchandise,  ex- 
crpt  on  police  grounds;  nor  burden  the  articles 
of  national  production  on  their  departure  for  a 
fori'ign  country  or  for  another  State.    The  ex- 
emptions from  duties  which  they  concede  shall 
be  general ;  they  may  not  be  decreed  In  favor  of 
the  producu  of  specified  origin.     The  quota  of 
the  import  for  a  given  amount  of  merchandise 
shall  1)6  the  same,  whatever  may  have  been  its 
origin,  and  no  hrarler  burden  may  be  assigned 
to  It  than  that  which  the  similar  products  of  the 
political  entity  in  which  the  import  Is  decreed 
bear.   The  national  merehandlse  shall  not  be  sub- 
mitted to  definite  route  nor  to  Inspection  or  reg- 
tatry  on  the  ways,  nor  any  fiscal  document  be 
demanded  for  iu  internal  circulation.    Nor  shall 
they  bunlen  foreign  merchandise  with  a  greater 
quota  than  that  which  may  have  been  permitted 
them  by  the  Federal  law  to  receive. 

Art.  ta$.  The  fortt.  military  quarters,  maga- 
lines,  ai-d  other  edifices  necessary  to  the  govern- 


CONSTTnmON  OF  NORWAY. 

ment  of  the  Union  shall  be  under  the  immedlu. 
Insnection  of  the  Federal  authorities.  ^ 

Art.  ia6.  This  Constitution,  the  laws  of  thi 
Coagnuot  the  Union  which  emanate  from''^ 
and  all  the  treaties  made  or  which  shall  be  „i. 
by  the  President  of  the  Republic,  with  tl-  ^ 
provalof  Cpngrets  shall  be  the  supreme  uw  S 
the  whole  Union.  The  judges  of  each  Stale  »l,,n 
begiiided  by  sai.i  Constitution,  law,  and  treaiS 
in  spite  of  provisions  to  the  contrary  which  uut 
appear  in  the  ConsUtutlona  or  laws  of  thl 
States.  "* 

Art.  ia7.  The  present  Constitution  mar  t* 
added  to  or  reformed.  In  order  that  ad.litiou 
or  alterations  mav  become  part  of  the  Constim. 
tlon.  It  is  noulred  that  the  Congiess  of  the  Inion 
by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  the  members  pivsem' 
shall  agree  to  the  alterations  or  additions  oA 
that  these  shall  be  approved  by  the  maioritvof 
the  Leglshitures  of  the  States.  The  Congrei  0 
the  Union  shall  count  the  votes  of  the  Lcifillatuia 
and  make  the  declaration  that  the  reformj  or 
additions  have  been  approved. 

Art.  138.  This  Constituti  .1  shall  not  lose  ia 
force  and  vigor  even  if  IU  observance  be  inter 
nipted  by  a  rebellion.  In  case  that  by  nnv  pub. 
lie  disturbance  a  government  contrary  "to  the 
principles  which  It  sanctions  shall  be  rstiblished 
as  soon  as  the  people  recover  their  litM-rty  iuob^ 
servaoce  shall  be  reesUblished,  and  In  accordance 
with  It  and  the  laws  which  shall  have  been  a- 
sued  In  virtue  of  It,  shall  be  judged  not  onlj 
those  who  shall  have  figured  in  the  govcrament 
emanating  from  the  rebellion,  but  also  liiosewbo 
shall  have  cooperated  with  it. 

AddiUont. 

Art.  I.  The  State  and  the  Church  are  iode- 
pendent  of  one  another.  The  Congress  mar  not 
pass  laws  establishing  or  prohibiting  anv  reliiion. 

Art.  a.  Marriage  U  a  civil  contrait. '  This snj 
the  other  acU  relating  to  the  civil  state  of  persons 
belong  to  the  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  the  func- 
tionaries and  authorities  of  the  civil  order,  witlim 
llmlW  provided  b-  'he  laws,  and  thoy  shall  have 
the  force  and  vai  ^^oh  the  some  attribute 

to  them. 

Art.  3.  No  religious  institution  mav  scquirt 
real  estate  or  capital  fixed  upon  It,  with'the  msk 
exception  established  in  Article  37  of  thii  Cm 
stitution. 

Art.  4.  The  simple  promise  to  speak  the  tniil 
and  to  comply  with  the  obligations  which  have 
been  Incurred,  shall  be  substituted  for  the  re 
llgious  oath,  with  iU  eilecU  and  penalties. 


STAtF',F'^'°''.°''    "EW   YORK 
STATE,— Itt  levcral  rcTitioni.     See  Nkw 


York:  A.  D.  1777,  1821,  1846.  1867-lwi.  a,«i 
1bv4. 


°.  ^W  1^'  1814,  ...  a  constitution  was 
grante<l  to  Norway.  The  Fundamental  Law  of 
the  constitution  (OrundlOv),  which  almost  every 
peasant  farmer  now  a  days  has  framed  and  huni 
up  In  the  chief  rtom  of  his  house,  bears  the  date 
the  4th  of  November  1814.  "—C  F  Kearr  V'«r- 
».(#..«</  <*«  AVrtf^«M.  cA.  18. -The  following 
M  the  text  of  the  constitution  as  granted  In  1814 


CONSTITUTION  OF  NORWAY. 


•as*  tiw  AddiUoM  ot  a*pi«BiMr  M,  lan. 


690 


Titit  I. 

Article  1.  The  kingdom  of  Norway  It  t  tm. 
Independent,  undlvlslble,  and  Inalienable  ita», 
united  to  Sweden  under  the  same  kinR.  The 
form  of  Iu  government  U  limited,  hcredltsry, 
ana  monarcfaia',1. 

S.  The  Lutheran  evangelical  religion  thill 
continue  to  iw  the  ruling  religion  of  the  kin; 
dom;  tboM  of  the  inhaUtanU  which  profe«  It 


coNSTiTxrrioii  of  norwat. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  NORWAY. 


uv  bound  to  bring  up  their  children  in  its  tenet*; 
jMuita  and  monaitic  orders  shall  not  he  pro- 
bibited  in  the  kingdom.  The  admission  of  Jews 
into  the  kingdom  shall  always  be,  as  formerly, 
p^bibited.  ^^^^^^ 

Article  1.  The  executive  power  is  declared  to 

be  in  I  lie  person  of  the  king. 

3.  The  king  shall  always  profess  the  evan- 
gelical Lutheran  religion,  which  he  shall  main- 
fain  and  protect. 

3.  The  person  of  the  king  is  sacred :  be  can 
neither  be  blamed  or  accused. 

4.  The  succession  is  lineal,  and  collateral, 
«ucb  as  it  is  determine<l  by  the  order  of  succes- 
sion decreed  by  the  general  estates  of  Sweden, 
and  Mnclioned  by  the  king  in  the  Act  of  the  a6th 
ifleptemher  1810,  of  which  a  translation  is  an- 
neii'd  to  this  Constitution.  Of  the  number  of 
legitimate  heirs,  is  comprehe-Jed  the  child  in  's 
mother's  womb,  which,  as  soon  as  it  shall  l>e 
bum.  after  the  death  of  its  father,  takes  the  place 
irbich  is  due  to  him  in  the  line  of  succession. 
When  a  Prince,  heir  of  the  re-united  crowns  of 
Xorway  and  Sweden,  shall  lie  bom,  his  name, 
mill  the  (lay  of  his  birth  shall  be  announced  at 
the  tirst  Storthing,  and  inscribed  in  the  registers. 

5.  Shcjiihl  there  not  \>e  found  any  prince,  a 
leritimale  heir  to  the  throne,  the  king  can  pro- 
pose bis  successor  at  the  Storthing  of  Norway, 
md  at  the  same  time  to  the  states  general  of 
Snellen.  As  soon  as  the  king  shall  have  made 
the  proposition,  the  representatives  of  the  two 
nations  shall  choose  from  among  them  a  commit- 
tee, invested  with  the  right  of  determining  the 
t'lertion,  in  case  the  king's  proposition  should 
not,  by  the  plurality  of  voices,  be  approved  of 
iiep-,ir;itcly  by  the  representatives  of  each  of  the 
cciuntries.  The  number  of  members  of  this  com- 
mittee, shall  be  composed  of  an  equal  number  of 
Norwegians  and  Swedes,  so  that  the  step  to  fol- 
low in  the  election  shall  be  regulated  by  a  law 
Tthiih  the  king  shall  propose  at  the  same  time  to 
the  next  Storthing,  and  the  states  general  of 
jweilen.  They  shall  draw  by  lot  one  out  of  the 
committee  for  its  member. 

6.  The  Storthing*  of  Norway,  and  the  states 
general  of  Sweden  shall  concert  to  fix  by  a  law 
the  king's  majority ;  if  they  cannot  agree,  a  com- 
mittee, taken  from  the  representatives  of  the  two 
nations,  shall  decide  it  in  the  manner  established 
bT  anirle  5th,  title  2nd.  As  soon  as  the  king 
!h»ll  have  attained  the  vears  of  majoritv  fixed 
by  the  law,  he  simll  publicly  declare  that  iie  is  of 
•get 

7.  When  the  king  comes  of  age  he  shall  take 
into  his  hands  the  reins  of  government,  and  make 
the  following  oath  to  the  Storthing:  "  I  swear,  on 
my  soul  ami  conscience,  to  govern  the  kingdom 
of  Norwav  conformably  to  ito  constitution  and 
lairs. '  If  the  Storthing  is  not  then  ass«mble<l 
Ibis  oath  shall  be  deposited  In  writing  in  the 
OTinril,  and  solemnly  repeated  by  the  king  at 
the  tirst  Storthing,  either  vivi  voce  or  by  writing, 
hy  Ibe  person  whom  be  shall  have  appointed  to 
this  effect. 

B.  'The  coronation  of  the  king  shall  take  pUce 
whenbe  i>  of  age,  in  the  cathedra!  of  Dmnthcfm. 

^^  aulaaal  sMsmbljr,  or  gaosral  MtoMs  of  toe  kinc- 

h.*«,lfr,°'  '^'  "'"Ihlnif.  ISth  July  IMS.  and  «uictlon«1 
•I'S.  i^'V'rft**  tl»t  th.  UBf  Is  major  on  arr<Tiii( 
« iM  •«  of  ei(titno  jraars. 


at  the  time  and  with  those  ceremoniet  that  iball 
be  fixed  by  himself. 

O.  The  king  shall  pass  some  time  hi  Norway 
yearly,  unless  this  is  prevented  by  urgent  cir- 
cumstances. 

,  lO-  The  king  shall  exclusively  choose  a  coun- 
cil of  Norwegians,  citizens,  who  shall  have  at- 
taine<l  the  seventieth  year  of  their  age.  This 
council  shall  be  composed  at  least  of  a  minister 
of  state,  and  seven  of'-r  members.  In  like 
manner  the  king  can  create  a  viceroy  or  a  eov- 
emmcnt.  The  king  shall  arrange  the  affairs 
between  the  members  of  the  council,  in  such 
manner  as  he  sfc  i  consider  expedient.  Besides 
these  ordinary  members  of  council,  the  king,  or 
in  his  absence  the  viceroy  (or  the  government 
jointly  with  the  ordinary  members  of  council) 
may  on  particular  occasions,  call  other  Norwe- 
gians, citizens,  to  sit  there,  provided  they  are  not 
members  of  the  Storthing.  The  father  and  son, 
or  two  brothers,  shall  not,  at  the  same  time,  have 
a  seat  in  the  council. 

11.  The  king  shall  appoint  a  governor  of  the 
kingdom  in  his  absence,  and  on  failure  It  shall 
be  governe<l  by  the  viceroy  or  a  governor,  with 
five  at  least  of  the  members  of  council.  They 
shall  govern  the  kingdom  in  the  name  and  behalf 
of  the  king;  and  tlioy  shal'  observe  inviolably, 
as  much  the  principles  cor  .ained  in  this  funda- 
mental law  as  those  relative  precepts  the  king 
shall  lay  down  in  his  instructions.  They  shall 
make  a  humble  report  to  the  king  upon  those 
affairs  they  have  decided.  All  matters  shall  be 
decided  by  plurality  of  votes.  If  the  votes 
happen  to  be  equal,  the  viceroy  or  governor,  or 
in  their  absence  the  first  member  of  council,  shall 
have  two, 

12.  The  prince  royal  or  his  eldest  son  can  be 
viceroy ;  but  this  can  only  occur  when  they  have 
attained  the  majority  of  the  king.  In  the  case 
of  a  govenior,  either  a  NorwegUn  or  a  Swede 
may  be  nominated.  The  viceroy  shall  remain  in 
the  kingdom,  and  shall  not  be  alloweid  to  reside 
in  a  foreign  one  beyond  three  months  each  year. 
When  the  king  shall  be  present,  the  viceroy's 
functions  shall  cease.  If  there  is  no  viceroy,  but 
only  a  governor,  the  functions  of  the  latter  shall 
also  cease,  in  which  event  he  is  only  the  first 
member  of  cotincil. 

13.  During  the  residence  of  the  king  in 
SweiUn,  he  shall  always  have  near  him  the 
minister  of  state  of  Norway,  and  two  of  the 
members  of  the  Norwegian  council,  when  they 
shall  Ik-  annuallv  changed.  These  are  charged 
with  similar  duties,  and  the  same  constitutional 
responsibility  attucbcs  to  them  as  to  the  sitting 
council  in  Norway ;  and  It  is  only  In  their  pres- 
ence that  state  affairs  shall  be  decided  by  the 
king.  All  petitions  addressed  to  the  king  by 
Norwegian  cltizeus  ought,  first,  to  be  transmitted 
to  the  Norwegian  council,  that  they  may  be  duly 
considered  previously  to  decisions  being  pro- 
nounced. In  general,  no  affairs  ought  to  be 
decided  before  the  council  has  expressed  an 
opinion,  in  case  it  should  be  met  with  important 
objections.  The  minister  of  state  of  Norway 
ought  to  report  the  affairs,  and  he  shall  be  re- 
sponsible for  expedition  in  the  resolutions  wbioh 
snail  have  been  taken. 

14.  The  king  shall  regulate  public  worship 
and  ita  rites,  as  well  as  all  assemblies  that  have 
religion  for  their  object,  so  that  ministers  of  re- 
ligion may  observe  their  forms  prescribed  to  them. 


5U1 


CONSTirUTION  OF  NORWAY. 

in.  The  king  can  gire  and  sboUsh  ordhumcet 
which  respect  commeroe,  the  cu8tom-hoiue, 
niunufncturei,  and  police.  They  shall  not,  how- 
ever, be  contrary  to  the  constitution  nor  the  laws 
adopted  by  the  Storthing.  They  shall  have  pro- 
visional force  until  the  next  Storthing. 

16.  The  king  shall  in  general  regulate  the 
taxes  imposed  by  the  Storthini.  The  public 
treasurer  of  Norway  shall  remain  in  Norway,  and 
the  revenues  shall  only  be  employed  towards  the 
expenses  of  Norwxy. 

17.  The  king  shall  superintend  the  manner 
in  which  the  domains  and  crown  property  of  the 
state  are  employed  and  governed,  in  the  manner 
fi.\c>l  by  the  Storthing,  and  which  shall  be  most 
advantageous  to  the  country. 

1 8.  The  king  in  council  has  the  right  to  par- 
don rrimir-'s  when  the  supreme  tribunal  has 
prnimunced  its  opini  m.  The  criminal  has  tlie 
choiie  of  receiving  pardon  from  the  king  or  of 
submitting  to  tlic  punishment  to  which  be  is 
condemned.  In  the  causes  wlilch  the  Odelsthing 
would  liave  ordered  to  be  carried  to  the  Itigsret, 
tliere  erui  be  no  other  pardon  but  that  which 
simll  liberate  from  a  capital  punishment. 

lO.  The  king,  after  having  heard  his  Norwe- 
gian council,  shall  dispose  of  all  the  civil,  eccle- 
siastic, and  military  empl'  .lents.  Those  who 
assist  in  the  functions  shall  swear  olKii.ence  au(l 
tiilelity  to  the  constitution  and  to  the  ki'ig.  The 
Iirinres  of  the  royal  family  cannot  be  invested 
with  nuy  civil  employment;  yet  the  prince  royal, 
or  his  eldest  son,  may  Iw  nominated  viceroy. 

m).  The  governor  of  the  kingdom,  the  minis- 
ter of  state,  other  meml)ers  of  council,  and  those 
eniiiloyed  in  tile  functions  connected  with  thi-se 
oltlcis,  the  envoys  and  consuls,  superior  magis- 
tnites,  civil  anil  ecclesiastic  commanders  of  regi- 
nients.  and  othiT  military  bodies,  governors  of 
firrtresses,  and  commanders-in-chief  of  sliips  of 
war,  shall,  without  previous  arrest,  be  dejiosed 
by  the  king  and  his  Norwegian  council.  As  to 
the  iH'iislon  to  be  granted  to  those  emploved  thev 
shiill  l)e  deciiled  by  the  first  Storthing."  In  the 
mean  time,  they  shall  enjoy  two-third  parts  of 
their  former  salary.  The  others  employed  can 
only  lie  susix^nueii  by  the  king,  and  thev  shall 
afterwards  lie  brouith't  Ufore  the  tribunals,  but 
cannot  lie  deposed  excepting  by  order  of  an 
arrest,  and  the  king  enn:ii>t  make  them  change 
their  situations  contrary  to  their  will. 

21.  The  king  can  confer  orders  of  knighthood 
on  whomsoever  he  chooses,  in  rewanl  of  dis- 
tinguished services,  which  shall  be  published; 
but  he  can  confer  no  other  rank,  with  the  title, 
than  that  which  is  attached  to  everv  emplovment. 
Anonlerof  knlchthooii  does  not  liberate  the  per- 
son on  nliom  it  is  conferred  f mm  those  duties 
common  to  all  citizens,  and  part'^ular  titles  are 
not  conferrc<I  in  order  to  obtain  situations  in  the 
state.  Such  persons  shall  preserve  the  title  and 
rank  attache)!  to  those  situations  which  thev 
liave  occupied.  No  person  can,  for  the  future, 
obtain  personal,  mixed,  or  hereditary  privileges. 

22.  The  king  elects  and  dismisses,  whenever 
he  thinks  proper,  all  the  offlcent  attached  to  bis 
court. 

23.  The  king  is  commandei  -chief  of  all  the 
force*,  by  «s-s  sn-l  land,  in  ihr  kifigjum,  and 
thete  cannot  be  increased  or  diminished  without 
the  consent  of  the  Storthing.  Tbey  will  not  be 
ceded  to  the  service  of  any  forei|tn  power,  and 
troops   belooging  to  »  (oni(n  power  (except 


CONSTITUTION  OP  NORWAY. 

auxiliary  troops  In  case  of  a  hostile  invuiog 
caimot  enter  the  country  without  the  consent  o 
the  Storthing.  Durins  peace,  the  Ni]rwcr|« 
troops  shall  be  stationed  In  Norway,  ami  not  {, 
Sweden.  Notwithstanding  this  tlie  kmi;  nui 
have  in  Sweden  a  Norwegian  guard,  eomp,«f; 
of  "volunteers,  and  may  for  a  short  time,  nut  n 
CJtiiing  six  weeks  In  a  year,  assemble  truops  i, 
tile  envin  of  the  two  countries,  for  exercisioj 
but  in  case  there  are  more  than  8,000  men.  com 
posing  the  army  of  one  of  the  two  countries,  thu 
cannot  in  time  of  peace  enter  the  other.*  Th, 
Norwegian  army  and  gun-boats  shall  not  be  mi 
ployeil  without  the  consent  of  the  Stonhini; 
The  Norwegian  fleet  shall  have  drv  (i(Hks,  and 
during  jK-ace  its  stations  and  harlxnirs  in  X..r 
way.  hhips  of  war  of  both  countries  sliail  1* 
supplied  with  the  seamen  of  the  other,  m  hanti 
they  shall  voluntarily  engage  to  serve.  Tit 
landwebr,  and  other  Norwegian  furci-s,  vUci 
are  not  etdculated  among  the  nunilxruf  tmopi 
of  the  line,  shall  never  be  employed  biyonj  tit 
frontiers  of  the  kingdom  of  >orwav. 

24.  The  king  has  the  right  o'f  assemblin 
troojis,  commencing  war.  making  peace,  concluj- 
ing  and  dissolving  trtaties,  sending  ministers  to 
and  receiviuK  those  of,  foreign  courts.  Wlienht 
begins  war  he  ought  to  advise  the  council  o! 
Norway,  consult  it.  and  order  it  to  jireparc  u 
adiln-ss  on  the  state  of  the  kingdom,  nlntive  ". 
its  flnantvs,  and  propi-r  means  of  definif.  On 
this  the  king  shall  convoke  the  minister  of  state 
of  Norway,  and  those  of  the  council  of  !S»-iilia, 
at  an  extraordinary  osst'inlily,  when  he  »lall  ri^ 
l)lain  all  those  relative  circumstances  tliat  ou;li; 
to  lie  taken  into  consideration ;  witli  a  npresenu. 
tion  of  the  Norwegian  council,  and  a  similar  ok 
on  the  part  of  Sweden,  upon  the  state  of  the  king- 
dom, shall  then  be  pres»'nu-d.  The  kiut'  sliiill  ikii 
require  advice  upon  these  objects;  and  eiicli  slull 
be  inserted  in  a  register,  under  the  responsibilitr 
iinposeil  by  the  omstitution,  when  ilie  kinjtsliail 
then  adopt  that  resolution  which  he  juclces  niusi 
Iir<)|)er  for  the  beueflt  of  the  state. 

2n.  (In  this  occasion  a'l  the  memliers of  coun- 
cil must  lie  presimt,  if  not  prevented  bv  some  law- 
ful cause,  and  no  resolution  ought  to'lx-  .i(l"piri 
unless  one  half  of  the  members  are  n.c-sent.  In 
Norwegian  affaiis,  which,  accordi'  .  the  HI- 
tcenth  article,  are  decided  in  Sued  >  rwilu- 

tion  shall  lie  taken  unless  the  iiiir.'  .f  state  d 
Norway  and  one  of  the  member  council,  or 
two  nieinlwrs,  arc  present. 

20.  The  representations  resp<..ting  employ- 
ments, and  other  important  acts,  exee|itiu(;  tiioit 
of  a  diplomatic  and  military  nature,  |mi[wririo 
calle<l,  bIihII  lie  referred  to  the  cnumil  bv  liim 
who  is  one  of  the  inemliers  in  the  departmeni 
charged  with  it,  who  shall  acconlingly  draw  up 
the  resolution  adopted  in  council. 

27.  If  any  member  of  council  is  prevemed 
from  appearing,  and  referring  theaffain  wliicli 
belong  to  his  peculiar  department,  he  shall  be  rt- 
placed  in  this  otUce  by  one  of  the  others  sppointW 
to  this  purpose,  either  by  the  king,  if  penoiially 
present,  and  if  not,  by  him  who  has  precedence  in 
the  muncil,  iointlr  w"ith  the  other  memlier*  com- 
posing it.     Should  several  of  these  be  prcvcDtcil 

•  Tin  law  of  the  8torUUii(,  Uh  Jul7  1*16.  bwi.  Hal 
troopfl  of  tho  lliw  ■hall  be  «mplo]red  bejrotul  ttie  rrunlMl 
of  the  kln«dom,  and  tlw  latarprautlon  gtyu  b;  li  u  Uiii 
lav  la,  that  troon  of  tb*  lias  shaU  b*  amplureii  btjiai 
Um  fruBllan  of  th*  two  "-f*™-! 


592 


CONSTITCTION  OF  NORWAY. 


CONSTITUTIOII  OF  NORWAY. 


tmn  appearing,  M  that  only  one  half  of  the  ordl- 
jorr  number  ii  present,  the  other  employed  in 
tlw'offlcea  ihall  in  like  manner  have  right  to  dt 
in  council ;  and  in  that  event  it  itiall  be  after- 
nrdf  referred  to  the  king,  who  decides  if  they 
ouuht  to  continue  to  exerclae  tliia  office. 

28.  The  council  shall  keep  a  register  of  all 
iffain  tbat  may  come  tinder  its  consideration. 
Every  individual  who  sits  in  it  shall  be  at  liberty 
to  frive  bis  opinion  freely,  which  the  king  is 
obliged  to  hear:  but  it  is  reserved  to  bis  majesty 
to  aitopt  resolutions  after  he  has  consultea  his 
own  mind.  If  a  member  of  council  finds  that 
tbe  liinf^'s  resolutinn  is  contrary  to  the  form  of 
{OTeroment,  the  luws  of  the  kingdom,  or  in- 
jurious to  the  state,  he  shall  consider  it  his  duty 
to  oppose  it,  and  record  his  opinion  in  the  register 
seconlingly ;  but  he  who  remains  silent  shall  be 
presumed  to  have  agreed  with  the  king,  and 
shall  be  responsible  for  it,  even  in  the  case  of  be- 
Id;  Inferred  to  at  a  future  period  -,  and  the  Odels- 
thine  is  empowered  to  bring  him  before  the 
Rlrs'ret. 

29.  All  the  ordera  i88uc<l  by  the  king  (mlli- 
tarr  nffiiirs  excepted)  shall  be  countersigned  by 
the'  Xcinvegian  minister  of  state. 

30.  Krsolutions  made  in  absence  of  the  king, 
br  the  council  in  Norway,  shall  be  publicly  pro- 
rlaimcd  and  signed  by  the  viceroy,  or  the  gov- 
jraor  and  council,  and  countersigncil  by  him  who 
shall  h.ivo  referred  them,  and  he  is  further  re- 
spiinsihle  for  the  accuracy  and  dispatch  with  the 
red^ter  in  wliich  the  resolution  is  entere<l. 

31.  All  representations  relative  to  the  affairs 
of  this  country,  as  well  as  writings  concerning 
them,  must  lie  in  the  Norwegian  lai;^uage. 

33.  The  heir-apparent  to'tlie  throne,  if  a  son 
of  the  reifcnini;  king,  shall  have  the  title  of  prince 
Mval.  the  other  legitimate  heirs  to  the  crown 
shiill  be  ealle<l  princes,  and  the  king's  daughters 
priufrssea. 

33.  As  soon  as  the  heir  shall  have  attained 
the  age  of  eij^bteen,  he  shall  have  a  right  to  sit 
in  council,  without,  however,  having  a  vote,  or 
aar  ..  i»insil)ility. 

in.  No  prince  of  the  blood  shall  marry  with- 
out prnnis^iou  of  the  king,  and  in  case  of  con- 
inivintion,  be  shall  forfeit  bis  right  to  the  crown 
of  Xiirwiiy. 

3!i.  Tlif  princes  and  princesses  of  the  royal 
family,  iilutll  not.  so  far  as  respects  their  persons, 
be  biiunil  to  appear  Ix-fore  other  Judges,  but  tie- 
tore  the  kiiiir  or  whomsoever  he  shall  have  ap- 
pointeil  for  that  purpose. 

'M\,  Tlie  minister  of  state  of  Norway,  as  well 
ai  the  two  members  of  council  who  are  near  the 
kine.  shall  iiave  a  seat  and  deliberative  voire  in 
the  Swidisli  council,  where  objects  relative  to 
the  two  kinirdoms  shall  be  treated  of.  In  affairs 
of  this  nature  the  advice  of  the  council  ought 
al»i  to  In.  underattxid.  unless  these  require  quick 
dispatch.  8<i  as  not  to  allow  time. 

37.  If  llie  king  happens  to  die,  and  the  heir 
to  the  throne  is  under  age,  the  council  of  Nor- 
way, and  tliat  of  Sweden,  shall  assemble,  and 
mutually  call  a  convocation  of  the  Storthing  in 
Xorway  and  Diet  of  Sweden. 

38.  Although  the  representatives  of  the  two 
iiii<i...iii»  should  liave  assembled,  and  regulated 
the  admtaistration  during  the  king's  minority,  a 
miincil  composed  of  an  equal  number  of  Nor- 
^i-^'ian  and  Swedish  members  shall  govern  the 
(ugdoms,  and  follow  their  fundament^  reuipro- 


■Jt 


eal  laws.  The  minister  of  state  of  Norway  whi 
sits  in  this  council,  shall  draw  by  ballot  in  order 
to  decide  on  which  of  its  memben  the  preference 
shall  happen  to  fall. 

39.  The  reguUtion*  contained  In  the  two  lost 
articles  shall  be  always  equally  adopted  after  the 
constitution  of  Sweden.  It  belongs  to  the  Swed- 
ish council,  in  this  quality,  to  be  at  the  head  of 
government. 

40.  With  respect  to  more  particular  and  neces- 
sary affairs  that  might  occur  in  cases  under  the 
three  former  articles,  the  king  shall  propose  to 
the  first  Stortliing  in  Norway,  and  at  the  first 
Diet  in  Sweden,  a  law  having  for  its  basis  the 
principle  of  a  perfect  equality  existing  between 
the  two  kingdoms. 

41.  The  election  of  guardians  to  be  at  the 
head  of  government  during  the  king's  minority, 
shall  be  made  after  the  same  rules  and  manner 
formerly  prescribed  in  the  second  title.  Article 
5th.  concerning  the  election  of  an  heir  to  the 
throne. 

42.  The  individuals  who  in  the  cases  under 
the  JJHIh  and  39th  articles,  are  at  the  head  of  gov- 
ernment, shall  be.  the  Norwegians  at  the  Storth- 
ing of  Norway,  and  shall  take  the  following  oath : 
"  I  swear,  on  my  soul  and  conscience,  to  govern 
the  kingdom  conformably  to  its  constitution  and 
laws;"  and  the  Swe<les  shall  also  make  a  similar 
oath.  If  there  is  not  a  Storthing  or  Diet,  it  shall 
be  deposited  in  writing  in  the  council,  anil  after- 
wards repeateil  at  the  first  of  these  when  they 
happen  to  assemble. 

43.  As  soon  as  the  governments  have  ceased, 
they  shall  be  restored  to  the  king,  and  the  Storth- 
ing. 

44.  If  the  Storthing  is  not  convoked,  agree- 
alily  to  what  is  expressed  in  the  38th  and  30th 
articles,  the  '  'iremc  tribunal  shall  consider  it  as 
an  imperio'  duty,  at  the  expiration  of  four 
we«'ks,  to  I       a  meeting. 

45.  The  charge  of  the  education  of  the  king, 
in  case  his  fatlier  may  not  have  left  in  writing 
instnictious  reeanling  it,  shall  be  regulated  in 
the  manner  laid  down  under  tlic  5tb  and  41st 
articles.  It  is  held  to  be  an  invariable  rule,  that 
the  king  during  his  minority  shall  learn  the  Nor- 
wegian language. 

46.  If  the  masculine  line  of  the  royal  family 
is  cxiiiict,  and  there  lias  not  lieen  elected  a  suc- 
cessor to  the  throne,  the  election  of  a  new 
ilynasty  shall  be  proceeded  in,  and  afttrthe  man- 
iiir  prescribed  under  the  .'ith  article.  In  the 
meau  titne  the  executive  power  shall  be  exercised 
agreeably  to  the  41st  article. 

Title  III. 
Article  1.  I.*gislative  power  Is  exercised  by 
the  Storthing,  which  is  constituted  of  two  houses, 
namelv,  tlie  I.jiirthing  and  Ddelsthing. 

2.  S'one  shall  have  a  right  to  vote  but  Nor- 
wegians, who  have  attained  twenty-five  years, 
niul  resided  in  the  country  during  five  years. 
1.  Th<i«e  who  are  exercising,  or  who  have  exer- 
cised functions.  2.  Possess  land  in  the  country, 
which  has  been  let  for  more  than  five  years.  3. 
A'e  buriresses  of  some  city,  or  possess  either  in 
it.  or  s<mie  village,  a  house,  or  property  of  the 
value  oi  at  least  tiiree  hundred  bank  crowns  in 
silver. 

3.  There  shall  be  drawn  up  in  cities  by  the 
magistretes,  and  in  every  parish  by  the  p'ublto 
authority  and  the  priest,  a  register  of  all  the  in- 


593 


Ill, 


'i?[ 


■ijrii 

3. 

•igii 

li:in 

arc 


't 
.* 


CONSTITUTION  OF  iVORWAY. 

habitants  who  areTotere.  T,>y  xhall  also  note 
in  It  without  delay,  tlioae  chi.u)  i  which  m*y 
•ueoessivfly  take  place.  Befcjic  i-  ing  iugcrilH-d 
in  the  register,  every  onu  shall  take  an  <iBth,  be- 
fore the  tribunal,  of  fldelitv  to  'lie  -onstitution. 

4.  Hightof  Totingi»sii«iH'n'i,  t  .■  the  follow- 
iag  cases:  1.  By  the  ac<  ■isatiou  .  f  iiime  Iwfore 
a  tribunal:  2.  By  not  attaining  t'.ie  propter  age; 
8.  By  insolvency  or  baiikruptc  laiti'.  creditors 
have  obtainetl  their  payment  In  ■  !i'  I  •  aless  it 
can  Ix'  proved  that  the  former  h;is  '  •  n  from 
lire,  or  other  unforeseen  events, 

rt.  The  right  of  voting  Is  forf  ■;:  .1  .  ivelv: 

1.  By  condemnation  to  the  hi  n- ■  of  co.--,  rtion, 
slaviry,  or  punishment  fordtfa  .  .lorv  1  uik  lage: 

2.  By  acceptance  of  the  trv,.'  i    it 

Bower,  without  the  consent  i.:   •■        nun 
y  obtaining  the  right  of     i  u  -ii        a  :.  ■ 
country.     4.  By  conviction  c!    .>■,  ;i.;-'uri 
and  sold  votes,  and  having  \j).ni  in     mut 
one  electoral  8s.sembly. 

O.  The  electoral  assembli^  iii,  i,.  .  , 
hild  every  three  years,  and  si  \  ':i,  -I:  '  ■  t,  i 
euil  of  tlie  month  of  Dcc-^nil.  r 

7.  Klectoral  assemblies  f'i '  l  br  LiM  f(.ri. 
country,  at  the  manorhou.-'  '  •!..■  ]y.,'.i<.  •', 
church,  towuhull,  or  some  ,'li  •  .i'  (.'u  i , 
the  country  they  shall  1h-  il.re  i  i  Dy  .  :;  .• 
minister  and  asiiintants;  and  in  t  rns,  bv  .,■  ti- 
trates and  sherilTs:  election  shiul  w  made  ..:  .  • 
order  api>cinted  I-  the  register>'  Pisro'^s  i  i; 
cemiui:  Ilie  right  -f  voting  sliiill  W  decided  h\ 
the  dir(  tors  of  the  assembly,  inmi  whose  jud^'- 
ment  ■.n.  apjn  m1  may  be  made  t.i  -..le  Worthing. 

8.  Before  proceeding  to  the  iliTtlon.  the  con- 
stitution shall  Ik'  read  with  ;i  loud  voi(f  in  the 
I  ities,  by  the  first  magistrate,  and  in  the  country 
i'>'  Tlii-  (  unte. 

!».  In  lities.  an  elector  shall  he  cliostn  bv  fifty 
eli:;il>li'  inhabitants.  They  shall  aswinlile  eight 
iliivs  after,  in  tlie  plaei  appointed  by  tlie  niagis- 
tnii .  and  eh. lose,  either  from  umouastiliemselves, 
or  from  oiliers  who  are  eligible  in  the  department 
of  tlicir  lid  tioi),  a  fourth  of  liiiir  uumin-r  to  ^^it 
at  tin  Slorlhiiig,  that  is  after  the  manner  of  three 
to  si.v  ill  elioosing  one;  seven  to  ten  in  electing 
two;  ileven  to  fourtei-n  in  dioosing  tiin-e,  and 
lifteen  to  eighteen  In  electing  four;  which  is  tlie 
greatest  nuinlH-r  |K'rmitted  to  a  citv  to  semi  If 
thesi  eon.sist  of  less  than  l.W  eligible  inhabitants, 
they  shall  send  the  electors  to  the  nearest  citv  to 
vote  conjointly  with  the  electors  of  the  f<irlner, 
^»  lien  the  two  shall  only  be  considen-d  as  fonning 
one  district.* 

lO.  In  each  parish  in  the  eouutrv  the,  lii:ib|e 
inhabitants  shall  choose  in  proportion  u<  tluir 
nil  :il)ir  electors  in  the  following  iiianni  r.  iliat  is 
to  say,  a  liundred  may  choose  one;  two  to  thri-i- 
huiulred,  three;  and  so  on  in  the  same  prop,  r 
lion.t  Klectorssliall  assemble  a  month  after  in 
the  place  appointe.1  by  the  bailiir.  and  .liiMise, 
eitlier  from  amongst  themselves  .ir  the  others  of 

•  .\  law  loiweil  Mil  Ffhruary  IKIB  mnlalns  this  anifn.l- 
lii.-Ml  Tuwitv  ttveeleeliirauKlmureslmll  no:  el«tiii..r<> 
I  laii  Ihr.i-  r.-|,r.^-ntalivrti.  whieh  Khali  b-.  a.l  inl.nm 
til-  cival-sl  n  .niber  which  the  Iwilml.-k  can  ivud  .111,1' 
omwiiueiilly  rut  ..f  whlih  the  numlier  ..f  re|irv«.ntalire« 
In  the  e..uiii>  which  an  slity^ue,  shall  be  .liniinuhisl 
fn.Tii  ftftv  I     dflylhrw  ..u~.r-. 

♦  if  full. f-  .■■i..rtl.iiiini  iiiaa- 'vrr  thd  nuiulier  <.r  n-pre- 
■enlallvn.  ..f  [..wns  f r..m  an  lner«w  of  MmulaUtai  (.h.niia 
•m.Minl  to  thirty,  Ih-  name  Rtorthlnu  nfiafi  liave  rlirlil  I.. 
•lUnncnl  ..f  new  tli-  n.iniher  of  nfprewnlallnni  „f  tho 
e.>UDtr>-.  ID  the  mariwr  Bie,l  liy  Ihf  prlmiule. of  the  con- 
rltuth«,  whk-h  •hall  be  hel.i  aa  a  rule  lu  future 


CONSTITUTION  OF  NORWAY 

the  bailiwick  ellglMc,  a  tenth  of  their  own  nuir 
Iwr  to  sit  at  the  Storthing,  so  that  five  to  foun» 
may  choose  one;  flftwn  to  twentv-fnu,  „. 
choose  two  of  them;  twenty-five  w>  iliinvf™ 
three;  thirty -five  and  beyond  It,  four.  Tlii'stoh 
greatest  number.  " 

1 1.  The  powers  contained  In  the  9th  and  'iit 
articles  shall  have  their  proper  fot»e  an.|  Hff>' 
until  next  Storthing.  If  it  is  found  timt  iCl 
presentatlvcsof  cities  constitute  mon'orle«,ii™ 
one-third  of  those  of  the  kingdom,  the  St<,rtlii7. 
OS  a  rule  for  the  future,  shall  have  right  t .  1 ,1," 
these  powers  in  sucli  a  manner  that  rii.h,,-' 
fives  of  the  cities  may  join  with  tli.ji  ..f  it, 
country,  as  one  to  two;  and  the  toful  number,' 
representatives  ought  not  to  be  under  swosr 
five,  nor  alnive  one  hundred. 

12.  Those  eligihie,  who  are  in  the  c,  .ntn 
ami  are  prevented  from  attendinc  bv  si.-knei 
mililarv  service,  or  other  propii  -,:i.s„iu  nr 
transmit  their  votes  in  writing  totli.,--  wlindiivc; 
the  elirtoral  assimblies.  before  their  •■rminati* 

• ;?        1  person  can  \k  chosen  a  n  prfwntariTt 
is  thirty  years  of  age,  an  1  Imsrwiurf 
.  n  .tars  in  flie  country. 

14.  The  memU-rs  of  council,  tiivw  omt-  )t«! 
in  flu  ir  offices,  ollleers  of  the  court,  ami  it-  in- 
sioiiers,  shall  not  !«■  chosen  as  repnseutativA 

m.  Individuals  chosen  to  Is-  ri  p^•sentali^« 
an-  obliged  to  accept  of  the  electi.in.  unless  [itv 
' eut.d  by  motives considereil  lawful  by fluflHi 
•  IS.  wh.«e  jiirlgnient  may  Ih'  sulimit'le.1  lu  th« 
.lecisi.m  of  the  Storthing.  A  pers..n  wW  hi, 
apj>earetl  more  than  once  as  represei  lativi-  a:  i- 
ordinury  Storthing,  is  not  obliired  f.i  am-ni  .if  rt- 
electi.m  for  the  next  ordinary  Si.irtliini'.  Ifl.  'ji 
reasons  prevent  a  n-presitifative  from  ai)|..nnii; 
at  the  Storthing,  the  person  wh.i  after  bimlui 
most  votes  shall  take  his  place 

HI.  As  so<m  as  npresenfatlvcs  have  i.ts 
eleete.i.  they  shall  n>ceive  a  writing  in  thtn.ui 
try  from  the  suiH'rior  magi.>irate.  iiinl  ii.  tivtitirt 
fr..m  the  magistrate.  als(">  fr.nu  all  tli.fl..i„»i 
a^a  pr.Lif  that  they  have  Imih  il.ite.l  intli.-.niaii- 
n.T  prescrilK-i|  by  tl,.'  constiiutioii.  Tli.' St.irii- 
ing  sli.ill  iu.lge  of  the  h'L'ality    f  Ibis  auil...riiy 

17.  .VII  repres«'ir,alivrs  liav,  a  rit'lit  l..(laiit 
an  inilemiiitication  in  imvellini:  i.i  nml  n-iuraioj 
from  the  .^torihing;  as  w.-ll  as  Miii-isteii,r.l'^. 
inu  the  peri.xl  they  shall  have  reiimiiii-.l  tlien-. 

18.  During  the  journey,  ami  ntiirn  .f  n-pi*. 
senfatiM-s,  as  well  as  llie  tiiii.'  th.  v  iiiav  Lave 
attended  the  Storthing,  tli.y  ar.'  ixi-inpt"!  fno 
arrest;  unless  they  ■;[-.■  -.i/.-.l  in  Mniie  tij/nuii 
anil  publii  iiet.  and  .nt  .'f  the  Storiliinirtli. ;  »y; 
not  ill-  ns|...nsible  f.,r  the  opinii.n^lh-y  may  In' 
declared  in  if.  K\iry  one  is  iH'un.i  t.i  ninf'ts. 
himself  to  file  opl.  r  establisheii  in  ir 

10.  Heprewntafives,  chosen  in  the  manaT 
alxive  d. eland.  iom|)os<.'  the  ."'tTtliiug  of  ■.in 
klnirdoiii  of  Norway. 

SO.  The  otHiiiiig  of  the  ^"torthiug  sta2  be 
ina.h-  the  first  lawful  day  in  the  m. .utli of  f ■  ■-»■ 
ary,  every  threi-  \iars,  iii  the  capit  il  nf  fbi  t;:j- 
d.im,  unless  th"'kiiig,  in  extrai.r  liiiiry  rir.;'im- 
Btanees.  by  fon'iirn  invasion  or  iiini:ii.-i.«i»'li»'a«. 
fixes  on  some  <ilhercity  of  tl.,-  Lintiinn,  Sua 
chanste  ought  tlien  to  lie  ear!,  ann.u.-:  ..!. 

m1.  Ill  e.Mnioriiiiiary  -.-asi-s,  '-n-  M:^_iiasiijt 
right  ..f  as.si-mbling  the  Storiliing  witli-iuiB- 
«|H-el  to  the  or.ii'iary  time.  Tl.e  king  wilhhf!; 
cause  t..  be  issu.  d  a  pna-lamatinh.  wliidi  i- 1  '- 
read  in  all   the   [Tiucipal  rhuri  i  ■  -  six  w.-t«,- .. 


594 


COXSTmJTION  OF  NORWAT. 

least  prevlou*  to  the  d»y  fixed  (or  the  suem- 
bliii;  o(  memben  of  the  Storthing  at  the  pUce 

a'i.  Such  extnordlnuT  Storthing  may  bedis- 
lolveil  by  the  king  when  he  shall  Judge  fit. 

S3,  Members  of  the  Storthing  shall  continue 
in  the  exerctae  of  "heir  office  during  three  con- 
KCUtiTe  years,  as  much  during  an  extraonilnary 
a  ADV  oViitnary  Storthiog  that  might  be  held 
juriog  this  time. 

24.  If  an  extraordlnury  Storthing  is  held  at  a 
iimf  when  the  ordlnar>-  Storthmg  ought  to  as- 
stmble.  the  functions  i>f  the  first  will  ceant,  as 
soon  »» the  second  shall  have  met. 

25.  The  extraordinary  Storthing,  no  more 
llmu  the  ordinary,  can  be  held  if  two-thirds  of 
the  members  do  not  happen  to  be  present. 

20.  As  soon  as  tlie  Storthing  shall  be  organ- 
ized, the  king,  t>r  tlie  person  who  shall  be  ap- 
iminli'il  by  him  for  that  purpose,  shall  open  it  by 
»n  lulcln'sia.  In  w  liich  he  is  to  dt-scribe  the  (itate  of 
llje  kingdom,  anil  those  ob.j<  its  to  which  In-  di- 
ml« the  attention  of  the  Stor.hing.  Xo  iKliU-r- 
atidnoujiht  tc  take  I  luce  In  tlie  king's  pres.!iie. 
TheS'torthiag  shall  choose  Iroin  it«memlH'r»  "ue- 
(ourlb  pan  to  form  the  Lagthing.  and  the  other 
tbiwfoiinh.sto  constitute  the  Odelsthlng.  Kiieh 
of  these  li"ii»es  shall  have  its  private  mietings, 
ami  rioniiiiiiU'  its  president  and  s<   retary. 

27.  It  liolongs  to  the  Storthinir  —1.  To  make 
ami  al«ilish  laws,  establish  impc  ■■ts.  taxes,  cu.-s- 
tiini'liouses,  and  other  piililir  actK.  which  shnll. 
however,  only  exist  until  the  1st  ul  .July  of  thut 
year.  ^ lien  a  new  Storthini!-  shall  I"' ii.s.'«-inlili-il 
iinliss  this  last  Is  expresi*!.  rii.i'.».il  li^-  th.-m 
2  To  make  loans.  Iiy  meaii.s  of  tli  credit  of  the 
slate.  3  Towaii  i  Viver  the  finaiu. -.of  the  state. 
4  To  grant  sums  iieressar/  for  it»  i  .\pens«"s.  H 
T"!i^  'he  vearl>  vrant  for  the  ii  intenar.ce  of 
!li>'  kini!  anil  vici  r  .y,  and  also  d  i|m  ages  <if  the 
r  ..il  taimily;  whicli  oui;ht  not.  however,  to  con- 
►  -:  h  Isiicied  property.  8.  To  exhibit  the  regis- 
tiTiif  the  ^lttin^'  council  in  Xorwiiv.  ami  all  the 
re|Kins.  ami  public  documents  (tiie  nffnirs  of 
luililary  ronimaiul  excepttHl;.  andcfrtibr«:  c^pii's, 
iT  extracts  of  liiv  r(i:i«!vr8  kept  by  tin-  ministers 
ofttiiteand  mcmlurs  council  neiir  the  king,  or 
tlie  pullic  di  lunients.  -i  tiiili  shall  liai  e  lieeii  pm- 
iluu"!  7  To  .ommiiiiiciie  wliiittviT  .n-aiii-s 
ilie  kmi:  slivll  have  concludei!  In  the  mime  of  tlie 
M.itewith  i Teigri  powers,  excepting  secivt  arti- 
rlis.  "iri'inli-i!  these  are  not  In  coniri\dirr'.on  >viih 

lie  tiiililii  articles.  H.  To  require  all  individuals 
Il ap[)eiir  ti  fore  the  Storthing  on  aifairs of  state. 
the  kills.'  iml  royal  faniiiy  excepteil.  This  is  not. 
howevt  r.  iippIicahU'  to  llie  princes  of  tlie  royiil 
hinily.  as  tin  y  an-  i.ivesteii  with  othrTollloestliuu 
til  if  vici  r.  y.  9.  To  examine  the  lists  of  |m>- 
v;-:  >uh1  pi'tiMons;  auo  to  niakr  su  li  ultenitlous 
..-  -hull  be  jiiilgiil  net  i-ssary.  10.  Ta  tiaim-  five 
ri-.wr-i,  who  an'  annually  to  exniiiiiie  Ihe  ac- 
iiiMiv<  f  tlie  stall .  and  piihli-ih  printitl  i-xirae'.s 
1 5  t;iist',  which  are  to  bi'  n'Uiinn!  in  ttu-  ri-vi-H-rs 
di*Mvery  year  Ikfure  the  1st  of  Jul  U  To 
^  '  mViw  fi,r>:igiiers. 

<.  Ijiws  ought  first  Ut  Ix'  propoBt-d  to  the 
o     -thing,  either  by  its  own  nu-mlurs  or  llie 

£.iv,  I  ijmt.n^^  IhrtlU uh  0!*.t' '. ? i  *- lit:  me JU t^*     -  '  f  COU!!- 

(ii     If  the  proposition  is  accepti-d        .iliall  In 
•<!:•  •    'lie  Ijigthing,  who  approve     r  reject  ;■ 
w:  the  last  case  return  it  Bcroinpani-d  wi- 
rks     These  shall  be  weighfi  by  the  «)deis 
wbich  let*  the  pruiiowd   law  asiile,  or 


CONSTITCTION  OF  NOBWAT. 

remits  it  to  the  Lagthing,  with  or  without  alter 
ntions.  When  a  law  shall  bare  been  twice  pro- 
poseil  by  the  Odelstbing  to  the  Lagthing,  and 
the  hitter  shall  have  rejected  It  a  second  time, 
the  Storthing  shall  assemble,  when  two-thirds  of 
the  votes  shall  decide  upon  it.  Tliree  daya  at 
least  ought  to  pass  between  each  of  those  delib- 
erations. 

29."  When  a  resolution  proposed  by  the  Odels- 
thing  shall  be  approved  by  tlie  L,agthlng,  or  by 
the  Storthing  alone,  a  depututlon  of  tiiese  two 
houses  to  the  Storthing  shall  jiresent  It  to  the 
king  If  he  is  present,  and  If  not,  to  the  viceroy,  or 
Norwegian  council,  and  req„;  3  It  may  receive 
the  royal  sanction. 

30.  Should  the  king  approve  of  the  resolution, 
he  subiicribes  to  it,  and  from  that  period  it  is  de- 
clared to  iJdss  Into  a  public  law.  If  he  disap- 
proves he  returns  it  to  the  Odelsthing,  declaring 
tliat  at  this  time  he  does  m  t  give  It  his  sauctiim. 

31.  In  thise%'ent,  the  Morthing,  then  asi  m- 
bled,  ouglit  to  S'lbmit  the  rtiiolution  to  the  king, 
who  may  proc-ee.i  in  it  in  the  same  manner  if  the 
first  onimarj-  Storthing  presents  again  to  him  the 
sauw  resolution.  But  if,  after  reconsideration, 
it  is  still  aii  pted  by  the  two  houses  of  the  third 
ordinary  St-  "thinir.  and  afterwards  submitted  to 
the  king,  wi  •>  shall  have  been  intnateil  not  to 
\ltlih'ld  hi-  Niuctiou  to  a  resolution  that  the 
Stortiiing,  aft'-r  the  most  mature  deliberations, 
belii  ^'  H  to  tx-  ii>  !ul:  It  slial'  a.  .^lire  thestn'ngth 
of  a  ,  >v,  I'veu  uld  it  nut  ii  i-ive  the  king's 
sigiiaiiire  liefnrt     ,»■  dosing    -  the  Storthing. 

32.  The  Ston  ling  shall  ^  as  long  as  it  shall 
be  jtidijud  tieces-ary,  but  '  l>eyond  three 
mouths,  without  tlie  king's  i  issiou.  'When 
the  businrss  is  finished,  or  after  t  has  assembled 
fur  th-  time  fixed,  .t  is  dis8olvt<i  by  the  king. 
His  Majesty  gives,  at  the  same  lime,  his  --luc- 
tiiin  to  the  ileerees  not  ain'ady  decided,  eltl"  r  In 
(orrolKir.itingornjecting  them.  AH  those  not  ex- 
pressly siuictioneil  are  held  to  be  n'jected  bv  him. 

33I  Ijiws  are  to  be  drawn  up  in  the  Norwe- 
gian language,  and  (those  mentioned  li<  Slr.i  ar:l- 
ele  excepteil  in  name  of  the  king,  under  the  sea! 
of  the  kiuu'doin,  and  in  these  terms  -"Wc.  lii 
lie  ^t  known,  that  there  has  lieen  sulmiitte' 
us  a  decree  of  the  Storthiu  '  '<if  such  a  uatei 
thus  expnsstHl  (follows  the  r-  lutton;  »\"c  have 
areepted  "nt  sanctioned  as  \t^^  the  -  ■  decree, 
in  giving  it  our  signature,  and  seal  (  '  m  kihg- 
'ioin," 

34.  The  kiuirs  sanctiim  is  not  nece»-.ry  to  the 
resoluti'tiis  uf  'lie  Slorlhiiig.  by  wiiicli  Uw  h-i^i.'- 
hitive  l««ly,-  Deelari  ?  itsidf"or.'ani/.r.l  as  ,a 
nbini.-,"  <• .  Mnling  U'  the  coutituu  n  .'. 
,.^ulii!  -  -  internal  pi, ice.  3.  .\iee|  or  re- 
jects win^  if  present  in. 'nbers.  4 
•-ejeels  judgments  relai;  to  disj 
iiig  eUwtums.  .'1.  Xatumiijes  f 
And  in  short,  tin.  resolution  !>y  wh: 


tliirg  »>nlers  soiiif  niemii--T  • 
'■.  '.re  ;h"  ■ribunal- 

."15.  Ti.     stonlii-.g  can  r 
lie  siipieni.'  tribunal  in  jiuli 

■Mi,  TheStonhinL-      -11  1. 
01-  n  doo-«.  and  it" 
l.-j.,:.ij,  f.\-i-enting  ■ 
ure  shall  liave  Ik. 
VI  lies. 

37.  Win. ever  n 
the  .-'li.rtliing.  reii. 
h?.-li  treason  t.mM 


cou 


',  inrms  ur 
• »  resjieet- 
jn--n.  6. 
u  tjit  iMels- 
i  to  appeal 

of 


nan^:  ihe  a. 

»l  I   Men 

i  Hs  sittlnL's  with 

-hall  lie  prictiMl  :.ii  I  pub- 

wlu'ri    .  nmrrarv  nieaa- 

11        -i  1. 1     ill-      l.irality  of 

le««»  iite  U:iertT  anst  safety  of 
>  himactf  ir'illty  t>l  an  net  of 
,  .h.  iOun'  V 


y,*o 


CONSTITUTION  OF  NOBWAT. 

Titl*  IV. 
Article  1.  The  memben  of  the  T^gtMwy  toi 
iupreme  tribunal  compodng  the  Rinrat,  Judge 
in  the  flnt  and  last  Instance  of  the  anin  entered 


■■■    •>■■«   uawv   niaiA    sown     suvMBMW   \ii    UIV  nil»irW  CUiVIVU 

upon  bf  the  Odelsthing,  either  agalnat  the  mem- 
bers of  council  or  supreme  tribunal  for  Crimea 
committed  in  the  exercise  of  their  offlces,  or 
•ninst  the  members  of  Storthlnc  for  acts  com- 
mlttMi  by  them  In  a  similar  capacity.  The  presi- 
dent of  the  Lagthing  has  the  precedence  in  the 
Hlirsn't. 

2.  The  accused  can,  without  declaring  his  mo- 
tive for  Ml  doing,  refuse,  even  a  third  part  of  the 
members  of  the  Rigsret,  provided,  however,  that 
the  nunilierof  persons  who  compose  this  tribunal 
be  in>(  niluceti  U>  less  than  Ofteen.  j   the  code  concerning  sedition  shall   li.ivf  bt 

3.  Thf  supreme  tribunal  shall  judge  In  the  !  f""'  aloud  three  times  by  the  civil  auihoritiw 
luipht  not  til  hi*  (viintuiai*il  iif  ft  O.  The  libertv  of  thi*   nrf,a«  «huli   k..  ..„.' 


CONSTITUTION  OF  NORWAY. 

have  taken  cognixanoe  of  the  charges  directri 
•gainst  them.    Torture  shall  never  talic  place 
6.  Laws  shall  have  no  retro-active  effect 
T.  Fees  due  to  offlcers  of  Justice  are  nut  to  ba 
combined  with  renta  payable  to  the  public  ti»». 
UFT.  "■ 

8.  Arrest  on^fht  not  to  take  place  exceptine  is 
caaee  and  in  the  manner  fixed  by  law.  IHeni 
arreata,  and  unlawful  delays,  render  him  who 
occasions  them  responsible  to  the  person  anviinl 
Qovemmcnt  is  not  authorised  to  employ  railli»rT 
force  against  the  members  of  the  stale,  Imt  uo. 
der  the  forms  prescribed  bv  the  law«,  unim  u 
asacmbly  which  disturiK  the  public  tt»ii,,uiiiitT 
does  not  instantljr  disperse  after  the  articles  ut 
the  code  concerning  sedition  shall   have  been 

mail    nlikii/l    tKawua   •IsBvoa  lk»   »\t.^   _l_:l ■_        •    • 


O.  The  liberty  of  the  press  nhall  he  eiub- 
lished.  No  person  can  be  punished  fur  s  wrii- 
ln»  he  has  ordered  to  b«:  printeii  or  publljheil 
whatever  may  be  the  contenu  of  It,  unlew  lie 
has,  by  himself  or  others,  wilfully  dcdaml  ur 
prompted  others  to,  disobedience  nf  the  law, 
contempt  for  religion,  and  constitutional  lowers 
and  resistance  to  their  operations:  or  Lai  ad- 
vanceil  false  and  defamatory  acrusalloriK  ai:»ii«t 
others.  It  is  permitted  to  every  one  to  apeak 
frivly  his  opinion  on  the  a>lminlstration ../  the 
•tale,  or  on  any  other  object  whatever. 

10.  New  and  permanent  mtrictlou  „n  tht 
freedom  of  industry  are  not  to  be  granieil  in 
future  to  any  one. 

1 1.  Domiciliary  viaiU  are  prohibited,  eictpi- 
ing  in  the  cases  of  criminals. 

la.  Itefuge  will  not  be  granuii  t«i  thost  wijo 
shall  Im'  bankrupts. 

13.  No  persim  can  in  any  ca«'  forfeit  Lit 
lauiieii  proiH'rty,  and  fortune. 

14.  If  the  Intereat  of  the  suu-  n'.|ulre«  ibit 
anv  one  should  sacrifice  hl»movealil.'..rlmmi.vf. 
ahip  pmiieny  fur  the  public  lienelit,  In-  .liall  !« 
fully  Inifeniiiltliil  by  llie  imlillr  tti'naiii .. 

15.  The  I'liplul.'as  well  as  the  reveiiinn  „f  tit 
ilomalns  of  the  rbun-h,  can  1h-  nppliiil  ,mlv  tvt 


last  inatance,  and  ought  not  U)  be  composed  of  a 
IriWiT  numU-r  than  the  resident  and  six  assesson. 

4.  In  time  of  peace  the  supreme  tribunal, 
with  two  superior  offlcers  appointe<t  by  the  king, 
constitiiti'SH  trilmnal  of  the  second  and  last  re- 
sort in  nil  military  alTairs  which  respect  life,  hon- 
our, iuul  loss  of  llberiy  for  a  time  beyond  tlie 
spine  of  three  months. 

a.  The  nrrests  of  the  supreme  tribunal  shall 
not  ill  liny  case  be  calle<l  upon  to  be  submitted  to 
revisiil. 

O.  Xii  person  shall  Iw  uarae<l  memU-r  of  the 
supreme  tribunal.  If  be  has  not  attained  at  least 
thiriy  years  of  age. 

Title  V. 
Article  1.  Employmeuts  in  the  states  shall  Iw 
I'onferreil  only  on  Norwegian  citizens,  who  pro- 
fess the  Ev«ngelie»l  I.ulhenin  n^llglon  —  have 
iwom  fidelity  to  the  conKtitutiou  and  king,  spi-ak 
the  Isiitrunge  of  thi  eoimtry,  and  an-,— I.  Either 
lK)m  In  the  kingdom  of  ptireuts  who  were  then 
subjects  of  the  sinle.  2.  Or  Uirn  In  a  foreign 
iiiuntry.  their  father  tiiiil  mother  l»lng  Norwe- 
glims,  rind  at  that  |HriiKl  not  the  siilijects  of 
another  slati'.     ;)    Or.  nhooii  the  ITth  May,  1«U, 

had  a  iMTiiiiiii.-nt  nsidi nie  In  the  klngdi'un,  and  i  domains  ot  the  church,  can  1h-  nnplied  ,mlv  U 
dl.    not    nfus.-  to  take  an  oalh  to  nmluuilii  the  I   the  Intensta  of  the  clergy,  and  the  i.r.-.m-riiv  ..f 

'',"'•„'"■' ","'■"'  •'>'"■"'')••     ■•    Or  wholu  future      i.uhlir  Instrticli.m.     The  ph,p,.rty  of  !•  nev,.Viit 

shall   remain   len  yi-ars  In  the  kingdom.     .V  Or      lniiltiit<.,n>.i,.iiiw.„.«.,i..'..ir.-i..  >.  .,i.^ .:. 

who  have  lieen  iiaturallxed  by  the  Stonhlng. 
Foniirners,  however,  may  Ik-  nominatiHl  to  these 
ottlclal  iltunllons  hi  the  university  and  colleges, 
as  well  as  til  thinH-  of  physicians,  and  iiinsuls  In 
a  f.inign  country.  In  o^ler  to  succeed  to  an 
office  in  the  su|ierior  tribuiml,  the  |H-non  niukt 
be  Ihlrly  years  old;  and  to  fill  a  place  In  the  In- 
ferior maifistracy,— a  liiilge  of  the  tribunal  of 
first  Instaiire.  or  a  public  receiver,  he  must  lie 
twiiiiv  five 

91.  Norway  ■'.«  not  acknowleilge  herself  ow- 
mg  any  other  debt  than  that  of  her  imii 

8.  .\  iHW  general  ei«|e,  of  a  eiril  and  criminal 
■aiuh-.  >liall  first  \v  publisbetl.  or.  If  that  's  lin- 
pracil.able.  at  the  secMni  onlinary  Htorliiing 
Meanlline.  the  laws  of  IIh-  state,  as  at  pmrnt  ex- 
tetlnu.  '•hall  pn-serve  their  etrerl,  since  they  are 
not  eontrary  to  this  fundamental  law.  or  pMvl- 
sional  ordinances  puliltslie<i  in  the  Interval.  IVr- 
mam-nt  taxes  sliall  continue  ki  be  levie<l  until 
next  MtiirihInK 

4.  No|>r>'<<'<'<lnKdisprnaallfln.  Irtlercf  respite, 
or  teiil!:;!!i-.n-  i!j^;j  ^  iffnaicd  after  the  mw 
(rnenil  cob'  shall  lie  publiahril. 

a.  No  peraiiiis  can  be  ludgml  hut  in  conformliv 
to  Hm-  law.  or  be  puoUfiml  until  »  tribunal  shall 


■  •"    j'i"p-.«j   "I    iw  iKM'trui 

nslitutionsshall  beemployeil  only  forlle  irppiSt. 

to.  The  right  of  the  (lower  of  ri'ilrmpiim 
calliil  (Nielsr«'t*,  an'l  tliat  of  iKniBi'ssi. .n.  calW 
AfiKlesret  (fathers  right),  shall  eiist  I'lmini- 
lar  n-gulatlons,  which  will  riinler  thew  ..f  ulil' 
ity  to  the  stales  and  agriculture,  shall  !«•  cletfT' 
mini'il  liy  the  first  or  a«'<'oiid  Worthiuk'. 

17.  No  county,  Itanrnv,  majorat  or  ■  tM 
coniniis  "t  sliall  la-  created  'for  the  fuiuri' 

IH.  Every  citlien  of  the  slate,  wiih.nit  re- 
>;ard  to  lilrih  or  fortune,  shall  U'eqiisllv  >  l.liM 
during  a  partleiilar  [M'riisl,  to  defeii.l  'hU  ivun- 
try  }  Till'  a|ipllcallon  of  this  pnnciiile  awl  iu 
ri'st  rid  Ions,  as  will  as  the  i|uestliin  of  uMirtain- 
Ing  to  « hat  iioint  It  Is  of  K-neflt  to  Ihi-  (..iiiilrv. 
that  this  obligation  should  ceaai'  at  the  »»'!•  'f 
Iwenty-Hve.  — shall  lie  aliaiidomil  to  the  c|.-,|.t.>ii 


596 


•la  rinuroT  ilv  righl  n»  ■■olelsnt.  iii-i,ii.«»  •(  • 
lamlhr  to  «h<.in  errlaui  Imils  nrldnaUjr  i«ri«in<-l.  i-m 
r*r|a|ia  aivl  relskr  |«  mi'ssIim  irf  ibv  aaiu.'.  ,->.-n  sfi.^  Hi* 
Ifm  tit  n-BlurW*.  iini>l,le<l  tktmr  UirIs  an-  n-cfr.-n's. 
Ilw  lit  iIm-  ml,'  ..f  iiir  rsmlljr:  ihsi  K.  if  f.r  .•..m« 
yn  SHeeeMlvFlir  ilwy  .hall  hsn-  jiHlliisllr  iii»l'  rrwr 
rmikm  r4  Ihwrtr  rljrhl  Tfc{9  gugi^,a..  •slun-.n"  '-«-i-*'*  ia 
liw  pnwnw  o(  amnnnu*,  Am.  hoomi.  allsrn  IM 

PPSSSIIIS  !••  ItHltf  uallT*  KM. 

•rauil 

t  B«srv  iwrsnn  is  nhU««<i  la  sar**  m>ia  i«Mi;->asM 
issMy-lkfw  sMl  aitf  aAar 


OONSTITCTION  07  KORWAT. 


coxsTrnmoN  of  Prussia. 


(f  the  flnt  orHoMTj  Stoithiiif ,  After  the j  ihall 
tare  beep  Utebargei  by  a  oommittre;  in  the 
■eintli&e,  rigorou*  effort*  thkll  preterre  their 
effect. 

10,  Norwaj  ihall  retain  her  own  language, 
ber  own  finanoea  and  coin:  inititutiont  wblcli 
itell  be  detennined  upon  by  lawi. 

90.  Norway  haa  the  right  of  baring  her  own 
ttg  of  trade  and  war,  which  ilull  be  an  union  flag. 

31,  If  experience  abould  ihow  the  neceiaity 
of  rhanjclng  lonie  part  of  thii  fundamental  law, 
«  proposition  to  thu  purpoae  shall  be  made  to  an 


ordinary  Storthing,  published  and  printed;  and 
it  only  pertains  to  the  next  ordinary  Storthing 
to  decide  if  the  change  proposed  ought  to  be 
effectual  or  not.  Such  alteration,  bowerer, 
ought  never  to  be  contrary  to  the  principles  of 
this  fundamental  law ;  and  should  only  have  for 
its  object  those  modifications  in  which  particular 
regulations  do  not  alter  the  spirit  of  the  consti- 
tution. Two-thirds  of  the  Storthing  ought  to 
agree  upon  such  a  change.  Christians,  4th  No- 
vember, 1814.    See  8cAKDniaviA.\  Statxs  (Nob-, 


WAT):  A.  D.  1814-1815. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  PLYMOUTH 
COLONY  (Compact  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers). 
SeeMAaaACHCSBTTS:  A.  D.  1990. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  POLAND  (The 
old).  See  POLA.ND:  A.  U.  I.i73,  and  LKS-lft-iS. 
...  (of  1791).     8«e  PoLAXD:  A.  D.  ITtl-lTOa. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  PRUSSIA. 


The  following  text  of  the  ConatltuUon  grants] 
br  Fmlrrick  William,  King  of  Pruasia,  im  the 
silt  of  Januar}-.  IMO,  with  aiibamiuent  altcm- 
Uima.  i*  a  translation  mailr  by  Mr.  Charles 
I/ivr.  an<l  puliliahcd  in  the  appendix  tn  hia  Life 
of  Prinre  BUmarck,  18S5. 

Wg.  Frrderirk  William.  *c.,  hereby  prticlaim 
tail  givv  III  know  that,  whereas  the  C'nnstitii- 
tion  of  ilii-  PniMian  Slate,  pnimtilgated  bv  us 


Article  1 1. — Freedom  of  emigration  can  only 
be  llmiuni  bv  the  State,  with  reference  to  military 
si-rvire.     .Migration  fees  may  nut  be  levied. 

Article  12.— Krcedom  n{  religious  confession, 
of  meeting  in  religious  societies  (Art.  80  anil  81), 
and  of  the  common  exerrise  of  religion  In  private 
and  public.  Is  guaninleed.  The  enjoyment  of 
riril  Hiiil  nolilleul  riglils  is  imiepenilent  of  re- 
K'llef,  yd  Ihr  duties  of  a  citizen  »r  a  sub- 


^    ___      llglims 

t hi  .Mil  Deeemher,  liii*.  VuiVjVrt'to  revision      Jw-t  nuiv  not  li- Impaired  by  tlie  exercise  of  re- 
lii'  nrilinarv  course  of  legislnllon.  and  recog-      "g]<'»*  lllierty. 

Article  13.— Religious  and  clerical  societies, 

whitli  have  no  corimraU'  riglilK,  can  only  acquire 
thiwe  riifhls  by  ajieelnl  laws. 

Article  14.— The  Chrislinn  religion  Is  taken  as 
the  Iniois  of  Ihmie  Suie  inslilulions  whirh  are 
coniiecletl  "i'li  the  exercise  of  religiun  — all  re- 
ligion* lll«  ,•  guaranteed  by  .\rt.  13  notwith- 
staniling. 

Article  15. '—The  Protestant  ami  Itoman  Caili- 
"lie  t'liuwhes,  as  well  as  every  iilier  religious 
soclelv,  regulaU-  anil  administer  lb.  ir  own  affairs 
In  an  Independent  manner,  and  renmin  in  posses- 
sion anil  enjoyment  of  llie  institutions,  founda- 
tions, auil  niiineys  iiiiemiiMl  for  their  purposes  of 
publir  wiinhip  (ilueallnn,  ami  charity. 

Article  16.*— Inieniiurw  Mween  religious 
socielii^s iind lliiir  «U|M-ri<ir)< alinll li.'  umilmtnirled. 
The  making  publir  of  Cliiin  li  nnllnanrea  is  only 
suhjeet  to  tlioae  nutririiunt  iniiHuvil  i.ii  all  hIIiit 
|>uliii('iitiMn<i. 

Article  17. — .V  ai^eclal  law  will  U-  pasaeil 
wllh  r««|i<Mt  to  (  liunh  patronage,  ami  tu  the 
romlltiona  on  whirh  it  may  lie  aUilithnl. 

Article  il.»— .VN.Ii.lieil  is  tlie  right  of  nom- 
iiialing,  pri>|M«|iig.  elcitini!  ami  contlmiing.  in 
the  mailer  of  iililKiliilmi'iin  In  enleslaslieal 
(MMla,  ill  ao  far  n*  il  Inloiigii  to  the  Mute,  ami  is 
not  baa<ii  oil  palroimge  or  special  h'gal  lilies. 

Article  19.— Civil  iiinrriage  will  lie  inlnatureil 
In  areorttanri'  with  a  •lorlat  law  whirh  ahall  alao 
regnlalr  ihi>  killing  of  a  1  Ivll  n-glsler. 

Article  ao. — Scletm'  and  iiadorlrim'S  are  free. 

Article  at.— The  educalion  of  youth  shiui  lie 
siifflrienily  rated  for  by  loilillc  srhiNils.  Par- 
enis  ami  tlirir  suballtuUM  may  mit  leave  llielr 

ihlHr-..-.    ..!■    3::!f5t-    'll'tw.t    >ftS?    pillKTitkHi    {rfr. 

s('rih|.il  for  llie  publir  rnlk-sebiiuia 


niinl  liy  iNith  Chambers  of  our  Kingdom,  haa 
bren  MibniitUil  to  the  piesrrtlieil  revision;  we 
luvr  finally  e^tablisbiil  that  Coualiluliii  in 
sftiwment  with  both  Chambers.  Now,  li.v'rf. 
fi)^.  we  pmmtilgate.  as  a  fundamental  law  of 
tl»  Stale,  aa  follows; — 

Article  I.— .VII  parts  of  the  Monarrhy  In  its 
pruriit  (  \lent  form  Ihe  Prussian  State  Terrilorr. 

Article  a.— The  limits  of  this  Stale  Territory 
can  only  lie  altered  by  law. 

Article  3.— The  (  onsliiulion  and  the  laws  de- 
trraittio  iiiiilir  wimt  eonilitions  the  quality  and 
rttil  h.-li!«  of  a  IVussian  may  be  acquire*!,  exer- 
dinl.  iin.l  rorfrlted. 

Article  4.— All  Prussians  are  equal  lieforp  the 
law  (  liMi  privileges  there  are  none.  Public 
nfflorr  subject  to  the  nmditiona  ini|i<>Mil  br 
hw,  lire  ri|uiillv  accessible  to  all  who  are  lom- 
prtrnt  to  hold  them. 

Article  5.— Pi'Monal  frei^dmii  is  giuranletMl. 
TV  (.imi«  ami  romlilkms  umier  whirh  any  llmi- 
ttiloii  iliin-of,  esne<-lally  arrest,  is  pi'rmiaaible. 
»ill  Ih'  .litermlnnl  by  law 

Article  6.— The  domlrlle  Is  Inviolable  Iniru- 
lioi  Slid  tearrh  therein,  as  well  aa  the  seding  of 
lniir»  mill  papers,  an'  only  allowe<l  tn  legallv 
a'llli.iras.'a.  •      ' 


Itlt'i  rsM'a. 

Article  7.— No  one  mar  he  deprived  of  hisUw. 
ful  Ju.li;.  Kirepliooariribunals  and  exiraordl- 
mt\  rotiiiiiiaaiiun  aw  inatimisaibie 

Article  S.— Piinislimentscaoonly  be  threalened 
tlnflirtiHl  aeoorllng  to  the  law. 

Article  ».— IVopertv  is  inviolable,  Itcan  only 
»  Uij.n  01  rurtatled  fMm  reusnns  of  public  weal 
••i  i'»iiedienrv.  ani|  In  retitm  fnf  atiiiybirT  noffi- 
pemaiion  which.  In  urgent  cases  at  lenM,  shall 
t»  eieil  hrfiirehand 

uf 


Article  io.-(  Iril  death  and  n>«fleoalkin 
H'  >-  ny,  as  pUDlshioeata,  are  not  poMlMe. 


•  a«Mi«rt  hf  Ike  ralklafra  o(  isn,  a»l  br  Ike  art  o( 
m  wktek  r«|i*aM  than  Ise  lleaeiwi  A.  b.  Itn 
Iw. 


697 


i'f'" 


\t 


coNSTmrnoN  of  prcssia. 

Articit  M.— Everr  one  ihaU  be  m  libertr  to 
fire  inttructioii,  and  etttbllih  iiutitutioiu  for 
doing  lo,  providing  he  ihall  hare  Kiven  proof  of 
hi*  moral,  KieDtiirc,  and  technical  capacity  to 
the  State  authorities  concerned. 

Artida  33.— All  public  and  private  inatltu- 
tions  of  an  educational  kind  are  under  the  super- 
Tislnn  of  authorities  appointed  by  the  State. 
Public  teachers  have  the  righta  and  duties  of 
State  arrvants. 

Article  14.— In  the  establishment  of  public 
folk'Srhmils.*  confessional  differences  shall  re- 
ceive the  greatest  possible  consideration.  Re- 
ligious liistrurtlon  in  the  folk-schools  vlll  be 
superintended  by  the  religious  societies  con- 
cerned Charge  of  the  other  (external)  affain  of 
the  folk-schools  Iwlonga  to  the  Parish  (Com- 
mune). With  the  statutory  conncratlon  of  the 
Commune,  the  State  shull  appoint  teachers  in 
the  public  folk-ichoiila  from  the  numlier  of  th<i«v 
quaflfleil  (for  surh  posts). 

Article  35.— The  means  for  establishing,  main- 
taining, and  enlarging  the  public  fiilk-sch<Kjls 
shall  lie  provided  by  the  Communes,  whirh  nwy, 
however.  l)e  assisted  by  the  StaU-  In  provrn  cases 
of  psMchlal  Inability.  The  obligations  of  third 
nersons  — ^ased  on  special  legal  titles— remain 
in  force.  The  State,  therefore,  guaranttn's  to 
teachers  In  folk-schools  a  steady  Income  suitable 
to  local  drrumsunces.  In  public  folk-schiK)ls 
education  shall  be  Imparted  free  of  charge. 

Artida  36.— A  spechl  law  will  reguUte  all 
matters  of  cilucation. 

Articit  37.— Every  Prussian  Is  entitled  to  vx- 
pn-ss  his  n|iinlim  freely  by  word,  wrillog,  print, 
or  nrtUtli'  n  pn'srntat'ion.  Censorslilp  may  not 
lielntroiliiiiil;  every  other  lestrlrtlim  on  fn'rdom 
of  llii'  I'rcM  will  .inly  lie  lnip<Hieil  by  law. 

Article  38.— I Mfences  comniitte<l  by  WfirtI, 
wriliiig.  prim,  or  iirtlsllt  rroresentation  will  lie 
punUbiti  iu  Hci'onUnre  with  the  general  penal 
cikIiv 

Article  39.— All  Prussians  sre  entltle<l  to  meet 
in  I'liwed  riHiniB.  ix'scefully  anil  unarmnt.  with- 
out previous  iM'nnl>.4lon  tnttn  thi  autboritle* 
But  thin  provision  iloes  nut  apply  In  o|ien-alr 
inriltiurs.  which  are  suhjiMt  III  till- 'inw  with  it-- 
siNii  1.1  previous  permission  frum  ih.'  autbnrl' 

Ill's 

Article  30.— All  Prussians  have  ihr  right  to 
assemlili'  (III  sorlelles)  for  such  piiriuitirs  aailu  imt 
contrsvi'iie  the  |ienal  Isws.  The  Ihw  ivIII  n-gu- 
Ule,  with  s|iecUI  regani  to  the  preservallo'i  nf 
public  siiiirlty,  the  exerrtw  of  tin.  right  guaraii 
twil  l)v  tills  mill  till-  pni'i-illiig  article 

Article  31. -The  law  shsUileliTiuliie  the  cou 
iltlloiis  iin  which  ciiriMirale  rights  may  be  granted 
or  refiiHiHt 

Article  33.— The  right  of  petitioning  iMlonns 
111  nil  I'riiwlnna  Petlliiins  uinler  a  nilliTtlVf 
name  are  iinly  |H'nnllteil  In  auilmrillra  ami  mr 
iHiralliiiK 

Article  33.— The  privacy  of  lellers  Is  InvlolH- 
blr  I'lic  iMMTTWiry  restrletliins  of  this  right  In 
real's  .it  wnr  and  m  rrimlnal  Inv-vtlgallmi,  will 
lie  ileiermlni'il  liv  law. 

Article  34. —All  Prussians  are  liound  to  In-nr 
amiii  The  ixiinl  and  manner  of  tbia  duly  will 
be  Itxi'il  by  law 

Artide  «.— The  armr  r=-jr,pi1«Ri  s!!  s^-ft-rH 
^tbestauinug  army  ami  the  Lawlwebr  llerri- 

Vniesetu.1 


*We  eaaeol  iransisii 


CONSTITUTION  OF  PRUSSIA 

torial  forces).    In  the  event  of  war,  the  Kin*  ru 
call  out  the  Landsturm  In  accordance  with  tb(U» 

Artide  36 — The  armed  force  (of  the  latiom 
can  only  be  employe*!  for  the  supprewilon  of  jj. 
temal  troubles,  and  the  execution  nf  iIr.  ]„,  ;. 
the  cases  and  manner  speclfled  by  sislute  an.irm 
the  requisition  of  the  civil  authorities  '  In  ih, 
latter  respect  exceplmns  will  have  In  In.  Hhm 
mbied  by  law.  " 

Article  37.— Tin-  military  j  iiiliclarv  nf  the  srnir 
is  restricted  to  penal  nisltiTK.  uuil  will  u  n-j,,' 
Isteii  by  law.  Provisions  with  regsr.l  i„  niili 
urv  discipline  will  remahi  the  subject  nf  srHriil 
ordiuani'es 

Article  38.— The  armed  force  (of  ilic  mtioiii 
may  not  deliberate  either  when  on  nr  off  limv 
nor  mav  It  otherwise  assemble  than  wlun  i,>a. 
manded  to  do  so.  Assemblies  ami  imi-tinirs  of 
the  Landwehr  for  the  purpose  nf  disciisaim;  mjij. 
tary  institutions,  commands  and  onliimuci-j  at 
forbidden  even  when  It  Is  not  cslleil  mii 

Artide  39.— The  provisions  of  An-  ,',  0  j» 
3",  uiid  Sa  will  only  apply  to  the  arniy  In  „  f„ 
i>»  Ihey  do  not  conflict  with  inlllinrv  laws  tai 
rules  of  disi'iplin" 

Article  40.— The  eBtal><lshmt'Qt  nf  fi  luUl  tm. 
ures  is  forlili:.ien.  The  Feudal  Ininii  «iill  nut. 
lug  with  n-spiit  to  surviving  flefs  hIkiM  t».  ,|i,. 
solveil  by  Uiw. 

Artide  4t.— The  provisions  of  .»n  4iii|oiio( 
apply  111  {'Mwn  llefs  or  to  Iinu-Muti  tiet. 

Article  43.— AlmlUhed  wllhniit  iniiii«.|iMii,,^ 
In  acconlaui'e  with  siieila'  laws  psM..!,  nr-  1, 
Till"  exercise  or  transfer  of  Juiliclal  |i..w,  1  ,,«. 
iiertiil  with  the  imsseaslou  nf  iirtiiiii  Iji^i<  ici. 
gi'iher  with  the  diifs  and  exini|iiiciii«  «,,riiiii|[ 
fmm  IhU  nht;  2.  TlM'iililliraiinii,iiri»iiiL-fr« 
pstrinrclial  jiirisilicllnn.  va-ssnTiiiic.  uml  fumiirtu 
mill  inuling  InstitutioUH.  Anil  nlih  ihrs..  nzhii 
»Tf  nUialmllsheil  the  iimiitcritirvici  naml  luinliii, 
hitherto  therewith  ciinniTted. 

Artide  43.— The  i«rsiiniif  the  Klugisln4.U- 
We. 

Article^.- The  King's  Ministers  jin  n»|i<iiiii 
ble  All  Oiivemment  ads  nliMiimeiiiiin  j  .(  ibt 
King  reiiulri'  for  their  viilldiiy  the  iiiipn.val.f  1 
Minlmer.  who  thereby  assui.ien  n  •pniisiWIitr  1 « 
them 

Article  45.— The  Klug  alniie  I*  U:\,t\,4  villi 
execullve  |i.iwer  He  ap|Hiiiit>  mil  iii»Diiim 
Minlnlew.  He  unlets  the  |'r..iimlgiiiii.ii  ,.f  L-.»», 
anil  issues  the  neo'ssary  iinliii:iiiii'.  f.r  iln-lrrtf 

CUtintl 

Article  46.— The  King  Is  ( .immiiiiii.  r  lis  t'!i»( 
nf  I  In-  «rm\ 

Artide  '47.— The  King  tllla  nil  |w.i«  In  ilir 
anuv,  tts  well  as  in  nllii  r  bniiiilits  ..f  -he  vii, 
wriliT,  III  so  fr  as  nm  niherwin.'  nrUiiwI  H 
lii\» 

Article  48.— .  lie  King  has  the  rinlil  I'xlniur 
war  ami  nuke  |M-n<-<'.  ami  In  cmilu'li'  'Hlwi 
tri'Hlies  with  fnn'litn  gnvrmnH'ntii  The  liitri 
r<'i|iiire  '.ir  their  validity  IIm'  snwtil  •<(  tin  !  Iwm 
Is-rs  in  sn  far  as  |l,.y  sri'  1  nninMn Ir.l  !n'»U<«  1 
Impiisi'  hunleiis  on  tlie  Ntale.  nr  nhllmiii'SH  '« 
itK  iiiilividiial  sulijei'in. 

Article  49.— TTh'  King  hss  iIh-  ru'lii  1 '  \'U 
dun,  ami  to  mitigate  puulshnu'Ri  IImi  11,  fai'iir 
of  a  Minister  cmHlemueil  fur  lii«  'ittii*!  m-u. 
ihhi  light  ran  nnir  t«  iXiTaM-.i  ..1. :;,.  r....;:.;  -f 
thai  Cnalblier  whence  his  Indli'imrM  einsiutei 
Only  by  s|ierlal  Uw  i-an  the  KIuk  ■u)ipR«ia 
ijttillee  tiresilv  Inatltuteit 


r.Ds 


CONSTITUTION  OP  PRUSSIA. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  PRUSSIA. 


Artidt  SO- — 1^*  K^S  ■»*7  confer  orden  and 
other  distinctioni,  not  ourring  with  them  priTi- 
legea.  He  ezerclMi  the  right  of  coinage  in  ac- 
coidance  with  the  law. 

Article  51.— The  King  conrokee  the  Cham- 
ben,  and  cloaei  their  leidoni.  He  may  diMoWe 
both  at  once,  or  only  one  at  a  time.  In  luch  a 
OK.  however,  the  elector!  muit  be  auembled 
witblo  a  period  of  flO  days,  and  the  Chamben 
lummoned  within  a  period  of  80  daya  retpect- 
>«lv  after  the  diiaolution. 

Article  5a.— The  King  can  adjouin  the  Cham- 
ben But  without  their  aaaent  thia  ad]oum- 
meDt  may  not  exceed  the  ipacc  of  80  dayi,  nor 
be  repest'od  during  the  lame  ieaaion. 

Article  53. — The  Crown,  uccunling  to  the 
hwt  iif  the  Royal  Home,  u  hereditary  in  the 
mile  line  of  that  Houie  in  accordance  with  the 
Uw  uf  primngeniture  and  agnatic  aucceaiiou. 

Article  M.— The  King  atulns  hie  majority  on 
completing  his  18th  year.  In  preaence  of  the 
uDiit^l  C'Uambere  be  will  take  the  oath  to  nb- 
lerre  the  Constitution  of  the  Monarchy  stead - 
futir  and  inviolably,  and  to  rule  in  accordance 
vilb'il  and  the  laws. 

Article  55.— Without  the  consent  of  both 
(hsmlien  the  King  cannot  also  be  ruler  of  for- 
cifin  n-alnis  (Keiche). 

Article  56.— If  the  King  Is  a  minor,  or  is 
oibrrwiar  lastingly  prevented  tn>m  ruling  him- 
►If,  the  Kegenry  will  lie  umlrruken  by  that 
agnalt'lArt  .V))whohasaltaine<l  bis  majority  and 
ttuiibi  ni'srrst  the  Crown.  He  has  immediately  to 
n>nvi>k>'  the  Chambers,  which,  iu  uuiliii  M-ssitiu. 
will  (leriile  as  to  the  neressity  of  the  Kegency. 

Article  57.— If  there  ttv  no  agnate  of  age,  and 
if  DO  li  gal  pruriaion  has  previously  beeu  made 
(or«ii(li  B  r<intirgency,  the  Minlstrv  of  tState  will 
ciiDvciJH' the  Chamljers,  wblih  shall  then  eh-rt  a 
Krifi'iil  In  uultitl  sesiiiiin.  And  until  thuassunip- 
tiiiii  "f  llii'  Iteifency  by  him.  the  Minbtrj'  of  Stale 
will  cniiiliict  the  Oovi-mment. 

Article  58.— The  Itegent  will  exercise  the  p»w 
iT»inw»ii-<l  In  tlie  King  in  !)'>' latter  s  name  ^  and. 
allir  iiLitituficin  iif  the  Iwirimy  lie  will  take  an 
mill  In  lure  the  unitid  ChamUra  to  ota-rve  the 
(  iistituiiiin  of  the  Monarchy  st4«4lfaslly  and  In 
li^laMy.  and  to  rule  in  acennlance  with  It  and 
ihi  laHfi.  Tnlll  this  oath  is  taken,  the  whole 
Minijln-  nf  State  for  the  time  being  will  remain 
ti«|iun>iili|(>  for  all  arts  iif  thi'  (Joveniment 

Article  S9  — To  the  Crown  Trust  Fund  apper 
'al:i»llii  annuity  drawn  from  the  income  o(  the 
I'  h<liinndih>nuiliu. 

Article  to.— The  MIniaters.  as  wrll  as  the  Kiate 
.'ffliiaU  nppi>lnle<l  to  repnwnt  them.  hav<'  ani>iu 
I  (Mik  I  ImmlH-r.  and  must  at  all  linn's  \»  listemil 
I" HI  (ii|iiHil  tjirh  ChanilMT  can  deiimud  llw 
|.n«Mii  ,,f  the  Minister*.  The  Minlnler*  un' 
<m\\  luiltliil  til  vote  In  one  or  otiwr  of  IIm'  Chain 
Ivn  a  bin  members  i>(  it. 

Article  «!.— On  the  ivaolutlim  of  a  I'hnmlii'r 
Ihr  MinUters  may  lie  imiirarhiil  fur  the  i-rlme  uf 
InMnelng  the  i  tmstilulliin.  nf  brtUry.  and  nf 
trrwm  The  defisioa  of  aueh  a  caae  lies  wlih 
it»  suprrnw  Tribunal  of  the  Mmiarrhy  sitting  In 
luiif.1  hmates.  Aa  long  as  two  rtupreror  TrI- 
buiuU  I'ueitat,  tl.ey  ahall  unite  for  tlir  aUivi- 
'"''"?!..  fuflw'  •••••lla  as  u>  matU'r*  nf  n- 
:,.  ssKiiliij ,  (( riiuiuaii  pfuwdure  (Uirrvu|>i>ui,  and 
puutslmirnu,  ai«  raarrved  for  a  siiecial  hiw 

Article  ••.—The  leglaiaUve  power  will  he  ex 
tn  ImhI  la  rummuo  by  Uw  IUb(  aad  by  twu  duuB- 


hers.  Every  law  requires  the  aaaent  of  the  King 
and  the  two  Chambers.  Honey  bills  and  budget! 
shall  first  be  laid  before  the  Second  Chamber : 
and  the  latter  ti.  e.,  budgets)  shall  either  be  wholly 
approved  by  the  Pint  Chamber,  or  rejected  alto- 
gether. 

Artidt  63.— In  the  event  only  of  Its  being 
urgently  necessary  to  maintain  public  security, 
or  deal  with  an  imuaual  state  of  distress  when 
the  Chandlers  are  not  in  session,  ordiuancea, 
which  do  not  contravene  the  Conatltution,  may 
be  Issued  with  the  force  of  law,  on  the  reaponJ- 
bility  of  the  whole  Ministry.  But  these  must  be 
laid  for  approval  liefore  thu  Chambers  at  their 
next  meeting. 

Article  64.— The  King,  as  well  aa  each  Cham- 
ber, lias  the  right  of  propoaing  lawa  Bills  that 
havu  liein  rejected  by  one  of  the  Chambera,  or 
by  the  King,  cannot  be  re-introduced  in  the 
same  aesslnn. 

Article!  6s-M.— The  First  Chamber  is  formed 
by  royal  onllnanci-.  which  can  only  lie  altered 
by  a  law  to  tw  liisiied  with  the  app'mval  of  the 
Chambers.  The  First  Chamber  is  composed  of 
uiembei^  appi>inte<l  by  the  King,  with  heredit- 
ary rights,  or  only  for  life. 

Article  69.— The  Se<  oud  Chamlier  coiuists  of 
4-to  tuemlx-rs  •  The  elettoral  districU  are  de- 
tiniiined  by  law.  They  may  consist  of  one  or 
umn'  I'lrcles  (Ammdissements),  or  of  one  or 
more  of  the  larger  towns. 

Article  70.— Kvery  l*russian  who  has  com- 
plitdl  hU  2.'5th  year  il.  e  .  attained  bis  majority), 
anil  i»  ca|ialiU'  ipf  luklni;  imrt  In  the  elections  "of 
the  Coiiinmni'  nlure  he  1h  domiciled.  Is  entitled 
to  net  Hs  a  primary  voter  (l'r*tthleri.  Anyone 
who  I.H  rnliileil  l.i  lake  part  in  the  election  of 
several  Communes,  can  only  exercise  his  right  aa 
primarj'  vntt-r  ;.i  otic  ('omniiiue. 

Article  71.— For  every  a.Vl  souls  of  tlip  popu- 
lillon.  one  (se<'ondary)  elector  (W-ihlmanni  ahall 
lie  choM'n  The  primary  voters  lall  Into  three 
cliiHMK.  in  pM|xirtliin  In  the  amount  of  direct 
taxes  Ihry  pay— and  iu  such  a  manner  as  that 
each  claM  will  nprewnt  a  Ihlnl  of  the  suinlolal 
nf  the  taxes  paid  by  the  priinarv  voters.  TItlj 
Kiiin-tiital  l»  nckiiniil  — (a)  by  IVirishes,  in  caae 

•  (iinimuiie  lines  mil  fiinn  of  itself  aiirlmary 

ictnrd  district  (In  by  (linvemmeuti  IMstrlcta 
lliextrkc),  in  i-niK' the  primary- elvcliiral  district  ron- 
sIstHiif  sivi  rail  nmniiiiKi!  The  II  ml  cbjis  consist! 
nf  lliiiiM-  priniiiry  vnters.  hiirh.nt  In  the  scale  of 
taxatinn.  nlm  imy  u  third  nf  the  mial.  The  sec- 
ninl  class  iiiii«l»i«  nf  thioH-  priinsrr  vntcrs.  nelt 
hii;hest  In  the  ainlc.  «liiw  luxis  t^irni  a  sci-ond 
thinl  of  the  n  hnlc,  and  llii-  thinl  cliuw  Is  miule  up 
nf  the  nniuiniiii;  tax  piiytra  ilnwint  In  llic  m-ale) 
whn  cmirilmte  the  .tliir  thini  nf  the  whole. 
Much  iUt»  xnli'K  a|<nrt.  and  fnr  a  tlilnl  nt  lb* 
set  iinil:iry  eli'ctnta.  Thenc  classes  may  lie  diviiled 
liilii  si'vi ml  vnting  seclinus.  none  nf  which,  how- 
ever, niii'-t  Incluili  mure  than  ,VN|  iirimKry  viitrrt. 
Tile  stiniiiliiry  voters  an  elerteil  in  each  cUat 
fmni  the  uiiinlHT  if  the  prtmorv  voters  iu  their 
district,  mtluiul  nimni  to  tlie  classes. 

Article  7».— Till  ilcpiities  atr  elected  by  ib« 
nwnilary  vntcn  Ihiallswlll  be  regulated  by 
all  ehntn'r;!!  Irw,  which  must  siso make  the  iieevs- 
snry  |irnrl«lnn  fur  tlioae  cities  wlicre  flour  and 
siniiiriiKT liuiira  UT  ievioi  instead  oi  direct  iaze& 

•  owtnallr  wi  nnir     s  niimhw  »hlek.  lb  ISM.  *aa 
torrsMnl  li)  «  (..r  lb-  IVIai'l|WlH<  <>r  Hu 
!■  IWt  bf  m  (uc  Uir  aa-waart  iwuvians 


699 


•'Mil 

J;    n 


CONSTITUTION  OF  PRUSSIA. 

Artielt  73.— The  IcgUUdTe  period  of  the  Sec- 
ond Ctuunbn-  to  fixed  at  three  jmn. 

Article  74.— KHsible  ■•  deputy  to  the  Second 
Chamber  to  ererj  PruMton  who  hu  completed 
hto  thirtUth  year,  haa  forfeited  none  of  hto  drll 
righta  in  oonie<menoe  of  ■  valid  Judicial  lentenre. 
aad  baa  been  aPruialan  lubject  for  three  yeart. 
The  president  a.iil  member*  of  the  Supreme 
Chamber  of  Accu'inta  (-annot  alt  In  either  Houk 
ol  fbe  Diet  (LanJt.f;;. 

Article  75.— Aftrr  the  lapae  of  a  legUUtlTe 
period  the  ClmmUTj  will  be  elected  anew,  and 
the  Mine  in  t'le  event  of  <li<aolution.  In  both 
cBseg,  prevloua  members  are  re-eligible. 

Article  76.— Both  Houies  of  the  Diet  of  the 
Monarchy  aball  be  regularly  convened  by  the 
Kini;  in  the  period  from  the  Iwginningof  Novem- 
Iwr  in  each  year  till  the  miilille  of  the  following 
January,  and  otherwiae  aa  often  a<  circumstances 
riciuire. 

Article  77.— The  Chambers  will  be  opened  and 
cIixkhI  by  the  King  in  person,  or  by  a  Minister 
appoinU'ii  bv  him  to  do  ».>.  ut  a  combined  ait- 
ting  iif  the  Chambers.  Both  Chambers  aball  be 
sim'ultaneoualy  convened,  openeti.  adjourned,  and 
cluaril.  If  one  Chamber  is  dissolvnl,  the  other 
shall  be  ut  the  same  time  prorogued. 

Article  78.— Each  ChamlKT  will  examine  the 
crpfientlala  of  Its  memhera,  and  tieciile  then-iipon. 
It  will  tTX>'late  Its  own  onlemf  liuabi'-asanil  dls- 
ciplinv  liy  ^(HKrial  onliuances,  and  elect  its  prcjl- 
dent,  vici  preaidcnta.  and  oBlce-bearers.  Civil 
servants  require  no  leave  of  absence  In  ortln-  'o 
enter  the  Chamber.  If  amemtierof  theChan.i<  • 
acct  |ita  n  salaried  olBce  of  the  State,  or  la  pm- 
motiil  In  the  service  nf  the  State  to  a  post  Involv- 
ing hlK>ier  p«nk  or  Incn'UKc  of  par.  he  shall  lone 
his  seat  ami  vote  in  the  Cliamlier.  and  can  only 
re<'tiver  hia  place  In  It  hy  re-election.  No  one 
can  lie  memlK-r  of  Ixiih  CliamlK-ra. 

Article  79.— The  aitllnga  of  iKith  Chambers 
are  pul)llc.  On  the  motion  •<(  lia  prraMent.  or 
of  ten  menilMTs,  each  ChamlxT  umy  meet  in 
private  sitting— at  which  this  motion  will  then 
nave  to  lie  <lle<u<se<l. 

Articla  80.— Neither  of  'le  Chamliers  can  pass 
a  nxiliitlon  unless  there  he  present  ,1  majoritv 
of  thi'  legal  numlier  of  its  memlM'm  Encli 
Clmmlx'r  |»isar«  lis  reaolutlona  by  absolute  ma- 
jority of  votes,  subject  to  any  exceptions  that 
may  l)e  determlnril  by  the  onler  of  bualness  for 
elections. 

Article  ll.—Eat'h  ChamlK-r  has  the  bcparale 
riirht  of  prrsa-nllng  lolilrfwu-s  to  the  King  No 
one  may  In  |H'r*iin  priM'nl  to  the  Chnmlieni.  or 
to  one  of  ihem,  a  peiliion  or  mMreia.  Eiidi 
Chamber  can  transmit  the  communlcaliona  maib' 
to  li  to  the  Ministers,  and  demand  of  them  an 
su»»ir  to  any  grievani-es  thus  coM\eye<|. 

Article  Ir— Each  Chsmber  is  rnlltlisl  to  ap- 
point commlMlons  of  ini(uiry  into  facts  — for  tta 
own  Inronnation. 

Article  Ij.— The  members  of  both  ChainlH-rs 
are  nprew-n  la  lives  of  the  whole  people  Tliiy 
vote  aii'oriltng  lo  their  simple  convictions,  an<°l 
aiv  not  iKiund  In'  commissioua  or  instructions. 

Article  14.— Kiir  their  votes  In  the  Chamber 
they  call  nevi  r  lie  callril  to  account,  and  for  the 
opinions  they  expn-ss  therein  they  can  onlv  \m 
rallnl  (J,  !K-<---..ir,?  wl'hin  i.iir  Chambrr,  in  vfrtuc 
of  the  order  fif  iMHineaa.  No  member  of  a 
Cbamlier  can.  without  Its  aaarnt,  lie  had  up  for 
examlnalliin,  or  lie  am-sinl  during  the  Harihi- 


CONSTITIJTION  OF  PRCS8U. 

mentai7  aewion  for  any  penal  offri:ce,  unlesa  b< 
be  taken  In  the  act,  or  In  the  coarse  of  the  fo|. 
lowing  day.  A  similar  atient  shall  be  necrsurr 
in  the  case  of  arrest  for  debts.  All  criraini 
proceedings  against  a  member  of  the  Chamber 
and  all  arrests  for  preliminary  examination,  or 
civil  arrest,  shall  be  siupended  during  the  Pu. 
liamcntarr  session  on  demand  from  the  Chsmbfr 
concemea. 

Article  Sc — The  members  of  the  Seromi 
Cbamlier  shall  receive  out  of  the  Stale  Tn^urr 
tia veiling  expenses  and  daily  fees,  acconling  t,u 
statutory  scale;  sod  renundation  thereof  thall 
be  inadmissible. 

Article  86.— The  Judicial  power  will  be  exrr- 
ciseil  in  the  name  of  the  King,  by  Indepeoiimt 
tribunals  subject  to  no  other  authority  but  list 
of  the  law.  Judgiaent  shall  be  exi>ciite<l  in  ibe 
imnie  of  the  King. 

Article  87.— 'file  judges  will  be  appointeil  f  ,r 
life  hy  the  King,  or  In  his  name.  Thev  can  railr 
be  removnl  or  temporarily  suspended  from  olh.i 
by  JudlcUl  sentence,  and  for  resviis  fowieen  by 
the  law.  Temporary  siupension  from  ollioe  m.'- 
ensuing  on  the  strength  of  a  law),  and  Invuluntarr 
transfer  lo  another  place,  or  to  the  retired  li-t 
can  only  uke  place  from  the  causes  ami  In  iW 
form  mentlnnc<l  by  law,  and  in  virtue  of  a  ju.liiiil 
si'ntence.  But  ti. esc  provisions  do  not  applv  to 
cases  of  transfer,  rtndered  necessary  by  ihaiiL'fj 
In  the  organisation  of  the  courts  or  their  .llsiriits 
Article  88  (ili-litlua). 

Article  89.— The  organisation  of  the  tribunaii 
will  onlv  lie  determined  hy  law. 

Article  90,— To  the  Judicial  offlce  ..nly  tb.w 
can  1h'  appolnleil  who  have  qualified  tin inii.h>! 
for  It  an  prescrilieil  by  law. 

Article  91, —CourU  for  special  kir.  l.i..f  nJair. 
and  in  particular,  tribunals  for  trade  ami  c  1;: 
mi  rce.  shall  lie  eslablishe*l  by  itatuti-  in  tb.- 
places  where  local  neeils  may  requiri'  ilii  m.  TL 
organisation  and  Jurisdiction  of  auih  (oims.  ,i» 
well  as  their  procedure  and  the  appointment  f 
their  momliers,  the  special  sta'us  of  ihi.  laitir 
and  the  duration  of  their  ofllce,  will  b<'  ilctermlQe'l 
by  law. 
'Article  9a.— In  Prussia  there  shall  only  Iv 'u 
aiipn-ine  tribunal. 

Article  93.— The  procee<iings  of  the  civil  m.I 
criminal  courts  shall  be  public.  But  tlie  piiMi. 
may  tie  excluded  liy  an  openly  declan-tl  n  ...lull  .0 
of  the  court,  when  onler  or  goml  ni..Ml»  nuv 
««fm  endangered  (by  their  ailmlttancei.  In  oil;  t 
rnmn  piilillcily  of  proceedbigs  can  I'uly  In'  liml'.  i 
by  law 

Article  94.— In  criminal  cases  the  guilt  of  th' 
aci'uwil  aliHll  lie  delcrmin<^l  by  jurMiHii.  m  •" 
far  aa  esnpilons  are  not  delerinliiiil  I'V  n  ii" 
iasue<l  with  the  previous  assent  of  tii.i  n.im- 
lars  The  formation  of  a  Jury.coiirl  »h4il  It 
n'giilateil  by  a  law 

Article  95. — By  a  law  issueil  with  tin-  prrri. 
oua  assent  lif  the  Chambers,  there  may  l»  niab- 
llshi^il  a  sp<Hia!  court  whereof  the  j':i-  .viidia 
•hall  Include  the  crimes  of  high  treawu.  «  wfU 
as  those  crimes  against  the  Interns!  anl  .  tTrmt. 
security  of  the  Htate,  which  may  he  ;i!uiL-n<-.l ' 
it  by  law. 

Articla  96.— The  rompetrnrvof  the  1  urtauJ 
of  thr  .'i^iluinUtrallVe  aulliorilira  aiino  :»  iit-r. 
rainol  by  law  Conflicts  of  aullioritv  I«i»itb 
the  couru  ami  lite  a<lmlnlslnitive  autho'riiM kIisII 
he  sellkni  by  a  triliunal  appuintv<l  li.v  la<r 


GOO 


CONSTITUTION  OF  PRC88IA. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  PRUSSIA. 


Article  97. — A  law  ihall  detennine  the  condi- 
tioiu  iiii  vhich  public,  civil,  and  military  officials 
mar  he  aueil  for  wrongs  committed  by  them  in 
eimtling  tlieir  functions.  But  tlie  previous 
assent  of  olBcial  superiors  need  not  be  re- 
uurttetl. 

Article  9S. — The  special  legal  status  (Rechts- 
rerbultuisst')  of  State  ofllciaU  (including  advo- 
CHi('4  anil  Milicitors)  not  belonging  tu  the  judicial 
fki>.  »lwll  III'  determined  by  aliiw.  which,  with- 
out iv«lrii'iiug  the  Oovemmtnl  in  the  choice  of 
its  executive  agents,  will  grant  civil  serrauts 
pr>|ier  pmtection  against  arbitrary  dismissal 
from  their  posts  or  diminution  of  their  pay. 

Article  99. — All  income  and  expenditure  of 
the  State  must  Iw  pre-estimateil  for  every  year. 
suit  I"  prewntpii  in  the  Uudget.  which  shall  Ik 
anuiiaily  tixe<l  by  a  law. 

Article  100. — Taxes  and  ilues  fur  the  8late 
Tn  i«urv  iiinv  ""'y  ''*  raised  in  so  far  as  they 
fhall  liave  In-eu  in'luded  in  the  Budget  or  or- 
(l:mn-'i  l>y  siM*cial  laws. 

Article  lOi. — In  the  matter  of  taxes  there 
must  Ih'  no  privilege  of  persons.  Existing  tax- 
laws  >lmll  lie  subjected  to  a  revision,  and  ull 
siii'li  privileges  al)olislied. 

Article  loa. — .Slute  and  Communal  otHcers  ran 
oalv  levy  dues  itn  the  8tn>ngtli  of  u  law. 

Article  103. — The  contracting  of  loans  for  the 
J^tiieTnasury  can  only  Iw  effeeled  on  the  streniclh 
<  f  a  Ian  :  anil  the  sanie  holds  giHxl  of  guanuilees 
iQviiUiiic  a  Inirden  to  the  State. 

Article  104. — Budget  tmiisgreiuioiM  remiire 
milixiiiient  appnnal  by  the t  liunilHrs.  The Biiil- 
p  t  will  Im'  examinetl  and  Hudile<i  by  the  Supreme 
tbaml«Tiif  Accounts.  The  general  Budget  «i  • 
I. Hints  of  every  year,  including  tabular  statistics 
if  the  Xatiiiuai  Debt,  shall,  with  the  comments 
iif  tbe  Supnnie  Chamlier  of  Accounts,  lie  laid 
Ik  fiirv  the  Chambers  for  the  purpose  of  exonerat- 
in.'  the  (eivemment.  .V  special  law  will  regulate 
l:i"i«tnl<li''liiiirnt  and  functions  of  the  Supreme 
i  irimluT  t'f  Accounts. 

Article  105.— I  iie  npn-wnlation  and  ndminis- 
t-iM  11  lit  the  ('iiniiniiiiiH  .\rniiidiMM'nieulsHiid 
I'ruvimis  of  the  I'ruasian  State,  will  lie  deter- 
nii:te>l  ill  lUtall  by  special  laws. 

Article  106. — Laws  and  onlinances  becoiu> 
linilini;  after  having  lieen  published  in  the  fonn 
[  rescrilsHl  by  law.  The  examination  of  the  valid 
i.y  nf  pM|H'rly  promulgatiti  Royal  onlinances  i- 
niil  within  the  competence  of  the  authorities,  but 
of  the  t'liamliers. 

Article  107.— The  Constitution  may  he  altered 
)>  <irlin»ry  lefislatlvc  means:  and  such  altera- 
li.iii  slmll  menly  n-uiiire  the  usual  absolute  nia- 
tihiy  In  laiih  I'haiiiis'rs  on  two  divisions  (ot  the 
UmmM  Is-twivu  which  there  must  elapse  a  (HTioil 
et  at  Itiat  twenty-one  days 

Article  ie>.— The  meinlN>rs  ot  both  (^hamlirrs. 
tinl  ill  Stut  olHcials.  shall  take  the  oath  of  fealtv 
snil  iiliedience  to  the  King,  and  swear  conscieutl- 
emiy  to  olnerve  the  Conslltullon.  Tlie  army 
will  nut  take  the  oath  to  the  Ci^iwtltutlou. 

Article  109.— Existing  Uxes  and  dues  will 
Continue  to  In'  raised:  and  all  pnivlaloDS  of  ex- 
litiBn  Matiile-bouks.  single  laws,  and  ordinances, 
wlileli  iln  not  contravene  the  pment  Cuoalltutiou, 
will  remain  In  force  until  altrmd  by  law 

Articie  i  IS,— Ail  autburiliea  huMiDK  appoiui- 
ni-nii  In  virtue  of  ailiUng  laws  wlu  continue 
tkeir  activity  pmdiag  the  laiM  of  urg Mic  laws 
iDNtluK  them. 


Article  1 1 1. — In  tbe  event  of  war  or  revolu- 
tion, and  pressing  danger  to  public  security 
therefniin  ensuing.  Articles  5,  8,  7,  27,  28,  29,  *), 
and  36  of  the  Constitution  may  lie  suspended  for 
a  certain  time,  and  in  certain  districts — the  de- 
tails to  be  determined  by  law. 

Article  i  la.— Vutil  issue  of  the  law  contem- 
plated ill  .Vrtieli'  26,  educational  matters  will  be 
contriilliil  In-  the  laws  at  present  in  force. 

Article  113.— I'rior  to  the  revision  of  the 
criminal  iinle.  ;i  spt-ciul  law  will  deal  with 
ollences  i-oiiiiiiiiied  by  word,  writing,  print,  or 
artistic  r  preM-iitiition' 

Article  114  I'll'Jia/iii'). 

Article  115-— lutil  issue  of  the  electoral  law 
conteinphiteilin  .\rtiele7i.  the  onliimnce  of  30th 
May.  1M4».  touiliinir  tin-  return  of  deputies  to 
the  Seeimd  ('liainlN>r.  will  remain  in  force;  and 
with  this  onliimuee  is  .iwociated  the  pnivisinnnl 
cli-ctiinil  liiw  for  elections  to  the  Siioiid  Cham- 
lier in  lie-  lloheuzolleru  Principalities  of  3(nh 
April.  IV.i 

Article  1 16. — The  two  supreme  tribunals  still 
existing'  ^hall  lie  conibiued  into  one  —  to  be  or- 
gauivil  liy  a  special  law. 

Article  117.— Till- claims  of  Slate  olflclals  ap- 
poiutitl  iH-fiiri'  till  promulgation  uf  the  Constitii. 
tion  shall  la-  taken  into  s|H-ciul  consideration  by 
till  (  ivil  S  rvant  Law. 

Article  118.— Should  changes  in  the  present 
Ciiiistiiiiiion  !«•  riihien-d  iieivssnry  by  the  Oer- 
iiiaii  Ki'di  ral  CnHsiiiiilion  In  lie  drawn  up  on  the 
basis  of  the  I>mft  iif  •-Htili  Mav.  isw,  such  altera- 
tions will  Ik- lit!  neil  I'.,  the  Ring;  and  the  onli- 
uaiic.?.  til  this  I  iTict  laiil  Isfon-  the  (  hamliera.  at 
their  first  iiievtiiig.  The  CliaiiilH-rs  «lll  then 
have  to  decide  whether  the  chunges  thus  pro- 
visionslly  ordained  harmonise  with  the  Federal 
Constitution  of  (teriiiany. 

Article  119.— The  Royiil  oath  nientloueil  in 
Artirle  .'>4.  as  well  m  the"  niilh  pn'strilKii  to  Iw 
taken  by  ls>th  CliaiiilN-rs  ami  all  State  olHcials. 
will  have  to  Ih'  tendered  inimtsllHtely  after  the 
leiilslative  revisinn  of  the  pri'scnt  Constitution 
(.Vrtlehs  6i  and  iKHi 

In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  set  our 
signature  and  seal. 

Given  at  Cburlottenburg.  the  31»t  January, 
^.V)      (Signed)  Fhikphii  il  W1UHKI.JI  ' 

In  loiinertion  with  .Vrtide  44  the  cours<'  of  do. 
iiiestic  and  parliamentary  imlitics  drew  forth  the 
tollowimt  m-eliimtorv  liestript  from  the  Uerinaa 
Km|H<Mr  uiiil  King  i">f  I'russia.  in  IWJ;— -The 
riKht  iif  till  King  to  conduit  the  (ioverument  and 
|M>liev  of  I'russTa  aiionlinkt  to  his  own  discre- 
tion fs  limited  l>v  the  t  onstltiition  (of  January  31, 
l«,'W)i.  but  not  alHilisheil  The  tiovernnmitact* 
(documeutHryi  of  the  Kiiiir  riiiuin'  the  counter- 
signature of  a  MinNler.  nml,  as  was  also  the  case 
liefore  the  Cotistllutioii  was  issiieil.  have  to  be 
repn'stnted  by  the  Kiiik's  .Ministers:  but  they 
Iievertlieli-SK  remain  Ooveriiiiieiit  ai-ls  of  the  King, 
from  wliixtdecisliiiis  they  nsiilt,and  who  thereby 
constitutionallyexpn'SseshUwilland  pleasure  ft 
Is  therefore  not  admissible,  and  leads  to  obscura- 
tion of  the  eonstltutional  rights  of  tbe  King,  when 
their  exeri'lse  is  so  s|>oken  of  as  If  they  emanated 
fnim  the  Ministen  for  the  time  being'respoiulhle 
for  iiieiii.  auil  not  rioiii  the  Kiug  hiiuself.  The 
Couslltii'lon  of  I'ruista  Is  the  expreailua  of  th* 
monanhlcal  tradition  of  this  country,  whoee  de- 
velopment Is  baaed  on  the  living  and  actual  re* 


601 


CONSTITUTION  OF  PRUSSIA. 

latlotn  of  Ifi  King*  to  the  people.  ThcMreUtlona, 
moreover,  do  not  admit  of  \ielnK  tr«n»ferred  to 
the  Mlntaterg  appointed  by  the  King,  for  they  at- 
tach to  the  per«on  of  the  King.  Their  prewrva- 
tlon.  too.  Is  a  political  nece«8ity  for  Pniiaia  It 
is,  therefore,  my  will  that  both  In  PruMia  and  In 
the  Legtalatlve  Bodie»  of  the  realm  (or  Reich), 
there  may  be  no  doubt  left  as  to  mr  own  consti- 
tutional right  and  that  of  my  successors  to  per- 
sonally conduct  the  policy  of  my  Government; 
ami  that  the  theory  shall  always  be  gainsaid  that 
the  [doctrine  of  the]  invioUblllty  of  the  person 
of  the  King,  which  lias  alwavs  eilsto<l  in  Prus- 
sia, and  is  enunciatetl  by  Article  48  of  the  Con- 
stitution, or  the  uecessitv  of  a  responsible  counter- 
signature of  my  (Jovemraent  acU,  deprives  them 
of  the  character  of  Royal  and  lndep«"n<lent  deci- 
sions.    It  is  the  duty  of  my  Ministers  to  support 


^^^1^'^^'^}?^    OP    THE    ROMAN 

BT?2,*'.?.'^'I"T'°''  ^^  "^HE  ROMAN  RE- 
PUBLIC.    See  Home:  B.  C,  .100,  to  B.  C   2H6 

also  fOMITIA  CE.NTrRIATA;  CoJIITIA  Cl  RIATA ! 
(  ONBILS,  HoMA.\  ;  Co.XBlLAB  TlUBCSES ;  SWJATE 
ROMA.N;  PutBKlAJCS. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  SWSDEN. 

S.T,£?°**^"*!2?'  '*5'"*  »'y  P'?'e«i''R  them  from 
doubt  and  ob«:urstlon.  and  I  expect  Ih^  mZ 
from  all  htate  servanu  (Beamten)  who  have  tZn 
to  me  the  offleUl  oath.     I  am  far  from  wbiSJ  ° 
mpairthe  freedom  of  elecUons,  buin  ih.ciJo? 
those  officials  who  are  lntruste<l  with  the  oxh- 
tlon  of  my  Government  acta,  and  tn«r.  i(,i.r,fo"' 
In  conformity  with  the  disciplinary"  law  wjj; 
he  r  situations,  the  duty  solemnly  i.n.Krtak™  by 
their  oath  of  service  ateu  applies  to  the  nnre-.ni/ 
tlonby  then,  of  the  polty  of  my  0.,S™, 
during  election  times.     The  falthfGl  ih  rfcirman™ 
of  this  duty  I  shall  thankfully  ackno'w"^,™ "n^ 
I  expect  from  all  ofBcUls  that,  in  view  of  thS 
oath  of  allegiance,  they  will  n-fraln  from  nil  ari 
tation  against  my  Government  also  diirin«  f W 
'.'."■"■^T  •'"'■"''•    J»nu»"7    4.    ISHU.-WiLiiELM 
\o!<  Bismarck.     To  the  Ministry  of  Stau' 


CONSTITUTION  OF  SOLON  s» 
Athekb:  B.  C   TM.  ^ 

CONSTITUTION  OF  SPAIN  (i8iai.  Sr 
Spain:  A.  I).  1H1+-1S27 (i«6o).    ."..sp.rT 

See  (  oRTEs.  ' 


■  Four  fundamental  laws  account  for  the  pres- 
ent   political   constitution  of  Sweden:   the   law 
concerning  the  form  of  govimment  (legerinirs- 
fomien)  dsti^l  .Iiine  8.  IWW;  the  law  on  represen- 
tation (riksdagsordnlngen),  June  22.  1H68    the 
order  of  s'.icoewion  (successions-ontningen)   Sep' 
2«.  IHIO;  and  the  law  on  the  liberty  of  the  preai 
(tryckfribcU'fnronlningen).  July  16,  l!*12      The 
union  with  Xi.rway  is  regulate<l  by  the  act  of 
union  (riksaktenl,  Aug    6.   1815.  .'.      The   n- 
primnlation  of  the  nation,  since  the  law  of  Jun^ 
•— .  1«««,  n'Bts  not  as  foniurlv  on  the  division  of 
Jtie  n.iilon  Into  four  onli-rs,  but  on  election  onlv 
Two  .  Iianibers.  having  equal  authority,  coniixic 
the  ilii  t      The  members  of  the  flrst  chamlier  are 
fltcte<l  for  nine  years  by  the  ■  landstingen '  (si*- 
ne«  of  provin<-lal  asM>mblles)  and  by  the    sta'ls- 
fullmftkilge  ■    (municipal   counsellors)  of    cities 
which  do  not   sit  in  the     landstlng  .■—/..i/w', 
'  ^"'^'^*"-:'f  I'"'H*'nl  Sfifitei,  e,  8,  fiji.  H*i-M.11 
—  "The   First   Chamtjer  consisu  (IWii  i,f   147 
iiKiiitiers,  or  one  deputy  for  every  ;«l.(i>Ml  .,f  the 
p.pulation.     The  ehrtlon  of  the  memU  rs  takes 
pla.-.-  by  the  •Un<lstlngs,or  proviiuikl  nprr- 
mniatlons.  iH  In  number,  awl  the  municiiml  cor 
liMmilonsof  the  towns,  not  already  re|.r.«nt«l 
in  the;  Undoings,  Su.kliolm,  OOt'eberg  Malmn 
and    NorrkOping.     All   memb<r»  of    the    Mmt 
I  hanit»-r   must  he  above  85  years  of  ai-e,  and 
must  have  |H>»wsse<l  for  at  least  thrw  yean  n.,-. 
vlous  to  the  election  .lth.T  n-al   pr..p..rtT  to  the 
laXHl  value  ol  mi.im  kroner,  or  4  444  1     or  an   ' 
BHiMial  iii.„me  of  4.ll'lll  kriuier,  or  288  '      They 
ar..  elc. ted  f..r  the  irrm  oi  nineyears.  and  obtain 
no  [wyment  for  tlKlr  services.  The  .Se.x«d  Cham-   ' 
U-r  .xmsisu  (.\iitunin  INt«»  of  t»  inemln-rs  <.f 
whom  78  are  elected  b  •  the  towns  an<l  148  l.y  the   ! 
rural  .ll.trirt^  one  reprr= ,  ..„)v^  Mi>s  fri-Jrord    ' 
f..r  every  10  OOO  of  the  ,H,pu!atlon  of  lowu*  one 
Li'..«T. '  [^"""W' ;"  f"™l  Jl«rict,  of  under 
«U.OW  laliabltaiiu,  and  two  fcr  rural  disiilcu  of 


CONSTITUTION  OF  SWEDEN. 


over  40.000  inhabitants.     All  natives  of  Sw«ta 
aged  21   P^wessing  real  property  to  ih,.  ,,ae,i 
yalue  of  i.Ono  kroner,  or  56  1.,  or  fartninir   '  r 
a  perioil    of   not  less    than    Ave    v.ars  Inii.l.,! 
propjrty  tothj  taxed  value  of  6,iiiHi  kpin.r    r 
838  I  .  or  paying  im^me  tax  on  an  aiiuii:i;  in 
come  of  HOO  kroner,  or  45  1. ,  are  elc.tor>    :m\ nil 
natives,   agiKi  M,  possessing,  an.l  havini;  iv* 
sesmil  at  least  one  year  |  revious  to  the  .  lii-ii,,,, 
the  same  <iuallflcatlons,  may  U-  clc.te.l  nuiul.N 
of  the  Second  thamber     The  niinilMT  .f  nujii 
fl«l  electors  U>  the  Sec-ond  C'hamher  in  1-<B<I  wm 
2(*(<,0»8,  or  6.0  of  the  population;  onlv  ll»'<li« 
or  88.5  of  the  electors  actually  vnttnl      In  tie 
smaller  towns  and  country  districts  ihf  clirtiun 
may  either  be  direct  or  Inillrect,  aoconling  !.■  tht 
wish  of  the  majority.     The  elwlion  U  f,.r  the 
term   of  three  venrs,  and  the  meniJMr.  ..Innla 
salarif^  for  their  services,   at  the  rat.'  nf  l.-Jiw 
kmner,  or  87  I.,  for  each  session  of  f.uir  iiionlli« 
be.ides  travelling  expenses.      .  .  Th,.  nifniNn 
of  Ixith  Chambers  are  electe<l  by  Iiali.t,  tx.ih  in 
town  anil  countr)-."—.Sf,i/«,M,ini  )"»vir.V.,/l,  l««| 
II.  m'i  — •■  Th.'  Diet,  or  KIkadag.  aawmlilti ev^^ 
year,  in  i>r<llnary  session,  on  the  l.Mhurjanuatr 
or  the  day  following.  If  the  IS'h  it  a  h<  ll.ls  •    It 
may  b«.  convoknl  in  extraordinary  seailim  liv  ihf 
king      In  caM)  of  the  decease,  alisen'  .■,  ..r  iftnr* 
of  the  king,  the  Diet  may  lie  convoke.1  .itMur 
dinarily  by  tht  Council  of  Sta-e.  or  ev.n,  i\  lliU 
Utter  neglects  Ui  i|o  so,  by  the  tribunals  .f  ireona 
instance.     The  king  m»v  dissolve  the  t»,.  <h»n- 
liers  simultaneously,  or  one  of  then  aloiii'.  dur 
Ing  the  onlinary  seaai^ins.  but  Vie  n<  v  Dii-t  v- 
teniWes  after  the  three  months  of  the  dlssolut' in. 
Mid  can  r.nly  be.  dls«>lved  kgain  f"iir  m.-nthi 
after  resuming  its  sitting.     Tlie  kin;i  (li*.|v,i 
thi  exirnurUiuary  atsajon  when  be  linnu  iir^prr 
_  .    The   Diet  divides  the   right  .  f  lnillsii»8 
with  the  king:  tbeenotent  of  the  syn<«l  is  necn- 
sary  for  rcclMiMUcal  Uwi.  .  .  .  Every  thrts 


UU2 


CONSTITUTION  OP  SWBDEK. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  SWEDEN. 


reiui  the  Diet  name*  a  commiiiion  of  twraty- 
lour  memberi  (twelvo  from  each  chamber), 
cburged  with  the  dutv  of  electing  liz  penons 
wIk)  are  coromiaioiied  under  the  presidency  of 
the  Procureur  general  of  the  Diet  to  watch  over 
the  liberty  of  the  preia."— O.  Demombynes,  Con- 
gitiili'int  Euroitiennes,  t.  1,  pp.  84-90.— The  fol- 
en'.Dg  ii  the  text  of  the  Conititutlon  a<  adopted 
li  IdSl).  the  lubiequent  modificationi  of  which 
ue indicated  above: 

Form  of  goTemment  adopted  by  the  King  and 
the  Estaui  of  the  Swedlih  Realm,  at  Stoclcbolm, 
on  the  6th  of  June,  1809:  together  with  the 
Alteraiion*  afterward*  introduced. 

We  fharles,  bv  the  Orece  of  God,  King  of  the 
8w«ie«.  the  Goths,  and  the  Vandals,  ic.  ic.  4c. 
Heir  to  Norway,  Duke  of  Bleswick-Holstein. 
£iu>rnMm.  and  Ditmarsen.  Count  of  Oldenburg 
uitl  IH'Imenhorst,  Jcc.  &c.  ic.  make  known,  that 
hSTing  unllniitetl  confidence  iu  the  estate*  of  the 
rtslni.  rharged  them  with  drawing  up  a  new 
form  nf  icovemnu-nt,  as  the  perpetual  ground- 
work  of  the  prosperity  and  independence  of  our 
common  native  land.  We  do  hereby  perform  a 
dear  nml  |ilett»ing  duty  In  promulgating  the  fun- 
dsmcniiil  law  (which  iiaa  been)  upon  mature  de- 
lilnnition.  framc<l  and  atiopted  by  the  estates  of 
the  O'ttlni,  and  presented  unto  'I's  this  day,  to- 
jtrlliir  with  their  free  and  unanimous  otfer  of 
the  Sweilish  crown.  Having  with  deep  emotion 
>n<l  an  atlcciionate  interest  in  the  pMsiierity  of  « 
nation  which  has  afforded  Vs  su  striking  a'pronf 
of  roDiiiience  and  attachment,  complleil  witii 
llieir  nM|iiest,  We  trust  to  our  endeavors  to  pro- 
mote its  happiness,  as  the  riH-iprocnl  rights  and 
iluti"i>  of  the  monarch  and  the  subjects  have 
1»TD  marked  so  distinctly,  that,  without  en- 
rnmliment  on  the  sacre<i  nature  and  power  of 
nwji.ty,  the  constitutional  lilwrly  of  the  [teople 
in  IIP  iti'CtMl.  We  do  therefore  lien'by  adopt, 
ismlioa.  and  ratify  this  form  of  government, 
larli  as  it  follows  here: — 

We  the  underwritten  representatives  of  the 
SwclUh  realm,  counts,  barons,  biKho|)s,  knights, 
ix>lil<'4.  ('lereymen,  burghers,  and  p<'aaanta,  as- 
frmtilcil  at  a  geneml  Diet.  In  behalf  of  ourselves 
tmliiiirlirethrenathome,  IViherfhy  make  known. 
tliai.  having  by  the  late  change  of  government,  to 
•lliih  we.  the  deputies  of  the  Swedish  p^'ople. 
f«n-  ..iir  i.nanlmous  assent,  exercised  our  righU 
iidlrawini!  up  a  new  and  iniptuTe<l  constitution, 
wf  have,  in  repealing  those  fundamenul  law». 
wbkh  ilown  to  this  day  have  Ix'en  in  force  niort- 
it  km:  viz.,  —The  Form  of  Government  of  the 
Jl«i  .  f  .Vujtust  1772,  the  Ait  of  fnlon  and  Se- 
.■uni\ .  ..f  the  2Ut  of  Febrtiary  anil  the  Sil  of 
.Vpril  I7S9.  the  l>nlinano>  of  Diet,  of  the  34th  of 
January  1«17,  ai  well  as  all  th<*'  laws,  acta, 
•utulm.  ami  resolutions  ciinipn'heniled  umler 
i1k>  ileiioiiilnation  of  fundanienttd  laws ;  —  We 
hsvi-  Ki-iK.lvii)  to  adopt  for  the  klngiiom  of  Swe- 
den aoil  lia  lirpendencies  the  following  cimstilu- 
tion.  wbii  h  fMm  henceforth  shall  be  the  chief 
fuiHianirnul  hiw  of  the  realm,  rearrTing  to  t»ur- 
Kiv«.  I,ef„rr  the  expiration  of  the  present  IMet, 
w  nmsi.lir  the  other  fumlamenul  laws,  men- 
Uomil  in  the  Mth  article  of  this  constitution. 

Articia  I.  The  kingdom  of  Sweden  shall  U- 
fotrrtieil  l.y  «  king,  who  shall  be  heivdiury  In 
that  ..nJer  of  auPTMainr.  whl<h  «hp  t^fv.f^  wl!!   ' 
tunhrr  hereafter  determine.  I 

».  TTh'  king  shall  pmfeia  the  pure  evangelical  | 
faith,  such  u  U  cuotolacd  and  declared  In  the  I 


Augiburgian  Confesdon,  and  explained  in  fba 
Decree  of  the  Diet  at  Upaala  in  the  year  1598. 

3.  The  majesty  of  the  king  shall  bo  held 
sacred  and  inviolable:  and  bis  actlona  shall  not 
be  •ubtect  to  any  censure. 

4.  The  king  shall  govern  the  realm  alone,  in 
the  manner  determined  by  this  constitution.  In 
certain  cases,  however,  (to  be  specified)  he  (hall 
take  the  opinion  of  a  council  of  sUfe,  which  shall 
be  constituted  of  well-informed,  experienced, 
honest,  and  generally-esteemed  native  Swedes, 
noblemen  and  commoners,  who  profeaa  the  pure 
evangelical  faith. 

5.  The  council  of  state  shall  consist  of  nine 
members,  vix.,  the  minister  of  state  and  tustice, 
who  shall  always  be  a  member  of  the  kiiig's  su- 
preme court  of  Judicature,  the  minister  of  state 
for  foreign  affuirs,  six  counsellors  of  state,  three 
of  whom  at  least  must  have  held  civil  offices,  and 
the  chancellor  of  the  court,  or  aulic  chancellor. 
The  secretaries  of  state  shall  have  a  seat  and 
vote  in  the  council,  when  they  have  to  report 
matters  there,  and  in  cases  that  belong  to  their 
respective  departmenU.  Father  and  son,  or  two 
brothers,  shall  not  be  permitted  to  be  constant 
memliers  of  the  council  of  state. 

«.  The  secretaries  of  sUte  shall  be  four,  viz. 
—  line  for  military  sfTaIrs;  a  second  for  public 
economy,  mining,  and  all  other  affairs  connected 
with  the  civil  and  Interior  administration ;  a  third 
for  the  finances  of  the  realm.  Inland  and  foreign 
commerce,  manufactures,  &c. ;  and  the  fourth, 
for  aflaira  relating  to  religion,  public  educatioi., 
and  charities. 

7.  All  affairs  of  government  shall  be  laid 
iH-fore  the  king,  ami  decideil  in  a  council  of 
stale:  those  of  a  ministerial  nature,  however,  ex- 
cepted, concemlng  the  relations  of  the  reahn 
with  foreign  powers,  and  matters  of  military 
command,  which  the  king  decides  in  his  capacity 
of  commander-in-chief  of  the  land  and  naval 
forci'S. 

8.  The  king  can  make  no  decision  in  matters 
in  wliiili  the  eouncil  of  state  are  to  be  beard,  un- 
less at  least  thn-e  counsellors  of  state,  and  the 
secretary  of  state  whom  it  concerns,  or  his  deputy- 
8."crctary,  are  present  —  All  the  members  of  the 
council  shall,  upon  due  notice,  attend  all  deliber- 
ations ileemeil  of  importance,  and  which  concern 
the  general  nilministration  of  the  affairs  of  the 
kingi'.om.  sinh  as  iiuestions  for  adopting  new 
statutes,  n-pealiiig  or  altering  thos<>  in  existence, 
intriHlucing  new  institutions  in  the  different 
branches  of  the  ailiiiluistration,  ijtc. 

O.  Minutes  simll  U'  kept  of  all  matters  which 
shall  come  U'foro  the  king  in  hia  council  of  state. 
The  mlnisU'rs  of  stJite.  the  counsellors  of  sUte, 
the  aulic  chanirllor,  and  the  secretaries  of  state 
or ilemityMtntarles. shall  Ih> peremptorily  bouiul 
to  deliver  their  opinions:  it  is,  however,  the  pre- 
rogative of  the  king  to  decide.  Should  It,  how- 
ever. unex|iectedly  occur,  that  the  decisions  of 
the  kine  are  evidently  contrary  to  tlie  nmstitu- 
tion  and  the  common  law  of  tne  realm,  it  shall 
in  thai  rase  1m-  the  duty  of  the  members  of  the 
council  of  state  to  nuke  spirite<l  remoDstrances 
against  such  decision  or  resolution.  Unless  • 
ilifferi'nt  opinion  has  been  recorded  in  the  niin- 
utes(for  then  the  counsellors  pnteot shall  be  con- 
sttlrfT-r!  ni  ioving  advised  the  king  to  the  adcnicd 
measun  I  the  members  of  the  council  (hall  be 
n-spoitsible  for  tbcir  advice*,  i«  enacted  io  th« 
lUflth  article. 


COS 


CONSTITUTION  OF  8WEDBN. 

10.  Necettary  Inforniktiona  haring  been  de- 
manded and  obtained  from  the  proper  boards, 
nuthurtttei,  and  functionariea,  the  alhin  for  de- 
lilicration  shall  lie  prepared  by  the  secretary  of 
state  and  eight  sliilful  and  impartial  men,  con- 
sisting of  four  nobles  and  four  commoners,  In 
oriliT  to  their  being  laid  before  the  king  in  the 
iduiicll  of  state— The  secreury.  as  well  as  all 
tlic  other  memlK'rs  of  this  committee  (which  are 
Momlnatcd  by  the  klnjr)  for  preparing  the  general 
atTiilt*  of  the  kinploni.  shall  upon  ull  moasions. 
when  so  met.  deli  vur  their  opinions  to  the  minutes, 
"liich  shall  nftcrwartla  be  reported  to  the  king 
UD>I  the  council  of  state. 

11.  As  to  the  management  of  the  ministerial 
nITiiirs.  they  may  W  prcparetl  and  conducteil  in 
the  manner  whiih  apix-ars  most  suitable  to  the 
kin^'.  It  oppertaius  to  the  ndnister  frtr  foreign 
affairs  to  lay  Huch  matters  liefore  him  in  the 
presence  of  the  aulic  chancellor,  or  some  other 
meml)er  of  the  council,  if  the  chancellor  caiuiot 
nttenil.  In  llio  absence  of  the  minister  of  state 
this  duty  ilexul.'es  upon  the  aulic  chancellor,  or 
any  other  memlier  of  the  council  of  state,  whom 
his  majisty  may  ap|H)int.  After  haviug  ascer- 
talutMl  the  opinions  of  these  otflcial  persons  en- 
tennl  in  the  minutes,  ami  for  which  they  shall 
Ik- resiHmsilile.  the  king  shall  pronounce  "his  de- 
cision in  their  prusenee.  It  shall  l)e  the  duty 
of  the  aulic  chancellor  to  keep  the  minutes  on 
these  o<-casiims.  The  king  shall  communicate  to 
the  eouneil  of  state  the  information  on  these 
topics  as  may  lie  necessary,  in  orilcr  that  tiny 
may  liavi'  a  general  knowle<]geevenof  thisbrandi 
of  the  :t4lniiiiistratiim. 

12.  The  king  can  enter  into  treaties  anil  alii- 
anci'S  with  foreign  powers,  after  haying  ascer- 
taiueil,  OS  enacleil  in  the  pn>cefling  article,  the 
opiiii.in  of  the  minister  of  state  for  foreign  af- 
fairs, and  of  the  aulic  chancellor. 

13.  When  the  king  is  at  lilwrty  to  commence 
war,  or  conclude  |M'ttce.  he  slioll  conx'oke  an  ex- 
tnuinlinary  council  of  state:  the  ministers  of 
state,  the  counsellors  of  state,  the  aulic  chancel- 
lor, aiul  the  secretaries  of  state;  and,  after  having 
e.\|ilKhuHl  to  them  the  circumstances  which  re- 
quiri'  their  consideration,  he  shall  desire  their 
oninlons  lhere<m,  which  each  of  them  shall  in- 
dlyidually  deliver,  on  the  responsibility  iletliH'<l 
In  the  107th  article.  The  king  shall  thenafter 
haye  a  right  to  adopt  the  resolutions,  or  make 
sudi  decision  as  may  appear  to  him  most  bene- 
ficial for  the  kingdom. 

14.  The  king  shall  have  the  supreme  com- 
mand of  the  military  forces  by  sea  and  land. 

15.  The  king  shall  decide  In  all  matters  of 
mitiury  command,  in  the  presence  of  that  min- 
ister or  iiHlcer  to  whom  lie  has  entrusted  the 
gi-niml  management  thereof  It  shall  be  the 
duty  of  this  iierson  to  give  his  opinion,  under 
reaponsli.llity,  ujion  the  resolutions  uken  by  the 
klnu,  and  in  case  of  these  being  contrary  to  his 
advice,  h.  shall  be  bound  to  enter  hisobjei'lions 
aiKl  0'i,ns«-l  In  the  minutes,  which  the  kinitmust 
nmlirni  l>y  his  own  signature.  Should  this  min- 
ister or  oliiclul  Iierson  And  the  resolutions  of  the 
kiuij  to  lie  of  a  ilangerous  tendency,  or  founiletl 
■"1  niisuken  or  erMneous  principles,  he  shall  ad- 
\  !■«•  his  majesty  to  convoke  two  or  more  military 
.1  Hi-er"  of  a  superior  rank  Into  a  c<«;t>rl!  of  war 
Till-  klug  shall,  however,  lie  at  lib  .  y  to  comply 
« ith  or  to  rvject  this  pMpoaillon  (or  a  CDuncilof 
Mar   uud  if  approved  of,  luj  may  lak*  what  no- 


CONSTITUTION  OF  SWEDEN. 

tlce  he  pleases  of  the  opinions  of  such  coundl 
which  shall,  however,  be  entered  in  the  muiutet 

16.  The  king  shall  promote  the  exercise  r,( 
justice  and  right,  and  prevent  partiality  and  lo. 
iustice.  He  sliall  not  deprive  any  suliject  of 
life,  honour,  liberty,  and  pn)pcrty.'witli(,ut  pit 
vious  trial  and  sentence,  and  in  tliat  onlir  which 
the  laws  of  the  country  prescribe.  He  shall  not 
disturb,  or  cause  to  be  disturbed,  the|iea(v.,f  anr 
individual  in  his  house.  He  shall  ncit  banish  any 
from  one  place  to  another,  nor  constniiu.  urcauw 
to  be  constraine<l,  the  conscience  of  any  Imi 
shall  protect  every  one  in  the  fri-e  ex.  n  ix'df  hit 
religii.n,  pnivideii  he  dix-s  not  thin-hy  disturb 
the  tmiii|Uillitv  of  six-lety,  or  occasi.'.ii  public 
iilliniv.     The  king  shall  cause  eyirv  i.ncio  be 

;  tried  in  that  court  to  which  he  pmiHrlv  Ulunn 

17.  The  king's  pn-Mgative  of  iusii<V»hall'be 
iiiyestiKl  in  twelve  mm.  li-ame<l  In  tin-  law.  sii 
iiolilis,  and  six  conmioners.  «lin  Imvc  shiiwn 
kncovjedge.  ex|>erience,  and  intt-L-rily  in  judicial 
in.itlerK.  They  shall  lie  Btyle.1  ciMinssllors  nf 
justhc.  and  constitute  the  kings  supnme  coun 
of  justice. 

18.  The  supreme  court  of  Justin-  slmll  tab 
coi:nizan<-e  of  |>etitiiins  tothe  king  fi.r  rancrllini 
sinteuct-s  which  have  obtaim-d  leirnl  f.ircr  an5 
granting  extension  of  time  in  1,-iwsuiis.  wlicn  it 
has  iH-en.  through  some cinumstances,  f.irfiiitil 

11K  If  information  Ik-  8<Higlil  hy  jndci-s  or 
c'lurts  of  justice  concerning  the  pri.JHr  iiii,r|irf. 
tatlcui  of  the  law,  the  explaimtinn  thus  ri-ijuiml 
shall  lie  given  by  the  said  supnim-  mtm 

20.  In  time  of  pt-oce,  all  ca.s.s  n  firrwl  from 
the  niurts  martfad  shall  liedeci(h-il  in  the  supreme 
(-iiurt  of  justice.  Two  military  otlii-.  rs  nf  » ju- 
lNrlor<legrtT.  to  lie  nominate<i  by  tin-  kiiii:.  shall. 
>y|th  the  responsibility  of  judges.  ;iiii-t:d  anj 
have  a  vote  in  such  cases  in  the  siipn  nu:  ("urt 
Tlie  nundar  of  judges  may  not.  lio«i  vi-r.  uci-ed 
eight.  In  time  of  war.  all  such  raws  shall  be 
tri(-d  as  i-iittcU-d  by  the  articles  of  w.-ir 

21.  The  king,  shoulil  he  think  tit  to  attend, 
shall  have  right  to  two  votis  in  eaus<s  dwided 
by  the  supreme  court.  All  ipusiions  c-i .miming 
explanations  of  the  law  simll  Ik-  n  |«.rt*il  to  hitn. 
ami  his  suffrages  counted,  even  tlmuirli  In- should 
not  have  attendinl  the  delilK-rations  of  ihi  court. 

22.  Causes  of  minor  importani i  nuv  U-  di- 
cliled  in  the  supreme  court  by  rtv.-  ni.mUrs.  or 
even  four.  If  they  are  all  of  one  oiiiuiun,  hut  .'a 
caus<-8  of  gn-ater  consciiiu-nce  seven  munsi-llors 
at  least,  must  atti-nd.  Jlon-  than  lifht  membetJ 
<if  the  siipn-me  i-ourt.  or  fotir  noldeniiu  and  four 
coinnionera.  may  not  Ik-  at  one  tin  ■  in  active 
servii-i- 

2.I.  All  the  di-cn-es  of  tin-  snpn'iue  (smrt  of 
iu.stiii-shall  issue  in  tin-  kings  imw.  sod  under 
bis  hand  and  seal. 

24.  The  cases  shall  !«■  pniiareil  In  the  "  klngi 
Inferior  (iiurt  for  revision  of  jmliiiary  affaln. ' 
in  order  to  la-  iuld  Iwfon-,  or  pnslucfd  lu  the 
sut»n-me  i-oun. 

25.  In  criminal  eaa<-«  the  kint;  hna  n  ri{,-fat  to 
grant  (lardon.  to  ndtigate  capital  punishment. 
and  to  restore  pro|H'rty  forfeimi  to  tin  crown 
lu  applications.  howeVer.  of  this  kind,  the  > 
iin-me  court  shall  U-  heanl.  and  the  kini!  pvr 
Lis  decision  in  tlu-  council  of  sute 

30.  Whcti  matters  of  Justin-  arc  :ai:i  brf.-fr 
the  (-ouni-il  of  state,  the  minister  of  aiair  and 
justliv.  and.  at  h-asl.  two  counselton  nf  atste. 
two  members  of  the  supreme  court,  and  tiieckta- 


604 


coirarrrcnoN  of  swbden. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  SWEDEN. 


(dlorof  lattice  (hall  attend,  who  mu«t  all  delirer 
their  opmioni  to  the  mioutei,  according  to  the 
pneral  instructinn  for  the  memben  of  ue  coun- 
cU  of  itate,  quoted  in  the  91st  article. 

27.  The  king  ihall  nominate,  aa  chancellor  of 
juitice,  a  ]uria-GODault,  an  able  and  impartial 
mail,  who  haa  prerioualr  held  the  office  of  a 
ludgt.  Itihall  be  bia  chief  duty,  aa  the  highest 
iegu  ofllcer  or  attorney  eeneral  of  the  king,  to 
prosecute,  either  personally  or  through  the  offl- 
cm  or  flscals  under  him,  in  all  such  cases  as  con- 
cern the  public  safe^  and  the  rights  of  the  crown, 
on  the  king's  behalf,  to  superintend  the  adminia- 
tntion  of  justice,  and  to  take  cognizance  of,  and 
cortwt,  errors  committed  by  fudges  or  other 
legsl  ofBcers  in  the  discharge  of  their  official 
dutiet. 

28.  The  king,  in  his  council  of  state,  has  a 
light  to  appoint  native  Swedes  to  all  such  offices 
and  plscrs  within  the  kingdom  for  which  the 
king'srommissions  are  granted.  The  proper  au- 
tborilirs  shall,  however,  send  In  the  names  of 
the  candiilstes  to  be  put  in  nomination  for  such 
employments.  The  king  may,  likewise,  apjraint 
foreigners  of  eminent  talents  to  military  offices, 
viihout.  however,  entrusting  to  them  the  com- 
mand of  the  fortresses  of  the  realm.  In  prefer- 
ments the  king  shall  only  consider  the  merits 
and  the  nbilities  of  the  candidates,  without  any 
rfinni  to  their  birth.  Ministers  and  counsellors 
of  Mall' and  of  justice,  secretaries  of  state,  judges, 
and  all  i>tlier  civil  officers,  must  always  be  of  the 
putT.  vvariiielical  faith. 

29.  Th'  archbiahop  and  bishops  shall  be 
rlrfii-d  a»  formerly,  and  the  king  nominates  one 
o(  tlir  three  candidates  propostil  to  him. 

30.  The  king  appoinU.  as  formerly,  the  in. 
cunilients  of  n?ctones  in  the  gift  of  the  crown. 
A<  to  the  ronsistorial  beneflces.  the  parishioners 
ahall  be  maintaineil  in  their  usual  right  of  election. 

31.  Citizens,  who  nrr  free  men  of  towns,  shall 
ny>\  tlielr  privilege  as  heretofore,  of  proposing 
to  the  kin){  three  candidates  for  the  office  of  bur- 
gomaster or  mayor,  one  of  whom  tlie  king  selwts. 
The  aldermen  sod  secretaries  of  the  magistracy 
of  !^icK  khcdiii  shall  be  elect,'<l  in  the  same  manner 

32.  The  king  appoints  envovs  to  foreign 
couru  and  the  timcers  of  the  enilmssies,  in  the 
piwem*  of  the  minister  of  state  for  foreign  af 
fairs  and  the  aulic  chancellor 

33.  U'hen  offices,  for  whiih  candidates  are 
p^lIwl«<'i.  are  t)  lie  tilled  iip,  the  members  of  tlie 
coundl  c.f  <t«tc  shall  deliver  their  oiduions  on  the 
Quajiili  aiioiia  ami  merits  of  the  applirants.  They 
Uiall  il*'  have  right  to  make  resiiei  cful  remon- 
itrsnii  1  i.^aiiist  the  nomination  of  the  king  r>'- 
llH*lln>' -.iher  offlct-s. 

34.  Thi-  new  functionarier  cnated  1)V  this 
cnn8tiiM!i,i:i,  viz  —  the  miniaters  iird  counndlora 
of  (tat.  and  counsellors  of  Juhtiie.  shall  Ix-  paiil 
bi  lhi<mwn,  and  may  not  liidd  am  otlier  civil 
olfiocs  1  he  two  mlnistei*  of  stale  are  tlie  liiirlieat 
funitionanes  of  tli-  realm.  The  counsellors  of 
»<.•».  »h«ll  hold  the  rank  of  generaia.  nml  the 
fiiiiiw  Il..r»  of  justice  tlial  of  lieutenant  generaia. 

!W.  The  minister  of  slate  for  foreign  affnits. 
l!u-  1  ..unsillors  of  stale,  the  presiilenta  of  the 
pul.li.-  In.iinia,  the  grand  governor  of  8l<M'kholni, 
tlit  diniiiv  voremor.  and  the  eblef  niairialraSi- 
"t  [...Hit  ill  tlie  city,  the  aulic  chancellor,  the 
cliauei-lliir  iif  justice,  the  sei'reuries  of  sUle, 
tin  liMVeriinri  i.r  lord. lieutenants  of  provinces, 
fclJ  nianOwia,  generals  and  admlraU  of  all  de 


greea,  adjutant  generals,  adjutant  in  chief,  ad- 
jutants of  the  staff,  the  governors  of  fortreiaea, 
captain  lieutenants,  and  officers  of  the  king's  lif« 
guards,  colonels  of  the  regiments,  and  officcn 
second  in  command  in  the  foot  and  horse  guards, 
lieutenant-colonels  in  the  brigade  of  the  life  regi- 
ments, chiefs  of  the  ariillery  of  the  royal  en- 
gineers, ministers,  envoys,  ana  commercial  agent* 
with  foreign  powers,  and  official  persons  em- 
ployed in  the  king's  cabinet  for  the  foreign  cor- 
respondence, and  at  the  embassies,  as  holding 
places  of  trust,  can  be  removed  by  the  king, 
when  he  considers  it  necessary  for  the  benefit  of 
the  realm.  The  king  shall,  however,  signify  his 
determination  in  the  council  of  state,  the  mem- 
bers whereof  shall  be  bound  to  make  respectful 
remonstrances,  if  they  see  it  expedient. 

36.  .ludges,  and  a'll  other  official  persons,  not 
included  in  the  preceding  anicle,  cannot  be  sus- 
pended from  their  situations  without  legal  trial, 
nor  lie  translatetl  or  removed  to  other  places, 
without  having  themselves  applied  for  tliese. 

37.  The  king  has  [Miwer  to  confer  dignities  on 
those  who  have  served  their  country  with  tldelity, 
bravery,  virtue,  and  zeal.  He  may  also  promote 
to  the  order  of  counts  and  barons,  (lersous,  who 
hyen.iiieiimerita  have  deserved  such  an  honour. 
Nobility  and  the  dignity  of  a  count  and  baron, 
graniitf  from  tiiis  time."  shall  no  longer  devolve 
to  Buy  other  tliau  the  individual  himself  thus 
createil  u  noble,  and  after  him,  to  the  oldest  of 
his  male  iuue  in  a  dirv<'t  desceudiug  line,  and  this 
branch  of  tlie  fiiniily  licing  extinct,  to  the  nearest 
male  deaceudaut  of  the  ancestor. 

38.  All  despatches  and  orders  emanating  from 
the  king,  excepting  such  as  concern  military  af- 
fairs, shall  lie  countersigned  by  the  secri'lary  who 
has  submitted  Ihein  to  the  council,  and  ia  rea|)on- 
silile  for  tlieir  Udng  conformable  to  the  minutes. 
Should  the  secretary  find  any  of  the  decisions 
made  by  the  king  to  !»■  contrarv  to  the  spirit  of 
the  constitution,  he  shiill  make  his  remonatrancet 
resiHtting  the  same,  iu  tiie  ouncil  of  state. 
Hhould  the  king  still  persist  iu  his  deh'miinatfon, 
it  shall  then  Ik-  the  duty  of  the  si'cretarv  to  re- 
fuse- his  countersign,  uiiil  resign  his  place,  which 
he  niav  not  reaiime  until  the  eMatesof  the  realm 
shall  nave  examined  anil  upproveil  of  Ids  con- 
duct He  sliall,  however,  ill  the  mean  time,  re- 
ceivi  s  salary,  aud  all  the  fi-es  of  hia  olHce  a* 
foniiiTlv, 

3U.  If  the  king  wialiea  to  t'o  abroad,  he  shall 
eoniiimnicateliisreaolutioii  t.i  the  council  of  state, 
in  a  full  aaiH'iuldy.  and  take  the  opinion  of  all  Its 
inemlKTK,  na  eimitiii  in  the  Iiiiilh  article.  Dur- 
ing the  almenie  of  the  kiiit  he  iniiy  not  interfere 
with  the  goveninieiit.  or  exeni.*'  the  regal  iMJwer, 
which  aliall  Ih-  carrieil  on.  in  Ida  name,  by  the 
council  of  alate;  the  council  of  atatecanuot,  how- 
ever, confer  ditrnities  or  create  ctiunla.  liuroDS, 
and  knights:  iiml  nil  olllcera  appoint)')!  bv  the 
coiiiu'ii  aliall  only  Indd  their  places  a)l  interim. 

40.  8liould  th)>  king  be  in  such  a  state  of 
health  n«  '..  to'  inrapable  of  attending  Ui  the  af- 
fairs I  I  III)  kingdom,  the  council  of  state  shall 
coiidiu:  til'-  .I'imiiiistration,  as  enacted  In  the  pre- 
ciiiing  .irtiiie 

4 1 .  Tlie  kinic  aliall  lie  of  age  after  having com- 
ii!.!i-d  <!i.'h!.t!!  y.-ara  ShiiiiiiJ  !!::■  ktr.g^  ilW  bf- 
foD'  till'  lii'ir  of  ilic  irown  has  altaineil  this  aga, 
llie  gov)  riiiiii'iit  ahall  In'  cimducteil  by  the  coun- 
cil of  aiHii'.  ailing  with  regal  (nm'er  and  au- 
thority, iu  the  uamvuf  the  king,  until  the  cstatM 


605 


CONSTITUTION  OF  SWEDEN. 

•f  the  raslm  ilull  bare  tppoittted  a  provliional 

riTenment  or  ngtacj:  and  the  council  of  Mate 
eoloined  itrictly  to  confoim  to  the  eiuctmeot* 
of  tUa  conititution. 

42.  Should  the  melancholy  erent  take  place, 
that  the  whole  royal  family  became  extinct  on 
the  male  aide,  the  council  of  state  ihall  exerdia 
the  soTernment  with  regal  power  and  authority, 
until  the  esute*  have  choaen  another  royal  bmue, 
and  the  new  king  ha<  taken  upon  bimielf  the 
government.  All  ocrurrenrea  or  thingi  having 
reference  to  the  four  but  article*,  shall  be  deter- 
mined by  the  whole  council  of  state  and  the  sec- 
retaries of  state. 

43.  When  the  king  takes  the  field  of  battle, 
or  r<>paire  to  distant  porta  of  the  kingdom,  he 
shall  constitute  four  of  the  members  of  the  coun- 
cil of  state  to  exercise  the  government  in  those 
atrairs  which  he  is  pleased  to  prescribe. 

44.  No  prince  of  the  royal  family  shall  be 
permitted  to  marrv  without  having  obtained  the 
consent  of  the  king,  and  in  the  contrary  case 
shiill  forfeit  his  right  of  inlicritiince  to  the  king- 
dom. lK>th  for  himself  and  descendants. 

45.  Neither  the  crown  prince,  or  any  other 
prince  of  the  royul  family,  shall  have  any  appan- 
age or  civil  place.  The  princes  of  the  blood  may, 
however,  liear  titles  of  dukedoms  and  principali- 
ties, a,t  heretofore,  but  without  any  claims  upon 
those  pn>vinces. 

40.  The  kingilom  shall  remain  divided,  as 
heretofore,  into  govemmenu,  under  the  usual 
provincial  adminiHtrations.  No  governor-general 
slinll.  from  this  time,  Ix."  appointed  within  the 
kiiigilom. 

47.  The  courts  of  justice,  superior  as  well  as 
inferior,  shall  administer  Justiec  scronling  to  the 
laws  nn<l  statutes  of  the  realm.  The  provincial 
governors,  anil  nil  other  pulilic  functionaries, 
shall  ixenlw  the  ofllres  entrusted  to  them  accord- 
ing to  existing  regulations;  tliev  shall  cbi'y  the 
orders  of  ili,-  kiiij:.  ,ind  lie  rrspiinsihle  to  him  if 
any  not  in  doiie  eontnirv  to  law. 

48.  The  (ourt  of  tlie  king  is  under  his  own 
iniinHgoinent,  ami  hi'  niiiv  at  his  own  pleasure  ap- 
p<«nt  or  distharge  all  his  officers  and  attendanta 
there. 

4U.  The  estaiis  of  ilie  nnlm  shall  meet  every 
fifth  year.  In  tlie  de<Tec  of  everv  Diet  the  day 
•h.ill  Ih-  lixeil  for  the  next  nuftlngof  the  estates. 
The  king  niiiy.  however,  convoke  the  estates  to 
an  fXtni.iriliimry  Diet  befipfc  that  time. 

no.  The  IHets  shall  bo  lield  in  the  capital,  ex- 
cept Hlii'n  the  invasion  of  an  enemy,  or  some 
other  iin|Nirtant  impediment,  may  render  it  dan- 
gerous for  the  safety  of  the  representatives. 

ftl.  When  the  king  or  council  convokes  liie 
estates,  the  |H'rio.l  f.ir  the  commencement  of  the 
l»i<t  shall  he  suh«.<iuent  to  the  thirtieth,  and 
williin  the  fiftieth  dav,  U>  reckon  fn)m  that  day 
whin  the  summons  has  been  pmclaimed  in  the 
chiirclies  of  tlie  capital. 

rt2.  The  kiniT  names  th;' speakers  c-f  the  nobles 
the  hnrirhers  ami  the  peasanu    the  archbishop 


'"^l^xinjnies.  the  constant  kpetikernf  the  clergy, 
realm  «hal?,  immetli- 


rtJI.    The  (Slates  of  the 
al.Jy  after  the  o|K'ning   of  the  Diet,  elect  the 
different  <  ommittees.  which  are  to  prepare  the  af- 
fairs inundel  for  Ihiir  consideration.    Such  com- 

-  . 3  ..„3! — ^  ,n, —  n  •--nsttt'.:-r-::::t  com 

inittee,  wlilch  sliall  take  cognizance  of  uuestton* 
conreming  pr  .pt«d  alterations  in  the  fundamen- 
tal law*  n  port  tliereuiion  to  the  representatives. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  SWEDEN. 

and  ezamioe  the  minutet  beU  in  the  council  ni 
state ;  —  •  committee  of  ilnaaeea,  which  shsH ,, 
amtae  and  report  upoo  the  Mate  and  managemat 
of  the  rcTCDues :  —  a  oommlttce  of  taxatSn  f» 
regulattof  the  taxes j  —  a  committee  of  the  W 
fortoaulrtof  into  the  administraUon  of  tbe^ 
S&?.  ^  ""!^  bank ;  -  a  Uw  committw  l„ 

fnfflXcffir^^aterir:: 

a  committee  of  public  grievances  and  matten'  of 
economy,  to  attend  to  the  defccte  in  public  in 
sUtuUons.  suggest  alterations,  4c. 

54.  Should  the  king  desire  a  special  conmit. 
tee  for  deliberating  with  him  on  such  m«tt«r>  u 
do  not  come  within  the  cognizance  of  anv  of  th. 
other  committees,  and  are  to  be  kept  leciet  th, 
estates  shall  select  It.  This  committee  shall  boiT 
ever,  have  no  ripht  to  adopt  any  resolutlonk.  but 
only  to  give  their  opinion  on  matters  lefcrred  to 
them  by  the  king. 

55.  The  representatives  of  the  realm  shall  not 
discuss  any  subject  in  the  presence  of  the  kioir 
nor  can  any  other  committee  than  the  one  men- 
tioned in  the  above  article  hold  their  dellben. 
tlon*  before  him. 

56.  General  questions  startetl  at  the  meelinn 
or  the  onlers  of  the  estates,  cannot  be  immelfi. 
atelv  discussed  or  decided,  but  shall  be  referred 
to  the  proper  committees,  which  are  to  give  tbeir 
opinion  thereupon.     The  propositions  or  rennrt 
of  the  committees  shall,  in   the  first  Instsnce 
witlumt  any  alteration  or  amendment,  tie  referred 
to  the  estates  at  the  general  meetings  of  all  tie 
orders.    If  at  these  meetings,  observations  should 
be  made  which  may  prevent  the  adiipii.u  of  tbe 
proposed  measure,  these  objections  »li:ill  beom- 
municateil  to  the  committee,  in  onler  to  its  beinr 
examine<l  and  revised.     A  proimsitlon  thus  pre 
pared  having  been  egain  -eferreil  to  the  estates, 
it  shall  remain  with  them  to  ailopt  It.  with  or 
without  alterations,  or  to  reject  it  altogether 
Questions  concerning  aiteraiions  in  the  fundj^ 
mental  laws,  shall  !»:■  thus  treated:  —  If  the  con- 
stitutional committee  approves  of  the  sugpestion 
of  one  of  the  representatives,  or  the  rommitle* 
reports  in  favour  of  or  against  a  niea.*ure  pw. 
posed  by  the  king,  the  opinion  of  the  commifee 
shall  be  referred  to  the  estaU-s.  who  mav  dincusj 
the  tonic,  but  not  come  to  any  resolutioii  during 
that   Diet.  —  If  at  the  general  miTtinjrs  of  the 
orders    no  observations  are  made  against  the 
opinion  of  the  committee,  the  iiui'stion  lUisIl  be 
postpone<l  till  the  Diet  following,  ami  then  be  ile- 
elded  solelv  by  yes  or  no,  as  enactiil  In  the  7'ith 
article  of  tlie  onliiiance  of  Diet.—  If,  on  the  con- 
trary, objections  are  urged  at  the  general  meet- 
ings of  the  orders  against  the  opinion  of  tbe 
committee,  the«»'  shall  be  referretl  bsik  for  its  re- 
consideration.  If  all  the  orders  tie  of  one  opinion, 
the  question  shall  be  postponiil  for  final  decision, 
as  enart<Hl  above.     Should  again  a  particuUr 
onler  dilTer  from  the  other  onlera.  twenty  mrm- 
liers  shall  lie  electeil  from  amoni;  everv  onler.  mi 
added  to  tlie  committee,  for  ailjiuting  the  dil!iT 
ences.     The  qucation  being  thus  prepared,  shall 
be  dedde<l  at  the  following  Diet. 

57.  The  ancient  right  of  the  Swedish  peopk, 
of  Imposing  taxes  on  themselves,  shall  be  eier- 
dan!  by  the  estates  only  at  a  general  Diet, 

58.  The  king  shall  at  every  I>iri  lay  before 
the  committee  of  finances  the  state  of  the  rer. 
enues  in  all  their  branches  Shoubl  the  crown 
have  obuincil  subsidies  through  trcatici  with  for 


OOG 


coNsnrcTioN  op  swxden. 

(i|a  powm,  tbcM  tball  be  vxptelmd  in  the  luual 

WW. 

09.  The  king  iball  refer  to  the  dcHaion  of 
tUi  committee  to  determine  what  the  (OTemment 
mi7  require  beyond  the  ordln«ry  tuation,  to  be 
niied  by  en  eitraordinary  grant 

60.  yo  tazee  of  any  deecrlption  whaterer  can 
be  increued  without  the  expreie  ooneent  of  the 
(lUtes.  The  )dng  may  not  farm  or  let  on  leaw 
the  revenues  of  lUte,  for  tlie  lake  of  profit  to 
hinuflf  and  the  crown ;  nor  graat  monopoliei  to 
printe  imllTiduals,  or  corporations. 

61.  All  taze*  ihall  be  paid  to  the  end  of  that 
ttnn  for  which  they  hare  been  impoeed.  Should, 
however,  the  estate*  meet  before  the  expiration 
of  that  trrm,  new  regulations  shall  take  place. 

62.  The  funds  required  by  goremmrnt  hav- 
tag  been  ascertained  by  the  committee  of  finances, 
it  thai)  rest  with  the  estates  whether  to  assign 
propiinionate  means,  and  also  to  determine  how 
the  various  sums  granted  shall  bu  appropriated. 

63.  Besides  these  means,  two  sdeuuate  sums 
shsll  be  Ti.iol  and  set  apart  for  the  disposal  of 
the  king,  after  he  has  consulted  the  council  of 
Hate.—  for  the  defence  of  the  kingdom,  or  some 
other  important  object;  —  the  other  sum  to  be 
ilepo«ite<l  in  the  national  bank,  in  cose  of  war, 
ifter  the  king  has  ascertained  the  opinion  of  the 
council  and  convened  the  estates.  The  seal  of 
the  onler  for  this  latter  sum  may  not  be  broken. 
nor  the  money  be  paid  by  the  commissioners  of 
the  bank,  till  the  summons  to  Diet  shall  have  been 
(lulv  prixlaimed  In  the  churches  of  the  capital. 

64.  The  onlinary  revenues  of  the  land,  as  veil 
H  the  eitraordinarr  grants  which  may  be  voted 
by  the  esutes,  shall  be  at  the  disposal  of  the  king 
for  the  civil  list  and  other  specified  purposes. 

65.  Tlic  above  means  may  not  be  applied  but 
fur  the  iinsipicd  purposes,  and  the  council  of 
itsle  shall  lie  responsible  if  they  permit  any 
deviaticin  in  this  respect,  without  entering  their 
rfmiinslraiKf s  in  the  minutes,  and  pointing  out 
what  tlic  <iin»tltuti(>n  in  tliis  case  onlains. 

66.  The  funds  of  amortissemeDl  r  national 
debt,  shall  remain,  as  heretofore,  under  the  suikt- 
intendencc  and  dipectionof  the  estates,  who  have 
puaraatwsl  or  come  under  a  rcsptmsibility  for 
the  national  ilclit ;  and  after  having  received  the 
report  of  the  committee  of  flnancrs  on  the  affaire 
of  thill  cstal>li8hment.  the  estates  will  provide 
tliMiigh  a  »|H'clal  grant,  the  reiiuisito  means  for 
psvini!  the  capital  as  well  as  the  interest  of  this 
debt,  in  (inler  that  the  credit  of  tlie  kingdom  may 
be  niaiDUinctl 

67.  The  .l.nuty  of  the  king  sliall  not  attend 
the  meetinL'Siif  the  directors  or  commissjoiuni of 
the  funds  of  amortissement,  on  any  other  (Kcasion 
tlian  when  the  directors  are  disposed  to  take  his 
opinion. 

68.  The  means  assigned  for  paying  off  the 
Mliounl  debt  shall  not,  under  anv  pretence  or 
concliiion.  be  appropriated  to  other"  purposes. 

TO.  Minuld  the  estates,  or  any  particular 
order,  entertain  doubts  either  'o  allowing  the 
frsnt  prop,»i,M  by  the  committee  of  finances  or 
u  to  the  participation  In  ths  taxes,  or  the  prin- 
rtples  of  the  management  of  the  funds  of  amor- 
tweraent,  thi'se  doubts  shall  be  comraunlcated  to 
Ae  committee  for  thHr  f-.:rth^r  comtdefatiun.- 
U  the  committee  cannot  coincide  in  the  opinions 
»( lit  esutt.«,  or  a  single  order.  It  shall  depute 
lome  members  to  explain  circumsuncea  Should 
IMsurdir  still  persist  in  It*  opinion,  the  question 


CONSTITUTION  OF  SWik.  JN. 

shall  be  decided  by  the  tewlutlon  of  three  oMen, 
If  two  orders  be  of  one,  and  the  other  two  of  a 
different  opinion,  thirty  new  memben  of  eveir 
orjli .  Bhall  be  added  to  the  committee— the  com- 
mi  «  shall  then  vote  conjointly,  and  not  by 
ordets,  with  folded  biUets,  for  adopting,  or  re- 
jecting, unconditionally  the  propodtion  of  the 
committee. 

f  O.  The  committee  of  taxation  shall  at  every 
Diet  suggest  general  principles  for  divldfaig  the 
future  taxes,  and  the  amount  having  been  fixed 
the  committee  shall  also  propose  how  these  are 
to  be  paid,  referring  their  propoeition  to  the  con- 
sideration and  decision  of  the  state*. 

7i.  Should  a  difference  of  opinion  arise  be- 
tween the  onlere,  as  to  these  principle*  and  the 
mode  of  applving  them,  and  dividing  the  taxes; 
or,  what  hardly  can  be  presumed,  any  order  de- 
cline participathig  in  the  proposed  taxation,  the 
order,  which  may  thus  desire  some  alteration, 
shall  communicate  their  views  to  the  other  repre- 
senutives,  and  suggest  in  what  mode  this  altera- 
tion may  be  effected  without  frustrating  the 
general  object.  The  committee  of  taxation  hav- 
ig  again  reportol  thereon  to  the  estates,  they, 
the  estates,  shall  decide  the  question  at  issue.  If 
three  orden  obiect  to  the  proposition  of  the  com- 
mittee, it  shall  l)e  rejected.  If,  again,  three 
orders  oppose  the  demands  of  a  single  order,  or 
if  two  be  of  an  opinion  contrary  to  that  of  the 
other  two,  the  question  siiall  be  referred  to  the 
committee  of  finances,  with  an  additional  num- 
ber of  members,  as  enacted  in  the  above  article. 
If  the  majority  of  this  committee  assent  to  the 
proposition  of  the  committee  of  taxation,  in  those 
points  concerning  which  the  representatives  have 
!  ilisagreed.  the  proposition  shall  be  considered  as 
I  the  general  resolution  of  the  estates.  Should  it 
I  on  the  contrary,  be  negatived  bv  a  majoritv  of 
votes,  or  be  rejectcil  by  three  orders,  the  com- 
mittee of  taxation  shall  propose  other  principle* 
for  levying  ami  dividing  the  taxes. 

72.  The  national  bank  shall  remain,  as  tor- 
mi-riy,  under  the  superintendence  and  guarantee 
of  the  estates,  and  the  management  of  directore 
selected  from  among  all  the  onlers,  accordinv  to 
existing  ri'gulations.  The  states  alone  can  issue 
bank-notes,  which  arc  t.  U-  recognizeti  as  the 
circulating  medium  of  tin  tvalm. 

73.  No  tnmps,  new  tuxes  or  imposts,  either 
in  mom  y  or  kind,  car  lie  levied  without  the  vn|. 
untary  n.sent  of  the  estates,  in  the  usual  onlsr, 
as  afore^.aid. 

74.  The  king  shall  have  no  right  to  demand 
or  levy  anv  other  aid  for  carrying  on  war,  than 
that  contribution  of  pmvisioiis  whicli  may  be 
necessary  for  the  loidntenunce  of  tiic  tro..ps 'dur- 
ing their  march  throii(:h  a  province.  These  con- 
tributions shall.  honever,lK'  iiiuueiiiatelv  paid  out 
of  the  trcasuri-,  according  to  ilie  fixed  "price-cur- 
rent of  provisions,  with  an  augmentation  of  a 
moietv.  according  to  this  valuation.  Such  con- 
tributions may  not  be  demanded  for  troops  which 
have  1h-"ii  ijuartered  in  a  place,  or  are  employed 
in  military  openttions.  in  which  case  they  shall 
be  Biipp'ii-ii  w ,  it  pMvisions  from  the  magaiines. 

73.  Tlic  ;in;mnl  estimation  of  such  n-ntes  as 
are  paid  in  kin<t  sliall  be  fixed  by  deputies  elected 
froni  amr.nf  ail  the  orders  of  iJie  estates. 

76.  The  ki'ie  cannot,  without  the  consent  of 
the  estates,  coutnut  l.ia'is  within  or  without  the 
kingdom,  nor  burthen  the  land  with  any  new 
debU. 


007 


CONSTITUTION  OF  SWEDEN. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  SWEDEN. 


Wi 


77.  He  ciumot  alto  without  the  conaent  of 
the  rauU'a,  Tend,  piedse,  mortgage,  or  in  any 
otlitT  way  alienate  aomain*,  farma.  foreau,  narlis. 
pri'SiTvi'*  ;>f  ffsmt'.  ni*.«iows,  paiture-lanu,  li»h- 
erif»,  snd  other  npptirtenancea  of  the  crown. 
Tlii«'  shall  lie  managed  according  to  the  initruc- 
tiiMis  of  the  ettateo. 

78.  No  (Mirt  nf  the  hingdom  can  be  alienated 
tliniiijih  side,  murtgat^e,  donation,  or  in  any  other 
»av  wluitever. 

7i>.  No  alteration  can  he  effected  In  the  atand- 
aril  value  of  the  coin,  either  for  enhancing  or 
detirionitiug    It,    without    the    conwut  of    the 

est:ltt'S. 

tM.  The  land  imd  naval  foroea  of  the  realm 
aliiill  remain  (>n  the  same  fooling,  till  the  king 
ni.  I  the  estates  may  think  pro|)ei  to  Introduce 
atMiii-  other  principles.  No  regular  troops  can  lie 
r:ii-..-.l.  withitut  the  mutual  consi-nt  of  the  king 
anil  the  estates. 

81.  This  form  of  government  and  tlie  other 
fiiiiil:iinentiil  laws  cannot  lie  altereil  or  repealed, 
wllliout  the  utmniinoua  (:i>usi-nt  of  the  king  and 
the  estati  s.  Questions  to  this  effect  cannot  lie 
brought  forwani  at  the  mwtlngs  of  the  orders, 
hut  must  be  referred  to  the  constitutional  cfim- 
nilttei'.  whose  province  it  Is  to  suggest  such  alter- 
atiiins  In  the  fundamental  laws,  ^g  may  b<'  d«vnie<l 
iieies-Hjiry,  useful,  and  practicable.  The  estates 
may  uot  decide  on  such  pronoaed  alterations  at 
till-  same  Diet.  If  all  the  orders  agree  about  the 
aliiration,  It  ^hall  Im-  aubmitted  to  the  king. 
tliriMigh  the  KjH-akers,  for  obtaii:lng  Ids  n>val 
sanction.  After  having  ascemlned  the  npinion 
of  the  rouncil.  the  king  shall  take  his  n-solution, 
rind  loininnnii.ile  tu  the  eataU-s  either  his  .tppro- 
ba'ion  or  reasons  lor  refusing  it.  In  the  event  of 
till  kinit  lirii|  (isiuvt  any  alteration  in  the  fiuida- 
nil  iital  laws,  he  slia)',"  after  having  taken  the 
ii|ii;iicin  of  iiie  iiiuii  .i.  deliver  his  proposi'lon  tn 
the  estates,  '.vliii  shall,  withnut  discussing  ii. 
HKaiii  refer  It  to  the  constitutional  comiaittee.  If 
the  I  iimmlttee  coincide  In  the  pri>|K».itinn  of  tlie 
king,  the  iniestlim  shall  renniin  till  nex'  Diet  If 
again  the  euiumittee  Is  averse  to  the  pru|i<'sitlon 
of  the  king,  the  estates  may  either  njeri  't  im- 
iiii'lialely  or  iiiljinirn  It  tn'the  fallnwiug  IMet. 
Ill  the  ease  of  all  the  onh'rs  appr.ivlng  of  the 
pri'imsltiiMi.  they  shall  reijue^t  that  a  day  be  ap- 
pointed to  declare  their  consent  lii  the  pri-senir 
if  Ids  inajisty,  or  signify  their  disappniliation 
tlirii:n;h  their  hiK-akers. 

8!I.  VVhiit  the  estates  have  thus  unauinniuily 
ri-Milvnl  anil  the  king  sauctiDned,  conc-rning 
iilteralmns  in  the  fundamental  laws,  or  the  kini; 
lias  iiriipiised  and  the  estates  appniv.d  of,  shall 
fir  tlie  futiiH'  have  the  force  and  i  ITecl  nf  a  fun 
dunii-ntal  law. 

8JI.  Xii  eiplanatliin  of  the  funihimental  laws 
may  lie  eslalilisheil  by  any  other  nn-k'  or  onkr. 
than  that  prescribed  by  tlie  tan  prreeiling  art! 
('.'■<.  Laws  shall  be  applied  acconllng  to  their 
lili-r;il  SI  use. 

84.  \\  lien  the  constitutional  committee  find 
nil  ri  asnii  fur  apprDVing  of  the  propoaition,  made 
bv  a  ripn  Mutative  concerning  alteratiuus  or  e.x- 
planatjiins  nf  the  fundamental  lawa,  It  ahall  Im- 
til- duly  nf  Iheennimittee  to  communicate  to  him. 
at  lii»ni(Me«t,  theirnpini.in.  which  the  pfoposerof 
till-  resiilutinn  may  publish,  with  blaown  motion, 
unil  under  the  usual  n>i<|ionaibllitT  of  ■uthon. 

8A.  As  fundamental  lawa  <if  the  preaent  form 
of  jinvernment,  tlu-re  shall  lie  conaldeied  the  ordi- 


luiu  d'  in  In 

•■  '■    shml  Iw  luV 

'       'e  I    1?.  »li". 

I'f  Ilieci.un 

ii'ilan-eithrt 

-s  fur  uitlilioU- 

•  111  prii|«iii,-  atv 

•ifter  hmingcen. 


nance  of  iMet.  the  order  of  auccession,  unj  ^ 
act  cnuctmiiig  univenaal  lilierty  of  tlie  |,re«i, 

8H.  By  the  liberty  of  tlie  prt.w  is  iiiiilemtoiiii 
the  right  of  every  8wediab  aubjeci  in  pnhli,),  |^ 
w  ritings,  without  an;  impediment  from  the  mv 
ernment,  and  witboui  lelng  responalble  fortiien. 
except  before  a  court  uf  Juatlce,  or  lialile  to  pm. 
ishment,  unies*  'heir  contents  be  ennirurr  to  i 
clear  law,  maile  for  the  preaervatiim  of  p„Mi( 
peace.  The  uilnutea,  or  pnit<K-ols,  or  the  pro. 
ci-edings.  may  lie  published  In  any  cas.-,  nr|.pt. 
ing  the  U'inutea  kept  in  the  council  nf  nau-  ,^ 
liefore  the  king  in  ministerial  affairs,  an.l  ting 
matters  of  military  cocmanil .  nor  ni.iv  tlw 
reeonla  of  the  bank,  and  the  oft.ii'  nf  tlu-  'fiimij 
of  amort issement.  or  national  detn   Im-  iirinii-.l 

87.  The  estates  together  with  the  kiuy  luv, 
the  light  Id  make  oew  and  repeal  oM  UWs.  h 
this  view  such  <|Ui-siiiin8  must  be  pmpiseil  a|  iIk 
general  meetinu's  nf  the  order?  '  th"  ,  .latiii  and 
sliall  lie  ilccliled  by  them,  aff  iviriL  tjkia  Ihi; 
opinion  of  the  law  commit' 
the  56th  article  The  pror 
ndttMJ,  through  the  B|)ea'  .-< 
after  having  ascertuine  '  • 
cil  (if  state  loid  supreiia' > 
his  royal  approbation,  n 
iiiL'  It.     Shnidd  the  kin 

ulieration  in  the  laws,  hi    ..  ui^wu. 

suited  tie  eniiin  il  of  state  ami  supn me  miirt, 
rifcr  his  pnipin-rum.  together  with  tlu!r.,;,inin 
to  the  delilM-raii  11  nf  the  stales,  whn.  afiir  lijt 
Ing reci-i veil  the  ri  jinrtnf  the  lawciiEiiinitiie,jh.i!I 
I'lclde  on  the  piiut.  In  all  sm  li  .  iKiinu^  Iht 
r.solutinh  (if  three  nrders  shall  Is-  (.ii^iilern!  as 
the  reaolutinnof  ihee.-tatesnf  the  naini  If  iw 
orders  are  opimsed  to  the  oiher  twn.  tin-  |iM|i.»i 
lion  is  negatived,  and  the  law  i>  i,,  tiiiaiii  i.- 
loriiierly. 

88.  The  same  course,  or  niiKlt  i  f  i-Mn-eiJici: 
shall  ln-.ilix  r\(il  inexplainingtlii  (ivil.eriui:i.-i: 
and  t-(  rh-siastieal  laws,  as  in  inakin;;  tin  -<  F.\ 
iilanatiiins  (-nn(-erniin.'  the  prnpir  ^ur.  uf  •■.■ 
law  given  by  the  siiprtnie  nmrt  in  ihe  iiaiuc  ,! 
the  king,  in  the  Interval  Iniwo  n  tin-  Diiis.  mt 
\k  rejected  bv  the  stairs,  and  shall  in  t  u'tfi 
wanls  !«.■  valid,  or  eit(sl  by  the  cniirts  "!  jimim 
tun' 

8l>.  At  the  general  mtt  tini;s  nf  tin  iiriiit>  • '. 
the  eslat(s.  iiueslions  may  In  priiiMiiiTl  fnr:,'ii-r 
in;:.  e.\|ilaininu.  repealini  ami  i-siiii.:;  urls  ni 
cerning  publir  ecnnnii'V.  and  the  priuii|ili>  ■ 
piiblii-  iiistitiitinnsiif  any  kind  wiay  lie  ilisu*,i 
TIk-sc  ijuestiniis  shall  aitirwanlsli.  n  fem^i  • 
the  riiriiinittee  nf  iiulille  L'riiVaiieis  ai.'l  nncn.: 
eal  :ilT;.irs,  nnd  then  'v  siiliuiit  ■•d  In  Ilw  ilirisi' l 
of  till  king,  in  a  <.iuneil  nt  state.  When '.U 
kiiii;  i^  pleased  to  invite  the  estates  t"  ililibn'i 
wi;h  liini  nn  iinestiniis  cnni-i  rniii.-  tin  yimrs! 
adinini-itnitini,.  the  same  nnirsi-  shall  !«■  .ii!it:  -'. 
as  is  prescrilHsl  fur  .(iieslieus  eninerjini;  iht 
laws 

1M>.  During  tin-  di  liUratiniis  nf  tin-  urilirs.  nr 
till  ir  commitirt-s.  im  i|iiestinns  shall  K  i  n'pme! 
but  in  the  way  t-xpri-ssiy  pn-sdiUii  liy  iliisfur 
ilanii  iilal  law.  cnneemfnc  <  iilii  r  ap|>"iiiiins  t 
reinn\i:ig  of  ntll.-ers.  dceisini.'i  and  ri  ^'  Inline*'! 
the  gnvi  rnmcbt  nnd  enurts  nf  la",  anil  the  oil 
duet  nf  private  indi-iduaU  n:;;!  i..rr-.;.r::!i;i!is, 

Ol.  When  the  king,  in  sm  h  ('i.-sh  m  tin*; 
mentinii. -I  i.i  the  8Ctu  "urtiele.  is  alis<-ai  fmmtlif 
kinirihiii.  longer  than  twelve  month-,  tla  oiunri; 
shall  convoke  the  e«i  ites  In  a  general  l>iet  ami 


608 


COXSTITCTIOX  or  SWEDEN 


CONSTITUTTOK  OF  SWEOKX. 


ciiuf  the  Kiinimoni  to  be  prnrlaimrd  ni'tinflt- 
M«n  cia^  •  f ">">  'lie  above  time  in  the  churchei 
of  the  Vapitul,  au4l  speedily  afterwitrd*  it  the 
other  parts  of  the  kingdom.  If  the  Ung.  after 
btin;  ini'unned  tLenof.  duea  not  return  Ui  the 
tiaitiloni.  tlie  estates  shall  adopt  cuch  meaaures 
HI  tiiey  deem  moat  benefldal  for  the  couotn' 

92.  1'he  same  shall  be  enacted  in  case  oi  utj 
distax'  or  111  health  ut  the  king,  which  might  t>re- 
v(Dt  bitn  from  atteotllng  to  the  afTaiia  <>f  the 
kincdum  for  more  thac  twelre  months. 

t>;l.  When  the  heir  of  the  crown,  at  the  i.<- 
ct'iMMf  the  king,  is  under  age,  '.ho  (nunclt  of 
slaii'  (hall  Issue  summons  to  the  reproaentatiTrs 
til  mirt.  The  estates  of  the  realm  anall  hare  tlu- 
ni'lii.  witliuut  regard  to  the  will  of  a  deceased 
tiof  nmci-ming  the  a<lministrstic>],  to  appoint 
(int'or  several  guardiaut.  t<>  rule  in  the  klLg's 
uune.  arcording  to  this  f undamvntal  law,  till  the 
kin^  Utiimes  of  age. 

M.  Should  it  ever  happen  that  the  royal 
family  beoomr  extinct  In  the  male  line,  the  council 
cf  ^l,■ltl■  »h«ll  convene  the  estates,  m  elect  another 
p'ja!  family  to  rule  comformably  to  'his  funda- 
i;irrii!i|  law. 

iW.  [Should,  contmrr  to  expertatinn,  the  coun- 
111  if  stale  fail  to  cnvoke  the  estate*.  In  the 
.t-ni  prescribed  by  the  91  »t,  iJM.  and  U4th  articles. 
It 'ball  he  the  positive  duty  of  (he  directors  of 
;!.i'  hdiiae  of  noblis.  the  chapters  thit>ughcut  the 
kingdom,  tlie  iimgistra'es  in  the  o-pitar  rrn*  the 
fiiremorsin  the  pmviiices,  to  give  pu.  !  i..  "I's 
'hen- if.  in  onier  that  election*  of  deputu  "  j  the 
'lii't  niay  forthwith  take  place,  anil  the  estates 
.-.mhle  to  pmltTt  their  privileges  and  rialits  of 
'111  iiiigdoiii  Sii  Ii  a  Diit  nhall  l>e  op<'netl  on 
■.111'  r'tieth  ilay  fr  in  tliat  iM-riod  when  (Jie  coun- 
lil'f  v.ate  hail  pri«lairaeii  the  summua<  i.i  the 
rlnrihisof  the  capital 

Ott.  The  estatM  shall  at  every  Di<  appoint  in 
ifflur,  distinirui-beil  for  integrity  and  learning  in 
■ill'  law.  to  winh  ^  V.  r  as  their  deputy,  the  con- 
ilurt  of  the  jiidife!*  li  other  official"  men,  and 
■villi  sliiiil,  in  !i):al  .mltr  and  at  the  proper  court, 
.rnil.-R  'hose  who  in  the  performnnoe  of  their 
•!in-«havi.  U-tri'cil  negliiinre  and  partialitv. 
riliehavf.iiinmi  iaiiy  illegril  act.  Heshall. 
Iwwivir  t>flialilet«i  ■  »ainen-»|><incilillitya»the 
h"v  tin-w  r.ln-s  for  pui -ic  (mmecutor*  in  seiicral 

S»7.  This  ik|iuiy  or  a-tumey-giiieraf  of  the 
fsia'fs  shall  tie  chosen  by  twelve  "lectors  out  of 
evfr\-  onier. 

Od,  The  electors  shall  at  the  saiu-  :lnie  they 
cbi  me  (he  said  attorney-general,  eU-ot  a  ptrsm 
!«»wiis»iiig  equal  or  aimlliar  ijualities  to  aucceetl 
aim,  in  rase  of  his  death  Ix'fore  the  n<-xi  Hiet. 

ttW.  The  attorney-general  may,  win  uever  hi 
pkasis.  attend  the  aeaaio.ns  of  all  tlie  superior 
uid  infi-nor  i-ourts,  and  'he  p'liilic  olRies,  and 
ilull  have  free  access  to  their  reconls  uid  mln- 
lilcs;  ami  the  king's  iilllcers  shall  be  ".mund  to 
pre  liiiii  every  aMistinn' 

100.  The  attorney-general  uhall  at  'jvery  Diet 
pt<-6i-!it  a  n-port  of  the  performani-e  of  his  ortic  e, 
Ml.laining  the  state  of  the  a<lminiatratliin  of  j  is- 
**  ill  the  land,  noticing  :( ■•  (".i  f  ,ta  in  the  eiist- 
itf  laws,  and  suggestlni'  ii.  «-  Improvements. 
Hpsliall  also,  at  the  end  '  ewh  '"ar.  publish  ;i 
ftf^i '.  1  i»>ak'mt-ijt  coueer:     nr  tin    . 

101.  Should  the  supn  .  ■ .  oun,  or  any  of  lis 
mfmliirs,  from  interest,  punWlity,  or  Drgllgenu-. 
Judge  so  wrong  that  an  indivlifual,  contrary  t.. 
at  and  evidence,  did  lose  or  miirht  have  lost  life. 


lib"  -ty,  honour  or  i 
sh.iil  he  bouml.   ai 
authorised,  toarraii. 
hiw»  of  the  reain; 
lOa,  This  CO 


perty.  iie  attomsry-goietttl 
the  cham^»'!7or  of  justice 
he  guilty     >'Cording  to  the 

the  court  ii    '  r  mcnti'ined. 

is  to  be  (I      minated  the 


court  „f  Justice  for  the  reulm,  and  dl  beformed 
by  president  in  t'i»  suiwrior  n  jrt  of  Swea. 
tlie  iidents  of  all  ■  piildic  boar's,  four  neainr 
memliers  of  the  coum  il  of  sute,  the  highest  com- 
mander of  the  troops  within  the  capital,  and  the 
r<  mmander  of  the  s<|uailron  < '  he  fleet  statioiieft 
at  the  capital,  two  of  the  senior  raecibers  of  llu- 
superior  court  of  Swea,  and  the  senior  member 
of  all  the  public  manis  8l-iuM  any  of  the 
officer*  mentioned  aNivt-  decline  attending  this 
court,  he  shall  be  le^alh  resj  .nsible  for  such  a 
ofglcct  of  duty  After  trial,  the  Judgnicnt  shall 
lie  publicly  •.:iiiounceil:  no  one  can  alier  such  a 
sentence.  Tie  kinfi  may,  however,  extend  par- 
ion  to  tlie  guilty,  '  .1  not  admitting  him  any 
more  into  the  «-r\  in-  of  the  kingdom. 

10;i.  The  '-«t  it.ssliill  at  every  Hiet  ni  ininate 
a  jir  oftweh  ineralx  r»  from  out  ,f  i  ich  order, 
for  li.  ■  idingif  .1,.- niemliersof  thesui ;  iiiecourt 
of  justici?  hr.ve  iltvrved  Ui  Ml  their  niportant 
iilaces.  or  if  any  luimbcr,  "iihoul  ii  .-inir  been 
legally  convicted  lor  the  tuiilu  meniiinnd  in  the 
aliovi-  artides.    yet  oueht  to  be  rennn.i!  from 

Ollllf 

I04.  The  estiito*  shall  not  resolve  ih  :i».!ve» 
into  a  1  o'irt  of  justice,  nor  enter  into  anv  -iieclal 
exami'.ati  a  of  th--  ilii rec*  Terdicts.  ruW/)utton» 
of  t!i-  ^  iprvme  <     ir'. 

lOo.  T!.,- con:,'  i;tioti»  .1  .  mit'ivBhi.'lhave 
right  to  ieiniind  i) .  iiiim,.  .  '  tlit  coiini;  if 
state,  eicipt  tliose  wlii.h  couci  rn  m  '.islerial  •  r 
foreitn  affairs,  ur.i'.ii'Hr.rs  of  niilitory  omairii.l. 
wbicli  may  only  be  r  ■•  iraiinlratcil  as  far  a*  time 
h.ivc  »  refirencc  to  giinerully  l.i  iwn  evints 
'1  ecifled  by  the  coN.miute. 

lOB.  Siiould  the  committee  End  from  these 
minute*  that  any  member  if  the  council  of  state 
has  openly  acte-1  against  the  clear  dictate*  of  the 
coiistitiition,  or  advised  any  ii  friiiwmen'i  either 
.if  the  Mini-  'ir  of  the  other  la« .,  of  the  realm,  or 
that  he  hiui  uiittiii  to  n'r.ioii«tr«te  against  such 
a  violation,  .r  rauwfi  and  i  -omoted  It  liv  wilfuUv 
cofKvaling  any  infonnation  the  committee  shall 
onier  the  attorney-general  to  Institute  the  proper 
procwliiiirs  Bcai:!.st  the  guilty. 

107.  If  the  mstitutioual  committee  should 
llnil  that  any  or  ,'iil  the  members  of  the  council 
of  state  hftvc  jot  consulted  the  real  Interest  of 
the  kingdom,  or  that  any  of  the  secreMries  of 
mat"  have  not  perfoniuil  his  or  their  otticial  duties 
with  Impartiality,  miivlty.  and  skill,  the  com- 
niitui'  ..l.ill  reiMirt  it  to  'he  estates.  »ho,  if  they 
deem  It  :u-ieii«ary,  i.iay  siKnify  to  tin  king  thefr 
wish  •■'  !iavlng'tlio«e  n-nioveil,  who  may  tbtu 
have  given  diasiiiisfactioii.  QuesUoiu  to  this 
effect  may  Ih>  liruight  forward  at  the  general 
meetings  of  tlie  orders,  and  even  be  proi>o«eil  by 
any  of  thi-  coiuiuitt«-«.  Th'-»c  caimot,  however, 
lie  decideil  un;i!  the  constitutioiuf  committee 
have  delivend  their  opinion. 

lOM.  The  estates  shall  at  every  Diet  ippoint 
six  individuals,  two  of  whom  must  be  learned  in 
the  law,  besides  the  att'  mey-general.  to  watch 
over  the  liberty  of  the  pr -ss.  These  deputies 
sliall  lie  bound  to  give  tit,  \i  -iplnion  as  to  th>. 
legality  of  publieatium,  if  -..h  'u  •rquesteil  by 
the  auUiora.  1:  -<  I'l  [h.Ii  -a  shuil  be  choaen  by 
six  electors  out  if  evetj  oiiltr. 


60',' 


CONSTITCTION  OF  SWEDEN. 

lOQ.  DIeti  may  not  l>it  long>r  than  three 
nionll»  fmm  the  time  that  the  king  haa  informed 
the  represn'titativei'  o(  the  flatc  of  the  tevenuea. 
8lioiil<l.  however,  tlie  eatatea  at  the  expiration  of 
that  lime  not  have  concluded  their  delitieratioM. 
thev  may  demand  the  Diet  to  be  ,-imloDKe<<  for 
anotliiT  month,  which  the  kins  nhiiil  not  refute. 
If  nffain.  contrary  to  ex|)ecUtTon,  the  i-«t«H'«  at 
the  exniraiion  of  lliia  ti'rm  have  not  regulateil  the 
civil  lUt,  the  kins  •hall  diaMilve  the  Diet,  and 
taxation  ctintinue  in  its  former  stati  till  the  next 
nieetinK  of  repreaentatlvea. 

1  lO.  No  representative  ahaM  l>e  re«ponai))le 
for  any  opinion  uttered  at  nieetinK*  of  the  onlera, 
or  of  the  commilteea,  iinleM  liv  the  express  per- 
niiwi'Mi  (if  at  least  flvesixths  of  his  own  "nier: 
nor  run  a  renri'sentative  !«•  Imnislie<l  from  tlie 
Dili  Shoulil  any  indiviituiil  or  IkkIv,  either  civil 
or  inlliinry,  endeavour  to  offer  vliilrnce  to  the 
esliiie'.,  iir  to  any  indlviiliinl  n'preo'iitatlve.  nr 
privtiMiie  til  Interrupt  and  ilUturli  their  dellU'ra 
lioiiH.  It  sliiill  Im!  c<>nsider»<l  as  an  act  of  ireawiu. 
and  It  n>it«  with  the  estates  lo  take  leital  ctiirni 
ziiiMi-  (f  Hui'h  nn  olTeiice 

lit.  Slii.idil  any  reprpsenutlve.  after  Imvinir 
announced  hlniMlf  as  suih.  W  Insulteil.  either  at 
the  Milt  or  (111  hU  way  to  or  from  the  siiiiie.  it 
shall  Ih-  puiilslicti  as  a  violation  of  the  iwace  of 
th.  kini! 

1  Itf.  N.)  otflctal  |>erson  iiie^  exerclM'  hia  offl 
ciulnuihurlty  (his  authority '.I  thai  caiHu-ity)  In 


CONBTmmON:  SWrrZEhLAIfD. 

Influence  the  electlona  of  deputies  to  the  Dl«t 
under  pain  of  loalng  his  place. 

1 13.  Indiriduart  elected  for  regulating  tlw 
taxation  shall  not  be  retponaible  for  their  lawful 
deeils  In  this  their  capacity. 

1 14.  The  king  ahall  leave  the  estates  In  m 
dIsturlNil  possession  of  their  lilM'rtles,  privllfn, 
and  Immunities.  Modifications  which  the  pr,! 
perlty  of  the  ri'ttlm  may  demand  can  niiv  be 
done  with  tile  general  concurrence  and  cimwm  of 
the  estates  anil  the  sanction  of  the  kinjt  X.if 
can  any  new  privileges  be  granted  to  nne  .irln 
without  the  consent  of  the  other,  ami  ih.'  muc 
tion  of  the  soven-lgn. 

This  we  have  conflrmed  by  our  ii.initu  ui,[ 
seals,  on  the  sixth  day  of  the  month  c.f  .luni'  in 
the  year  after  the  birth  of  our  L-ml  one  tln.imnd 
eight  hiindn'<l  and  iiini'. 

On  iM'httIf  of  the  Nobles,  M.  Ankarsvar.1     (it 

iM'lmlfof  the  Clergy,  Jac.   Ax.   Lind" (in 

hehalf  of  ihe  Iturghert,  H.  N    Hehwiui      in,  l» 
half  of  the  PeasHntry,  Ijira  Olssiin.  ."«|Haliirs 

The  alKH-e  form  of  governmeut  «!■  Imv..  n..t 
only  acknowliHlireil  Ourselves,  hut  i|..  hIn.  (..id 
innnd  all  ntir  faithful  subjects  to  ciUy  it.  i,,,,,,, 
tlrniatiiin  i^f  which,  we  have  thenici  ttHl'j..|  ,.« 
iiiamial  siunatun'  and  the  seal  of  the  rralm  In 
the  ciiv  i.f  iiur  royal  n-sldence.  StiKkhnlm,  ,,u  ti, 
sixth  ilay  of  the  month  of  June,  in  tin-  vnir  iftfr 
the  birth  of  our  Lord  one  thuuianil  elidn  liun 
dreil  and  nine  C'luiiLis 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  SWISS  CONFEDERATION. 


Aflir  the  S<inilerhund  secession  and  war  of 
1H4:  (,«,.  SwtTZKIil.AMI:  A  I>  INrt-t-IMNl.  the 
iHhk  ..f  drawing  i<i>  a  Constitution  for  tlie  Con 
full  nu  y  was  xmlided  In  a  fimmiltee  of  f.,urteen 
nunilH-m,  and  tlie  work  wa«  finished  on  the  14lh 
of  .\pril.  \«iH  'The  pmjiit  wan  submitted  lo 
the  Caiiiiini,  and  accipteif  at  onc<'  liv  thirteen 
ami  a  half,  others  Jnlmd  diirinif  Ihe"  summer, 
anil  the  new  Constitution  wm  llnallv  promiiliraled 
with  the  assi'nt  of  all  on  the  I'j'th  Spteni'ier 
llenif  anw  the  stvinlh  and  l:i»t  pliane  of  the 
<  ■•nfeilerallon.  liv  the  adoption  of  a  Fe<hral  Con 
stitulicin  for  the  whole  of  Mviltj.  .land,  Ulnir  the 
lirM  which  waaelilinly  the  work  of  Muitii.  with 
out  any  foreign  Inlliii'iice.  although  Its  auiliom 
had  >.tudli-<l  that  of  thi'  Initinl  Stales  It 

w».H  natural  thai,  as  In  princess  of  time  coniiiiirei' 
and  industry  wen-  devilo|»Hl.  and  as  Ihi-  dlfter 
.  nrei.  lHtw.-.n  the  hglslsllon  of  the  various  (  an 
tout  iMiaiiie  more  appan'ni.   a  revision  of   ih.- 
llr»i  nally  .Swiss  Confeihratlon  sli.Mild  lie  mits 
wiry      Thl«  was  pni|iiis>nl  laiih  In  1x71  and  l"Ti 
but    till'   partlians  of  a   further   rentralliatlon 
Ihimifh  •uii-eisful  In  the  Chambers,  were  defeateil 
Uj>..ii  an  appeal  to  the  (mpular  Voir  on  the  IJth 
of  May  |x,i    by  a  majority  of  U  tween  «ve  and 
six    lli.'iinaud.  and  by  lhlne<  ii  Cantons  lo  nini 
Thi  i|iii'»il.in  was.  however  bv  n.i  means  si'tlh.i. 
and  III  l-fTl  «  n<  w  pri>jeet  of  revls|..n  more  ae 
ceplable  to  ||,|.  parliwin^  of  cantonal  lnile|M'ud 
eu.e,  was  adopt.. I  \.y  ii,,.  |».,,p|p    ||„.  numlam 
laing   Wo.iw,   to  lUNdis     Th.   Canton,  w.r.'   i 
al")ut  two  111  oil.-  In  favour  of  the  n-vlahm    Hi    '■ 
•(.•claring  for  and  Tj  aitalnsl  It      ThIsConiiliu 
tim  bean  dale  the  JIHl,  May   l'«74   and  has  alniv    ' 
Iwn  a.iile.1  to  snd  allenii  In  cerlaln  lianlcuUrs       j 
—  !Ur  r  o  Adam*  and  C  U  I'uuubighaiu    Th-   i 


Siriu  i'''nfr>lert%tiiiH,  ek  I  —  'Hlnc.'  IM". 
SwIlteHand  has  U-en  a  feileral  stale,  i  .nsiitioj 
of  a  central  authority,  Ihe  Huud.  snd  lU  .niirt 
ami  hlx  half  states,'  the  ('anions,  to  f,.r.in 
jiowers  she  pr»'S»'nis  an  united  fmiii.  «hli.  jwi 
Internal  [Killry  aUows  to  each  Canl.ii  »  Utc 
amount  of  Indeix-ndenc'  The  liaoU  .f  »!; 

h'Blslaiive  ill  vision  i«  theCommune  i.rliiiiieii,!. 
corr.»|Kindlng  in  some  slight  deirnc  to  ilir  Km; 
li»h  I'arish  The  Commune  In  Its  liifUl.iiiv,  j-i 
aiimihlslratlve  a.|i,it  or  '  Klnwohm  r.;ini.  ii>.l, 
IscomiHwetl  of  all  tin-  iiihabltams  of  «('..niini.ii. 
It  is  ».lf  governing  and  has  the  loiitr.l  of  \\r 
|iM-al  iKilice.  It  also  ailmlnUt.'rs  all  niatlir«c-.« 
Ii'-t.il  with  |>auperi>in,  .•dmallon  .aninr.  jc.l 
fiitM'ral  regulalhius,  ih.-  tin-  lirlirn.li-  ihf  nmtil* 
iiaiiir  of  pntillc  |Mac.  and  trusl.-.'shlpi  A! 

till'  head  of  th,.  CommuiM'  Is  the  Ii. m.  in.lrmih 
or <  oniniuiiiil  <  oumll  whose  nn  iiib.  r»  in  1 1.-  i.'l 
fMm  Ihi  Inhabitants  for  a  Hied  |ur1<»l  h  u 
pnslili'il  over  by  an  Amnuinn.  or  .Ma\  r  or  Pri« 
d.iit  .VIkivc  ilH'Commuiii'oii  i In  imi mlio^ 

•isle   lonw"  Ih.    Canton  KsnU  .f  'li.    1» 

Cantons  and  H  half  Cantoim  l»  a  tovini!.-!!  >i>i<- 
«hiBM-  iirivlh  Ki.«  are  neverhili-w  llinli.-!  I  v  •)»■ 
K.iieral  Coiislllutloii.  iwrtl.ularlv  a«  nirsnli 
li'tfal  and  military  matters  th<  Consiii'i'i  •«  ii«' 
diHn.-s  Ih.'  e»ti-nl  of  larh  Canton  and  n"  |i.nl  « 
of  a  (  aliton  Is  alloweil  i..  si.i.li.  and  J'iii  Krlf 
to  another  Canton  (.egislstlvi'  |».wrr  l«(ii 

the  hands  of  the  V.  .  ,  In  the  polli|,sl  ••iu» 
of  the  Word  111.  Volk  consists  of  sll  Hir  S«l«i 
livinir  In  llu  l  anion,  wholmve  pasad  thilijii'li 
vear  and  an-  not  undiT  dlsaiillliv  from  ■  rirnr  .f 
imiikrupiry  The  mtlug  on  llu-  pari  .f  ilx- 
IHiipte  deals  miMlly  with  allerallo««  in  llirisc 
lonal  coosiitullou.  irvatlea.  I«w»  declsluns  "!  tbs 


UlU 


CONBTmmON:  SWITZERLAND. 


C0N8TITCTI0N:  SWITZERLAND. 


flnt  CooitcU  inTolTiiig  expendituiw  of  Fn. 
100.000  isd  upward,  and  other  deciiioiia  which 
the  Cooocil  ooaaiden  advteble  to  lubject  to  the 
pablic  TOte,  which  aJao  detemiiiiei  the  adoption 
of  prapoiltkHU  for  the  crestton  of  Dew  Uwi,  or 
the  alteration  or  ■bollttoo  of  old  onn,  whrn  lurh 
t  pkUicite  ii  demanded  br  a  petition  ligned  bj 
SMO  Toten  .    .      The  First  Council  (Gi 


Ilith)  it  the  bigbeat  political  and  adminiatrative 
powrr  of  the  Canton.  It  corretpondi  to  the 
-Clutinber '  of  other  countriea.  Every  1,800  in- 
haUtaotiof  an  electoral  circuit  tend  one  mi'm- 
ber.  .  .  The  Kleine  Hath  or  epeclal  couoril 
(oormpoDiling  to  the  '  Minlaterium '  of  other 
(ogtioentiil  countriet)  it  coni|Hiae<i  uf  three  meni- 
ben  •ml  bu  three  proxies.  It  is  chiiaeu  by  the 
Fini  I'oiiiu'il  for  a  period  of  two  yean.  It  su 
periDb'DcIa  all  cantonal  inatitutiona  end  c<>ntn>la 
tbe  variiiua  public  boarda.  .  .  .  The  |MipulatioQS 
of  lhi'22  sovereign  L'an'iios  ronstltute  toiri'thcr 
the  folss  ConfeJeration. " — I*,  llauti,  fHilrh  »/ 
llu  C'liulitutum  of  Smturiand  (in  itrifklaiult 

Tbt'  following  text  of  the  Federal  Constitution 
of  the  ^>wias  Cunfetleratlon  is  a  translation  from 
panllt  I  FifDch  anil  Uemian  texts,  by  Professor 
jUlxTt  Ilushnell  Hart,  of  Harvard  CollcKr.  It 
ippranil  uriginally  in  "  Old  8outli  U-adeta, "  No. 
W.  iii>l  in  niiw  reprinted  under  |M>nni»«iou  from 
Piiifriai>r  Han,  who  hat  nuiat  liiiiilly  reviaed  hia 
inuulmiiiu  tbroutfhout  and  lutriMluceti  the  Inter 
uwuilciiriita,  to  July,  IMM. 

la  the  Namt  of  Almifhty  Cod.— Tba  Swiaa 
Coafcdcratioa,  desiring  to  rontlrni  the  alliani-e 
uf  ilir  (Duft'ileratva,  to  maintain  and  to  |iromot<' 
tb(  uuity.  atrengib.  and  honor  of  the  Swiaa 
uii<'ii  liaa  adopted  the  Fifleral  Couatltutlou 
fi'll'miiii: 

Ckapttr  I.  Central  ProTiaioaa.— Amticle  1 
Till-  |»..,iU»  of  tlif  Iwi-iity-lwo  BiiviTi'lgn  Can 
i<<u>i>f  SwIUerUiui,  uulteil  by  tliia  pr*-arut  atli 
anif.  viz  Zurirb,  Hern,  Luzem.  I'ri.  Si'hwyz, 
I'Diirn allien  (I'pper  and  Lower),  (ilarua,  Zug, 
Fnilmri;.  Solotbum.  Basel  (uriiau  and  rural), 
NhatriuiiiM'ti,  Alipeniell  (the  two  lUiodeai,  Ht 
Uilliii  Oriaona.  Aargau,  Thuriisii,  Ticiuo,  Vaud. 
Valaii  Ni'iirbltel,  and  (ieneva,  form  In  their 
ewinir  the  Swiaa  Coufederetiou 

Akt  %.  The  purfHiaeof  the  ConfeileratloniB. 
Ill aiuri'  llii'  indelM'udence of  the eountry  againat 
(in^lmi  iiailiina,  to  malnlain  (m'mv  ami  order 
«Hliii;  111  iimtert  tlH<  lllieny  and  the  righU  of 
!br  t'imfiili  atea,  and  to  fiister  tbetr  eonmuin 
ai-IIirr 

.\HT  ■>■  The  Cantons  an'  aoverelgn.  so  far  aa 
tbrir  kiM  n  igiiiy  la  not  liuiited  liy  the  Fednl 
(tisititunnii,  and,  aa  aurh,  they  etenW  all  ilie 
rtifbt*  hIiIiIi  are  not  ilelegaliil  l><  the  fnleral 
,riiv¥mnH!iii 

.Vkt  4  All  (Swiaa  are  r<|Ual  liefnre  tin-  law 
lnHwj|j,rlmiilUierralvne.;lHr  IK  lli-al  ile|«ui| 
rtiu  iiiir  privllpites  of  place,   birth,   iierwHia    or 

f«mil)r« 

.Vkt  %  The  Confetiereiioii  guitraiiuie*  to  the 
'  :iii!i.in  ihnr  terrtUiry.  Ih-ir  sovereignty,  wiibUi 
till  \mm,  iiti'il  liy  Article  ii,  their  t'ouaiilutiona, 
tbr  lil«  ri\  and  rlihla  of  the  |Mo|>le.  the  ronsij 
\\kXM,x\  riifliia  of  diltena,  ami  thi-  righu  and 
[«i»iTi  kUIi'Ii  the  |>eople  have  i-onferre<i  nn 
ihi«  m  aiihorily 

.Vnt  •!  Tlie'CaatoosaiT  bounl  Uiaali  of  Uh- 
n^ffij,  r»!i„ii  i|„.  (uMiuity  of  thelrC-ntlllulioua 
Tlii» KiuuHiiiy  |>  acnintrd.  provided    ii'  that  tlie 


Conatitutioni  coutaUi  nothing  contrary  to  the 
proTitlont  of  the  Federal  Conadtutlon.  (6)  That 
they  aature  the  exercite  of  political  righU,  ac- 
cording to  republican  forms,  repreaentative  or 
dcmotratic.  (<■)  That  they  have  betn  ratified  by 
the  people,  and  may  be  amended  whenever  the 
majority  of  all  the  citizens  demand  it. 

Art.  7.  All  separate  alliances  and  all  treaties 
of  apolitical  rhanirter  liet ween  the  Canton:  are 
for'.fdden  On  the  other  hand  the  Cantooa  have 
the  right  to  make  conventiuna  among  themaelvea 
upiu!  legialative,  adniiniatrtttive  or  judieUI  sub- 
jects; in  all  case*  they  aimll  bring  such  conven- 
tions to  the  attention  of  the  federal  oltlcials,  who 
are  authorized  to  prevent  their  exwutioii.  If  they 
coiiliiiu  anything  contrary  to  tlic  Confederation, 
or  to  the  righU  of  iiilier  Cantona.  Should  auch 
not  lie  the  caai-,  t!ie  covenanting  Cantona  are 
autbi>ri>:e<|  to  reifuin'  the  co<%|K-retlon  of  the  fed- 
eral olUciala  In  carrying  out  tlw  convention. 

Aht.  8.  Tile  Confeileraliou  haa  the  mile  right 
of  ilechiring  war,  of  making  |>eiRe.  au.l  of  con- 
cluding allL  i-v*  and  treiiliea  with  foreign  pow- 
en,  purticuUrly  tn-iitiea  relating  to  tartlta  and 
commerce 

A«T.  I».  By  exi-eption  tl>-  Cantona  preserve 
the  ri):ht  of  concliiiling  treatiia  with  foreign 
powers.  naiHH'tinv  the  ailininistratioii  of  public 
jiroiierty,  ami  iMinleriinil  |K)lii-e  Intcrcourae.  but 
auch  tn-aiien  shall  contain  nothiuk;  contrary  to  the 
Coufeileratiiiu  or  to  the  riirhlx  of  other  Cantona. 

Akt  10  Oltlcial  Inlercounu- lietwet-nCantona 
and  fori'lgii  govemnieuta.  iirlheir  reiireaeutatives. 
aiiall  take  place  thn.iiKh  the  K»ileral  Council. 
Nevenhelesa,  the  Clintons  ni»v  Correspond  dl- 
reetly  Willi  the  inferior  MtHnala  anil  olUrera  uf 
a  fiinign  Mate,  in  n'gani  to  tb.  aubjecta  enu- 
inerntiil  in  the  pivceding  article. 

Am  11  No  military  capiiu  aiiona  ahall  be 
niiiili' 

■Vht  r.'  Nil  meralH'n  of  tin  de|H>nments  of 
the  feihral  government,  civil  and  military  otH- 
clalaof  the  Confeileration.  m  fiileral  reptvaenla- 
livea  or  commisalonem.  sliall  receive  from  any 
fiinlgu  giivernmenl  any  iMnaion.  aalarr.  title, 
gift,  or  liiiiireiiou  .Such  |ieraons,  already  in 
IHxaraalon  of  in-naiinia,  titles,  or  iktonilona. 
must  rehouniv  the  cnjovnicnt  of  iHiiaiuna  ami 
the  liearlutf  of  lltlia  and  ilecnrnli.iMa  iliiriim  their 
term  of  olfliv  Nevertheliaa.  inferior  oltlciula 
may  !»■  aiithoriziil  liy  ■!»•  Ftilirul  Cnuiicil  to 
colltinile  in    the    Melpt  lleuaiiilla       Nn  licco 

ratliin  or  title  coufirntl  by  a  foniitn  goveriiiiient 
ahall  Ih' Imnie  ill  tlif  feili-ral  army  Nn  olfli-er. 
mm  comniiaainniil  nlHci  r.  or  anldier  ahall  t  'fpt 
auch  illatiiictinn 

.Vht  U<  Till'  Cnufeiieretion  liao  no  right  to 
klip  up  II  aiHiiiliiiki  army  Nn  Cituimi  or  Half 
(anion  ahall.  willmiit  ilie  |H-mii«aiiin  nf  ibc 
feilirul  ginininiiiil  kii  p  up  ii  atauiliiig  fnrce  of 
niori'  tliHii  llini  Inindrisl  men.  the  iiiouu>m1 
lailiii'  |i;cnil»<'<»"''' I  !■  <>oi  iiii'liiile<l  In  this 
nunilar 

.\ki  M  III  riuMorilitTeniicianrisinglK'tween 
t^aiilniiK.  Ilic  Sliili'a  fthidl  alaitaln  frnin  violetii^ 
and  fi'iiiii  nmiini!  Iltenwlve*.  they  alinll  aiilniilt 
tn  the  ilii  iaiiiii  In  U>  takcii  u|nin  aiich  iiHTen'tii-ea 

by  the  CnllfederatioU 

Akt  1.1  InioBiof  aiidileii  lUiik'er  nf  fnrrlgu 
iiitaik  till' authorities  of  ilie  Csiiion*  tbri-aieneii 
aliall  nipieal  the  aid  of  other  members  nf  the 
I  onfiiUraiiou  aihl  ahall  lmiue<llalely  Dot  If  y  the 
fnieral   gnvemnient     the   aiiliaciiueui   action  of 


uu 


coif BTITUTION :  8W1TZIRLAND. 


Armti 
and  Mint. 


i 
1 


the  utter  ih*]!  not  thereby  be  precluded.  The 
Cantona  summoned  are  bound  to  giTe  aM  The 
expenaea  ahall  be  bome  by  the  Confederation. 
•.  ^"^  "  ^°  "*'  "*  '°«»™«1  diaturbance,  or 
If  the  danger  is  threatene<l  by  another  Canton 
the  authoritiea  of  the  Canton  threatened  ihall 
?lve  immediate  notice  to  the  Fnlenil  Council,  in 
order  that  that  body  may  take  the  meaaure* 
Moeaaary,  within  the  limiu  of  Itx  powpr  (An. 
»  '  "I.*"  *"•  "'•  *"■  ""y  •iimm<in  the  Federal 
Aaaembly.  In  extreme  caaea  the  authoritiea  of 
the  Canton  are  authorized,  while  giving  Immedi 
ate  notice  to  the  Federal  Council,  to  aalc  the  aid 
of  other  Cantons,  which  are  bound  to  aiToril  aurh 
aid  If  the  executive  of  the  Canton  la  unable  to 
call  for  aid,  the  federal  authority  having  the 
power  may,  and  if  the  aafety  of  Switzerland  Is 
endangered  ahall.  Intervene  without  reijuiaitlon. 
In  case  of  federal  intervention,  the  federal 
authorities  shall  take  care  that  the  pmvislons  <if 
Article  5  lie  observed.  The  expenses  shall  be 
borne  bv  the  Canton  asking  aid  or  ucrasioning 
federal  faitervention,  except  when  the  PVderal 
Aaaembly  otherwise  decides  on  account  of  special 
clreumstances. 

A«T.  17.  In  the  cases  mentione<i  In  Articles 
15  and  19.  every  Canton  la  Iwunil  to  affoni  undis- 
turhe<l  (HMMge  for  the  trr«ips.  The  tmops  slmll 
immediately  lie  placni  unler  fe<leral  command 
Art.  in.  Every  8wiss  is  l»im<l  to  perfnrni 
mlMTary  service.  Holdiers  who  lose  their  lives  i>r 
auf/erpermam-nt  Injury  to  their  h«-alth.  in  wu 
aequem-e  of  fe.ler»l  service,  an-  enlitle.1  to  aid 
fmm  the  Confoientiiin  for  themselves  or  their 
families,  in  casi-  of  need.  Each  soldie'  almll 
ret-elve  without  expense  his  flr«t  e<iulpmenl 
clothing  ami  anns  The  wmpon  remains  in  the 
hanils  of  the  soldier,  under  ronilitlons  wlilcli  shall 
be  prescrilM-.l  l.y  f.^leral  lerislation.  The  Con- 
frderatiiin  hlinll  enai'l  uniform  pruvisionsastoan 
exemption  tax 

AliT.  IS.  The  feilrral  arm V  Is  comikMil  (,<) 
in  the  rantonal  military  corps  (»»  t»f  all  Hwl« 
who  ilii  not  lielonit  to  siiili  military  eoriis,  but 
are  nevertlieleM  IJalile  to  mllltNr\'  service.  '  The 
Confiileration  exenises  iiHitnirnver  the  amiv 
and  the  iiMterial  of  war  pruvldeil  by  Uw  In 
cases  of  dangir.  tlie  Confe.leratl.in  hu  also  the 
exclusive  ami  direct  control  ..f  men  not  In.  Iu<te,l 
In  the  fnleral  army,  ami  of  nil  ,,i)iit  niiliiarv 
resimrces  of  the  (ant.inH  Tl..'  (  snlom.  have 
authority  over  the  nillltiiry  for.'es  ..f  tin  ir  terri 
torv.  so  far  as  Ibis  ri^ht'  is  mit  llnilt.'.l  t.y  the 
Fcleml  Cimatitution  or  laws 

Anr  !»  The  Uws  „n  the  oriranixalion  of 
th.-  army  are  paa«^|  by  th,-  Confeilerallon  TIm- 
.nforcrment  of  military  laws  In  the  (Hiifvis  is 
lntni.i.Ml  I.,  ibe  .'anu.nal  ..mcials.  within  limits 
wh  .  h  •hall  lie  Axe.1  by  fe<|eral  LgbUlioii  .ml 
un.l<'rihesu|iervislonofthe('onre<leratlMn  .Mill 
tary  lii.tni.ii,«,  „f  ev.ry  kimi  |M-rtaln«  to  tl,e 
I  ..<.r.-|.ral|..n.  The  same  applks  to  the  smiInK 
..f  lr..,|~  The  lumishi  i«  ami  malnl.iwmv  of 
clotl.lMif  itml  .>|ulpment  is  within  llw  power  ..f 
tbetaiil.Mi.  iMit  the  ti,nt.M»  shall  Iw  cre,lil.-.| 
with  th.-  e«|»fiiM  Ihenf.ir,  ar<-..f,lli,g  t„  »  p.^,, 
latlon  t.i  U-  .'.i«l.li.|„H|  bv  f,.,|eral  l<Ki»Utiou 

Art  ai  <*,,  f,r  ».  military  rens-ms  <l.i  ii,.i 
prevent  Ik.lles  „f  ,n„,«  ,|„||  >^  t„n,r.l  .,„i  „f 
the  Botfii.-rs  of  the  same  <  anuma     The  .'.wiiii.i.l 

,?J,  '^ .'""  '  "'  '""'»"'  "'-  malnlename 
of  their  elTectlve  .inngfh  llie  *pt».|nttiient  ami 
promotion  of  .•iHi-.-m  ..f  these  hialirs  of  troops, 


COK8TITUTION:  BWITZERLasd 

belong  to  the  Cantona,  subject  to  genenJ  nmn 
.ion.  which  diall  beeaubliJ^  by  O^lZt^^Z 

u^Il  *?;  9^  payment  of  a  ieaar.n»blt  |„,i™ 
nlty.  the  Oonfederarton  ha.  the  right  u.ZZ 
acquire  drUl-grouBd.  and  buildings  inte„,|.7,  * 
miflUiT  purpoae^  within  the  CaStnr,,.  ^.IC, 
with  the  appurtenanoe.  thereof  The  teS, 
ttaj^hidemiJty  diaU  be  wttled  by  MenlhXu- 

Aw.  n.  The  Confederation  may  r.,iu,n,,- 
at  Ita  own  esMBse,  or  may  ai.l  by  sul«i,lie,  rab-' 
He  work,  which  concern  Switxerlaml  „r,„. 
siderable  part  of  the  country.  For  thi,  >>„,«.!. 
it  may  expropriate  property,  on  |w,ni,„t  .*. 
reMooable  indemnity.    Further ena.tm.iit. „„.„ 


612 


The  Federal  ASMmbly  may  f.irhi.1  ,,„hlio  w„rk, 
which  endanger  the  military  inten..!,  „f  ,|,e  (•  ,„ 
federation. 

Art.  M.  The  Confederation  has  i  he  riifhi.f 
superintendence  over  dike  and  foit-t  .M.liee  n 
the  upper  mountain  reriiina.  It  m»v.'j»ner,t, 
in  the  straightening  and  embankm.-tit  ..f  t,.nvotI 

which  they  riae.  It  may  preacribe  th..  reK»|„i„u 
necessary  to  aasure  the  malntenan.v  ,,f  ih«. 
works,  and  the  nreaervation  of  existini;  f„rr«t, 

':",  ^.  J""  ConfederatLin  has  p,.«er  t„ 
inake  legislative  enactmenta  for  tii.-  r,  ifulatl,*  ,f 
the  right  .if  flahing  ami  hunting,  |.,rtin.l.rlr 
with  aviewtoihe  pmervationof  the  h.rire  irsnif 
ill  the  mountains,  ss  well  aa  for  the  i.r..i,rti,.ii  .( 
hlMs  useful  Ui  agriculture  ami  fon^irj 

Art.  !89  Ix-gislatkin  upon  th..  .■..n.irurtim 
ami  ..{H-ratlon  of  railromis  is  In  the  i.M>in.T..f 
the  ('onr.Nierati>«. 

^.".T  . '■'?  ^"^  Confederati.in  lias  the  ritflii  . . 
establish,  bivides  tbeexlating  l'..lvt.-,  hiii,  S  h..! 
a  Federal  I  nlverslty  ami  otlier  in.iiimi..n.  ..f 
higher  Inalructhm.  or  t..  sulmidire  iii«iiiuii..n. ,  ( 
such  nature.  The  Cantons  pr..vi.|,-  f,.r  ..nnun 
nstnution,  which  shall  be  sulfl.  i.  nt  xn.l  ^ui 
lie  place.1  excluslvelv  under  the  .|ir.-.ii..,i„f  .hf 
aecular  aiithtirity.  It  b  compiil».rv  ,in.|  in  ih. 
nubile  schoils.  free  The  piihlle  „  h.«.|.  sh,l| 
be  such  that  thev  may  tie  frei|iii'tii.M  Lv  iIm'  i.1 
hirenii  of  all  n'lliri.ius  sects,  wlihi.m  „„•  .(Ten.- 
to  th..|r  fr<.eih>m  .if  cmsclence  .>r  ..f  l«li,f  'ni. 
C"nfe,lerali.m  shall  take  tli..  m..t-.«n  m.-w.,r.i 
against  such  Canums  as  shall  n..i  fulfill  i|„» 
duties. 

Art  »  Thecust.ims  an.  in  th..  |.r..\iu.T  ' 
tlie  r.inr«lerBti.in.  It  may  levy  .•».i..ri  «i,t  ic 
|i.irt  duties 

Art  8»  The  cillecii.>n  ..f  th..  (.  I.ml  m. 
tiims  shall  lip  regiilale.!  a.iM.nliiic  i..  ih.  f  li.wimt 
principli-s  1.  I>uth-s  o.i  lmtH>rt>  .n  M»itftiiii 
WH^ssary  f..r  llie  manufailims  s>i.|  >.^n.  uli.irr 
..f  the  diilitry  shall  U.  t«»..,l  «»  !,.«  „  |.„| 
ble  (*|  It  shall  he  the  same  with  ih.'  m.„«!m 
•if  life  if\  |,uxurii.s  shall  lie  siil.|iii.-,l  i..  itr 
highest  duties  I'nkwi  tlii-r..  sr.-  iiii|.er-iiivf 
-i-aMins  to  tlie  ...wtrarv.  the*.  pri«,i|.l..  Ji»ll  !» 
<iliaerv(.<l  slao  in  the  rom'lusl.in  ..f  irmiM  .f 
.'.immenv  with  foreign  (Miweis.  i  Th.-  ,luiw 
on  e>|iiirta  shall  ahai  he  aa  low  as  |»««il.l.^  I 
The  .listoms  legislatl'.M  shall  Imlii.le  -nKiUr 
pmvisiiins  f..r  the  ...intiMiiaii.vi.f  i..|iiiii>'ni>l!in.l 
market  inten.irtirM.  acpwi  the  fr..iiti,r  Tb» 
sin. re  provisions  .to  m4  prevent  the  i  ..ntnlefs 
ll.in  from  making  teminirarv  enrpii  >inl  [.r.rt 
ahins,  under  extraordinary  ilrrumslan. «» 


CONSimTION:  SWITZERLAND. 


CiMtoNU 
and  Exci»e. 


CONSTITUTION:  SWITZKRLAin). 


A»T.  80.  The  proceeds  of  the  ruMomi  belong 
10  the  Confedermtloo.  Tiie  indemnity  ceair- 
which  hitherto  l.u  been  paid  to  the  Cmnttrai  for 
the  redcmptioD  of  cuttonu,  for  road  and  bridre 
tollt,  custom*  duties  and  other  lilw  dues.  By 
(iraption.  and  on  account  of  their  interDational 
alpine  nnuls,  the  Cantons  of  L'ri,  Orisms,  TIcino, 
tod  Vslsis  rrcciTe  an  annual  indemnity,  which, 
couidcring  all  the  circumstances,  is  tlxed  as  fol- 
lom:  L'ri,  80,000  franca  QriHins,  200,000 
ftucs.  TIcino,  300,000  fnuir<.  Valaia.  ,'W,000 
{noes.  The  Cantons  of  l'ri  and  Ticino  slull  re- 
oelTe  in  sdditinn,  fur  rlearin;^-  the  snow  from  the 
Ssint  Ofltthard  road,  an  annual  indemnity  of 
W.IKMI  francs,  so  long  as  that  road  shall  nut  be 
Rplaied  by  a  railrosid. 

Aht  31.  The  freedom  of  trade  and  of  industry 
ii  ):uaninleeii  throuchout  the  whole  extent  of 
the  I'linfedrration.  The  folliiwinit  suhjerts  are 
cKvptni:  III)  The  salt  and  i;un|H>W(l<-r  monopoly, 
liir  ffilrml  customs,  im|i<irt  clii'ica  on  wines  and 
.iiIht  »I'I'^«•"'"•  li'iuors,  siiil  iplher  taxes  on  om- 
iamplii>a  expressly  pt-rmitti-il  by  tlw  Confcilrra- 
tloo,  sceording  to  article  83.  (t)  [Added  bg 
AmntdMiU eflkf.  22,  IHM]  The  manufacture 
■aJ  iaie  of  alcohol,  under  Article  38  Ui).  (c) 
[.<<UirfAy  AmendmeiitofVtf.  22,  IteU. ]  Driukiog 
phcrs,  and  the  ictail  trade  in  spirituous  liuuon; 
hut  nerertheleas  the  Cantons  may  by  legislation 
nbjet't  the  busioeaa  of  heepini;  drinking  places, 
sad  the  retail  trade  in  spirituous  lii(Uors.  to  such 
imrirtiiins  ss  are  reuuited  for  the  pulillc  welfare. 
\/t\  UirOjiMlIf  iH)]  Measures  of  saaitarr  pollf^' 
sploM  epidemics  and  cattle  diseases,  (r)  [  Itrigi 
»Mii  ifi|  iVoTisioas  in  regani  to  the  exercise  of 
tnirt  sn'l  manufactures,  in  ifganl  to  taxes  iin 
panl  thiTpnn,  and  in  regani  to  the  police  of  the 
■mil.  Tliese  proTishins  shall  nut  iimtaln  snv 
thiii[t  rontrarr  to  the  principle  of  fiMiioiu  of  tmiV 
ml  maoufacture. 

Art  .1-.'  The  Cantons  are  aulhorirj^l  Xn  ni|. 
Vet  till'  im|Nirt  duties  on  wines  anil  olliir  spirit- 
siiut  liiiiiiira.  proviilrtl  in  .Vrtiile  III  i.ii,  slwavs 
SBiit'r  till' roltiiwing  rentrit'tionK  {■)  The  inlln-. 
tl»n  iif  iluM- ImiMirt  iluli<-«  ahall  iu  mi  Kim-  ini 
pnir  iniiinpiirtslliin:  i-iinmn'ne  simll  !»■  ob- 
*rir!iil  iia  lltlli'  »•  (Mauiililv  and  slmll  not  lie 
burlrmii  with  siiv  Mthrr  dues.  {h\  If  ihrsrlirli's 
hBi«iniil  fur  conaiimplion  are  n'Cx|>ortni  fMni 
thf  I  .int..ri.  tlir  duties  iitiiil  i<n  ini|Hinntii>n  Khali 
he  n fiiiiiliil.  wiiliuut  fiirlliir  ilmrifi"  I'-i  IVi 
iluris  i-f  Swiss  oriittn  slmll  In'  U-m  liunlcmit  than 
thmp  of  fiiiflKn  I'liuntriiit.  «./)  Tlie  exInlinK  iui- 
pirt  iluii)  (  on  wines  and  otiii-r  •plrltiinti*  lii|iiiirs 
of  S»iM  oriitiu  shall  nut  U-  Inrreawil  by  tlie 
('sniimi  whii h  slnaily  levy  ilicm  Sm  h  iliitiis 
■lull  n.>t  li»  I'stablitbrd  U|>iiii  >iii'b  nrliila*  by 
l'»iiiim«  which  do  not  m  pumiiI  lolliii  ilimi 
III  Thi  Uk<  ami  ortlinamvs  i>f  ilie  CiiiiiiinK  mi 
ih.' iilli iili  n  iif  imiHin  dmi<»  >hall.  iM'fun-  iliclr 
lfm\t  Iniii  iffiH't.   U'  submittal  to  llie   fi-tti'ral 

5 iiirmmnt  fiir  approval,  in  oniiT  Hint  It  m«v, 
iii-i^«i«rv.  rauie  the  cnfonvmeut  of  llic  prr 
inliiiil  |iruvMi«s  All  the  Ininort  iliities  now 
Irritnl  liy  ilir  Cantons,  as  wrll  si  the  •imilnr 
dutiM  k> itil  by  I hr  Communes,  shall  cease,  with- 
iwl  Inilemnliv.  at  llie  emi  of  the  year  l-'tlii 

Asi  .IJ  .Ih  [Amttulmtnl  nf  thf  «.!•«»«] 
Tb.  ( ..hriilrraliou  is  authoriint  by  Icicislalion  to 
•sill'  nviiUtlims  for  Ihi-  maniifai'tun'  sni  sale 
i<f  slnilial  In  this  legtslatinii  ihoM'  pnidui'ts 
»hlih  sri'  Inti-nded  fur  ei|Hirtalion.  ur  which 
h»»f  turn  subjected  to  a  prucrsa  rxrludin(  them 


from  use  as  a  beverage,  shall  be  subjected  to  na 
Ux.  Distillation  of  wine,  fruit,  and  their  by- 
producta,  of  gentian  root,  juniper  berries,  and 
simiUr  pioducta,  is  not  subject  to  federal  iegishi- 
tion  as  to  manufacture  or  tax.  After  the  cessa- 
tion of  the  import  duties  on  spirituous  liquors, 
provided  for  in  Article  S>  of  the  Constitution,  the 
trade  in  liquors  not  distilled  shall  not  be  sub- 
jected by  the  Cantons  to  any  special  taxes  or  to 
other  llmiutiona  than  those  necessary  for  pro- 
tection againat  adulterated  or  noxious  beverages. 
Nevertheless,  the  powers  of  the  Cantons,  defined 
in  Article  81.  are  reuined  over  the  keeping  of 
drinking  places,  and  the  sale  at  reUU  of  quanti- 
ties less  than  two  liters.  The  net  proceeds  re- 
sulting from  uxatlon  on  the  sale  of  alcohol  belong 
to  the  Cantons  in  which  the  tax  is  levu  .1.  The 
net  proceeds  to  the  Confederation  from  the  in- 
ternal manufacture  of  alcohol,  and  the  correspond- 
ing addition  to  the  dutv  on  Imported  alcohol,  ate 
divided  among  all  the  ('anions,  in  proponion  to 
the  actual  popuUtlon  as  ast-eruined  from  time 
to  lime  by  the  next  prrce<llnK  federal  census. 
<)ut  of  the  receipts  therefrom  the  Cantons  must 
expend  not  less  than  one  tenth  in  combating 
drunkenness  in  its  causes  and  elfecU.  [For  ad- 
ihrii.iuil  artiflf  uf  t\i»  AmeiulmenI  we  Tempnrarj/ 
/Vr.n»»V.iM.  Artieie6.  at  iKe  emi  ajT  (Aw  Coiulitu- 
ll;„] 

\«T  83.  The  Cantons  may  require  proofs  of 
ci>ni|M-iency  frim  those  who  desire  to  practice  a 
liU'iiil  pnifrssion.  Provision  shall  lie  maile  by 
fiileml  legiHlatlon  by  which  such  persons  may 
I  btalii  certltleates  of  c<im|M'icncy  which  shall  be 
Milid  throughout  tin-  Confi'tierBtion. 

Akt.  S4.  The  Confeili-nition  has  power  to 
<  .isct  uniform  provisions  as  to  the  lah<ir  of  rliil- 
iln'u  in  factories,  ami  as  lo  the  durstion  of  Islior 
li-Xiil  for  mliilla  tlierein.  and  as  lo  the  pr<i|e<'tiiin 
of  workmen  against  the  oiirralion  of  unbealthy 
Slid  dangerous  manufactures  The  transaclimis 
of  emignilion  stents  ami  of  organliitllous  fur 
insiirani-e.  not  insliluml  by  the  Stale,  ntv  «ub- 
Jill  lo  federal  su|>erviHion  and  legislslion. 

.Vht  aidl)  lAmfiiilmriit  ••/  Ikf.  17.  1M»|)  ] 
The  Confetleratl.m  sliall  by  law  iiMviile  for  in- 
»iir»iiii'  airaimtt  ulckneiw  ami  sccMenI,  with  due 
rii;«nl  for  existing  «lck  Ihih  Hi  fiimln  The  Cun- 
federatbin  may  n-quirr  |ianicipation  tber<-in. 
either  by  all  persons  or  by  particular  ciassen  of 
Ihe  popuUtion. 

.\bt  iH.  The  o|>eiilin;  I'f  Bsming  Iioums  is 
forbidden  Thiw  which  nnw  exist  shall  be 
cIiis<hI  IVt  31,  IX7T  The  eoiiei  asiuna  which 
m!iv  have  tavn  icniiitMi  ..r  n  iiewtii  aini-e  llie  !»•• 
j;iimlnit  of  the  vesr  Kl  an-  ile<  Isriii  Invalid. 
Tlie  Ciinfiib'mlion  nisy  «l«i  take  necessary 
nH-asurea  cominiinit  lotteries 

Akt  *t  The  piists  ami  telegraphs  in  all 
Sw  llrerlsml  *iv  cniilMlltii  by  the  Confeiierallou 
The  immiila  uf  Ihe  |«»ls  Slid  tetegmplis  iH'lonir 
III  the  fi-iieral  treasury.  The  rates  shall,  for  all 
parts  of  .SwitterUuiii,  Ik-  lileil  stconling  to  Ihe 
aanie  prim  iple  ami  as  fairly  as  |i<«sible.  Invio- 
lalih'  a-cn-iy  uf  leiu-rs  and  lelegmms  Is  gusrsn- 
H-e.1 

Anr  M  The  Confederation  rXertiaes  general 
overvliflil  over  those  roads  slid  bridges  In  the 
nisinteiisiice  of  whith  it  is  inieri'stni  The  sums 
due  to  the  Cantons  nienlionni  In  Article  8ll,  on 
airount  of  their  International  alpine  mads,  shall 
lie  h'taiiieil  by  the  feileral  Koveriiment  if  such 
mads  are  not  kept  by  them  in  suitable  I'TilHiin 


6i:t 


COKSTITUTION:  SWITZERLAND      OUmit^t,.     CONSTITUTION:  SWITZERLAND. 


A*T.  88.  The  Confrdention  nerdaet  all  the 
cxcliuire  righu  pntainioK  tu  coinage.  It  hai 
the  iole  right  of  coloiog  niooer.  It  mtahjUhe* 
the  monetary  tyatem,  and  may  enact  |in>rUi<)na 
if  Decenary,  for  the  rate  of  exchange  of  foreign 
coina 

[A«T.  SP.  (Ahr^tgntid  hf  the  artiele  /nltoirinf 
if).  The  Cn<\ff<Umlinn  hae  the  /irnwr  to  nutke  by 
Inir  yrneral  iirariuaiu  for  the  ueue  itnd  rrdem/ition 
of  hitni  nnta.  Hut  it  thiiU  nnt  create  any  monop- 
'•la  for  thr  imiif  4,f  bank  note;  nor  make  iiieA 
nitttie  a  Ufful  trnttfr.  ] 

Art.  89.  Ul'iUtil'itt  far  former  Art.  89.  aihpted 
f)rt  IS.  isftl  ]  Thf  Confeileratiou  ha»  the 
exrlunlve  power  to  Lssui-  banii  notes  and  other 
lilte  currency.  The  ConfiHlenilion  mav  exerriH- 
tlie  exclusive  |>ower  over  the  i»iie  of  Imok  notes 
through  a  NiitionHl  liniili  carried  on  under  a  s|N-cial 
deiwrtiiieiit  iif  tidmiui.strutiou;  or  it  may  amign 
the  right  !■>  n  ceiilnil  joint  Riock  Imiik  I'len-ufter 
to  tu.  ireatnl,  whirli  sliull  lie  ailuiiiiiMtend  un.l.  r 
tlie  oHtperution  ami  iiuim  rrisiou  of  ili,-  Cn,. 
feileration;  Iml  the  privilege  to  uke  over  the 
hank,  hyiMyingacompennntlon,  shall  be  retained 
The  liatik  im»*<m.,1  ,,f  ilie  exclusive  right  to  i<wue 
noti*  klinll  liHve  for  in  iliief  function  lon'KiilHte 
the  ciriulallon  of  mouev  in  Switierhu  l  and  to 
facilitate  exchiiiiv.v  to  the  Canl.vns  sliiill  U- 
I>aiil  at  least  !»..  tliInU  of  the  net  pn.tlts  of  the 
Iwuk  lieyond  a  reasonalile  interest  i>r  n  n-ason- 
Hlile  ilivideixl  l<i  the  stocklHilden.  and  tli.-  oeces 
sarv  transfers  to  the  nierve  fun<l  Thr  laink 
ami  its  lirau.hea  shall  D<>t  }<i-  suliji^eteii  to  t»x«- 
tliin  liy  tlie  < 'anion.  The  Confeileralioit  <d«il 
Hot  make  Uink  imti-n  au,|  ,,il,er  like  lurrtaiv 
|l>ifal  lender,  exi-.  pi  in  urt-enl  neeil  in  time  nf 
Iwar  Tlie  primi|wl  oill,,  ,.f  ilw  Iwuk  an.l  tl,, 
details  ■  if  ilsorifani/alioii.  »<•  will  as  in  general  the 
larryint  inti.  .tr..i  thi.  artitle.  sluill  lie  deter- 
mini'd  liy  fi^ili mI  Inw 

Aht  40  Thr  ConftHlemtion  tixe,  the  stand 
unl  of  weighu  iind  nieii-.ure!<  Tlie  Canton., 
iindir  ItK  »u|..rxi.ion  of  i|,,.  Confi^.lerallon 
euforre  the  law,  ri  l.iiioi:  ih.nlo 

Amt    41      The  niantifaetiire  anil   the  sale  of    ! 
puii|«iwder  IhMughoiii  S«ili:erland  iiertaiu  ex 
ilusively  to  the  CoufeiUriiiioi,       I'ow.ler.  use.1    I 
for  hhi.iint'   and   iiol  siitialile  for  slKaitiug   am   ' 
Uol  Inehided  in  the  niono|io|y  i 

Aht  4-.'  The  e«|»'niliiur™of  the  ('..nfeilera-  ' 
lion  ar.- met  as  f..llow,  ,..,  um  of  ii„  jm'.ime 
from  f...l.ral  pr.i|»rtv  I'o  iliil  of  ||„  pn«.-.ds 
of  the  fethral  eii>toiiia  le\i.-.|  at  tile  ?«wls« 
frontier  i^i  iMit  of  the  pr<s-...-.ls  of  ibi-  ihms 
and  telegraphs  (,fi  Out  of  the  |.n.-.,.,|.of  il,,. 
IM.w.ler  raono|n.ly  i,,  Uul  of  half  of  til..  t'MM 
r..e«ipls  from  the  tax  on  military  etempiions 
levil,!  hy  the  Cautoiia  (  <•(  •  Mil  of  the  ■'.•nlhliu 
li.'n.  of  the  (anion,  which  shall  la- deienniWHl 
\'\-  Uii,n[  leglMlatlon  wilh  s|h.<  ial  rrfen-im  to 
llieir  wi'allh  and  laxalile  rewiurces 

Aht  M  Kvery  eltljen  of  s  (anion  is  a 
f<wlas  eiti«en  As  such  lie  may  partieiiiate  In 
the  plaii'  when  he  I.  donilrd.,!  in  all  fettrr,! 
eliiiions  and  |s.pular  voles  after  having  duly 
proven  hi,  .pialiii.alioii  as  a  voter  No  nrni,;, 
>Mi  e«en-l«'  |H>liii.al  rigbu  In  more  than  oi»- 
(  .inloii  TIh  .Hwi».  .ettl.-,!  •.  ,  .  itl/en  oui«|.|, 
hi,  n»ll»e  (anion  enjoy,  in  the  p|»,.,  wlier.  !»• 
!•  doinii  llr.1,  all  tin.  rights  of  the  liiiiens  of  the 
(  inton  iiieliidlng  ,11  the  rights  of  the  .■ommunal 
■  iilxrn  l>artlel|>«ii..n  in  munhliial  aiei  .of 
|H.r»U'  pro|».ny.  and  tbe   ri«bl   u,   vote   uj.« 


purely  muoidpal  aSain.  are  excepted  from  ludi 
riehta.  unless  the  Canton  by  legislation  S 
otherwije  provided.  In  cantonal  and  conitnuMi 
afTaln,  he  gains  the  right  to  vote  after  a  Mi 
dence  of  three  montba.  Canttmai  laws  relatin, 
to  the  right  of  Swiaa  citizens  to  settle  outsi.lf  iiw 
Cantons  in  which  they  were  bom,  ami  t(,  vcii, 
on  communal  questions,  are  submittal  f,,r  <Z 
apnroval  of  the  Federal  Council. 

Am.  44.  No  Canton  sUll  expel  fn„„  j,,  ,„. 
rtUiry  one  of  it*  own  citliens,  nor  deprive  l,ua„t 
his  righU.  whether  acquired  hv  birili  „r  v,,u 

shall  fix  the  conditions  u|Hin  which  f,,r,.i,.n,» 
i  may  lie  naturulixed,  as  well  as  thiw  upon  wluck 
i  a  ^^wiss  may  give  up  his  citizenship  in  „r,|,.r  |,, 
j  obtain  naturalization  in  a  foreign  eoimirv 

A«T.  4.'i.     Every  8wiss  citizen  ha,  llii'ri^lit  t  ■ 
settle  any  whert.- in  Swiss  territorv,  on  ,„u,iiii„n 
'  of  submiltiuga.frtiacaleof  origin,  ..ra.iraiUr 
'  diHumeni      By  exception,   seltlein.ni   mar  I* 
nfuM-d  to  or  withdrawn  from,  tlios,.  «|",,  ,j 
eonaequenn-  of  a  |)enal  conviction,  are  ii..t  ,.|iii 
tle.1  to  civil  rights.     In  aildition.  B.til,  m.  nt  m.>r 
la-  withdrawn  from  those  who  hav«'  Is-m  ri|,a- 
■•illy  punished  for  8..riou»  oltens..s,  mid  aU.  fp.m 
Ihiste  who  iM-nuaneutlv  i-oiiie  U|H>n  tlie  i  lur-i  .  f 
public  charily,  and  to  whom  their  (ommnii,  .r 
Cant.«  of  origin,  as  lb.-  case  mav  l»    m,,,, 
BUIBeieni  succor,  after  th.<v  have  ix  i  n  ■!h.  •a]  v 
asketl  to  grant  it      In  tb.'  (  ani..ii,  «li,rv'il,- 
p<»icar»-  relieved  in  tlieir  place  of  nM.|,u<,  lU 
|"Tinia»l.in  to  settle,  if  It  n-lai.-.  to  .  iii„„4    ' 
the  C'am.«.  any  !»•  i-..u|*M  wiih  tU  ,.  nliii-i 
tli,it  lh.'y  shall  la-  able  to  work,  and  that  ;i,. 
shall  not.  in  their  former  d..niicil,.  in  tl„  i  u: 
of  origin,  have  |>eniiaueul ly  Isionie  :i  •  liariv  . ; 
(iiililic  charity      Every  exi.iilMon  on  u.i^.iitii , ' 
poverty  miisi  !*•  appMve<(  lie  i|„.  i;.  i,miiiri  • 
of    the    Canton    of    .lomi,  ij,..'   „„.|     |.t>vi..u».. 
aniiouiKf)!  to  th,.  govemntrni  ..(   111.   (  .mi.ii  ,• 
origin      A  (  anion  in  whitli  a  .s<\i„  .  .tul.li.b,., 
,   his  domiiile  may  not  reiiuin-  ~iiiriti    n "r  m 
1   !«««■  any  s|Ki'ial  oblimtions  for  ....  h  iMaLli^i 
nient       In    like   manner   the   (  ..ininnn..  .inu- 
ri>)uire  fMm  Mwiss  domiiil.-,!  in  lb  ir  i.rrit  m 
olli.r    contnliuilons     than     tli.,«-     nhi, h    tb.v 
n.piire  friHn  their  own  »iitijeeis      A  It  I.  nl  l.is 
shall  ralahlisli  thi    iiiaximuni  fee  to  I,  paul  i|«- 
Clianrery  for  a  i^rmit  lo  settle 

Akt  4fl  IVr,..ns  s.tiled  in  iswii/.rlaiul  atr 
aa  a  niie  siiliieete.1 1,.  i|„.  jurixlii  iio,i  :,i„|  L-si, 
latimi  of  their  doiuliile  ill  all  ilmi  i-riaiii.  t 
their  personal  statu,  ami  pro|Mrn  ri.'lii,  Tlr 
Confe.1.  niii4.n  shall  li\  law  iimk.  tli.  pr.vni^i, 
ii.i-.-sN.ry  for  the  applhaiion  of  i|,h  priiHii* 
awl  for  tile  priveutioii  of  donlile  |«»  iti-n  .f  . 
liiii.n 

Aht  47  A  ftsieral  law  sluill  .«tal.li.li  itir 
distlBt'tiou  latwi-en  seltleiiieui  ami  i.  in|«nri 
resi<lenii-  ami  sImII  if  the  same  iini.  iii..k.  lUr 
r»gul«ii>ins  lo  wtaK  h  .swis,  len.i^.ran  i.v„|Mit» 
shall  U  Miliji-cted  aa  to  tlMir  jioliij.al  tti-lit.  ami 
tlM'ir  livil  righu 

Am  4«  A  fe,tml  law  shall  pM.  il.  ( .f  ik 
n-gulall.«  of  Ihe  e«|«'tHes  ot  iIm  l!  Ii,,,  tftl 
liiinal  of  ittiliireni  lunaau  uiiiensti.  i  ■  rnr 
Canton  who  have  r»lim  III  or  di-:  m  iuoihet 
Canton 

Aht  48  rrewtom  of  r..n«i-ieii..  «o<l  uliff  li 
invi.i|al«le  Xo  (a-ratn  •nn  Is-  ronsirHiiK^I  '•!•»» 
part  in  h  rrligioua  »«-tH>  lo  alli ii<l  n  iurt-us in 
structlun,  lo  iwrlunu  a  fttllgluut  riti    •  r  t..  incut 


AH 


CONSTITUTION:  SWITZERLAND. 


CONSTITLTION:  SWITZERLAND. 


nmKiri««  of  any  kind  whatever  on  account  of  re- 
{fioui  opinion.  The  penon  wtiu  exerciaes  the 
paRDt'i  or  guardian's  authority  luu  the  right, 
coofonnably  to  tlie  principle*  above  stated,  to 
RfuUle  the  religious  education  of  children  up 
to  llir  age  of  fixt^en  conipletetl  years.  The  ex- 
trdw  ui  civil  or  political  rii;btii  shall  not  be 
ibridgnl  by  any  provisiona  or  euDdillons  wbat- 
erer  of  an  ecclesiaaticai  or  religious  liind.  N'o 
pcriuo  •ball,  on  account  of  a  religious  lielief. 
itleiue  himself  from  the  arcomplUhiueut  of  « 
civil  duty.  No  person  is  bound  to  pay  taxes  of 
wbicli  the  prorecds  are  specitlcally  a|ipn>priate<i 
totlH'  actual  expenses  of  the  worship  i>!  a  n-lig- 
loia  l««lv  to  which  he  does  not  IkIoU);.  The 
drtsilt  <>/  the  carrying  out  of  this  principle  are 
nwrred  for  federal  legislation. 

A«T  50  The  free  exercise  of  religious  wor- 
■Up  is  ^'uaranteed  within  the  limit.4  compatible 
with  |iul>li('  i>r<lcr  and  giMMl  morals.  Tlie  (.'aiitnus 
udtlirC  iiiifedeniliou  may  take  suitable  nicasun'S 
(i>r  the  pn«>rvalion  of  public  onler  and  of  (Maiv 
between  the  members  of  dilTereut  n-ligious  Ixulies. 
ud  sliH)  sgaiiist  encrottcltiueuts  of  i-cclcsia»tical 
lutborilics  u|Min  the  rights  of  citizens  uiiil  of  the 
!>utr  C'liitestsiu  public  anil  private  law.  which 
uiwoutiif  the  formaliiiu  or  the  divisimi  ii(  n-- 
lifiiiun  iHidies.  may  be  brought  by  a|j|M-Hl  lH'fiir<' 
tor  i^xnpetent  federal  authorities.  No  bishopric 
iliall  U'  errand  upon  Swiss  territorj-  without  the 
ootrnt  of  the  C'onfeiteratiou. 

AtT  .M.  The  onler  of  the  Jesuits,  and  the  so 
rirliri  affiliated  with  them,  shall  not  Is'  rcceivet! 
iotiisii.r  part  of  Swit/erlniid .  and  all  action  in 
cliunli  uiil  N'liiail  Is  forbidden  to  its  nuinlsTs. 
Tbiipniliiliition  may  Ik- extended  also,  by  federal 
iinliiuuiv.  to  other  religious  onlers,  the  a<'tioii 
.if  which  i*  itangenms  to  the  state  or  illslurln 
tlir  pMUf  lietwM-n  si-i'ts 

Akt  VJ.  The  foundation  of  new  <tinvent.ior 
rrli|ri<>u»  onieis,  ami  the  reestablisliiuiut  of  tliiM- 
which  hare  lieen  suppreswd.  are  forbidden 

Ait  IU     The  civil  status  and  the  koping  of 
m>>rl<  thereof  is  subject  to  the  civil  authority 
TV  C'lnfederntion  shall  by  law  enact  ditailitl 
pt<'Ti>iiinii  upon   this  subject.     The   coutMl  of 

fitcn  iif  liurial  is  subject  to  the  civil  authority 
I  >b*II  take  care  tliat  every  deceaseil  |H'rM>u  may 
lir  i!pn-tiilv  ijitcrri'il 

Aar    M      The  right   of   marriage   is  plai.il 
^Sikt  iIk-  priiH-ctiou  of  the  (onfedenitiou       No 
-unluiinii  iipon    marriage   shall  Ih    base<l  u|u>n 
uvuiisii  crouiuls,  nor  U|hvu  the  |»iverty  of  eitlH  r 
of  the  ii>utraitauls.  nor  on  their  coudU(t.  nor  on 
•HI  'ihen  iinaiilemtion  of  gi»«l  onler    .V  iiuirriaire 
<.«tr».te.i  ilia  Canton  or  In  a  fonign  coimtrv. 
r.wf"rra«l'!y  to  the  law  whli  h  !•<  Ilnre  In  foni 
■Ml  !«■  riHogiiiieda*  valiil  thMughout  the  I  on 
(n|.r»lion      Ity  marriage  the  wife  acipiins  llu- 
rmuiM)ii|>  of  tier  husband      Chihlri'U  Ismi  Ik- 
fiTf  111.  marri«if<-  are  made    legitimate   be  tlic 
wlne.|ii.iit  marriage  of  ihiir  paniiis      N'o  tai 
u|>i(i  ii.lmi..iiin  or  siudlar  tax  shall   lie  hvled 
upi«  eiih.  r  |.»rty  to  a  marriage 

A»T  .'>■  rile  fre<Hloni  of  the  pr<'M  is  guar- 
eriicl  \i  ki  rllicleaa  tlie  (  anions  by  law  cim<  t 
»»  raire.iiris  ii<-<-eaMry  for  the  suppression  of 
•ixttM  Stiih  laws  are  submllle<l  for  the  ap- 
pnni,  f  111.-  Krih-ml  Coumil  The  (onfi-ibra 
Iw  iiisi  mail  iM-nallies  for  the  »uppn'*.ion  of 
|4in>  oR.'i.aei  illni'inl  against  itorlt«aiitli..ritie» 

AST  M  Ciutens  hav.'  the  nght  of  f.irming 
•""Uuoos,  pruvUcd  thai  Hwr*  be  In  the  pur- 


pose of  such  asscx'iations,  or  in  the  means  which 
they  emplov.  nothing  unlawful  or  dangerous  to 
the  state.  The  Cantons  by  law  take  the  meaa- 
ures  necessary  for  the  suppression  of  abuses. 

Art.  67.    The  right  of  petition  is  guaranteed. 

Aht.  5H.  No  person  shall  be  deprived  of  hi* 
constitutional  Judge.  Therefore  no  extnuirdinary 
tribunal  shall  Ik-  tratablished  Ecclesiatical  Juris- 
diction is  abolishetl. 

Art.  51).  Suits  for  |HTsonal  claims  against  a 
solvent  debtor  having  a  domicile  in  ^*witzerlaDd, 
must  be  brought  befon-  the  Judgi-  of  his  dom- 
icile: in  conseuuence,  bis  pn.perty  outside  the 
Canton  in  whii'h  he  is  domiciliil  n'lav  not  l)e  at- 
tarhi-d  in  suit.*  for  personal  claims  "  Neverthe- 
less, with  refiniiii-  to  foreigners,  tlie  provision* 
of  inu^mational  Inaties  shall  not  thir.b\  lie 
affected.     Inipri»inui.'iit  for  debt  Is  alsilishtd. 

-Vrt.  60.  .VII  the  I'untons  are  Imunil  to  treat 
the  citizeus  of  the  other  confederated  Mates  like 
those  of  their  own  fitate  in  legislation  and  in  all 
judical  proceeiiings. 

Akt.  61.  Civil  judgments  dettnitely  pro- 
iiouiiceil  in  any  Canton  mav  lie  exi-eutt-tl  any- 
where in  ."«witzirl:iiiil 

.\mt.  62.  The  exit  duly  on  pniperty  ftralte 
fiiraiiii  ]  is  alsilisliiil  in  the  interior  of '!*wiizer- 
latnl.  as  will  as  the  right  of  ndi  nipiion  [limit 
lie  ntniit)  by  citizens  of  one  Canton  against 
tlii»e  of  oilier  confi'ilernliil  States 

-ViiT  6:1  The  exit  duty  on  |iri>|ierty  Im  aliol- 
i.-hi-.l  as  rciHits  fnnign  countries,  provided  re- 
cippicity  Is'  ol«M*rvi-ii, 

-Vkt  W.  Till-  Coufiiieration  ha.«  power  to 
make  laws  On  k ^al  competiiicy  Ounll  legal 
questions  relating  to  loniiiiene  and  to  tniiis- 
actions  alTecllug  chattels  .l.uv  of  coiumin  lal  ol>- 
liiralions.  incliiiiini;  loniniercial  law  and  Ian  of 
exchangei  I  >ti  literary  and  artistic  co|iyright. 
Ontlie  protection  of  new  patti  rns  and  forms,  and 
of  invention*  which  iin'  represented  in  nioilels 
and  an'  capable  of  industrial  application. 
(.1/11./.././,. ../ ..f  A.-  ■Jip  issT  ]  1)1,  ti„.  i,.,,ai 
rolliition  of  ililin  and  on  liaiikr»|>tcv  Tlii-  ad- 
niiiiistratioii  of  luslice  n  iiiaius  willi  the  Cant.  ns. 
Kin-  as  affei'teil  In  the  powers  of  the  Keileral 
liiurt. 

[^.\KT  6."!.  (.V>r'iij,ilfl  'y  Am,  liilment  nfJiituiQ, 
l**.!!  )  Thfilfilth  liil,llljHnit'4liJinl  i  MKrDirltU 
ih*  pr'*rint>tun-f  mittt'trjf  l.i^r  in  titn*  of  ir.ir  $fHiU 
tr  ontrrt'f       '  .'r/*.r,i/ ;.....«/.  ...eft/  l« /lA-'/(j//e«/ j 

Ant  6.1  1  li'...,</(/.r'.f  ■•f'.//.f.f  SO.  IxTtt  '  No 
deatl.  iK'iuilty  shall  In  pmiiounceil  for  a  |hi!ltlcal 
crime.     Ci>r(H>ral  puLiishment  is  ulHilinlii<l 

Aht  6*i  Tile  (  oufideralion  by  1»«  tile*  the 
limits  wiiliiii  uhiih  a  >wi'ui  citizen  may  Is  .ie- 
priviil  of  lii«  iioliii.  .il  rik'hts 

Akt  tIT  Till  tihfr.li  ration  by  law  pnivides 
for  the  cnlMililioii  of  ai nise't  prrsou.i  from  one 
Caiiloti  lo  niioilii  r,  m  virlln  hso.  exlrailition  shall 
not  Is-  iiiailc  ohlit-.iiory  for  political  oHeiisa's  and 
olTeuM-K  of  till  jir*-H.'« 

.Vkt  tV"  Mia'iiri"  are  taken  by  federal  law 
for  till  iiiioris.ration  of  |i<  rsniis  without  country 
llli  illiallll  /.«  Ill  nliii  for  the  prevention  of  new 
ca.'oi  if  that  imiure 

Anr  (IW  l,egi>latii>u  concerning  luissures  of 
sanitary  (Hilice  sgainsi  epidemic  and  cattle  dis- 
ISM'S  i.tusing  a  coinnion  danger,  is  included  la 
till  ih.wirs  of  tlie  Coufeileratlou 

.Vht  T''  The  Confeiieratlou  has  power  to 
ei|Hl  from  its  territory  forvigoers  who  eiidaafer 
the  tulvmal  or  eitcmal  safety  of  SwitierUnd 


Cl(> 


—  t 


coNsxmrno.V:  switzeulaxd. 


Frdrml 

ClMMCO. 


|i 


*.   i 

■■::! 


Chapter  i  I.-A«t.  71.     With  th*  merT.tioa 

,  »i?*.  ^^^  °\  ^  P*°P'*  »"•'  "'  the  CantoM 
(Article*  80  ami  181),  rhe  ■uprrme  authority  of 
the  Coafederatlon  la  exerdaed  by  the  FetlenU 
Aaaembly  [ AMemblfe  fMinUe :  Buodeavemmm- 
lung]  which  mnaUu  of  two  aectlona  or  councila. 
to  wH:  (A)  The  Xatlooal  Council  (B)  The 
Council  of  SutM. 

Art  75  The  Xntlonal  Council  [Conaell 
.■Sational;  .Natloualrath]  la  compuaed  of  reoie. 
aentotlvea  of  the  Swlia  people,  choaen  in  the  imtlo 
of  one  nwmber  for  each  20.000  peraons  of  the 
total  populaU<m.  Practiona  of  upwanla  of  10  000 
peraon*  arc  reckimril  aa  ao.OOO.  Every  Canton 
and  In  the  dlvldrtl  Cantona  every  Half  Canton' 
cbtNMea  at  leaat  one  n'prparntative. 

Akt  78.  The  eU-t'tiona  for  the  Xatlonal 
\?!f.'""",*'?,  •","*'•  ■'"»>«•?  •»  hehl  In  fe<lenil 
eleoioijil  dirtrlcta,  which  in  no  caae  ahall  be 
formed  out  of  jwru  of  dllTrRnt  Canu>na. 

Airr.  74.  Every  Swim  who  haa  completed 
twenty  yea™  of  age.  and  who  in  addition  la  not 
excluded  from  the  riphta  of  a  voter  bv  the  legia- 
latlon  of  the  Cnnton  In  which  hi-  la  domiciled  haa 
the  right  to  vote  In  election*  and  popular  votea 
Xeverthel,-**.  the  Confederation  f>y  law  mav 
establWi  uniform  regulation-,  for  the  exerciae  of 
auch  right. 

AKT.  75.  Everv  l«v  Swl.*  citizen  who  ha*  the 
right  to  vote  I*  i-ligif,Ie  for  inenilierahlp  in  the 
Aatlonal  Council. 

Akt.  78.  The  Xatlonal  Council  I*  clio*,-n  for 
three  yean,  and  entln-ly  r.n,-w,-d  at  each  general 
elei-tlon. 

Art  77  Ui-preiK-nlative*  to  the  Council  of 
State*  member*  ..f  the  Fderal  Council,  an.l 
offlriaUappointwl  by  tlmt  Council.  »halln..t  at  the 
«ime  time  U-  memU-nt  of  tin-  Xatlonal  Council 

Akt  7X  The  Xatlonal  Coi.ncllchooae* out  of 
il»  o»  „  numUr.  for  each  n-guUr  or  extnu.nllnarv 
wwloii.  a    l»r<-«i,l.nt    nn<l  a  Vice  Prt-sld.nt      \ 

menilH-r  who   ha*  liehl    || fflee  of   |'rt-»ident 

during  a  n-gular  «-«.i..n  Is  Im-llgible  clth.-r  at 
lr.-.lden>or  \  ice  l'n-.|,l<  nt  at  the  next  regular 
r.'*","i'  T'w  "mt"  ni<  iiil«r  m«v  not  Ik-  Vli-e- 
I  r.»l.lent  during  lw„  cmwuiliM-  n-gular  «.•*- 
;."".■  " '"n  tl'i- vole,  .ir..  ,,|uiillv  <llvld(-.l  the 
Iri-.ldeni  h,»  .  nisling  vol,,  iu  election,  he 
voles  In  ihe  name  manner  a*  oiher  menilieni 

I  nllJii  ™  1  "*"'"'  ""■"''"•'»  '•'  "«•  Xatlonal 
loom II  n-<-elvea<-onnH-n«iiion  out  of  thefwlernl 
tn-aiury 

fA''^J*,'      The  (o„„H|  „f  Slate*  [Con«ll  ,1,-* 

Elat«    SUnderaih)  con.Ms  of  fortv  four  r.-i.r,-. 

•.-ntatlv,.,,,f  i|,eC:,i,i..(i,i      Each<aiil,.DapiM)lnU 
";   ,7r>p*'"'>">'V   In   IlK-  dlvld^l    Canton., 
•  HI  b  llntf  State  rb<>a«<<  one 

Art  m|  The  iim  nilK-r*  of  the  Xatlonal  Coun 
ill  and  thine  of  ih,.  |.„h.n,|  c„„n,.||  n,ay  not  bi- 
n-prewniative*  In  the  C.Minetl  of  Sutra. 

Art  »i  TlH-Comullof  StaU-*chi»«e«outof 
lUowii  iitimlj.r  for  emh  rig.ilarorexir»or.||n«rv 
JW.IOII H  |»ri.|,|eni  an.1  a  VI.-.-  »*n-.i.bnl  X.  Ithir 
the  I'r.-.lilent  n..r  th.-  VI.e  l'n-»l.|enl  can  tw 
chiwn  fn.in  anxm*;  the  n-im-aenialive.  of  the 
(  «iii..n fft,m  whi.  h  Ihe  I'r.-.i.leni  hai.  h.-enc»«i«n 
lor  ihi-  n-gular  M-miou  next  pn-c-dlng  Ifa-pn 
*ntallv.Hi  ,,f  Ihe  »anH-  Canlou  .n.iiii.t  .Kcuny  the 
IK-ltion  of  VLelVsiden.  during  ^J,\^Z 
--.Olive  regular  «^)..„,      wi.,-,,  ,he   v„i,..  are 

.(ually  .||vlde.|  Ibe  IT.-,i,|enl  l..,«.„i|i,rf  vole 

«b.r',!l;':ter""'*  '"  ""■  """  "'■"'»'""'«'« 


CONSTITUTION:  8WIT2E!U..\.ND 


B.^_^  Reprwentatlvea  in  the  { ,„,n(-il 
Statea  i^tb  •  compenaatlon  fmm  the  (■„„" 
-Ji^ri*!_  ^^  ^•"°»»'  Council  an.l  the 7 
'^il.?*%!."?°^'»"  ^  iubjecu  which 
pretent  Comtitutiaii  place*  within  tlw  r, 
petence  of  Xix,  Coofedentioo.  and  which  ai* 
aadgned  to  suit  oUter  federal  authority 
„ff^';  **  -'"•••"•>J~U  within  the  Amv*xn 

,'i  .'•  f**V»°»^»'«»n'««tlonofa„,|,k.rt 
of  fnleral  authoritlea.    9.  Uw*  an.|-„nllM„,; 

I'ihI'''!^''  7ii'='',''y  "•"  fon.tltutlo„  areX 
within  the  federal  competence.  3  Th.-  Li, 
and  corapeniatloa  of  member*  of  tl„.  f„i, ' 
governing  bodle*  and  of  Ihe  Fcleral  (  hano n 

thecreatfooof  federal  offlcca  an.l  tl eiermr 

atlon  of  ..lariea  therefor.    4.  The  .1. ,  li.mTi 

Fwleral  Council,  of  the  Federal  Coun,  ,...,1  „  " 

Chancelkir.  and  alaoof  the  Comman.l.r  in  .ti 

of  the  Meral  army.    TheConf.-<l,-n.ii,.n  ni«v  i 

law  aaalgn  to  the  federal  Aaaembly  other  p,,,,, 

ofe  rnhm  or  of  conflrmatloo.    5.  AIII^h!™  ,, 

treatle*    with    foreign    power*,    ami   .!»,  ;,, 

approval    of    treatle*    maile    by    the    (ai,,„ 

between   them«-lv,-.    or    with    foreign  .>,«,r. 

neverthele**  the  treatlea  made  by  the  (u,i„„ 

shall  be  brought  before  the  Fdeml  .V^-ml,;, 

only  in  caae  the  Federal  Counclloraii.nhirlsn'.i- 

proUsU.     «.  Meaaure*  for    external  *ifetv  , 

alao  for  the   maintenance  of  the  ln,|,  i»ii|,r.,. 

and   neutrality  of  8wita-rlan.l ;  the  .WUw,., 

of  war  and  the   concluakin   of  .»a.v     :  Th^ 

guaianty  of  the  Con»tltutl..n  an.l  of  ih.  tenjt„ri 

of  the  Canton*;  Intervention  in  ens., men,,   i 

•Vu  ??^°*''.=  nH**""-"  forth.-  li,iern»lttf,n 

of  Swltierland.  for  the  malntenaii.-.-  ,.f  n-»cvM,\ 

order:  amnesty    and    panlon.     M    .M,.,.„r,..  f,., 

the  preiervathm  of  llie  C..n«tltulloii,  f.^rrmviu- 

out  the  guaranty  of  the  cantonal  ...nsiiimU.' 

an.l    for    fulfilling  fe«ler»l    ..bllg«ii„i„     -i  t;,- 

IH.wer  of  controlling  the  fcleral  ariiiv      M  Tli- 

determination  of  the  annual  hu.U'.  i,  ih,-  amlit  ( 

l.iibllc  account*.  au.l   fdend  octllnaii.v*  ..mh.  ■ 

lxlngl.»na.     11.  The  *u|M>rinteii.leii(e  uf  fr-l.rj 

ailmliilairatlon  and  of  f.-deral  coiiriH     li  lY. 

teaU  again*t  the  ile<<l*lona  ..f  the  K.-,l.ral  I  .uu,  1 

up.in  a.lmlnl*tratlve  ('»nni(-ia     ,  \rt    111  i    M 

C.mflicU  ..f  luriwllcthm  lietw.-t-n  f.-.lenl  »iitli.n 

li.;*-     14,  The   amendnu-nt  of   the  fe-lirilln: 

atitutl.m. 

Art.  88.  TbetwoC.>unelUBM.-ml'l.-«nnu.llr 
In  regular  arMl.in  upon  a  .lav  !..  I«-  flx,.|  br  th? 
•tamllng  order*.  Tliev  an-  ...m.ii..|  in  W.n 
iH-i«lon  bv  the  FedenI  C.mnell  ii|.,ii  ih.-  re.|i...: 
ellbi-r  of  one  fourth  of  the  iii.iiil>>r.  u(  ■!:? 
Xatlonal  Council.  .)r  .>f  five  Caiii.-m. 

Art  87.  In  either  Coum-il  a  ,ii..rura  i.  . 
maj.irity  of  the  U>Ul  numU<r  of  it,.  m.-mWrt 

Art  88.  In  the  Xalkmal  C.ium  11  aa.l  in  it»- 
f  ouiicll  of  Blaleaa  nial.irily  of  ih.«e  vutioi;  i. 
n-.iulrr.l  * 

.\rt  89,  Federal  law*,  ena<'tni.'nt«.  iixl  iw. 
Iiitbin*  ahall  be  naaae.1  .miy  by  ih-  ijn.nwDi  f 
the  two  Council*.  Feilerai  law.  .li.ill  !»■  nil- 
II11II.-.I  (or  aoi-eptance  or  rej.-<iioii  Ih  it,.  |»-..|.|. 
if  Ihe  ileman.1  i.  ma.le  by  ;«p  inf i  >„i.r.  r 
by  eight  Canlona.  The  mn'i.-  pitii.  ,|.|,-  »p|il»^ 
to  federal  rnoiulhin.  whi.h  ha>.  »  i-enrr.. 
application,  an-'  which  an-  ih.i  t  .iii  uttta 
iiatuh- 

Art.  80  Tlie  C-Mifeiler»Il,.ii  ►lu.li  t-v  1»» 
eatablUh  the  f.irma  aad  Interrala  l--  tn-  utaenrd 
Iu  (nipuUr  vote* 


616 


CONSTITUTION:  SWITZERLAND. 


CvuncU. 


CONSTITl'TION:  8WITZEHLAND. 


AST.  91.  Member*  of  cither  Council  vote 
irttbout  inftnictioiu. 

Act.  93.  Each  Council  Uket  action  wparatelr. 
But  in  the  cue  of  the  electiona  tpecifled  In 
Aitkle  89  g  4-  "'  pardon*,  or  of  decining  a  con- 
lUct  of  jurladiction  (Art.  83,  g  13),  the  two  Coun- 
dk  meet  in  joint  *e**ion,  under  ti>e  direction  of 
tlie  Preiident  of  the  National  Council,  and  a 
dtciiioa  i*  made  by  the  majority  of  the  member* 
of  both  Cuundl*  preaent  and  voting. 

Ait.  03.  Meaiure*  may  originate  in  either 
Council,  and  may  be  introduced  oy  any  of  their 
mrmbers.  The  Canton*  may  by  correapoodence 
eurcite  the  aame  right. 

An.M.  Aiarule,  the  aitting*  of  the  Council* 
ire  public. 

Ajit.  95.  The  supreme  direction  and  executive 
authority  of  the  Confedrration  is  exerclaeti  hr  a 
FedemI  Council  [Conaeil  fC-denl;  Buudearuili], 
coiiipiMnI  of  seven  mi'mbets. 

Akt.  »«.  The  memU'rs  of  the  Pi-<leral  Council 
IR  chiWD  for  three  yean  by  the  Councils  in 
Joint  H'wion  from  among  all  the  Swiss  citizens 
tllirible  to  the  National  Council.  Rut  not  mure 
Iban  out'  nu'Uibvr  of  the  Peilcnil  Council  shall  lie 
cbmrn  fmm  tlie  same  Canton.  The  FcdemI 
CiHiiK'H  U  I'luwn  anew  after  each  election  of  the 
Nationiil  Council.  Vacancies  wliteh  MTurin  tlie 
Cdurm-  (if  the  three  years  arc  flllwl  at  the  lirst 
rnwini;  M^'-ion  of  tlie  Feiieral  Assembly,  for  ttie 
miwiuiliT  ii(  the  term  of  oftice. 

.Vrt  97.  The  memlMTs  of  the  Federal  Coun- 
ril  uluill  not.  during  their  term  of  oflli-e.  iKX-upy 
«iiv  iithi  r  otflce.  citlier  In  the  wrvlo-  of  the  Con- 
(nlrration  or  in  n  Canton,  or  follow  any  otiier 
pursuit.  XT exirciae  a  nnifciaion. 

Art  W.  Til.'  Fi-iKrul  Council  is  presided 
onr  liT  the  I"reiildeiit  of  the  Contnleratiiin. 
TlH-re  i»  II  Vice  I'ri'sident.  The  President  of  tile 
Cimficliniliiiii  mill  Ilie  Vlc<'  l*niiiilent  of  the 
Fiilmil  t'ciuiieil  uri'  chowii  fur  ime  year  liy  the 
F'^lirul  Amu-miily  from  auioni;  llii'  iiiemlx-n  i>f 
till  C'luiii'il.  The  retiring  l'n-i>iilent  shall  n<ii  In- 
ilico-ii  an  I'n-nldent  or  Viii-  I'niiideiit  fur  the 
rrur  Hisiiiiii:  The  saiiir  iiiemlKT  nliiill  iii>t  hnUi 
il«-  I'ttlir  tif  Vice  I*re»ldeiit  during  twti  iimiieeu 
tiif  viars. 

Akt  W  The  Presldeiii  of  tlie  Coeifrtlemtlmi 
tn>l  tilt' oilier  memtien  nf  tile  Keileral  Ciiuiiril 
hMivt  !in  aiiuual  sulurr  fmni  the  feiieral 
Irt-nMirv 

Akt  1011  A  iiuorum  of  the  FedemI  Council 
^■l!lll»l»..f  fc.iir  nieinlK'nt. 

AKt  IiPi  The  iiienilii'n  of  the  Fiili'ml  Coun- 
fil  hair  ihf  rl),'!il  to  «|H'i«k  liiit  ii.t  to  vme  In 
filliiT  liiiiiM-  iif  Ihe  FetlemI  Aweiiiliiy.  anil  »1»>> 
tin  rii'lil  1.1  nuke  nuitintis  on  ilie  subject  under 

l-'HtititTlIioll. 

.\in    \'r>     The  tu'wei*  ami  the  ilulk'sor  the 

F.iliral  t  iiiiiicil,  within  the  liiiilla  of  IhiaCiiii 
►litiiii  .11,  are  |mrtieul»rly  the  f.illowlnii  1  ll 
omliM  t»  f.'.li'ral  iitluirH.  eonfurmalilv  to  Ihe  law  » 
«ii.|  r.«..|iiii,,n,  iif  til,.  i',m(e.li'raiioii  i  It 
t ik  .  tun-  that  till'  I  iHisiiliiiiiiii.  feiler.il  lai«« 
»ii.l  ..r.liiiaiH-e^.  anil  aU.  the  |.riivi«iiiiii,  iif  fml 
irji  r.iiii'iin|,iis,  Ih  .iiMervi.t!.  iiinni  it»  nwii 
!:.i!uiivi  .ir  ti|mn  complHlni  il  taken  iiietuun's 
i'..»«iir>  I"  laiiM.  Jiem-  inwrumenu  !..  lie  oli 
>'?>"l.    iiiiU'w.   Ihe   I'onsidenuiiin  of   nniniw  He 

' "t!  tilt'  .iilijiMt"  which  slmulil  tie   tiriiu«ai 

\r!,v-  ttto  l''.n|enl  Ciiurt.  n(i-.inllnfr  t..  Annie 
M  s  ll  i«|i,i,  isn-  that  tlie  guaranty  t.f  the 
muitmid  uiuMltuttuas  be  ubwrvi^l.     4.  tt  Intiu- 


duces  bills  or  resolutions  Into  the  FedemI 
Assembly,  and  giyes  its  opinion  u|K>n  Ihe  jiro- 
piMal*  submitted  to  it  by  the  Council*  or  the 
Cantons.  5.  It  execute*  the  laws  and  reaolu- 
tions  of  the  Confederation  and  the  judgments  of 
the  Federal  Court,  and  also  the  compromises  or 
decision*  in  arbitration  upon  disputes  lietween 
Cantona  6.  It  makes  those  appointments  which 
are  not  asaigned  to  the  Federal  Assembly.  Fed- 
eral Court,  or  otiier  authority.  7.  It  examines 
the  treaties  made  by  Canton*  with  each  otiier,  or 
with  foreign  power*,  and  npprove*  them,  if 
pniper.  (Art.  8.1,  J  H.)  8.  It  watche*  over  the 
external  interenta  of  the  Confederation,  parti,  .i- 
larly  the  maintenance  of  its  iutemalional  nla- 
tlons,  and  is.  in  general,  intnuted  with  foreign 
reUtious.  9.  It  watches  over  the  external  safety 
of  Switzerland,  over  the  maintenance  of  intle- 
pendenif  and  neutrality.  10.  It  watches  over 
tile  internal  safety  of  the  Confederation,  over 
the  maiiilenance  of  peace  »nd  onli-r.  II.  In 
case*  of  urgency,  and  when  the  Federal  Aiiaem- 
bly  is  not  in  session,  the  Fi^ieral  Council  haa 
power  to  raise  the  neeeitiiary  tr<H>ps  and  to 
employ  them,  with  the  reM'r\-ation  llmt  il  Khali 
lniim.tlhitely  summon  the  ('.aincils  if  theniimlier 
of  IriMiim  e.\i'eitU  two  llumiMiud  men.  or  if  they 
remain  iu  arms  more  than  tlinM"  weeks.  U.  ft 
nilminiiitera  Ihe  military  esiulilisliiiient  of  Ihe 
Confitleration.  ami  all  other  liraurhes  of  aiimin- 
tstraiion  eommittetl  I.)  the  Confetleratiou.  13. 
It  exauiiiuii  mull  laws  ami  onlinances  of  the 
Cantiiiis  as  miisl  lie  kiilimittitl  fi.r  its  approyal : 
ll  eveniM'S  xiiiMrviviim  >>ver  Mich  ilepiinnients 
of  the  lanloiial  a.liiiiniMlralinn  ii«  are  plaitti 
uniler  it,  ffinlMl.  14.  Il  ailmiiiim.ni  the  fiiiaiui's 
of  tlieCoiiffih'niIiiiii.  iiitrotluie'i  the  liiiilk'el.  ami 
Kiiliiiiits  nec<iunt.t  i.f  nt'eipis  and  eX|H'iiM'A.  l."i. 
It  siipervi.'ies  Ilie  i  ..iniiict  of  all  Ihe  iiWi  ials  anil 
eiiipliiyees  of  ilio  fiiler.il  ailmiiiixiraiiiin  HI.  It 
.■iilimiiii  to  the  Federal  Awinilily  at  each  reufular 
M'«»ii.ii  an  aiT.Miiit  of  its  ailmini.siraf..ii  aiui  a 
ri|"irt  I.f  the  riiiiilitiiiii  i.f  the  Conftili  r.ilinn. 
Internal  a*  well  as  external,  ami  calls  iitteiiii.m 
t"  the  mi'a"iin's  « liieli  it  deems  desirable  fi.r  the 
pMiiiiiliiiti  .it  th.'ueiii  ril  wi'Ifan'.  It  als<i  makes 
siHi'ial  ri'iuiris  nlieii  tlie  Fiilenil  Assembly  or 
ellh.r  i'.iiiiieil  ri'.|iiiri  s  it 

.\iiT.  lo:t  Till'  liii-iii.'x.  of  the  Ft'.liral  Coun- 
cil is  tlistriliiili.l  III  .i.'partiiients  ani..nir  its 
memliers  Tlii-.  .Ii<iriliiiii..ii  lias  'In  iiiirp<n<«' 
only  of  fai'iliiatinL'  tin  i  xainiiiatinn  aii.l  il.'~pnli'li 
of  liiisiiiess.  iltsisi.iiis  imaual.'  from  Ihe  FisKral 
Couticii  as  iihiiiL'te  aMth>.rit\ 

AliT  U>i  Tit"  Ktsln-al  Couiuil  miil  its  .le- 
pnriiiit'tits  |i:i\e  [kiwer  t"  tall  ill  esiierts  on 
»|Hs'ial  siil.jit  t  - 

Ajrr  Io"i  A  Ke.li'riH  liiiMiry  (('liant'ellerie 
fi'slerale,  lliiii.l.  «kaii/lii!  ;,i  the  tieii.l  ..f  wliieh 
I-  plai'.  I  till  Cl.amt  ll..r  ..1  lli.'  t'..!ife.h'ratiiiii, 
.  ..iiiltii  l>  th.  si-.-ri'taiy  s  l.t|..iiirvs  fi.r  the  Fed'-ral 
.\«»<'lii!il\  an.l  tin  I'.il.'ral  luiiluil  Tile  Cliall 
isil.ir  i-  <  li..»i'!i  III  thr  I'ech'f  .1  AiuMinlily  f.ir  !hi! 
term  ..I  Ihn-i  j.nrs,  at  the  same  lime  as  t!i.'  F.'.l 
i-ral  t'.iiiii.il  The  I'Imiirerv  is  mi-lrr  ihe  spfrial 
siilK  ivisii'ii  ..f  tile  I'Vileral  r..iiii' ll  A  fi.lerul 
isiH  sliuil  pnivbi)-  fur  tut-  tirgauiuiioii  of  me 
t  'hrtii-erv 

AiiT  imt  Tten-  shall  lie  a  Fisleral  four: 
■  Tril.ioii;  fish>-ii.  nuiiiliagerlcht I  foi  the  lui 
niiiii«Tniii..ii.it  juniice  iu  fislerai  conn  nis  There 
Mmll  I.,  murevver,  a  jurv  for  (rimtnal  vmnt. 
,Arl   Ui  i 


I 


i 


♦ii; 


OONSnTCnON;  8WITZERLAKD. 


Oaart. 


'■'W 


\ 


m-^**-,  i"-  ^^  membew  and  slternatm  of  the 
rtOunl  Court  ihall  bechoMn  bribe  Fedenl  A>- 
jemblT.  which  ifaaU  uke  can  Uut  aU  thrae  m- 
tiMMllaoiuanaarareprMeiitedthefeiiL  A  Uw 
»«1  eMablbfi  the  orguUndoo  of  the  Federml 
i/ourtandof  iunctioiu.  the  Dumber  of  ludcei 
•iMl  alteniMes.  their  term  of  olBce,  and  tlwir 
■alary. 

w^i"-  .*??•  A?'  ^''*"  «'»•"''  eligible  to  the 
Hatiooal  Council  may  be  cho«>n  to  the  FedenU 

^'i  •i.'^S.*  J"^!?"  "'  the  Federal  Awmbly 
and  of  the  Federal  Council,  and  offldali  appointed 
by  thr«e  authoritie*.  ihall  not  at  the  aamV  time 
Wonu  to  the  Federal  Court.  The  memben  of 
the  Fwlcral  Court  ahall  not.  during  their  term 
of  office  occupy  any  other  olBce,  either  In  the 
•ervlce  of  the  Confederatiun  or  in  a  Canton  nor 
engage  In  any  other  punuit,  nor  practice  a  pro- 

A"T-  lO*     The  Federal  Court  organlies  Its 
own  Chancery  and  appoint*  the  o(BcUl»  theim>f. 

Abt.  1 10.  The  Fwleral  Court  htu  Juriwllction 
In  civil  lulU:  I  Between  the  Confwleratlon 
and  the  tantonn.  i.  Between  the  ('(mfnletn- 
lion  on  one  part  and  corpomtions  or  Indlviduali 
on  tJie  other  part,  when  inch  oorporatlona  or 
ImlivlduaU  are  plaintiffi.  anil  when  the  amount 
involved  i»  of  a  decree  of  lni|M.rt«nce  to  lie 
determined  liv  fnlenil  legiaintion.  8.  IJetweeii 
Cantona  4.  Between  CnnuuM  on  one  part  and 
corp..nitloniiorindividuiilii..n  the. .ther  part  when 
one  of  the  iwrties  ilenmmU  it.  anil  the  amount  in- 
volvwi  is  of  »  degree  of  ImportaiK-e  to  be  de. 
termlpe<l  by  fe.ieral  legislation.  It  further  hut 
Juriwlirtion  In  tultt  concerning  the  stntut  of 
ixrwms  not  lubjern  of  nnv  government  (heimiilh- 
l'»«t).  and  the  contllem  which  arise  U^twecnl'imi- 
mtmeii  of  dilTen'nt  (.'unions  respecting  the  rlBlil 
of  local  citiienshlp.     [Dmit  de  cite  1 

Aut  hi.  The  F.ileral  Court  Is  bound  to 
give  juilguK'nl  in  other  cases  when  both  parties 
ugrei-  to  nlii.le  by  its  decision,  and  when  th.' 
uuK.i.ut  mrnlv.d  is  of  a  degn-e  of  Importuncv  to 
iH'  ileteniiined  liy  fisleml  legislation. 

Art.  Hi.  The  Ke<ler»l  Court,  assisieil  hv  « 
lurv  to  dwide  u|«.n  cjuestions  of  tai  t  lias  i  rfm- 
inul  Jurisilietion  in:  I.  (««.,  „f  |,i„|,  tr.a«.n 
agiiin«tthe(  „nfeder»ti,.ii.  of  reliellionor  violence 
agaiii.t  fed.nd  uutli.iritiea.  •..  Crimes  und  mis- 
deiiieunon  against  tile  law  of  nations.  3  politi- 
cal crimes  and  nilstlemeanors  which  ar.-tliccini«« 
or  the  n-siilt  of  dUmrl.iiiic<.8  whidi  ,«-,.„,i,„i 
«iTii.-.l  f.-,leral  inlervenlloii.  4  (•„«.,  „^,,,i;,«t 
olH.  iiils  ai.|«.inte.l  by  a  f.-.ler»l  autti.iritv  «  liere 
suili   .luiliority   rel.eal.^  tli.rn    to  th,  '  Ki.lemI 

Akt  1I:|  TlicFederuU  ourtfiirtlierlmsiuris 
.l.ctioii  1  Ovcr.-onflict^of  turts.llcli»nl»tw.en 
fe.leri.luut!i.«1tle.  ..done  pun  aii.l  .,inton«i  au 
llic.ritieH,.ntheotl„riwrt  •  I li,|,ui,»  (»..»,-,.„ 
(auto,,,.  w|„.n, U.I,  ,|i.,  .re  ,.l>..n  iiu..^      .„ 

of   piil.lK-  law       .t    (..m;  Hunts   ..f  vlo|»ti...    .,f 
the  ...ii»tilulional  rii;hts    .f  citiiseiia    «imI  . 
plaiiiK  ..f  iiidivLliial.  f,.r  .he  vinUtl.m  .,f  .  .'. 
i-or.|.,l«  ,.r  treaties      C.nlli.t,  ,,f  s-lmlnl.lraliv.' 
iurt«ii.ii,.ii  are  r.s«-rv..d.  and  are  to  i«    •.itl.d 
111  a  iimnmr  prrs,  rilstl    l.y  fderal  le>[i»lali..n 
In  all  the  f,.B.  menti.m.-.l  .asesthe  Fe.ieral  Court 
shall  api.tythf  !„»»  |„uj»,|  t,y  „„,  Pnipn,!  j^,. 
Niiil.lv  nn.|  tl,.,M,  resoluilons  of  the  AsM'mhIy 
which  liav.-  a  g,  nerd  lm|».rf      It  .hall  In  like 

"■"""*',',' f"">' ""r.  ati<-.  »i,i,h  shall  have  been 

mlltl.^1  t.y  tiw  Kderal  Asi^inl.ly 


COirSTITPTlON:  8WITZERUND. 


Amr.  114.  Beddat  the  cam  ipeclfleil  i.  ahi 
clM  110.  lU.  «Kl  11«.  tb.  Coofel^li:SS.t?T 

of  the  Federal  Court;  in  particular.  It  m«^ 
to  that  court  powen  intanded  to  Insure  ^J^ 
aSu^M.'*  "■"  '"'•  P""W«J  for  iJ 

A«T.  115.  All  that  relatea  to  the  locatlmi  «» 
the  authoritiea  of  the  Confederation  uTVubU 
for  federal  kgtelation.  ""'**» 

Art.  118  The  thne  principal  langusn, 
■poken  In  8*^r tend.  German.'^  f^,>n 
Moi        *"'  "**'~''  l»n»ua«ea  of  the  Confedenl; 

Art.  117.  The  ofHcUla  of  the  Confe,ler,ti,« 
are  resp.mslble  for  their  cond.ict  In  .,(«,-,  ? 
federal  law  shall  enforce  thU  responsibiliiv 

CtapUflll.     UT%mfourarh^a/,r^ui, 

Art.  US.  Ametulment  it  tturtii  tkrmigh  ik, 
fnrm*  nqHindfar  ixunngftderal kiir. 

Art  ISO.  When  rilMrr  Cuuitnl  „f  ih,  fi*„( 
A-rm/Jii  nutrt  .t  rrmdiition  /«•  amrn.lmnt  ..fih, 
Fflrral  lonililiitioH  and  tht  other  CmwiAn 
m*  agrtf;  or  vMen  f^i/  thnutnrid  Stri-  r.,(,r$  J,. 
maml  ,tinfn<t>nfHl.  tSt  ifwMion  vhetSer  tk*  AViinl 
O'lutiliition  oughi  to  ht  amtmhd  i,,  in  rilhr  n» 
tubrntllfil  to  a  rote  of  tht  SmMfeofAe.  T,Mmui,..t 
rvK  If  I  a  either  cut  tht  rmyoritv  of  lluSnm 
«fi«/«  itho  „,tt  pronmnet  in  the  .ijtrm,!,', 
there  nhnll  be  ,t  neie  eieetion  of  both  Oiviu-iUf.,rtU 
l>'in>"»'"fprei>iinngamen<t)nenlt. 

Art  l-.'l.  The  amended  n<leml  Cwmim,.. 
nh.tll  be  ,n  font  vhtn  it  hu  been  lut.i.M  l„,\, 
rm^po^ly  of  y,rit,  eilitent  vho  t.ile  f»rt  .,  ,', 
fitt  thereon  and  bft  ,«  »Hy,'nVy  of  the  ■'<l„t„  / 
tiMiing  ../.  ,1  nufforilD  of  ihe  Sl„i„  !/„  «,,,  „/  , 
HalfOinton  .*  cuntnl  lu  half  ,i  rote.  Th,  n.n  ■ 
of  the  i>oio,l„r  fvrfc  in  r<ieh  Canton  u  nomilertd  ■■, 
be  Ihe  t>-le  of  the  Stm.  ] 

Art.  118.  [Aitb^iulimrt of  Jiili/r,,  iHi.i,'!  fv 
Ki.lcral  C.mstilution  may  at"any  iiiiii-  Is-snun.l.^i 
as  a  whole  or  In  part. 

.Vkt.  UB.  [  Amendment  of  Jiiffi  ^  \ii)\  ]  (Vn 
eral  revision  is  sirured  thmiigii  ih.'  fi.r'niii  i* 
.|uln>.|  f..r  passing  the  federal  la«s 

.\kt  1*1.  When  either Couiiiil.if  the F"lrrtl 
A»s.-iiilily  |>asM-s  a  resolution  for  gemnii  rvvi,i,ii 
aii.l  the  ..tiier  ('..iincil  d.ss  n..l  8»rr.T:  ..r  wh,a 
flftv  tl'  laami  8wiaa  v.rtcrs  .lemaii.1  g.n. ml  i- 
vlsloii  .  .jue^Uon  whether  there  shall  hr  smh 
a  ri'vlslon  must,  to  either  otte.  b.'  siibmiite.1  :o 
the  iK.iiular  v..t«.  ,.f  ihe  8niss  |-„|,K-  If  a 
eith.r  .,.«•,  the  niajorilv  ..f  ll»'  S« i«)  ritii,j 
who  Vote  oil  the  .|<iestiou  proiioiin.i-  in  th>  vS' 
mative.  ther.'  shall  he  a  new  i  !.■,  li.  .  •  i-,t'j 
( .xincils  for  the  purpose  of  prepariiijf  a  kf  »i: 
n-vlsion.  • 

Art.  IJl.  [.4m<n>(iiKnf  ofj'ilti .'.  isill  )  .«[» 
<l(lc  amendments  may  U-  brought  f..r»nril HiLer 
lhr..iii'h  a  Hr..p,».ltion  i.f  the  I'.-opl..  |  V,.lk«i!fr 
gungl  (Initiative)  ..r  bv  Ke.|.-ul  li-^.i-,aii„n  i 
"""P"*'"™  c.f  the  People  means  a  .lemsal  ^u^ 
|s.He<l  by  Ifiy  thousand  Swiss  voters  .f-'i.  fof 
sus|M-nslon.  ri'peal.  ,^■  all.rali.m  o'  i|h-.ui-  i  ir 
tich-.  ..f  tlie  Feileial  (•.institution  If  !.v  msw 
of  Ihe  m.'thisl  of  Proi»«iltlon  of  ih-  l'.p;' 
"•'i''™!  .lilTirrnt  subjects  are  brought  f..rw«rl 
Hthcr  f.ir  iltcrathin  or  for  lm-.>ipoiiii"n  ini.^tbe 
FnlernI  Constitution,  each  .me  of  tli-u-  m-^ntw 
subjects  must  be  presented  In  a  lepars^  IchimJ 


018 


COMtriTrU'liON:  SWITZERLAND. 

for  t  popular  Tote  [InitteUTbrgehren].  The  de- 
Btod  for  »  popular  Tota  may  >ake  the  form 
dtlwr  of  a  icqueat  io  gencTBl  h-rmn,  or  of  a 
detnite  draft  If  luch  a  demaitd  be  roaile  lo 
the  form  of  a  requcat  in  gaieral  terma  and  the 
Councils  of  the  Federal  Aieemblj  agree  thereto, 
the  Mid  Council*  ahall  thereupon  prepaiv  a 
medHc  amendment  of  the  purport  indicated  by 
thoM  tiking  amendment:  and  such  speciflc 
unrndmeDt  ahall  be  submitted  to  the  people  and 
t«  the  itaK-B  for  their  arceptanre  or  rejection. 
Id  due  the  Councils  of  the  Federal  Assembly  do 
DM  »fnv  tlier»t<).  the  question  of  speciflc  amend- 
oeDt  sliall  tlien  be  subjcctetl  to  tlie  people  for  n 
popular  rote;  and  in  case  the  majority  of  the 
itwiis  Totan  vote  therefor,  an  amendment  of  the 
purport  iuilloiu-tl  liy  tlic  vote  of  the  people  sImM 
then  be  prepaml  by  the  Fiilenil  Assembly.  In 
cue  tlie  request  simll  take  the  form  of  a  speciAc 
drift  »n<l  the  Fe<leml  Aaxemhly  agree  thereto, 
the  draft  is  then  to  be  submittal  to  the  people 
iodllie  States  for  arreptance  or  rejection.  If 
the  Fwleml  Assembly  sliall  not  ajrree  tliereto  it 
Dsj  either  prepare  a  substitute  ilmft  for  itaelf, 
or  it  may  propose  the  rejection  of  the  propo- 
■itioa.  The  proposition  u>  reject  such  substi- 
tute draft  or  propoaitlon  shall  lie  submitte<l  to 
the  Tote  of  the  people  and  of  the  States  at  the 
■me  thne  with  the  general  Proposition  of  the 
Pwple. 

Abt  IJJ.  [Amfmlmtnlofjti'y  W^tlA  The 
pmcnlure  upon  the  Pniposition  of  tlie  People 
■ml  ihf  |Hi|iular  voles  concerning  amendment  of 
the  FniiTsl  Constitution,  shall  lie  regulatetl  lu 
drtsii  hv  a  Fnleral  Ijiw. 

AsTliS.  [Amendment  of  Julg  S,\H9l,]  The 
saitodcii  Fwferal  Constitution  or  the  specific' 
smeiidnients  profHiaed.  as  the  caae  may  lie.  shall 
^.■  in  fiinr  wl»n  atlopted  by  the  nuijo'rity  of  the 
.■iwiM iili/.<'ii«  who  take  part  in  the  vnte  then-»n 
sad  liy  a  iiuijnrity  of  tlie  Cantons.  In  niakinir 
up  Ibe  iimjorlly  of  the  8taU-s  the  vote  of  h  iiiilf 
of csfli  Caiit.in  is  rounted  as  half  a  vote.  The 
twult  nf  tlir  iMiiiular  vote  in  each  Canton  is 
cuBiidrri'tl  In  lie  the  vut«  of  the  stale. 

Temporary  Pro*iaioaa.  Aurin.E  1.  Tin- 
|in«in.[-  ..f  ilif  iMwu  and  cu-itdiiui  uliall  Ih' 
cliniinl  u|i..n  llip  (ireM-:  t  liiitiit.  until  suih  time 
Milir  I  "iifi.i,  ration  shall  take  ujkiu  itself  tlie 
milit:ir>  I  xjHii'i.'s  up  to  this  lime  liorne  ')v  liie 

'*" Federal  fe^'islatlon  shnll  provide   tie- 

iklr.  that  the  loss  which  iiiav  N-  iKcaaloniil  to 
thr  nnmici-*  of  certain  Cantons  bv  the  mini  of  the 
chsfi,'!-.  vililcU  remilt  fmiu  Ar;i<li»  Jil.  30.  iJ6 
iS^.  an.l  4'J  (i).  shall  fall  upon  nui  h  Cantons 
i«j  k-nuiiislly.  and  shall  not  attain  iu  full  effiHt 
Wl  «!t.r  a  transition  peri(»l  of  s.inie  veam 
Tkm'  ( »ntons  which,  at  tlie  goinjf  into  effect  of 
Annie  M  uf  the  Constitution,  have  not  fultllled 


CONSTmrnON:  united  STATEa 

the  miUury  obligations  which  are  Impoaed  upon 
them  bv  the  former  Constitution,  or  by  fedeiml 
tows,  shall  be  bound  to  carry  them  out  at  their 
own  expense. 

.«f"T  .?  """  provisions  of  the  federal  kwa 
ana  or  the  cantonal  concordata,  consthutions  or 
<»>««nal  laws,  which  are  contrary  to  thia  Con- 
stitution, cease  to  have  effect  by  the  .•Mioplion  of 
the  tonstliution  or  the  pubUcation  of  the  Uw* 
for  which  it  provtdea. 

Art.  8  The  new  provisions  ttlating  to  the 
organiiation  and  Jurisdiction  of  the  Federal 
Court  take  effect  only  after  the  publication  of 
federal  Uws  thereon. 

Aht.  4.  A  delay  of  five  years  Is  allowed  to 
Cantons  for  the  establlahment  of  free  instruction 
in  primary  public  education.    (Art.  27.) 

Aht  5  Those  persons  who  practice  a  liberal 
profession  and  wlio,  before  the  publication  of 
the  fe<leral  law  provide<l  for  In  Article  88,  have 
obtained  a  certiflcate  of  competence  from  a  Can- 
ton or  a  joint  autliority  representing  sevend 
Cantons  insy  pursue  that  profession  throughout 
the  Confederation. 

Art  «.  [Aiuendmenl  of  Jke.  JS,  1885.  For 
the  riin.umlee  of  thu  ameiulmetU  rte  artiele  83 
',".'/•  'f*'"'''™'  'aw  for  carrying  out  Article 
ii  (li)  lie  passe<l  Inforc  tiie  end  of  1890.  the  im- 
iKirt  duties  leviH  on  spirituous  liquors  bv  the 
Cantons  an<i  Communes,  accunling  to  Article  32 
<cas«'  on  tlie  golnif  into  effect  of  such  Uw.  If' 
in  such  case,  tlii-  Hlians of  anv  Canton  or  Com- 
mune, out  of  tlie  sums  lo  Iw  divided,  sif  uot 
'iifllcient  to  equal  tliu  avt^raire  annual  ret  pro- 
<wii<  of  tlie  ta.\.-s  lliey  have  levied  on  spirituous 
liquom  In  the  years  ISHtl  to  Ii«4  inclusive,  the 
Cuiitoiis  and  Coiiiiniines  affecteil  shall,  till  the 
i-nd  of  IHWt,  receive  the  aintiunt  of  the  defiriemy 
out  of  111,,  amount  which  is  to  b<'  divided  amoni 
the  oilier  Cantons  according  to  noi>ulati<m'  and 
tlie  reiiMinder  only  shall  lie  divliliHl  among  such 
oilier  Cantons  and  Communes.  acc<inling  lo  popu- 
lation. The  Coiir(.<lersli(.n  sliall  further  provide 
liy  law  (hat  for  such  Cantons  or  (Ninimunes  us 
msy  suffer  flnuncial  loss  liiniuKli  the  effect  of  this 
Hniindnienl.  kucIi  Iimx  Khali  not  come  uium  lliem 
immediately  in  its  full  e.\tent.  but  gnuluallv  up 
lo  tlie  year  IHM.  The  indemnities  ilierehv  liiaile 
iiei-essary  shall  lie  pn^vlouslv  taken  out  of 'the  net 
pna-<H.<lsdei.ii.'iialrtl  in  Arii.  leS.'iiii,  |iHrak'raph4. 

Thus  res4>lveil  by  Ilie  National  Couniii  lo  be 
subinilleil  to  the  p.i|mlnr  voir  of  the  .Swiss 
IMH.nle  and  of  the  Caiilous.  ll.ni.  ,Iaiiuary  81, 
'"i:      Zleitlir.  i'n'siileiit      .SIi(i-«k.  .S'cn'ta'ry. 

Thus  n«.|v,d  by  the  Council  of  States,  to  l)e 
subinilleil  to  the  iiopul.ir  vote  of  ilie  Sulk, 
|)eople  and  of  ilie  Canloua.  Hern,  ,laniisry  81, 
1H7.  A.  Kopp,  I're,.  lent.  J.-L.  Lutsiher!  See', 
retard'. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 


A.  D.  I7«i.-Th«  Articlaa  of  Coaftdaration. 
!w  I  MTKi,  Statks  or  An. :  A.   D.  l777-t7Sl, 

uil  I ,  '<;i- 1 7«7, 

A  D.  I7l7.i7l«.  a«d  1791.1S70.-A  sketch 
»l  1.1.-  liLiory  of  th..  framing  and  adoption  of  the 
FrUrr,!  (  msiiiuiion  of  the  Vnite<l  Suteswill  N- 
tOUD.!  Mldrr  ChitRD  STATI.B  OF  Ah  .  A  I). 
l.V  «„1  I7S7-!7H».  The  following  test  of  the 
""rf-'i!  nuirumeL  I,  with  the  subsequent  siuvud 


619 


mcnts  1.1  ii,  i<i  otui  prepare<l  bv  Profras<ir  .Vlliert 
Hunhni  II  Hart,  ami  is  the  result  of  n  csrefi^  coni- 
iiarison  with  tin-  .riginal  iiMnuscripts.  preservixi 
In  the  Si.itt  ile|ianmeut  al  Wanhingtoi)  ■  It  ie 
inlendi<l  lo  \v  almoliilely  e«scl  In  word  spelling. 
capitali<alloi!  and  puin  iuation  A  few  Readings 
ami  paragraph  n  uiIm  rs.  Insertetl  for  nmvenience 
of  n'fennce.  »re  indicated  by  brackctn  "  "Those 
parts  of  tlie  Cuustitutlon  which  weri'  temporary  in 


CONSTITUTION:  UNITED  STATES    Omgnm.  CONSTITUTION:  INTTED  ST  \TES 


u 


their  DSturv,  or  which  h«Te  been    uperaeded  or  1 
kitemi  by  Ut«r  amvoiiineDU.  aiv  Included  witb'n  I 
the  »ljfn»  [  ]."    This  text,  originally  printed  in 
the  ■■  American  Hiatorr  LeafleM."  la  rfpmdiictil 
with  Pr-feaaor  Hart'BConaent.     The  paraifraph-   i 
tng  liaa  l>een  altered,  to  ecooiiniiie  apact    but  it 
i«  otherwise  eiactlv  pepnKlii'  r<l 
"  We  the  PEoPLE'of  the  l'iiit<-.i  8iai<s.  In  Order 
to  form  a  more  perfect  riii.in.  ininlillah  Jua- 
tice.  insure  donieatic  Tramniility,  provide  for 
the  common  defence,  pmiix'li-  tlie  fritietal  Wel- 
fare, and  urciire  the  Blr!l»ill^»  of  Liberty  ii 
ouraelvea  and  our  Hc«lerity.  do  onlain  and  e«- 
tabliah  thia  Conatltution  for  the  United  Slaten 
of  America. 

Article  I.  StftioH  1.  All  Utrialatlv.-  Powem 
herein  vranted  ahall  be  Te»t«il  in  a  fimif"'*  <'f 
theUiiite<l  States,  which  uliail  consist  of  »  S»-iiale 
and  House  of  Ki'pn'sinlntivrs.  snini  2  1;!  1.] 
The  House  of  K<i>res<ntatlvf»  simll  tw  roni- 
iMMiHi  of  MenilsTs  rhiwii  every  se<on<l  Year 
by  tlie  People  of  the  wvcral  mates,  and  the 
flectora  In  iiicli  State  shall  have  the  (iualili- 
cations  reiiuliite  for  EU-ctorsof  the  most  nmner- 
oils  Branch  of  the  State  U'(fi»latun>.»  IS-'l 
Nci  Person  shall  lie  a  Kepreaentative  who  shall 
ii.il  have  attained  to  the  .Vije  of  twenly-Hve 
Years,  and  U't'U  seven  Years  ,>  Citizen  of  the 
Unlteil  States,  and  who  slinll  not,  when  elei'twl, 
lie  nn  InlmliitMiit  of  that  State  in  whieli  lie  shall 
lie  chiiM'n.  1?  »  1  Hepresentiitlves  anil  ilinrt 
Tuxes  shall  Iw  aplMirtinmit  anionn  the  seviral 
States  which  may  lie  iihluiiiil  within  this  Union, 
aceonling  to  tlieir  n-spntive  Numbers,  [which 
slmll  U-  delprniimil  liy  aililiUK  to  the  whole 
Nuinla-riif  free  l'ers<iiis.  iueliiiling  tliiise  Isiund 
to  SiTviie  fur  II  Tenii  of  Years,  and  i  xcltiiling 
liiiMiOis  niil  tiiMil.  thni'  fifths  of  all  other  Per- 
Kc.ii«14  The  actual  Enuniemtiiin  slmll  lie  liiinle 
wiiliin  ihne  Yeiir*  lifter  the  first  Mi-etiiiir  of  the 
Convress  of  the  liiiteil  ."States,  and  within  every 
sulivquent  Tenu  of  ten  Years,  in  such  Manner 
a*  thev  shall  hy  Ijiw  ilinel  The  XuiuUr  of 
Uepn-sentatives"  fhull  nut  excii-*!  mie  fur  every 
Ihirtv  Thoiisiinil,  but  enih  Slati'  sluill  liave  at 
I.i  i.'t  Hill-  I!i  iiriMiitatiM-;  ['iiiil  until  such  euu- 
lieriliim  sliuil  !"•  iii.nle.  the  State  of  New 
Iluiiipihin-Kliiill  Ihi  niiiliiltoi  hiise  tiiri'f'.  Masaa- 
iliiwlls  ei^thl  KhiKle  |sliii.,l  atiil  I'r.iviilence 
Pi;imatioii«  line,  ('(iniiectii  ut  live  Ni'vYork  six. 
>•■«■  .IirMV  fi'ur.  I'eiiiisvlviiniii  eit'lit.  INliovan- 
one.  M.iryfaiiil  six.  ViiL'iui:i  tin.  .Nnrih  tamlina 
five.  .Soiiih  t'anilina  live,  uiul  (Jenriria  iline  J5 
(;;  4.)  When  vii  iini  ii  s  liiipJM  n  in  tin  UeprtM-n- 
f:iliori  fmni  anv  State,  the  Kxeeutive  Auihnrity 
Ihen-of  ■•hiM  is«iie  Writs  uf  Klerliim  t.i  fill  sueli 
Vmaiii  i.»  l-i  •">  1  The  II. ms.-  nf  ItepreM-nta- 
tive,  sliall  I  hiiHi-ilitir  S|M-aki-ruud  iitlierOtfi<ers, 
and  shall  luM' thi' ~ile  PnHemf  Imiaaehnient. 
.Seri,,.'.  ;t  \i  \  \  ThiS.-ualeiif  theUnileilStates 
shall  Is-  iiPiiiiiiTOil  nf  two  Niiatora  fnmi  eai  h 
Slate.  ih.™ii  In  llie  Leifishiture  thereiif.  fur  six 
Yi-ars.  ami  laeh  Senatnr  shall  have  nne  Vnte 
U  '.'  I     linitiKliatily  after  thev  shallU  aasenilileil 

111  t  ..iiMiiut  111 f   the  first   fchctinn.    they  shall 

Isilividiil  MS  ii(iially  us  may  Is-  into  thni- 1  lasses 
The  S<-at->  nf  Ihi- SiiHtiirsnf  Jill  first  (lass  shall 
Is-  vaiati'il  al  tlie  KxpirLii  ii  nf  the  B«'c<in<i  Year, 
of  tliesttnniK  la«sal  the  Kxpirationof  the  fmirth 
Y'ear.  and  >if  tin  ihinl  (lass.it  the  Eipiraiimi  nf 

*  Mi.iijitlsil  I'V  l''<nn><**titli  .Xmcniliiit-nl 

♦  Hu|H  rsfslisl  lit   Fiiiirlertith  .Xmeetllticat. 

X  Twaisirary  cfauae 


the  alilh  Vear.  so  tluit  niic  thinl  ni:iy  Im-  ilmw-a 

every  second  \  ar;  and  if  Vaiaiides  liapinn  hr 

Realsnation.  n;  nth.rwiae,  .turi;!*;  the  Kii.s,  ,',f 

the   Legiahiture  of    any   State,    the    F.x.n  utiw 

then>o(  may  make  temporary  Appointniinis  until 

the  next  lurting  of  the  Legialature.  whii  ||  siisU 

tbenfi'laucb  Vacaneiea.     [^8]     No  Persnn  sliall 

be  a  Senator  who  ahall  nnt   have  attain  -'I  tii  ihi- 

Age  of  thirty  Y'ears.  and  lieeu  nine  Years  a  Citi 

len  of  the  Tniteil   States,  ami  who  kIiuII  nn. 

when  ekcttnl.  lie  an  Inhabitant  of  that  Mali-  for 

which   he  shall    lie  chown.     (£  -1  ]     The  Yin 

Prealdent  of  tlic  Uniteil  Statea  shall  Is-  IV-siiloct 

of  the  Senate,  but  shall  ha>'e  no  Vote,  uuli-sstlirv 

be   equally   di' ided.     [§  5.)     The  S-niilc  blall 

chuse  their  oil    r  IXBcers,  and  aUi  a  ["ri-siili-ni 

pro  tcni|sin',  in  the  Absence  of  the  Vin   ["rKi 

■lent,  or  when  he  abail  exercise  ihi-  iifflit  n! 

Presid.  ni    nf  the   UJted   States.      l^ii|    TL 

^'  nnle  sli:ill  have  the  sole  Power  tn  Iry  all  lui 

pi  achnients      Wh.n   sitting    fur  thai    I'liri  w, 

they  shall  1»-  i  ii  <  lath  or  AmrinBlinn      Wh.  n  tls- 

IVsldent  nf  tin   liiited  Suites  is  trinl   tlii-  (  liivf 

Justice   shall  pnsidi-:  And  Di  l'ir~m  >li:.l'i  bt 

1  iinvicled  witlnmt  the  Iniieiirieiieenf  tm.  ilirli 

nt  the  Menilars  pn-sent.     J;;  '..]    .Iiili-niin;  in 

Caseaof  inipeiK'iinii-nt  sli:il]  imi  t-\iri:il  fiintifr 

than  to  removal  from  titilee.  and  ilisiiiialitiriiiinn 

to  hold  and  i  i.joy  any  Olhi  e  nf  h.ni  r.  Triw  nt 

Profit  tiuilir  the  Un'ltiil  States    !i  i:  ilu   |';mr 

convicted  shall  nevertheleas  Is-  li;il  '.   iinl  ^iihjirl 

to    Inilietnient.    THal.  Judj-'nieut  a:i.l   rii:i!.!i 

ineiit,  aceonling  to  Law.     .Sii-ri../i  4.     |?  1  ]    Tlii- 

limes,  Plai-'-s  and  Manner  i if  hnlilhii:  Kl. iii.ii. 

fnrSiiatoi-.  and  Hi  on-sentativi-s,  sliili  U   pre 

serils-d  In  ea<h  Stan-  by  the  L<v'i'>laliir-  iliirnif 

htit  the  Congn'ss  may  at  any  linn-  I'v  l.:nv  nuilif 

or  alter  such  Kegulutinns.  exis-pt  a«  t"  iln  I'lurt 

of  cbusingSeiiators.     [i'i]     Tin  t  niiL-ri">li:ili 

insemlile  at  least  onci'  in  i-M-rv  \  i  ar,  :.iid  mhIi 

Mifting  shall  la' on  the  first  .Mnii.|:i\  m  Isn-ni- 

Is-r.  unless  they  shall  by  Ijiw  app..i;ii  a  ilillinii; 

I)av,     .Sie/iV.«  Vi      Ul|     l-jiih   l|..ii.,   ,li:ill  Ik 

the  Judge  of  the  Eleitinns,  IMiinw  ai^l  (iuslifi 

catiniisi.f   its  own   Minilsrs,  ami  a  M  ij-n!> -if 

eat-h  shall  eniistitiile  a  (jiinrnm  l<>il<    liii-iai-H, 

but   a  smaller  NuiiiUi   may  ailj.'uni  Iniu  ila.v 

to  day,  and    mav  Is-  uiillinVi/eil  1"  i.iii|"l  its- 

Atteiidanie  nl  ufisent  Menilii  r-,  ill  Me  h  Miniu-r 

anil    under  .-'Ui  h    Penalties  as  e:ii  ti  Hmum   iiwr 

i.in- -ill ,     li'i  \     Kiieh  llnUM- ma.  ■!.  ti  naiiirlls- 

Uiii'.  >  "f  its  Pnstisliiii.'s.  |.!iiii.li  i't^  M'  nJ-i  r»  f.ir 

ilistirilerly  lieliaviiiiir.  uid    wiili  ilu  ' 

nf  twii  thirds,  eX|Ml  a   ,Mi  iiiUr      | 

liouse  shall  ki'tp  a  .Intiriial  nf  ii»  1 

and  fmni  time  In  time  piiMi^h  ilu  ni 

!    ingsuih  Parts  as  may  ill  till  ir  Jii-lji 

I   ^ecns■y  ;  iinil  till-  Vi-iU  and  Na.\>  nt  III-  M- inlrn 

nf  eitlier  l|nus<-  on  aiiV  i|iie«iiMii   -I,  ,il     ii  !ls 

I)i-sin'iif   nlll     fifth  nf    Ihns.     1'ris.llt    1-.    •l.lil«l 

nn  the  Ji.iirtial  (j  4  1  Ni  itlii  r  11- u-  a.innir 
the  Stssinii  nf  CnnKnss,  shall,  wiili-.iH  il"  ' 'B- 
si-nt  nf  the  iither,  ailjiiiiru  fnr  iii' i'  ilim  iliiw 
days,  linrt.ian)  nther  Plan  than  liu!  m  »l*t 
the  twn  llniisa-s shall  Is-  sittini:  -Si'i  ■>  IS  If  1 1 
Till-  .-s  iiainrs  and  Uepn-M  nlatlvi-^  sliail  n.ii« 
a  Ci'mpensatlnn  fnr  their  Sir\li.-  i  •  l«  ""^r^ 
tainiil  liv  Uw,  and  iHiid  mil  •  f  il-'  Tr.-a»ur;  A 
the  UnitiHl  Stall's.  They  shall  in  all  i  ixv  il- 
leptTreaaon,  Kelnnv  and  Hnuili.l  ili.  I'liuv. 
1.1  privileged  fniin  v-n-Kt  iluriiii;  il 
anee  ut  the  .S-asi -i;  I  'heir  n-nisit 
and  in  going  to  ami  nttirnliij;  ?r..ii,  liji 


rr.[uv 

Uli 

.link's, 

X.ipl 

.  .iuiir 


ir  .MiinJ 
.    Il.-uin, 


6:i<> 


CONSrrnmOK:  UNITED  STATES.    Congnm.  CONSTITUTION:  UNITED  STATES. 


tad  for  any  Speech  or  Debate  lu  eitlier  llouae, 
tbrr  iball  not  be  questioned  In  any  other  PUce 
[i  1]  No  Senator  or  liepreientative  ahall,  dur- 
Ity  the  Tlnw  for  which  h?  \»a«  elected,  be  ap- 
poioU'd  tu  any  civi!  UAl<'e  uudt-r  the  Authurilv 
of  the-  United  8tates,whl<'hiilmll  have  been  createtf. 
p'lbe  Emoluments  whertofbhall  h&re  been  in- 
cn'a9»i  diiriui;  such  time ;  uud  uo  Perwin  holding 
tov  iMiv  under  the  United  tflates.  shall  be  a 
Mrmber  of  either  House  during  his  (.'omiuuauce 
InOtScT.  .•iWi</«  7.  [JS  1.]  Ali  Bills  tor  raising 
Revinue  shall  originate  in  the  Houw  iif  Itepre- 
lenutives  i  but  the  tk-nate  nwy  proiHUie  »r  concur 
with  Aniendmenta  as  on  other  Bills,  [i  i.] 
Ever}'  Bill  which  shall  liare  parsed  the  Ilouse 
n(  l(rpn-seulatives  and  the  Senate,  shall,  tiefore 
It  bfi'ome  a  Ijiw.  l)e  prcwuted  to  the  President 
.->f  the  I'niliil  States:  If  he  approve  he  shall  si^n 
it.  hut  if  nut  lie  shall  ntum  it,  with  his  (Ibjec- 
tion.'i  to  that  House  iii  which  it  sliall  have  urigi- 
iMte<l.  »lio  slutll  cuter  the  Olijectiims  at  large 
on  till  ir  Jiiunial,  and  pnKvwl  In  n'<'oU8idiT  it. 
If  dftiT  such  Keconsideration  two  thirds  «t  iliat 
iJouM  .'•linll  agnt'  *o  pass  the  Bill,  it  shall  Uaciit, 
luiritliirwith  the  Objections,  to tlicotliir  Hl>u•^e, 
))v  whii'U  it  shall  lii^cwise  Ite  recitUKitlt-rfd,  mul 
if  ap|in>vc<l  by  two  thinis  of  that  House,  it  sliall 
liniiima  Ljtw.  But  in  ull  such  CaM-s  the  Votes 
if  lutli  Houses  shall  U  ilctemdned  l>r  yeas  and 
Navs,  ami  tile  Names  of  the  Persoiis'volini:  for 
uiil  a^taiiist  the  Bill  shall  Is-  eut^'nil  on  I  he  Jour- 
naiof  cm  h  lloum-  n-sjHHiivcly.  If  any  Bill  kIiuII 
nal  In'  nluniiil  liy  tiie  I'resiilinl  williiiitcu  l>ay» 
lMiiiilay>iexa'pti*«l I  after  it  shall  have  U-i-u  pri-- 
K'hIiiI  to  him,  llie  same  shall  )>  a  I.,aw.  in  liUc 
Mauuir  asif  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the ('oiign'u 
liy  1  111  if  Ailjouriiment  prevent  its  Ketiini,  iu 
s'bii  it  t'a.se it  sliall  not  Ilea  Law.  I>  !i.]  Every 
iinicr  I{e»i.lutiou.  or  Votr  to  which  the  Coii- 
<-i:rn  Ull-  of  tlu'  >S'nate  ami  House  of  lU'pn-seiila- 
rivi's  nmy  1h'  miTssiiry  (cxi-ept  on  a  ijuestion  of 
.Viljoiinmieull  slwll  Is' presented  to  the  I'n-sident 
I'f  the  liiileil  Slates:  luid  Ivfore  llie  same  shall 
laki  Klfn  t,  shall  !»•  upproveil  l>y  liim.  or  lieiug 
>lix;p|<rovi.<|  liy  him,  shall  U'  repasai'd  by  two 
ilitnl'.  of  the  Senali'  and  House  of  liepresenta- 
livi..  ai'conling  to  the  Uules  and  l.iiiiitationx 
lin-M  rilsil  iu  the  Case  of  a  Bill  .Srrti^n  n  The 
luii^'nss  shall  have  Power  [J  1.]  To  lay  and  col- 
W't  I'axes,  Duties,  Imposts  and  Exi  ist's.  to  (wy 
tls-  IVMs  and  priivide  for  the  common  Ih-feuce 
uit  pueral  Welfare  of  the  I'nitetl  States.  Iiut  all 
DiiUK  Iin|Kists  and  Excises  shall  lie  uniform 
tlmuiL'liout  the  United  States.  U-  )  To  txir- 
r.»  .Moiiiy  on  llie  creilil  of  the  I  nited  StaU-s 
Ij  :l  I  To  regulate  foninierce  with  foreign 
Naii.iiis,  and  among  the  several  States,  and  witli 
ilie  liiiliati  Trilies:  [i  *\  To  establish  an  uni 
f.nu  llule  of  NaluriilUation,  ami  uuilomi  Laws 
i>u  ilii-  sulijnt  of  Baukruptcies  throughout  the 
Iniii'l  Stall*  H  j  1  To  coin  .Money,  regulate 
till'  \  alue  thereof,  and  of  foniifu  C'oiu.'aud  tix  the 
.siLmianl  of  WeightH  and  .Mea.sure»,  I  ^  «  1  To 
|r"U.lr  for  the  I'uuishmeiii  of  .'ounlerfeitiiig  llie 
.Niuritii-a  and  current  t  oin  ot  the  United  Statm, 
U  T  I  To  et'ablisb  Post  ( IIHces  and  immI  Ihiads. 
If")  Til  promote  the  Proitresa  of  Seiemr  and 
utrful  Arts,  by  securing  fiir  liiiiiteil  Times  to 
.'.uthiirs  and  Inventurs  the  :exciusive  Uinht  to 
tliiir  resistiive  Writings  and  IMxHiveries.  |^  1)  ] 
T"  I'liustituU!  Tribunals  inferior  to  the  siipn'me 
li'uit,  1^  10  )  To  jeflne  and  punish  Piraeies 
ml  FiUuirs  tHimmittctl  on  the  high  Seas,  and 


Offences  against  the  Law  of  Nations:  [^  U.I 
To  declare  War,  grant  Letters  of  Marque  and 
lieprisal,  and  make  Kules  concerning  Capture* 
on  Ijiml  and  Water:  [^  12.  J  To  raise  and  aup- 
|sirt  Armies,  but  no  Appropriation  ot  Money  to 
that  Use  shall  be  fur  a  longer  Term  than  two 


^ears:  |^  13.]  To  provide  and  maintain  a  Nary; 
[S  14.1  To  make  Uuh-s  for  tlie  Itovernment  and 
tegulation  of  the  land  and  naval  Forces ;     [S  15.  J 


I  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  Militia  to  execute 
the  Lawri  of  the  Union,  suppress  Insurrections 
I   and  n-iK-l  Invasions:     [S  l*-]     To  provide  for  or- 
ganizing, aniiing,  and  diseiplining  the  Militia, 
and  lor  governing  such  Part  of  them  as  may  lie 
j   emphiveil  iu  tlie  Service  of  the  United   States, 
I   ri'servlug  to  the  Slates  resiKciivelv,  the  Appoint- 
i    nient    of    the    Offlcers,     and    the"  Authoritv   of 
I   training  the  Militia  aiturtliiig  to  tlie  discipline 
,    pl-scrilieil  by  Congress:  (S  IT  1     To eiercisi!  ex- 
clusive Le(ii»lutioii  in  all  Cases  wliatsm-ver.  over 
i   such  District  (not  exceeiliiiL'  ten   Miles  square) 
as  may.  by  I  issiiin  of  panieolur  States,  and  the 
Aeeeptaiii-e  of  lonKrew.  lieconie  tlie  Seat  of  the 
I  IJovemniint  of  tlie  Uiiitnl  States,  and  to  cvercise 
I    like  Authority  over  ull  Places  purchased  by  the 
(  oumiit  of  the  Legislature  of  the  State  in  wliich 
the   same   shall    Is-,   for  the    Krection  of  Forts, 
I    .Magazines.  Arstuals,  dm  k-Yanls.  and  other  ueed- 
I   fill  Builduigs:— .Vud    [■:  1"*  !    To  make  all  Laws 
I   which  shall  Ix'  necessary  .mil  pM|ierfor  carrving 
into  Execution  the  fofeitoinit  Powers,  ami  all 
I  other  Powers  vestiil  by  thi:^  Coustiiiition  in  the 
i   tiovemment  of  the  Unitiil  States   or  in  unv  IK'- 
I    partmeut  or  Officer  thereof      S.-r,;n  ».     (^  1  ] 
I   [The  Migration  or  Im|iortalioii  of  siiili  Persona 
as  any  of   tlie   States  uow  existing  sliall    think 
I   pM|N'r  to  admit,  shall  not  lie  pmbibited  liy  tlie 
I  (ongn-ss  prior  bi  the  Year  one  thoiisand  iight 
I   luiuiirisl  and  eight,  liut  a  Tax  or  duty  may  Ih> 
I   iiii|His<Hl  on  siieii  Importation,  not  exceeding  leu 
I  dollars  for  eaih  Persim.]'     IS  2.1    The  Privileug 
I  of  I'-e  Writ  of  Halieas  Corjius  slinll  not  !»■  siis- 
I   |K'i    ed.  unless  when  in  Citsi-Kof  Uelielliou  or  In- 
I    vasiiin  the  public  Safety  limy  require  it      [S  S  ] 
I   No  Bill  of  Attainder  or  ex  pi«t  fuito  Ijiw  shall 
Is'    passeil.f      li-i]      No  Capitation,    or  other 
ilirei't.  Tax  shall  Ik'  laid,  unless  in  Pro|i<irtiou  to 
!    IlieCcnsusor  Enumeration  heniii  ti«fon>ilin'ili'd 
'   to  b<' taken.     [J.'i.]     No  Tax  or  Kuty  shall  !«• 
laid  on  Articles  exiMirtiil  from  any  .•slaie      [j  ti  ] 
^    No  I'n'fen'iice  shall  lie  given  by  auv  liei;ulaiiou 
;  of  Commeric  or  Beveniie  to  tin    Ports  of  one 
State  over   those  of   another    n.T  shall  Vi-sm-Ib 
IniuiiiI  to,  or  from,  one  Slate,  la-  oMigiil  to  enter, 
clear,    or   pav    Duties  in   uiiotlii  r      [;:  T  ]     No 
,    Money  shall  fx- drawn  from  the  Treasury,  but  iu 
CoiLsequence  of  .\|ipropriations  maiie  by  Ijiw  ; 
unit  a  regular  Statement  ami  Aieoiiut  of  ilie  Ih- 
ceipts   and    Kx|M'nilitun's  of   ull    pubMe    Money 
I   sliull  Ik'   publisliiil  from   time  to  time      [ji  M  ] 
No   Title  of   Nobilily   siiull    Is-   grunted    by  the 
United  States    .Viid  uo  IVrxm  holding  any  Ottlce 
of    Prolit    or  Tni»t  under  them,   shall,  witliout 
theConsi'iii  of  tlieCoiigrt'ss.  aiveptof  any  present. 
Emolument,  oitlee,  or  Tith',  of  any  kind  what- 
ever, from  any  King.  IMuce,  or  fon'iirn  Slate.  { 
Srrtini,  W      [■!  1  ]    No  Slate  shall  enter  into  any 
Tnaly.  .\IIUniv,  or  Confedenitiou .  grant  Let- 
ters of  Marque  and  ib'prisal:  coin  Money:  emit 
Hills  of  Credit :  make  any  Thing  but  gold  and 

•TrtnpiirarT  pmrlsioB 

*  Ef  tiMMlisl  hjr  lti«>  nm  eltfbt  ,Vnu*niliiieal«. 

S  CxteodMl  by  NUltli  and  TrDlta  Aiueii4lu«lls. 


021 


CONSTITXrnON:  UNITED  STATES.  j^^JJf,^^  CONSTITUTION :  UNITED  STATES. 


lilTer  Coin  a  Tender  in  Payment  of  DebU:  pass 
any  Bill  of  Attainder,  ex  post  facto  Law,  or  Law 
impairing  the  Obligation  of  Contracts,  or  grant 
any  TiUe  of  Nobifity.  [S2.]  No  State  shall, 
without  the  Consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any 
Imposts  or  Duties  on  Imports  or  Exports,  except 
what  may  be  absolutely  necessary  for  executing 
iU  inspection  Laws:  and  the  net  Produce  of  all 
Duties  and  Imposts,  laid  by  any  State  on  Importa 
or  Exports,  shall  be  for  the  Use  of  the  Treasury 
of  the  United  States;  and  all  such  Laws  shall  be 
subject  to  the  Revision  and  L'ontroul  of  the  Con- 
gress. [^  8.]  No  State  shall,  without  the  Con- 
sent of  Congress,  lay  any  Duty  of  Tonnage,  keep 
Troops,  or  Ships  of  War  in  time  of  Peace,  enter 
into  any  Agreement  or  Compact  with  another 
State,  or  with  a  foreign  Power,  or  engage  in 
War,  unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  Immi- 
nent Danger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay.* 

Article  11.    SKtion  1.  [g  1.]    The  executive 
Power  shall   be   vested   in  a   President  of  the 
United  States  of  America.      He  shall  hold  his 
Office  during  the  Term  of  four  Years,  and,  to- 
gether with  the  Vice  President,  chosen  for  the 
same  Term,  be  elected,  as  follows    (^  2.]    Each 
State  shall  appoint,  in  such  Manner  as  the  Legis- 
lature thereof  may  direct,  a  Number  of  Electors. 
equal  to  the  whole  Number  of  Senators  and 
Representatives  to  which    be  State  may  lie  en- 
titled In  the  Congress:  but  no  Senator  or  Repre- 
sentative, or  Person  holding  an  Office  of  Trust 
or  Profit  under  the  l'nite<i  Stales,  sliall  be  ap- 
pointed an  Elector.     [The  Electors  shall  mwt  In 
their  respective  States,  and  vote  by  Ballot  for 
two  Persuns,  of  whom  nne  at  least  shall  not  tie 
an  Inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  tlieniM'Ives. 
And  they  shall  make  a  List  of  all  the  Persons 
voteii  for.  and  of  the  NumU'r  of  Votes  for  each ; 
which  List   they   shall    sign   and    certify,  and 
transmit  sealed  to  the  Seat  of  the  Oovemment  of 
the  United  States.  dlrecU'd  to  the  Pn-sldent  of 
the  Senate.     The  President  of  the  S<nate  shall, 
in  the  Pi  'sence  of  the  Senate  ami  llnuse  of  Re- 
presenti.'..vi's.  open  all  the  Certiftrati-H.  and  the 
Votes  shall  then  lie  counted.      The  Prrson  hav- 
ing the  greaU-st  Numlier  of  Voles  shall  be  the 
President,  if  such  Numlwr  be  a  Majority  cf  the 
whole  Numlier  of   Electors  appointed;    and   If 
there  be  more  Hum  one  who  have  such  Majority, 
and  have  an  equal  Numlier  of  Votes,  then  llie 
House    of    Bepn'sentat'-.s    shall    Immediately 
chuse  by  Ballot  one  of  them  for  l*re«l(liiit ,  and 
if  no  Person  have  a  Majority,  then  fmm  the  live 
highest  on  the  List  the  said' House  shall  in  like 
Manner  chuse  the  President       But  in  cliusing 
the  Pn-sident.  the  Voles  sliall  be  taken  liv  Slates, 
the  R<-presentalion  from  each  Stale  lia'ving  one 
Viiic;  A  quorum  for  this  Purpose  shall  consist 
iif  a  .Memlier  or  Memliera  from  two  ihinls  of  the 
States,  and  a  Majority  of  all  the  Stales  slinll  be 
iHTi'«»ary  lo  a  Choice.     In  every  Case,  after  Iho 
CliMiceof  Ihe  l*resident.  the  Person  having  the 
greatest  NumluT  of  Voles  of  the  Elect. irs  shall 
U-  the  Vice  President.     But  if  lhen>  should  re- 
main two  iir  moH'  who  havi'  equal  Voles,  Ihe 
Senate  shall  I'liiise  fnim  Ihem  Iit  Ballot  Ihe  Vice 
l-residentj*     [i  H  ]     The  Congnss  may   deter 
mine  the  Time  of  <  hilling  the  Electors,  and  the 
l»ay  on  which  lliey  xliall  give  llwlr  Voles,  which 
l»ay  shall  b.-  ilie  name  tlmiughoui  the  United 

•EnemlMl  by  Thlncrnih.  rniirtiwnib  and  nftomth 
anradniMits. 

«  BaparSBfad  hy  tSreifti;  Aro«p.-lr.w«!, 


Statea.     [§  4.1    No  Person  except  a  natural  be 

Citizen,  or  a  Citizen  of  the  United  States,  at  t 

time  of  the  Adoption  of  this  Constitution  sh 

be  eligible  to  the  Office  of  President;  neitt 

shall  any  Person  be  eligible  to  that  Offlic  »; 

shall  not  have  attainea  to  the  Age  of  thirty  i 

Years,  and  been  fourteen  Years  a  Resident  with 

the  United  States.     [8  5.]    In  Case  of  the  H 

moval  of  the  President  from  Office,  or  of  1 

Death,  Resignation,  oi  Inability  to  <li8char(re  t 

Powers  and  Duties  of  the  said  Office,  the  Sar 

shall  devolve  on  the  Vice  President  and  t 

Congress  may  by  Law  provide  for  the  Case 

Removal,  Death,  Resignation,  or  Inaliilitv  W 

of  the  President  and  Vice  President.  dtVlaiTi 

what  Officer  shall  then  act  as  President,  ami  lui 

Officer  shall  act  accordingly,  until  the  Disabilli 

be  removed,    or  a  Preaklent  shall  be  electe 

[Si  6.]    The  President  ahall.  at  suted  Times  r 

ccive  for  his  Services,  a  Comnensalion,   whi( 

shall  neither  be  hicreaaed  nor  diminished  durit 

the  Period  for  which  he  shall  have  liccn  cIpckk 

and  he  shall  not  receive  within  that  IVriixl  an 

other  Emolument  from  the  United  States  nr  ai 

of  them,     [g  7J    Before  he  enter  on  theExeci 

tion  of  his  Ofllce,  he  shall  take  the  fi.llnwio 

Oath  or  Affirmation:—"  I  do  solemnly  swear  i. 

"affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the  (iillc 

"of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will  i 

"the  best  of  my  Ability,  preserve,  protect  an 

"defend  the  Constitution  of  Ihe  United  Statea 

Htction  2.     [ii  1.1     The  President  shall  Ik-  Cm 

mander  in  C'hief  of  the  Army  and  Naw  of  th 

Unlte<l  Slates,  and  <if  the  Militia  of  the  severs 

Slates,  when  called  into  the  actual  Service  nf  ih 

United  States;  he  may  require  the  (iiilnion  ' 

writing,  of  tka  principal  Officer  in  .  mi  h  nf  ti 

executive  Departments,  upon  any  Sulijeei  nl.n 

ing  10  Ihe  Duties  of  their  respecfive  ditids,  m 

he  shall  have  Power  to    grant    Itipriive*  ,iiii 

Panlons  for  Offences  against  the  rniidl  State* 

except  in  Cases  of  Im|>eachment.     (ii)    H 

shall  have  Power,  by  and  with  the  AdvieL  an. 

Consent  of  the  Senate,  to  make  Tn.iiies.  pm 

videil  two  thirds  of  the  Senators  prewnt  cunur 

and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with  the  \i 

vice  and  Consent  of  the  Senate,  shall  appi.in 

Ambassadors,  other  public  Minisleni  and  I'nn 

sills,  Judges  of  the  supreme  Court,  and  all  mlip 

Officers  of  the  United  Suies.   whose  Appulut 

ments  are  not  herein  otherwise  provideil  fur,  an. 

which  shall  be  esUblUhed  by   Law:   but  tbi 

Congress  may  by  Law  vest  the  Appiintmeni  ol 

such   Inferior  omcen,  as  they  think  proper,  it 

Ihe  Pn-sldent  alone,  in  the  Courts  of  Uw.  or  li 

the  Heads  of  DepartmenU.     (#8.]    The  Prrsi 

dent  shall  have  Power  to  (111  up  all  Vacaticiei 

that  may  happen  during  the  Recess  «f  the  !<rn 

ale,  by  grantlnit  Commiaalons  which  shall  riplr« 

at  the  End  of  their  next  Session.     .Sn-'ion  8.    H( 

shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Conimt  In. 

formation  of  the  State  of  the  Union,  ami  reciira- 

mend  to  Ihelr  Conslderatlou  such  Mi'ssiires  u  be 

shall  Judge  necessary  and  ex|ietllent.  lie  may, 

on  extraiinllnary  Occasions,  coovenrliotMIoiiwi, 

or  either  of  them,  and  in  Case  of  DimKreemeDt 

lielween  them,    with  Hesnect  In  the  Time  ol 

Adjournment,   he  may  ailjoum  them  >n  lucb 

Time  aa  he  sliall  think  pnip<-r:  he  shall  rerelvg 

Amtiasiadors    and  other  public   Minisirn:  b« 

shall  take  Care  that  the  Laws  be  fsithfiilly  fie- 

cuted,  and  shall  Commission  ail  the  Offieen  of 

tbr  l-ftilcd  States.     SccHm  t     Thu  pfvjitirii. 


C22 


CONSTITUTION:  UNITED  STATES.  Judiciary.  CONSTITUTION:  UNITED  SVATES. 


Tlce  Pre«ldent  and  all  civil  Offlccrs  of  the 
United  States,  shall  be  removed  from  Offlce  on 
Impeachment  for.  and  Conviction  of,  Treaaon, 
Bribery,  or  other  high  Crimes  and  Misdcmean- 
on. 

Article  III.    Section  1.     The  judicial  Power 
of  the  United  States,  shall  be  vested  in  one  su- 
preme Court,  ami  in  such  inferior  Courts  as  the 
Congress  may   (mm  time  to  time  ordain  and 
ntablish.    The  Judfes,  both  of  the  supreme  and 
Inferior  Courts,  shall  hold  their  Offices  during 
good  Behaviour,  and  shall,  at  stated  Times,  re- 
ceive for  their  Services,  a  Comp.'ns«ti<ni.  which 
ihall  not  be  diminished  during  tin  ir  Continuance 
in  Offlce.     Section  2.  [§  1.]     The  judicial  Power 
slall  extend  to  all  CWs,  in  Law  and  Equity, 
•rising  under  this  Constitution,  th«  Laws  of  tfie 
rnitsd  States,  and  Treaties  ir.ad",  or  which  shall 
be  made,  under  their  Authority :  — to  all  Cases 
affecting  .Vmbawadors.  other   public   Ministers 
ind  Consuls :  —  to  all  Cases  of  admiralty  and  mari- 
time Jurisdiction;  —  to  Controversies'  to   which 
the  United  SUtes  shall  be  a  Party ;  —  to  Cottro- 
lenlei  between  two  or  more  States :  —  between 
t  Stale  and  Citizens  of  another  State ;  • —  betwei-n 
fiiizens  <i(  dilTerent  States.— Iwtween  Citizens 
of  tlie  same  State  claiming  Lands  untler  Grants 
of  different  States,  and  between  a  State,  or  the 
Citizens  thereof,  and  foreiirn  States,  Citizens  or 
Subjects    [^  a,]  In  all  Cases  affecting  .Vmbassa- 
don.  oilier  public   Ministers  and  Consuls,  and 
thow  in  which  a  State  shall  !)<•  Party,  the  supreme 
Court  shall  have  original  Juris<llctl()n.      In  all 
Uie  other  Cases  before  mentioned,  the  supreme 
Court  ihall  have  appellate  Jiiris<licti.>n,  Iwth  a* 
to  Law  and  Fact,  with  such  Exceptions,  and 
under  »ii(h  Itegiilations  as  the  Congn««  shall 
make.    [^  3.]    The  Trial  of  all  Crimes,  except 
In  Ca«-«  of  Impeachment,  shall  be  bv  Jury ;  and 
suih  Trial  shall  be  held  in  tlic  State  where  the 
said  Crimea  shall   have   N^eu  committed;    hut 
wbfn  not  committed  within  any  State,  tlie  Trial 
shall  lie  at  such  Place  or  Places  as  the  Congress 
may  liy  Law  have  ilirecte*!.     Strtion  3.    [^  1.] 
Treason  amlnst  the  Uniteil  States,  shall  consist 
nnly  in  'vying  War  against  them,  or  in  adher- 
iDf '.1  their  Enemies,  glvinv'  them  .Vlil  and  Com- 
fort    Xo  IVrwm  shall  be  convicted  of  Treason 
unlfMon  the  Testimony  of  two  \Vitne«8<'s  to  the 
■me  overt  Act,  or  on  C'onfession  in  o|Hn  Court. 
[ii]    The  Congress  shall  have  Power  to  ile- 
clart  the  Punishment  of  Treason,  but  no  .\tlniii- 
(ter  of  Tnason  shall  work  Corruption  of  niiH«l, 
or  Forfeiture  excipt  during  the  Life  of  tlie  Per- 
«on  attainted. 

Article  IV,  Sfelion  1.  Full  Faith  and  Credit 
•hall  be  given  in  each  Mtate  to  the  public  Acts, 
liiwrdB.  and  judicial  Proceedings  of  every 
"ther  State.  And  the  Cnngrt-n  may  bv  general 
U»i  nreacribe  the  Manner  in  willed  siicli  .Vela, 
Rwxinla  iiiHi  IVoceeillngs  shall  Ik'  proved,  and 
the  Iff,.,  t  thenuif.  .Srefi„,i  a  Ul)  The  CHI- 
KM  of  I  seh  t4tate  shall  be  entltlol  to  all  Privi- 
kff*  snil  Immunities  of  CItlr.ena  In  the  several 
CUIitJI  [i'l]  A  Permm  charged  in  any  stale 
with  Treiwin.  Felony,  or  other  Crime,  wlio  shall 
rff  from  Justice,  and  he  found  in  another  State. 
•hail  on  IVmand  of  the  executive  Authority  of 
ihrSuie  from  which  he  fled,  he  dellvewl  up,  to 
ijrrmoveil  to  the  State  having  Jiirisillction  of 
ihe^lrime     [J  8.)    [Xo  Person  held  lo  StnicB 

■uliwM  hj  FjurlMetli  AmMHlmeot 


or  Labour  in  one  State,  under  the  Laws  thereof, 
escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  Consequence  of 
any  Law  or  Regulation  therein,  be  discharged 
from  such  Service  or  Labour,  but  shall  be  de- 
livered up  on  Claim  of  'he  Party  to  whom  such 
^rvice  or  Labour  may  be  due.]*  SettionS.  [S  1  ] 
Aew  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congresa 
Into  this  L  nion ;  but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed 
or  erected  within  the  Jurisdiction  of  any  other 
State;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  Junction 
of  two  or  more  States,  or  Parts  of  States,  with- 
out the  Consent  of  the  Legislatures  of  the  States 
concerned  as  well  as  f  the  Congress.  [S  8  1 
The  Congress  shall  have  Power  to  dispose  of  and 
make  all  needful  Rules  and  Regulations  respect- 
ing the  Territory  or  other  Property  lielonging  to 
the  Lnlted  States;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitu- 
tion shall  be  so  construed  as  to  Prejudice  any 
Claims  of  the  United  States,  or  of  any  particular 
Mate.  Section  4.  The  United  States  shall  guar- 
antee to  every  State  in  this  Union  a  Republican 
Form  of  Government,  and  shall  protect  each  of 
them  against  Invasion;  and  on  Application  of 
the  Legislature,  or  of  the  Execuiive  (when  the 
Legislature  cannot  be  convened)  against  domestic 
N  iolence. 

*"'«'•  V.  The  Congress,  whenever  two 
thirl  i  of  both  Houses  shall  deem  it  necessary 
shall  propose  Amendments  to  this  Constitution' 
or.  on  the  Application  of  the  Legislatures  of  two 
thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall  call  n  Conven- 
tion for  proposing  Amendmenta,  which,  in  eitlier 
Case,  shall  be  vali  I  to  all  Intents  and  Purpiws, 
as  Part  of  this  Constitution,  when  ratified  by  the 
Legislatures  of  three  fourths  of  tlie  sevenil 
States,  or  by  Conventions  In  three  fourths  thereof, 
as  the  one  or  the  other  -Mole  of  Itatiflcation  may 
lie  proposed  by  the  Congress;  Provided  that 
[no  .\mendment  which  may  be  made  prior  to  the 
lear  One  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight 
shall  in  any  Manner  alfcct  the  first  and  fourth 
Clauses  In  the  Ninth  Section  of  the  first  Article; 
andlt  that  no  State,  without  iU  Consent,  shall 
tie  deprive<l  of  its  equal  Suffrage  In  the  Sen- 
ate. 

Article  VI.  [g  1.1  All  Debta  contracted  and 
Engagements  entered  Into,  before  the  Adoption 
of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against 
the  United  States  under  this  Constitution,  at 
under  the  Confederation. t  fS2.]  This  Consti- 
tution, and  the  Uws  of  the  t  nit«l  States  which 
shall  lie  made  in  Pursuance  thereof:  and  all 
Treaties  made,  or  which  shall  lx>  made,  under 
the  Authority  of  the  United  Stales,  shall  lie  the 
supreme  Law  of  the  Land;  and  the  Judges  in 
every  State  shall  In-  Imund  tliereliy,  any  Thing 
In  the  Constitution  or  I.aws  of  any  Stale  to  the 
Conlmry  notwIthslHmling.  [^3.1  The  Senator! 
and  Representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the 
.Memliers  of  the  several  State  Legislatures,  and 
all  executive  and  judicial  Officers,  both  of  the 
United  States  and  of  the  several  States,  shall  he 
hiund  by  Oath  or  Afflrmation.  to  support  thii 
Constitution:  b.il  no  religious  Test  shall  ever  lie 
n>quireil  as  a  Qualification  to  any  Offlce  or  public 
Trust  under  the  United  States. 

Article  VII,  The  Ratification  of  the  Conven 
tlons  of  nine  States,  shall  be  sufficient  for  the 
Establishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the 
States  so  ratifying  the  Same. 


'tuneneded  to  ThlrtMntli 
*  T«*iilnir«ry  uruvMvli. 
t  BstMiM  \t  rmtnmmtk 


■•etioai. 


C23 


mm 


CONSTITUTION:  UNITED  STATES.    AmmdmmU.    CONSTITUTION:  UNITED  STATES 


r' 


SI  ! 


Done  Id  CoiiTention  by  the  Unanimous  Cou- 
■ent  of  the  States  present  tbe  Seventeenth  Day 
of  September  in  the  Year  of  our  Lord  one 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  Eighty  seven  and 
of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of 
America  the  Twelfth  In  Witness  whereof  We 
have  hereunto  subscribed  our  names. 

Go  Washihotos  — Presidt  and  deputy  from 
Virginia. 

Delaware. 
Geo:  Read  John  Dicliinson 

Ounning  Bedford  jun        niclurd  Bassett 

Jaco:  Broom 
New  IIampsuihe. 
John  Langdon  Nicliolas  Oilman 

MABSACniSETTS. 

Nathaniel  Oorliam  liatua  King 

Maryland. 

James  McHenry  Dan  of  St.  Thos.  Jenifer 

Danl  Ciirroll 

Connecticut. 

Wm.  Saml.  Jolmson  Roger  Sherman 

ViBOINIA. 

John  Blair —  3f  les  Madison  Jr. 

New  Yo.iK. 
Alexander  Hamilton 
NoHTH  Cabolina. 
Wm.  Blount  Kichd.  Dobbs  Spaigbt 

IIu  WilliuniNou 
New  Jkusky. 
Wil;  Livingston  Wm:  Palcrson. 

David  Brearlcy  Jona:  Dayton 

Soi'TH  Carolina. 
J.  Kutlrdee,  Charles  Piuckney 

Chiirlcs   t'otesworth  Pierce  Butler. 

Pinikuey 

Peskbvlvania. 
B  Fntnklln  Thos.  Fitz  Simons 

Thomas  Mifflin  Jared  Iii^ersoll 

Robt.  Morris  James  \\  ilson. 

Geo.  Clymer  Gouv  Morris 

Georuia. 
William  Few  Abr  Baldwin  • 

ARTICLES  in  addition  to  and  Amendment  of 
the  Constitution  of  tliel'nited  States  of  America, 

f)ropose<l  l)y  Congress,  anil  ratitled  by  the  Legis- 
atures  of  the  several  States,  puninn't  Ui  the  llfth 
Article  of  tiie  original  Cunstitiitiiin.| 

[ArticI*  I.]  Congress  shall  make  no  law  re- 
sp-^'ting  an  establislimeut  of  religion,  or  pn>- 
liiliiting  the  fn-e  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging 
the  fri'i-dom  of  siieech,  or  of  the  press;  or  the 
right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and 
to  (H'tlliou  the  Government  for  a  redress  of 
grievances. 

[Article  II.]  A  well  regulaud  MilltU,  >  Ing 
necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free  State,  the 
right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  Itear  Arms,  shall 
not  be  infringed. 

[Articit  111.1  Ko  Soldier  shall,  in  time  of 
peace  lie  quartered  in  any  house,  witliout  the 
consent  of  the  Owner,  nor  In  time  of  war,  but  In 
a  manner  to  lie  pn'MXlbed  by  law. 

[ArticIt  IV.]  1'he  right  of  the  people  to  be 
■ecuiv  In  their  {lenont,  houses,  iwiwrs,  and  effects, 
•gatost  unreasonable  soanbes  and  aelxures,  shall 
not  be  violated,  and  no  Warrants  shall  Issue,  hui 
upon  probable  cause,  supinirtcd  by  Uath  or  afllri. 
ation,  and  particularly  describiaf  the  place  to 

*  llMn  slfBatiina  kar*  bo  olkar  la(al  tars*  Ihaa  Ikat 

«Thla  bMdlaf  a|i|>Mra  only  la  tho  jatat  mahillaa  ittl>. 
ulltUm  th«  am  (M  auMadniMts. 


be  searched,   and  the  persons  or  things  to 
seized. 

[Article  V.]  No  person  shall  lie  lui.l  to  ansi 
for  a  capital,  or  otherwise  infamous  crime,  unl 
on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  Grand  Ju 
except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  luvul  fon 
or  in  the  Militia,  when  in  actual  .sirviie  m  ti 
of  War  or  public  danger ;  nor  shall  luiy  |i.  r 
be  subject  for  the  same  offence  to  Ih'  twiir  ] 
in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb;  nor  sliuU  Inn 
pelled  in  any  criiniual  case  to  Ik'  a  wiio 
against  himself,  nor  hv  deprived  of  life,  liliei 
or  property,  without  due  pnnrss  of  law, 
shall  private  pro|)erty  be  taken  l"r  imljlici; 
without  just  compensation. 

[Article  VI.]  In  all  criminal  iinisenitions 
accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a  s|ii-.-.ly ; 
public  trial,  by  an  impartiul  jury  >if  '.ln^i 
and  district  wherein  the  crime  shall  liave  l* 
comraittetl,  which  distriit  sliuU  have  Uni  | 
viousiy  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  lie  iufuni 
of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  uccuf ation.  to 
confpontetl  with  the  witnesses  Hi;ain»t  him; 
have  compulsory  process  for  obtaiiiiuu'  witnes 
in  his  favor,  and  to  have  the  Assistauee  of  Coi 
sel  for  his  defence. 

[Article  VII.]  In  suitsat  comimm  lav.  «li 
the  value  in  controversy  shall  exeeeil  t«ii 
dollars,  the  right  of  trial  bv  jury  shall  In  f 
served,  and  no  fact  trieil  \>y  ujury  shall 
othcrwi.se  re-examined  in  any  I'mirt  of 
Vnite<l  States,  than  according  tu  the  rules  of 
common  law. 

[Article  VIII.]  Excessive  bail  shall  not 
require(i.  nor  excessive  lines  iinoosiil,  uir  it 
and  unusual  punishments  iiitlii  ted 

[Article  IX.]    The  enumeration  in  tlie  I 
stitutlon,  of  certain  rights,  ..hull  n  ■■  i«-  eoiistn 
to  deny   or  dispanigi    o'.ner>;   f  luine.l    hy 
|H'o|ile. 

[Article  X.]  The  imwers  not  deleirateil  to 
United  States  by  the  Constitutiou.  unr  proUlx 
by  It  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  ptutn 
spectivelv,  or  to  the  people.* 

[Article  XI.]  "^he  Ju<li(ial  power  oi 
Inited  States  shall  not  lie  loiistriieil  to  extend 
any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  comiiienieil  or  |ini 
I  ii'ti'd  against  one  of  the  United  Staler  by  Citin 
of  another  Slate,  or  by  Citizens  or  SiilijitU 
any  Foreign  State.f 

[Article  XII.]  The  Electors  tliull  mnt 
their  respective  states,  and  vote  liy  hallot 
President  ami  Vic-ePresidert.  one  of  ulioiu, 
least,  shall  not  be  an  inliiibilaiit  of  tie  -ume«l 
with  themselves;  they  slmll  luuiiein  iheirliill 
the  person  votinl  for  as  Pnsideiil.  anil  in ilisti; 
Imllots  the  perwm  voleil  for  as  Viee  l'r<siJe 
and  they  shall  make  distinct  livis  of  all  [kt* 
voted  for  as  President,  and  of  all  jursons  vn 
for  as  Viir  President,  ond  of  the  iiuinlur 
votes  for  each,  which  lists  they  shall  siitn  i 
certify,  and  transmit  wai.  1  to  the  si«t  of  i 
government  of  the  UniU'd  States,  liimteiltoi 
President  of  the  H«-uat4' ;  —  The  I're.iiienl  of 
Senate  shall.  In  the  preteuir  of  the  Stuatn 
Houie  of  Repreeeotativrs,  ojieu  all  the  >  t  rtiti<;i 
»ud  the  votes  sliall  then  Ix'  lounteil.-l 
person  having  the  greatest  niiinl«'r  "f  votes 
President,  shall  be  the  PresliUiil.  if «»'  li  n"" 


•  AmradiDMiU  First  to  Tenth  sppxsr  in  h«' 
l»hitonMJ«a.t,IW 


A   t>  17*1  I 
t  Ptwlalowdto 


C24 


TED  STATES 
1  or  things  tobt 


C0N8TITUT1OX:  UNITED  STATES. 

be  t  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  Electon 
ippointed;  and  if  no  perton  haveiucb  majoritj, 
tiien  from  the  penont  having  the  highest 
oomben  not  exceeding  three  on  the  list  of  tbose 
TOt«d  for  aa  Preaident,  the  Houae  of  Repreaenta- 
tiret  ihall  chooae  immediately,  br  ballot,  the 
Pretident.  But  in  chooaing  the  President,  the 
Totei  sl»ll  be  taken  by  states,  the  representation 
from  each  state  having  one  vote :  a  quorum  for 
thU  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  mem- 
bers fnim  two- thirds  of  the  statea,  and  a  majority 
of  til  tlic  statea  aball  be  necessary  to  a  choice, 
jjid  if  tlic  House  of  Representatives  ahall  not 
choose  a  Tesident  whenever  the  right  of  choice 
sbill  devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day 
of  March  next  following,  then  the  Vice-Presi- 
dent ihall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
death  or  other  constitutional  disability  of  the 
fttiident— The  person  having  the  greatest 
Dumber  of  votes  aa  Vice-President,  shall  be  the 
ViaPresident,  if  such  numl)er  be  a  majority  of 
the  whole  number  of  Electors  appointed,  and  if 
DO  person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the  two 
highest  numbers  on  the  list,  the  Senate  shall 
choose  the  Vice-President;  a  quorum  for  the 
purpose  shall  consist  of  two-thirds  of  the  whole 
number  of  Senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole 
number  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  But  no 
person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of 
President  shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice-Presi- 
dent of  the  I'nitcd  States.* 

Article  XIII.  Section  I.  Neither  slavery  nor 
involuntary  servitude,  except  aa  a  ptmishment 
fur  crime  when.'of  the  party  shall  have  been  duly 
convicted,  sliull  exist  within  the  United  States, 
or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 
Uteliiin  i.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce 
tbii  article  bv  appropriate  Irgislutiun.  t 

Article  XtV,  Seetion  I.  .-Vll  p»T»ins  bom  or 
Dtluralizeil  in  the  Uuitpil  States,  anti  subiic  t  to 
the  jurisdictinn  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  Uiiii^l 
States  and  of  the  State  wherein  tlioy  reside. 
Xo  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  liiw  which 
shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of 
citizens  of  the  United  States:  nor  shall  any  State 
Jeprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  pnipj'rty, 
without  line  pnK'css  of  law :  nor  deny  to  any 
person  niihin  n*  jurisdiction  the  equal  protec- 
tion of  ihf  hiws.  Hreliun  3.  Uepn'-wntatives 
ihall  be  apportioned  amon^   the  several   States 


CONSTITUTION  JF  VENEZUELA. 

according  to  their  respective  numliers,  countiij^ 
the  whole  number  of  persons  in  each  State,  ex- 
cluding Indians  not  taxed.  But  when  the  right 
to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  e'-viors 
for  President  and  Vice  President  of  the  United 
States,  Representatives  in  Congress,  the  Execu- 
tive and  Judicial  officers  of  a  State,  or  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any 
of  the  male  Inhabitants  of  such  State,  being 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  or  in  any  way  abridged,  except 
for  participation  in  rebellion,  or  other  crime,  the 
basis  of  representation  therein  shall  be  reduced 
in  the  proportion  which  the  number  of  such 
male  citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of 
male  citizens  twenty -one  years  of  age  in  such 
State  Section  8.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator 
or  Representative  in  Congress,  or  elector  of 
Pi  ;sident  and  Vice  P-^sident,  or  hold  any  office, 
civil  or  military,  under  tlic  United  States,  or 
under  any  State,  who,  having  previously  taken 
an  oath,  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an 
officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of 
any  State  legislature,  or  aa  an  executive  or 
judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  support  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  Statea,  shallhave engaged 
in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  same,  or 

given  aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof, 
ut  C  •Qgrcss  may  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of 
each  House,  remove  such  disability.  Seetion  4. 
The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United 
States,  Authorized  by  law,  including  debts  in- 
curre<l  for  payment  of  pensions  and  bounties  for 
services  in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion, 
shall  not  be  questioned.  But  neither  the  United 
States  nor  any  State  shall  assume  or  pay  any 
debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection 
or  rebellion  against  the  United  States,  or  any 
claim  for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave ; 
but  all  such  de'its,  obligations  and  claims  shall 
be  lield  Illegal  ..nd  void.  Seetion  5.  The  Con- 
gress shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropri- 
ate legislation,  the  provisions  of  this  article.* 

Article  XV.  Seetion  1.  The  right  of  citizens 
of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied 
or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State 
on  account  of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition 
ofaervitiide. — Seetion'i.  TheC'ongrvssslmll  have 
miwer  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. " — f 


CONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZUELA. 


The  following  text  is  taken  from  Bulletin  No. 
Wof  the  Uureiiu  of  Ibe  American  Republics: 

Article  l.  The  States  that  the  coustitution  of 
Marrh  ».  l!«M.  declared  independent  and  unlteil 
10  form  the  Venezuelan  Fe<leration,  and  that  o:i 
April  37,  IH81,  were  denominated  Apure,  Boll- 
»«r.  B«r(|uisinieto,  Barcelona,  C'amliobo,  Cn- 
]*<ln,  Cunmiia,  Falcon.  Guzman  Rlanro,  Ouii 
rlf",  Oiuiyima.  GuzmAn,  Msturiu,  NuevaEsparia, 
Pmtuuuesa,  Tichira,  Trujilh),  Yaracuy,  Za- 
Okira,  ami  Ziilia  are  constituted  Into  nine  grand 
polltlcsl  liodles,  viz :  The  State  of  Bermudez,  com- 
puted of  Uarc<>iona.  Cumani,  and  Maturin:  the 
litate  of  Minuxk,  compoeed  of  Bolivar,  Quzm&n 


•  PnrlalmMt  to  Iw  In  torn  »rpt.  «.  1NM. 
fcarsi  or  A».:  A.  1).  i(«  (JamjiaM.l 


Blanco,  Guiirico,  and  Xiieva  Esrarin;  the  State 
of  Caraliolio.  composed  of  t'liml'olio  and  Nirgua; 
the  State  of  Zainont,  coiiiposeil  of  Cojetles,  I'or- 
tiigiiewi,  and  Ziunoni:  the  Slate  of  Larn,  com- 
ptuwd  of  Hiirquli-liiielo  and  Ynmcuy,  except  the 
ilepnrtnient  of  Niriiua:  the  State  of  Ixis  Andes, 
composed  iif  Guzman,  Trtijlllo,  and  TAchlraj  the 
State  of  Bolivar,  composed  of  Ouayana  and 
.\purr:  the  Slate  of  Zulla,  and  also  the  State  of 
Falcon.  And  they  are  thusconstitutedtoeimtinue 
one  only  nation,  free,  sovereign,  and  independent, 
imder  the  title  of  the  United  States  of  Venezuela. 

•  Proclslnivd  to  h«  In  force  July  W,  IMa  [8m  Vsmn 
8TAT1S  or  Aa.:  A.  D.  IHMt-lMI  (DacnaEa— AniLJ; 
laas  (Jexti.  and  INas-IHCr  (OrDiaaB-NAacnv] 

*  Pniciaimrti  to  be  in  forrti  Mar.  SB,  I8fe.  iSoe  V*ma 
BtAtn  ur  An,:  ▲.  D.  1M»-Iim).] 


62(i 


CONSTITCTION  OF  VENEZUELA. 


COXSTITUTION  OF  VENEZUELA 


III- 


li 


:il 


Art.  3.  The  boundaries  of  these  great  States 
arc  determined  by  those  that  the  law  of  April  28, 
18.56,  that  arranged  the  last  territorial  division, 
designated  for  the  ancient  provinces  until  it  shall 
be  re-formed. 

Art.  3.  The  boundaries  of  the  United  States  of 
the  Venezuelan  Federation  are  the  same  that  i' 
1810  belonged  to  the  old  Captaincy-CJeneral  of 
Venezuela. 

I  Art.  4.  The  States  that  are  eroupei'  tc-rether 
ito  form  the  grand  political  biKiies  will  be  called 
Sections.  These  are  equal  among  themselves ;  the 
!constitutions  prescribed  for  their  internal  organ- 
ism must  be  liarmonious  with  the  fedeiative 
principles  .  stal'.ished  by  the  present  compact, 
and  the  sot  iirnty  not  delegated  resides  in  the 
State  withoi.  any  other  limitations  tlian  those 
that  devolve  from' the  compromise  of  association. 

Art.  5.  These  are  V^enezuclans,  viz;  1st,  All 
persons  that  may  have  been  or  may  be  bom  on 
V'enezuelan  soil,  whatever  may  be  the  nationality 
of  their  parents;  3d,  The  cliildren  of  a  Vene- 
zuelan father  or  mother  that  may  have  been  bom 
on  foreign  soil,  if  they  should  come  to  take  up 
their  domicile  in  the  countrv'  and  express  the 
desire  to  become  citizens;  3a,  Foreigners  that 
may  have  obtained  naturalization  papers;  and, 
4th,  Those  bom  or  that  shall  be  bom  in  any  of 
the  Spanish- American  republics  or  in  the  Spanish 
Antilles,  provided  that  they  may  have  taken  up 
their  residence  in  the  territory  of  the  Republic 
and  express  a  willingness  to  become  citizens. 

Art.  6.  Those  that  take  up  their  residence  and 
acquire  nationality  in  a  foreign  country  do  not 
lose  the  character  of  Venezuelans. 

Art.  7.  Males  over  twenty-one  years  of  age 
are  quaiifled  Venezuelan  citizens,  with  only  the 
exceptions  contain.-d  in  this  "onstitution. 

Art.  8.  All  Venezuelans  are  obliged  to  serve 
the  nation  according  t.>  '.he  prescriptions  of  the 
laws,  sacrificing  his  property  and  his  life.  If 
necessary,  to  defend  the  country. 

Art.  9.  Venezuelans  shall  enjo; ,  in  all  the 
Slates  of  the  Union,  the  rights  and  Immunities 
Inherent  to  their  condition  as  citizens  of  the  Fed- 
enition,  and  they  shall  also  have  imposed  upon 
them  there  the  same  liuties  that  are  required  of 
those  that  are  natives  or  doniirile<i  there. 

Art.  10.  Fon-ign.  r»  shall  enjoy  the  same  civil 
rights  as  Venezuelans  and  the  siime  security  in 
tlieir  iM-rsons  and  pniperty.  They  ran  only  take 
advantage  of  diplomatic  means  In  accofiiance 
with  public  treaties  and  in  cases  when  right  |ier- 
mits  it. 

Art.  It.  The  law  will  determine  the  right  ap- 
nlicable  to  the  conilltion  of  fonlirners,  accord. 
Ing  as  they  may  be  domiciled  or  In  transit. 

Art.  13.  The  States  that  form  the  Venezuelan 
Fedenitliin reeipriH^ally  recognize  thrlr n'spt'itlve 
autonomies;  they  are  iieelan'd  ecjiuil  in  poliiical 
entity,  and  pn'iervc,  in  all  its  ph'nitndi',  tlie 
sovereignty  not  expressly  delegated  in  this  con- 
stitutiim. 

Art.  13.  The  Sta'es  of  the  Vi'nezui-lan  F'-iler- 
atlon  oblige  theiiiM'lves  —  1st,  To  organize  them- 
selves in  neconi  wlfli  the  principles  of  popular, 
eli-ctive.  federal,  representative,  altemallvi-.  and 
responsible  government;  2d,  To  establish  thi 
fundamental  n'gulations  of  their  Interior  regu- 
lation and  Kovernmcnt  in  entin-  ii)nformit)  with 
till' principles  of  this  constitution;  81I,  Todt'end 
llivtiwlvt'M  air»!n«t  »i)  rlniencB  ths-  »Jir»!stFne  *!ip 
iuiiloiial  iudependence  or  the  integrity  of  the  | 


Venezuelan  Federation;  4th,  To  not  allena 
a  foreign  power  any  part  of  their  terriiorv 
to  Implore  its  protection,  nor  to  establish  or 
tivate  political  or  diplomatic  relations  with  t 
nations,  since  this  lost  is  reserved  to  tlie  Fi< 
power;  6th,  To  not  combine  or  allv  thems 
with  another  nation,  nor  to  separal'c  thcms 
to  the  prejudice  of  the  nationalitv  of  Vme; 
and  her  territory;  6th,  To  cede  to  tlie  nutii.i 
territory  that  may  be  necessary  for  thi'  Fe 
district ;  7th,  To  cede  to  the  Govemraent  ol 
Federation  the  territory  necessarv  fur  tlie 
tion  of  forts,  warehouses,  shipyards,  ami  1 
tentiaries,  and  for  the  construction  of  1 
edifices  indispensable  to  the  geneml  ndniini 
tion ;  8th,  To  leave  to  the  Govimmrai ol 
Federation  the  administration  of  tlie  Ania: 
and  Goajira  territories  and  that  of  the  itl 
which  pertain  to  the  nation,  until  it  may  lie 
venient  to  elevate  them  to  another  niuk ;"  9th 
reserve  to  the  powers  of  the  Federation  all  1 
lative  or  executive  jurisdiction  conciTiilu);  1 
time,  coastwise,  and  fluvial  navigation,  and 
national  roads,  considering  as  such  those 
exceed  the  limits  of  a  State  and  lead  to  the  1 
tiers  of  others  and  to  the  Federal  district;  1 
To  not  subject  to  co.tributions  the  pnxluci 
articles  upon  which  national  taxes  are  irapi 
or  those  that  are  by  law  exempt  from  tax  Ix 
they  have  been  offered  for  consiin'ption;  1 
To  not  impose  contributions  on  cattle,  effect 
any  class  of  merchandise  in  transit  for  auc 
State,  In  order  that  tralflc  may  lie  alisuli 
free,  and  that  in  one  section  the  consumpiin 
others  may  not  be  taxed ;  I'.'th,  To  not  prol 
the  consumption  of  the  products  of  other  Si 
nor  to  tax  their  productions  with  greater  fn 
or  municipal  taxes  than  those  pulil  on  pnid 
raised  in  the  locality;  13th.  To  mil  estiil 
maritime  or  territorial  custom-houses  for  tlie 
lection  of  imports,  since  there  will  !»■  nati 
ones  only;  14th,  To  recognise  the  rielil  of  i 
State  to  dispose  of  Its  natural  prNliictn:  1 
To  cede  to  the  Oovemment  of  the  Feilcrj 
the  administration  of  mines,  pulilir  lauds. 
salt  mines,  in  onier  that  tlie  tirst  m:iy  In-  n 
lated  by  a  system  of  uniform  \v(.rkMii;auil 
the  latter  may  lie  applied  to  tin  Ntictitdf 
I)eople;  16th.  To  respect  the  property,  arvi 
and  forts  of  the  nation;  ITlli.  To  loinpiv' 
and  cause  to  be  -omplled  willi  ;inil  cxecuiiil 
Constitution  and  I'tws  of  tlii' fnh 'iiionaod 
decrees  and  oniers  that  the  ficli nl  powir 
tribunals,  and  courts  may  i\|i<ilili'  I'l  ii» 
their  attributes  and  li'unl  fuiiiltiis;  ISih. 
give  entire  faith  to  ami  to  cause  to  In-  coni|i 
with  and  executed  thi'  pulilii  ai  l"  iiml  jml 
proceilures  of  the  other  States;  IMlli.  Toon 
ize  tlieir  tribuimls  and  courts  for  tlie  adinini' 
tion  of  justice  in  the  State  and  to  Imve  for  al 
tlii'in  tlie  siimi'  siilislantive  civil  and  rrini 
legislation  and  the  sanii'  hiws  of  i  ivil  and  cr 
nal  prcHcdiire;  '.litli.  To  present  jiidL'esfor 
court  of  appeals  and  to  siilinilt  to  tliedecWo 
this  siipn-me  tribunal  of  the  Stiitei;  ','l«t, 
incori'onite  the  extradition  of  i.-iniinals  a 
political  principle  in  t'lelr  nspniivi  Const 
tlous;  i.'il.  To  establish  'lirei  I  anl  pui'lif 
frage  in  |.opulur  ele  tii.ns.  iiuikiiii:  it  "Mipii 
and  endorsing  It  in  the  electoral  nirislrj' 
vote  of  the  Buffiagist  must  lie  east  in 
Bnd  pu'-lle  seSal.Hi  of  tlit-  n'-j".*'' '■"-'■  '■-■-■'■'■ 
will  lie  lusK'ribeil  la  tlic  registry  boots  thai 


626 


CONSTITXJTION  OP  VENEZUELA. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZUELA. 


b«  prewiibea  for  electiani,  which  can  not  be 
subintuted  in  any  other  form,  and  the  elector, 
for  bimielf  or  by  another  at  hU  request  in  case 
of  impediment  or  tlirough  ignorance,  will  sign 
.the  memorandum  entry  of  his  vote,  and  without 
tbia  requisite  it  can  not  be  claimed  that  in  reality 
he  has  voted ;  iiSd,  To  establish  a  system  of  pri- 
mary education  and  that  of  arts  and  trades :  Mtb, 
To  "eserre  to  the  powers  of  the  Federation  the 
Uwsand  provisions  necessary  for  the  creation, 
conserTBtion.  and  progress  of  general  schools, 
colleges,  or  universities  designed  for  the  teach- 
ing of  the  sciences;  25th,  To  not  impose  duties 
upon  the  national  employes,  except  i:.  «he  q  'al- 
itr  of  citizens  of  the  State  and  insomuch  as  these 
duties  may  not  be  incompatible  with  the  national 
public  service ;  iMth,  To  furnish  the  proportioual 
contingent  that  pertains  to  them  to  compose 
the  nstional  public  forces  in  time  of  peace  or 
war;  27tb,  To  not  permit  in  the  States  of  the 
Federation  forced  enlistments  and  levies  that 
have  or  may  have  for  their  oLjCct  an  attack  on 
liberty  or  independence  or  a  disturbance  of  the 
public  order  of  the  Nation,  of  other  States,  or  of 
another  Nation ;  38tb,  To  preserve  a  strict  neu- 
trality in  tiie  contentions  thai  may  arise  in  other 
States;  2Sth,  To  not  declare  or  carry  on  war  in 
any  case,  one  State  with  anotuer ;  aOtb,  To  de- 
fer and  submit  to  the  decision  of  the  Congress  or 
the  High  Federal  Court  in  all  the  controversies 
that  may  arise  between  two  or  more  States  wlien 
they  can  not,  between  themselves  and  by  pacific 
measures,  arrive  at  an  agreement.  If,  for  any 
csuie,  tbcy  may  not  designate  the  arbiter  to 
whose  decision  they  may  submit,  they  leave  it, 
la  fact,  to  the  High  Federal  Court;  Slst,  To 
recognize  the  competency  of  Congress  and  of  the 
court  of  appeals  to  take  cognizance  of  the  cr  -<  es 
that,  for  treason  to  the  country  or  for  the  ii  i  c 
tion  of  the  Constitution  and  laws  of  the  Fe-.. ra- 
tion, msy  be  instituted  against  those  *'.at  exer- 
ciiie  executive  authority  in  the  Str.ies,  it  being 
their  duty  to  incorporate  this  precept  in  their 
constitutions.  In  the  e  trials  the  moties  of  pro- 
ceiiure  that  the  general  laws  prescribe  will  be 
followed  and  they  will  be  decidwi  In  consonance 
with  those  laws ;  '33d.  To  have  as  the  just  income 
of  'lie  States,  tvo-thirds  of  tlie  total  product  of 
the  impiist  collected  as  transit  tax  in  all  tlic  custom- 
liouM'S  nf  the  ]{epublic  and  two- thirds  of  that  col- 
kvtiii  from  mines,  miljlic  lands,  and  salt  mines 
administered  by  tlicFeiieral  Power  and  to  distrib- 
ute this  income  among  ull  the  States  of  the  Frd- 
eratlon  In  ,  n)portlon  to  t!ie  pcipulHtion  of  eacf  . 
8;i<l,  To  H'serve  to  the  FciUtsI  Power  the  amount 
of  the  .hinl  part  of  Ibr  income  from  transit  tax. 
the  prixlurti  in  of  mines,  public  Umls.  and  suit 
mines,  to  Ix-  invested  in  the  iniprovenient  of  the 
country ;  84th,  To  keep  far  away  f nun  the  fron- 
tier those  individuals  that,  tlirougli  piilitlrul 
nujtivi's,  take  refuge  in  a  S.  ite,  provided  that 
till'  Stale  interestetf  requests  it. 

Art.  14,  The  nation  guarantees  to  Venezue- 
lans: 1st.  The  inviolability  of  life,  c,.^;  al  pun- 
liliincnt  Iwlng  abolished  In  spite  nf  anv  law  that 
estiililishcs  it;  2d,  I'rorerty  .with  all  its  attri- 
butes, ritrlits  and  privileges,  will  onl.  be  suh- 
Jeeieil  Id  ciintributions  decreed  by  'legishitlve 
auth.rltv.  to  Juilicisl  decihiim.  and  to  be  taken 
for  public  works  after  ipdemnitv  and  condemna- 
tion: !'•!,  The  Inviolabillt;'  and  si'crccy  of  cor- 
r-.spr.n.i.Tiio  and  olittT  priv.ile  1>»ih-i». '4lii.  The 
domrttlc  hearth,  that  can  ih>*.  be  approached  ex- 


cept to  prevent  the  perpetration  of  crime,  and 
this  itself  must  be  done  in  accordance  with  law: 
6th,  Personal  liberty,  and  consequently  (1)  forced 
recruiting  for  armea  service  is  almlished,  (3)  slav- 
ery is  forever  proscribed,  (3)  slaves  that  tread 
the  soil  of  Venezuela  are  free,  and  (4)  nobody  ia 
obliged  to  do  that  which  the  law  does  not  com- 
mand, nor  is  impeded  from  doing  that  which  it 
does  not  prohibit;  6th,  The  freedom  of  thought, 
expressed  by  word  or  through  the  press,  is  with- 
out any  restriction  to  be  submitted  to  previous 
censu'».  In  cases  of  calumny  or  Injury  or  preju 
dice  J  a  third  party,  the  aggrieved  party  shall 
have  every  facility  to  have  his  complaints  inves- 
tigated before  competent  tribunau  of  justice  in 
accordance  with  the  common  laws;  7th,  The  lib- 
erty of  traveling  without  passport,  to  change 
the  domicil,  observing  the  legal  formalities,  and 
to  depart  from  and  return  to  the  Republic,  carry- 
ing off  and  bringing  back  his  or  her  property; 
8th,  The  liberty  of  industry  and  consequently 
the  proprietorship  of  discoveries  and  produc- 
tions. The  law  will  assign  to  the  proprietors  a 
temporary  privilege  or  the  mode  of  indemnity  in 
case  that  the  author  agrees  to  its  publication; 
«lh.  The  liberty  of  reunion  and  assembling  with- 
out arms,  publicly  or  privately,  the  authorities 
being  prohibited  from  exercising  auy  act  of  in- 
spection or  coercion;  10th,  The  liberty  of  peti- 
tion, with  the  right  of  obtaining  action  by  reso- 
lution ;  petition  can  be  made  by  any  functionary, 
authority  or  corporation.  If 'the 'petition  shall 
be  made  in  the  name  of  various  persons,  the  first 
five  will  respond  for  the  authenticity  of  the  sig- 
natures and  ail  for  the  truth  of  the  assertions; 
11th.  The  liberty  of  suffrage  at  popular  elretious 
without  any  restriction  except  to  males  under 
eighteen  years  of  age;  12tb.  The  liberty  of  in- 
struction will  be  protected  to  every  extent.  The 
f)ublic  iMwer  is  obliged  to  establish  gratuitous 
nstructlon  in  primary  schools,  the  arte  and 
trades;  13th,  Relf^ouslilierty:  14tb.  Individual 
security,  and.  therefore  (1)  no"  Venezuelan  can  be 
imprisoned  or  arrested  in  punishment  for  debts 
not  founded  In  fraud  or  crime ;  (2)nor  to  be  obliged 
to  lodge  or  trier  soldiers  In  his  house;  (3)  nor 
to  be  Judg.  I  by  siH-cial  commissions  or  tribu- 
nals, but  by  his  natumi  judges  and  liv  virtue  of 
laws  dictated  before  the  commissi.m  ot  tlii'  crime 
or  act  to  be  judged;  (4)  nor  to  l)e  iiii|  risoued  nor 
arrested  withuut  previous  siuumary  infonuution 
that  a  crime  meriting  corpomi  punishment  has 
been  committed,  iind  a  vtitten  order  from  the 
functionary  tliut  orders  tin  iinprlsouiiu'ut.  stating 
the  cause  of  arrest,  unli ;«  the  person  ma;  be 
caught  in  the  commission  of  the  crime.  (5)  nor 
to  be  placi'il  in  solitary  confinement  for  any 
cause;  (6)  unr  to  lie  obllgeil  to  give  evidence.  In 
criminal  causes,  against  liimself  nr  his  MikkI  re- 
lations within  the  lotirtli  degree  of  consiuiguiuity 
or  against  bis  relations  liy  marriage  within  the 
s«'('oii<l  iligre  or  Hgaliisl  busliaud  or  wife ;  (7) 
nor  til  it'inuin  iu  prlMiu  wlun  the  reasons  that 
ca»s<-.l  till'  iniprisonniiiit  Imve  bi-en  diasipatetl; 
(S)  nor  I"  lie  seiitenciii  to  corporal  punisliment 
for  more  !li:in  ten  years;  (9)  nor  to  ri'niaiu  de- 
prived uf  bis  liberty  for  political  reawms  when 
order  is  reSstatilishecl. 

Art.  15.  Kquulily :  in  virtue  of  which  (1)  all 
must  Ik' jiiiieed  by  ti:i'  very  same  laws  rinil  sub- 
ject to  c'laal  dutv,  service  and  contriliutions: 
i'i'i  till  lltlt'S  of  uoliiltiy  heritlilaiy  ti<'ni>i!>.  uud 
distiuctlutu  will  be  conceded   nor  employmcLU 


02 


!  ' 


M 


rONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZTELA. 

or         "<  the  (aUries  or  emolumenti  of  which 

ecu. >'  after  the  termination  of  lerTice;  (8)  no 

other  olSdal  ulutation  than  "citizen"  and 
"  you  "  will  be  given  to  employ£«  and  corpora- 
tions. The  present  enumeration  does  not  im- 
pose upon  the  States  the  obligation  to  accord 
other  guarantees  to  their  inhabitants. 

Art.  i6.  The  laws  in  the  Sutes  will  prescribe 
penalties  for  the  infractions  of  these  guarantees, 
establishing  modes  of  procedure  to  make  them 
effective. 

Art,  17,  Those  who  may  issue,  sign,  or  exe- 
cute, or  order  executed  any  decrees,  orders,  or 
resolutions  that  violate  or  in"  any  manner  infringe 
upon  the  guarantees  accorded  to  Venezuelans  are 
culpable  and  must  be  punished  according  to  the 
law.  Every  citizen  is  empowered  to  bring  charges. 

Art.  t8.  The  National  Legislature  wiil  be  com- 
posed of  two  chambers,  one  of  Senators  and 
another  of  Deputies. 

Art.  19.  The  States  will  determine  the  mode 
of  election  of  Deputies. 

Art.  ao.  To  form  the  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
each  State  will  name,  by  popultr  election  in  ac- 
cordance with  paragraph  23  of  Article  13  of  this 
Constitution,  one  Deputv  for  each  thirty-five 
thousand  inhabitants  and;  another  for  an  excess 
not  under  fifteen  thousand.  In  the  same  man- 
ner it  will  elect  alternates  in  equal  number  to 
the  principals. 

Art.  ai.  The  Deputies  will  hold  office  for  four 
years,  wlien  they  will  be  renewed  in  their  en- 
tirety. 

Art.  33.  The  prerogatives  of  the  chamber  of 
Deputies  are:  First,  to  examine  the  annual  ac- 
count that  the  President  of  the  I'nited  States  of 
Veneztiila  must  render;  second,  to  p.isa  a  vote 
of  ceiisun-  of  the  Jlinistors  of  the  Cabinet,  in 
wliiih  event  their  posts  wil'  be  vacant;  third,  to 
lii'.ir  fhartris  ii;i;>inst  the  persons  in  charge  of 
the  (illlce  of  the  National  E.^ecutive  for  treason 
to  the  I'imntry,  fur  infrartion  of  tlie  constitution, 
or  for  ordinary  crimes;  niriilnst  the  ministers  ami 
other  National  employes  for  infraction  of  the 
Constitution  and  laws"  and  for  fault  In  the  dis- 
charge of  their  duties  according  to  article  ".>  of 
this  constitution  and  of  the  geui^ral  laws  of  the 
Kepublic.  This  attril)Ute  is  pn'ventative  and 
neither  contracts  nor  diminishes  tliost'  tliat  other 
autliorities  have  to  judfre  and  punish. 

Art.  33.  When  a  charge  is  instituted  by  a 
Deputy  or  by  any  corporation  or  individual  the 
follow  uu;  rules  will  be  observc<l:  (1;  there  will 
be  ap|Miint«(i,  in  s»'cret  session,  a  commission  of 
three  deputies;  (i)  the  commission  will,  within 
three  days,  remier  an  opinion,  de'laring  whethc  r 
or  not  there  is  foundation  for  Institutinff  n  cause ; 
(3)  the  Chamber  will  consider  the  in'onnalion 
and  decide  upon  the  cause  by  the  vote  of  an  ab- 
solute majority  of  the  membere  pn'wnt,  the 
accusing  Dtj)uty  alistaining  from  voting. 

Art.  34.  The  declaration  that  ihere  is  founda- 
tion for  the  cause  operates  to  suspend  from  olllec 
the  accused  and  incapacitates  him  for  the  dis- 
cbarge of  any  public  function  during  the  trial. 

Art.  15.  To  form  this  Chamber  each  State, 
through  lU  respective  legislature,  will  ele<t 
three  principal  .Si^nators  an(l  an  equal  number  of 
alternates  to  supply  the  vacancies  that  may  oc- 
cur. 

Art.  36.  To  be  a  Senator  it  is  required  that  he 
■bail  be  a  Vcuczuttaii  i>y  birth  aiiti  Ihtrly  year* 
of  age. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZUELA. 

Aft.  37.  The  Senator*  will  occupy  their  posu 
for  four  Veara  and  be  renewed  in  their  entiretv 

Art.  38.  It  is  the  prerogative  of  the  Senate  to 
aubatantiate  and  decide  the  cauaes  initiated  la 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

Art.  30.  If  the  cause  may  not  have  been  con- 
cluded durine  the  leasiona,  the  Senate  will  con- 
tinue assembled  for  this  purpose  only  until  the 
cause  ia  finished. 

Art.  30.  The  National  Legislature  will  assem- 
ble on  the  20th  day  of  February  of  each  rear  or 
as  soon  thereafter  aa  potaible  at  the  capital  of 
the  United  SUtes  without  the  necessity  of  pre- 
vious notice.  The  aeaaions  will  last  fo"r  seventj 
days  to  be  prolonged  until  ninety  days  at  the 
judgment  of  the  majority. 

Art.  31.  The  Chambers  will  open  their  m- 
sions  with  two-thirds  of  their  numlMr  at  least; 
and,  in  default  of  this  number,  those  prewnt 
will  assemble  in  preparatory  commission  and 
adopt  measurca  for  the  concurrence  of  the  ab- 
sentees. 

Art.  33.  The  sessions  having  been  opened  ther 
may  be  continued  by  two-thirds  of  those  tliat 
may  have  Installed  them,  provided  that  the  num- 
ber be  not  less  than  half  of  all  the  momben 
elected. 

Art.  33.  Although  the  Chambers  delihcrate 
separately,  the*  may  assemble  together  in  the 
Congress  when  the  constitution  and  laws  proviile 
for  It  or  when  one  of  the  two  Chamtiers  may 
deem  it  necessary.  If  the  Chamber  tliat  Is  in- 
vited shall  agree,  it  remains  to  it  to  fix  tie  day 
and  the  hour  of  the  joint  session. 

Art.  34.  The  sessions  will  be  public  ami  secia 
at  the  will  of  the  Clumber. 

Art.  35.  The  Chambers  have  the  rif;ht:  ilito 
make  rules  to  be  observed  in  the  sessions  and  to 
regulate  the  debates;  (2)  to  correct  infractors;  (3) 
to  establish  the  police  force  in  the  hall  of  ses- 
sions; (4)  to  punish  or  correct  spectators  who  cre- 
ate disorder;  (.5)  to  remove  the  obstacles  to  the 
free  exercise  of  their  functions;  (8)  to  command 
the  execution  of  their  private  ..solutions;  (Tto 
judge  of  the  qualifications  of  their  nieniliers  ind 
to  consider  their  re.signotions. 

Art.  36.  One  of  the  Clw  '  <  c.n  -t  su'  pond 
its  sessions  nor  change  its      ,  <  with- 

out tlie  eonsi'nt  of  the  oth  sacree- 

nient  they  will  reasaeml''  ■xecute 

that  which  the  majority 

Art.  37.  The  exercise  0  ic  func- 

tion, during  the  sessions,  ..ulile  v'' 

those  of  a  Senator  or  Dei..^.  he  lai 
specify  the  remunerations  tliat  the  nieniKi  1 
tlie  national  Ix'gislature  shall  n'ceive  for  iliiir 
B»'rvieea.  And  whenever  an  increase  of  s:ii(l  n-- 
niunerations  is  decreiKi,  the  law  that  samli.rsit 
will  not  liegin  to  be  In  force  until  'he  folh^wiiig 
pcTirni  when  the  Chamtwrs  that  sanctionid  it 
shall  have  l)een  renewed  In  their  entirely. 

Art.  38.  The  Senators  and  Deputies  shall  en- 
joy immunity  from  the  20th  day  of  Jaiiu.iry 
of  each  vear  until  thirty  days  after  the  doM'  of 
the  si'sslons  and  this  consists  in  the  suspix.^ien 
of  all  civil  or  criminal  proceeliug.  wlmuvir 
may  be  its  origin  or  nature ;  when  any  one  ^l^ll 
perpetrate  an  act  that  merits  corpond  piiii-h- 
ment  the  investigation  shall  continue  until  ttie 
en<l  of  the  summing  up  ami  shall  remain  ia  '>.>> 
state  wliile  the  term  of  immunity  coiiliiiuis. 

Art.  39.  The  Congress  will  lie  pn-siiifii  cvtr 
by  the  President  of  the  Senate  and  the  presiding 


G28 


CONBTITUTION  OF  VI 


UELA. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZUELA. 


ofllcer  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputiei  will  act  u 
VIce-Preddent. 

Art.  40.  The  memb't*  of  the  Chambers  are 
not  reipoiuible  for  the  opiniona  they  ezpreaa  or 
the  diacoune*  they  pronounce  in  session. 

Art.  41.  Senators  and  deputies  that  accept  of- 
tce  or  commission  from  the  National  Executive 
thereby  leave  vacant  the  posts  of  legislators  in 
the  Clumbers  to  which  they  were  elected. 

Art.  42.  Nor  can  senatoia  and  deputies  make 
coitrafts  with  the  general  Government  or  con- 
duct the  prosecution  of  claims  of  others  againsi.  it 

Art.  43.  The  National  Legislature  has  the  fol- 
lowing prerogatives:  (1)  to  dissolve  the  contro- 
tcrsies  that  may  arisie   between  two  or  more 
States;  (2)  to  locate  the  Federal  District  in  an 
unpopulated  territory  not  exceeding  three  miles 
iquare,  where  will   be  constructed   the  capital 
citr  of  the  Republic.    This  district  will  be  ncu- 
tnu  tcrritorr.  and  no  other  elections  will  be 
there  held  tban  those  that  the  law  determines  for 
the  locality.    The  district  will  be  provisionally 
that  which  the  constituent  assembly  designated 
or  that  which  the  National  Legislature  may 
deaignate;  (8)  to  organize  everythmg  relating  to 
the  custom-houses,  whose  income  will  constitute 
the  treasure  of  the  Union  until  these  incomes  are 
lupplled  from  other  sources;    (4)  to  dispose  in 
eTervthing  relating  to  the  habitation  and  security 
of  ports  and  seaeoasts ;  (5)  to  create  and  organize 
the  postal  service  and  to  fix  the  charges  for 
transportation  of  correspondence;  (6)  to  form  the 
Sational  Codes  in  accordance  with  paragraph  19, 
article  13  of  this  Constitution ;  (7)  to  flx  the  value, 
type  law,  weight,  and  coinage  of  national  money, 
ud  to  regulate  the  admission  and  circulation  of 
foreign  money ;  (8)  to  designate  the  coat-of -arms 
and  the  national  Hag  which  will  be  the  same  for 
all  the  States;  (9)  to  create,  abolish,  and  fix  sala- 
ries tor  national  offices;  (10)  to  determine  every- 
thing in  relation  to  the  national  debt;   (11)  to 
contract  loans  upon  ••'e  credit  of  the  nation;  (lil 
to  dictate  necessary  measures  to  perfect  the  cen- 
sus of  the  current  population  and  the  national 
itttistics;  (13)  toannuallv  flx  the  armed  forces 
by  sea  and  land  and  to  dictate  the  army  regula- 
tions; (14)  to  decree  rules  for  the  form»tionaud 
•ubsiitution  of  the  forces  referred  to  in  the  pre- 
ceding clause;  (15)  to  declare  war  and  to  require 
the  >ati<)nal  Executive  to  negotiate  peace ;  (1«) 
toiatify  or  reject  the  contracts  for  national  pub- 
lic work.s  made  by  the  President  with  the  ap- 
proval of  the  Federal  Council,  without  which 
requisite  thev  will  not  be  carried  into  effect;  (18) 
toannuallv  flx  the  estimates  for  public  expcnsj's; 
1I81  to  promote  whatever  conduces  to  the  pros- 
perity of  the  country  and  to  its  advancement  in 
the  general  knowle<lge  of  the  arts  and  sciences ; 
liti)  ui  fix  and  regulate  the  national  weights  and 
measures;  (41)  to  grant  amnesties ;  (22)  to  estab- 
i»h,  under  the  names  of  territories,  special  regu- 
laiinns  for  the  sovemment  of  regions  inhabited 
by  uu.  "Tuiuered  and  uncivilized  Indians.     Such 
territorus  will  l>e  under  the  immediate  8up«'r- 
vision  of  the  Executive  of  the  Union;   (23)  to 
eitabjisli  tlie  modes  of  procedure  and  to  desig- 
nate the  p<naltles  to  be  imposed  by  the  Senate 
in  the  trials  originated  in  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
tes; (24)  to  increase  the  basis  of  population  for 
the  election  of  deputies;  (25)  to  permit  or  refuse 
'he  sdmission  of  foreigners  into  the  service  of 
uie  Republic ;  (2«)  to  make  laws  in  respect  to  re- 
uremeots  from  the  military  service  and  army 


pensions;  (87)  to  dictate  the  law  of  regpoiuibiUtT 
on  the  part  of  all  national  employes  and  those 
of  the  States  for  infraction  of  the  constitution 
and  the  general  Uws  of  the  Union;  (88)  to  de- 
termine tne  mode  of  conceding  miUtanr  rank  or 
promotion ;  (29)  to  elect  the  Federal  Council  pro- 
vided for  in  this  constitution  and  to  convoke  the 
alternates  of  the  senators  and  deputies  who  may 
have  been  chosen  for  it 

Art.  44.  Besides  the  preceding  enumeration  the 
^atlonai  LegisUture  may  pass  such  laws  of  gen- 
eral character  as  may  be  necessary,  but  In  no 
case  can  they  be  promulgated,  much  less  exe- 
cuted, if  they  conflict  with  this  constitution 
which  deflnes  the  prerogatives  of  the  public 
powers  in  Venezuela. 

Art.  45.  The  laws  and  decrees  of  the  National 
Legislature  may  be  proposed  by  the  members  of 
either  chamber,  provided  that  the  respective 
projects  are  conformed  to  the  rules  esublished 
for  the  Parliament  of  Venezuela. 

Art.  ^6.  After  a  project  may  have  been  pre- 
sented, it  will  be  read  and  considered  in  order  to 
be  admitted;  and  if  it  is,  it  must  undergo  three 
discussions,  with  an  interval  of  at  least  one  day 
between  each,  observing  the  rules  established  for 
debate. 

Art.  47.  The  projectsapproved  in  the  chamber 
in  which  they  were  originated  will  be  passed  to  the 
other  for  the  purposes  indicated  in  the  preceding 
article,  and  if  they  are  not  rejected  they  will  be 
returned  to  the  chamber  whence  they  originated, 
with  the  amendments  they  may  have  under- 
gone. 

Art.  48.  If  the  chamber  of  their  origin  does 
not  agree  to  the  amendments,  it  may  hisist  and 
s«ud  Its  written  rensems  to  the  other.  Thev  may 
also  assemble  together  in  Congress  and  delib*  r- 
ate,  in  general  commission,  over  the  mode  of 
agreement,  but  if  this  can  not  be  reached,  tlie 
project  will  be  of  no  effect  after  the  chamber  of 
its  origin  separately  decides  upon  the  ratification 
of  its  insistei 

Art.  49.  U,  •.  le  passing  of  the  projecufriini 
one  to  the  othe.  -hamber,  the  days  on  which 
thev  have  been  di    usscd  will  be  stated. 

Art.  so.  The  law  reforming  another  law  must 
be  fully  engroosed  and  the  former  law,  in  all  its 
parts,  will  be  annulled. 

Art.  51.  In  the  laws  this  form  will  he  used: 
"The  Congress  of  the  United  States  of  Venezuela 
decrees. " 

Art.  5a.  The  projects  defeated  in  one  legisla- 
ture cannot  be  reintroduced  except  in  another. 

Art.  53.  The  projects  pending  in  a  chamber  at 
the  close  of  the  sessions  must  undergo  the  same 
three  discussions  iu  succeceling  legisiutun'S. 

Art.  54.  Laws  are  annulled  with  the  same  for- 
malities established  for  their  sanction 

Art.  55.  When  the  ministers  of  ibinet  may 
have  sustained,  in  a  chamber,  the  um onstitutiim- 
ality  of  a  project  by  word  or  In  writing,  and, 
notwithstanding  this,  it  ma;-  have  been  sanctioned 
as  law,  the  National  Executive,  with  the  affirm:i- 
tlve  vote  of  the  Federal  Council,  will  suspend  its 
execution  and  apply  to  the  legislatures  of  the 
States,  asking  their  vote  in  the  matter. 

Art.  56.  In  case  of  the  foregoing  article,  each 
State  will  represent  one  vote  expressed  by  the 
majoritv  of  the  members  of  the  legislature  pres- 
ent ami  the  remit  will  be  sent  <r>  the  Illgh  Fed- 
eral Court  in  this  form:  "  I  conlinu "  or  "  I  re- 
ject" 


629 


fel,'- 


:   ? 


,,,» 


CONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZUELA. 

Alt.  57,  If  a  majority  of  the  leglilsture*  of  the 
States  agree  with  the  Federal  Executive,  the 
Hiffh  Federal  Court  will  coDfirm  the  auapension, 
and  the  Federal  Executive  himielf  will  render  an 
account  to  the  next  Congreaa  relative  to  all  that 
has  been  done  in  the  matter. 

Art.  58.  The  lawn  will  not  be  observed  until 
after  being  published  in  the  solemn  form  estab- 
lished. 

Art.  59.  The  faculty  conceded  to  sanction  a 
kw  is  not  to  be  delegated. 
,  Art.  6a.  No  legislative  disposition  will  have  a 
retroactive  effect,  except  in  matters  of  judicial 
procedure  and  that  which  imposes  a  lighter  nen- 
alty. 

Art.  61.  There  will  be  a  Federal  Council  com- 
posed of  one  senator  and  one  deputy  for  each 
State  and  of  one  more  deputy  for  the  Federal 
District,  who  will  be  elected  by  the  Congress 
each  two  years  from  among  the  respctive  repre- 
sentations of  the  States  composing  the  Federation 
and  from  that  of  the  Federal  District.  This 
election  will  take  pla-%in  thi-  first  fifteen  days  of 
the  meeting  of  Congress,  in  the  first  and  tliird 
year  of  the  constitutional  period. 

Art.  63.  The  Federal  Council  elects  from  its 
members  the  President  of  the  United  States  of 
Venezuela,  and  in  the  same  manner  the  person  who 
shall  act  in  his  stead  in  case  of  his  temporal  or  per- 
manent disability  du'-ing  his  term.  The  election 
of  a  person  to  be  President  of  the  United  States  of 
Venezuela  will  is  not  a  member  of  the  Federal 
Council,  as  n  1 .1  as  of  thost  who  may  have  to  act 
in  his  stead  in  case  of  bis  temporal  or  permanent 
disability,  is  null  of  right  and  void  of  efficacy. 

Art.  63.  The  members  of  the  F  deral  Council 
hold  office  for  two  years,  the  same  as  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  of  Venezuela,  whose 
term  is  of  equal  duration;  and  neither  he  uor 
tUey  can  oc  reClecte<l  for  the  term  immediately 
succeeding,  although  they  may  return  to  ocoupy 
their  posts  as  legislators  in  the  chambers  to  which 
they  belong. 

Art.  64.  The  Federal  Council  resides  in  the 
district  and  exercises  the  functions  prescrilx.Nl  in 
this  constitution.  It  cannot  delil>erate  with  less 
than  an  absolute  majority  of  all  its  members;  it 
dictates  tlie  interior  regulations  to  be  observed 
in  its  deliberations,  and  annually  appoints  the 
person  who  shall  preside  over  its  sessions. 

Art.  65.  The  prenigatives  of  the  President  of 
Venezuela  arc:  (1)  To  appoint  anil  remove  the 
cabinet  ministers ;  (2)  to  preside  over  the  cabinet, 
in  whose  discussions  he  will  have  a  vote,  ou<i  to 
inform  the  Council  of  all  the  matters  that  refer 
to  the  General  Administration ;  (8)  to  receive  and 
welcome  public  ministers;  (4)  to  sign  the  official 
letters  to  the  Sovereigns  or  Presiileuts  of  other 
countries;  (5)  to  order  the  execution  of  the  laws 
and  decrees  of  the  National  Legislature,  and  to 
take  care  that  they  are  complied  with  and  exe- 
cuted ;  (6)  to  promulgate  the  resolutions  and  de- 
crees that  may  have  li'en  pn>|)osed  and  received 
the  approl)ation  of  the  Federal  Council,  in  con- 
formity with  article  66  of  tliis  constitution;  (T) 
tu  organize  the  Fe<leral  District  and  to  act  there 
in  as  the  chief  civil  and  political  authority  estab- 
lislieil  by  this  constitution ;  (8)  to  issue  registers 
of  navigatlcm  to  national  vessels;  (9)  to  render  an 
account  to  Congress,  within  tiic  first  eight  days 
of  its  annual  session,  of  the  eases  in  which,  wlih 
the  approval  of  the  Federal  Council,  he  mav 
have  exercised  all  or  any  of  the  faculties  accordetl 


CONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZUEU. 

to  him  in  article  66  of  this  compact;  (10)  todi 
charge  the  other  f unctiooa  that  tbe  national  lai 
entruat  to  blm. 

Art.  M.  Beddei  tbe  foregoing  prerogstive 
that  are  personal  to  the  president  of  tlie  I'Ditt 
States  of  Venezuela,  he  can,  with  tbe  delibeni 
vote  of  the  Federal  Council,  exercise  the  folloi 
ing:  (1)  To  protect  the  Nation  from  all  eitetii 
attack;  (2)  to  administer  the  public  lands,  mine 
and  aalt  mines  of  tbe  States  as  their  delegate :  ( 
to  convoke  the  Nationa.  Legislature  iu  its  regi 
!ar  sessions,  and  In  extraorainary  session  wIk 
the  gravity  of  any  subject  demands  it;  (4)  1 
nominate  persona  for  diplomatic  positions,  coi 
suls- general,  and  consuls:  those  named  for  tb 
first  and  second  positions  must  be  Venezi 
elans  by  blnh;  (5)  to  direct  negotiations  and  celi 
brnte  all  kinds  of  treaties  with  other  nation 
submitting  these  to  the  National  Legislature;  (i 
to  celebrate  contracts  of  national  interest  i 
accordance  with  the  laws  and  to  submit  tbei 
the  legislatures  for  their  approval :  (7)  to  nomii 
ate  tbe  employes  of  hacienda,  whicli  nominatiot 
are  not  to  be  made  by  any  other  autkoritv.  I 
is  required  that  these  employes  shall  bcVem 
zuelan  hj  birth;  (8)  to  remove  and  suspemi  tn 
ployes  of  his  own  free  motion,  oniering  tlif ni  t 
be  tried  if  there  should  be  cause  for  it;  (9|  I 
declare  war  in  the  name  of  the  Republic  whe 
Congress  shall  have  decreed  it;  (10)  in  tlie  cm 
of  foreign  war  he  can,  first,  demand  tnm  tfa 
States  the  assistance  necessary  for  the  nation! 
defense ;  second,  require,  in'  anticipation,  lli 
contributions  and  negotiate  the  loans  (lecninl  b 
the  National  Legislature;  thin],  arrest  or  exiK 
persons  who  pertain  to  the  nation  with  M^hic 
war  is  carriea  on  and  who  may  Ik?  jpiHiseil  t 
the  defense  of  the  country;  fourth,  to  siisik-b 
the  guaranties  that  may  'be  iucompatihle  wit 
tlie  defense  of  the  country,  except  tliat  of  life 
fifth,  to  select  the  place  to  which  thi'  (Jemra 
Power  of  the  Federation  may  be  provisional! 
translated  when  there  may  be  grave  rciisoas  I) 
It;  sixth,  to  bring  to  trial  for  treason  0  th 
country  those  Venezuelans  who  inay  be,  in  id 
manner,  hostile  to  tbe  national  defense :  si'\  entli 
fi)  issue  ragisters  to  corsairs  and  private!  it 
scribe  the  laws  that  they  must  '  ii 

«,..  -  of  capture;  (11)  to  employ  the  pu'  0 
and  the  powers  contained  in  nunilK'rs  1.  1 
of  the  preceding  clause  with  the  oljjcct  of  ri*s 
ta  >lisliing  constitutional  order  iu  case  of  arum 
insurrection  against  the  institutions  of  tlic  Nation 
(12)  to  dispose  of  the  public  force  for  thf  pur 
pose  of  quelling  every  armed  collision  Ikiwwi 
two  or  more  States,  requiring  them  to  lay  dowi 
their  arms  and  submit  their  controversies  to  il» 
arbitration  to  which  they  are  pliniireit  by  mini 
ber  80,  article  14  of  this  constitution;  (I3i  t. 
direct  the  war  and  to  appoint  the  |xrs<m  wbi 
shall  command  the  armj  ;  (14)  to  organize  <lii 
national  force  in  time  of  t>cace;  (l.Ti  to  comvi 
general  or  particular  exeniptions;  (10)  toilff™ 
the  territory  designate!  for  tlie  Fciliral  Distnc 
when  there  mav  he  reasons  to  appnhcml  that  1 
will  be  invaded  by  liostile  forces. 

Art.  67.  The  President  of  the  Vniliil  Slates  0 
Venezuela  shall  have  the  ministers  for  hiscabiut 
tliat  the  law  designates.  It  will  deieniiint  thel 
functions  and  duties  and  will  organize  thei 
bureaus 

Art.  6S.  To  be  a  minister  of  the  cabinet  11 1 
required  that  the  pcnon  shall  be  twenty-liTi 


G30 


coNSTrnmoN  of  Venezuela. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZUELA. 


nut  of  ue,  kVenasuelan  by  birth  or  fire  year* 
of  Dttun^tion. 

Art  69.  The  mlidsten  are  the  natural  and 
proper  organa  of  the  Preaident  of  the  United 
Statet  of  Venezuela.  All  hia  acta  must  be  tub- 
■cribed  by  them  and  without  aucb  requisite  they 
will  not  M  complied  with  nor  executed  by  the 
tuthoritiea,  employeea,  or  private  pertona. 

Art  70.  All  the  acta  of  the  miniaten  must  be 
confonniedtothiaConatitutioDandtbelaws;  their 
penonal  reaponaibiUty  ia  not  saved,  alth-jugL 
tbey  may  have  the  written  order  of  the  President. 

Art.  71.  The  settlement  of  all  business,  except 

.efi»'U  alfairtof  the  bureaus,  will  be  deter 
mined  in  the  council  of  ministers,  and  their  re- 
■ponsibiiity  is  collective  and  consolidated. 

Art.  72.  The  ministers,  within  the  five  first 
acMions  of  each  year,  will  render  an  account  to 
tbe  Chambers  of  what  they  may  have  done  or 
propose  to  do  in  their  respective  branches.  Tbey 
vill  also  render  written  or  verlnl  reports  that 
mar  be  requested  of  them,  reserving  only  that 
which,  in  diplomatic  affairs,  it  may  not  be  con- 
venient to  publish. 

Art  73.  Within  the  same  period,  thev  will 
present  to  the  National  Legislature  the  estimates 
of  public  expenditures  and  the  general  account 
of  the  past  j^ar. 

Art.  74.  The  ministers  have  the  right  to  be 
beard  in  the  Chambers,  and  are  obliged  to  attend 
wben  they  may  be  called  upon  for  information. 

Art.  75.  The  ministers  are  responsible:  (1)  for 
treason  to  the  country;  (2)  for  infraction  of  this 
Constitution  or  the  laws ;  (3)  for  malversation  ot 
the  public  funds;  (4)  for  exceeding  the  estimates 
in  their  expenditures;  (5)  for  subornation  or 
bribery  in  the  affairs  under  their  charge  or  in  the 
nominations  for  public  employees;  (6)  for  failure 
in  cumpliancc  with  the  decisions  of  the  Federal 
Council. 

Art.  76.  The  High  Federal  Court  will  be  com- 
posed of  as  many  judges  as  there  may  be  States 
of  the  Federation  and  with  the  following  quali- 
ties: (1)  A  judge  must  be  a  Venezuelan  by  birth ; 
(2)  be  must  be  thirty  years  of  age. 

Art.  77.  For  the  nomination  of  judges  of  the 
High  Federal  Court  the  Congress  will  convene 
ou  the  fifteenth  day  of  its  regular  sessions  and 
will  proceed  to  group  together  the  representation 
of  each  State  from  which  to  form  a  list  of  as 
many  candidates  for  principal  judges  and  an 
equal  number  of  alternates  as  there  inav  be  States 
of  tbe  Federation.  The  Congress,  in  tlie  same  or 
following  session,  will  elect  one  principal  and 
one  alternate  for  each  State,  selecting  them  from 
tbc  respective  lists. 

Art.  78.  The  law  will  determine  the  different 
functions  of  the  judges  and  other  officers  of  tue 
HiRh  Federal  Court. 

Art.  70.  The  judges  and  their  respective  alter- 
nates will  hold  office  for  four  years.  The  princi- 
pals and  their  alternates  in  oftlre  can  not  accept 
during  this  period  any  o.rice  in  the  gift  of  the 
eiciutive  without  previous  resignation  and  law- 
ful siceptance.  The  infraction  of  this  disposition 
will  be  punished  with  four  years  of  disability  to 
bold  public  office  in  Venezuela. 

Art.  80.  The  matters  within  the  competence  of 
the  I.'Vh  Fede  al  Court  are:  (1)  to  take  cogni- 
zancf  f  civil  or  criminal  causes  that  may  lie  in- 
stitu:.  (I  against  diplomatic  offi(<ers  in  thdse  ca8<'S 
l*riuiiied  by  the  law  of  nations;  (2)  to  talte  cog- 
nizuuce  of  cause*  ordered  by  the  President  to  be 


Instituted  against  cabinet  ministers  when  ther 
may  be  accused  according  to  the  cases  provldea 
for  in  this  Constitution.  In  the  matter  of  the 
necessity  of  suspension  from  office,  they  will  re- 
quest the  President  to  that  effect  and  be  will  com- 
ply;  (4)  to  have  jurisdiction  of  the  causes  of  re- 
sponsibility instituted  against  diplomatic  agents 
accredited  to  another  nation  for  the  wrong  dia- 
charge  of  their  functions;  (S)  to  have  jurisdiction 
in  civil  trials  when  the  nation  is  defendant  and 
the  law  sanctio,.  ■  it;  (8)  to  diasipate  the  contro- 
versies that  may  arise  between  the  offlciaU  of 
different  States  in  political  order  in  the  matter  of 
jurisdiction  or  competence;  (7)  to  take  cogni- 
zance of  all  matters  of  political  nature  that  the 
States  desire  to  submit  for  their  coatideration ; 
(8)  to  declare  which  may  be  the  law  in  force  when 
the  national  and  State  laws  may  be  found  to  con- 
flict with  each  other;  (9)  to  have  jurisdiction  in 
the  controversies  that  may  result  from  contracta 
or  negotiations  celebrated  by  tlie  p-  jsident  of  the 
federation ;  (10)  to  have  jurisdiction  in  causes  of 
imprisonment ;  (U)  to  exercise  other  prerogatives 
provided  for  by  law. 

Art.  81.  The  Court  of  Appeals  referred  to  in 
paragraph  20,  article  lb  of  this  Constitution,  ia 
the  tribunal  of  the  states;  it  will  be  composed  of 
as  many  judges  as  tliere  are  states  of  the  federa- 
tion, and  their  terms  of  office  will  last  for  four 
years. 

Art.  8a.  A  judge  of  the  Court  of  Appeals 
must  have  the  following  qualifications:  (1)  he 
must  be  an  attorney  at  kw  In  the  exercise  of  bis 
profession,  and  must  have  had  at  least  six  years 
practice;  (2)  he  must  be  a  Venezuelan,  thirty 
years  of  age. 

Art.  83.  Every  four  years  the  legislature  of 
each  State  will  form  a  list  of  as  many  attorneys, 
with  the  qualifications  expressed  in  tlie  preceding 
article,  as  there  are  States,  and  will  remit  it,  duly 
certified,  to  the  Federal  Council  in  order  that  this 
body,   from  the  resi)ectivc  lists,   may    elect  a 

i'udge  for  each  State  in  the  organization  j'  this 
igh  tribunal. 

Art.  84.  After  the  Federal  Council  may  have 
received  the  lists  from  all  the  States,  it  will  pro- 
ceed, in  public  session,  to  verify  the  election; 
forming  thereafter  a  list  of  the  attorneys  not 
elected,  in  order  that  from  this  general  list,  wliiob 
will  be  put)lished  in  the  official  paper,  tu  er- 
manent  vacancies  tliat  may  occur  in  the  C  i  of 
Appeals  may  be  filled  by  lot.  The  ten  jrarj- 
vacancies  will  be  fllied  according  to  hi" 

Art.  85.  Tlic  Court  of  Ai)|x>als  will  liave  the 
following  priri  gatives:  (1)  to  take  cognizance  of 
criminal  causes  or  those  of  respousil'ility  that 
may  be  instituted  against  the  high  functionaries 
of  the  different  States,  applying  tlie  laws  of  the 
States  themselves  in  matters  of  responsibility, 
and  in  case  of  omission  of  the  promulgation  0  a 
law  of  constitutional  precept,  it  will  apply  to 
tbc  cause  in  question  the  general  laws  of  the 
land:  Vi)  to  take  cognizance  and  to  decide  in 
cases  of  appeal  in  the  form  and  terms  directed 
by  law ;  (3)  to  annually  report  to  the  National 
Legislature  the  ditticulties  that  stand  in  the  way 
of  uniformity  in  the  matte  of  civil  or  criminal 
legisln'c.ou;  (4)  to  dispose  of  the  rivalries  that 
mtiv  arise  between  the  officers  or  functionaries  of 
juJicinl  order  in  the  different  States  of  the  federa- 
tion and  amongst  those  of  a  single  State,  pro- 
vided that  the  authority  to  settle  them  does  not 
exist  in  the  State. 


631 


coNSTmrnoN  op  Venezuela. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZUELA. 


Art.  96.  The  Ntdoiwl  ExecutiTe  U  exerdied 
br  the  Vedenl  Council,  the  President  of  the 
United  States  of  VenezueU,  or  the  person  who 
fills  his  TMsndes.  in  union  with  the  cabinet  min- 
isters  who  are  his  organs.  The  President  of 
Venezuela  must  be  a  Venezuelan  by  birth. 

Art.  S7.  T  !uactioos  of  National  Executive 
can  not  be  exercised  outside  of  the  federal  district 
except  in  the  case  provided  for  in  numbers,  para- 
onph  10,  article  66  of  the  Constitution.  When 
uie  PresideDt,  with  the  approval  of  the  Council, 
shall  take  command  of  the  army  or  absent  him- 
self from  the  district  on  account  of  matten  of 
public  interest  that  demand  it,  be  can  not  exercise 
any  functions  and  will  be  replaced  by  the  Federal 
Ci>unc!l  in  accordance  with  article  63  of  this  Con- 
stitution. 

Art.  88.  Everything  that  may  not  be  expressly 
assigned  to  the  general  administration  of  the  na- 
tion in  this  Constitution  is  reserved  to  the  States. 

Art.  89.  The  tribunals  of  justice  iu  the  States 
are  Indepcndrnt;  the  cituses  origuateil  In  them 
will  111'  cnnc'ludc<l  in  the  same  Slatos  without  any 
otii-  r  review  than  thnt  of  the  Court  of  Appeals 
in  tlic  cases  provided  for  by  law. 

Art.  00.  Every  act  of  Congress  and  of  the 
Nations!  Executive  that  violates  the  rights  guar- 
anteed to  the  States  in  this  Constitution,  or  tlmt 
attacks  their  independence,  must  be  declare<l  of 
no  effect  by  tlic  High  Court,  provided  that  a  ma- 
jority of  the  legislatures  demands  It. 

Art.  91.  The  public  national  force  is  divided 
into  naval  and  land  troops,  and  will  be  composed 
of  the  citizen  militia  that  the  States  may  organize 
according  to  law. 

Art.  02.  The  force  at  the  disposal  of  the  federa- 
tion will  be  organized  from  citizens  of  a  contin- 
gent furnished  by  each  State  in  proportion  to  its 
population,  calling  to  service  those  citizens  that 
should  render  it  according  to  their  internal  laws. 

Art.  93.  In  case  of  war  the  contingent  can  be 
augmented  by  bodies  of  citizen  mflitia  up  to 
the  number  of  Eien  necessary  to  All  the  draft  of 
tha  National  Government. 

Art.  94,  The  National  Government  may  change 
the  commanders  of  the  public  force  supplied  by 
the  States  in  the  cases  and  with  the  formaliti("9 
provided  for  in  the  national  military  law  and  then 
their  successors  will  be  called  for  from  the  States. 

Art.  95.  The  military  and  civil  authority  can 
never  be  exercised  by  the  same  person  or  corpo- 
ration. 

Art.  96.  The  nation,  being  in  possession  of  the 
right  of  ecclesiastical  patronage,  will  exercise  it 
as'tlie  law  upon  the  subject  may  direct. 

Art.  97.  The  Government  of  the  Fedemtion 
will  have  no  other  resident  employees  with  juris- 
diction or  authority  in  the  States  than  tliose  of 
the  States  themselves.  The  otlicere  of  hacienda, 
thvi-se  of  the  forces  that  garrison  national  for- 
scs,  arsenals  created  by  law,  navy  yariN,  and 

'iiiitiiU'd  ports,  that  only  have  juriMirtion  in 
matters  peculiar  to  their  respective  offices  and 
within  the  limits  of  the  forts  and  (|uariera  tl]:it 
they  command,  are  excepted;  but  even  these 
must  l>e  subject  to  the  general  laws  of  tliu  State 
in  which  they  reside.  All  the  elements  of  war 
now  existing  belong  to  the  National  Government ; 
nevertheless  it  is  not  to  be  understood  that  the 
States  are  pn  'hibited  from  acquiring  those  that 
they  may  need  for  domestic  defense. 

Art.  98.  The  National  Government  can  not 
lUtion  troops  nor  militaiy  otUcen  with  command 


G32 


in  a  State,  although  thejr  mar  be  from  that  or 
another  State,  without  penniMon  of  the  govern- 
ment.of  the  State  In  which  tha  force  is  to  b« 
stationed. 

Art.  09.  Neither  the  National  Executive  nor 
those  of  the  States  can  resort  to  armed  interven- 
tion in  t.!.e  domestic  contentions  of  a  State:  it  ii 
only  pe.mitted  to  them  to  tender  their  good  offi- 
ces to  bring  about  a  pacific  solution  in  the  cate. 

Art.  loa  In  case  of  a  permanent  or  temporary 
vacancy  in  the  office  of  President  of  the  United 
States  of  Venezuela,  the  States  will  be  immedi- 
ately informed  as  to  who  has  supplied  the  va. 
cancy. 

Art.  loi.  Exportation  in  Venezuela  is  free  and 
no  duty  can  be  placed  upon  it. 

Art.  loa.  All  usurped  authority  is  witbout 
effect  and  its  acts  are  null  Every  order  granted 
for  a  requisition,  direct  or  indirect,  bv  armed 
force  or  by  an  assemblage  of  people  in  su ) '  v  ersive 
attitude  Is  null  of  light  and  void  of  efficact'. 

Art,  103.  The  exercise  uf  any  function  not  con- 
ferred by  the  constitution  or  laws  is  prohibited 
to  every  corporation  or  authority. 

Art.  104.  Any  citizen  may  accuse  the  em- 
ployees of  the  nation  or  the  States  before  the 
chamber  of  deputies,  before  their  respe*  ive  m- 
periors  in  office,  or  before  the  authorities  desig. 
nated  by  law. 

Art.  105,  No  payment  shall  be  made  from  the 
National  Treasury  for  which  Congress  h.os  not 
expressly  provided  in  the  annual  estimate,  and 
those  that  may  Infringe  this  rule  will  bt  "ivilly 
responsible  to  the  National  Treasury  for  the  sum'j 
they  have  paid  out.  In  every  payment  from  the 
pul)lic  Treasury  the  ordinary  expensis  will  he 
preferred  to  the  extraordinary  charges. 

Art.  106.  The  offlcesof  collection  and  (lishurso- 
ment  of  the  national  taxes  shall  be  always  » juir- 
ate,  and  the  officers  of  collection  may  disburse 
only  the  salaries  of  cheir  respective  emiiloyets. 

Art.  107.  When,  for  any  reason,  the  eiiiniate 
of  appropriations  for  a  fiscal  period  have  not  li  (n 
made,  that  of  the  immediately  preceding  period 
will  continue  in  force. 

Art.  loS.  In  time  of  elections,  the  public  na- 
tional force  or  that  of  the  States  themselves  will 
remain  closely  quartered  during  the  holding  of 
popular  elections. 

Art.  109.  In  intematiojal  treaties  of  commerce 
and  frienifship  this  clause  will  l)e  inserted,  to  wit , 
"all  the  disagreements  between  the  contracti.ng 
pariies  must  be  decided  without  an  appeal  to  war, 
by  the  decision  of  a  power  or  friendly  powers." 

Art.  no.  No  individual  can  hold  more  than 
one  office  within  Jie  gift  of  Congress  and  the 
National  Executive.  The  acceptance  of  any 
other  is  equivalent  to  resignation  of  the  first. 
Olllcials  that  arc  removable  will  cease  to  hold 
office  upon  accepting  the  charge  of  a  Senator  or 
Deputy  when  they  are  dependents  of  the  National 
Executive. 

Art,  III.  The  law  will  create  and  designate 
other  national  tribunals  that  may  l)c  neeessary. 

Art.  Iia.  liational  offlcera  can  nut  aeei'pt  gifts, 
commissions,  honors,  or  emoluments  from  a  f(<r' 
eign  nation  without  permission  from  the  National 
Legislature. 

Art.  113.  Armed  force  can  not  deliberate;  it  is 
passive  and  obedient.  No  armed  body  can  make 
requisitions  nor  demand  assistance  of  any  kind, 
but  from  the  civil  authorities,  and  in  the  mode  auu 
form  prescribed  by  law. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  VENEZUELA. 


CONSUL. 


Alt  114.  The  Nation  and  the  States  will  pro- 
mote foreign  immigration  and  colonization  in  ac- 
coniani'i'  with  their  respective  laws. 

Art.  115.  A  law  will  regulate  the  manner  in 
which  national  ofncera,  i>on  taking  charge  of 
tht'ir  posts,  shall  take  lue  oath  to  comply  with 
their  duties. 

Art.  116.  The  National  Executive  will  negoti- 
ate with  the  Governments  of  America  over  treaties 
of  alliance  or  confederation. 

Art,  117.  The  la w  of  Nations  forms  a  part  of 
the  Nations!  Legislation;  its  dispositions  will  be 
ipeciall^  in  force  in  cases  of  civil  war,  which  can 
be  terminated  by  treaties  between  the  belligerents 
wlio  will  have  to  rt8|x;ct  the  hum'uiturian  cus- 
toms of  Christians  and  civilizet*  cations,  the 
guarantee  of  life  being,  in  every       0,  inviolable. 

Art.  118.  This  constitution  cr  c-pformedby 
the  National  Legislature  if  ti)  gislatures  of 
the  States  desire  it,  but  there  1 '  never  be  any 
reform  except  in  the  parts  upoi.  which  the  ma- 
jority of  the  States  coincide ;  also  a  reform  can 
be  made  upon  one  or  more  points  when  two- 
thirds  of  the  members  of  the  National  Legisla- 
ture, deliberating  separately  and  by  the  proceed- 
faigs  established  to  sanction  the  law's,  shall  accord 
■•;  but,  iu  this  second  case,  the  amendment  voted 
jail  be  submitted  to  the  legislatures  of  the  States, 
ami  it  will  stand  sanctioned  in  the  point  or  points 
that  Diay  have  been  ratified  by  them. 


Art.  no.  This  constitution  will  take  effect 
from  the  day  of  its  oRlcial  promulgation  in  each 
btittc,  and  In  all  public  acts  and  olUdal  docu- 
ments till  re  will  be  cited  tht  date  of  the 
Federatii  to  U-gin  with  Febrojiry  2U,  IH.W, 
and  the    .,,te  of  the  law  to  b<  .'in  with  March 

Art.  130.  The  constitutional  period  (or  '    1 
olHces  of  the  General  Administration  of  th, 
pub'ic  will  continue  to  be  computed  from  Feb.  u- 
ary  20,  1S82,  the  ilutc  on  which  the  reformed 
constitution  took  effect. 

Art.  lai.  For  e-ery  act  of  civil  and  political 
life  of  the  States  of  the  Federation,  its  basis  of 
IKtpulation  is  that  which  is  determined  in  the 
lust  census  approved  by  the  National  Leitis- 
lature. 

Art.  122.  The  Federal  Constitution  of  April 
27,  ISSl,  is  repealed.  Done  in  Caracas,  in  the 
Ptlace  of  the  Fe-  ■■  i^egislative  Corps,  and 
sealed  with  the  s<  Jongress  on  the  Uth  day 

of  April.  1891.  '  •,.  „  year  of  the  Law  and 
the  38rd  year  or'    .;',■■    eration. 

(Here  follow  tl..  atures  of  the  Presidents, 

Vice-Presidents,  a^'d  Second  Vice-Presidents  of 
the  Senate  and  Chamljer  of  Deputies,  together 
with  those  of  the  Senators  and  Deputies  of  the 
various  States,  followinl  by  those  of  tlii  Pioideut 
and  the  ministers  of  his  cabinet.)  See  VtNEZU- 
EL.v;  .\..  D.  l»6a-lS92. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  WATAUGA 
ASSOCIATION  (the  first  Western  An  -^rican 
Commonwealth).    See  Tkn.nesbee:  A.  D.  nO'J- 

ITTi. 
CONSTITUTIONS  OF  CLARENDON.— 

The  "Constitutions  of  Clarendon"  were  a  series 
of  declarations  drawn  up  by  a  council  which  King 
Henry  11.  of  Englantl  convened  at  Clarendon. 
Dear  Winchester,  in  1164,  and  which  were  in- 
tended to  determine  the  law  on  various  points  in 
dispute  between  the  Crown  and  the  laitv,  on  one 
siili.  and  the  Church  on  the  othe..  Tte  issues 
in  question  were  those  which  brought  Henry  iulo 
colli.sion  with  Thor-  t  Becket,  Archbi.«  ip  of 
I'anteibuiv.  ThegeL.  '  provisions emb  '  lin 
the  Coustftutions  of  Clarendon  ' '  would  be 

scarcely  challenged  in  the  most  Catholic  t  ry 
in  the  world.  1.  During  the  va  ai;cyofaL  ..  jli- 
bishoprie,  bishopric,  abb^y.  01  prior;,  of  royal 
foundation,  the  estates  wc.  e  to  '"■  in  tiie'custody  of 
the  Cniwn.  Elections  to  these  o.efnuients  were 
to  be  held  in  thr  -oval  chapel,  r,:,  the  Lssent  of 
thekingandc  lu!:.  2  Inevt.  Sittowhicha 
clerk  was  a  pa-  ;  'oceediugs  » 1  •>  to  commence 
before  the  kuifc  ,„  jtices,  and  these  justices  were 
to  del  iile  whether  the  case  was  vo  be  tried  before 
a  spi-  lal  or  a  civil  court.  If  it  was  referred  to 
asl.iuuial  court,  a  civil  ofBcer  was  to  attend  to 
waleh  the  trial,  and  if  a  clerk  was  found  guilty 
of  felony  the  Church  was  to  cease  to  protect  him. 
3.  No  tenantinchief  of  the  king,  or  officer  of 
his  household,  was  to  be  excommunicated,  or  his 
lands  laid  under  an  interdict,  imtil  appli(..tion 
had  been  tint  made  to  the  king,  or,  in  his  absence, 
to  the  chief  justice.  4.  Laymen  were  not  to  be 
indictcHl  in  a  bishop's  court,  either  for  perjury  or 
other  similar  offence,  except  in  the  bishop  s  pres- 
ence by  a  lawful  prosecutor  and  with  lawful 
witnesses.  If  the  accused  was  of  so  high  rank 
that  r.n  prosecutor  wt/uld  atpcnr,  the  bishop 
might  require  the  sherilf  to  call  a  Jury  to  inquu^ 
into  th"  case.    9.  Aicbbishop-   jiahopa,  and  otiier 


gnat  persons  were  forbidiii n  to  have  tin-  realm 
without  the  king's  permissiou.  0.  Ai)|>eals«ere 
to  be  from  the  arcudeacon  to  the  bishop,  from 
the  bishop  to  the  archbishop,  from  the  arclibislinp 
to  the  king,  and  no  further;  that,  bj  the  niug  s 
mandate,  the  case  might  lie  ended  in  the  arch- 
bLshops  court.  The  last  article  the  king  after- 
wards explained  away.  It  wus  one  of  the  most 
essi'ntial,  but  he  wus  unable  lO  maintain  it :  and 
he  was  rash,  or  he  was  ill-advised,  in  raising  u 
second  question,  on  which  the  pope  would  natu- 
rally be  sensitive,  before  he  had  disposed  of  the 
first." — J.  A.  Froude.  Life  anil  Titmnf  Duktt 
pp.  31-33.— Sec  Enola>d;  A.  D.  1102-1170. 

CONSTITUTIONS,  Roman  Imperial,  t  . 
Couns  Jtnis  Civilis. 

CONSTITUTIONAL  UNION  PARTY, 
The.  See  Csited  St.vte8  of  Am.  ;  A.  1).  ItJOO 
(ApiiiL— November). 

CONSUL,  Roman.— ^Vhen  t'le  Romans  had 
rid  themselves  of  thiir  kings  and  establishtHl  a 
republic,  or,  rather,  an  aristocratic  government, 
"the  civil  duties  of  the  king  were  given  to  two 
magistrates,  chosen  for  a  year,  who  were  at 
first  called  'pratores'  or  ge'nerals.  'judices"  or 
judges,  or  consules  (cf.  con  '  together '  and  salio 
■  to  leap ')  or  '  colleagues. '    In  the  matter  of  their 

f)ower,  no  violent  deiiarture  was  made  from  the 
mperiumof  the  king.  The  greatest  lindtalion 
on  the  consuls  was  the  short  period  for  which 
they  were  at  the  head  of  the  state;  but  even  liere 
the"  were  tli.mght  of,  by  a  fiction,  as  voluntarily 
abdicating  at  the  expiration  of  their  term,  and  as 
nominating  their  succes.sors,  although  they  were 
required  to  nominate  the  men  who  had  already 
been  selected  in  the  'comitiacentuiiata. '  Another 
limitation  was  the  result  of  the  dual  character  of 
the  magistracy.  The  imperium  was  not  divided 
between  the  consuls,  but  each  possessed  it  a 
full,  as  the  king  had  before.  When,  thcrcf  e, 
they  did  not  agree,  the  veto  of  the  one  prev  <id 
over  the  proposal  of  the  other,  and  there  w  ..  no 


633 


CONSUL. 


CONVOCATION. 


! 


i 


! 


•Ptlon."— A.  Tighe,  Detelopment  of  the  Roman 
(hint.,  eh.  4. — "A»  Judges,  the  consulii  occupied 
altogether  the  place  of  the  kings.  They  decided 
the  legal  disputes  of  the  citizens  either  personally 
or  by  deputy.  Their  criminal  Jurisdiction  was 
probably  limited  to  the  most  important  coses. 
...  In  the  warlike  state  of  the  Romans  tlie 
military  character  of  the  consuls  was  no  doubt 
most  prominent  and  most  Important.  When  the 
consul  le<l  the  army  into  the  field  he  possessed 
the  unlimited  military  power  of  the  kings  (the 
i-nperium).  He  was  entrusteil  with  the  direction 
of  the  war,  the  distribution  of  the  booty,  and  the 
first  disposal  of  the  conquered  land.  .  .  .  The 
oldest  designation  for  the  consids,  therefore,  was 
derived  from  their  military  ()uality,  for  they  were 
(.ailed  pnet^irs.  that  is,  commanders.  It  was,  how- 
ever, precisely  in  war  that  the  division  of  power 
among  two  colleagues  must  often  have  proved 
prejudicial  .  .  .  and  tlie  necessity  of  unity  in  the 
direction  of  affairs  was  felt  to  lie  indispensable. 
The  dictatorship  served  this  purpose.  By  decree 
of  the  senate  one  of  the  consuls  could  lie  charged 
with  naming  a  dictator  for  six  months,  ana  in 
this  offlcer  the  full  power  of  the  king  was  re- 
vive<l  for  a  limite<{  period.  The  dictatorship 
was  a  formal  suspension  of  the  constitution  of 
the  republic.  .  .  .  Military  was  substituted  for 
common  law,  and  Rome,  during  the  time  of  the 
dictatorship,  was  in  a  state  of  siege." — W.  Ihne, 
Hint,  of  Kumf.  At.  2,  rh.  1,  and  bk.  6,  'A.  S-5.— 
In  the  later  years  of  the  Roman  empire,  "two 
consuls  were  created  by  the  sovereigns  of  Rome 
and  Constantinople  for  the  sole  purpose  of  giving 
a  date  to  the  year  and  a  festival  to  the  people. 
But  the  expenses  of  this  festival,  in  which  the 
wealthy  and  the  vaiu  a»pire<i  to  surpass  their 
predecessors,  insensibly  anise  lo  the  enornioiii 
sum  of  four  score  thousand  pounds;  the  wisest 
Knators  derlinol  a  useless  honour  which  in- 
volvetl  the  certain  ruin  of  their  families,  and  to 
this  ri'lurtance  I  should  Impute  the  frequent 
chasms  in  the  last  age  of  the  consular  Fasti.  .  .  . 
The  succession  of  consuls  finally  ceas<Kl  In  the 
lhirte«'nth  year  of  Justinian  [A.D.  5411  whose 
destKitic  temper  miitlit  lie  gratified  by  the  final 
extinction  of  a  title  which  admonisheil  the 
Romans  >if  theirancient  freedom.  Yet  the  annual 
consulship  still  lived  in  the  iiilmis  of  the  people; 
tliev  fondly  expe<'ted  its  speedy  reslomtion  ,  .  . 
an<l  three  centuries  elapsed  after  tlie  death  of 
Justinian  before  lliat  olisolete  dignity,  which 
had  lieen  suppressed  by  custom,  cmild  tie 
alKilished  by  law.  The  imperfect  moile  of  dls- 
tinguisliing  each  year  by  the  name  of  a  magistrate 
was  usefully  supplleil  by  the  dale  of  a  permanent 
era.  "— E.  Uiblion,  Ikrti'iif  nnd  hMUnflhr  Itimuin 
Unifrire.  rh.  40.— "There  were  no  consuls  in  Ml 
and  Xn.  The  Emperor  held  the  oltlce  alone  In 
."MM,  and  with  a  colleague  in  SiU.  Bt'lisarius  was 
sole  iiiiisul  In  .W.T  The  two  following  years,  hav. 
ing  no  consuls  of  their  own.  were  sItTikI  the  First 
and  .'v-cond  after  the  Consulship  of  Ik'lisarius. 
John  of  Cappadocia  gave  his  name  to  the  ytar 
.1«H,  and  the  years  .■«»  and  MO  had  again  consuls, 
though  one  only  for  each  year.  In  .%4l  Albinus 
Tiaslllus  sat  in  the  curiile  chair,  and  lie  was  prac. 
ticall)  the  last  of  the  long  list  of  warriors,  oraton. 


ilemairoguea,  courthrs,  which  liegan  (in  the  year 
R.    C. )   with   the   names  of  Lucius  Junius 


.VW 


iirutus  and  Luciiii  inriuiniUH  (v.tiitttiius.  Ail 
the  rest  i.f  tlic  years  of  Justinian,  twenty  four  in 
number,   wer«   rvckuoed   ««   F»«t  Cousulatum 


BMllil."— T.  Hodgkin,  liali/  and  Her  lumikr, 
bk.  S,  eh.  14.— See.  alio,  Rome:  B.  C.  S09 

CONSULAR  TRIBUNES,  Raman!- Tlie 
plebeiani  of  Rome  having  demanded  admissiciu 
for  their  order  to  the  coniulship,  a  compnimiw 
wBi  arranged,  B.  C.  444,  which  scttkil  tlmt 
thereafter,  "the  people  ihould  t)c  free  to  eleoi 
either  consul*  —  that  ii,  patricians  accunling  tn 
the  old  law  —  or  in  their  place  other  officers  under 
the  title  of  'militarr  tribunes  with  consular 
power,'  constating  of  patricians  and  plelielaiis. 
.  .  .  It  l(  not  reported  in  what  respect  the  iiffirmi 
competency  of  the  consular  tribunes  was  to  differ 
from  that  of  the  consuls.  Still,  so  muck  is  plain, 
that  the  difference  consisted  not  alone  in  name! 
The  number  of  the  consular  tribunes  was  in  tlie 
beginning  fixed  at  three." — W.  Ihne,  Ilitt  .Y 
Rmu,  bk.  a,  eh.  11. 

CONSULATE  GOVERNMENT  OF 
FRANCE,  Th«.  See  France:  A.  D.  17W 
(November— Dbckmbcb). 

CONTINENTAL  ARMY.-"  The  Con- 
tinentals "  of  the  American  Rerolutioa,  Se 
UsrrBD  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.   177.5  (M.»v- 

AUOl'BT). 

CONTINENTAL  CURRENCY,  The,  $(e 
Cnited  States  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  t7S0  (JA.NtAKT— 
April). 

CONTINENTAL  SYSTEM  OF  NAPO- 
LEON, The.  SeeFRAKCE:  A.  D.  IWIl-IMK!, ami 
1806-1810. 

CONTIONES,  OR  CONCIONES.-The 
contiones,  or  conciones,  at  liome.  were  nsseinhlics 
of  the  people,  "less  formal  than  the  lomiiia." 
held  for  the  mere  purpose  of  discussini;  pulilic 
questinns.  and  incapable  of  passing  nuv  liindim; 
resolui:  'I  "They  could  not  lie  ciilleil  tll^'l■tllrr 
by  any iKKly  except  the  magistrates,  mithirlud 
every  man  the  liberty  of  speaking  in  ihim,  of 
making  proposals  or  of  declaring  his  opininn; 
.  .  .  but  even  in  this  limited  manner  pulilic 
questions  could  be  di*cus*e<l  ami  the  peciplc 
could  be  enlightene<l.  .  .  .  The  custom  of  dk. 
cussing  public  questions  in  the  contiomit  Ucame 
general  after  the  cumltia  of  the  triliea  hai! 
obtained  full  legislative  competency  "—W.  lime. 
//<■»<.  (/  Rome.bk.  8,  eh.  1.— See,  also,  CdsiiTU 

CrRIATA. 

CONTRABANDS.— In  the  early  part  of  the 
American  civil  war  of  1861-4H,  escaiml  jlsvej 
were  called  contrabands,  fleiieral  HuiIit  havim 
declared  them  to  oe  "  coDtrahniui  uf  «iir.  '  n^ 
Cnitkii  States  or  \h  :  \.  D   l^'il   Mwi 

CONTRACT-LABOR    LAW.    Sr  Imhi 

OHATION. 

CONTRBRAS,  BatUe  of.  See  Mexico: 
A.  I).  1847  (March— SKrTEMiiKR). 

CONVENT.    See  Monasti  iiv. 

CONVENTICLE    ACT,   The.     Se  Kn. 
land:  a.  n.  1M3-1MV 

CONVENTION,  The  French  National,  of 
the  freat  Rerelution.  See  Fkanck  a  !•  i:»J 
(.VrorsT),  and  1799  (SRPTEmiKii— Ncukmiikk  . 

to  17»S  (OCTORIR— D(CRIinKII). 

CONVOCATION.-Thr  aasrmbllis  of  !be 
clergy  In  the  two  rTclesiaallcal  prnvimi*  of 
England  are  calle<l  the  ConviKatloii  nf  Csnler 
bury  and  the  Convocation  of  York.  The  forrair, 
which  is  the  superior  Nidy,  frequently  nwlves 
the  name  of  Convocation,  simply.  Itis  c<in«li 
iuied  uiMiu  tile  niiaiei  of  Parliaimni.  uii'i  is.  iii 
fact,  the  Parliament  of  tlie  Church  of  Knitlaad 
It  has  two  Houses:  the  upper  one  cuiuistinK  <>( 


C34 


CONVOCATION. 


CORINTH. 


tbe  Arcbbiabop  and  hii  BUbopa;  the  lower  OM 
compoKd  of  deani,  archdeacons  and  procton^ 
representing  the  Inferior  clergy.  The  Convoca- 
tion  of  York  has  but  one  House.  Since  1718 
CooToration  hasponeued  slight  powers. 

CONWAY  CABAL.  The.  See  CnmB 
States  of  Asi.  :  A.  D.  1777-1778. 

COOK'S  ISLANDS.    See  Poltnksia. 

COOMASSIE,  BumioK  ot,  See  England: 
A  D.  IH-3-1880. 

COOPERATION.  See  Social  MovBxcim. 

COPAIC  REEDS.    SeeBocoTiA. 

COPAN,  Ruins  oC  See  American  Abori- 
8IXES :  Mat  AS ;  and  Mexico,  Ancient. 

COPEHAN  FAMILY,  The.  See  Ameri- 
ca!! .Vborioises  :  Copkhan  Family. 

COPENHAGEN  :  A.  D.  1363.— Taken  and 
pillsged  by  the  Haasaatic  Learne.  See  Scan- 
DiXAViAS  States:  A.  D.  1018-1897. 

A.  D.  1658-1660.— Swedish  siecet.  See 
Scandinavian  States  (Swedbn)  :  A.  D.  1644- 
1W7. 

A.  0. 1700.— SmrcjdcrtoCharles  XII.  See 
StAMUNAViAN  States:  A.  D.  1687-1  ;w. 

A.  D.  1801.— Bombardment  by  the  EnKlith 
Icet.    8«  France  :  A.  D.  1801-1802. 

A.  D.  1807.— Bombardment  of  the  citj  by 
the  English.— Seizure  of  the  fleet.  See  Scah- 
DiSAViAN  States  :  A.  D.  1807-1810. 


COPPERHEADS.— Durini;  the  American 
Civil  Wsr.  the  Dprnocratic  Party  in  the  Xorth- 
trn  States  "comprised  two  well-recognized 
cl««»ii!  The  Ami' War  (or  Peacet  Dcmucrsts, 
commiiiilv  called  '  Copperbewls, '  who  srmpa- 
ihiiKl  with  the  liebcllion,  and  opposed  the  War 
for  the  I'nion ;  and  the  War  (or  Union)  Demo- 
emu.  who  favored  a  vigorous  pruaerution  of  the 
War  for  the  preservation  of  the  Tnion." — J.  A. 

Logan,  T>ie  Ureal  Ci>n*i>iraey,  p.  674,  foof-n<ite. 

Sot,  h1«),  Udited  States  or  Am.:  A.  D.  1864 
(OrroBEii). 

COPREDY  BRIDGE,  Battle  of.  SeeENo- 
USD:  .V  D.  1644  (Jam-aht— Jri.T). 

COPTOS.— DestroTcd  by  Dioclttlu.  See 
Alixaxdria  :  A.  D.  896. 

COPTS,  The.— The  descendanU  of  the  an- 
cient Eii.vptiau  race,  who  form  to  this  day  the 
larpT  ivirt  of  the  population  of  Egypt.  See 
EotfT:  Oriain  or  THE  Ancient  People. 

COPYRIGHT.  See  Law.  Common:  A.  D. 
IIKB:  mill  Law,  E<jI'ity:  A.  D.  1875. 

COR,  The.    See  Ephah. 

CORCYRA.    See  Koretra. 

COR  DAY,  Charlotte,  and  tha  assastina- 
tiSB  of  Marat.   See  France  :  A.  I).  i;9«(,Tilv). 

CORDELIERS.    See  .Mendicant  (»ri.ek». 

CORDELIERS,  Club  of  tha.  SeeFuAME: 
K  1)  ITHO, 

CORDOVA  (Spain):  A.D.  7lt.-Snrrender 
to tks  Arab-Moors.    SeeSPAiN:  A  l»  Tll-Tl.l 

A  D.  756.1031.-The  Caliphate  at.    sec 

HAmi)lr.TANCoNV|DKSTANuEMPIIIK:  A.  I)  7.")6- 

ll«l. 

AD.ia]s.-CaptBrabytha  KlnrefCastite. 

ewJiPAiN;  A.  1).  I»ia-t488 


CORDOVA  (Mesico),  Treaty  of.    S«  .Mex- 
l<"    \   I)   1H3II-181KI, 

CORDYENE.    s.^  Qordtene. 
COREA.    «-!■  KottCA 

COREISH,  KORBISH.    See  .Mahometan 
u>li((i  tsT  A.10  Empikb  :  A.  O.  SOIMIS'il. 


COREY,  Martha  and  Giles,  The  execution 
for  witchcraft  oC  See  Massachusetts:  A.  D. 
1692. 

CORFINIUM,  Catar'a  Captnre  of.  See 
Rome:  B.  C.  80-49. 

CORFU,  Ancient.    See  Kobetba. 

A.  D.  i3i6-i88o.— Sine*  the  tall  of  the  Greek 
Empire.— Corfu  was  won  bv  the  Venetians  in 
the  early  years  of  the  Lat{n  conquest  of  the 
Greek  empire  (1216),  but  was  presently  lost,  to 
cumc  back  again  into  the  poawssion  of  the  re- 
nublic  170  years  Uter.  "  No  part  of  Greece  haa 
been  so  often  cutoff  from  the  Greek  body.  Under 
Prrrhos  and  Agathoklta,  no  less  than  under 
Slichael  Angelos  and  Roger,  it  obeyed  an  Epelrot 
or  Sicilian  master.  .  .  .  At  last,  after  yet  another 
tujnof  Sicilian  rule.  It  passed  for  400  years  [1886- 
1797]  to  the  great  commonwealth  [of  Venice]. 
In  our  own  day  Corfu  was  not  added  to  free 
Greece  till  long  after  the  deliverance  of  Attica 
and  Peloponntsos.  But,  under  so  many  changes 
of  foreign  masters,  the  island  has  always  re- 
mained part  of  Europe  and  of  Christendom 
Alone  among  the  Greek  lands,  Corfu  has  never 
passed  under  barbarian  rule.  It  has  seen  the 
Turk  only,  for  one  moment,  as  an  invader  [see 
TtTBKs:  A.  D.  1714-1718],  for  another  moment 
as  a  nominal  overlord."— E.  A.  Freemau,  //»'«- 
torieai  Otog.  of  Buropt.  p.  408.— See  Iohlan  Isl- 
ands: To  1814. 

CORINIUM.— A  Roman  city  in  Britain,  on 
the  site  of  which  Is  the  modem  city  of  Cirences- 
ter. Some  of  the  richest  mosaic  pavements  found 
in  England  have  been  uncovered  there.- T. 
Wrieht.  Celt,  Soman  and  Saxon,  eh.  8. 

CORINTH.— Corinth,  the  chief  city  and  state, 
in  ancient  times,  of  the  narrow  isthmus  which 
connects  Peloponnesus  with  northern  Greece, 
■ '  owed  everything  to  her  situation.  The  double 
sea  by  the  isthmus,  the  confluence  of  the  high 
road  of  the  whole  of  Hellas,  the  rocky  citadel 
towering  aloft  over  land  and  sea,  through  which 
rushed  —  or  around  which  flowed  —  an  abundance 
of  springs;  all  these  formed  so  extraordinary  a 
commixture  of  advantages,  that,  if  the  intercourse 
with  other  countries  remained  undisturbed,  they 
could  not  but  call  forth  an  important  city.  As 
In  Argolis,  so  on  the  Isthmus  also,  other  besides 
Dorian  families  bad  in  the  days  of  the  migmtion 
helped  to  found  the  new  state.  ...  By  the  side 
of  the  Darian,  five  non-Dorian  tribes  existe<l  in 
Corinth,  attesting  the  multitude  and  variety  of 
population,  which  were  kept  together  as  one 
slate  by  the  royal  power  of  the  Hersclids.  sup- 
ported by  the  armed  force  of  the  Dorians.  In 
the  ninth  century  [H.  C.)  the  royal  power  passed 
into  the  hands  01  a  branch  of  the  iJeracliilie  de- 
riving its  descent  from  Bacchis  [one  of  the  earliest 
of  the  kings] :  and  It  was  In  the  extraordinary 
genius  of  this  royal  line  that  the  greatness  of  the 
city  originated.  The  Bacchiads  opened  the  city 
to  the  immigration  of  the  industrious  settlers  who 
bopetl  to  make  tlirtr  fortunes  more  speedily  than 
elsewhere  at  this  meeting  pointof  all  Greek  high- 
romls  of  commerce.  Tney  cherished  and  ad- 
vanced every  Invention  of  importance.  .  .  .  They 
tiHtk  commerce  into  their  own  hands,  and  es- 
talilished  the  tramway  on  the  Isthmus,  along 
which  ships  were,  on  rollers,  transported  from 

-t...  g-.;'f  ;.-.  t»„=  .-.shsr  XhrJ  f-'QVcrtcd  the 

gulf  which  had  hitherto  taken  Its  name  from 
Crisa  Into  tbc  Corintfaiaa.  and  saeurad  Its  bhtow 


635 


■It 


COMNTH. 

blet  bv  means  of  the  foitifled  place  of  Molycria. 
.  .  .  They  continued  their  aarance  along  the 
coaat  and  occupied  the  moat  important  points  on 
the  Achclous."— E.  Curtius,  l/itt.  of  Grtfee,  bk. 
i.  eh.  1  — Sfe,  also,  Traue-  Ancik.nt. 


CORINTH. 

lation  within  and  without  the  Peloponnet 
conununicated  with  each  other  more  in  aom 
times  by  land  across  the  isthmus  than  by  m 
But  when  the  Hellenes  became  mnre  practued 


navigation,  the  Corinthians  with  their  sliips  n 
B.C.  745-735. — Cenatitntional  RcTolutioo.   j  down  piracy  and  establbhed  marts  outothsidi 
—End    of  Monarchj. — The  prjtancs.— Com-      and  tlirough  this  influx  of  riches  tlieir  city 


mcrcial  progress. — A  violent  contention  whicii 
Hrose  between  two  branches  of  the  Bacchiadie 
"  no  doubt  gave  the  nobles  of  Corintli  power  and 
opportunity  to  end  the  struggle  by  a  iliange  in 
the  constitution,  and  by  the  discontinuance  of  the 
monarchy;  this  occurred  in  the  year  745  B.  C, 
lifter  eig'lit  generations  of  kings.  .  .  .  Yet  the 
place  at  the  hend  of  the  commonwealth  wa:)  not 
to  be  entirely  taken  away  from  the  ancient  royal 
linuse.  A  presiding  chief  (a  prTtanis),  newly 
electeil  each  year  by  the  whole  nobilitv  from  tlie 
memlK'rs  of  the  royal  rait-,  washenceforwanl  to 
conduct  the  government  'see  Prytakis].  It  was 
n  peculiar  arrangement  which  this  chaiigi'  iutro- 
duceil  into  Corinth.  We  may  assume  that  the 
sovereignty  was  transferroii  to  the  nolili.s  col- 
lectively, or  to  their  rtpresi'ntative.  Thi.s  repre- 
sentation seems  to  have  been  so  regulated  that 
each  of  the  eight  tribes  sent  an  equal  nunilHT  of 
members  to  tlie  Oerousia,  i.  e.  the  council  of 
elders.  .  .  .  But  the  Urst  of  these  eight  trilK's, 
to  which  belonj^ed  the  royal  family,  was  iirivi- 
leged.  From  it  was  chosen  the  head  of  the 
state,  an  otlice  for  which  only  a  Bacchiad  waH 
eligible  —  that  is,  only  a  memU-r  of  the  old  myal 
house,  wliieh  tiH>k  the  foremost  place  in  the  first 
tribe.  This  rian  of  the  BHCchladtt;  is  miid  to 
have  contaluwi  800 men.  'They  were  numemin 
and  wealthy,'  says  Straljo.  Accimlingly  the 
royal  house  (iid  not  exclusively  retain  the  flrst 
rank  in  tlie  state,  but  only  in  conjjni-tion  with 
the  families  conneeted  with  it  by  kiiiiireti  and 
r.ivv.  .  .  .  The  new  constitution  (if  Corinth,  the 
government  by  nobles,  under  the  dynastic  presi- 
dency of  one  "family,  liecamc  a  tvpe  for  other 
cantons.  It  was  a  Corinthian  of  tlie  Bacchhids 
who,  twenty  or  thirty  years  after  the  intnxluc- 
tiou  of  tiie  prytanes,  regulated  the  oligarehy  of 
the  Thebaus  and  gave  them  laws  (aliout  72,1 
B.  C. )  .  .  .  The  fall  of  the  monarchy  in  Corinth 
at  Urst  brought  with  it  disastrous  consequenri* 
for  the  [Kiwer  and  pn-stigc  of  tlic  rommonwealtli. 
The  communities  of  the  Megarians  — either  lie- 
cause  the  new  government  made  inereaiM'd  ile- 
mauds  u|)on  them,  or  liecaiise  they  iimsidered 
their  allegiance  hail  ceased  with  the  res.>utlon  of 
iimnarchy,  and  tliought  the  moment  was  favour- 
able —  desertnl  Corinth  and  asserted  their  free- 
dom. The  five  communities  on  the  isthmus 
unitdl  together  around  the  territory  of  Megara, 
lying  in  the  plain  by  the  Saronic  Gulf,  when 
the  majority  of  the  lioric  tribes  bad  lettled;  the 
city  of  Megara.  in  the  vicinity  of  two  ancient 
fortreaaca  .  .  .  became  the  chief  centre  f  the 
communities,  ni'w  associated  in  one  c  inon- 
wealth.  .  ,  .  The  important  progress  of  >  rinth 
under  the  prytany  of  the  BaccbiailB  w  >'•  not 
due  to  successes  up<m  the  mainland,  hut  in  an- 
other sphere  For  navigathm  and  commeree  no 
canton  in  Hellas  was  more  favourably  sltuatiil 
I.yinT  on  tlie  neck  of  the  Isthmus,  it  extended 
from  sea  to  sea.  an  advantageous  position  which 
hwi  indeed  first  attracted  the  Phonlciana  thither 
in  ancient  times.  .  .  .  Corinth,  aays  Thucjr- 
dkieii.  was  aiwayn  from  liir  first  a  rrntrs  of 
coauwrtx,  and  abouutlwl  In  wmUUi  :  (ur  Um  popu- 


came   very   powerful." — M.  Duueker,  Uitt 
Ureref,  bk.  3,  eh.  3  (r.  8). 

B.  C.  509-506.— Opposition  to  the  desire 
Sparta  to  restore  tyrannj  at  Athens.    S 
Athens:  B.  C.  SOO-flOiS. 

B.  C.  481-479. — Conrreia  and  orgaoixi 
Hellenic  union  against  Persia.  .See  Ukeeci 
n.  C.  •t.'<l-47H. 

B.  C.  458-456.— Alliance  with  iEgina  in  ui 
successful  war  with  Athens  and  Megara.  S 
Urkeie:  li.  C.  4.W-t56. 

B.  C.  440.— Opposition  to  Spartan  interf« 
ence  with  Athens  in  Samos.  .s-c  Atu£.\ 
B.  C.  440-4:17. 

B.  C.  435-432.— Quarrel  with  Korkyra.-li 
terference  of  Athens. — Events  leading  to  tl 
Peloponnesian  War.  t$ee  Queeck  :  1!  c  4;;: 
43'J. 

B.  C.  43a.— Great  sea-fi|^ht  with  the  Ko 
krrians  and  Athenians.  tM'e  GiitErE:  li  ( 
432. 

B.  C.  439-^37.— The  Peloponnesian  Wsi 
aea-fights  and  defeats. — Fruitless  aid  to  tl 
Mitylenseans.    SecUiiF.ECE:  II  ( '.  4'^'.M'.>: 

B.  C.  431.— Opposition  to  the  Peace  of  Nii 
ias.     See  (Ihekck:   B.  C.  4il-llH. 

B.  C.  415-413.- Help  to  Syracuse  agsiai 
the  Athenians.    %w  Syracisk:  li.  C  4i:>-41 

B.  C.  395-387. —Confederacy  against  Sptni 
—The  Corinthian  War.— Battle  on  the  Ni 
mea.— The  Peace  of  Antalcidas.  N c (iiiEui 
11.  C.  399-JW7. 

B.  C.  368-365.- Attempt  of  Epaminondul 
surprise  the  city. — Attempt  of  the  Atbeniu 

NeOltEKlK:   B.  C.  371-;l«J 

B.  C.  337.— Congress  of  Creek  states  ton 
knowledge  the  hegemony  of  Philip  of  Mati 
don.     Se  CtRKKCE :   B.  C.  3.".T-;WI1 

B.  C.  344.— Capture  by  Antigonus  Gonaiu 
king  of  Maccdon.  See  Ma>  i.honu.  .V>  :  B  t 
a77-'.'44 

B.  C.  343-146.— In  the  Achaian  Lea|o 
8«'.OnEF.CE;  B.  C.  '.'NO-llB 

B.  C.  146.— Sack  by  the  Romasi.  S 
OliEKiE:    B.  C.  2H(t  14fl 

B.  C.  44.— Restoration  by  Cesar.- "1 
the  desolate  land  of  (JnciT.  ('n'«.ir.  l»'«idi'» dlbi 
plans.  .  .  .  busied  himself  nlmvc  all  with  II 
restoration  of  Corinth.  X"t  only  »»»  s  M 
siilerablc  burgess  colony  enniluclnl  Ilcitliir,  bi 
a  plan  was  projected  for  eultiiii;  thnu^h  ti 
isthmus,  so  as  to  avolii  the  <l;oiK'>'rtiiiii  cinui 
navigation  of  the  PelopimneMiit  ami  to  mat 
the  whole  traffic  Iwtween  luilv  ami  .^'Is  P* 
throtiirh  the  Corlntho  Sanmle  itulf."— T  Momn 
sen.  Hill.  </ /*<w,  hk  \th.  1 1  - " Ciesar ienl I 
Corinth  a  large  numlM'r  of  freedmen.  nml  oil" 
settlers  Were' afterwartls  si-nl  by  .Vupntun.  In 
It  is  certain  that  many  (Jrerks  c.imv  to  ll<»  I 
the  new  t.'orluth,  for  "it  became  a  (inik  t"»i 
Corinth  was  a  mass  of  ruins  wtirn  the  new  tr 
tiers  came,  and  while  they  were  n  in..vliiy  ll 
rubblsli,  they  grubbed  up  llu'  Iniri^il  pl»i<' 
where  they  found  a  great  numtur  of  iMirtbi 
Agurm  and  kruuiie  urns,  wiiiiii  lii'V  ►!■:  : 
a  hifil  price  and  filled   Rome  will   then  - 

630 


CORmTH. 


CORPUS  JintlS  CIVILI8. 


0.  Long,  Dtilint  (^tkt  Raman  StpuiUe,  t.  S,  eh. 
H.—"  Corinth  tapldly  rote  under  these  auipicei, 
became  a  centre  of  commerce  and  art,  and  took 
the  lead  amunc  the  cittea  of  European  Hellas. 
Here  wu  established  the  seat  of  the  Roman 
government  of  Achala,  and  its  population, 
though  the  representations  we  have  recelTed  of 
it  are  extravagant,  undoubtedly  exceeded  that 
of  any  Grecian  rival."— C.  Merivale,  Hit.  oftht 
Bmani.  eh.  40. 

A.  D.  167.— Ravaftd  by  the  Goths.  See 
Goths:  A.  D.  25S-287. 

A.  O.  39c— PInndtrcd  by  the  Goths.  See 
GoTire:  A.  D.  895. 

A.  D.  1 146.— Sacked  by  the  Nomans  of 
Sicily.— Abdnction  of  silk  weavers.  See 
BiiA.NTi.NE  Empirk:  a.  D.  1146. 

A.  D.  1445.— Destruction  by  the  Tnrka.— 
The  fortifications  of  the  isthmus  of  Corinth  were 
itoniu'd  and  the  Pelopomiesus  invaded  by 
Amunith  11.  in  144JS.  -Corinth  itself,  a  city 
laoctilied  by  its  antiquity,  by  Its  sods,  by  its 
aU.  by  the  beauty  of  iu  women,  bv  Its  foun- 
tains, its  cypreaaea,  its  very  ruins  themselves, 
whence  its  unrivalled  situation  tiad  always  re- 
iton'd  it.  fell  anew,  buried  In  its  flames,  by  the 
bands  of  Touraklian,  that  ancient  and  ambitious 
rizier  of  Amurath.  Its  flames  were  seen  from 
Albt'Ds,  from  ..Cvina,  from  Lepanto,  from  Cy- 
tbriva.  from  Piuilus.  The  Inhabitants,  aa  also 
tliciM.'  of  Ptttras,  were  led  Into  slavery  In  Asia,  to 
tlie  nunilM^r  of  60,000."— A.  Lamartine,  But.  of 
Turk^,  l>k.  11,  tet.  10. 

A.  0. 1463-1464.— Unsucctssful  sieceby  th« 
Venetians.— Fortification  of  the  Isthmus.  See 
Gbekik:  a.  D.  14,'»-U79. 

A.  D.  1687.— Taken  by  the  Venetians.  See 
TlHKs:  A.  U.  16»4-1696, 

A.  D.  iSaa.— Revolt,  sicn  and  capture  by 
the  Turks.    SceaHCEcK:  A.  D.  1831-1H29. 

CORINTH,  Miss.,  Siere  and  Battle.    See 

TxiTKU  Statkb  or  Am.;  A.  1).  1883  (.\.pril  — 
May:  Tennebske  —  Miniikkippi),  and  (Skptkm- 

BtR— (hTOUKR:    MlKSIMIPPI). 

CORINTH  CANAL,  The.— "On  Sunday 
[Aut'iist  «.  ISBS)  the  canal  acnms  the  Isthmus  of 
("rin'li  —  (projected  by  Ciesar  — see  Rome: 
B  ('.  ^^A^]  begun  by  .\er<i,  and  completed. 
mnrly  S.IHW  yciini  laU'r,  by  a  Orifk  engineer.  M. 
Mat>as  — WHS  opt'nr<l  by  the  King  of  Greece, 
villi  sUaniiHl  through  the  canal  In  his  vaciit. 
HT'inipftniol  by  a  pmoesslon  consisting  a\  four 
timk  lorpcilo- boats  and  other  vessels. Including 
ilirir  Enirliah  men-of-war  and  an  Kngllsh  i\n- 
['all  lituwi.  The  canal  .  .  .  will  Ik-  prncticable 
f'Tnll  liiit  the  largest  vessels."— TAn  Hinttatur, 
.4'.';  Vl  is|m. 

CORINTHIAN   TALENT.    S.-e  Talent. 

CORINTHIAN  WAR.  The,  8e«  Greece: 
B  ('  :imi  ;in7. 

CORIONDI,  The.    See  Ireland.  Trires  or 

CORITANI.  OR  CORITAVI.-A  British 
trill.  «hirh  <ic<Miplc<l  the  lower  valley  of  the 
Tmh  Hiiil  Its  vicinity.  See  Britain,  Celtic 
TiiinK« 

CORN  LAWS  (EocUsb)  aad  thalr  repeal. 

S'  TmiKr  I.WIIBLATIIIN  (Enoland):  a.  I). 
lM!-,.w.,w    ..j:.fi_.H.»9;  tH4»;  ^y,.\  5«4,viS4§ 

CORNABII,  OR    CORNAVII,   The.-An 

uiiUul  Urilish  tribe  which  dwell  near  the  mouths 


63; 


of  the  Dee  and  the  Mersey.    See  Britain.  C«li 
TIC  Tribes  ^— *■ 

CORNELL  UNIVERSITY.  See  Educa 
Tios^ Modern:  America;  A.  D.  1868-1886. 

CORNWALL,  Duchy  of.— M  illiam  the  Con- 
queror  gave  to  his  brother  Robert  almost  the 
whole  shire  of  Cornwall,  out  of  which,  says  Mr 
Freeman,  "arose  that  groat  Earldom,  and  after 
wards  Duchy,  of  Cornwall,  which  was  deemed 
too  poweriul  to  be  trusted  In  the  hands  of  any 
but  men  closely  akin  to  the  royal  house,  and  the 
remains  of  which  have  for  ages  formed  the 
appanage  of  the  heir-apparent  to  the  Crown."  — 
See,  also,  Wales,  Prince  of. 
,.f °'*A^^^^'S,  Chares.  Lord.-In  the 
War  of  the  American  Revolution.  See  United 
States  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  1776  (Acoust),  (Septem- 
FSi"*^**^"""""' :  1**>  (Pebruahv— AuocsT)- 
1780-1781 :  1781  (Janiaby-Mat)  ;  17»l  (Mat- 
October) Indian     administration.      See 

India  :  A.  D.  1785-1793 Irish  administra- 

tion.     See  Ireland:  A.  D.  1798-1800. 

CORON,  Battle  of  (B.  C.  aSi).  See  IUcb- 
DONIA,  &c.  :  B.  C.  297-280. 

CORONADO,  Expedition  of.  See  Ameri- 
can Abobioines  :  PUEIII.OS. 

CORONATION.—  The  royal  consecration 
in  Its  most  perfect  form  included  both  corona- 
tion and  unction.  The  wearing  of  a  crown  was 
a  most  ancient  sipi  of  royalty.  Into  the  origin  of 
which  It  is  uscliss  now  to  inquire:  but  the 
wilemn  rite  of  crowning  was  borrowcil  from  the 
Old  Testament  liy  the  Byzantine  Ca'sam;  the 
second  Theodosius  was  the  flrst  emperor  crownwl 
with  religious  ceriMnoiiies  In  Christian  times. 
The  introduction  of  the  rite  of  anointing  is  lesa 
certainly  asrertaiiied.  It  did  not  always accom- 
|j«ny  coronation."— W.  Stubbs.  Comt.  JJc^l.  0/ 
Eng..  (h.  6,  tet.  60. 

CORONATION  STONE.  See  Scotl.and  : 
8t«  ^th  CENTrRiEs ;  also,  Lia  Fail. 

CORONEIA,  Battles  of  (B.  C.  447  and  B.  C. 
394).     Kec  Ghkkce  :  B.  C.  449-445  ;  and  B.  C. 

CORONER.  See  Law,  Criminal  :  A.  D. 
121S  ami  1276. 

CORPS    DE    BELGIQUE.     See  Unitu 

States  OK  Am.:  A.  D   18H4  |0(  tohkh). 

CORPUS  JURIS  CIVILIS,  The.— "The 
Corpus  Juris  Civijis  repn^wnis  the  Roman  law  in 
the  form  which  it  assnnuil  at  the  close  of  the 
ancient  |)eriod  (a  tliousiinil  years  after  the 
di'ceniviral  legislation  of  the  Twelve  Tables),  and 
through  which  inaiulv  it  has  acted  upon  nuxlem 
times.  It  was  coniplliil  In  the  Kastcrn  liiiman 
Empire  ithc  Westirn  ccasiil  in  470  A.  P.)  under 
the  Em|H'ror  Justinian.  .  .  .  who  reigned  527- 
565  \.  I).  The  (ilan  of  tlie  work,  as  Isid  out  by 
[his  gtcHt  Inwnunlster]  Trilwnian,  included  two 
jirinclpHl  parts,  to  Ik!  made  from  the  constitu- 
tions of  till'  Koiiinn  eniiH'mrs,  and  from  the 
In-allsis  of  the  Koinaii  lawyers.  The  'iHinstltu- 
lloms'  ilaw  iiiteranirs)  of  the  emperors  consisted 
of— I.  'OMlli.ms.' proiwisiils  of  law,  subiiitted 
to  anil  lulopliil  by  the  Si'imte  :  2.  'Edicts,'  laws 
Issiii'il  illn'clly  liy  the  em|>eror  as  head  of  the 
stale;  'i.  'MsmlnU,'  Instructions  aililressed  by 
the  tiniieror  to  high  orticvrs  of  law  and  justice; 

4.  '  IK'cri'ia.' de<'i«liins  given  by  the  emperor  in 
case,  iimuf  ht  before  him  by  gppeni  of  olherwiw ; 

5.  'H.-  'ipta.' answers  returned  by  the  emperor 
when  t^  ..lultcd  on  i|ucstions  of  law  by  partlN  la 


CORPUS  JURIS  CIVILIS. 

•  toit  or  by  nagiitntat.  .  .  .  Three  or  four  eol- 
leettoni  bad  uStiAj  been  made.  In  which  the 
moat  important  conatitutiona  were  aelected  from 
the  maaa,  preaented  in  a  condenied  form,  and 
arranged  according  to  their  lubiecta.  The  laat 
and  moat  elaborate  of  theie  collections  was  the 
Tlieodosian  Code,  compiled  about  a  century 
before  the  acceision  of  Juitinian;  it  ii  still  in 
great  part  extant  .  .  .  The  new  Codex  Con- 
stitutlonem,  prepared  in  little  more  than  a  year, 
was  published  In  April.  529.  The  next  work 
was  to  digest  the  treatises  of  the  most  eminent 
law  writers.  Thirty-nine  were  selected,  nearly 
all  of  whom  lived  between  100  B.  C.  and  2S0 
A.  D.  Their  books  (2.000  in  number)  were 
divided  among  a  body  of  collaborators  (sixteen 
besides  Tribonlan),  each  of  whom  from  the  books 
assigned  to  him  extracted  what  he  thought 
proper  .  .  .  and  putting  the  extracts  (0,000  in 
all)  under  an  arranged  series  of  heads.  .  .  .  The 
Digest — or  Pandects  (all-receiving),  as  it  is  also 
called  from  the  multiplicity  of  its  sources  —  was 
issued  with  authority  of  law,  in  December.  S33. 
.  .  .  While  the  Digest  or  Pandects  forms  much 
the  Urgest  fraction  of  the  Corpus  Juris,  its 
relative  value  and  importance  arc  far  more  than 
pmportiunate  to  its  extent  The  Digest  is,  in 
fact,  the  soul  of  the  Corpus.  ...  To  bring  the 
Codex  Constitutionem  into  better  conformity 
with  the  Digest,  it  was  revise<l  in  534  and  issueil 
as  we  now  liave  it  in  Novcmiier  of  tlmt  year. 
.  .  .  The  Corpus  Juris  includes  also  an  elemen- 
tary text-book,  the  Institutiones  (foun<le<l  on  the 
'  institutiones '  of  Oaius,  whn  nourished  about 
150).  .  .  .  The  Institutes,  Digest  and  Cinlex 
were  given,  as  a  t-oniplete  Inxly  of  law.  to  the 
law  wIioiiIb  at  Constantinople.  |{<>me.  Berytus. 
Alexandria.  CnsareA,  to  Ik*  stiiilieil  in  their'  Ure 
year*'  ciirrtoulum.  In  the  courts  it  was  to  super- 
seile  all  carliur  authorities.  .  .  .  Later  statutes 
of  JuHtinian.  arrnuKeti  in  onler  of  time,  form  the 
Novels  (novellae  constitutlone,"  most  of  tlirm  in 
Greek),  ttie  last  component  of  the  Corpus  Juris." 
— .1.  Ilmlley.  Int.  ^'  Hixruin  hiif,  lift.  1. 

Ai.sii  IS :'  J.  E.  (loudHinit.  The  PmiiltfU. 

CORRECIDOR.    l^tte  .Vi.rALUE. 

CORSICA:  Early  history.— "  The  original 
inhabitants  of  Corsiea  are  ~iippo«i-il  to  Tiave 
been  Ligurians.  but  at  a  very  early  p<  nml  the 
people  luiil  eoinmerrlKl  Intercoiirsewitli  Spain, 
loniaaiiil  Tu»'any.  The  Island  wassulMiiiicntlv 
Hcruplinl  liy  IIk  ('artliaginiaiis.  who.  Ii.nvevef, 
were  eX|H'lled  liy  the  Itomaiis  iliirinir  Hie  Hrst 
Puiilo  war.  A  few  years  later  Corsliii  came 
under  the  dominion  of  Itiine,  and  that  sway  whs 
nominally  mainiainiii  until  the  ilownfall  iif  the 
Empire.  It  tlien  fell  uniler  the  dominion  of  the 
Vandals,  and  aft<-r  their  expul«i<in  oniiril  nuc- 
ceasively  the  rule  of  the  (iotlin.  the  Saracens 
and  the  Pisans,  and  finally  of  the  Oinoew.  It 
caim-  into  the  ixisaession  of  the  latter  |H'ople  In  tin- 
year  1120.  I'Isa  sulMHtiuently  imule  several 
attempts  to  drive  out  lier  rivals,  but  thev  wen; 
in  the  end  void  of  results.  Hut  In  \i*H,  thnoa. 
bavins  '<ustainiKl  great  l(Mses  in  the  constant 
wars  fn  which  she  was  engagcti,  wa.s  induuti  to 
surrender  the  ailminlstration  of  Corsica  and  uf 
her  colonliit  In  the  Levant  to  a  corporation  known 
as  the  liimk  of  St  Oeorge.  PVom  that  time  the 
Island  was  ailministennl  hy  governors  appointml 
by  tlie  liank  of  St  (Jeorire.  almost  preclselv  in 
the  manner  in  which,  in  l^nglancl.  up  to  isav.'the 
East  Indies  were  ailministere<l  by  an  'imperlum 


CORSICA. 

to  impeik).'"— O.  B.    Malleaon,  «tirfi>.  ft— 
Otnom  mioij,  eA.  S. 

A.  D.  iS5t-tS59.— Rarelt  aninat  the  Gtao- 
•M  rait,  and  rc-anbjtetiea.  See  Okroa:  a  D 
lSa8-lSS»;  and  FlUIICC:  A.  D.  1547-1559 

A.  D.  1730-1769.— Th*  Strarele  for  inde- 
pmdenct.— ReouuiM  of  Kin^  Theodore  — 
Til*  PaoIU.— CcMioo  to  Prance.— The  revolt 
of  1558  was  renewed  in  1584,  but  ended  in  IHT 
upon  the  death  of  its  leader,  Sampiero.  For  the 
next  century  and  a  half,  Corsica  remained  in- 
actiT<);  "  depressed  and  miserable  under  renewed 
Genoese  exactions  and  tyrannies,  but  too 
exhausted  to  resume  hostilities.  In  1729.  how- 
ever, fighting  again  broke  out,  suddenly  rouied 
by  one  of  the  many  private  wrongs  then  pressing 
upon  the  lower  ordera,  and  the  rebellion  loon 
spread  over  the  whole  island.  It  was  well  ori^n- 
Ized  under  two  leaders  of  energy  and  ability 
and  was  more  determined  in  its  measures  thu 
ever.  .  .  .  Genoa  had  recourse  to  the  emperor  of 
Germany,  from  whom  she  bought  several  thou- 
fani.  mercenaries,  who  were  sent  across  the  aea  to 
try  their  skill  upon  these  unconquerable  islanders. 
.  .  .  The  courage  and  chivalry  of  his  insular 
foes  .  .  .  won  for  them  the  regard  of  the 
opposing  General  Wachtendonk:  and,  ehieflr 
through  his  mediation,  a  treaty,  supposed  to 
be  favourable  to  the  islanders,  was  nmduilcd 
Itetween  Genoa  and  the  Cortc  Icfe-ialative  ssserably 
in  1732.  Wachtcndonk  remained  in  the  island 
another  year  to  see  the  treaty  carried  nut,  and  in 
June,  1734,  the  German  general  returned  to  tiig 
own  country.  .  .  .  But  he  had  scarcely  retited 
before  the  treaty  was  broken.  Oenoa  be^ 
anew  her  system  of  illegal  arri'sts  ami  atlempied 
assassinations  ;  and,  once  more,  the  pinpk'  arine 
under  Hyacinth  Paoli,  an  obscure  nalivi'  of  the 
little  village  of  Morosaglia,  hut  a  man  <if  spirit 
and  talent,  and  a  scholar.  Under  the  dimtion 
of  tids  man,  and  of  Oiaiferi,  his  ( cilUanue.  a 
democratic  constitution,  in  tlie  hiRhist  ilmnt 
prudent  and  practical,  was  framed  for  tb« 
Coreican  people.  .  .  .  Early  in  the  next  year 
occurred  a  .'ranjte  and  n)nisntir  iidventuiip  in 
this  aiiveutureiul  country.  A  man.  h.ind«)r 
anil  welKlresseii,  surrounded  hv  ohHiiuious 
courtiera.  and  attended  hy  everv  luxury.  Ijiii.li'd 
in  the  island  fn>m  a  veswd  well  fiirni'<lji'd  with 
gold,  ammunition,  and  arms  Tliis  ni;in  whs  > 
German  ativenturer,  llan^n  Tlninlori'  vmi  Ni-u- 
hoff,  who,  after  a  romantie  youth,  hwl  smldinly 
ctmeeived  a  desire  to  iH-come  kin;:  uf  (■-ir*ii.^ 
He  was  a  man  of  great  talent  and  \«  rv  imI 
fascination,  of  gooil  judgment,  and  cntlMi^i.utic 
disposition.  He  had  fallen  in  hm-  wiili  the 
hravi'ry  and  determination  of  the  (ursicniis.  iiud 
longed  ^)  head  smh  a  nation.  He  h:iil  put  him- 
self into  communii  ation  with  t<'e  lendini;  i«l;iml 
ers  ;  and.  having  really  some  llltu  iulluriiivsi 
the  continental  courts,  penuadeil  thei.i  lliat  lie 
hml  much  more.  He  olTered  to  oliinin  sutl^ 
assistance  from  foreign  ixdentales.  liy  lii»  |"' 
suasions,  as  shoiihl  eneetiially  oukI  liie  (ii-ii'ife. 
and.  In  return.  rei|iiest4sl  ilie'  crown  of  Corsii-a. 
His  geniuM  and  liisentliusissin  wen-  Mi;,'ri-.tl.  afiil 
his  promiws  *o  ds«r.ljng.  that,  aftir  some  Invi- 
tation, the  jMior  I'onii-ans,  in  tin  Ir  di»|'iir. 
seiied  up<m  this  last  strawy  and  In  M.in  h.  IMO. 
Theodore  was  c^>wnl•d  king.  His  cm  rii»ns  fnr 
the  good  of  this  country  were  uiilirim:  lie 
•tiabllsbed  manufactun's  and  pMinoted  wiiti  ail 
hto  power  art  and  commerce,  at  ilie  muic  liaie 


638 


CORSICA. 

that,   with  all  the   force   of   hb   genloi,   he 
endesTound  to  penuade  foreign  power*  to  lend 
tbeir  asitetaooe  to  his  new  lubjecta  In  the  Beld. 
Hii  ityle  of  liTins  meanwhile  waa  regal  and 
iumptuoui.  .  .  .  Towanla  the  concluaion  of  his 
lint  year  of  loTereigiitr,  Theodore  left  Corsica 
on  1  continental  tour,  with  the  avowed  object  of 
hatteningtlie  promiaed  auccour.  In  two  years  be 
returned,  bringing  with  him    three  large  and 
several  smaller  war  vesaels,  handaomely  laden 
with  ammunition,  which  had  actually  been  raised 
by  means  of  his  tclcnts  and  persuasive  faculties, 
chiefly  amongst      .e   Dutch.     But,  mcanvliile, 
tl.';  Corslcans  had  had  ether  affairs  to  which 
to  stteud.     France   had  interfered  at      le  re- 
quest of  Genoa;  and  negotiations  were  naively 
going  on,  which  the  arrival  of  the  pseudo-king 
coulj  only  interrupt     T'.teodore,  althougli  now 
K  well  attended,  found  himself  unheolcd  ana 
disregaifded;  and  after  a  few  months  was  forced 
to  leave  his  new  Icingdom   to  its  fate,  and  to 
return  to  the  continent.     Five  years  later,  in 
1743.  he  again  returned,  again  well  equipped, 
thistim'-  with  English  vessels,  but  with  the  same 
ill  succt-  .     Convmceci  now  that  his  chance  was 
over  and  his  dream  of  royalty  <li  -troyed,  Theo- 
dore retnned  to  England    wi'       i   sore  heart, 
•pendinjr  liis  remaining  years  ii,       .s  asylum  for 
dethmniil  kings  and  ruined  an     irurers.     His 
tomb  may  be  seen  in  Wcstminsttr  Abbey,     For 
thenexi  live  and  twenty  years  the  war  continued 
between  Corsica  and  Genoa,  still  fought  out  on  the 
blood  deluged  i)la  ns  of  the  unhappy  little  island. 
But  the  republic  of  Genoa  was  now  long  past 
her  prime,  and  her  energies  T-ere   fading  Into 
ienility  ;    and,  bad    it   not   been  for  the  ever- 
incn'asiiii;  assistance  of  France,  her  intrepid  foes 
»ould  loujt  ere  this  have  got  the  better  of  her 
In  M,iy.   176S.   a    treaty    was  signed  between 
Of  noii  unii  France,  by  which  the  republic  ceded 
her  ti.nv  enfeebled  claims  on  Corsica  to  her  ally, 
»nd  left  her  long-oppressed  victim  to  light  the 
contist   nut  with  the    French    tnmps.     During 
thii  liine.  Ilrst  Oaffori,  then  Pasfjualc  Paoll,  werv 
the  leaders  cf    the   people.     Gaffori,  a  man  of 
refinement,  and  a  hero  of  skill  and  intrepidity, 
was  murdered  in  a  vendetta  in  K.W,  and  in  1755 
Pi*iuiile,    youniest    son    of    the    old    patriot 
Hyaemih  Paoll,  left  his  position  as  officer  in  the 
.Nf;i()«iiiiau  service,  and  landed,  bv  the  general 
drtire  of  his  own  people,  at  Aleria'  to  underuke 
thi'  cimiraimd  of  the  Corslcan  ariny.  .  .  .  Fn)ni 
li84  to  1798  a  truce  was  concluded  between  the 
ft**  .  .  .  In  August,   17«S.  the   truce  was  to 
ni>ln\    iMit.    before    the    appointed    day    had 
»mve,l,    in  army  of    20,000  French    sudUenly 
iwiiop.-<|  down  upon  the  luckles"  island.   ,   .,   ft 
was  a  li.ip,l(SB  struggle    for  forxica;  but   thi 
benium  of   the    undi  unted    people   movi,l   ai 
Eun)pe   to    symimt'.j.   ,   .  ,  the    Corslcans    a. 
nw  ^(it  il,e  iH't-er  of  their  fonnldalde  fcH',  at 
the  BrhU'e  of  Uolo,  in  the  taking  of  llorgo,  and 
In  utber  leaser  oitions,    ,    .        Meanwhile,  the 
cmintrv  wm  In-ing  destroyed,    and   the    troops 
w^'mmi;  ixUamted.  .  .   .  Th.    Ulile  of  I'onte 
Suor,,.  ,m  the  9th  of   May,  1789,  at  oiut-  ami 
Wrevrr   .iiiiiil.lUieil    the    torsican    cause, 
Alter  this   victory,  the  French   rapidly  gained 
P"*^""-  "f  the  whole  island,  and  shortly  afUT- 
wsnl«the»trii|fgle  was  atmndoned.      .      In  tlu< 
an.,  y,,o.  iTr.S,  Xapolein  Ituonaparte  was  l«)m 
tailH  houij.  <Hii    of  the   Place  du   Man-he  at 
ajscdo      1    was    Uirii,'  he  said   himself  iu  a 


CORTEa 

letter  to  Paoli,  'the  year  my  country  died. '  "'— 
O.  Forde,  A  Ladi/'t  Tour  in  Conica,  r.  3  cA  18, 

Al:<o  is  :  P.  Fitzgerald,  Kingtand  Queen*  of 
anllour,  eh.  l._  J.  Boswell,  Journal  of  a  Tour 
to  Corniea. 

A.  D.  i'rf4.-Conquett  by  the  English.  See 
France  :  A.  D.  1794  (March-July) 

A.  D.  1796.— Reoccupied  by  the  French. 
BeeFuASCE:  A.  D  1796  (September). 

CORTENUOVA,    Battle   of  (1236).  See 

Itai.v:  a.  D.  llKJ-li'SO.                   V     o  /  ^o 

CORTEREALS,  Voy.gei  of  the.  See 
Amkkua :  A.  I),  irm. 

aS?'?M.?^\?^'*''ANDO.     See   Mexico: 
A.  D.  1519  to  1521-15a4. 

CORTES,  The    early  Spanish.— The  oli 
monarchical    constitutions    of    Castile    and 
Aragon.— "The  earliest  instance  on  record  of 
popular  representation    in   Castile  occurred    at 
Burgos,  in  1189;  nearly  a  century  antecedent  to 
the  celebrated  Leicester  parliament.     Esich  city 
had  but  one  vote,  whatever  might  he  the  number 
pt  its  representatives.     A  much  greater  irregu- 
larity, in  regard  to  the  number  of  cities  recuiFet. 
to  send  d»puties  to  cortes  [the  name  signfying 
court  ]  on  different  occasions,  prevailed  n  Cas- 
Ule,  than  had  ever  existed  in  England ;  i  .ough 
previously   to  the  15th  century,  this  does  not 
seem  to  have  procee'ied  from  any  design  of  in- 
fringing on   the  liL.rtics  of  the   people      The 
nominatior  .f  these  was  originally  vested  in  the 
householders  at  Iprge,  but  was  afterwanls  con- 
Oned  to  the  municipalities.— a  most  mischievous 
a  teration.  which  f  abjectcd  theirelection  eventu- 
ally to  the  corrupt  iutiuence  of  the  crown     They 
assembled  in  the  same  che.mber  with  the  higher 
oruers  of  the  nobility  and  clergy,  but  on  (lues- 
tions  of  moment,  retired  to  deliberate  by  them- 
selves.    After  the  transaction  of  other  busiiess 
their  own  petitions  were  pre«-nted  to  the  sover- 
eign, ami  his  assent  gave  them  the  validity  of 
laws.     The  Castilion  commons,  by  neglecting  to 
make  their  money  granU  depend  on  corri'spond- 
ing  concesshms  from  the  crown,    '     inuuisheii 
that  powerful  check  on  its  operations  so  bene- 
flciolly  cxertei!  m  the  British  parliam     ,.  but  in 
vain  contended  for  even  there  till  a  i.nich  later 
iKTimI     than    that     now    under    coiisi,|,.ratloH 
Whatever  may  have  Ik>iu  the  rijrht     f  the   no- 
bility ami  eleri'v  to  attend  in  cortes,    jieir  sanc- 
tion was  i.of  deemeii  essential  to  the  valiilitv  of 
legislative  acts;  for  Mieir  presence  wa,<  not  e'ven 
roiiulrcd  in  many  assemblies  of  the  natiim  which 
occurred  in  the    14ti.  ami  l.ltli  crnturies.     The 
extraordinary  power  thusconimituil  to  the  com- 
mons mas.    11  the  whole,   uiifavoraldo  to  their 
liberties.     It  deprived  lliem  of  tlie  sympathy  and 
cixiperalion  of  the  gnat  orders  of  the  slate,  whose 
aiitliorily  alone  could  he       .  nabled  them  to  with- 
stand thi'  encroiK  imentf  'litrary  (lower,  and 
who.  in  fait,  did  event,  esert  them  in  their 
utnuwi    need          .  Tlie          gonese  cortes    was 
comiKwd  of  four  Imimhi ,.  or  arms;  the  ricos 
hoi    ires,  or  tn  at  'larons;  the  lesst-r  nobles,  com- 
prt'liemlini,'   iIh-   knights;  the  clergy;   and    the 
common-      The  nobility  of  every  denomination 
were  eiiiitliil  to  a  wat   in  the  legislature.     The 
ricos  honilTi »  wi  n-  allowed  to  appear  by  proxy, 
und  s  ^i!n!lar  privi'.e'.'e  n ax  en (ovit!  h^'h^rnni'si 
heiri'sses.     The  niiin,«r  of  fhlslKKlv  was  very 
limited,  twelve  of  them  constlliiting  a  quorum. 
The  arm  of  the  ecclesiasllcs  embraced  an  ample 


C30 


CORTES. 


COUTES. 


delegation  from  the  inferior  as  well  u  higher 
clergy.  It  ii  affirmed  not  to  hare  \^ven  a  con:- 
ponunt  of  the  national  legislature  until  more  il«>a 
a  century  and  a  half  after  the  udinissio-..  of  the 
commons.  Indeed,  the  intluenoe  of  f.ie  church 
was  much  less  sensible  in  Aragon  )jan  in  the 
other  kingdoms  of  the  Peninsula.  .  .  .  The  com- 
mons enjoyed  higher  consideration  and  civil 
privileges.  For  this  they  were  perhaps  somt- 
wh  :  indebted  to  the  example  of  their  Catalan 
neighbors,  the influ  jnce  of  whose  democra*'.  in- 
stitutions naturall)'  extended  to  other  parts  of 
the  Aragonese  monarchy.  The  charters  of  certain 
cities  accorded  to  the  inhabitants  privileges 
of  nobility,  particularly  that  of  immunity  from 
taxation;  while  the  magistrates  of  others  were 
permitted  to  tak<'  iheir  seats  in  the  order  of 
hidalgos.  From  i  very  early  periixi  we  find 
them  e.nployeil  in  offices  of  public  tr.ist,  and  on 
important  missions.  The  epoch  of  their  ailmis- 
sion  into  the  national  assembly  is  traced  as  far 
back  as  1133,  several  years  earlier  than  the  com- 
mencement of  popular  representation  in  Custih. 
Each  city  liitd  the  right  of  sending  two  or  more 
deputies  selected  from  persons  eligible  to  its 
maf;istracy ;  but  with  the  privilege  of  only  one 
vote,  whatever  might  be  the  numlMT  of  its  depu- 
ties. Any  place  wnicV  lad  been  oniie  represented 
in  cortes  might  alw,.js  claim  to  1m>  s..  By  a 
statute  of  13()7,  the  convcwation  of  the  states, 
which  had  iH-en  annual,  was  declared  biennial. 
The  kings,  however,  paid  little  regard  to  thi"! 
pro\ision,  rarely  siiniinouine  them  e.\rept  lor 
some  specilie  ijecessity.  The  great  <aiccrs  of 
the  crown,  whateviT  might  Ik-  their  pi'rsonal 
rank,  were  jealously  cxiluileil  fr.>m  their  delib- 
erations. ...  It  was  in  the  ixiwer  of  any  mem- 
iK'r  to  defeat  lln'  p:i«.sage  of  ii  bill,  by  opposing 
ti>  it  his  veto  or  dissent,  formally  regislerol  to 
that  effect.  He  niiiilit  even  interpose  his  nega- 
tive on  the  priiceediiiiis  of  the  house,  iiul  thus 
put  a  stop  to  the  prosi'eutiou  of  all  further  busi- 
ness during  tlii'  session.  This  anomalous  privi- 
lege, trnnsceiidlng  even  that  elaime<i  in  the 
Polish  diet,  must  have  iH'eii  too  invlilious  in  its 
excreis<',  and  too  i«Tnieious  in  its  consi'ciuences, 
to  have  lieen  ofte:  resorted  to.  This  may  be  in- 
ferred fn>ni  the  fuet  that  it  was  not  formally  ri'- 
r.'aleil  until  the  reign  of  Philip  ||  .  in  l.TOJ,  .  .  . 
The  cortes  exereiwd  the  hii;li<'st  functions, 
whethe.  of  a  delilK'rative,  legislativr,  or  judieiid 
nature.  It  had  a  right  to  !h'  coiiNiiliecf  on  all 
matters  of  importauee,  espeeiallv  on  those  of 
peace  and  war.  No  law  was  viiliil.  ni>  tax  eoiilil 
be  i,..l)osi  li,  without  its  ciui.wut ;  and  it  earifully 
])n)\ided  for  the  appliontion  of  tin-  revenue  to 
its  ilustined  uses.  It  di  terinined  tlii'  Murtssion 
to  the  crown.  remove<l  obno.xious  niinislirs,  ri'- 
fmmd  the  household  and  domestic  exiH-nditure 
<if  the  monarch,  and  exertisiil  the  iiower,  in  the 
most  unn^wrved  manner,  of  witlilioldlng  sup- 
plies, as  Will  as  of  resisting  what  it  ngardeti  a* 
an  enepuiihinent  on  the  lilHTIiis  of  the  nation. 
.  .  .  The  statute-book  aHimls  the  most  uiuHjuivo- 
eal  evlileiiiT  of  the  tidelity  with  which  the 
guaniiansof  the  realm  diM-harired  theliich  trust 
ri'pivsed  in  them,  in  the  niinienuiH  enaetnients  It 
exhibits  for  the  seeuritv  l«nli  of  |H'rson  and 
liro|M'rty.  Almost  the  llrst  piiire  which  meets 
the  eye  In  this  veiieMlile  reeord  eontjiios  the 
(ieneivl  Privilege,  the  .Manila  Charta.  as  it  has 
iH-en  well  deuomiimled.  of  .\ragon.  It  Wu 
Kruuted  by  Peter  the  Ureat  to  the  cortit  tt  Skrs- 


goasa,  in  1388.  It  embraces  a  variety  of 
visions  for  the  fair  and  open  administratlo 
justice;  for  ascertaining  tlie  legitimate  no' 
intrusted  to  the  cortes ;  :  or  the  security  of  p 
erty  against  exactions  of  the  crown;  anil  fm 
coiiservation  of  their  legal  immunities  to  the 
nicipal  corporations  and  the  different  onier 
nob'litv.  .  .  .  The  Aragonese,  who  rijrlitlj 
eurde»f  th»  General  Piivilege  as  the  broa 
basis  of  their  liberties,  repeatedly  pni;urei 
eonflrmatiou  by  succeeding  sovereigns.  .  . 
judicial  functions  of  H  cortes  iiave  not  1 
sufficiently  noticed  by  writers.  Tlay  were 
tensive  in  their  operation,  and  gave  it  tlic  d 
of  the  General  Court."— \V.  if.  Prcs<ott,  i 
of  the  litigii  of  Finlinarut  ami  .luilnlla,  inti 
If  ft.  1-2. — "  Castile  Ixire  acloseraualogvtol 
land  in  its  form  of  civil  polity  than  t"ninr 
even  Aniiron.  But  the  frequent  disonlirs  ol 
governing  and  a  tiarl)an>ns  state  of  niau 
rendere<l  violations  of  law  much  nicmt  ciiiitii 
and  flagrant  than  they  were  in  Eii.L-l:in>l  ui 
the  Plantagcnet  dynasty.  And  be.M.l.s  tl 
practical  mischiefs,  there  were  two  essential 
fects  in  the  constitution  of  Castile,  Ilin  iu:.'li  b  I 
perhaps  it  was  ultimately  subverted.  It  \  ai 
those  two  brilliants  in  the  coronet  of  liritisli 
erty,  tlie  representation  of  freehol.lers  amone 
commons,  and  trial  by  jury.  The  corns  of  ( 
tile  became  a  congress  of  deputies  fruru  a 
cities,  public  8pirit(Hl,  indeed,  and  iiilnpi.l 
we  And  them  in  Imd  times,  to  an  eiiiini  iit  di  i; 
but  too  much  limited  iu  numlHr.  iiiul  l.m  uiu 
nected  with  the  territorial  aristiMTi(\ ,  to  m: 
tain  a  just  balance  against  the  crow  ji'  ...  I 
haps  in  no  European  monarchy  exe>  pt  niir  ( 
was  the  form  of  goveniment" more  intcnsl 
than  in  Aragon,  as  a  fortunate  ti  rnpeniiueui 
law  and  justice  with  the  'oyal  aiitlioiily. 
Blaneas  quotes  a  noble  passage  frcuii  tlif  art! 
cortes  in  14"il.  'We  have  always  lu.iniuf 
time,  and  it  is  found  by  exixTienii'.  iliat  mt 
the  great  barrenness  of  "this  land,  umlliic  |«ui 
of  the  realm,  if  it  were  not  for  tin  li!nr 
thereof,  tlie  folk  would  go  heme  tci  live  ! 
abide  in  otiier  realms  and  lands  m  rr  fniiif 
This  high  spirit  of  freedom  hud  In.'  aiiiiiu 
the  Aragonese.  After  several  CllllIl-l^  with 
crown  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  nut  t..  i;..  hail 
earlier  times,  they  c<mipelled  IVter  III  in  1 
to  grant  a  law  called  tlie  Genenil  I'ruiliic. 
Alau'iia  C'lmrta  of  Aragon.  and  perli  ii'>  a  in 
full  and  satisfactory  basis  of  civil  iil"  rty  i 
ourown."  They  further  "eslalilislul  «  |i.)>il 
rinlil  of  maintaining  lli^ir  liliirlii«  I'V  ar 
Tills  was  contained  in  llie  I'Hvilei;.  of  I'n 
granted  by  Alfonso  III.  in  1'.'-<T.  allc  r  a  vi.il 
eiiiilliet  with  his  sulijeels;  !i'il  whiili  wis  af 
wards  so  completely  alKilislied.  iiiid  i  veii  iTi 
cutiil  from  the  ri-conlsof  tlie  kin.;'liiiii  tli.it 
iinvLse  Words  have  never  lien  reinviinl  . 
That  watchfulness  over  pulilie  lilnrty  wli 
originally  belonitiil  to  the  arisi.Hruv  of  ri 
hombres  .  ,  .  and  which  was  afierwiirls  nii 
tained  by  the  dangenms  Privilege  of  I  uimi. 
came  the  duty  of  u  civil  magistiati  ulin«i  ul 
and  functions  an-  the  most  plea-iiiL'  fialim 
the  constitutional  history  of  Arai-'n  TlifJ 
ti7.a  or  Justiciary  of  Aragon  has  Imn  tpainl 
Slime  writers  t)s  a  sort  of  l|^lln!■•l•'ll^  mai^istn 
.  .  .  But  I  do  not  iK'rceive  lluit  In*  tuii.ii 
were.  In  any  essential  n'»|H'el.  i1iiT.mii  I.' 
tllUM  ol  tiu)  Cill«{  Justice  of  Kuglaini.  liiviil 


640 


CORTES. 


COSSACKa 


fmm  the  time  of  Edward  I.,  among  the  ju'^gcs 
of  the  King's  Bench.  .  .  .  All  the  royal  as  .veil 
u  trrritoiial  judges  were  bouD<'.  t:^  ."vplj  for  his 
opinion  in  caae  of  legal  difficulties  arising  in  their 
courts,  which  he  was  to  certify  within  eight 
days.  By  subsequent  statutes  of  the  same  retga 
ii  vas  made  penal  for  any  one  to  obtain  letters 
from  the  king,  impeding  the  execution  of  the 
Justiza's  process,  and  they  were  declared  null. 
Inferior  courts  were  forbidden  to  proceed  in  any 
busia-'ss  after  bis  prohibition.  .  .  .  There  are 
two  parts  of  his  remedial  jurisdiction  which  de- 
serrc  special  notice.  These  arc  the  processes  of 
juris  firms,  or  flrma  del  derechio,  antf  of  manifes- 
itiiin.  The  former  bears  sorne  analogr  to  the 
writs  of  '  pone '  and  '  certiorari '  in  England, 
through  which  the  Court  of  King's  Rench  excr- 
lises  Its  right  of  withdrr.wing  a  suit  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  inferior  tribunals.  Bu:,  the  Ara- 
jTon,...'  juris  flrma  was  cf  more  extensive  opera- 
lion.  .  .  .  The  procesi.  termed  manifestation 
•ffonied  as  ample  security  for  personal  liberty  as 
tiut  of  juris  tirma  did  foi  property. " — H.  Hallara, 
Tilt  MiMU  Aga,  eA.  4  '  •.  2). — For  some  account 
of  the  hns  of  the  old  .  institutional  liberties  of 
(■«8!ilc  and  Aragon,  under  Charles  V. ,  see  Spain : 
.V.  P.  131*-15i3. — "  The  councils  or  meetings  of 
iIk  bishops  after  the  reconcjuest,  like  the  later 
I'liumils  of  Toledo,  were  always  '  jussu  regis,' 
Mil  were  attended  by  counts  and  magnates  'ad 
Tiileniium  sine  ad  audiendum  verbura  Domini.' 
Bu*.  when  the  ecclesiastical  business  was  endetl, 
it  was  natural  that  th>>  la"  part  of  the  asst-m- 
I'ly  should  discuss  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom 
311(1  uf  tlie  people:  and  insensibly  this  after- 
part  of  the  pr<K-ee(lings  grew  as  the  first  part 
•liminiiliiil  in  importance.  The  exact  date  when 
ilii-  Council  merged  Into  the  Curia  or  Cortes 
is  ilillicult  to  determine;  Hefior  Colmeiro  takes 
liio  sousmcd  Council  of  Leon  in  WHt  s  tlie 
irue  stnrting-point  of  the  latter.  'Tli  early 
nimaR  of  Spain  was  eli'ctive,  and  the  accla- 
wtion  (  the  assembleil  people  (plelis)  was  at 
least  theoretically  necessary  to  render  the  king's 
iliYti  II  viilid.  "The  pusence  of  tlie  citizens  at 
ill'  I  rtes  or  Zamora,  though  stated  by  Sando- 
val and  Monies,  is  impugned  by  Senor  Col- 
meini;  but  lit  the  Council  of  Oviedo  in  1115  were 
presenl  bishops  of  Spain  and  Portugal  'cuin 
principibiiH  ft  pli^be  pnie<lirtae  rcgionis,'  ami 
these  biltir  also  suliscrilied  the  Acts.  Still, 
thouiih  1  n-»-ni  a  id  making  their  influence  more 
and  mori'  fiit.  tb  re  i«  no  rcrnnl  of  a  true  repre- 
«entation  of  cities  until  .Vlfonso  IX.  convoked 
tbe  Cortes  of  Leon  in  IIHH,  'cum  iirchiepisicopo, 
ft  epis<d|ii.s.  et  :nagnntiliu»  regni  mel  et  cum 
fle<tis  civihus  t  x  singulis  civitatlbus ' ;  from  this 
time  the  three  estates— clergy,  nobles,  citizens 
-^weru  always  repreaente<l  lu  the  Cortes  of  Leon, 
Unfiirtuiwtely,  the  political  development  of  Cas- 
tiUedid  not  synclironlsc  with  that  of  Leon,  In 
pneial,  that  of  CaitiUe  was  fullv  half  a  century 
later  We  pas*  by  as  more  tlian  doubtful  the 
illeged  imsence  ol  citizens  at  BiirgiH  in  llSIt; 
the  iimjores  civitatum  et  villnruin '  at  the 
Cortes  of  Carrion  in  1188  were  not  ilepiiiii-s,  but 
the  jud(!es  or  governors  of  twentv-efght  cilieM. 
It  li  not  till  the  united  Cortes  of  biith  kingdoms 
met  St  Svillr  In  1S50.  that  we  find  true  repn>. 
wntatii.n  in  Caslllli.,  CMtille  was  always  nv.m- 
lemial  than  Ijon.  It  is  in  this  want  of  simul- 
isneous  development,  and  in  the  presence  of 
pri»lliged  classes,  that  we  llnd  the  germ  of  the 


41 


041 


evils  which  eventually  destroyed  the  liberties  of 
Spain.  Neither  the  number  of  deputies  nor  of 
the  cities  represented  was  ever  fixed .  at  Burgos, 
in  1315,  we  find  800  deputies  (procutadores)  from 
100  cities;  gradually  the  number  sank  till  seven- 
teen, and  finally  twenty-two,  cities  alone  were 
represented.  The  deputies  were  chosen  from 
the  municipality  either  by  lot,  by  rotation,  or  by 
eection;  they  were  the  mere  spokesmen  of  the 
city  councils,  whose  mandate  was  imperative. 
Their  payment  was  atu.it  by  the  cities,  but 
after  1422,  by  the  king;  and  there  are  constjint 
complain'j  thut  the  salary  was  insufflci(;nt.  The 
reign  of  Juan  II.  (1406-54)  was  fatal  to  the  liber- 
ties of  iJastille;  the  answers  to  the  demands  end 
petiti.>n8  of  the  deputies  were  deferred;  and,  in 

act,  if  not  in  form,  the  hiw  that  no  tax  should 
be  levied  without  consent  of  the  Cortes  was  con- 
stantly violated.  Still,  but  for  the  death  of 
Fnnce  Juan,  in  1497,  and  the  advent  of  the 
Austrian  dynasty  with  the  possession  of  the 
Low  Countries,  the  old  liberties  might  yet  have 
been  recovered.  .  .  .  With  the  Cortes  of  Toledo, 
in  1538,  ended  the  meeting  of  the  three  estates. 
The  nobility  first,  then  the  clergy,  wcnj  elimi- 
nated from  the  Cortes,  leaving  only  the  proctors 
of  the  cities  to  become  servile  instruments  for 
the  purposes  of  taxation."— W.  Webster,  Hetieu) 
of  Culmtiro't  "  Cori  .  de  lot  Antiguot  Reintf  de 
Leon  y  de  dMilUi  "    Aeademy,  Aug.  16,  1884) 

CORUNNA,  Battle  of  (1809).  See  Spaln: 
.V.  D.  1808-1809  (AcocsT-^AXi-ART). 

CORUPEDION,  Battle  of.— A  battle  fought 
in  western  Phrygia,  B.  C.  281,  in  which  Lvsim- 
machus,  one  of  the  disputarts  for  Alexander's 
empire,  was  defeated  by  Seleucus.  and  slain.— 
C.  Thlrlwall,  Ilitt.  of  Greeee,  ch.  60. 

CORVEE.— Oneof  the  feudal  rights  possessed 
in  France  (under  the  eld  regime,  before  the  Revo- 
lution) "  by  the  lord  of  the  manor  over  his  sub- 
jects, by  means  of  which  he  could  employ  for 
his  own  profit  a  certain  number  of  their  days  of 
lalM)iir,  or  of  their  oxen  and  horses.  The  '  Cor- 
vee a  volonte.'  that  is  to  cay,  at  the  arbitrarr 
will  of  the  Seigneur,  had  been  completely  abol- 
ished [before  the  Revolution] :  forced  labour  had 
lieeii  for  some  time  past  confined  to  a  certain 
iiumlK-rot  'lays  a-year. "— A.  de  Tocqueville,  On 
1,'ic  Siite  oj  Sofietj/  in  France  before  1789  note 
4  K.  (/..  400). 

CORVUS,  The  Roman.  See  Pt.Nic  AV*R, 
The  First 

COS,  OR  KOS.— (^  .•  of  the  islands  In  the 
-Egean  called  the  Sporades.  uear  the  Carian 
coiist  of  Asia  .Minor.  The  isUnd  was  sacred  to 
Asclepius,  or  .E.sculipeiis.  and  was  the  birth- 
place of  thecelebrattHl  phytician  Hippocrates,  as 
well  as  of  the  painter  .ijiefles.  It  was  an  .Colian 
colonv,  but  joined  the  l)oH-u  cimfeiU'iicv 

CO'SIMO  DE'  MEDICI,  The  atce'nduicj 
at  Florence  of.  Se-e  Florence:  A.  D  ll"Jj- 
1464 

COSMOS,  COSMIOS,  COSMOPOLIS. 
S«'  Dr.Mti'Hoi. 

COSSACKS,  The.-"  The  origin  of  the  cos- 
sack  tribes  Is  lost  In  the  obscarity  of  ages;  and 
many  celetirated  historians  are  still  divided  in 
ojiinion  as  to  whence  the  term  Cossack,  or  rather 
Kosaiiiie,  is  properly  to  be  derived.  This  woni. 
Indeed,  is  amerptlhle  nt  «n  muny  rtymi>!.".ij!i  id 
explauations.  a*  scarcely  to  olTer'for'anv  one  of 
them  deciiled  grounds  of  preference.  "  Every- 
thing, however,  would  seem  to  favour  the  belief 


i^i; 


a- 


COSSACKS. 

that  the  word  Cowsck,  or  Eoaaque,  wu  In  much 
earUer  uae  in  the  vichiity  of  the  Caucasus  than 
In  the  Ukraine.  .  .  .  Sherer,  in  his  'Annals  of 
Ruiria  Minor,'  (La  Petite  Russie,)  trace*  back 
the  origin  of  the  Cossacks  to  the  ninth  ce.  *ury ; 
but  he  does  not  support  his  assertion  by  any 
facta  clothed  with  the  dignity  of  historical  truth. 
It  appears  certain,  however,  that  the  vast  pas- 
ture lands  between  the  Don  and  the  Dnieper,  the 
country  lying  on  the  south  of  Klow,  and  trav- 
ersed by  the  Dnieper  up  to  the  Black  Sea,  was 
the  p-incipal  birthplace  of  the  Cossacks.  When, 
in  1343,  Batukhan  came  with  500,000  men  to 
take  possession  of  the  empire  which  fell  to  his 
shr.re  of  the  vast  inheritance  left  by  Tchingis 
Khan  [see  Mongols:  A.  D.  1329-1394],  he  extir- 
pated many  nations  and  di8place<l  many  others. 
One  portion  of  the  ivomans  flying  from  the 
horrors  of  this  terrific  storm,  and  arriving  on  the 
borders  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  on  the  banks  of  the 
lalk,  (now  Ouralsek,)  turned  to  the  left,  and  took 
refuge  between  the  embouchures  of  that  river, 
where  thev  dwelt  in  small  numbers,  apart  from 
their  brethren,  in  a  less  fertile  climate.  These 
were,  incontestably,  the  progenitors  of  the  Cos- 
sacks of  the  lalk,  'wh.>  are,  historically,  scarcely 
important  enough  for  notice.  ...  At  the 
approach  of  this  formidable  invasion  towards  the 
Don.  that  portion  of  the  Kumnns  located  on  the 
left  bank  took  refi  ge  in  the  marshes,  and  in  the 
numerous  islands  t  jrmcd  by  that  river  near  its 
embouchure.  Here  they  found  a  secure  retreat ; 
and  from  thence,  having,  from  their  new  posi- 
tion, acquired  maritime  hnbits  and  seafaring  ex- 
perience, they  not  only,  themselves,  resorted  to 
ftiracy  as  a  means  of  existence,  but  likewise  en- 
isteif  in  a  formidable  confederacy,  fur  purposes 
of  rapine  and  pillage,  all  the  roving  and  discon- 
tented tribes  in  thru  surrounding  neighbour- 
hood. Tliese  latter  were  very  numerous.  The 
Tartars,  ever  but  indifferent  seamen,  I  ad  not  the 
courage  to  join  them  in  these  piratical  expe- 
ditions. This  division  of  the  Romans  is  in- 
dubitably the  parent  stock  of  the  modern  Cos- 
sacks of  tlie  Don,  by  far  the  most  numerous  of 
the  Cossack  tribes:  by  amalganmtion,  however, 
with  whole  hosts  of  Tartar  and  Calmuck  hordes, 
lawless,  desperate,  and  uomailic  uii  themselves, 
thej  lost,  in  some  degree,  the  primitive  and 
deeply  marked  distinctive  character  of  their  race. 
The  Komatu  of  the  Dnieper  offireil  no  more 
energetic  resistance  to  the  invading  hortles  of 
Batukhan  than  had  been  sliown  by  their  brethren 
of  the  Don:  they  dispersed  in  various  directions, 
and  from  this  people,  flying  at  the  advance  of 
the  ferocious  Tartars,  dWended  a  variety  of 
honles.  who  occasionally  figure  in  histor\'  as 
distinct  and  independent  nations.  .  .  .  ITIiey] 
ultljnately  found  a  permanent  resting-place  in 
the  wild  islet*  of  the  Dnieper,  lielow  the  cata- 
racts, where  dwelt  already  a  small  number  of 
their  ancient  compatriots,  who  had  escu|H'd  the 
general  destruction  of  their  nation.  This  spot 
became  the  cradle  of  the  Coiaack*  of  tlie  I'kraine. 
or  of  the  tribes  known  in  after  times  as  the  I'ollsh 
Cossacks.  When  Ouedynum,  Orand  Duke  of 
Lithuania,  after  having  defeated  twelve  Kussian 
princes  on  the  banlu  of  the  PiCma,  conquereil 
klow  with  its  depeiidencies  in  1820,  the  wander- 
ing tri'jes  scHttered  ',>ver  the  steppes  of  the 
Ukraine  owned  his  allegiance.  After  the  vic- 
tories of  Olgierd,  of  Vitold,  and  of  Ladialaa 
ImgeUun,  over  the   Tartan  and  the  Ri 


COTARH. 

larg«  bodlM  of  Scythian  militia,  known  tubie 
quentlv  by  the  comprehensive  denominatioa  o 
CoaiacEi,  or  Koaaques,  served  under  these  con 
querors:  and  after  the  union  of  the  Grasc 
Duchy  of  Lithuania  with  Poland,  in  138A.  thej 
continued  under  the  dominion  of  the  grand  duke 
of  Lithuania,  forming,  apparently,  an  iuternieili 
ate  tribe  or  caste,  superior  to  the  peasautn-  am 
infe-ior  to  the  nobles.  At  a  later  perioii,  whei 
the  Ukraine  was  annexed  to  the  Polish  crown 
they  passed  under  the  protection  of  the  kinns  o 
Poland.  .  .  .  Although  there  may,  doubtless 
exist  several  species  or  castes  of  Cossacks,  andtc 
whom  Russia  in  order  to  impose  on  Europe,  i 
pleased  to  give  as  many  different  naiues,  rei 
there  never  have  been,  nor  will  there  ever  be 
properly  speaking,  more  than  two  principa 
tribes  of  the  Cossack  nation,  namely  tlie  Cos 
sacks  of  the  Don,  or  Don-Cossackt,  and  tlie  Cot 
sacks  of  the  Black  Sea,  known  in  ancient  timei 
as  the  Polish  Cossaclis,  or  Zaporowscy  Kuzacr 
.  .  .  The  Cossacks  [of  the  Don]  .  .  .  Imve  ren 
dered  signal  service  to  Russia,  which,  ever  sina 
the  year  1549,  has  taken  them  under  her  |irutec 
tion,  without,  however,  the  existence  of  anj 
official  act,  treaty,  or  stipulation,  rnnfirmini 
their  submission  to  that  power.  .  .  The  Don 
Cossaclts  enjoy  a  certain  kind  of  lilnrty  and 
independence;  they  have  a  hetman,  attuniiin,  oi 
chief,  nominated  by  the  Eniperor  of  Ru.s«ia:  and 
to  this  chief  they  yield  an  obedience  more  or  less 
willing  and  implicit ;  in  general,  tlu  y  nre  com 
ma.  '.cd  only  by  Cossack  officers,  who  take  equal 
rank  in  the  Russian  army.  They  Imve  a  sipa 
rate  war  administration  of  their  own ;  ulllioiigh 
they  are  compelled  to  furnish  a  stated  nuiiilxrol 
recruits  who  serve  in  a  manner  for  life,  iuasmucb 
as  they  are  rarely  discharged  before  att:imiug 
sixty  years  of  age:  on  the  whole,  their  (onditiuii 
is  happier  than  that  of  the  rest  of  the  lius.siaii 
|K>pulation.  They  belong  to  the  Greek  Hussiui 
church.  The  existence  of  this  small  npublic  ol 
the  Don,  in  the  very  heart  of  the  most  despotic 
and  most  extensive  empire  in  the  world,  appean 
to  constitute  a  problem,  the  solution  i]f  whi'-li 
is  not  as  yet  definitely  known,  and  the  ultimate 
solution  of  which  yet  remains  to  U'  asiertaiiied." 
— H.  Krasinski,  The  Otrnflc*  of  tht  VknUut.ch. 
1.  —The  Cossacks  of  the  Ukraine  transfcrreil  theii 
allegiance  from  the  King  of  Poland  to  the  I'zaroi 
Russia  in  1654,  after  a  revolt  led  by  tlieir  hetman, 
Bogdan  Klimelnitski,  in  which  they  were  assisted 
by  the  nelgiiboriu;.'  Tartars,  and  which  was  ac- 
companied by  terrible  scenes  of  sluu)i;hter  and 
destruction.     See  Poland:  A.  I).  llH»-lt)i4. 

COSSiEANS,  The,    See  Ko»».«am' 

COSTA  RICA:  A,  D.  150J.— Discovery  b; 
Columbui.    See  Amehic.v  :  A.  0.  14ilH-l.V)V 

A.  D,  I8i3-l894.— Independence  of  Spiin.- 
Brief  anaexatioD  to  Mexico.— The  failures  of 
federation,  the  warsandrevolutionsof  Central 
America.  See  Cknthai.  Amkiiica  :  A.  1>.  IS'.M- 
1K71 ;  1»71-1885,  ami  18S8-1894. 

A. 
and  the  [ 
ABAOl-A:  A.' I).  ItifiU 


D.  1850,— The  Clayton  Bulwer  Treaty 
the  projected  Nicaragua  Canal,    ^v  Nic- 


COSTANOAN  FAMILY,  The.  Sec  Amiw 
CAN  Aboriuines:  Costanoan  Family 

COSTER,  Laurent,  and  the  inventioa  of 
printiur.    See  Pkintino:  A.  D.  14;ii>-l4«a, 

COTARII.  See  Sl&vsbt,  Meducvai  i»ii 
Mui<     n:  BuoLallD. 


642 


COTHON  OF  CARTHAGE. 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE. 


COTHON  OF  CARTHAGE,  Th«.— • '  There 
mn  two  Und-locked  dock*  or  harboun,  openir  j 
tlw  one  Into  the  other,  and  both,  it  would  aeem, 
the  work  of  human  bands.  .  .  .  The  outer  harbour 
wu  rectangular,  about  1,400  feet  long  and  1,100 
bioad,  and  wai  appropriated  to  mercluuit  venela ; 
theinnerwai  circular  like  a  drinking  cup,  whence 
it  was  called  the  Cotbon,  and  was  reserved  for 
diips  of  war.  It  could  not  be  approached  except 
tluuugh  the  merchant  harbour,  sod  the  entrance 
to  this  last  was  only  70  feet  wide,  and  could  be 
doled  St  any  time  by  chains.  The  war  liarbour 
WIS  entirely  surrounded  by  quays,  containing 
■epsrste  docks  for  280  ships.  In  front  of  each 
dock  were  two  Ionic  pillars  of  marble,  so  that 
the  whole  must  have  presented  the  appearance 
of  s  splendid  circular  colonnade.  Right  in  the 
centre  of  the  harbour  was  an  isUnd,  the  head- 
qusrtersof  the  admiral." — R.  B.  Smith,  Carthage 
ni  th*  Carlhaginiant,  ch.  30. 

COTSETI.    See  Slavebt,  Heductal  akd 

MODIBN:  EnOLAND. 

COTTON,  Rer.  John,  and  the  colony  of 
Massachusetts  Bay.  SeeMAaBAcm;aETT8:A.D. 
1«31-1638. 

COTTON  FAMINE,  The.  See  Ekoulkd: 
A  D.  1861-1865. 

COTTON-GIN  :  '£li  V'hitney's  invention 
and  its  effects.  Sei.-  Unit.kd  Statks  of  Am.  : 
A  D.  1793  and  181H-lttil. 

COTTON  MANUFACTURE:  The  great 
iiTcntions  in  spinning;  and  weaving. — ' '  Cotton 
bad  bei'n  used  in  the  extreme  East  and  in  the  ex- 
treme West  from  the  earliest  periods  of  which 
we  bavc  any  record.  The  Spaniards,  on  their 
dlscuvery  of  America,  found  the  Mexicans  clothed 
in  cotton.  .  .  .  But  though  the  use  of  cotton  had 
been  known  from  the  earliest  ages,  both  in  India 
and  America,  no  cotton  goods  were  imported 
into  Europe ;  and  in  the  ancient  world  both  rich 
and  poor  wei  ^  clothed  in  silk,  linen,  and  wool. 
The  induMrious  Moors  introduced  cotton  into 
Spain.  Many  centuries  afterwards  cotton  was 
lm|xirted  into  Italy,  Saxony  and  the  Low  Coun- 
triw.  Isolated  from  the  rest  of  Europe,  with 
little  wi^alth,  little  Industry,  and  no  roads;  rent 
by  civil  cummutions ;  the  English  were  the  last 
people  in  Europe  to  introduce  the  manufacture 
of  cotton  goods  Into  their  own  homes.  Towards 
thecloaeof  the  16th century,  indeed,  cotton  goods 
*tre  occasionally  mentioniKl  in  the  Statute  Book, 
and  the  manufacture  of  the  cottons  of  Manches- 
ter was  rcgulatrd  by  Acta  passed  in  the  reigns 
of  Henry  VIH.,  Edward  VI.,  and  Elizabeth. 
But  there  seem  to  tie  good  reasons  for  conclud- 
ing that  Manchester  cottons,  in  the  time  of  the 
Tudors,  were  woollen  goods,  and  did  not  consist 
of  cotton  at  all.  More  than  r.  century  elapsed 
liefore  any  considerable  trade  in  cotton  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  legislature.  The  woollen 
manuf;icturiTS  complaint  that  people  were  dress- 
ing their  children  in  printe  1  cottons ;  and  Par- 
liament was  actually  persuiided  to  prohibit  the 
introduction  of  Indian  pri  ited  calicoes.  Even 
an  Act  of  Parliament,  ho»;i  ver,  was  unable  to 
eitluKuish  the  growing  taste  for  Indian  cottons. 
■  .  .  The  taste  for  cotton  led  to  the  introduction 
of  calico-printing  in  London ;  Parliament  in  order 
to  encourage  the  new  trade,  was  induce<i  to 
•suction  the  importation  of  plain  cotton  clotha 
from  India  under  a  duty.  The  demand,  which 
WIS  thus  created  for  calicoes,  probably  promotetl 
their  manufacture  at  borne.  ...  Up  to  the  mid- 


dle of  the  last  century  cotton  goods  were  really 
never  made  at  all.  The  so-called  cotton  manu- 
factures were  a  combination  of  wool  or  linen  and 
cotton.  No  Englishman  had  been  able  to  pro- 
duce a  cotton  thread  strong  enough  for  the  warp. 
.  .  .  The  superior  skill  of  the  IndUn  manufac- 
turers enabled  them  to  use  cotton  for  a  warp ; 
while  clumsy  workmanship  made  the  use  of  cot- 
ton as  a  warp  unattainable  at  home.  In  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century,  then,  a  piece  of  cot- 
ton cloth  in  the  true  sense  of  the  term,  had  never 
been  made  in  England.  The  so-called  cotton 
goods  were  all  made  in  the  cottages  of  the 
weavers.  The  yam  was  carded  by  hind ;  it  waa 
spun  by  hand ;  it  was  worked  Into  cloth  by  a 
hand  loom.  .  .  .  The  operation  of  weaving  was, 
however,  much  more  rapid  than  that  of  spinning. 
The  weaver  consumed  more  weft  than  his  own 
family  could  supply  him  with;  and  the  weavers 
gen  rally  experienced  the  greatest  difficulty  in 
obtaining  sutticient  yam.  About  the  middle  of 
the  18th  century  the  ingenuity  of  two  persons, 
a  father  and  a  son,  made  this  difference  more 
apparent.  The  shuttle  had  originally  been  thrown 
by  the  hand  from  one  end  of  the  loom  to  the 
other.  John  Kay,  a  native  of  Bury,  bv  his  in- 
vention of  the  dv-shuttle  [patented  in  1733], 
saved  the  weaver  from  this  labour.  .  .  .  Robert 
Kay,  John  Kay's  son,  added  the  drop-box,  by 
means  of  which  the  weaver  was  able  '  to  use  any 
one  of  three  shuttles,  each  containing  a  different 
coloured  weft,  without  the  trouble  of  taking 
them  from  and  replacing  them  in  the  lathe. '  By 
means  of  these  inventions  the  productive  power 
of  each  weaver  was  doubled.  .  .  .  Carding  and 
roving  were  both  slowly  performed.  .  .  .  The 
trade  was  in  this  humble  and  primitive  state 
when  a  series  of  extraordinary  and  unparalleled 
inventions  revolutionised  the  conditions  on  which 
cotton  had  been  hitherto  prepared.  A  little 
more  than  a  century  ago  John  Hiirgreaves.  a  poor 
weaver  in  the  neighbourho<xl  of  Blackburn,  was 
returning  home  from  a  long  walk,  in  which  he 
hau  been  purchasing  a  furthur  supply  of  yam 
for  his  loom.  As  he  entered  his  cottage,  his  wife 
Jenny  accidentally  upset  the  spindle  which  she 
was  using.  Uargreaves  noticed  that  the  spindles 
which  were  now  thrown  into  au  upright  position, 
continued  to  revolve,  and  that  the  thread  was 
still  spinning  in  his  wife's  hand.  The  idea  im- 
mediately occurred  to  him  that  it  would  be  pos- 
sible to  connect  a  considerable  numl)er  of  up- 
right spindles  with  one  wlieel.  and  thus  multiply 
the  productive  power  of  eiich  spinster.  .  .  .  Har- 
greaves  succeeded  in  keeping  his  admirable  in- 
vention secret  for  n  time ;  but  the  powera  of  his 
machine  soon  became  known.  His  ignorant 
neighboura  hastily  concluded  that  a  machine, 
which  enabled  one  spinster  to  do  the  work  of 
eight,  would  throw  multitudes  of  persons  out  of 
employment.  A  >-'  j  broke  into  his  house  and 
destroyed  his  machine.  Hargreaves  himself  had 
to  retire  to  Nottingham,  where,  with  the  friendly 
assistance  of  another  person,  he  wua  able  to  take 
out  a  patent  [17701  for  the  spinuingjenny,  as  the 
machmc.  in  compliment  to  hi  industrious  wife, 
was  called.    The  invention  of  tlie  spinning-jeimy 

gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  cotton  manufacture. 
at  the  .  .  .  yarn  spun  by  the  Jenny,  like  that 
which  had  previously  tieen  spun  by  hand,  wag 
neither  fine  enough  nor  hard  enough  to  be  em- 
ployed as  warp,  and  linen  or  woollen  threads  had 
conseiiuently  to  be  used  for  this  purpoee.    In 


643 


i 


COTTON  MANWACTUnE. 

the  TMT  ye«r,  bowcTer,  in  which  Harfn^ave* 
noTcd  Rom  BUckburn  to  NottlDEham.  Richard 
Arkwrigbt  [who  began  life  as  a  barber's  anlatant] 
took  out  a  patent  [1769]  for  hia  itill  more  cele- 
brated maraine.  .  .  .  '  After  many  yean  intenae 
and  painful  application,'  he  inTented  hia  mem- 
orable machine  for  spinning  by  rollers;  and  laid 
the  foundatlona  of  the  gigantic  industry  which 
haa  done  more  than  any  other  trade  to  concen- 
trate in  thla  country  the  wealth  of  the  world. 
...  He  passed  the  thread  over  two  pain  of 
rollera,  one  of  which  was  made  to  revolve  much 
more  rapidly  than  the  other.    The  thread,  after 
paaaing  the  pair  revolving  slowlv,  was  drawn 
into  the  requisite  tenuitv  by  the  rollen  revolving 
at  a  higher  rapidity.     By  this  simple  but  mem- 
orable invention  Arkwright  succeeded  in  pro- 
ducing thread  capable  of  emplojrment  aa  warp. 
From  the  circumstance  that  the  mill  at  which 
his  machinery  was  flnt  erected  was  driven  by 
water  power,  the  machine  received  the  somewhat 
inappropriate  name  of   the  water  frame;   the 
thread  spun  by  it  was  usually  called  the  water 
twist.     Invention  of  the  spinning-lenny  and  the 
water  frame  would  have  been  UBefess  if  the  old 
system  of  hand-carding  had  not  been  superseded 
by  a  more  efficient  and  more  rapid  process.    Just 
as  Arkwright  applied  rotatory  motion  to  spin- 
ning, so  Lewis  Paul  introduced  revolving  cylin- 
dera  for  carding  cotton.  .  .  .  This  extraonlinarv 
series  of  inventions  placed  an  almost  uciniiletl 
supply  of  yam  at  the  dinposal  of  the  weaver.    But 
the  macbiniry,  which  had  thus  been  introduced, 
was  still  incapable  of  providing  yam  fit  for  the 
finer  qualities  of  cotton  cloth.  .  .  .  This  defect, 
however,  was  removed  by  the  ingenuity  of  Samuel 
Crompton,  a  young  weaver  residing  near  Bolton. 
Crompton  succeeded  in  combining  in  one  machine 
the  various  excellences  '  of  Arkwright's  water 
frame  and  Hargreaves'  Jenny."    Like  the  former, 
his  machine,  which  from  its  nature  is  happily 
called  the  mule,  '  has  a  system  of  rollen  to  re- 
duce the  roving:  and  like  the  latter  it  haa  spin- 
dles without  bobbins  to  give  the  twist  .  .  .  The 
effects  of  Crompton's  great  invention  may  be 
stated  epigrammatically.  .  .   .   The  natives  of 
India  could  spin  a  pound  of  cotton  into  a  thread 
111*  miles  long.'    The  English  succeed  in  spin- 
niLg  the  same  thread  to  a  length  of  180  miles. 
Yam  of  the  finest  quality  was  at  once  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  weaver.  .  .  .  The  ingenuity  of  Har- 
greaves.  Arkwright  and    Crompton  had    been 
exercised  to  provide  the  weaver  with  yam.  .  . 
The  spinster  hod  beaten  the  weaver.  .  .  .  Ed- 
mund Cartwright,  a  clergyman  njsiding  in  Kent, 
happened  to  be  staying  at  MatUxrk  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1784,  and  to  be  thrown  Into  the  company 
of  some  Manchester  gentlemen.    The  conversa- 
tion turned  on  Arkwright's  machinery,  and  •  one 
of  the  company  observed  that,  as  soon  as  Ark- 
wright's patent  expired,  so  many  mills  would  lie 
erected  and  so  much  cotton  spun  that  hands 
would  never  be  found  to  weave  it'    Cartwright 
replied  '  that  Arkwright  must  then  set  bis  wiu  to 
work   to  hivent  a  weaving  mill. ' .  .  .  Within 
three  yean  he  had  himself  proved  that  the  in- 
vention was  practicable  by  producing  the  power- 
loom.     Subsequent  inventon  improved  the  Idea 
which  Cartwright  had  originated,   ami  within 
fifty  yean  from  the  date  of  his  memorable  vi«it 
to  Matlock  there  were  not  less  than  100, UOO  power- 
looms  at  work  in  Great  Britain  alone.  .  .  .  Other 
Inventions,    less    generally    rememlirred,    were 


COUNT  AND  DUES. 

hardly  less  wonderful  or  leia  beneflclal  than  thescL 
.  .  .  Scheele,  the  Swedish  philoaopher,  discovend 
in  1774  the  bleaching  properties  of  chlorine  or 
oxymuriatic  add.  BerthoUet,  the  French  chem- 
ist, conceived  the  idea  of  applying  the  add  to 
bleachinc  cloth.  .  .  .  In  the  same  year  in  vliich 
Watt  aoa  Henry  were  introducing  the  new  acid 
to  the  bleacher.  Bell,  a  Scotchman,  was  larioir 
the  foundations  of  a  trade  in  printed  raliooe^ 
'  The  old  method  of  printing  was  by  bl.:olu  o( 
sycamore.' .  .  .  Thia  clumsy  process  wax  super- 
seded by  cylinder  printing.  .  .  .  Such  are  tie 
leading  inventions,  which  made  Great  Britaio  in 
less  than  a  century  the  wealthiest  country  in  the 
world.'— 8.  Walpole,  Hi*t.  of  Eng.  from  1815 
r.  1,  th.  1. 

Also  in:  R  W.  C.  Taylor,  Intnd.  to  a  But 
of  the  Faetory  SgUem,  eh.  10.— E.  Boines.  Uitt 
oftht  Cotton  Manvfaeture  in  Oreat  Britain.— ii 
Ure,  Th«  Cotton  ManvfacturttfOrtat  Britain 

COULMIERS,  Battle  of  (1870),  See 
France:  A.  D.  1870-1871. 

COUNC4L  BLUFFS,  The  Mormons  at 
See  HoRMOHtsic:  A.  D.  184(^1848. 

COUNCIL  FOR  NEW  ENGLAND.  Set 
New  Englamo:  A.  D.  1680-1628;  1621-1831 
and  1685. 

COUNCIL  OF  BLOOD,  The.  SeeNsTBui. 
lands:  a.  D.  1567. 

COUNCIL  OF  FIVE  HUNDRED,  Tie 
Athenian.  See  Athens.  B.  C.  SI 0-507. . .  The 
French.    See  Fbahcb:  A.  D.  1795  (Jckb-Sep- 

TEMBEB). 

COUNCIL  OF  TEN,  The.  SeeVtMcx 
A.  D.  108d-18I». 

COUNCIL  OF  THE  ANCIENTS,  The. 
See  Prance:  A.  D.  1795 (June— September) 

COUNCIL,    THE    PRIVY.      See   Privt 

CoUNCtl-. 

COUNCILS  OF  THE  CHURCH,  General 
or  EcumenicaL — There  are  seven  coiinciU  ad- 
mitted by  both  the  Greek  and  Latin  churclifs  as 
cecumenlcal  (or  ecumenical)  -  that  is  general,  or 
universal.  "1110  Roman  Catholics  recognize  thir- 
teen more,  making  twenty  in  all  — as  follows: 
1.  The  synod  of  apoatles  in  Jemsalom.  2.  The 
firat  Council  of  Nice,  A.  D.  825  (see  Xicai, 
The  First  CotTKca,).  8. 
Constantinople,  A.  D.  881. 
cil  of  Ephesus,  A.  D.  481. 
Chalcedon,  A.  D.  451.  6. 
of  Constantinople,  A.  D. 
Council  of  Coustaothiople,  A.  D.  681. 
second  Council  of  Nice,  A.  D.  787. 
fourth  Council  of  Constantinople.  A.  D, 
10.  The  first  Lateran  Council,  A.  .  112!t. 
The  second  Lateran  Council,  A.  L.  .^39. 
The  third  Lateran  Council,  A.  D.  *17l). 
The  fourth  Lateran  Council,  A.  D.  1215. 
The  firat  oecumenical  sy^od  of  Lyon.  A.  D.  124iS. 
15.  The  second  cecumeniral  synod  of  Lyon, 
A.  D.  1274.  16.  The  Synod  of  Vienne  in  Gaul. 
A.  D.  1811.  17.  The  Council  of  Coniitann, 
A.  D.  1414  (see  Papacy:  A.  D.  1414-1418). 
18.  The  Council  of  Basel,  A.  D.  1431  (M« 
Papacy:  A.  D.  1481-1448).  19.  The  Counril  of 
Trent  A.  D.  1645  (see  Papacy:  A.  I).  1537- 
LVIS).  20.  The  Council  of  the  Vatican.  A.  D. 
1869  (see  Papacy:  A.  P.  1869-1870). 

COUNT  AND  DUKE,  Romas.-Origia  of 
the  titles.- "The  defence  of  the  Roman  empire 
was  at  length  oommitted  [under  Constantine  and 
his  succesaon]  to  eight  masten-general  of  Uis 


The  first  Council  of 

4.  The  first  Coun- 

5.  The  Council  of 
The  second  Council 
653.     7.     The  thinl 

8.  The 

9.  The 

11 
12. 

13. 
14. 


644 


COUNT  AND  DUKE. 


COURTRAl. 


etra!  nod  Infantry.  Under  tbeir  orders  thirtv- 
Dtc  i  iury  conunanden  were  stationed  in  tbe 
pioTiiioes  —  three  in  Britain,  six  in  Oau],  one  in 
Bpsin,  one  in  Italy,  five  on  the  Upper  and  four 
on  the  Lower  Danube,  in  Asia  eight,  three  in 
Egypt,  and  four  in  Africa.  The  titles  of  Counts 
ind  Dulles,  by  which  they  were  properly  dis- 
tioguisbed,  have  obtained  In  modem  languages 
■0  Tery  different  a  sense  that  the  use  of  them 
may  occasion  some  surprise.  But  it  should  be 
ncollt'Cted  that  the  second  of  those  appellations 
if  only  a  corruption  of  the  Latin  word  which 
wu  indiscriminately  applied  to  any  military 
chief.  All  these  provincial  generals  were  there- 
fore dukes ;  but  no  more  than  ten  among  them 
vei¥  dignified  with  the.  rank  of  counts  or  com- 
panions, a  title  of  honour,  or  rather  of  favour, 
which  bad  been  recently  invented  in  the  court  of 
Constant  ine.  A  gold  belt  was  the  ensign  which 
disiineui.'-la'd  tiie  office  of  the  counts  and  dukes." 
— E.  (iibbon,  Deelint  and  Fall  of  the  Soman  Em- 
pin.  -A.  17. — "The  Duke  and  the  Count  of 
modem  Europe — what  rje  they  but  the  Generals 
and  Companions  (Duces  and  Comites)of  a  Roman 
province  ?  Why  or  whjn  they  changed  places, 
the  Duke  climbing  up  into  mich  unquest'  med 
preeminence  over  his  former  superior  the  C  ount, 
I  know  not,  nor  yet  by  what  process  it  was  dis- 
covered that  the  latter  was  the  precise  equiva- 
lent of  the  Scandinavian  Jarl." — T.  Hodgkin, 
Iluii/iiiid  lf>r  Inriidert,  bk.  1.  M.  8. 

COUNT  OF  THE  DOMESTICS.— In  the 
orgauization  of  the  Imperial  Household,  during 
the  Liter  period  of  the  Roman  empire,  the 
officers  called  Counts  of  the  Domestics  "com- 
maniled  the  various  divisions  of  the  household 
troops,  known  by  the  names  of  Domestic!  and 
Protectoros,  and  thus  together  replaced  t. 
Pnetorian  Prefect  of  the  earlier  days  of  the 
Empire.  .  .  .  Theoretically,  their  duties  wo"ld 
not  greatly  differ  from  tlioVt-  of  a  Colonel  in  the 
Guanls," — T.  Hodgkin,  Italy  and  Uer  Intadert, 
ik.  1.  th.  3. 

COUNT  OF  THE  SACRED  LARGES- 
SES.—In  the  later  lioman  empire,  "the  Count 
who  bad  charge  of  tlic  Sacred  (i.  e.  Imperial) 
Bounty,  should  have  been  by  his  title  simply 
•he  Grand  Almoner  of  the  Empire.  ...  In 
practice,  however,  the  minister  who  took  charge 
of  the  Imperial  Largesses  1^  to  find  ways  and 
means  for  every  other  form  or  Imperial  expendi- 
ture. .  .  .  The  Count  of  the  Sacred  Largesses 
was  tberefore  in  fact  the  Chancellor  of  the 
Exehei|iier  of  the  Empire-.  "—T.  Hodgkin,  Italy 
t'ld  Ikr  Inrnderi,  bk.  1,  rh.  8. 

COUNT  OF  THE  SAXON  SHORE.  See 
8axo.\  SnuRE. 

COUNT     PALATINE.      See     PAijkTiNE, 

COIXTS. 

COUNTER.REFORMATION,  The.    Sec 

PAP.tfY  A.  D.  1534-1540;  1.537-1563;  1555-1603. 

COUNTRY  PARTY,  The.    See  England: 

A.  i>.  i8;ij-i67a 

COUP  D"  ETAT  OF  LOUIS  NAPO- 
LEON, The.    See  Franck:  A.  D.  1851;  and 

W51-1M2. 

COUREURS  DE  BOIS.-"Out  of  the 
waver  trade  [in  the  17th  century]  rose  a  huge 
evil,  baneful  to  the  growth  and  the  morals  of 
CssaiU.  All  that  was  most  active  and  vigorous 
m  the  colony  took  to  the  woenis,  and  esesped 
from  the  control  of  intendanU,  councils  and 
jirieits,  to  the  savage  freedom  of  the  wilderness. 


645 


Not  only  were  the  possible  profits  great,  but.  In 
the  pursuit  of  them,  there  was  a  fascinating 
element  of  adventure  and  danger.  The  busK 
rangers,  or  coureura  de  bois,  were  to  the  king  an 
object  of  horror.  They  defeated  his  nlans  for 
the  increase  of  the  popnUtion,  and  shocked  his 
native  instinct  of  discipline  ami  order.  Edict 
after  edict  was  directed  against  them;  and  more 
than  once  the  colony  presented  the  extraordinary 
spectacle  of  the  greater  part  of  its  young  men 
turned  into  forest  outhiws.  .  .  .  We  hear  of 
seigniories  abandoned:  farms  turning  again  into 
fwesU;  wives  and  children  left  in  destitution. 
The  exodus  of  the  coureurs  de  bois  would  take 
at  times  the  character  of  an  organized  move- 
ment. The  famous  Du  Lhut  is  said  to  have 
made  a  general  combination  of  the  young  men 
of  Canada  to  follow  him  into  the  woods.  Their 
plan  was  to  be  absent  four  years,  in  order  that 
the  edicts  against  them  might  have  time  to 
relent.  The  intendant  Duchesneau  reported  that 
800  men  out  of  a  population  of  less  than  10,000 
souls  had  vanished  from  sl^t  in  the  immensity 
of  a  boundless  wilderness.  Whereupon  the  king 
ordered  that  any  person  going  into  the  wooi£ 
without  a  license  shotild  be  whipped  and  branded 
for  the  first  offence,  and  sent  for  life  to  the  gal- 
leys for  the  second.  .  .  .  Under  such  leaders  as 
DuLhut,  the  coureurs  de  bois  built  forts  of 
palisades  at  various  points  throughout  the  West 
.ind  Northwest.  They  had  a  post  of  this  sort 
at  Detroit  some  time  before  its  permanent  settle- 
ment, as  well  as  others  on  Lake  Superior  and  in 
the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi.  They  occupied 
them  as  long  as  it  suited  their  purposes,  and 
then  abandoned  them  to  the  next  comer.  Jlich- 
illimackinac  was,  however,  their  chief  resort." 
—  F.  Parkman,  The  Old  Regime  in  Canada, 
eh.  17. 

COURLANO,  Christian  conquest  of.  See 
Ln'osiA;  12th-13th  Centuries. 

COURT  BARON.    See  Manobs. 

COURT  CUSTOMARY     See  Manors. 

COURT-LEET.    See  JIanors,  and  Sac  and 

COURT  OF  CHANCERY.    See  Chancki.. 

I.OR. 

COURT   OF   COMMON    PLEAS.     See 

Curia  Regis. 

COURT  OF  HIGH  COMMISSION.  See 
England:  A.  D.  1559;  and  A.  I).  1686. 

COURT  OF  KING'S  BENCH.  See  CtnuA 
Regis. 

COURT,  SUPREME,  of  the  United  State*. 
See  :irpREME  t'ornx. 

COURTRAl  :  A.  O.  138a.— Pillaged  and 
burned  by  the  French.  See  Flanders:  A.  D. 
1382. 

A.  D.  1646.— Siege  and  capture  by  the 
French.    Sec  Netherlands:  A.  D.  1645-1646. 

A.  D.  1648.— Taken  by  the  Spaniards.  See 
Netherlands  (Spanish  Provinces):  A.  D. 
J847-1648. 

A.  D.  1667.— Taken  by  the  French.  See 
Netherlands  (The  Spanish  Provinces):  A.  D. 
1667. 

A.  D.  1668.— Ceded  to  France.  SeeNETHiR- 
L.vNDs  (Holland):  A.  D.  1668. 

A.  D.  1670.— Restored  to  Spain.  See  Nm- 
t:ii_\.  The  Peace  ok. 


COURTRAl,  The  Battle  of.— The  battle  of 
Courtrai  (July  11.   A.   l>.   1802),   In  which  the 


OOURTRAt 

baroDt  ud  kolghti  of  Fnnce  wen  feufullj 
slaughtered  by  the  sturdy  burghers  of  FUnders, 
was  loinetimes  called  the  Day  of  the  Spurs,  on 
account  of  the  great  number  of  gilt  spurs  which 
WAS  taken  from  the  bodies  of  the  dead.  Hee 
Flandrks  :  A.  D.  1899-1804. 

COURTS,  English  Crimmal.  See  Law, 
CniMiNAt. :  A.  O.  To««-187a,  and  1383. 

COURTS    OF   LOVE.     See    Pbovksce: 

A.  D.  w^-iim. 

COU'i  HON,  and  the  French  RcTolutionary 
Committee  of  Public  Safety.  See  F^canck  : 
A.  I)   1793  (JcNE — t)cTOBKiii.  to  lTl)4(.Iiiy|. 

COUTRAS,  Battle  of  (is87>.  tivv Fka.vce : 
A.  D.  15«4-15W>. 

COVAOONGA,  CaTe  of.  Sec  Si-ais  :  A.  P. 
713 -;87. 

COVENANT,  The  Halfway.  See  Boston  : 
A.  D.  16.')r-l«rt9. 

COVENANT,  The  Solemn  League  and. 
8c'f  Enoland:  A.  D.  1643  (July— Septesiiikih. 

COVENANTERS.— The  naiiip  civeii  to  the 
signers  and  supporters  of  the  Scottish  X:itiimiil 
Covenant  (see  Scotland  :  A.  D.  IXil,  l.Wl  hikI 
163S).  and  afterwards  to  all  who  adhered  to  the 
Kirk  of  Scotland.  The  warof  Montrose  with  the 
Covenanters  will  be  found  narrated  under  S<  ot- 
LAXD:  A.  D.  1644-1645.  For  the  storv  of  the  per- 
secution which  they  suffered  under  tlie  restored 
Stuarts,  see  Scotland  :  A.  D.  1660-1666  ,  1069- 
1679  ;  1679  ;  and  1681-1680. 

COVENANTS,  The  Scottish,  Sec  Scot- 
land: A.  1).  1.5.57-1581  ;  and  1638. 

COVODE  INVESTIGATION,  See  Ks."- 
B.48  :  A   n.  1860. 

COWBOYS.— During  the  War  of  the  Ameri- 
can Kevolution,  "  there  was  a  venal  and  blo<i-Jy 
Oct  which  hung  on  the  skirts  of  the  British  army 
Will  known  a.s  Cowlx>)s.     They  .  .  .  came 
li.ive  tliei,    name    from    their    cattle-stealir 
— ('   W.  f;;iintt.  nr  Setr  Eng.  Jlitt.,  t.  2,  p.  b,. 
— >ie.  iilsD.  United  States  of  Am.:  A.  D.  17b\/ 
(.\I  (iI--iT— Septkmheb) 

COWPENS,  Battle  of  the  (1781).  See 
United  St\tes  ok  Am.:  A.  D.  1780-1781. 

COXEY  MOVEMENT.  See  SocialMotk- 
MKNTS  :  A.  I).  1894. 

CRACOW:  A.  D.  1703.— Taken  by  Charles 
XII.  of  Sweden.  See  ScOi'Dinavian  States 
(Sweden):  A.  D.  1701-1707. 

A.  D.  1793-1794.— Occupied  by  the  Russians. 
— Rising  of  the  citizens.- Surrender  and  ces- 
sion to  Austria.  See  Poland:  A.  U.  1793- 
1796. 

A.  D.  1815.- Creation  of  the  Republic.  See 
Vienna,  The  Congress  of. 

A.  D.  1831-1846.- Occupation  by  the  Aus- 
trians,  Russians  and  Prussians. —Extinction 
of  the  Republic— Annexation  to  Austria.  See 
Al-STRIA :  A.  D.  1815-1848. 


CRADLE  OF  LIBERTY.  See  FANXtnL 
Hall. 

CRAFT-GUILOS.  See  Ocilm,  Medieval. 

CRAGIE  TRACT,  The.  See  New  York; 
A.  D.  1786-1799. 

CRAL.— KRALE.— "The  princes  of  Servia 
(Oucauge,  Famil,  Dalmatics,  &c.,  c.  i-i,  9) 
were  styled  '  despots '  in  Oreek,  and  <>al  in  their 
niitive  idiom  (Ducange,  Oloss.  Onto.,  p.  751). 
Tliat  title,  the  equivalent  uf  king,  appears  to  Iw 
of  Sclavonic  origin,  from  whence  it  has  been 
borrowed  by  the  Hungarians,  the  modem  Greeks, 


046 


CREMONA. 

and  erea  br  the  Turks  (Leunclaviua.  Pandea 
Turc.,  p.  422),  who  reserve  the  name  of  Psduiui, 
for  the  Emperor.  "—£.  Gibbon,  Dtelint  and  FM 
of  tht  Roman  Empin,  eh.  68,  nott.—Six,  alio 
Balkan  axd  DainTauM  States:  A.  D  latil 
1856  (Servia). 

CR'-VNOCES.    See  Lake  Dwelunos. 

CRaNNON  (KRANNON),  Battle  of  (B.  C. 
333).    See  Greece:  B.  C.  828-822. 

CRAONNE,  Battle  of.  See  France:  A  D 
1814  (.Ianuary — March). 

CRASSUS  AND  THE  FIRST  TRIUW. 
VIRATE.     See  Home:  B.  C.  78-68,  to5T-.52 

CRATER,  Battle  of  the  Petersburg.  $<« 
t'Nn-ED  States  or  Am.  :   A.  D.  1864  (Jclt 

VlRGINL\). 

CRATERUS,  AND  THE  WARS  OP 
THE  DIADOCHL  See  Macedonia;  B  C 
828-316. 

CRANGALLID^,  The.    See  Hii  ruli  : ' 

CRAYFORD,  Battle  of  (A.  D,  4571.  iv'e 
Enoland:  A    D.  449-473 

CRECY,  Battle  of  (.346).  Si-  Fmsd- 
A.  D.  ).S:J7-136(l. 

CREDIT  MOBILIER,  French.-.\  ^m,u 
banking  corporation  formed  in  France  i:i  \<,i, 
which  caused  a  disastrous  indatiou  uf  cn-dits. 

CREDIT  MOBILIER  SCANDAL. -On 
the  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  liiitt-il  Stales 
ill  December,  1872,  attention  was  calleil  liv  the 
Speaker  to  charges  matle  in  the  pn'cediiig  can- 
▼ass  "  that  the  Vice-President,  the  Viie.i'rcsi- 
dent  elect,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  several 
Senators,  the  Speaker  of  the  House,  ani  a  large 
number  of  Reprp'-«ntatives  had  In-eii  bribed, 
during  the  years  1867  and  1868,  by  pn-stuts  of 
stoc!"  -  ■  corporation  known  as  the  Credit  Mobi- 
lier  [otganized  to  contract  for  building  the  I'nios 
Pacific  Railroad]  to  vote  and  act  for  the  benefit 
of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  Company.  On  hii 
motion,  .^n  Investigating  committee  was  ap- 
pointed, L.  P.  Poland,  of  Vermont,  being  cliair- 
nian.  The  Poland  Committee  reported  February 
18th,  1873,  recommendhig  the  expulsion  of  Oakei 
Ames,  of  Massachusetts,  for  '  selling  to  membeis 
of  Congress  shares  of  the  stock  of  the  Credit 
Mobilier  below  their  real  value,  with  intent 
thereby  to  influence  the  votes  of  such  niembere,' 
and  of  James  Brooks,  of  New  York,  for  receiving 
such  stock.  The  House  modified  the  pniposed 
expulsion  into  an  '  absolute  condemnation '  of 
the  conduct  of  both  members." — A,  Johnston. 
Hitt.  of  Am.  Potitiei,  pp.  219-220.- /Jcp/.  oflxUd 
Com.  (42(i  Cong.,  3rf  km.,  //.  R.  rtpt.  w>.  77). 

Also  in:  J.  B.  Crawford,  The  Credit  JiMlitr 
of  Am. 

CREEKS,— Creek  Wars.  See  Amirica.<( 
Aborigines;  Mcskhooean  Family ;  also I'NrrsD 
States  of  Am.:  A.  D.  1813-1814  (.Uoisi- 
April),  and  Florida:  A.  D.  1816-1811^ 

CREES,  The.  See  American  AnonoiNia; 
Algon<)uian  Family. 

CKEFELD,  Battle  of.  See  Germany; 
A.  D.  1758. 

CREMA,  Slcgt  of  (1150-1160).  See  Itaiy; 
A.  D.  1154-1183. 

CREMONA;  The  Roman  Colony.— Siegt 
by  the  Cauli.    See  Rome;  B  C.  2t).5-l»l. 

A.  D.  69.— Deitmction  by  the  Flavians.  See 
RoMS:  A.  D.  89. 

A.  D.  t703.— Defeat  of  the  French,  See 
It  ALT  (Savor  axo  PntDMoirr);  A.  D.  1701- 
1718. 


CREOLE. 


CRETE. 


CREOLE.—"  Id  Eoiopa  It  li  Terr  common  to 
ttticli  to  the  term  Creole  the  ides  of  •  particular 
complexion.  Tbia  ia  a  miatake.  The  deaignatioo 
Cnoie  [in  Spaniah  American  tesloni]  properly 
tielonga  to  all  tbe  natlres  of  America  bom  of 
parcDt*  wbo  bave  emigrated  from  tbe  Old  World, 
be  thoae  paienta  Europeana  or  Africana.  Tbere 
lie,  therefore,  white  aa  well  aa  bUck  Creoles. 
.  .  .  Tbe  term  Creole  is  a  corruption  of  the 
SpiDish  word  'criollo,'  which  is  derived  from 
'criir,'  to  create  or  to  foster.  Tbe  Spaniards 
apply  tbe  term  '  criollo '  not  merely  to  tbe  human 
nee,  but  also  to  animals  propagated  in  the  colo- 
niea,  but  of  pure  European  blood :  thus  they  have 
Creole  bones,  bullocks,  poultry,  Jkc."— J.  J. 
VonTbcbudi,  TVateb  in  Ptni,  eh.  a,  andfoot-noU. 
—"The  term  Creole  is  commonly  applied  in 
Ixuks  to  tbe  native  of  a  Spanish  colony  deacended 
from  European  ancestors,  while  often  tbe  popular 
scceptation  conveys  the  idet  of  an  origin  partly 
African.  In  fact.  Its  meaning  varies  in  different 
times  and  tegions,  and  in  Louisiana  alone  has, 
ud  has  bad,  Its  broad  and  its  close,  its  earlier 
ind  iu  later,  significance.  For  instance,  it  did 
not  here  first  oelonj  to  the  descendants  of 
Spsnisb,  but  of  French  settlers.  But  such  a 
meaning  implied  a  certain  excellence  of  origin, 
ud  ao  came  early  to  include  any  native  of 
French  or  Spanish  descent  by  either  parent, 
whose  pure  non-mixture  witli  tbe  slave  race 
entitled  him  to  social  rank.  Much  later  the 
term  was  adopted  by,  not  conceded  to,  the 
natives  of  European-African,  ur  Creole-African 
blood,  and  is  still  so  used  among  themselves.  At 
length  tbe  spirit  of  commerce  availed  itself  of 
the  money  value  of  so  honored  a  title,  and 
broadi'Dt'U  its  meaning  to  take  in  any  creature  or 
thing  of  variety  or  manufacture  pevuliar  to 
Louisiana,  that  might  become  an  object  of  sale, 
u  Creole  ponies,  cb  jkens,  cows,  shoes,  eggs, 
wsgons,  baskets,  cabbages,  ei..  .  .  .  There  are 
no  English,  Scotch,  Irtah,  Western,  or  Yankee 
Creoles,  these  all  being  included  under  the  dis- 
tinctive term  'Americans.' .  .  .  There  seems  to 
he  no  more  serviceable  definition  of  tbe  Creoles 
of  Louisiana  or  of  New  Orleans  than  to  say  they 
ire  the  Freoch-speakinfr  native,  ruling  class. 
-0.  E.  Waring,  Jr..  anu  0.  W  Cablo,  Ut.  and 
Promt  Condition  of  A'eu  Orlearu  (Ter  '  Ceniut 
cfthe  r.  .«.,  ».  19^.  218). 

CREONES,  The.  See  Lhitadi,  Celtic 
Tubes. 

CRESCENT,  The  Order  of  ♦he.— A  Turk- 
iih  Order  instituted  in  1799  by  tbe  reforming 
lultan,  Selim  III.  Lord  >felson,  after  the  vic- 
tory of  Aboukir,  waa  tbe  first  to  receive  this 
decomiicn. 

CRESr''  IN  VALOIS,  Treaty  of  (1544). 
See  Fkahce:  A.  D.  1832-1547. 

CRETAN  LABYRINTH.  See  Labtbdjths. 

CRETE.— "The  institutions  of  the  Cretan 
itste  show  in  many  poinU  so  great  a  similarity 
to  these  nf  Sparte,  that  it  ia  not  surprising  if  it 
leemed  to  tbe  ancients  as  though  either  Crete 
were  a  copy  of  SparU  or  Sparta  of  Crete. 
Meanwhile  this  similaritv  may  be  explained, 
apart  from  hitentional  ImitatioD,  by  the  commu- 
nity of  nationality,  which,  under  like  conditions, 
mat  produce  like  institutions.  For  in  Crete,  as 
m  Laninia,  Porlans  were  the  ruling  people,  who 
had  subdued  the  old  inhabltanU  of  tbe  island 
ud  placed  them  in  a  position  of  aubordination. 
.  .    It  is,  howerer,  beyood  doubt  that  settle- 


m'-nts  were  made  in  Crete  by  the  Phoenlciani, 
and  that  a  large  portion  of  the  island  waa  sub- 
ject to  them.  In  the  historical  period,  it  is  true, 
we  no  longer  find  them  here;  we  find,  on  the 
contrary,  only  a  number  of  Greek  states,  all 
moreover  Dorian.  Fach  of  these  consisted  of  • 
city  with  its  surrounding  district,  in  which  no 
doubt  also  smaller  cities  m  their  turn  were  found 
standing  in  a  relation  of  subordination  to  the 
principal  city.  For  that  each  city  of  the  'ninety- 
citied  or  '  hundred-citi  d '  isle,  as  Homer  calla  ft, 
formed  also  an  indcpt  ,<tent  state,  will  probably 
not  be  supposed.  ..,  '^dependent  states  our 
authorities  give  us  reason  to  recognize  about 
seventeen.  The  most  important  of  these  were  in 
earlier  times  Cnossus,  Gortyn  and  Cydonia."— 
O.  SchOmann,  Antiq.  ofOretee:  The  Stale,  pt.  8, 
eh.  2.— See  Asia  Minor:  The  Greek  Colonies. 

B.  C.  <S-M. — The  Roman  Conquest. --The 
Romans  came  into  collision  with  the  Cretans 
during  their  confiict  with  the  Cilician  pirates. 
The  Cretans,  degenerate  and  half  piratical  them- 
selves, had  formed  an  alliance  with  the  profes- 
sional buccaneers,  and  defeated,  off  Cydonia,  a 
Roman  fleet  that  had  been  sent  against  the  latter, 
B.  C.  71.  They  soon  repented  of  the  provoca- 
tion they  had  offered  and  sent  envoys  to  Rome  to 
buy  peace  by  bcavv  bribes;  but  neither  the 
penitence  nor  tbe  brlLes  prevailed.  Three  years 
passed,  however,  before  the  proconsul,  Quintus 
Metellus,  appeared  in  Crete  (B.  C.  68)  to  exact 
satisfaction,  and  two  years  more  were  spent  in 
overcoming  tbe  stubborn  resistance  of  tbe  island- 
ers. The  taking  of  Cydonia  cost  Metellus  a 
bloody  battle  ana  a  prolonged  siege.  Cnossua 
and  other  towns  held  out  with  equal  courage. 
In  the  end,  however,  Crete  was  added  to  the 
conquered  dominions  of  Rome.  At  the  last  of 
tbe  struggle  there  occurred  a  conflict  of  jurisdic- 
tion between  Metellus  and  Pompey,  and  their 
respective  forees  fought  with  one  another  on  tbe 
Cretan  soil.— T.  Mommsen,  Hitt.  of  Burnt,  bk.  5, 
ch.  4. 

A.  O.  833.— Conqneat  by  tbe  Saracens.— 
"The  reign  of  Al  Hakem,  the  Ommiade  Caliph 
of  Spain,  was  disturbed  by  continual  troubles; 
and  some  theological  disputes  having  created  a 
violent  insurrection  in  the  suburbs  of  Cordova, 
about  15,000  Spanisli  Arabs  were  compelled  to 
emigrate  in  tbe  year  815.  The  greater  part  of 
these  desperadoes  established  themselves  at 
Alexandria,  where  they  soon  took  an  active  part 
in  the  civil  wars  of  Egypt.  Tbe  rebellion  of 
Thomas  [an  officer  who  disputed  the  Byzantine 
throne  with  Michael  II.],  ond  the  absence  of  the 
naval  forces  of  the  Byzantine  Empire  from  the 
Archipelago,  left  tbe  island  of  Crete  unpro- 
tected. The  Andalusian  Arabs  of  Alexandria 
availed  themselves  of  this  circumstance  to 
invade  the  island  and  establish  a  settlement  on 
it,  in  the  year  823.  Michael  was  unable  to  take 
any  measures  for  expelling  tbe  invaders,  and  an 
event  soon  happened  in  Egypt  which  added 
greatly  to  the  strength  of  this  Saracen  colony. 
The  victories  of  tbe  lieutenants  of  tbe  Calipli 
Almamum  compelled  the  remainder  of  the 
Andalusian  Araba  to  quit  Alexandria;  so  that 
Abou  Hafs,  called  by  tbe  Greeks  Apocbaps, 
joined  his  countrymen  in  Crete  with  forty  ships 
uctcni'lncd  tu  make  tbe  new  settlement  their 
permanent  home.  It  is  said  by  the  Byzantine 
writers  that  they  commenced  tneir  conquest  of 
the  island  by  destroying  their  fleet,  and  oon- 


647 


CRETE. 


CROWN  or  INDU. 


■tructing  a  itronc  fonifled  camp,  luirounded  by 
•n  immenie  ditcn,  frnin  which  it  reccired  the 
name  of  Chandak,  now  corrupted  by  the  weiteni 
nationi  into  Candla.  .  .  .  The  Saraceni  retained 
powe«ionof  Crete  tor  18S  veart. "— O.  Finlny, 
aM.  of  tht  Bgtantine  Bnptre.Jhm  714  to  10S7, 
»*.  1,  e».  8.—  During  the  rtay  of  these  piratical 
Andaluiian  Arabs  at  Alexandria,  "they  cut 
In  pieces  both  friends  and  foes,  pillaged  the 
churches  and  mosques,  sold  ttho^'.  0,000  Christian 
captives,  and  maintained  their  siatioD  in  the  cap- 
ital of  Egypt  till  they  were  oppressed  by  the 
forces  and  presence  of  .Mmamon  himself.  —£. 
Qibbon,  Deelim  and  Fall  of  t/i»  Boman  Empire, 
ch.  52. 

Also  in:  S.  A.  Dunham,  nitt.  of  Sbain  and 
Portugal,  J*.  8,  eh.  1. 

A.  D.  061-063.—  RtcoTtrj  from  the  Sara- 
ccas.— "In  tbe  subordinate  station  of  great 
domestic,  or  general  of  the  East,  he  [Nicephorus 
Phocas,  afterwards  emperor,  on  the  Byzantine 
throne],  reduced  the  island  of  Crete,  and  extir- 
pated the  nest  of  pirates  who  had  ao  long  defied, 
with  impunity,  the  majesty  of  the  Empire.  .  .  . 
Seven  months  were  consumed  In  the  siege  of 
Candia;  the  despair  of  the  natire  Cretans  was 
stimulated  by  the  frequent  aid  of  their  brethren 
of  Africa  and  Spain;  and,  after  the  massy  wall 
and  doutile  ditch  ha.l  been  stormed  by  the 
Oieeks,  a  hop<'le8s  coallict  was  still  maintained 
in  the  streets  and  houses  of  the  city.  The  whole 
island  was  siibiiunl  in  the  capital,  and  a  sub- 
missive people  accepted,  without  resistance,  the 
'aptism  of  the  conqueror  "—E.  Oibbon,  Dtelins 
iintt  Fallfftht  Human  Empire,  cA.  52, 

A,  D.  IS04-1305.— Acquirad  by  the  Vanf 
tiaoa.    See  Btxantinc  Empiiuc  :  A.  I).  1301-1209. 

A.  D.  1645-1669.— Tht  long  aicra  of  CaD- 
dia.- -  Surrender  to  the  Turks.  »ee  Tcua: 
A.  D.  1645-imW. 

A.  D.  1715.— Complete  Expulsion  of  the 
Venetians  by  the  Turks.  S«-r  Tvrks:  ,\  n. 
1714-171S. 

A.  D.  1S66-1868.— Unsuccessful  revolt.— 
Stmnle  for  independence.—  Turkish  conces- 
■ion  ofthe  Ornnic  Regulation.  8ec  Greece: 
A.  D.  IWIi-KJtri. 

CRETE,    Party     of    tbe.-Cr«toia.     See 
rRAJtra    A.  .)  17«^(ArRn.) 
CRIMEA.  OR  CRIM  TARTARY:  Early 

bistorf.    *r   Tacrica;   al»<i   Bospdri'i.    Citt 

AND  Kl.-VllIkiM. 

7th  Century.— Conquest  and  occupation  by 
the  Kbaaars.    Str  Khazahd 

iath-i]th  Centuries.- Genoese  commercial 
colonies.     SeeGKMoA:  A.  I).  126I-121M> 

i]th-i4th  Centuries.— The  khanate  to  Krim. 
SeeMoNunLS:  A.  D.  t2.'iH.|3U|. 

A.  D.  147].— Cooqueat  by  the  Ottoraan 
Turks.  »«•  TtTiEs  (The  ()tto»ia.\»)  A  I) 
1491-14^1 

A.  D.  ini.-Bspcditloa  of  the  Khan  to 
Moscow. —The  city  stormed  and  sacked.  See 
Krwu:  A.  D   I9«»-I571 

A,  O.  1735-1731.— Russian  invaaioas  and 
fruitless  conquests.  Sve  Hihsia:  A  I>  173.5- 
I7:t9 


A.  D.  1774.— The  khanate  declared  inde- 
pendent 01  th- ~^       •      -  ■    ■- 

r74 


•endtat  oftht  Portt.    St%TriiKi    A  I)   l7nH- 


A. p.  I776-I7«4.-Thc  process  of  acouiaitieo 
by   Ruasi*.— Pi4Ml    recognitioa   of   RhmIwi 


soTcrcinty  by  th*  Soltaa.    BeeTiniii:^] 
177^17¥8. 

A.  D.  1853.1t5s.-War  of  RnaaU  with  Tb 
key  aad  her  alUea.— Sierc  of  ScbaatopoL   Si 
Bcsau:  A.  D.  18««-18a4,  to  1884-1856 
o 

CRISIS  OP  il37,  The.  See  Uhtted  Stati 
OF  A¥. :  A.  D.  1^1887.  " 

CRISIS  OP  1857.  See  TaBirr  Uoisuno 
(UnrrED  Statbs):  A.  D.  1846-1861. 

CRISSA.— CrisaMta  or  Sacred  War  Se 
Dblpbi. 

CRITTENDEN  COMPROMISE,  Thi 
See  UmTSO  STATBSor  Am.  :  A.  D.  i860  (Dicxn 
BER). 

CROAT ANS,  The.  See  Amsrica:  A  D 
1587-1590. 

CROATIA :  Tta  Ceatory.- ScIaTonic  m 
cnpatioa  and  aettltmcat.  See  Balka.n  axi 
DAirtTBiAjf  StATia,  7th  Cbmttjrt  (Sxrvu 
Croatia,  Boawu,  rrc.) 

A.  D.  tioa.— Stttjectien  aad  aanexatioa  ti 
Hnncary.    See  Huhoart:  A.  D.  973-1114 

A.  O.  i<76.— Traasfsrred  to  the  Dukt  0 
Styria — Military  coloaisatioa.  SeeUraaAXT 
A.  D.  1587-1801 

CROIA,  Turkish  maaaacre  at.  SeeORxirx 
A.  D,  l«4-147l>. 

CROMLECHS.  — Rude  stone  monumenu 
found  in  many  pans  of  the  British  IsUml* 
France,  and  elsewhere,  usuallr  formed  bv  tlirw 
or  more  huge,  rough,  upright  stones.  Wlia  1 
still  Urger  stone  lying  flatly  upon  them.  In 
France  these  are  calltd  Dolmens,  Tiny  were 
formerly  thought  to  be  "  Druids  nltan, "  to  wUich 
notion  they  owe  the  name  Cronilutlii :  Imt  it  ii 
now  very  generally  concluded  by  iircliitoldpsu 
that  they  were  constructed  for  Imrial  iIiaiuIkr. 
and  tlmt  originally,  iu  most  cases,  ihiv  vm 
covered  with  mounds  of  earth,  fonnhiK  '''<^  "f'l 
known  barrows,  or  grave  mounds,  ur  tumuli  - 
L.  Jcwett,  Orat*  JImndi. 

Also  in:  T.  Wright,  T^e  Celt,  tlu.  liMn<inmd 
th4  Saxon. — Sir  J.  Lubbock,  I'rehutoric  Tina. 
eh.  5— See,  also,  AMORrrsa 

CROMPTON'S  MULE,  The  inveotioa  of. 
See  Cotton  MANCFACTUREa 

CROMWELL,  Oliver.— Campaigns  ssil 
Protectorate.  See  Enoi,anu:  K  I)  11144  u 
16.'>8-lfl«0:  and  Ireland:  A.  D.  ltl4U-Iir.ii 

CROMWELL,  Thomaa,  aad  the  supprts- 
aion  of  the  Monasteries.  Sec  Knoi.v.m>  .\  Ii 
1535-1989. 

CROMWELLIAN  SETTLEMENT  OF 
IRELAND.     HeelHELANIi    \    U   Km;) 

CROMWELL'S  IRONSIDES.  S^t  Eiia- 
i.ask:  a    1)    1648  (Mat). 

CROSS,  The  "True."— Its  capture  by  tht 
Perslaaa  aad  rscoreiy  by  Heraclius.  !^ 
KoMR:  A.  D  869-628;  anil  Jerisaueh:  K.  D 
615 

CROSS  KEYS,  Battle  of.  t«<<t'  Ixrrtn 
.SiATtis  or  Am,  :  A  D,  1869  (Mat-Jisk   Vis 

(IISIA) 

CROTON.-KROTON.    See  Stbakio 
CROTONA,  Battle   of  (A.  D.  983).    Sw 

lTALT(S<>ITnRRN):   A    D,  800-1016 

CROWN,  The  irea.  See  LoMHiaor,  Tn 
iRiijf  Crown  or. 

CROWN  OF  INDIA,  The  Order  of  Iks- 
An  order,  for  women,  instltutr<l  lijr  (jureo  Vic- 
toria In  1870. 


C48 


--^ 


CROWN  POINT. 


CRUSADES,  Vm. 


CROWN  POINT|:  A.  D.  im.— Fort  bnUt 
brth*  Frmcb.  See  Cuhadjl  (New  Fbaxck): 
I  D.  1700-17M. 

A.  D.  1755.— Ea|li*h  Expedition  m«ui»t. 
gee  Cahasa  (Nbw  Fbaxce):  A.  D.  17SS  (Sep- 

TIMBU). 

A.  D.  1759. — Abandoned  to  the  EncUtli  by 
the  FrcncB.    See  Cakada  (New  Fbahce)  :  A.  D. 

1759  (JULT— ACOOTT). 

A.  D.  1775' — Sorprise  and  capture  by  the 
Americaaa.  See  UnrrEo  States  or  Am.  :  A.  D. 
1775  (Mat). 

CROWS,  OR  UPSAROKAS,  The.     See 
AVERICAH  Aborioimbs:  Siodan  Pamilt. 
CRUITHNICH.— CRUITHNIANS.-The 

Irish  name  of  the  Plcti  and  Scot*  of  ancient  Ire- 
UnJ  and  Scotland.    See  Scotland:  Tm  Picn 

CRUSADES:    Causes    and    introductory 

c*(ott.— "  Lilce  all  the  great  movements  uf  man- 
kind, the  Crusades  must  be  tracinl  to  the  coiuci. 
di'Dce  >if  many  causes  which  inlluencetl  men  of 
Tiriuud  nations  and  discordant  feelinga,  at  the 
lanii'  pvTiitd  of  time,  to  pursue  one  common  enil 
with  their  whole  heart.  Religious  zeal,  the 
fashion  of  pilgrimages,  the  spirit  of  social  de- 
Telopment,  the  energies  that  lead  to  colonisation 
or  r<mi|m-!it,  and  commercial  rvlationit.  only  lately 
eitcndcd  so  widely  as  to  tntlucnce  public  opinion, 
all  sudilculy  received  a  deep  wound.  Ever}- 
class  i>f  ixK'iety  felt  injured  and  iusull«<l,  and 
unity  of  ni'tiou  was  cn'al«il  as  if  by  a  divine  im- 
piilst'  The  movement  was  fucilltatcd  by  tlie 
rinunistuurc  that  Europe  Iwgan  to  adopt  habits 
of  onltr  just  at  the  time  when  Asia  was  thrown 
inio  a  state  of  anarchy  by  the  invasions  of  th» 
hiljouk  Turlia.  Oreat  numlM-rs  of  pilgrinn  huil 
aln.HVS  piuiMHl  tlirough  the  Ryzantine  empire  to 
visit  the  holy  phices  in  I'alestiue.  We  still  pos. 
sewi  an  itinerary  of  the  road  from  Bonleaux  to 
Jerusalem,  bv  the  way  of  Constantinople,  written 
in  the  fourtii  centurv  for  the  use  of  iiil^rims. 
Tliouirh  tlie  disturbed  and  inipoverislinl  stjite  of 
Kiiropi'.  after  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire, 
(liiniiii«heil  the  number  of  pilgrims,  still,  iven  in 
timi'sof  the  greatest  anarcliv.  ninny  passed  an- 
mislly  through  the  Eastt-rn  finipire  to  Palestine. 
Till' iinpniveiiient  which  liawned  on  the  western 
nations  during  the  eleventh  century,  and  the 
aucim  iiti'il  I'limmerce  of  the  Ilalluns,°gave  aiidi- 
li"i;al  iiii|n>rlance  to  the  pilgrimage  to  the  East 
AImui  the  year  lIHVl.  during  the  reign  of  Con. 
»t.intiiii'  X  ,  an  army  or  camvan  cif  siven  thou- 
K\ii\  pil.-riiiispasm'd  through Conslnntinople.  led 
I'v  tlie  .Vri  hbishop  of  Mentr.  and  four  bi«hops 
I'lii  y  made  their  way  through  Asia  Minor.  «  hlih 
WIS  tliei  under  the  Ilyzantlne  goveriiineni ;  but 
in  till'  iiilghtkiurhood  of  Jerusalem  tho\  were  »l 
tiukul  hy  the  liedouina,  olid  only  siivcit  fMm 
ilr-iniition  by  the  Saraivn  emir  of  Idindit,  wli.i 
li««!.  iml  to  their  assistance.  Thes.^  pilgrims  an- 
^pirl..i  I.,  'lave  lost  3.(KM)  of  their  nunilH-r. 
without  tielng  able  to  visit  either  the  Jonlan  or 
III..  Iiriel  Sea  The  Invasions  of  the  Seljouks 
l*r  Tt  ims  (The  ^*KUn•K»):  A.  D  1073- liKh!] 
in.  n  ;iwi|  the  disorders  in  Palestine  In  the 

tiar  loTU  tlie  Seljoult  Turks  look  |)os«.-ssh>ii  of  I 
JiTiiwli  111.  and  immediately  commenoHl  lianiss  \ 
Ici-  the  pilgrims  with  unheanl-of  esaotiotis  Tho  j 
.~r.ra,^ir.i  U*i\  la  gnterHl  vieHwI  tilt-  iMigrinis  w  iiii  [ 
hv.'ur,  as  men  engaged  in  fuiniling  a  pious 
duty,  or  pursuing  lawful  fain  with  pralsewurthy  { 


industry,  and  they  had  leried  only  a  reasonable 
toll  on  the  pil^ritns,  and  a  moderate  duty  on 
their  merchandise;  while  in  consideration  of 
these  imposu,  they  had  established  guards  to 


protect  them  on  the  roads  by  which  they  ap- 

ly  places.    The  Turks,  on  the 

contrary,  acting  like  mere  nomads,  uncertain  of 


proached  the  holy  places. 


retaining  possession  of  the  city,  thought  only  of 
gratifying  their  avarice.  They  plundered  the 
rich  pilgrims,  and  insulted  the  poor.  The  relig- 
ious feelings  of  the  Christians  were  irritated, 
and  their  commerce  ruined;  a  crv  for  vengeance 
arose  throughout  all  Europe,  and  men's  minds 
were  fully  prepared  for  an  attempt  to  conquer 
Palestine,  when  Peu-r  the  Hermit  liegan  to 
preach  that  it  was  a  sacred  duty  to  deliver  the 
tomb  of  Christ  from  the  hands  of  the  Infidels." 
—  O.  Finlay,  Hut  of  the  Bytantint  arid  Orttk 
Emjnrei,  bk.  8,  ch.  2,  ttt.  1. 

A.  D.  1094.— The  Council  of  Clermont.— 
Pope  I'rlian  II.,  one  of  two  rival  pontiffs  then 
contending  for  recognition  by  the  Church,  en- 
tered with  great  eagerness  into  the  movement 
stirred  by  Peter  the  Hermit,  and  gave  It  a 
powerful  impulse  through  his  support,  while 
obtaining  for  himself,  at  the  snn,.-  time,  a  de- 
cisive advantage  over  his  competitor,  by  the 
popularity  of  the  agitation.  A  gnat  Council 
was  c<mvcned  at  Ilneenza,  A.  U.  l(Ht4.  and  a 
s<'Cond  at  Clermont,  in  the  aiitiiinn  of  tlie  same 
year,  to  deliberate  ujion  the  action  to  be  taken. 
The  city  of  Clermont  could  not  contain  the  vast 
multitude  of  bishops,  clergy  and  laity  which 
ossomliled,  and  an  army  of  liiany  thousands  was 
tented  in  the  summndlng  eounti-y.  To  that  ex- 
cited congregation,  at  a  meeting  in  the  gnat 
sijuare  of  Clermont,  Poih'  Urban  addressiil  a 
speech  which  is  one  of  the  notable  uttemiices  of 
history.  "He  lugan  by  detailing  tlie  mi8«'ries 
eiidund  by  their  bretlifen  in  tlie  Ilolv  Land; 
how  the  plains  of  Palestine  were  desoWnl  by 
the  outnigeous  heathen,  who  with  the  sword 
and  the  tln-bnuid  carried  wailing  into  the  dwel- 
ling's and  Haines  Into  the  possessions  of  tlie 
faithful;  how  Christian  wives  and  daughters 
Were  deflU'd  by  pagan  lust;  how  the  altars  of 
the  true  GihI  wen'  ileseeratiil.  ami  the  relics  of 
the  saints  trmM.  11  iiudi  r  f.N)t.  •  You,'  continued 
the  eliM|uent  p..iiliir  land  I'rban  11.  was  one  of 
tile  ni.«t  elo.iiiciit  iiii'ii  of  the  ilayl.  voii.  who 
hear  me.  and  who  have  neiived  the  true  faith, 
and  Imoii  endowed  by  iJ.hl  with  power  and 
stn-iigtii.  and  gn-atin-ss  of  .soul. —  whom-  uiires- 
tors  have  Ihiii  the  prop  of  Christendom,  and 
wli.w  kings  li.ivo  put  a  barriir  ai,'ain..it  the  prog- 
ress of  the  iiitiili  I. —  I  rail  upon  you  t..  wipe  otT 
these  linpiiritii  -,  fn>ni  tlie  face  of  the  earth,  and 
lift  your  oppnsv.l  fi  How Christiana  fmm  the 
depths  into  wliiili  liny  have  laen  tmiiipled.' 
The  warmth  of  tlie  pontilT  eoniniunleated 
ilHi'lf  to  the  crowil.  and  the  inthusiasni  of  the 
peiiple  lir.ike  out  sivi  ml  limes  ere  he  concluded 
Ills  iiddns"  lie  went  on  to  portray,  not  only 
the  spiritual  but  tlii'  tein|<iinil  advaiitagea  that 
would  ai  1  rue  to  tliosc  who  tisik  up  amis  in  the 
»4'rviii.  lit  the  eni«<  P.ilestine  was.  he  siii.i.  a 
Inii.l  ll.iwing  with  milk  and  honey,  ami  pniLuis 
in  the  sight  of  0«d,  as  the  ^lene  of  the  grand 
events  whiili  luid  saved  mankind.  That  laud, 
Ih'  pmnilsed.  should  \»-  divldeil  ainouv  them. 
Mon-..nr,  liiej  slinulii  have  t'liii  panloii  lor  ail 
their  offences,  eitlier  against  O.nI  or  man.  '(io, 
then,'  he  added.  '  in  expiation  of  your  slus;  and 


04  <J 


/;h 


CRVBADES,  1O04. 


Ptttr 
th*  BTmft. 


CRU8ADI8.  lOte-lON. 


go  Mnucd,  that  after  thii  world  ihall  have 
PMMrt  awar,  Imperithable  glory  shall  be  youn 
m  the  woiid  which  it  to  come. '  The  enthuiiann 
waa  no  longer  to  be  reetrained,  and  loud  ihouta 
fattemipted  the  speaker;  the  people  exclaiming 
a*  if  with  one  voice,  'Dieu  le  veult!  DIeu  le 
Teult*' .  .  .  The  newi  of  this  council  spread  to 
the  remotest  parts  of  Europe  in  an  incredibly 
short  space  of  time.  Long  before  the  fleetest 
horseman  could  have  brought  the  intelligence.  It 
was  known  by  the  people  in  distant  proTtnces ;  a 
fact  which  was  considered  as  nothing  less  than 
supernatural.  But  the  subject  was  in  every- 
body's mouth,  and  the  minds  of  men  were  pre- 
pared for  the  result.  The  enthusiastic  mere'y 
asserted  what  they  wished,  »iiil  llie  event  tallied 
with  their  prediction.  "—C.  Mackay,  Mtmtnrtvf 
Extraordinary  Popular  Dtluttont;  Th*  Crumda, 
(e.  3). 

Also  IN:  H.  H.  Mllman,  Ilitt.  nf  Latin  Chrit- 
tianity^  bk,  7,  ch.  A. 

A.  D.  1094-1095. — Peter  the  Hermit  and  his 
appt  ' — "About  twenty  veHni  after  the    •    11- 

aueat  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Turks,  the  holy  sepul- 
Ire  was  visited  by  an" hermit  of  the  name  of  Peter, 
a  native  of  Amiens,  in  the  province  of  Pieanly 
!->  Franre.  His  resentment  and  sympathy  were 
v'XCittHi  by  his  own  Injuries,  and  the  oppression 
of  the  CbVistiiin  nnine :  he  mingled  his  tears  with 
those  nf  the  pHtriiinh,  and  earnestly  imiuirt-il.  if 
no  hopes  of  relief  oould  he  entertjilmtl  from  the 
Greek  einpen)r8  of  the  Ea.*t.  The  patriarch  e.x- 
pose<l  the  vices  and  weakness  nf  the  siircessors 
of  Constantine.  'I  will  muse,"  exrlnimeil  the 
hermit,  the  martial  natlnns  nf  Eumpe  in  rour 
cause ; '  ami  Europe  was  oliedient  to  the  call  of 
the  hermit.  The  astonlsheii  patriarch  dismisseii 
him  with  epistles  nf  cnillt  and  eninplaint,  and 
no  s<H>ner  did  he  land  at  Il<irl.  than  i'eter  has- 
teiieil  t(i  kiss  the  feel  nf  the  Knman  jinntiff.  His 
Btiittip'  wnssniiill.  Ills  appenninee  ccinlemptilple; 
but  Ills  eye  was  keen  iiinl  lively,  anil  he  inm- 
sessiil  timt  veliemenee  nf  »|Heeh  whieli  seli|nn> 
fails  tn  Impart  the  (Hrsuaslnn  nf  the  sniil.  He 
was  Isirn  nf  a  );intlenians  family  ifnr  we  must 
now  ailnpt  a  niiMlern  lilinnil.  and  his  niilitarr 
BC'rviee  was  under  the  neii;lilHMirin>r  eniints  tif 
linuln^riie,  the  heroes  nf  the  ttrit  erusiide.  In- 
vignrated  liy  the  apprnluitinn  nf  the  |HmtifT.  tills 
Zealnus  mlsslnnary  tnivenM^I,  witli  xiMid  and 
sueeess.  the  prnvinees  nf  Italy  and  Frame.  Ills 
diet  was  absteniiniis,  his  prayers  Inni^  and  fer- 
vent, and  the  alms  whli  h  he  received  with  nne 
hand,  he  distrilnited  with  the  other,  his  liead 
was  liari'.  his  feit  nakiil.  hi*  meHnre  Isxly  was 
wrapt  In  a  enarsr  Karnient :  he  Tinri'  and  dl« 
i)!iiyic|  n  weiithly  <riieillx;  and  the  ass  on  wliii  li 
lie  rn.|i- was  sani'IIHe<l  ill  the  iniMie  eve  liy  the 
s<  r\iii' nf  the  man  nf  ()i»|  lie  pn'iielied  in  in- 
niiinenilile  emwds  lu  the  elnm  lies,  the  «tnil«. 
and  the  hinhways  When   he   palhtil  the 

Siiireriiii;s  nf  the  native*  anil  pllirrinis  nf  Pales- 
tine, t  very  heart  was  melted  tn  l'<impasslnn ; 
every  lin-H«l  ulnwcil  with  liidiitnatlnii,  when  he 
challeiiceil  the  wnrrinrs  nf  thi-  a^r  tn  defend 
their  lirethn^n  and  nseiie  their  !*avliiiir:  his 
i^nnrance  nf  art  and  langiiaKe  was  enm|N'nsutis| 
by  sIkIis  and  tears,  and  ejiu  ulallniis;  and  I'eter 
stipprieil  the  defleleuer  nf  nasim  hy  Intid  and 
freipient  appeals  tn  (  hrist  and  hia'Mother.  tn 
Uie  NiiiiU  and  HiiMels  )»f  imraiiine,  isiih  wiioni  iie 
bad  (>era«nallr  rnnversed  The  ninst  |Hrfei  t 
orator  uf  Atluuia  luight  have  envied  the  lucceaa 


of  hi*  eloquence;  the  rustic  enthusiast  inipin 
the  passions  which  he  felt,  and  Christendom  ei 
pectcd  with  tmpatieooe  the  oouosels  and  decree 
of  the  supreme  pontiff."— £.  Oibbon,  Decline  an, 
FcM  of  th*  Raman  Empir*,  eh.  08. 

Also  IK:  J.  C.  Robertson,  IStt.  of  the  Chritliai 
Churth,  bk.  6,  eh.  4  (v.  4). 

A.  D.  1096-1099.—  The  First  Great  More 
mcnt. —  The  first  army  of  Crusaderti  to  §tt  ou 
on  the  long  march  to  Jerusalem  was  a  mob  0 
men,  women  and  children  which  had  no 
patience  to  wait  for  the  organized  movemeoto 
the  military  leaders.  They  gathered  in  v«j 
numbers  on  the  banks  of  the  Moselle  and  thi 
Meuse,  in  the  spring  of  1096,  with  Peter  thi 
Hermit  for  their  chosen  chief.  There  were  nim 
knights,  only,  in  the  swarm,  and  but  few  win 
had  horses  to  ride,  or  efficient  arms  to  bear.  0 
provisions  to  feed  upon.  Knowing  nothing 
and  therefore  fearing  nothing,  they  marchii 
away,  through  France,  Germany,  Hungary  m 
beyond,  begging  food  where  they  cotilil  am 
■ubsiating  by  pillage  when  it  neoleil.  A  linigli 
called  Walter  the  Penniless  led  the  van,  am 
Peter  followed,  with  his  second  division,  liv  1 
somewhat  dilTerent  route.  Wa'ter  escapetl  ieri 
ou»  trouble  until  he  reached  t'\c  country  of  tin 
savage  Bulgarians.  Peter's  nseless  niob  pm 
yoked  the  just  wrath  of  il.e  Hungarians  In 
stiirniing  the  small  city  of  Semlin  ami  sluyini 
4.(i<s)  of  its  inhaldtanta.  The  route  of  lic.ili  »ai 
lined  with  the  bones  of  thoiisamls  who  p<  ri»hN 
of  hunger,  of  exposure,  of  disease,  and  tiy  ihi 
swords  of  Hungarians  and  Bulgarians  .v'thin! 
ami  a  fourth  host  of  like  kind  fnllnwiii  in  llirii 
wake,  led  by  a  monk,  Gotschalk.  a  nrii  st  niin'.ni 
Volkmsr,  and  a  Count  Emieon.  'rlicse  ttiT.r 
ized  even  more  all  the  countries  thmugli  whiili 
they  pawHHl, — especially  where  Jews  win  i. 
be  hunt<'<t  and  killed. —  and  »en>  ilesinivil  ir 
Hungary  to  almost  tlic  last  man.  I'lit'r  !itil 
Walter  reached  Cnnstantlnnple  with  IiHiumf,.! 
Inwers,  It  is  said,  even  vet,  after  all  «li"  I™1 
fallen  by  the  way.  Still  nfiisliig  tn  wiiii  11 
the  lielter  appolntetl  expeditiniis  tli.it  «rn-  ic 
progress,  and  still  appalling  eastern  ('liri>t>'n 
dnm  liy  tlnlr  lawless  barharille».  tliev  |in»M'i 
Intn  Asia  Minor,  and  their  mlsiralile  earn rsi*  11 
eaine  to  an  end.  Attacking  the  Turks  in  tli( 
city  of  Nleiea, —  which  had  Is'innie  tlic  capital 
nf'the  Seljouk  sultan  nf  Hoiini.— tluy  vm 
beaten,  muted,  srattered,  slaUL'hterid.  uniil 
liandv  8.000  nf  the  great  ho-'  iped  (i| 
the  llrst  Cnisailers,"  says  Uihi  am.iKH)  hi.l 

alnady  perished  befnri' a  single  city  »:nri"minl 
frnni  tlie  InHdels, —  la'fnre  their  gnivir  nnd  iiirr 
nnlde  bn'thren  had  cnmpleted  tin'  pn|'iM!i":n 
nf  their  enter|)rise"  Meantime  the  kiiii:lil«an.l 
princes  nf  the  crusade  hai,  gatlieri.l  ili>  ir  arniici 
and  Wen-  nnw  (in  the  suininernf  imal'  1*  k'iimini; 
In  mnve  eastwaril,  by  dilTi'rent  ^lul■•«  N.tinf 
nf  the  gwater  sovereigns  nf  Kiini|M  Imd  1  iili«tnl 
In  the  iinderiaklng.  The  ihlefs  nf  nne  »rm« 
ment  were  Oislfrey  de  tUmiliin,  diik.'  of  tbf 
l^iwer  birrnlne,  or  Brabant ;  hii  bpihirs. 
Eii>tac(>,  count  nf  Ikiulogne,  and  llaldwin  hi) 
cnusin,  Baldwin  de  Ihmrg,  with  Baldwin,  omnl 
nf  Halnaut,  Ihiilon  de  Cnnlx,  and  nihir  knlfbu 
eilebrated  In  the  "Jerusalem  IKdlvenil  '  "( 
Tasso  This  expeditinn  followed  nesrljr  tb« 
Piilir  nf  I'l  iir   (he     lieriilli,    ilirmmii    iiUniiTT 

and  Bulgaria,  giving  hostages  fnr  iu  imlrri; 
iniiduitaud  wUwtngthe  guud-willnf  tliosrcoua 


f.r,n 


CBIT8ADE8,  1000-lOM. 


JtnuaUm 
DtUvtnd. 


CRUSADES,  1101-1101. 


Iriti,  even  mmddened  u  they  wen  by  the  fore- 
•oiiig  mobt.    Another   larger   following   from 
fnaet  wu  led  by  Hugh,  count  of  Vermandoii, 
brother  of  the  king  of  Fiimce ;  Robert,  duke  of 
Konnandy,  eldect  ion  of  William  the  Conqueror; 
^pben,  coiut  of  Bloii,  the  Conqueror's  lon-in- 
hw,  and  Robert,  count  of  Flanders.    These  took 
the  road  into  Italy,  and  to  Bari,  whence,  after 
■pending   the   winter,    waiting   for    favorable 
weather,  they   were   transported   by    ships  to 
Greece,  and  pursued  their  march  to  Constanti- 
nople.    They  were  followed  by  a  contingent 
from  touthem  Italy,  under  Bobemond,  the  Nor- 
nun  prince  of  Tarentum,  son  of  Robert  Ouiscard, 
■nd  bis  knightly    cousin,   Tancred.    A  fourth 
amy,  gathered  in  southern  France  by  count 
Raymond  of  Toulouse  ami  Bishop  Adhemer,  the 
tppointed  legate  and  represenutlve  of  the  pope, 
chose  still  another  route,   through  Lombardy, 
Dslmatia  and    Macedoiii:!.    into   Thrace.      On 
patting  through  the  terriiuries  of  the  Byzantine 
•mperor  (Alexius  I.),  all  the  crusaders  experi- 
tnnd  bis  distrust,  his  duplicity,  and  his  cau- 
tious ill-will  —  which,  undiT  the  circumstances 
*cre  natunil  enough.     Alexius  managed  so  well 
tbst  be  extorted  iron  each  of  the  princes  an 
tcknowledgment  nf  his  rights  of  soTereignty 
OTer  the  region  of  their  expected  conquests,  with 
u  oath  of  fealty  and  homa/fe,  anil  lie  pushed 
them  across  the  Bospliorus  so  adroitly  that  no 
two  had  the  opportunity  to  unite  their  forces 
under  the  walls  of  Constantinople.     Their  tirst 
undertaking  in  Asia  [May  and  June,  A.  D.  109*] 
wt8  the  sic'^e  of  Nicica.  and  they  brieaguen-d  it 
with  an  army  which  UililK)n   Im'IIi'Vcs  to   have 
b«n  never  exceeded  within  the  compass  of  a 
■ingle  rump.     Here,  again,  they  were  mastered 
by  thecimning  diplomacy  of  the  Greek  enii>er(ir. 
Wh<n  the  aultan  of  Roiim  yielded  his  capital, 
be  wa»  |iirsu«de<l  to  surrender  It  to  Alexius,  ami 
the  iniiHriiil  lianner  pnitectetl  It  from  the  rage  of 
the  Jiiuoinrtled  crusaders.     But  they  revungeti 
Ihrniwlvts (>u  the  Turk  at  Dorylietiui.  where  he 
ittafkcil  tliim  during  their  auliwquent  miircli. 
ud  wlun'  he  sufTertHl  a  defeat  which  cmli'd  all 
Sghtin).'  in  .\-iia   Minor     Baldwin,   limtluT   of 
Ondfri'v.   now   iniprovnl    his  opiKirtuiiilits  by 
itralinc  awny  from  the  iirniy,  witliii  fi»  Imu- 
dml  knik'hls  and  men,  to  make  roni|ii.    <>    n  his 
ownaiTount^  with  such  suiiiss  that  ,      ,    m  tlie 
fitynf  Eili'ssa,  with  a  sweep  uf  coHutry  mound  It. 
u»l  fimndiil  a  iirincipality  which  nultaiMi  .1  f<.r 
hsif  a  milury.     The  nut  fared  on.  nmiiiijj  no 
oprxwlidM  fnifn  infidel  swi.nls,  but  nickcniuK'  and 
dTlni;  liy  IlKiimands,  fnm.  heat  and  fmm  want 
of  ««iir  and  fmnl.  until  iliey  came  to  .\ntiocli. 
Thiw,  llir  Turkinh   emir  In  commaml.  with  n 
•tout  trarrlxm  of  honie  niid  fiml,  had  pripariil 
forsjiiililKirn  defencr.  anil  he  liilil  the  iH'xiitfvrs 
SI  bay  (  T  «ven  immtlis,  while  thev  Rtarvrd  In 
thfir  ill  Kupiilieil  cnnipM      The  citv    was  diliv- 
mdlolliini  liy  a  tmltur.  at  Irugtii.  hut  prince 
Biilii'mnnil  ihc  <r«fty  Nonnan.  seciircd  the  liene- 
8t<if  the  truiwintii  liiuiself,  and  fiirced  hiscciin- 
P«IH"!s  to  (DUittle  til  liini  the  siivcniitntv  uf 
.intiiH-h.     The  »ulTeriiig«  uf  the  criisnilera' did 
not  (nd   with   the  takiiiv   of  the  citv        They 
b^'ll)tlll  faniine  anil  iH-stilenre  upon  tliienisel  vi"s 
upw  liy  their  greedy  and  sensual  tniiulgence, 
lad  Ihry   were  soon  under  siege  In  their  own 
:=.„,  :,y  li  ^reat   army    which   the   Turks   iiiui 
l«'U)tlit  aitsinst   them.      Death    and    deserHi.n 
•fff  in  fl»«lry  to  thin  tbeir  wMted  ranks     The 


■urrlTora  ■wen  in  gloom  and  detpair,  when  u 
opportune  miimcle  occurred  to  excite  them 
ureah.  A  lance,  which  viaiona  and  apparition* 
Mitifled  to  be  the  rery  spear  that  pierced  the 
Redeemer'!  aide,  was  found  burled  in  a  church 
at  Antioch.  Under  the  atimulut  of  this  amaz- 
ing discovery  they  saUied  from  the  town  and 
dispersed  the  great  army  of  the  Turks  in  utter 
rout.  Still  the  quarrels  of  the  leaden  went  oo, 
and  ten  months  more  were  consumed  before  the 
remains  of  the  Latin  army  advanced  to  Jerui»- 
'«•"•„  I'  was  June,  A.  D.  lOW,  when  they  saw 
the  Holy  City  and  assailed  its  formidable  walla. 
Their  number  was  now  reduced  to  40,000,  but 
their  devotion  and  their  ardor  rose  to  freniy,  and 
after  a  siege  of  little  more  than  a  month  they 
forced  an  entrance  by  storm.  Then  they  spared 
neither  a«e  nor  sex  until  they  had  killed  all  who 
denied  the  Savior  of  mankind  —  the  Prince  of 
Peace.— E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fail  of  the 
Rmaan  Empire,  eh.  68. 

Also  in:  J.  F.  MIchaud,  Hiet.  oftht  Cntmdee 
Mr.  1.— W.  Besant  and  E.  H.  Palmer,  JenitnUm, 
th.  6.— C.  Mills,  //»»(.  of  the  Cnuada,  eh.  8-8. 
—  See.  also,  Jercbalem:  A.  D.  1089 

A.  D.  I0M-Ii44.-The  Latin  conauetta  in 
the  eaat.— The  Kingdom  of  Jcni*<Uem.  .See 
Jercsaleu:  a.  I).  1(199-1144. 

A.  D.   II0I-II03.— The  aiter-waTc  of  the 
firat  mowement. — "The  tales  of  victory  brought 
home  by  tlie  pilgrims  excited  the  most  extrava- 
gant expectations  In  the  minds  of  their  auditors, 
and   nothing   was  deemed  capable  of  resisting 
EiiroiH'au  valour.     The  fxiix'  called  uponall  who 
had  taken  the  cross  to  perform  their  vow,  the 
em[H'riir  Henry  IV.  had   the  crusade  prearheil. 
In  iiriler  to  gain  favour  with  the  clergy  and  laity. 
Many  primes  now  resolved  to  visit  in" person  the 
new  empire'  foumlcd  In  the  East.     Three  great 
armies  iis-sembleil :    the  first  in  Italy  under  the 
arclil.i«liiip  i.f  Milan,    and    tlie  two  counts  of 
Hlamlnite;  the  second  in  France  under  Hujtli  tlio 
(Jreat  and  Stephen  of  Blois  [who  had  deserted 
their  commdes  of  the  first  exiHHlitiim  at  Aiiliiu  h, 
and]  whom  shanu'and  remorse  urged  to  perform 
their  vow,  William,  duke  of  Ouienni-  and  count 
of    Poitou,    who    mortgaged    his    territory    to 
William    Uufus  of   England   to  nroeiire  funds, 
the  count  of  Nevers,  the  duke  of  Hiircimilv.  the 
bishops  of  Laon  and  Soissons;  the  thinl  in  (Jer- 
niany.  luiiler  tlie  bishop  of  Sall/lmrg.  the  atied 
duke  Welf  of  Bavaria.  Conruil  ilie  niusti  r  of  Hie 
horse  to  the  emperor,   and  many  oilier   knights 
and  nobles.     Mu  also,  ilie  margravine  of  .tnstria, 
ileclariil   her   resolution   to   share  the  toils  and 
iliuiirers  of  the  way.  ami  pay  her  vows  ai  the 
to,.,li  of  Christ       Vast  numbers  of  women  of  all 
ranks  aecom|ianle<l  all   these   armies,  — nav,    In 
that  of  the  iliike  of  Ouienne.  »  ho  was  inferior  to 
none  In  valour,  but  united  to  it  the  qualities  of  a 
troubiuloiir  and  glet  man.  there  apwared  whole 
t^^lps  of  young  women.     The  Italian  pilsrims 
Were  the  ftpit  to  arrive  at  Constantinople.     They 
set  out  early  in  the  aiiring,  and  took  their  way 
throu^'h    Carinlhia,    Hungary,    and     Bulgaria. 
Though  the  evcesws  commltiiil  by  them  were 
great,  the  emperor  gave  them  a  kind  recvplion, 
and  the   most  prudent  and  friendly  mlvlce   re 
«I>ectlng    llieir    future    progress.      While  they 
niHMie  at  Constantinople,  Conrad  and  the  cniint 
ot  iJlois,  snd  the  duke  of  Hurgimdy,  arrived, 
and  St    Whitsuntide  they  all  passed  over,   and 
en<-amptd  at  Nicouedia.       With  Ignorant  fatu- 


651 


CRUSADES,  UOl-1103. 


St.  Btmard't 
Pnachinii. 


CRUSADES,  1147-1149 


It/,  and  agaiiiit  all  cxperiencsd  adrice,  the  new 
Crusaders  reiolred  to  direct  their  march  to  Bag- 
dad and  to  overthrow  the  calipliate.  The  flnt 
body  which  adranced  wai  cut  to  pieces  by  the 
Turks  on  the  banks  of  the  Hslys,  and  only  a  few 
thousands,  out  of  more  than  one  hundred  thou- 
sand, are  said  to  have  made  their  escape  by  des- 
perate 8lght.  The  second  and  third  armies  were 
met  successively  by  the  victorious  Moslems, 
before  they  had  advanced  so  far,  and  were  even 
more  completely  annihilate<l.  The  latter  body 
contained,  according  to  the  clironiclurs  of  the 
time,  150,000  pilgrims,  of  whom  scarcely  one 
thousand  were  saved  from  slavery  or  ueatli 
The  men  fell  under  the  swonis  of  tlic  Turks ;  tlio 
women  and  girls,  in  great  numbers,  flnislit'd  out 
their  days  in  the  Iiarems  of  the  East.  Out  of 
the  wreck  of  the  three  vast  armaments  a  slcna,  ■ 
column  of  10,000  men  was  got  together  after 
some  weeks  at  Antiooh  and  led  to  Jenisnlem 
(A.  D.  1 103).  Most  of  these  perished  in  subse- 
quent battles,  and  very  few  ever  saw  Europe 
again.  "Sucliwitsthc  fruitless  termination  of 
this  second  griut  movement  of  the  West,  in 
which  perhaps  a  third  of  a  million  of  pilgrims 
left  their  homes,  never  to  revisit  them.  — T. 
Keightley,  The  Oumdtrt,  eh.  2. 

Also  is:  J.  F.  Michaud,  Iliit.  nf  tht  CnMnlct, 
bk.  4. 

A.  D.  It04-ltli.— Conquest  of  maritime 
cities  of  Syria  and  Palestine.— Destruction  of 
the  Library  of  Tripoli. — "  The  prosperity  iiud  the 
safety  of  Jerusalem  appeared  closely  connected 
with  the  conr{ucst  ot  the  mnritinie  cities  of  Syria 
and  Palestine:  it  Ix-ing  by  tlirm  nione  that 
it  could  receive  succour,  or  estiilillsh  prompt 
and  I'lisy  commuuirnlions  with  the  West  The 
maritime  nations  of  EurojM'  were  liitirrsti'd  in 
siroiiiling,  in  this  instance,  the  enterprims  of  the 
kinii  of  Jerusalem.  .  .  From  the  iwrioil  of  the 
first  crusades,  the  Pimns  and  the  (ttiiiH-sc  had 
constantly  sent  vessils  to  the  seas  of  the  East ; 
and  their  lleets  had  aided  the  Christians  in  several 
eipeilitioiis  u.i;aiiist  the  .Mussulmans  .\  ('  niH-se 
fl«t  had  ju.«t  arrived  in  the  seas  of  S<-  ,a  when 
"t  •:ildwin  undertook  the  siege  of  I'toleiimlis  ^.Ven-) 
file  Genoese  wen-  invited  to  assist  in  tins  con- 
quest: I  ut  as  religion  was  not  the  prinriple  to 
bring  tin m  into  action,  they  reiiulnil.  in  return 
for  their  iissistanee  and  llii'lr  labour,  that  they 
sliould  Inite  a  third  of  the  liooty  :  they  lilicwise 
stipulated  to  have  a  »<  parale  ehiinh  for  ilinn 
s<  Ives,  and  a  national  factory  and  triliunal  in  the 
eonijuereil  city.  ItolcmaVs "wasbesictfcil  liy  land 
ami  sea.  and  after  n  lilomly  nsist.inic'  of  tiventy 
d.iys,  the  iiihaliitants  and  the  gurrisiai  pMposell 
to'surrender,  ami  iniploreil  tlie  ilen\eri<y  nf  ||||, 
r  iniiueMrs.  The  elty  i)|M'ne<l  its  gates  to  tin- 
(hri.stians,  ami  the  ilihaliilnnts  pn'panii  to  dc 
part,  taking  with  them  whatever  they  deeineil 
most  valuable:  but  the  GeniH'se.  at  the  sl^'ht  of 
suili  riiii  Ixmty,  palci  no  respiK't  to  the  capitula- 
tion, and  iniusaered  without  pity  a  disarmed  and 
defiMd'less  people  In  conseiiueiiri'  of  tlds 

victory,  si'veral  places  which  the  KL'vptians  still 
hrlil  on  the  coasts  of  Syria  feil  into  the  lisnds  of 
the  Christians."  Amoiiir  thos<<  was  the  citv  of 
Tripoli.  •■  Itaymond.  Count  de  Si  Oilles  aiiii  of 
Thoulousc,  one  of  the  companions  of  (liHlfrey. 
aflir  having  wsndenil  for  a  Iohl'  time  aliotii 
AM.  ha>i  died  tn-folt-  Itiis  plix  c.  oF  nhiih  he  lind 
cumnience<l  tlir  siege.  In  inemorv  of  his  exploits 
In  the  Unit  crusade,  the  rich  territory  of  Tripoli 

652 


was  created  a  county,  and  became  the  inhrritance 
of  his  family.  This  territory  was  celebrateii  for 
its  productions.  .  .  .  A  library  estalilislicj  in  thii 
city,  and  celebrated  through  all  the  East,  con- 
tained the  monuments  of  the  ancient  literature  of 
the  PersUns,  the  Arabians,  the  Egyptians,  and 
the  Greelts.  A  hundred  copyists  were  there  con- 
stantly employed  in  transcribing  inaniiscripti. 
.  .  .  After  the  taking  of  the  city,  a  priest  at- 
tached to  Count  Bernard  de  St.  Oilles.  entered 
the  room  in  which  were  collected  a  vast  miinlKTof 
copies  of  the  Koran,  and  as  he  declared  tla-  lilimrr 
of  Tripoli  contained  only  the  impious  Inioks  of 
Mahomet,  it  was  given  up  to  the  flames 
Biblies,  situated  on  the  smiling  ami  fertile  shorei 
of  Phoenicia,  Sarepta,  where  St.  Jerome  saw  still 
in  his  day  the  tower  of  Isaiah:  ami  iitryius. 
farao  IS  in  the  early  days  of  the  elmreli  f.ir  iti 
school  of  eloquence,  shared  the  fate  of  Tripoli, 
and  became  baronies  bestowed  upou  (hristiao 
knights.  After  these  conquests,  tlie  Pisins.  tlie 
Genoese,  and  several  warriors  wlio  hail  f.illij\\iij 
Baldwin  in  his  expeditions,  returneil  into  Kumpe: 
and  the  king  of  Jerusalem,  abaminii'l  l>r  ihew 
useful  allies,  was  obliged  to  employ  the  fin^ 
which  remaineil  in  n^puising  the  invasi.iiis  .f  the 
Saracens." — J.  F.  Michaud,  Ilitl.  of  the  Cmudtt 
r.  1.  hk.  !i. 

A.  D.  1147-1149.— The  Second  Great  Mort- 
ment.— Duriu);  'lie  reign  of  Fiilk,  the  f.iurtii 
ki''  -  of  Jerusali  !^  the  Latin  power  in  Palestine 
at  1  iH'igliboriiiir  territories  Ix^-an  to  be  ix-ri- 
ousn  siiaken  by  a  vigorous  Turki>li  |irimt 
naii'i'd  Zenghi.  on  whom  the  sultiin  Mahmeud 
had  conferred  the  govomineiit  of  all  tli,  1  'UMrv 
west  of  the  Tigris.  It  was  the  lir-t  lini,'  >iri« 
the  coming  of  the  Cbristiaiis  .if  ih.  W.-t  tint 
the  wliole  stri'ugth  of  Islam  in  tb:il  rei-iuii  had 
iK-en  so  nearlv  gathered  into  oni'  -.trmiL'  liaiid,  to 
lie  us«(l  auralnst  them,  and  they  Mt  the  ellrd 
speedily,  lieiiig  tlieinsejves  weakene^l  by  mint 
iiuarrefs.  In  U4:i  Kiiiir  Fiilk  ilieil,  Uavin,:  ibc 
CMwn  to  a  voung  son,  IJalihvir  III  .—  a  Imy  of 
llilrtwn,  whose  mother  goverinil  in  hi>  lume 
The  next  year  Zentilii  eapturiil  lie  ini|i"rtant 
city  of  Edess.!,  ami  const irnat ion  \\:i-,  luclmiii 
by  his  suci'essi  s  Europe  was  lie  11  :i|i;ir:i!nl  to 
for  help  aura  '  i  the  advaiieiii:;  Turk,  uinl  the 
call  fnmi  .ji  alem  was  taken  up  by  m  ikr 
uaril  of  Clairvau.v.  th.'  irresistilile  I'niliii.iiut. 
whose  influenei'  aecompli^hed.  in  bi«  'ine  .  what- 
ever he  willed  to  have  done.  .Iii»l  li  I'l  .  mitury 
after  PeliT  the  Hermit.  St  liernanl  pniileilt 
Second  Crusade,  and  with  almost  ei|ii;il  iiTirt. 
notwitlislanilini:  the  Ixtti  r  knonlnl^i  n  iw  |»«- 
sessed  of  all  ibe  hardships  ami  piriis  n!  the 
expi'ditton.  This  time,  royalty  lo'.k  tl;e  iijii 
King  Conrad  of  Germany  eoiTirnanili'l  a  I'real 
army  from  that  eoiiniry.  ami  unotler  ImsI  ful- 
loweil  King  l.oiiis  VII'  from  Frame  lietli 
armies  nnmheil  down  the  Daniilu  i.i  (  Hiistanti- 
iiople,  in  the  sumimr  of  1147  .Vi  the -ame 
inoini  lit  King  linger  [of  Na|ih»|.  «itli  liii  ll'it. 
ntta1k.1l,  not  the  Turks,  Imt  tin  (;r..k  wi|"rt 
tinvin  of  llie  MoD-a  Manuel  ['le-  lly/a!;'inf 
emperor]  thereupon,  eonvineeil  tliii  ilie  lirirt 
annji-s  wen'  designed  f  ir  the  ili'Stnn  le  ri  el  hil 
empire  in  tlie  flrst  plaiv.  with  the  irii  ;i|e«i  1  jer 
tioiis.  got  together  Insips  frinn  iili  l.i-  pnoiiiert. 
and  intered  lutoa  half  alllaiiee  wilb  tin  Turku  of 
Asia  Minor.  Tile  lllistiiii-r  aiei  iii  t< .  i.i>^  i^a 
Increased  by  the  lawless  conduct  of  tie  liirtiiM 
hordes,  the  Greek  truups  attacked  tiuiii  mon 


CRUSADES,  1U7-1U9. 


Kidtard 
aeaintt  Saladin. 


CRUSADES,  nSS-llW. 


thu  oDce;  whereupon  Duin;roui  voices  were 
niied  in  V>uii'i  bexlqiurten  to  demand  open 
wir  tgiimt  the  faittueu  Greeks.  The  kings 
were  mlly  agreed  not  tv,  permit  this,  but  on 
uriTing  in  Constantinople  they  completely  fell 
nut,  for,  while  Louis  made  no  secret  of  his  warm 
friendship  for  Roger,  Conrad  promised  the 
Emperor  of  Constantinople  to  attack  the  Nor- 
mans as  soon  as  the  Crusade  should  be  ended. 
ThU  was  a  bad  beginning  for  a  united  campaign 
in  the  East,  and  moreover,  at  every  step  east- 
wani,  new  difficulties  arose.  The  Oerman  army, 
broken  up  into  several  detachments,  md  led 
without  ability  or  prudence,  wa«  attacked  in 
Asia  Minor  by  the  Emir  of  Iconium.  and  cut  to 
pieces,  all  but  a  few  hundred  men.  The  French, 
though  better  appointed,  also  suffered  severe 
kuKS  In  that  country,  but  contrived  nevertheless, 
to  reach  Antioch  with  a  very  considerable  force, 
and  from  thence  might  have  carried  the  project 
»liicli  the  second  Baldwin  had  conceived  in  v  -in, 
namely,  the  defence  of  the  northiastcru  frontier, 
upon  which,  especUlly  since  Zenki  [Zenghi]  had 
made  liis  appearance,  the  life  or  death  of  the 
Christian  states  depended.  But  in  vain  did 
Prince  itaymond  of  Antioch  try  to  prevail  upon 
King  Louis  to  take  this  view,  and  to  attack  with- 
out di'lay  the  most  formidable  of  all  iheir  aiiver- 
jaries.  Xoureddin  [son  of  Zenghi,  now  dead]. 
Louis  would  not  hear  or  do  anything  till  he  had 
tea  Jerusalem  and  praye<i  at  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre. ...  In  Jerusalem  he  [King  Louis]  was 
weloomi'ii  by  Queen  Meliaendc  (now  regent, 
during  !»'r  son's  minority,  after  Fulco's  death), 
vith  praise  and  gratitude,  because  he  liinl  not 
taken  part  in  the  distant  wars  of  the  Priuc-e  of 
Anilcich,  but  had  reserved  his  forces  for  the 
detincc  of  the  holy  city  of  Jerusalem.  It  was 
now  nsolved  to  lead  the  army  against  Daroasrus. 
Ihi'  cinly  Turkish  town  whose  Emir  had  always 
^fuaed  to  submit  to  either  Zenki  or  NoumlJin. 
Xer.^rthelcss  Noureddin  instantly  coUectt  1  all 
bis  available  forces,  to  succour  the  besieged 
town."  But  he  was  spared  further  exertii.ri  by 
the  ji;ilciu«  disagreement  of  the  Christians,  who 
lipinwi  to  take  thought  as  to  what  should  lie  done 
wiih  I)iiraa»cu»  when  they  took  it.  The  Syrian 
bamim  conclujed  that  they  woiiM  prefer  to  leave 
the  ritv  Id  Turki8li  lianils,  and  iiy  f  <chcrous 
manciiivres  they  forced  king  Louis  to  ,aise  the 
liejTt  "The  Oerman  king,  long  since  tired  of 
his  ixiwiTiess  position  rt'tumeif  home  in  the 
sutunin  of  1148,  and  L  i».  after  much  pressing. 
slaved  a  few  months  !•  r.  and  reached  Eun>po 
in  the  following  spr  he  whole  expe<iition 

hud  been  wn  ithout    honour   and 

without  ri'sult,  by  i  ,t  wretched  personal 

r»sinns.  and  the  most  nw  and  selllsli  poll(;y. '" 
-II  Von  .Sybel,  Uitl.  »  ,d  Literature  of  llu  Cru- 
«<(«.  ch.  "•  "So  ended  in  utter  ahame  and 
liiniimlny  the  Second  Crusade.  The  event 
SH-meil  to  give  the  lie  to  the  glowing  promises 
ami  pr..pliecles  of  8t.  Bernal^.  80  vast  hail 
been  the  ilnin  of  population  to  feed  this  holy 
var  that,  In  the  phrase  of  an  eye-witnem,  the 
cities  and  i-astles  were  empty,  and  scan-ely  one 
man  was  left  to  seven  women ,  and  now  It  was 
known  that  the  fathers,  the  Husbands,  tlie  sona. 
or  the  brothers  of  these  miserable  women  would 
see  '".eir  earthly  hnmea  no  more  The  crv  of 
Miuiah  charged  Bernard  with  the  crime  of 
•rmllng  them  forth  on  an  emnii  In  which  tliey 
"'  ' '  absolutely  nrthlBC  and  had  rcapeil  only 


kadUoi 


wretchedneai  and  disgrace.  For  a  time  Bernard 
himself  was  struck  dumb:  but  he  soon  remem- 
bered that  he  had  spoken  with  the  authority  of 
Ood  and  his  vicegerent,  and  that  the  guUt  or 
failure  must  lie  at  the  door  of  the  pilgrims.  "—O. 
W.  Cox,  The  Cnuadei.  eh.  6. 

A.  O.  1187.— Tht  lou  of  Jertualem.  See 
Jbbubalui:  a.  D.  lUi>-n8T. 

A.  D.  itS8- 119a. -The  Third  Great  Mort- 
ment. — When  tba  news  reached  Europe  that 
S'^ladin,  the  redoubtable  new  champion  of  Islam 
had  expelled  tne  ChristUns  and  thri  Cross  from 
Jerusalem,  polluting  once  more  the  precincts  of 
the  Hoij  Repulchre,  the  effect  produced  was 
something  not  easily  understood  at  the  present 
day.  If  we  may  believe  historians  of  the  time, 
the  pope  (Urban  III.)  died  of  grief;  "Christians 
frrgot  all  th?  ills  of  their  own  country  to  weep 
over  Jerusalem.  .  .  .  Luxury  was  banished  from 
cities;  injuries  were  forgotten  and  alms  were 
given  abundantly.  Christians  slept  upon  ashes, 
clothe<i  themselves  in  haircloth,  and  expiated 
their  disorderly  lives  by  fasting  and  mortiflca- 
'ion.  The  clergy  set  the  example ;  the  morals  01 
the  cloister  were  reformed,  and  cardinals,  con- 
demning themselves  to  poverty,  promised  to  re- 
pair to  the  Holy  Land,  supported  on  charity  by 
the  way.  These  [lious  reformations  did  noi  last 
long ,  but  men's  minds  were  not  the  less  prepared 
for  a  new  crusade  by  them,  and  all  Europe  was 
soon  roused  by  the  voice  of  Gregory  VIII.,  who 
exhorted  the  faithful  to  assume  the  cross  and 
take  up  arms.""— J.  F.  MIchaud,  Hitt.  of  the 
Crumiie;  it.  7.—""  The  empenir  Frederic  Barba- 
rossa  and  the  kings  of  France  and  England 
assumed  the  crosj :  and  the  tardy  magnitude  of 
their  armaments  was  anticipateii  by  the  maritime 
states  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  iKcan.  "The 
skilful  ai?d  provident  Italians  first  eri'uarke<l  in 
the  ships  of  Genoa,  Pisa,  and  Venice.  TUev 
were  speedily  followed  by  the  most  eager  pil- 

f;rim8  of  France,  Normandy  and  the  Western 
sles.  The  p  werful  si,ccour  of  Flanders,  Frise. 
and  Deuniarlt  Slled  near  a  hundred  vessils;  and 
the  northern  warriors  were  distinguished  in  the 
field  by  a  lofty  stature  and  a  ponderous  buttle- 
a.Te.  Their  increasing  multitudes  coulii  no  longer 
be  confined  within  the  walls  of  Tyre  [which  the 
Latins  still  held],  or  remain  olK'dlent  to  tlic  \oke 
of  Conrad  [Marquis  of  Montferrat.  who  had 
taken  command  of  the  place  and  repelled  the 
attacks  of  Saladin].  Thev  pitied  the  niisfortiiues 
and  revered  the  dignity  of  Luslgnan  [the  nominal 
king  of  Jerusalem,  lately  captive  in  Saladin's 
hands],  who  was  ndeased  from  pri.sou.  |MTliaps 
to  divide  the  amiv  of  the  Franks.  He  proposed 
111"  recovery  of  ftolemals,  or  Acre,  thirty  miles 
1 1  the  south  of  Tvre :  and  the  place  was  first  in- 
vesU-d  (July.  lis»]  by  iJ.tXM)  horse  and  80,000 
fiKit  under  his  nominal  command.  I  shall  not 
expatiate  on  the  story  of  this  memorable  siege, 
wl..  'istiil  neur  two  years,  and  consumed,  in  a 
narrow  space,  the  forces  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
.  .  At  the  «)iind  of  the  holj  trumpet  the 
Moslems  of  Egypt,  Syria.  Arabia,  and  the  Ori- 
ental provincx'S  asaembied  uniter  the  siTvant  of 
the  prophet:  his  camp  was  pitche<t  and  removed 
within  a  few  miles  of  Acre:  and  be  lalxmred, 
night  ami  day,  for  the  relief  of  his  brethren  and 
the  annoyance  of  the  Pranks.  .  .  In  the  sprine 
of  the  B<'Cond  year,  the  royal  fleets  of  France  and 
Kniilaud  cast  anchor  in  the  bay  of  Acre,  and  the 
liege   was  mure   vigorously  ptutecuted  by  tht 


C53 


CRUSADES,  1188-ll»a. 


CRUSADES,  lSOl-1203. 


»1 


jonthful  emulatton  of  the  two  i  ig«,  Philip 
Augiutui  and  Richard  Plantagenet.  After  everjr 
resource  bad  been  tried,  and  every  hope  wa«  ex- 
haiuted,  the  (hfeodera  of  Acre  lubmltted  to  their 
fate.  ...  By  the  conquest  of  Acre  the  Latin 

Eowen  acquired  a  strong  town  and  a  convenient 
arbour ;  but  the  advantage  was  most  dearly  pur- 
chased. The  minister  and  historian  of  Saladin 
computes,  from  the  report  of  the  enemy,  that 
their  numbers,  at  diiferent  periods,  amounted  to 
600,000  or  600,000 :  that  m.ire  than  100,000  Chris- 
tians were  slain ;  that »  r  greater  number  was 
lost  by  disease  or  shi;  ,t''k."  On  the  reduc- 
tion of  Acre,  king  Philip  Augustus  returned  to 
France,  leaving  only  500  knighu  and  10,000  men 
behind  him.  Meantime,  the  old  emperor,  Fred- 
erick Barbaroasa,  coming  by  the  landward  route, 
through  the  country  of  the  Greeks  and  i^sia 
Minor,  with  a  well-trained  army  of  80,000  knighU 
and  50,000  men  on  foot,  had  perished  by  the  way, 
drowned  in  a  little  Ciliclan  torrent,  and  only 
5,000  of  his  troops  had  reached  the  camp  at  Acre. 
Old  as  be  was,  (he  was  seventy  when  he  took 
the  cross)  Barbarossa  might  have  changed  the 
event  of  the  Crusaile  If  he  had  reached  the  scene 
of  conflict ;  for  he  had  brains  with  his  valor  and 
character  with  his  ferocity,  which  Richard  Ctrur 
de  Lion  had  not.    The  latter  remained  another 

J  ear  in  the  Holy  Land ;  recovered  C'lesarea  and 
affa ;  threatened  Saladin  in  Jerusalem  seriously, 
but  to  no  avail:  and  stirred  up  mure  and  fiercer 
quarrels  among  the  Christians  than  had  been 
customary,  even  on  the  soil  which  was  sacred  to 
them.  In  the  end,  a  treaty  was  arranged  which 
displease<l  the  more  devout  on  both  sides.  'It 
was  stipulated  that  .lerusalem  and  the  holy  sepul- 
chre should  be  open,  without  tribute  or  vexa- 
tion, to  the  pilgrimage  of  the  Latin  Christians; 
that,  after  the  demoliliun  of  Ascalon,  they  should 
Inclusively  possess  the  sea-coast  from  Jaffa  to 
Tyre;  that  the  count  of  Tripoli  and  the  prince  of 
Aotioch  should  be  comprised  In  the  truce ;  and  that, 
during  three  years  and  three  months,  all  hostilities 
should  cease.  .  .  .  Richard  embarked  for  Europe, 
to  seek  a  long  captivity  and  a  premature  grave ; 
and  the  space  of  a  fi'w"montlis  concluded  the  life 
and  glories  of  Saladin."— E.  aihlH)n,  Dftliiu  and 
Full  uf  the  Hi»iu\n  Kmptrf.  M.  59.—"  A  halo  of 
false  glory  surrr>unds  the  Third  Crusade  from  the 
associations  which  connect  it  with  the  llon-liearied 
king  of  England.  TheexplnitKcrf  Kklianl  I.  have 
stirred  to  enthusiasm  the  dullest  of  chronicUTs, 
have  furnished  themes  for  jubilant  eulogies,  and 
have  shed  over  his  life  that  glamour  which  clieats 
even  solH'r-minded  men  when  they  read  the  story 
of  hispnitotype  Achilleusinthe  taleof  Troy.  .  .  . 
When  we  tirm  from  the  picture  to  the  reiilliy,  we 
nhull  see  in  this  Third  Crusade  an  enterprise  in 
wliich  the  flery  zeal  which  does  something  to- 
wanls  reilc-eming  the  savage  brutalities  of  ()o<l- 
frev  ami  the  lint  crusaders  is  displaced  by  base 
anci  sonlld  greed,  by  Intrigues  utterly  of  the  earth 
earthy,  by  wanton  crimes  fMni  which  we  might 
well  suppose  that  the  sun  would  hiile  away  its 
face;  and  in  the  leaders  uf  this  enterprise  we  shall 
see  men  in  whom  morall.v  there  is  scanrly  a  single 
<iualilr  to  nlleve  the  monot4)ni>'iH  lilackness  of 
their  infamy;  in  whom,  strategicnily.  a  very 
little  generalship  loim-s  to  tlie  aiil  of  a  bllnil 

\:r.iU:  f.-.rrs  ■•_<;     W    (V.I,    T'rr  O'^-vifS.  ffr.  T. 

Also  m;  .Mrs.  W.  Busk,  JinJiaeral  flipM, 
Em/iefy>ri,  Kingt  and  Vnuader$,  bk.  i,  ch.  18,  and 
M.  a,  eA.  1-8. 


A.  D.  1196-1197.— Tha  Feuth  Espeditit 
— A  enuading  expedition  of  German  batvna  a 
their  loUowen,  which  went  to  the  Holy  Lsi 
by  way  of  Italy,  In  119«,  is  generally  counted 
the  Fourth  Crusade,  though  some  writers  lo 
upon  it  as  a  movement  supplementary  to  t 
Third  Crusade.  The  Germans,  who  number 
some  40,000,  do  not  seem  to  have  been  wclcom 
by  the  Christians  of  Palestine.  The  latter  ni 
ferred  to  maintain  the  state  of  peace  then  pi 
vailing;  but  the  new  cnisaden  force<l  hwiiliti 
at  once.  SaUdin  was  dead;  his  brother  Saphad 
accepted  the  challenge  to  war  with  prompt  vig 
and  struck  the  flnt  hard  blow,  taking  JafTa.  «^ 
great  slaughter,  and  demolishing  its  furiific 
tions.  But  Saphadhi  was  presently  defeated 
a  battle  fought  between  Tyre  and  Sidon.  ai 
Jaffa  was  recovered,  together  with  other  tow 
and  most  of  the  coast  But,  a  little  later,  ti 
Germans  suffered.  In  their  turn,  a  most  demon 
izing  reverse  at  the  castle  of  Thoron,  which  thi 
besieged,  and  were  further  disturb-d,  m  tl 
midst  of  their  depression,  by  news  of  the  dea 
of  their  emperor,  Henry  Vl.  A  great  part 
them,  thereupon,  returned  home.  Those  who  t 
remained,  or  many  of  them,  occupied  JiiSa.  wbe 
they  were  attacked,  a  few  months  later,  and  ci 
to  piecea— G.  W.  Cox,  T/te  Crumtt,;  ch.  8. 

A.  D.  IM1-1303.— The  Fifth  Movement.. 
TretchetT  of  the  Venetians.— Conquest  1 
Constantinople. —  "Every  travelh-r  rviuraii 
from  Syria  brought  a  prayer  for  immediate  hel 
from  the  survivora  of  the  Third  Crusaile. 
was  necessary  to  act  at  once  if  any  iMirtion  cvt 
of  the  wreck  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  wei 
to  be  saved.  Innocent  the  Third,  and  siime,  1 
least,  of  the  statesmen  of  the  West  were  ful! 
alive  to  the  progress  which  Islam  had  mac 
shice  the  departure  of  the  Western  kings.  1 
1197,  however,  after  Ave  yearsof  weary  waitici 
the  time  seemed  opportune  for  striking  a  ne 
blow  for  Christendom.  Saladin,  the  gnat  Sultai 
had  died  in  1193,  and  his  two  sons  were  alixiJ 
quarreling  about  the  partition  of  his  cnipin 
The  contending  divisions  of  the  Anili  .Mojin 
were  at  this  moment  each  biddim;  for  the  lU] 
port  of  the  Christians  of  Syria.  The  othi  r  grw 
race  of  Mahometans  which  had  threatent 
Europe,  the  Seljukian  Turks,  had  maile  a  bi 
in  their  progress  through  Asia  .Minor  . 
Otlier  special  circumstances  which  rendered  tb 
moment  favourable  for  a  new  crusade,  eon 
bined  with  the  profound  conviction  of  the  lUtei 
men  of  the  West  of  the  danger  to  Chrislenilm 
fMm  the  progress  of  Islam,  urged  W.'«t« 
Eunipe  to  take  part  In  the  new  enteriirise.  Ti 
reigning  Pone.  Innocent  III.,  was  ilje  gret 
moving  spirit  of  the  Fourth  Crusade.  '  'Th 
pipular  preacher  of  the  Crusade  was  found  in  > 
ignorant  priest  nameil  Fulk,  of  Neuiily,  whoi 
success  in  kindling  public  enthusiasm  wi 
almost  equal  to  that  of  Peter  the  Hermit.  Vu 
numbers  Umk  the  cross,  with  Tlieolisld.  com 
of  Champagne,  Louis,  count  of  Ulois  and  ( hai 
tres.  Simon  de  Montfort,  Walter  of  Brienni 
Baldwin,  count  of  Flandera.  Hugh  of  St.  Pa 
Geoffrey  de  ViUehaidouin.  manhal  of  C'hanipagii 
anil  future  historian  of  the  Crusade,  ami  man 
other  prominent  knights  and  princes  anmng  ih 
IradrfS.  The  yming  count  of  ChaiiiMiSr  -'^ 
the  chosen  chief;  but  he  sickeneil  and  died  an 
his  place  was  taken  by  Ekmlfsce.  marciuis  r 
MoDtferrat,    It  was  the  decision  uf  the  Icailei 


054 


CRrSADES,  1201-1903. 


Taking  of 
Cont\.nUHO/ilt. 


CRUSADES,  1213. 


thit  the  expedition  should  be  directed  in  tiie  flret 
initance  sgainit  the  Moslem  power  in  Egypt,  and 
tbst  it   should  be  coQveye<l  to  the  attack  of 
Egypt  by  sea.    Venice,  alone,  seemed  to  be  able 
to  lurnish  ships,  sailors  and  supplies  for  so  great 
s  movement,  and  a  contract  with  Venice  for  the 
lerrice  was  concluded  in  the  spring  of    1201. 
But  Venice  was  mercenary,  unscrupulous  and 
treacherous,  caring  for  nothing  but  commercial 
gains.    Before  the  crusaders  could  gather  at  her 
port  for  embarkation,  she  had  betrayed  them  to 
the  Moslems.     By  a  secret  treaty  with  the  sultan 
of  Egypt,  the  fact  of  which  is  coming  more  and 
more  conclusively  to  light,  she  had  undertaken 
to  frustrate  the  Crusade,  and  to  receive  import- 
sot  commercial  privileges  at  Alexandria  as  com- 
pensation for  her  treacherr.     When,  therefore, 
in  the  early  summer  of  1202.  the  army  of  the 
Crusade  was  collected  at  Venice  to  take  ship,  it 
encountered  difficulties,  discouragements  and  ill- 
treatments  which  thickened  daily.     The  numl)er 
SMembk'd  was  not  equal  to  expectation      Some 
hsd  gone  by  sea  from  Flanders;  some  ;iv  other 
routes.    But  Venice  hnd  provided  tran.Hport  for 
the  whole,  and  inflexibly  demanded  pay  for  the 
whole.     The  money  in  hand  was  not  equal  to 
this  claim.     Tl:e  summer  was  lost  in  disputes 
lad  attempted  compnimises.     Munv  of  the  cru- 
isdrra  withdrew  in  disgust  and  went  home.     At 
length,  in  defiance  of  the  censures  of  the  pope 
sod  of  the  bitter  opposition  of  many  leaders  and 
followers  of  the  expedition,  there  was  a  bargain 
•truck,  by  the  terms  of  which  the  crusaders  were 
to  assist  the  Venetians  in  taking  and  plundering 
the  Christian  city  of  Zani,  a  dreaded  commercial 
rival  ou  the  DalmHtlan  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  be- 
loniriiig  to  the  klug  of  Hungary,  bimaelf  one  of 
the  iiromoters  of  the  very  crusade  which   was 
now  to  be  tume<l  against  him.     The  infamous 
compact  was  carried  out.     Ziira  was  taken,  and  ic 
the  end  it  was  totally  destMycd  by  the  Venetians. 
In  the  meantime,  the  diHinied  citV  was  occupied 
by  the  crusading  army  through  the  winter,  while 
s  ilill  more  perfidious  niot   was  Iwing  formed. 
Old  Dandolo,  the  blind  doge  of  \'euice.  was  the 
BMter  spirit  of  it.     He  wn«  hel|,,.a  by  the  in- 
fluence of  Philip,  one  of  the  two  rivals  then 
fighting  for  the  imperial  crown  in  Oerinany  and 
Italy.     Philip  had  niarriol  a  daughter  of  Isaac 
II.  lAngelos),  made  emperor  at  Constantinople 
on  the  fall  of  the  dynasty  of  Comuenus,  and  that 
feeble  prince  ha<l  laU'Iy  Iietn  <lethrooed  liy  his 
bmlher     The   son   anil  heir    of    Isaac,    nanieil 
Alexius,  had  escaped  fniin  Constantinople  and 
h«d  made  bis  way   to  Philip  imploring  help. 
Either  Philip  conceived  the  idea,  or  it  was  sug- 
gmted  to  him,  that  the  armament  of  the  Crusade 
raighl  be  employed  to  place  the  young  Alexius 
ou  the  throne  of  his  father.     To  the  Venetians 
the  sihenie  was  more  than  acceptable.     It  would 
fmstrsle  the  Crusade,  which  they  hiul  pledgetl 
ihemsrives  to  the  sultan  of  Egypt  Ui  accomplish ; 
It  would  satisfy  their  Ill-will  Uiwards  the  Bv- 
tantiucs,  and,  more  imfHirUut  than  all  else,  "it 
»<'uld  (jive  them  an  opi>onunity  to  wcure  im- 
mmuralde  advanUges  over  tiieir  rivals  in  tlie 
?riat  traiie  which  Constantinople  held  at  com- 
mand.    The  marquis  of  Montferrat,  commander 
"I  the  Crusade,  hud  some  grievances  of  hin  own 
Y"''  "'iiie  umipitioiis  of  his  own,  wlilcl.  miule  him 
lavnralilc  to  the  new  project,  ami  he  was  easily 
»"u  to  it.   The  three  influences  tbuscomldiieil  — 
*««  of  Philip,  of  Ihwdolo,  and  of  Montferrat  — 


overcame  all  oppodtlon.  Some  who  oppoied 
were  bribed,  tome  were  intimidated,  lome  were 
deluded  'jy  promisee,  acme  deserted  the  ranks. 
Pope  ^nn  JcentremonstTBted,  appealed  and  threat- 
ened in  vain.  The  pilgrim  host,  "  changed  from 
a  crusading  army  into  a  flUbustering  exi^dition, " 
set  sail  from  Zara  in  the  spring  of  the  year  1208 
and  was  Unded,  the  following  June,  not  on  the 
shores  of  Egypt  or  Syria,  but  under  the  walls 
of  Constantinople.  lu  conquest,  pillage  and 
hrutally  destructive  treatment  of  the  great  city 
are  described  in  another  place.— E.  Pears,  Th$ 
fall  of  Cojutnntinoph,  eh.  8-18. 

Also  nj :  Q.  Flnlay,  Hut.  of  the  Bymntine  and 
Orttk  Emptrtt,  716-1458,  4*,  8,  eh.  8.— E.  Gibbon 
Dfthru  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  eh.  .W  — 
bee,  also,  BTZAKTisit  Ekpou::  A.  D.  1208-1204 

A.  D.  iaoi.i283,-AKainst  the  heathen  Selal 
vomans  on  the  Baltic.  See  Livonia:  12TH-18Ta 
Cehtctwes;  and  Prussia:  ISxHCENruKT 

8ee*-A?B  "^k"*'-*'""'  *"•  *""«^""- 
A.  D.  laia.— The  Children's  Crusade,— "The 
religious  wars  fostered  and  promoted  vice-  and 
the  failure  of  amy  after  army  was  l<H>kea  on  as 
a  clear  manifestation  of  God's  wrath  against  the 
sins  of  the  camp.  This  feeling  was  n)use<l  to  lu 
highest  pitch  when,  in  the  year  1212,  certain 
priests— Nicolas  was  the  name  of  one  of  these 
mischievous  madmen  — went  almut  France  and 
Germany  calling  on  the  children  to  perform 
what  the  fathers,  through  their  wickedness  had 
been  unable  to  effect,  promising  that  the  dea 
should  be  dry  to  enable  them  to  march  arross: 
that  the  Saracens  would  be  miraculoi.sly  stiicken 
with  a  panic  at  the  sight  of  thet.i;  that  G(xl 
would,  through  the  hands  of  children  only 
whose  lives  were  yet  pure,  work  the  recovery  of 
the  Cross  ani  the  Sepulchre.  Thousands— it  is 
said  fifty  lliousand  — children  of  both  sexes  re- 
sponded to  the  call.  They  listened  to  the  im 
iiassioned  preaching  of  the  monks,  believed  their 
lying  miracles,  their  visions,  their  portents,  their 
references  to  the  Scriptures,  and.  In  spite  of  ail 
that  their  parents  could  do,  rushed  to  take  the 
Cross,  boys  and  girls  together,  and  streamed 
along  the  roads  which  led  to  Marseilles  and 
Genoa,  singing  hymns,  waving  branches,  reply- 
ing to  those  who  asked  whither  they  were  going 
•  We  go  to  Jerusalem  to  deliver  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre,' and  shouting  their  ndlving  cry,  '  Lonl 
Jesus,  give  us  hack  thy  Holy  f'ross.'  'They  ad- 
mitted whoever  came.  ptMvlded  he  took  the 
Cross;  the  infection  s|ii.ad,  and  the  children 
could  not  lie  restrained  from  joining  them  in  the 
towns  iioil    villages  along   their  mi  Their 

miserable  parents  put  them  in  prison,  they  es- 
caped: they  forbade  them  to  go;  the  children 
went  in  spite  of  prohibition.  They  ha<l  no 
money,  no  provisions,  no  leadere;  but  the  charity 
of  the  towns  they  pas»<'d  through  supported 
them.  At  their  reiir  streamed  the  usual  tail  of 
camp  followers.  .  .  .  There  were  two  main  bodies. 
One  of  these  directed  its  way  through  Germany, 
acroas  the  Alps,  to  Genoa.  Ou  the  road  they 
were  robbed  of  all  the  gifts  which  had  \kvu  pre- 
sented them;  they  were  exposed  to  heat  and 
want,  and  very  many  cither  di«l  on  the  mareh 
or  wsndered  away  from  the  road  and  «n  '.s  rajno 
lost  to  sight ;  when  they  reached  Italy  they  dis- 
persi'd  about  the  country,  seeking  'food,  were 
strip|ie<l  by  the  villagers,  and  in  some  cases  were 
reduced  to  slavery.    Only  seven  thousand  out  of 


Mtii^«^l 


OOU 


^m 


CRUSADES.  1313. 


^iv^jg^  CRUSADES,  1818-1839. 


it:i 


their  number  arrired  at  Genoa.  Here  they  stayed 
for  aome  days.  They  looked  down  upon  the 
Mediterranean,  hoping  that  its  bright  waves 
would  divide  to  let  them  pass.  But  they  did 
not:  there  was  no  miracle  wrought  in  their 
favour;  a  few  of  noble  birth  were  received  among 
the  Genoese  families,  and  have  given  rise  to  dis- 
tinguished houses  of  Genoa:  among  them  is  the 
house  of  Vivaldi.  The  rest,  disappointed  and 
disheartened,  made  their  way  back  again,  and 

Sit  home  at  length,  the  girls  with  the  loss  of 
eir  virtue,  the  boys  with  the  loss  of  their  l)e- 
lief,  all  barefooted  and  in  rags,  laughed  at  by 
the  towns  they  went  through,  and  wondering 
why  they  had  ever  gone  at  all.  This  was  the 
ena  of  the  German  army.  That  of  the  French  was 
not  so  fortunate,  for  none  of  them  ever  got  back 
again  at  all.  When  they  arrived  at  Marseilles, 
thinned  probably  by  the  same  causes  as  those 
which  had  dispersed  the  Germans,  they  found, 
like  their  brethren,  that  the  sea  did  not  open  a 
path  for  them,  as  had  been  promised.  Perhaps 
some  were  disheartenetl  and  went  home  again. 
But  fortune  appeared  to  favour  them.  There 
were  two  worthy  merchants  at  Marseilles,  named 
Hugh  Ferreus,  and  William  Porcus,  Iron  Hugh 
and  Pig  William,  who  traded  with  the  East,  and 
had  in  port  seven  ships,  in  which  they  proposed 
to  convey  the  children  to  Palestine.  With  a 
noble  generosity  they  ofTeretl  to  take  them  for 
nothing,  all  for  love  of  religion,  and  out  of  the 
pure  kindness  of  their  hearts.  Of  course  this 
offer  was  accepted  with  Joy.  and  the  seven  ves- 
sels laiien  with  the  happy  "little  Crusailers,  sing- 
ing their  livmns  and  dying  their  banners,  sail^ 
out  from  Marseilles,  bound  for  the  East,  accom- 

fianied  by  William  the  Good  and  Hueh  the  Pious, 
t  was  not  known  to  the  children,  of  course,  that 
the  chief  trade  of  these  merchants  was  the  lucra- 
tive business  of  kidnapping  Christian  children 
for  the  Alexandrian  market.  It  was  so,  however, 
and  these  respectable  tradesmen  bad  never  be- 
fore mode  so  splendid  a  coup.  Unfortunately, 
olT  the  Island  of  St.  Peter,  they  encountered  bad 
weatlier,  and  two  ships  went  down  with  all  on 
board.  What  must  have  been  the  feelings  of 
the  philanthropists.  Pig  William  and  Iron  Hugh, 
at  this  misfortune  f  Thev  got.  however,  five 
ships  safely  to  Alexandria,  und  sold  all  their 
cargo,  the  Sultan  of  fairo  buying  forty  of  the 
boys,  whom  he  brought  up  carefully  and  aiiurl, 
intending  them,  doubtless,  for  bis  best  soldiers. 
A  dozen  refusing  to  change  their  faith  were 
martyred.  None  of  the  rest  ever  came  back. 
Nobody  in  Europe  seems  to  have  taken  much 
notice  of  this  extraoniinary  episode."— W.  B<'. 
sant  and  E.  H.  Palmer,  Jeriimltm.  eh.  18. 

Also  in:  J.  H.  Micliaud,  Hut.  nttht  Cnu,uU*. 
app.  no.  88.— O.  Z.  Gray,  The  Children  f  Cn- 
tade. 

A.  D.  1113.— Afaintt  the  Moors  in  Spain. 
See  Spain:  A   O   114«-1382 

A.  D.  Iii6-iaa9.— Tht  Sixth  MoTimcnt  — 
Frederic  II,  in  Jerusalem.— For  six  years  after 
the  betrayal  of  the  vows  of  the  crusaders  of  1303- 
1204  — who  sacked  Constanllnoplc  instead  of 
reacuing  Jerusalem  —  the  Christians  of  Palestine 
were  protected  by  a  truce  with  Saphadin,  the 
brother  of  Saladin.  who  had  succe<'ded  the  latter 
in  power.  Itustililies  were  llieu  rosiily  provoki'd 
by  the  always  fcwilsh  Ijitlns.  and  they  soon 
found  theniselvps  reibued  to  sore  straits,  calling 
Bpoa  Europe  fur  fresh  help.     Pope  Innocent  III. 


did  not  icruple  to  second  their  appeal.  A  ni 
crusade  was  preached  with  great  earnestness,  t 
a  general  Council  of  the  Church  —  the  Fourth 
Lateran  —  was  convened  for  the  stimulation 
it.  "The  Fifth  Crusade  [or  the  Sixth,  as  mc 
commonly  numbered],  the  result  of  this  i«9ol 
tion,  was  divided  in  the  sequel  into  three  ma 
time  expeditions:  the  first  [A.  D.  1316]  consi 
ing  principally  of  Hungarians  under  their  kin 
Andrew:  the  second  [A.  D.  1818]  composed 
Germans,  Italians,  French  and  English  oobi 
and  their  followers;  and  the  third  [A.  D.  123 
led  by  the  Emperor  Frederic  II.  in  person. 
Thoi^h  the  King  of  Hungary  was  attended  i 
the  flower  of  a  nation  which,  before  its  co 
version  to  Christianity,  had  been  the  scour 
and  terror  of  Western  Europe,  the  arms  of  th 
monarch,  even  aided  by  the  junction  of  numi 
ous  German  crusaders  under  the  dukes  of  Ac 
tria  and  Bavaria,  performed  nothing  worthy 
notice:  and  after  a  single  campaign  in  I'alesiio 
in  which  the  Mussulman  territories  were  ineffw 
ually  ravaged,  the  fickle  ALdrew  dcsene<l  ti 
cause  and  returned  with  his  forces  to  Europ 
His  defection  did  not  prevent  the  duke  of  .\i) 
tria,  with  the  German  crusaders,  from  remainin 
in  concert  with  the  King  of  Jerusalem,  liis  barot 
and  the  knights  of  the  three  religious  order 
for  the  defence  of  Palestine;  and,  Tntliefolloi 
ing  year,  the  constancy  of  these  faithful  clisi 
pions  of  the  Cross  was  rewarded  by  the  arriv 
of  numerous  reinforcements  from  Germany.  .  . 
It  was  resolved  to  change  the  scene  of  inrti 
from  the  narrow  limits  of  the  Syrian  shore 
the  coast  of  Egypt,  .  .  .  and  the  situation  i 
Damietta,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile,  pointed  oi 
that  city  as  the  first  object  of  attack."  After 
siege  of  seventeen  months,  during  wliioh  boi 
the  liesieged  and  the  liesiegers  suffi'reil  horribl 
from  faimne  and  from  pestilence,  Damietta  wi 
taken  (A.  D.  1319).  Nine-tenths  of  Us  iwpul 
tion  of  80,000  had  perishe<l.  "  Both  ilunnit  tl 
siege  and  after  tlie  capture  of  Damietta.  the  ii 
vasion  of  Egypt  had  nlled  the  inUiiels  witli  eoi 
sternation :  and  the  alarm  which  was  hetrayed : 
their  counsels  proveii  that  the  eru.saderi.  ; 
choosing  that  country  for  the  tlieatn'  of  oner 
tions,  had  assailed  the  Mussulman  power  m  i 
most  vital  and  vulnerable  point.  Of  the  t« 
sons  of  Saphadin,  Conullnus  and  •  amel.  wt 
were  now  uneasily  seated  on  the  tlinvnesof  D; 
inascus  and  Cairo,  the  former,  in  despair  of  pn 
serving  Jerusalem,  had  alreaily  demolishtil  i 
fortifications;  and  the  brotliefs  scri'i'il  in  n 
peatedly  offering  the  cession  of  tlie  lioly  city  m 
of  all  Palestine  to  the  Chri.itians.  upou  the  sing 
condition  of  their  evacuating  Eirypt.  Evei 
object  whicli  had  been  ineffectually'pnipo9e<i  i 
repeated  Crusades,  since  the  fatal  battle  < 
Tiberias,  might  now  have  been  gloriou.sly  ol 
tained  by  the  acceptance  of  these  terms,  and  tl 
King  of  Jerusalem,  the  French  and  Knitlis 
leaders,  and  the  Teutonic  knight.'i.  all  eagerl 
desired  to  embrace  tlie  offer  of  theSultuns.  Bi 
the  obstinate  ambition  and  cupidity  i>f  the  sui 
viving  papal  legate.  Cardinal  Pelairius.  of  tt 
Italian  chieftains,  and  of  the  knights  of  theothi 
two  religious  orders,  by  hoUlliig  out  llie  ric 
prospect  of  the  conquest  and  plunder  of  Egyp' 
overruled  every  wise  and  temperate  arj!uui<ul  i 
the  Christian  councils,  and  produced  a  rejectio 
of  all  compromise  with  the  infidels  After 
winter  of  luxurious  InacUoo,  the  legate  led  tii 


056 


CRUSADES,  1S16-132S. 


SLLouitM 


CRUSADES,  1248-1254. 


eroMding  boat  from   Dunietto  towud  Cairo 
(A  D.  ISSO)."     The  ezpediUoo  waa  aa  diaaa- 
tiDua  in  iu  nault  aa  it  waa  imbecile  in  iu  leader- 
lUp.    The  whole  anny,  caught  by  the  riaing  of 
the  Kile,  waa  placed  in  so  helpleaa  •  aituation  that 
Itwugladto  purehaaeeacapeby  theaurrender  of 
Dtmiettt  and  the  evacuation  of  Egjrpt     The 
letnat  of  the  greater  part  of  theae  cruaaden  did 
not  end  until  they  had  reached  home.     Pope 
Honorius  IIL  (who  had  aucceeded  Innocent  111 
in  1218)  itTOTe  to  ahift  reaponsibility  for  the 
Mure  from  hia  wretched  legate  to  the  Emperor 
Frederic  11.,  who  had  thus  far  evaded  the  ful- 
llment  of  his  cruaading  promises  and  vows 
twiog  occupied  in  atrugglea  with  the  papacy 
At  length,    in    1228,    Frederic   embarlied    for 
Palestine  with  a  an';ill   force,  pursued   ly  the 
maledictions  of  the  pope,  who  denounced  him 
for  daring  to  assume  the  Crosa  while  under  the 
litn  of  the  church,  aa  much  as  he  had  denounced 
him  before  for  neglecting  it.      But  the    free- 
tUnking  Hohenstsuffen  cared  little,  apparently, 
tad  went  his  way,  ahunned  scrupulously  by  all 
pious  souls,  including  the  knights  of  Palestine, 
eicept  those  of  the  Teutonic  order.     With  the 
help  of  the  latter  he  occupied  and  refortifled 
JsSa  «nd  succeeded  in  concluding  a  treaty  with 
the  Sultan  which  restoretl    Jerusalem  to    the 
Christians,  reserving  certain  rights  to  the  Ma- 
hometans; giving  up  likewise  Bethlehem.  Naz- 
areth and  some  other  places  to  the  Christians, 
ud  securing    peace  for  ten  years.     Frederic 
had  married,  a  few  years  before,  for  his  second 
empress,  lolante,  daughter  and  heiress  of  the 
titular   king   of   Jerusalem,  John  de  Brienne. 
With  the  hand  of  this  princess,  he  received  from 
her  father  a  solemn  transfer  of  all  his  rights  to 
that  shadowy  throne.     He  now  claimed  those 
tights,  and,  entering  Jerusalem,  with  the  Teu- 
tonic knighu  (A  D.  1229),  he  crowned  himself 
ittkins.    The  patriarch,  the  Templars  and  the 
Hospitallers  refused  to  Uke  part  in  the  ceremony  ■ 
the   pope   denounced    Frederic's  advantageous 
treaty  aa  soon  as  he  had  news  of  it.  and  all  that 
it  gained  for  the  Christians  of  Palestine   was 
thrown  away  by  them  as  speedily  as  possible  — 
Major  Procter,  Ilitt.  nf  ttie  Vnimdeii.  eh.  5,  tert 
2.-'Xo  Crusader,  since  Gcxlfri'v  de  Bouillon 
W  effwted  so  much  as  Frederick  the  Second! 
what  would  he   not    have  obtained,    hail    the 
Pope,  the  Patriarch  and  the  Orders  given  him 
^ir   huirty    cooperation  ?  "-T.     L.     Kington, 

*•„"•  "38-ia«o.—  Againat  the  Bogomilea. 
we  Bai.k.\.n  AjiD  Dani'hi.v.n  8t.\te»:  1>tu-1«tu 
Ce.\tikies  (Bosnia,  etc  ) 
,.*•_"•  }'*'■—  The  Invasion  of  Palestine  by 
the  Carismians.    See  .Iercsai.em:  \.  I),  vui 


A.  D.  i248-iac4._  The  Seventh  Movement, 
-tipedition  of  Saint  Louis  to  Egypt.— Tlie 
Seventh  Crusade  was  undertaken,  with  little  aid 


..........v  ...,a  ,iu,i,.iiuKrfi,   wiiu  mile  aid 

irora  other  countries,  hy  the  devout  and  wonder- 
fully Christian-like  young  kinu;  of  France,  Louis 
v'*!  T'"'''  atuonl*ed.  and  known  in  historv 
u »t.  Louis.  "He  carriiHl  It  out  with  a  nicked 
fj?^'  ,!"r"'»''ed  by  the  feudal  cliivalrv  and  hv 
«e  reliRious  and  military  onlcrs  dedicated  to 
Uie  service  of  the  Holy  Lanrl.  The  Isle  of 
^-yprus  was  the  trrstinir-place  app<itnt/>d  f..i-  all 
|W  r.ira-s  of  the  expedition.  Louis  arrived 
Were  on  the  12th  of  September.  1248.  and  reck- 
«W  upon  remainhig  there  only  a  few  davs;  for 
It  was  Egypt  that  he  waa  in  a  hurry  to  reach. 
43 


Tlie  Chri^  world  waa  at  that  time  of  oplnioa 
that,  to  deliver  the  Holy  Land,  it  waa  necesaarr 
flnt  of  aU  to  atrike  a  blow  ..t  blamism  in  Egypt 
wtereta  lu  chief  strength  .edded.    ButaoiiSy 
had  tile  cniaadera  formed  a  Junction  In  Cyprus 
when  Uie  vicea  of  Uie  expedition  xdA  tiie  weak- 
nesses of  iu  chief  benn  to  be  manifeat.    LotJa. 
unshakable  hi  hU  reflgioua  zeal,  was  wanting  to 
«'«" '<!"««  «nd  fixed  resolves  as  to  tiie  caring 
otitof  Ua  deaipL  ...  He  did  not  suroS  iS 
winnhig  a  naajority  hi  tiie  council  of  chiefs  over 
to  hU  opinion  aa  to  tiie  neceaaity  for  a  speedy 
departtire  for  Egypt;  it  waa  dedded  to  paastSe 
winter  hi  Cyprus      .  .  At  Uat  a  start  wST^ade 
from  Cyprus  in  May.  1249,  and,  in  spite  of  vio- 
knt  gales  of  wind  which  dUpersed  a  large  num- 
ber of  vessels,  they  arrived  on  the  4tii  5f  June 
before    Damietta.       .   .   Havtag  become   mas- 
ters of  mmietta,  St  LouU  and  tiie  crusaden 
committed  tiie  same  fault  there  as  hi  Uie  Isle  of 
Cyprus:  they  halted  there  for  an  indefinite  time. 
They  were  expecting  fresh  crusaders;  and  tiiey 
spent  the  time  of  expectation  in  quarreling  over 
the   partition  of  tiie  booty  taken  hi  the  city 
They  made  away  witii  it,  they  wasted  it  blindly. 
.  .  .  Ijmis  saw  and  deplored  these  irreguhui- 
ties  without  being  In  a  condition  to  stop  them 
At  length,  on  the  20th  of  November,  1249  after 
more  than  five  months'  taactivity  at  Dainietto 
the   crusaders    put   themselves   once    more  in 
motion,    with  the  determtoation   of   marching 
upon  Babylon,  that  outskirt  of  Cairo,  now  called 
OW  Cairo,  which  tiie  greater  part  of  them,  m 
their  ignorance,  mistook  for  the  real  Babylon 
and  where  they  flattered  themselves  they  would 
find  immense  riches,  and  avenge  the  olden  suffer- 
ings of  the  Hebrew  captives.    The  Mussulmans 
had  found  time  to  recover  from  their  first  fright 
and  to  organize,  at  all  pointa,  a  vigorous  resist- 
ance.    On  tiie  8th  of  February,  1250,  a  battle 
took  place  twenty  leagues  from  Damietta   at 
Mansourah  ('the  city  of  victory'),  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Nile.  ...  The  battle-field  was  feft 
that  day  to  the  crusaders;  but   they  were  not 
allowed  to  occupy  it  as  conquerors,   for,  three 
days  afterwards,  on  the  11th  of  February   1250 
the  camp  of  St.  Louis  w,>s  assailed  by  clouds 
of  Saracens,    horse   and   foot.    JIameliikes   and 
Bedouins.     All  surprise  had  vanishe<l,  the  JIus- 
sulmans  measured  at  a  glance  the  numbers  of 
the  Christians,  and  attacked  them  in  full  assur- 
ance of  success,  whatever  heroism  tliey  might 
display:  and  the  crusaders  themselves  indulged 
in  no   more  self-illusion,  and   thouitlit  only  of 
defending  themselves.     Lack  of  proVisions  and 
sickness  soon  rendered  defence  almost  aa  impos- 
sible as  attack;  every  day  saw   the  Christian 
camp    more    and    more  encumbered    with    the 
famine-strieken.  the  dvinc,  and  the  dead:  and 
the  necessity   for  retreating  became    evident." 
An  attempt  to  negotiate  with  the  enemy  failed, 
because  they  insisted  on  the  surrender  of  the 
king  as  hostage,—  which  none  would  concede 
"On    the    5th    of    April,    1250,    the    crusaders 
decided  upon   retreating.    This  was   the  most 
deplonible  scene  of  a  deplorable  drama ;  and  at 
the  same  time  it  was,  for  the  king,  an  occasion 
for    displaying,    in    their    most    sublime    and 
attracttvo  traits,  »1!  the  virtues  of  the  Chri.s:i:m. 
Whilst  sickness  and  famine  were  devastating  the 
camp,    Louis  made  himself    visitor,   physician 
and  comforter;  and  his  presence  and  his  words 
ezereise<i  upon  the  worst  cases  a  searehing  influ- 


657 


CRCSADES,  1348-1254. 


St.  UmU 
at  Turn.  ■ 


CRUSADES,  1270-1271. 


li.='.S: 


ence.  .  .  .  Whan  the  Sth  of  April,  the  dar  fixed 
for  the  retremt,  had  come,  LouU  hinuelf  waa 
ill  and  much  enfcibled.  He  was  urged  to  go 
aboard  one  of  the  venelt  which  were  to  descend 
the  Kile,  carrying  the  wounded  and  the  most 
luSering;  but  he  refused  absolutely,  saying.  'I 
don't  separate  from  my  people  in  the  hour  of 
danger.'  He  remained  on  land,  and  when  he 
had  to  move  forward  he  fainted  away.  When 
he  came  to  hinuelf,  he  was  amongst  the  last  to 
leave  the  camp.  ...  At  four  leagues  distance 
from  the  camp  it  had  just  left,  the  rear-guard  of 
the  .-rusaders,  harassed  by  clouds  of  Saracens, 
was  obliged  to  lialt.  Louis  could  ro  longer 
keep  on  his  horse  '  He  was  put  up  at  .i  house,' 
■ays  ioinviUe,  '  and  laid,  almost  dead,  upor  the 
lar  of  a  tradeswoman  from  Paris;  and  it  was 
b.'lieved  that  he  would  not  last  till  evening. 
The  king,  in  this  condition,  with  the  whole 
wreck  of  his  army,— only  10,000  in  number 
remaining  to  him, —  were  taken  prisoners.  Their 
releas"  from  captivity  was  purchased  a  mouth 
later  by  the  surrender  of  Damietta  and  a  ran- 
som-payment of  500,000  livres.  They  made 
their  way  to  St.  Jean  d'  Acre,  in  Palestine, 
whence  many  of  them  returned  home.  But 
King  Louis,  with  some  of  his  knights  and  men- 
at-arms —  how  many  is  not  known  —  stayed  yet 
In  the  Holy  Land  for  four  years,  striving  and 
hoping  against  hope  to  accomplish  something 
for  the  deliverance  of  Jerusalem,  and  expending 
"in  small  works  of  piety,  sympathy,  protection, 
and  care  for  the  future  of  the  Chnstian  popula- 
tion in  Asia,  his  time,  his  strength,  his  pecun- 
iary resources,  and  the  ardor  of  a  soul  which 
could  not  remain  idly  abandoned  to  sorrowing 
ever  great  desires  iinsntisfle<l."    Thu  good  and 

f)i()us  l)ut  ill-guided  king  returned  to  France 
n  tlie  summer  of  Vi'A.  and  was  received  with 
preiii  j'>v.—  F.  P.  Ouizot,  P^piilirllitt.  of  France, 
eh.  IT. 

-Vlso  IN:   Sire  De  Joinville.  .Vemoirf  of  Sunt 
L"uii,  pt.  •,'  —  .1.  F.   .Mielmud,   //i»f.  ofl'/.e  Vr. 
tad,,.  hU  ia-14. 

A.  D.  lasa.— The  moTement  of  "the  Pat- 
tors." — On  tlie  arrival  in  Fnmee  of  the  news  of 
the  disastrous  failun'  of  Aiiiit  Louis's  e.x  ['edition 
to  Egypt,  there  (H-eurred  hii  mitlMiak  nt  fiiimti- 
cisina.1  inaeasate  ns  tliat  of  tlieeliildnn's  eniviide 
of  forty  years  before.  It  wiis  siiid  in  li.ive 
originated  with  a  Ilungariaii  nunied  Jiiiolp.  "ho 
began  to  proclaim  thatC'hrist  n^jeeteil  tin' icreat 
ones  of  the  earth  from  His  serviei,  and  tluil  the 
deliverance  of  the  Holy  City  must  l>e  iKe.mi- 
plislied  by  the  poor  and  humble.  •Slieph.  n's 
left  tlieir  flocks,  labourers  laid  down  tin'  ii|..iii.'ii, 
to  follow  his  footst<'ps.  .  .  .  The  mime  cifi'ar-lDrs 
was  given  to  these  village  cnisadirs.  ...  At 
length,  assembled  to  the  numlier  of  niori'  than 
ll».<KH).  these  n-<iouhtable  pilgrims  lift  l':iiisniid 
divided  themsi'lves  into  several  tronp.s,  tn  n  pair 
to  the  ci»«t,  wlieni'O  they  were  toenilmrk  lyr  tlie 
East,  The  city  of  Orleans,  which  lii\|i|Hiieil  to 
1m'  in  their  passage,  became  the  tlieiitre  I'f  fright- 
ful disl)^lers.  'The  progress  of  tlieir  eii(irinities 
at  length  cn-atwi  seriouif  alarm  in  the  gnvem- 
ment  ami  the  magistracy;  orders  were  sent  to 
tin,'  pnivinces  to  puraue  and  dis|H'rse  tlies<'  turbu- 
lent and  seditious  bands.  The  ni"si  iMimi'mus 
assemblage  of  tlie  Pastors  was  H.xed  to  take  place 
at  Bourges,  where  the  'muster  of  Hungary' 
[■Jacob]  was  to  perform  miracles  ami  iiiinmuni- 
cate  the  will  of  Heaven.     Their  arrival  in  ttiU 


city  was  the  signal  for  muiJer,  fire  and  pUlai 
The  irritated  people  took  up  arms  and  imrcL 
against  tliese  disturbers  of  the  public  pea 
thev  OTertook  them  between  Mortrmer  a 
VilleneuTe-»ur-le-Cher,  where,  in  spite  of  th 
numbers,  they  were  routed,  and  received  i 
punishment  due  to  their  brigandages.  Jacob  I: 
his  head  cut  off  by  the  blow  of  an  axe ;  maDv 
his  companions  and  disciples  met  with  death 
the  field  of  battle,  or  were  consigne<l  to  piini 
ment;  the  remainder  took  to  flight.  "--J 
Michaud,  But.  of  the  Cnuada  •     U. 

A.   D.    1356-1159.  — Aga.  celino 

Rcmano.    SeeVEBOKA:  A.  1 .    •.Jb.j-l>,")i». 

A.  D.  I3;ra-i37i.— The  iaat  undertakings 
Saint  Louis  at  Tuoia.  — Prince  Edward 
Paleatine.- "For  seven  years  after  his  return 
France,  from  1254  to  1261,  Louis  sienied  tothi 
no  more  about  them  [the  crusades],  anil  tlierc 
nothing  to  show  Ihat  ne  spoke  of  them  ercD 
his  most  intimate  confidants;  but,  iu  spite  of 
apparent  calmness,  he  was  living.  h.>  far  as  tli 
were  concerned  in  a  continual  ferment 
imagination  a'  internal  fever,  even  flatten 
himself  that  s  ae  favorable  circumstance  woi 
call  him  back  j  his  ii  ierrupted  work.  .  . 
1261,  Louis  held,  at  Paris,  a  Parliament,  atwhii 
without  any  talk  of  a  new  crusade,  nieasu 
were  taken  which  revealed  an  ideao'  it.  .  .  . 

1263  the  crusade  was  openly  prcaclieu 

objections,  all  warnings,  all  anxieties  came 
nothing  in  the  face  of  Louis's  flxed  iiha  a 
pious  passion.  He  started  from  Paris  i>u  the  V 
of  March,  1270,  a  sick  man  almost  alnaily,  t 
with  soul  content,  and  probably  tlie  imh  < 
without  mis.i^ving  in  the  midst  of  all  his  co 
rades.  It  was  once  more  at  Aigues-Mortes  tl 
he  went  to  embark.  All  was  as  yet  dark  a 
undecided  as  to  the  plan  of  the  expeditiuti. 
Steps  were  taken  at  hap-hazani  with  full  tr 
in  Provuience  and  utter  forgetfulm  isthat  Pm 
(iencc  does  not  absolve  men  fnuii  furesii-ht  . 
I'  was  onlv  iu  Saniinia,  after  four  cl:iv>  halt 
(  igliari.  ttiat  L,oui8  announced  tn  the  diii-fs 
the  crusiade.  assembled  alKianl  his  ship,  • 
'Mount joy.  that  he  was  makiiii,'  fur  Tunis,  a 
that  ttieirChristian  work woiihl coiiiuKiiri' the 
The  king  nf  Tunis  (as  he  was  tlieu  lallnli.  > 
liaimned  Mostjinaer.  liad  for  some  time  lieen  ta 
ill'.'  of  his  desire  to  iK'come  a  Christian,  if 
(ivuhl  lie  etEcientIv  protected ugaiiist  thesi'litii 
of  his  subjects.  Louis  welcomed  with  iraasp 
till'  prospect  of  Mussulman  coiiversi.ni- 
Ihit  im  the  17th  of  Julv.  when  the  tlei  t  arriv 
Icfore  Tunis,  tlie  adniinil.  Klorent  ih-  Varenn 
prcrl>al)Iy  without  tlie  kiiivr's  nnler-,  .iml  w 
that  want  of  reflection  which  was  cuu-pifu.'us 
each  step  of  the  enterprise,  imincliali  Iv  t^^ 
possession  of  the  harlmr  and  of  some  Tunisi 
ves-si'ls  as  prize,  and  si'iit  wonl  te  the  kiiii'  ll 
he  had  imly  to  support  him  ami  tint  tin-  il 
eiuliarkationof  the  lroo|  < ndght  !»•  etTeitc'!  w 
perfect  safety,'  Thus  w  ir  was  comimui . .1 
the  very  first  moment  against  tlie  .Mu»«u!iii 
prince  whom  there  had  been  pnuiiix  "f  -'•>i 
iM'fore  long  a  Christian,  At  the  enl  "1  if; 
night,  after  some  fight  Ix'tweeu  the  Tuiiisii 
and  the  crusaders,  so  much  political  aiil  niiUti 
blindness  produced  it^  nutiinil  ((.ii>niiiini' 
The  re-enforcements  proniisi'd  l'  i.oiiis  li.r 
brother  Charles  of  Anjou.  kin.u'  "f  (''icil.»-  " 
not  arrived;  provisions  were  fallini:  short.  £ 
the  heats  of  an  African  summer  were  worki 


658 


CRUSADES.  l>7a-1971. 


TUMKt. 


CRCSAOES. 


hkToe  amoant  the  umy  with  luch  npidtty  that 
before  long  tnen  wu  no  time  to  burr  the  dead ; 
but  ther  were  cast  pell-mell  into  the  ditch  which 
iunounded  the  camp,  and  the  air  wai  tainted 
thereby.  On  the  8d  of  August  Louis  was 
ttticked  by  the  epidemic  fever."  On  the  25th 
of  August  be  died.  His  son  and  successor, 
Philip  III.,  held  his  ground  before  Tunis  until 
Korember,  when  he  gladly  accepted  a  payment 
of  money  from  the  Tunisian  prince  for  with- 
dnwing  bis  army.  Disaster  followed  him.  A 
itorm  destroyed  part  of  his  fleet,  with  1,000  or 
5,0(X)  men,  and  sunk  all  the  treasure  be  bad 
received  from  the  Moslems.  On  the  Journey 
home  through  Italy  his  wife  met  with  ^i.  acci- 
dent which  ended  her  life  and  that  of  her  prema- 
turely bom  child.  The  young  king  arriVed  at 
Paris.  Hay,  1271,  bringing  the  remains  of  Ave  of 
Us  familv  for  burial  at  St  Denis :  his  wife,  hif> 
iOD,  his  father,  bis  brother,  and  his  brother-in- 
Uw,— sU  victims  of  the  fatal  crusade.  While 
Fiance  was  thus  burying  tlie  last  of  her  crusad- 
ers, Prince  Edward  (afterwards  King  Edward  I.) 
of  England,  landed  in  Syria  at  the  head  of  a  few 
hundred  knights  and  men  at  arms.  Joined  by 
the  Templars  and  Hospitallers,  he  had  an  army 
of  6.000  or  7,000  men,  with  which  he  took  Naza- 
letli  and  made  there  a  bloody  sacrifice  to  the 
memory  of  the  gentle  Xazarene.  He  did  nothing 
more.  '  Being  wounded  by  an  assassin,  be  ar- 
ranged a  truce  with  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  and 
returned  home.  His  expedition  was  the  last 
from  Europe  which  strove  with  the  Moslems  for 
the  Holy  Land.  The  rhristiaos  of  Palestine, 
who  still  held  Acre  and  Tyre,  Sidon  and  a  few 
other  coast  cities,  were  soon  afterwards  over- 
whelmed, and  the  dominion  of  the  C'escent  in 
Syria  wai;  undisputed  any  more  by  force  of  arms, 
though  niauy  voices  cried  vainly  against  it.  The 
spirit  of  the  Crusades  had  expired. — F.  P. 
Guizot,  Fibular  Ilitt.  of  Frnnct,  en.  17. 

Also  ih  :  J.  F.  Michaud,  Hut.  of  the  Crtuade; 
bk.  IS. 

A.  D.  1191.— The  end  of  the  Christian  King- 
dom of  Jeruaslem.  Sen  Jekus^lem:  A.  0. 
Ii91. 

A.  D.  1399.— The  last  campaign  of  the 
Templars.— "  After  the  fall  of  Acre  [A.  D. 
1291)  the  headquarters  of  the  Templars  were 
established  at  Limisso  in  the  island  of  Cyprus, 
snil  urgent  lctt€-s  were  sent  to  Europ<>  for 
succour."  In  1295,  James  de  Molay,  the  head  of 
theEnelish  province,  became  Orand  Master,  and 
sonn  after  his  arrival  in  Palestine  he  enterci  iiiti) 
tn  nlliance  with  Ohazan  Khan,  the  Mongol  ruler 
of  I'c  rsia,  who  hail  marrietl  a  Christian  princess 
of  .Vrincnin  and  was  not  uufricmlly  to  the 
Cliristians,  as  against  the  Mamelukes  of  Egypt. 
with  wlioiii  he  was  at  war  The  Mongol  Khan 
invited  the  Templars  to  join  him  iu  au  expeditiou 
ag;iinst  the  Sultan  of  Egypt,  and  tlicv  did  so  in 
the  spring  of  1299,  at  Antiwh.  "An  army  of 
*J,i>«J  men  was  placed  by  the  Mogul  emiwmr 
umicr  the  command  uf  the  Qraud  Master,  and 
the  ccimbined  forces  moved  up  the  "alley  of  the 
Onintis  towards  Damascus.  In  a  great  hattle 
fnu.'iit  at  Hems,  the  troops  of  the  sultana  of 
I>aniu.««u8  and  Egypt  were  entirely  defcauti  and 
pursuni  with  great  slaughter  until  uiirlitfall. 
Aiipp.1.  Hems,  llsmaECUs,  and  all  the  principal 
cities,  surrendered  to  the  victorious  arms  of  the 
Mhl'uIs,  and  the  Templars  once  aeain  entered 
Jerusalem  iu  triumph,  visited  the  Uoly  Sepulchre 


and  celebrated  Easter  on  Mount  Zion."  Tha 
khan  sent  ambassadors  to  Europe,  offering  ths 
possession  of  Palestine  to  the  Christian  powers 
If  they  would  give  him  their  alliance  and  sup- 
port, out  none  responded  to  the  call.  Ohazan 
Khan  fell  ill  and  withdrew  from  Syria;  the 
Templars  retreated  to  Cyprua  once  more  and 
their  military  career,  as  the  champions  of  the 
Cross,  was  at  an  end.— C.  G.  Addison,  JVk* 
Knightt  Temj^n,  eh.  6. 

Also  ik:  H.  H.  Howarth,  Hitt.  of  the  MmooU, 
pt.  3,  eh.  8. 

Effect!  and  coiuequencet  of  the  Crusade* 
in  Europe.— "The  principle  of  the  crusades 
waa  a  savage  fanaticism ;  and  the  most  import- 
ant effects  were  analogous  to  the  cause.  Each 
pilgrim  was  ambitious  to  return  with  his  sacred 
spoils,  the  relics  of  Greece  and  Palestine;  and 
each  relic  waa  preceded  and  followed  by  a  train 
of  miracles  and  visions.  The  belief  of  the 
Catholics  was  corrupted  by  new  legends,  their 
practice  by  new  superstitions;  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  inquisition,  the  mendicant  orders 
of  monks  and  friars,  the  la^t  abuse  of  indulgences, 
and  the  final  progress  of  idolatry,  flowed  from 
the  baleful  fountain  of  the  holy  war.  The 
active  spirit  of  the  Latins  preyed  on  the  vitals  of 
their  reason  and  religion;  and  if  the  ninth  and 
tcLtU  centuries  were  the  times  of  darkness,  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  were  the  age  of 
absurdity  and  fable.  .  .  .  Some  philosophers 
have  applauded  the  propitious  influence  of  these 
holy  wars,  whicu  appear  to  me  to  have  checked 
rather  than  forwarded  the  maturity  of  Europe." 
— E.  Gibbon.  Decline  and  Pall  of  the  Runaa 
Empire,  eh.  61. — "The  crusades  may  be  con- 
sidered as  material  pilgrimages  on  an  enormou* 
scale,  and  their  influence  upon  general  morality 
seems  to  have  been  altogether  pernicious.  Those 
who  served  under  the  cross  would  not  indeed 
have  lived  very  virtuously  at  home;  but  the 
confidence  in  tneir  own  merits  which  the  prin- 
ciple of  such  ejipeditions  inspired  must  nave 
aggravated  the  ferocity  and  dissoluteness  of 
their  ancient  liabits.  Several  historians  attest 
the  depravation  of  morals  which  existed,  both 
among  the  crusaders  and  in  the  states  formed 
out  of  their  conquests.  "—II.  Hallam,  The  MiddU 
Aget,  '■h.  9.  pt.  1. — ■'  It  was  not  possible  for  the 
crusaders  to  travel  through  so  many  cotiuiries, 
and  to  behold  their  various  customs  and  insti- 
tutions, without  acquiring  information  and  im- 
provement. Their  views  enlarge<l;  their  pre- 
judices wore  off;  new  ideas  cnmdeil  into  their 
minds;  Hiiil  tliiy  must  have  been  sensible,  on 
many  occasions,  of  the  rusticity  of  their  own 
manners  when  compared  with  those  of  a  more 
polisheil  people.  .  .  .  Accordingly,  we  discover, 
soon  after  the  commencement  of  the  crusades, 
greater  splendour  in  the  courts  of  princes,  greater 
pomp  in  public  ceremonies,  a  more  refined  taste 
in  pleasun-  and  amusements,  together  with  a 
more  romantic  spirit  of  enterprise  spreading 
pradnally  over  Europe;  and  to  these  wild  expe- 
ditions, the  effect  of  supen<tition  and  follv,  we 
owe  the  first  gleams  of  light  which  tended  to 
dispel  l)arl>arism  and  ignorance.  But  the  bene- 
ficial consequences  of  the  crusades  t<x)k  place 
slowly ;  ihcir  infiiii'nco  upon  the  state  of  property, 
and.  consequently,  of  power,  in  the  different 
kingdoms  of  Europe,  was  more  immediate  as 
Well  as  discernible.  '— W.  Robertson,  iexeofths 
Prwjrttt  of  Soe.  in  Europt,  $eet.  1.—'  The  cru- 


659 


CBUBADE8. 


CfMiiaml 


MdM  an  not,  in  my  mind,  either  the  popular 
ddiulona  that  oar  cheap  llteratuie  bai  determined 
them  to  be,  nor  papal  oooipiraciet  againat  kinga 
and  peoplea,  u  they  appear  to  the  Proteatant 
controTerdaliat;  nor  the  aarage  outbreaka  ot 
expiring   barbariam,    thirating   for   blood   and 

Blunder,  nor  volcanic  ezploaiona  of  religioua 
itolerance.    I  believe  them  to   have  been,  in 
their  deep  aourcea,  and  in  the  minda  of  their  beat 
champions,  and  in  the  muin  tendency  of  their 
resulta,   capable  of  ample  justification.    They 
were  the  flrtt  great  effort  of  medieval  life  to  go 
beyond    the   pursuit    of    (elflah    and    laolated 
ambitiona;  they  were  the  trial-feat  of  the  young 
world,  easaying  to  uae,  to   the  glory  of  Ood 
and  the  benefit  of   man,  the  arma  of  ita  new 
knighthood.  .  .  .  That  in  the  end  tbey  were  a 
benefit  to  the  wurUl  no  one  who  rrads  can  doubt; 
and  that  in  their  coune  they  brought  out  a  lore 
for  all  that  ii  heroic  in  human  nature,  the  love 
of  freoiom,  the  honour  of  prowess,  sympathy 
with    sorrow,    perseverance    to    the    last   and 
patient  endurance  without  hope,  the  chronicles 
of  the  age   abundantly  prove;  proving,   more- 
over, that  it  was  by   the  experience  of  those 
times   that   the    forms   of   those   virtues  were 
realized  and  presented  to  posterity. "— W.  Stubbs, 
StTtntetn  LeeU.  on  the  Study  of  Medimal  and 
Modern  Hint.,  leet.  8.— "Though  begun  under 
the  name  and  influence  of  religious  belief,  the 
crusades  deprived  religious  ideas,  I  shall  not 
say  of  their  legitimate  share  of  influence,  but  of 
their  exclusive  and   despotic  possession  of  the 
human  mind.    This  result,  though  undoubtedly 
unforeseen,  arose  from  various  causes.     The  flrst 
was  evidently  the  novelty,  extent,  and  variety  of 
the  scene  which  displayed  itself  to  the  crusaders: 
what  generally  happens  to  travellers  happened 
to  them.    It  is  mere  common-place  to  say,  that 
travelling  gives  frce<l<>m  to  the  mind;  that  the 
habit  of   observing  different   nations,  different 
manners   and    different   opinions,  enlarges  the 
ideas,  and  disengajfes  the  judgment  from  old 
prejudices.     The  same  thinsr  happened  to  those 
nations  of  travellrri  vm,,  "  ,\     been  cslini  ;!  e 
crusaders;  their  minds  were  „peued  and  rai8e<l 
by  having  seen  a  multitude  of  different  things, 
by     having    become     Bcquainte<l     with     oilier 
manners  than    their  own.     They    found   them- 
selves also  placed  in  connexion  with  two  stales 
of  civilization,  not  only  different  from  their  own, 
but  more  advanced— the  Greek  state  of  »<x;ietv 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the   Mussulman  on  the 
other.  ...   It    is    curious    to    observe    in    tlie 
chronicles  the  impression  made  by  ;be  crusjulers 
on  the  Mussulmans,  who  regarde<l  them  at  first 
as  the  most  brutal,   ferocious,  and  si.. -id  bar 
barians  they  had  ever  sf-en.     The  crusaiK .  ■   on 
their    part,  were    struck    with    the   riches  and 
elegance  of  manners  which  they  observed  among 
the  .Mussulmans.     These  first  impressions  were 
succeeded   by  frequent    relations    between    the 
Mussulmans  and  Christiana.    These  became  more 
extensive    and    important    than    ia   commonly 
believeil.  .  .  .  There    is   another   circumstance 
wliich  is  worthy  of  notice.     Down  to  the  time  of 
the  crusades,  the  court  of  Rome,  the  centre  of 
the  Church,  had   iK'en  very  little  in  communi- 
cation with  the  laitv,  unless  through  the  medium 
of  ecclesiastics;  either  leeal-."  sent  bv  the  court 
of  Home,  or  the  whole  body  of  the  hishops  and 
clergy.     There  were    always   some   laymen  In 
direct  relation  with  Rome;' but  upon  the  whole, 


CRCBADE8. 


It  waa  by  meana  of  charchuMB  that  Rome 

any  communtcatkn  with  the  people  of  diSei 

oountriea.    During  the  cmiadea,  on  the  contn 

Rome  became  a  haltinf -place  for  a  great  pon 

of  the  cruaadera,  either  In  going  or  retumi 

A  multitude  of  laymen  were  spectators  of 

polii^  and  ita  manneit,  and  were  able  to  disco 

the  ahare  which  peraonal  interest  had  in  reliiH 

diaputea.    There  is  no  doubt  that  thisnei 

acquired  knowledge  inapired  many  minds  a 

a  boldneaa  hitherto  unknown.    When  we  c 

aider  the  state  of  the  general  mind  at  the  fern 

ation  of   the  cruaadea,  eapecially  In  regard 

eccleaiastical  matters,  we  cannot  fail  to  be  stn 

with  a  singular  fact :  religioua  notions  undcrv 

no  change,  and  were  not  replaced  by  contrsrj 

even  different  opinlona     Thought,  notwithsta 

ing,  had    become   more   free;   religious  crp 

were  not  the  only  subject  on  which  tlie  bun 

mind  exercised  iufacultiea;  without  abandon! 

them.  It  began  occaaionally  to  wander  from  the 

and  to  'ake   other   directiona.  .  .  .  The  sm 

state  of  aociety  had    undergone   an  analngc 

change.  .  .  .  Without  entering  Into  thediu 

...  we  may  collect  Into  a  few  general  fa 

the  influence  of  the  cruaadea  on  the  social  sti 

of    Europe.      They    greatly    diminished    i 

number  of  petty  fiefs,  petty  dc  nains,  and  pel 

proprietors;    they   concentrated    propertv  a 

power  in  a  amaller  number  of  hancfs.    It  fs  fn 

the  time  of  the  crusadea  that  we  may  observe! 

formation  and  growth  of  great  fiefs— the  eii 

ence  of  feudal  power  on  a  Targe  scale.  .     .  Tl 

waa  one  of  the  most  important  results  of  t 

crusades.     Even    in    tboae    cases    where  sm 

proprietors  preserved  their  fiefs,  thev  did  t 

live  upon  them  in  such  an   insulated  state 

formerly.    The  posaessors  of  great  flefs  beciti 

so  many  centrea  around  which  the  smaller  oi 

were  gathered,  and  near   which  they  came 

live.     During    the   crusades,  small  propriiu 

found  it  necessary  to  phice  themselves  in  i 

train  of  some  rich  and  powerful  chief,  fn)m  kIk 

they  received   assistance   and   support.    Tli 

lived  with  him,  shared  hia  fortune,  ami  pa-w 

through  the  same  fadventures  tba*  tv  did     Wh 

the  crusaders  returned  home,  this  social  spir 

this  habit  of  living  in  intercourse  witli  siiperi( 

continued  to  subsist,  and  had  its  influence  on  t: 

manners  of  the  age.  .  .  .  The  extension  of  tl 

great  flefs.  and    the  creation   of   a  iiumlHT 

central  points  In  society,  in  plaoe  of  the  gent  r 

dispersion  which  previously  existed,  were  tl 

two  principal  effects  of  the  crusades,  eoiisidin 

with  respect  to  their  influence  upon  fruilalisr 

As  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  towns,  a  result 

the  same  nature  may  easily  be  peneived.    Tl 

crusadi's  created  great  civic  communities.    Piti 

commerce  and  petty  Industry  were  not  stiffii  in 

to  give  ri.se  to  communities  sucli  as  the  irre; 

cities  of  Italy  and  Flanders.     It  was  coninKn 

on    a    great   scale — maritime  commerce,   iim 

especially,  the  commerce  of  the  Ea.«l  and  Wi» 

which  gave  them  birth;  now  it  was  tlie  crusadi 

which    gave    to    the    maritime    commerce   tt 

greatest  impulse  it  had  yet  tvceive.1.    On  tt 

whole,  when  we  survey  the  state  of  s<Kiety  i 

t^>c  end  of  the  crusades,  we  find  that  the  nior( 

meut  tending  to  diasolution  and  dis|K'rsion.  tl 

movement  of  tinivcnwl  localiiati.-.n  (if  I  msy  !; 

allowed  such  an  expression),  had  ceased,  and  ha 

been  succeeded  by  a  movement  in  tlie  i-ontrar 

direction,   a  movement   of   centralizatiuu.    1 


it; 


660 


CRUSADX8. 

dUngt  tended  to  mutual  approsiiiution;  mukll 
tbingt  were  sbeorbed  in  great  one*,  or  gatberad 
lottod  them.  Such  wai  the  direction  then 
taken  by  the  progreia  of  loclety."— F.  Quizot, 
But.  0/  Oitiluation,  itet.  8  (v.  1). 

A.  D.  ijSj.— Th*  Bishop  of  NonHdi's 
Cmiadt  is  FUndtra.  See  Flandbrs:  A.  D. 
iM. 

A.  D.  1430-1431.— Cmaadc  anliut  th«  Hno* 
titei.    See  Bohemia:  A.  D.  1419-1484. 

A.  D.  I44>i444-— Chriatian  Europe  agaiut 
tbe  Turka.  See  Turks  (Thb  OrroifAxa): 
A.  D.  1403-1431. 

A.  0.  I467-I47I — Cruaade  Inatintcd  by 
tht  Pope  akainat  Goorce  Podicbrad,  kinc  of 
Bohemia.    See  Bohemia  :  A.  O.  1438-1471. 

« 

CRYPTEIA,  The.  See  Ertptua. 
CTBSIPHON.— "The  Parthian  monarch*, 
Ute  the  Mogul  lovereigns  of  Htndoetan,  delighted 
is  tbe  putoral  life  of  their  ScythUn  ancestors, 
ud  the  imperial  camp  was  frequently  pitched  in 
tbe  plain  of  Cteaiphon,  on  tbe  eastern  banks  of 
the  T  ris,  at  the  distance  of  only  three  miles 
fiDC  .'ucia.  The  innumerable  attendants  on 
lull-  jd  despotism  resorted  to  the  court,  and 
tbeh...  vilUre  of  Ctesiphon  insensibly  swelled 
into  a  great  city.  Under  the  reign  of  Marcus, 
the  Roman  generals  penetrated  as  far  as  Ctesiphon 
ud  Seleuda.  They  were  received  as  friends  by 
the  Greek  colony;  they  attacked  as  enemies  the 
Mtof  the  Parthian  kings;  yet  both  cities  ex- 
perienced the  same  treatment.  The  sack  and 
conflagration  of  Seleucia,  with  the  massacre  of 
300,000  of  the  inhabitants,  tarnished  the  glory  of 
the  Roman  triumph.  Seleucia,  already  exhausted 
by  the  neighborhood  of  a  too  powerful  rival,  sunk 
under  the  fatal  blow;  but  Ctesiphon,  in  about 
thirty-three  years,  had  sufficiently  recovered  lu 
itrength  to  maintain  an  obstinate  siege  against 
the  emperor  Severus.  The  city  was,  however 
tsken  by  assault ;  the  king,  who  defended  it  in 
pereon,  escaped  with  precipitation:  100,000  cap- 
tives and  a  rich  booty  rewarded  the  fatigues  of 
the  Roman  soldiers.  Notwithstanding  these  mis- 
fu::anis,  Ctesiphon  succeeded  U)  Babvlon  and  to 
Seleudu  an  one  of  tbe  great  capitals  0?  the  East  " 
-E.  Gibbon,  Deeline  and  Fall  of  the  Rinnan  Em- 
pin,  fh.  8— In  637  A.  D.  Ctesiphon  pa8se<i  into 
the  possession  of  the  Saracens.  See  Mahomet  uj 
Cos(jfE.sT  .»SD  Empire:  A.  D.  633-651. 

Also  ix:  O.  Rawlinson,  Sizth  Great  Oriental 
Momrrhy.  fh.  6— See.  also,  Medain. 

CUATOS,  The.  See  Americ.\n  Aborioixes  : 
P.»)ii'As  Thibes. 

CUBA:  A.  D.  1492-1493.— Diacovery  by 
Columbus.  Sec  America:  A.  I).  1493;  and 
ItJw-ltUO. 

•*■  9- '5"-— Spanish  conquest  and  occupv 
tion  of  the  island.— "Of  the  islands,  Cuba  was 
the  seoiimi  discovered ;  but  no  atU-mpt  had  been 
iMifc  to  plant  a  colony  there  during  the  lifeUme 
or  Columbus;  who,  indeed  after  s'lirtlng  the 
whole  extent  of  its  southern  00, -■  -tied  in  the 
conriction  that  it  was  pa.  t  .,f  t:,,-  ,.,  utment.  At 
tength  in  l.Ml,  Diego,  tl-  .<on  ai.d  successor  of 
the  admiral,'  who  still  maintRine.:  ?iie  seat  of 
government  in  Hispaniola,  fir  ; ,  the  tnlnes  much 
eihauBied  there,  proposed  to  occupy  the  neieh- 
bour.D..  ...hml  of  Cuba,  ur  Fcraandina.  a«  it  is 
«lled.  in  compliment  to  the  Spanish  monareh. 
ne  prepared  a  small  force  for  the  conquest,  which 
he  placed  under  the  command  of  Don  Diego 


CUBA. 

Velaaquei.  .  .  .  Velasquez,  or  rather  hla  lieuten- 
ant Manraex,  who  took  the  office  on  himself  of 
scouring  the  oountir.  met  with  no  serious  oppo- 
sition from  the  inhabitants,  who  were  of  the  asms 
lamUy  with  the  effeminate  natives  of  HIapaniola. " 
After  the  conquest,  Velasquez  waa  appofaited 
governor,  and  esubUshed  his  seat  of  government 
Sf"  ,V°;^°  ""  southeast  comer  of  the  island. 
— W.  H.   Preicott,    CtmquM  e/  Itnieo,  bk.  2, 

A^%.f.   ^  ^"^^  *«»**  <*»»^  •■» 

1  i^?"  »5M-i«S«.— Slow  dtrelopracot  of  tht 
lsl«Bd.-Capture  of  Hsvans  by  ths  EntU™ 
-Discontent  with  Sosnish  rie.-CoMpira; 
ciesof  rerolntion.— -VeUsquez  founded  many 
of  the  towns  of  the  islandrtfe  first  of  whichTM 
Baracoa,  then  Bayamo,  and  in   J314  Trinidad, 
Santo  Espiritu,  Puerto  Principe;  next,  in  1615 
SantUgo  de  Cuba,  as  alao,  in  the  same  year.  th4 
town  of  Habana.  .  .  .  This  period  (1511-1607)18 
particularly  interesting  to  the  general    reader 
from  the  fact  that  in  it  the  explorations  of  Her- 
nandez de  Cadoba  and  Griialva  to  Darien  Yuca- 
tan, etc    were  inaugurated,  —  evenU  which  had 
so  much  to  do  with  the  spread  of  SpanUh  rule 
and  discovery,  paving  the  way  as  they  did  for 
the   exploration   of    Mexico   under    Hernando 
tortes,  who,  in  the  eariy  history  of  Cuba,  tic- 
ures  largely  as  the  lieutenant  of  the  Governor 
Velasquez.         .  In  1524,  Diego  Velasquez  died, 
—  his  death  hastened,  it  is  said,  by  the  troubles 
brought  upon  him  by    his  disputes  with    his 
insubordinate    lieutenant,    Cortes.  ...  In    the 
history  of  the   Improvement  of  the  island    his 
government  will  bear  favoi^ble  comparison  with 
many  of  the  later  governments;  and  while  that 
great  evil,   slavery,   was    introduced    into   the 
•aland  in  his  time,  so  also  was  the  sugar  cane 
■  •  \  \P  '"   ''^'    """^  seems  to   be    nothinit 
specially  striking  in  the  general  history  of  the 
Island,  If  we  except  the  constant  attacks  with 
Are  and  sword  of  the  '  fllibusteros, '  or  pirates  of 
all  nations,  from  which  most  all  the  sea-const 
towns  suffered  more  or  less;  but  in  that  vear 
there   arrived   at    Santiago   de   Cuba   a    man 
destined    to    play    an    important    part    in    the 
historv  and  discovery  of   the  new   world,  and 
named    as    Provincial  Governor  of  Florida   as 
well    as    of    Cuba,— I     allude    to     Hernando 
de    hoto,     who    brought    with    liiin    lu    large 
vessels,  prepared  and  titted  out  e.xpre.islv  for  the 
conquest  of  the  new  Spanish  territory  of'Florida 
After  much  care  and    preparation,    this  e.xpe 
dition  started   out  from   the  city  of    Habana 
the  13th  of  May  [see  Florida:  A.  D.  ISSS-l.VtSl' 
...  In  this  perimi,  also,  wm  promulgated  that 
order,  secund,  it  is  believed,  by  the  uoble  efforts 
of  Padre  Las  Casas,  prohibiting  the  enslaving  of 
the  aborigiues;  while,  also,  such  had  become  its 
importance  as  a  town,  all  vessels  directed  to  and 
from  Mexico  were  ordered  to  sU)p  at  Havana. 
In  the  periwl  of  years  that  elapsed  from  1007  to 
1763,  the  island  seems  to  have  been  in  a  perfect 
sute  of  lethargy,  except  the  usual  changes  of 
its  many  Governors,  and  the  raids  made  upon  it 
by  pirates,  or  by  more  legalized  enemies  m  the 
form  of  French  and  Engl'sh  men-of-war.     la 
this  latter  year,  however,  occurred  an  event  of 
much  import,    from   the  fact  that  after  It,   or 
upon  its  occurrence,  the  Government  of  Spain 
Was  led  to  see  the  great  imporUncc  of  Cuba,  nnd 
particularly  Havana,  as  the  'Key  to  the  ^ew 


m 


661 


CUBA. 

World,' — thla  event  wu  the  tMogot  Hsvans 
bj  the  Engliah.  On  the  6th  of  June,  1702,  there 
arrived  off  the  port  of  Havana  an  English 
■quadron  of  33  ships  and  frigates,  with  some  200 
transports,  bringing  with  them  a  force  of  nearly 
80,000  men  of  all  arms,  under  command  of  the 
Duke  of  Albemarle.  This  fonnidable  arma- 
ment, the  largest  that  America  had  ever  seen, 
laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Havana,  whose  garrison 
consisted  at  that  time  of  only  alwut  2,700  regu- 
lars and  the  volunteers  that  took  up  arms  imme- 
diately for  the  defense  of  the  place  .  .  .  The 
garrison,  however,  made  a  very  gallant  and  pro- 
longed defense,  notwithstanding  the  smallness 
of  their  numbers,  and  finally,  surrendering, 
were  permitted  to  march  out  with  the  honors  of 
war,  the  English  thus  coming  into  |)os8e8s!on  of 
the  most  important  defences  on  the  coast,  and. 
subsequently,  taking  possession  of  the  town  of 
ttatimzas.  Remainmg  in  possession  of  this  por- 
tion of  the  Island  of  Cuba  for  many  months 
(until  July  6,  1783).  the  English,  by  importing 
negro  labor  to  cultivate  the  large  tracts  4)f  wild 
land,  and  by  shipping  large  quantities  of 
Eun>pean  merchandize,  gave  a  start  to  the  trade 
and  tmlllc  of  the  island  tliat  pushed  it  far  on  its 
way  to  the  state  of  prosperity  it  has  now 
reachejl ;  but  by  the  treaty  of  peace,  at  Purls,  in 
February,  1763  [see  Seven  lears  Warj.  was 
restored  to  Spain  tlie  portion  of  the  island 
wrested  from  her  by  the  English.  ...  In  this 
[H'riiKi  (1762-1801)  the  island  made  rapid  ad- 
viitires  in  imprrvveinent  and  civilization,  nmiiy  of 
tlir  I'aptainsOemTBl  of  this  period  dohig  much 
to  Improve  the  towns  and  the  people,  iH'Uiitifv- 
liiir  the  slnt'tn.  ertrting  buildings.  et<-  In  l7(i:i. 
a  large  einigratliin  tixik  plaie  fn)m  Kloridu.  und  in 
170.')  the  French  emigrants  fMin  Santo  Ikimlngo 
came  on  to  the  island  in  large  iiuinlnTN.  .  .  .  From 
W>\.  rapid  inrreaM'  in  the  pMs|Mrlty  of  the 
islauil  has  taken  place.  .At    various  tlnie» 

insurrections,  some  of  thini  quite  serious  in  their 
nature,  have  shown  what  the  natural  desin-  of 
the  native  population  is  for  greater  privileges 
anil  fri'edom.  ...  In  1"<2;1.  there  was  a  wxiety 
of 'soles. '  as  It  was  lalled.  formed  for  the  pur- 
pos<'  of  fneing  llie  island,  having  at  its  head 
youug  I)  Francisco  Lenius.  and  having  for  its 
preteit  thai  the  island  was  alu'iit  to  Ik'  sold  to 
England.  In  IM'.II.  there  wa-  lisiovered  the 
conspiracy  of  tlie  Hluik  Eagle.  a>  it  was  ealli-ii 
(.\gulla  Ni'gnil,  an  alliinpl  on  the  pjirt  of  the 
tHjpulation  to  obtain  their  fn  riloni,  some  of  the 
Mexican  M'tthn  in  the  island  iHlng  prominent 
in  it  The  Insurrection,  or  attempt  at  one.  by 
the  blacks  in  1H44,  was  n-markable  for  Its  wide- 
spni'  1  ramitlcalions  among  the  slaves  „(  the 
Island,  as  well  as  its  tliorough  organi/ailon.— ■ 
tlie  intention  Iwlng  to  niunlir  all  the  w liitis  on 
the  Island  Other  minor  in«urn-eiiiui»  tliiTe 
were,  l.irl  it  remained  for  Narciso  I,ii|m/.,  with  a 
fonc-  of  some  WKI  men.  to  make  the  most  ini 
(•orlant  nitemiit  [\>V)\\.  in  which  he  hist  his  life, 
to  friT  the  island  "—S  llarani,  Cufci  viiK/Hh 
anil  friiril,  ,,,,   .V47  .VIO 

Ai.Ko  IS    M    M    liallou.   tlt'l  nfCKi,  fh.  1-3 
— I.ord  .Mahon   iKarl  StanlmiM). " //i»r  ,.f  fr,„. 
1:1:1  17N3.  .-A    ;|M  ir  41  -.1     F.nlicl,.  //iW    ,.f  iU 
hit,  ir.ir,  r  X  ,,,<  .MW-BHrt  — |)  Turnl.ull.  Tk/m. 
th   ti-'H 

A.  D.  il4S-iSte.  — Acquisition  co*tttd  b^ 
the  ilaTC-power  in  the  United  Stkttt.— At- 
ttapttd  purcfcMc.— FiUbuMcring  tchaoMS.— 


CUBA. 

The  Ostcnd  Manifesto.—"  When  the  !«n 
colonies  in  America  became  independent. 
abolished  slavery.  Apprehensive  that  tii 
publics  of  Mexico  ana  Columbia  woulc 
anxious  to  wrest  Cuba  and  Porto  UicD 
Spain,  secure  their  independence,  and  iiitni 
into  those  islands  the  idea,  if  they  did  not  t 
lish  the  fact,  of  freedom,  the  slave-masters  [0 
United  States]  at  once  sought  to  guard  aj; 
what  they  deemed  so  calamitous  an  eviin ' 
But  after  the  annexation  of  Texas,  there  n 
change  of  feeling  and  purpose,  and  Cuba. 
being  an  object  of  dread,  became  an  ohj,, 
vehement  desire.  The  propagandist.s.  .stni 
ened  and  emlnddened  by  that  signal  triui 
now  turned  their  ey^  towards  this  Uau 
'  isle  of  the  sea,'  as  the  theatre  of  new  ex|i| 
and  they  determined  to  secure  the  ■  gi  ui  ol 
Antilles '  for  the  coronet  of  their  great  and  i; 
hig  power.  During  Mr.  Polk's  adniini.^tn 
an  attempt  was  made  to  purchase  it,  and  th,' 
of  $100,000,000  was  offered  thi^refor  IJm 
offer  was  promptly  declineil.  What,  linw, 
could  not  lie  liought  It  was  detemdncil  i<>  1, 
and  filibustering  movements  and  expecliiion, 
came  the  order  of  the  day.  For  no  s.H,iiir 
President  Taylor  inaugiirated  than  lit  f, 
movements  on  foot  in  that  direction ;  am 
August,  1N49.  be  Issued  a  prcK'lamalion.  all 
Ing  his  Ix'llef  that  an  'armed  eX|MHiiii,.u 
Mng  fitted  out  'against  tuba  or  fune  ,.( 
provinces  of  Mexico,'  and  calling  upon  all ; 
citizens  '  to  discountenance  and  prevt  n'  any 
enterprise.'  In  18.11  an  exiHiliticm,  ciin«i.tiii 
some  ,V»0  men.  saileti  fmm  New  (Irli  uis  u 
Lopez,  a  Cuban  adventurer.  Hut  tlmunl 
effected  a  lamling.  it  was  easily  di  (i;ii.  li,  au 
leader  and  a  few  of  his  followers  wi  ri'  c  xic  u 
SiKin  afterward,  a  scent  a»s<Miati  11,  ^n 
lts«'lf  the  Oriler  of  the  Lone  Star.  w:i^  f,.ni,i- 
several  of  the  Seiuthem  cities,  hiiviuj;  a  >iii 
objcHt  In  view;  but  it  attnictecl  liiile-  notiir 
Hceoniplishi  \  nothing.  ...  In  Aui.'ii^t.  1 
Pri'slelenl  P.eree  Instructicl  Mr,  Marc\  liUS 
tiiry  of  State,  to  direct  H'lchanan.  .Mawii 
Soule''.  ministers  n'siMctlvely  at  llii'  e^iiirf 
London,  Paris  and  Mailrid.  to  ronvnK'  In  s 
Europitin  city  and  confer  with  eac  h  other  lu 
ganl  to  the  matter  of  gaining  (iiha  toth<  I'd 
States.  They  mil  aci'onlinglv,  in  u. icls 
(Mend.  The  results  of  their  efi  Ills  rail  us  i 
pnblislied  in  a  manifesto,  in  wliii  h  tjji  rei: 
are  set  forth  for  the  acquisition;  aiicliheilnl 
tion  was  made  that  the  Union  lonhi  111  vcrct 
re|">se  and  security  as  long  as  I'uIki  i>  licit 
liraeecl  within  Its  iHiundaries. '  Hut  iIii-  f 
source  of  anxiety,  the  rontrolliug  nioiivi. 
the  aiiprehension  that,  unless  so  unnexol 
wdulil  '  Im'  Africanized  and  IxHomr  a  mihuiI 
iKiiningo,'  thus  'seriously  to  eniiaiiLir' 
Union  "This  painr  attracted  gnat  iitn iill'ii 
caused  niiieli  astonlsliinent  It  was  a!  tirvt 
eelnsl  with  incn'dulity.  as  If  tin  re  had  !•  •  11  • 
nilstak*  or  linpewllion  praetlseil  lini  ll 

was  no  mistake  .  .  It  was  ihcchlilii  nn  u! 
ami'  of  the  I'onfen'iice.  and  ii  mciiid  the 
dorsemeul  uf  Mr  Plene  and  hi-  ailminwnit 
The  IVmcMTatie  natioiMl  nmvi  iiiiun»  if  Is.V) 
of  1M*J  were  quite  as  explicit  as  were-  iliesutl 
..•  tJM.  (fctf^nd  msr.lf*~t-  '  tii  f>i?"T  -f  ;'■-  ~-i- 
lion  of  Cul*"— H  Wilson,  lliH  .'/ lU  , 
einif  t'alt  of  lAt  Slatt  J\»etr  in  Amtrita.  t 
M.  47. 


cr.L' 


When  thf  Spanish 
luiicpendem.  the? 
naive  that  iln>  re. 
lumliia    Would  be 

Porti.  liioi.  from 
Dvv,  aud  ininHluce 
hoy  did  not  isiab- 
ave-niiiateR  [of  iije 
;  to  (juurd  acaliat 
Dus  an  ivcrit 
Pcxas.  thiTe  wa«  i 
e,  and  t'lilia.  fn.m 
came  an  olijirt  of 
gandist.s,  stnni'ih. 
It  signal  iriuni|ili. 
nh  this  iH-autitui 
!  of  new  ei|.|i)iis; 
e  the  •  pvm  of  the 
fir  gri'at  aud  irriM. 
!k'«  Hdiniiii.'.tratioa 
laselt,  and  111,,  sum 
ther.-for,  liiii  the 
What,  howivcr, 
•temihiiil  lo  Mial, 
nd  ex|niliii,,ns  hf. 
■'or  no  s»M,iiir  waj 
1  than  li.  f„nnJ 
dinnioi!;  mul.  in 
K'lanialioii.  atlinii. 
1  expcdiii.'U  vat 
tia  or  Hinu'  of  tlie 
llnv  upon  all  pkd 
I  liri'Vi  lit  any  <uoli 
ition,  roM«ist'iiii  of 
ew  ((rlriii«  uitler 
Hut  thouiih  ii 
y  il.fi-ai.d,  iiu.l  hi 
em  u.ri'  ixiiiii,.! 
swH'iaiO'ii,  >uliije 
ur.  w;i^  forti.nl  in 
i.  hiivjiic  a  >iim!ar 
d  little  iioii.v  and 
In  Aiis.Mi-1.  1«.>J, 
•,  Many,  liL^S-irf- 
laiiaii.   Mason  aui 

at  I  lie  eourts  of 
I  convi  no  in  s'lne 
I  I'ai  h  oihor  iu  ff- 
Culia  totliol'nitij 
Iv,  ill  H,  toirr,  tt 
ffilil«  rail. 'IIS  «!■!<• 
w  hit  li  till'  n-aM'Ui 
a;  and  llieiiiuin- 
eoiild  ni'Vi  r lujor 
.»  Culia  is  not  tm- 

1. '      lllil    till'   (TMll 

dliug  iiioiivi.  UK 
i  t(o  uiii)*'\ii!  httr 
'onif  a  siTonit  >«a 
lo  enilankiir  tlir 
^n'lit  iiiiiiili.'iiiiml 
ft  \>a!>  at  HM  If' 
ii're  liad  Ixiisonie 
•d  .  .  Hmi  llnre 
lie  delil«  rite  utiir 

t  M'l  in.l  till'  ID- 
li«  aiilllllilslnittoll- 
•iiiloiis'if  iNVtund 
M  Were  (lieautlion 
tr-T  .-f  ;!»  v-i'iis 
lliit  if  iU  ft* 
IH  Amtrva.  t  t. 


CUBA. 

A.  D.  1850.— The  Case  of  the  Black  War- 

figr,_One  of  the  irritations  that  excited  feeling 
in  the  United  States  against  the  Spanish  author- 
ities In  Cuiit.  aa  cauied,  in  1850,  by  the  seizure, 
at  HsTana,  on  purely  technical  grounds,  of  the 
steamer  "Black  Warrior,"  which  touehed  at 
the  port  for  panengers  and  mall  Her  cargo 
was  confiscated  and  a  heavy  fine  levied  on  the 
ship.  Indemnity  for  the  wrong  to  the  owners 
vM  only  obtained  after  live  years  of  controversy. 

A  D.  1863-1895.— In  his  book,  "The  West 
lufliir"-"!  ■■.•'  Spanish  Main,"  published  in  1859, 
Mr.  Aiitlii  i"  Trollope  descrilxMl  the  situation  of 
the  C  iba  .  under  Spanish  rule  by  saying:  "At 
pr(>s(it  tl  T  have  no  national  privilege  except 
tl  lit  of  I.'  dergoing  taxation.  Every  ofHce  is 
'  ■  t)v  8  Spaniard. "  Of  course,  there  was  deep- 
Mat«<i  v'  ^content,  and  many  insurrectionary  at- 
teiiipts;  but  "it  was  not  till  the  end  of  1N6.5,  and 
after  protracted  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  colo- 
nists, that  they  succeeded  la  obtaining  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  commlasloo  to  ini|uire  Into  the 
cauK's  of  their  discontent."  Nothing  came  of 
it:  and  the  Cubans  then  "set  themselves  to 
deriiH'  plans  for  freeing  their  Island  fmni  the 
crushing  dominion  of  Spain.  ...  In  the  month 
of  August,  1868,  it  was  determined  that  an 
rtnimary  should  be  sent  through  the  various 
districts  of  the  Island,  with  the  ostensible  pur- 
po«  of  arranging  agencies  for  a  Journal  newly- 
establishnl  at  llavannah,  but  in  reality  to 
^itiiie  the  state  of  public  opinion,  and  see  upon 
what  assistance  an  Insurrectionary  movement 
iniilit  rely,  ,  ,  ,  The  revolutlou  in"  the  niutlier- 
C'liinlry  In  September,  IHH8.  which  drove  the 
llourluMi  dynasty  from  the  throne.  s<rms  to  have 
|iriii|ilt«t<il  tlieinsurreetiiin  In  I'ulia.  .  .  .  The 
llrtit  liop<'  seems  t4)  have  been  that  the  new  Gov- 
irimiiut  would  aniellorati'  the  coinlition  of  tlie 
I'liniy.  In  which  still  a  not  unini|>ortanl  party 
tiuac  to  the  desire  for  suih  reforms  ai*  woultl 
malile  them  to  remain  connected  with  the  coun- 
try of  which  they  ha<l  so  long  formed  a  part. 
Thi«  hope  was  (ll4ap|Hiinte<l.  and  the  insurgents 
ilid  not  wait  hing  Iwfore  they  took  action  The 
s!  imlanl  of  revolt  was  at  length  raiseii  by  Carlos 
Manuel  de  I'espedcs,  on  his  estate  of  DeniajaguH, 
lit  a  short  distance  from  the  town  of  Yani,  in  the 
lastorn  di'fiartiiient.  t'esjx'des  was  known  as  an 
iilili  lawyer  and  wealthy  planter ,  iitnl  he  was  not 
>!  iw  in  ulliaetiiig  III  himself  a  res|H'i  talile  fol. 
liwiiii:  .\t  rtrsi  lie  found  lilmstdf  at  the  hemi  of 
Itiil  a  small  iiiunber  of  pairiots.  and  all  Ills  more 
trtisiworiliy  slaves,  the  latter  of  whom  he  iilier- 
atisi  on  ilie  spot.  He  was  soon  Jnilleil  liv  his 
rriiml  .Xirullera,  and  ttie  two  then  decided  that 
lliov  wiiulil  never  abAiidoii  tlie  i-ause  till  thev 
liaii  fris'ii  th.-  Island  from  K|miilsh  ride  ninl  n  ii. 
iIitihI  It  iiide|M"ndent."  — A1/i>iAk»v/A  UirinF  ll>l. 
W-\.  —  The  struggle  for  Cuban  liiile|»iidenee 
lliiis  iM'iriin  was  umlntalneil  for  ten  years,  with 
I  'lis.  i|iiiiin'»  terribly  destructive  Iii  the  pron- 
1»  ritv  of  the  Islaml.  The  contest  had  Utile  of 
111'  I  haraeter  of  civilized  warfare,  on  either  side. 
.\tii.iiig  lis  incidents  was  one  that  causini  great 
■  M  iteinenl  In  the  Tnlted  States.  An  .Vmerlean 
•taniir.  tile  Virglnius,  Captain  .losenh  Fry,  t.Kik 
'  !i  a  earKo  of  war  material  for  the  CuImii  Insur 
t  iiu.  ai  I'lirt  ail  l*rlnce.  in  Octotier.  l^TH      She 

IS  .Mrtaken  on  her  voyage  to  the  island  tiy  the 
Spanish  gun  boat  Tornado,  eaplurisi  ami  taken 
' '  Ninliago  de  Cuba  Then'  Captain  l-'rv  and 
liii!  irt'w  wcrt  trk.>d  by  court  martial  auil  cuu- 


CULDEES, 


demned  to  death.  The  Captain  and  flfty-two  of 
his  men,  with  four  insurgent  chiefs  who  had 
taken  passage  on  the  Virglnius,  were  summarily 
shot.  Ninety -thret!  more,  under  sentence,  were 
saved  by  the  vigorous  protests  of  the  captain  of 
the  British  steamer  Niobe,  which  arrived  from 
Jamaica  in  time  to  interfere.  Much  as  Ameri- 
cans were  horritieil  and  e.\cited  by  the  deed,  the 
American  government  could  not  call  the  Snan- 
ianls  to  account,  since  the  Virglnius  was  unlaw- 
fully engaued,  and  her  <  aptors  had  a  technical 
riirht  to  the  savage  pt'naity  they  exacted.  The 
Rniiie  savagery  of  spirit  appears  to  hiive  been 
exhibited  throughout  the  war.  In  1878  it  was 
practically  terminated,  by  an  agreement  cuUeil 
the  Treatvof  El  Zanjon,' under  which  Maximo 
Ooniej,  the  Cuban  military  leader,  abandoned 
the  struggle  and  n'tireil  to  San  Domingo,  The 
treaty  gave  representation  to  Cuba  in  the  Span- 
ish Cortiw,  and  i(rovidi<l  for  various  apparent 
reforms  Ui  llie  government  of  the  island.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Cubans,  litth'  has  been  realized  from 
them.  Thev  are  said  to  have  simply  given  new 
iiiinira  to  o(d  evil-  nIhvitv,  however,  which 
had  been  praclii  ally  dislroyed  by  the  war.  was 
formally  alioUshed  by  a  decree  of  Octi  ilar  7, 1H86, 
after  having  bt'cn,  in"  |8m(i,  ri-duced  to  a  prepara- 
tory system  of  "  patrt>nai.'e. "  Discontent  has 
tieen  stitadily  spreadlne  anew,  since  the  pnieti- 
cal  outcome  of  the  treaty  of  El  Zaniou  iH-gan  to 
be  uiulerstiMMl,  and  the  standard  of  revolt  was 
aiiain  raisid  by  .Maximo  Gomez,  In  February, 
\x\)'^.  The  war  thus  ri"pened  seems  likelv  to 
be  more  determined  and  ciestructlvi;  than  before. 


lf%lti' 


CUBIT.  The,— "The  length  of  the  Egvptiun 
fi>>t  is  .  .  .  shown  to  be  e(|ual  to  l.oi.s  I'iliiiliBli 
foot,  or  12.16  Inches  (USONtl  metre!  aud  the  cubit 
lo  IX  34  English  Inches,  or  u.4«3  metre.  This 
cubit  was  Identical  wiih  the  I'linniciau  or  Klym- 
pie  eiiliit,  afterwanls  adopted  in  Gret-ce.  ,  ,  . 
The  second  of  the  two  Egyptian  cubits  was  the 
royal  cubit,  or  cubit  of  Menijihis,  of  seven  palms 
or  twenty-eight  diirits,  .  .  ,  The  mean  length  of 
the  Egyptian  roval  cubit  Is  .  .  .  nseertaiueil  to 
be  2tl.fl"7  English  inches,  or  5J5  uiiii.  .  .  .  The 
fact  that  Moses  nhvavs  nnntions  the  Egyptia.i 
measures  ...  us  well  as  the  Kiryplian  uelghta 
provesthiit  the  llilin  WM.riL'iiially  brought 
I lii'ir  ueiulits and  iiiea-iiris  from  Egypt  .  .  .  Iu 
hisdlsserlalioii  on  eiiliiis,  Sir  Isiiiie  Newton  slate* 
grounds  for  his  opinion  that  the  siii  nsl  eiildi  of 
the, lews  na«i'i|ii:il  lo  'J4. 7  ol  our  iiii  lies,  and  that 
the  royal  ciiliil  of  Memphia  was  equivalent  to 
tlvr-aiktlis  of  iliix  xaerni  ,lew  ish  iiibil,  or  30  6 
Inches"— II.  \V  Chlsholni,  »<«  tht  Srifiiet  of 
HV/.;'"".','"'"'  Mion'irh.ij.  ,-h    3 

CUCUTA,  The  Convention  of     SecCuLOM- 

IIIAN   STATts     .\     |l     l'<IH-l«!ll» 

CUFA     S.I  ilrssoH*!!  Hill  Kir.\ 
CUICIDH.  The     See  Tr  \tii.  The. 
CULOEES.  The  -It  usid  to  beset  forth  bjr 
rrlit: lolls  hi-loriiiiis  that  the  t  iiUltss  were  an  an- 
cleiii  ri.liL''nus  fraternity  in  Scotland,  iirobably 
foiiiidi  d  liv  Coliiinba  tliesnintly  Irish  nilsnionary 
of  the  sixth  ceiilu        iinil  hstrlog  lis  nriii.ipal 
s<.at    ill    loiia :    that    they    "w.e  the  liitlns  of 
Scotland  in  a  dark  and  superstitious  age"  ;  that 
they  •tnigiiiisi  tor  •evernl  ceiitiirits  airninsi  lb* 
error*  aiidthe  opitriMwIve  priiensloiis  of  Home 
The  facts  galherisl   by  Dei.n  l<ei\es  niul  pub- 
lished iu  1H04.  Iu  hia  work  on  the  "Cukleesof 


CC3 


It     c,3 


t-  ^; 


CUMBRIA. 

the  British  blaoda,"  supported  by  the  more 
recent  studies  of  Mr.  W.  F.  Skene,  are  now  iren- 
eraily  accepted.  Says  Mr.  Skene,  {Celtic  Seat- 
land,  bk.  3,  cA.  A) :  "  It  is  not  till  after  tlie  ez- 

Suision  of  Uie  Columban  monks  from  tlie  king- 
om  of  the  Picts,  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighth 
century,  that  the  name  of  Culdee  appears."  Mr. 
Skene's  conclusion  is  that  the  Culdevs  sprang 
from  an  ascetic  order  called  Delcolc  or  Oo<l-wor- 
shippersi  that  in  Irish  the  name  l>ecame  Ceile  De, 
thence  comipted  into  Culdee;  that  they  were 
hermits,  who  became  in  time  aasnrlated  In  com- 
munities, and  were  Anally  brought  under  the 
canonical  rule  of  the  Roman  church,  along  with 
th€'  secular  clergy. 

CULEUS,  The.     Bee  Amphora. 

CULHUACAN.  See  Mexico,  AsctxnT: 
The  Toltec  Empire. 

CULLODEN,  Battle  of  (1746).  See  Scot- 
land: A.  D.  174V1746. 

CULM,  OR  KULM,  Battle  of  See  Qer- 
MAKT:  A.  D.  1«13  (Al-orsT). 

GULP'S  HILL.  See  United  States  or 
Am.;  a.  D.  1863  (.TrsE-Ji'LT:  Pessstlvania). 

CULTURKAMPF,  The.  See  Qermant; 
A.  D.  1873-1887. 

CUMiE.-CUMiEAN  SIBYL,  — "Earlier 

than  Tin  B.  C though  we  do  not  know 

the  precise  era  of  Its  commencement  .there  eilsteii 
one  solitary  Orecian  estahliitbment  in  the  Tyrrhe- 
nian Sea, — the  Campaninn  Cumie,  near  Caix' 
Misenum ;  which  the  more  common  opinion  of 
chronologlsts  supposed  tu  have  been  founded  in 
1090  B.  C.  and  which  has  even  been  carried  bark 
by  some  authors  to  1139  B.  C".  .  .  .  Cuma>.  situ- 
ated on  the  neck  of  the  peninsula  which  termi- 
nates in  Cap<-  Misenum,  occupied  a  lofty  and 
rocky  bill  overhanging  the  sea  and  dilllcull  of 
srcpw  on  the  land  »)de  ...  In  the  hollow  nxk 
umlir  the  very  wnIIk  of  the  town  was  sItuHli-d 
the  cnvcm  of  the  prophetic  Sibyl,  — a  parallel 
iiid  reproiluctlon  of  the  Oergithlan  Sibyl,  ne.ir 
Kyme  In  .Kolis:  in  the  linnimlate  neighUirhiH^I, 
tiv),  stood  the  wild  womb  iind  dark  l«ke  of  .\Ter- 
niiH,  ronwrrated  to  the  nulitiTmnean  goiU,  and 
oflirini:  nn  establishment  of  priests,  with  cere- 
monii-x  evoking  the  dead,  for  purposes  of  pr<v 
phiTV  or  for  solving  doubts  nnd  inysteric«  It 
wii»  tiiTi'  that  Ctrtviiin  iniHgination  liK'aliiwI  ths 
CimmeriHris  and  the  futile  of  Odysseus  "  —  O. 
(Jrote.  Iliit   iff  iimrt,  }il.  2,  rh   'ii  —See,  also. 

SlRTI.S 

CUMANS  OR  KOMANS,  The.    See  IIiN- 

OAHY     .\.    I>     Ill4-l;l(ll. 

CUMBERLAND  COLLEGE,    SeeKincA- 
Ttos,  Moii|.:hn     Amkkii  a     .V.  D   17(I1»-1hi»4. 
CUMBERLAND  GAP,   The  capture   oC 

— .Sk^ikmukr  :  Tb.nnksskei. 
CUMBERLAND    ROAD.      Sec    Cmted 

SUTKS  OK   \H.      A.    I)     l-MW-^ldia 

CUMBRIA:  The  Britithkincdora.— '  The 

llritons  of  Cumbria  iiciiipy  a  tolerably  large 
spoei'  on  the  map,  but  a  very  sinall  <me  in  history : 
— ihiir  annal'J  have  entirely  perishiil .  —  and 
nothing  'luuientic  remains  coucerning  them, 
eiiept  afew  paNsages.  .  .  .  itonuiiiie  would  fur- 
nish mort' ,  for  It  was  In  Cumbria  that  Khyderc, 
or  Kuderic  the  magnlflcent.  is  therein  represented 
|j>  have  n-lun'-Ml.  h'm!  Merllti  to  hav**  propbesie?!. 
Arthur  held  Ills  roiirt  in  merry  Carlisle,  and 
Perf«liir,  tht*  I'rinif  of  Smisliine.  whtwe  name 
we  find  amongst  thf  primes  of  Stralhclyde,  it 


864 


CLTrailFORH  WRITING. 

one  of  the  great  heroea  of  the  '  Hablnoglon,'  0 
Ules  of  youth,  long  preterred  by  traditloi 
amongst  the  Cymri.  These  fantastic  persona»« 
however,  are  of  importance  in  one  point  "f  rg, 
because  they  show,  what  we  might  o;  rvi» 
forget  — that  from  the  Ribble  in  Lanca  ire  „ 
thereabouts,  up  to  the  Clyde,  there  mst.l , 
dense  population  composed  of  Britons,  who  pre 
served  their  national  language  ami  cusuinis 
agreeing  hi  all  respecU  with  the  Welsh  of  tb 
present  day.  So  that  even  in  the  tenth  centun- 
thr  ancient  Britons  still  Inhabited  the  greail- 
par!  of  the  western  coast  of  the  island,  howect- 
much  they  had  been  compelled  to  yield  to  thi 
political  supremacy  of  the  Saxon  invaders.  Thi 
'  Regnum  Cumbrense '  comprehended  many  dis 
tricta,  probably  governed  by  petty  princei  o' 
Regull,  in  subordination  to  a  chief  monarch  ( 1 
Pendragon.  Reged  appears  to  have  been  snme 
where  in  the  vicinltv  of  Annandale.  8traihclvil( 
is  of  course  the  district  or  vale  of  Cly<lesd'al<' 
In  this  district,  or  state,  was  situated  Alcluril 
or  Dunbritton,  now  Dumbarton,  where  tbt 
British  kings  usually  resided ;  and  the  vbolt 
Cumbrian  kingdom  was  not  infrequently  calleii 
Stratliclvde,  from  the  ruling  or  principttlstst) 
—  F.  Palgrave,  Hittoty  of  the  An;/l<i-S,ixoa:  rS 
11.— Cumbria  and  Cambria  {Wales i.  tlie  tw. 
states  long  maintained  by  the  Britons,  nirairisi 
the  Ancles  and  Saxons,  bore.  In  n'slity.  thi' same 
name.  Cumbria  being  the  more  com-ot  forni  "f  it 
The  earliest  development  of  the  so^ralliil  Welsh 
puetrv  seems  to  have  been  in  Ciindiriii  ralliir 
than (n  Wales.  Talieaen and  Aniiirin nrrrCun', 
iirian  barrls.  and  Arthur,  If  any  historirnl  pirviii 
age  stands  liehind  his  kinglv  shadow,  una  ppj|, 
ably  a  Cumbrian  hero  — J.  Rhys,  <i^^>  llrilniii 

A'so  l!»:  W.  F.  Skene,  The  Four  Aufif.t 
Hn  ,»  iif  Watee. —  See.  also.  Ktmht.  Aultde, 
and  Scotland:  l(>TH-llTn  Cektiuiks 

CUNARD  LINE,  The  founding  of  the,  »v^e 
Stkam  Navkiation:  On  the  (Hi- an 

CUNAXA,  Battle  of  (B.  C.  401 1,  See  Ptn 
BIA    »   C   4(il-«(S> 

CUNEIFORM  WRITING.-Tli,<li«p.ft. 
eniplovf-d  for  the  written  languages  if  nn  ir 
Uiiiirlonia  aild  Assyria  have  hi-i-n  lullnl  (uor 
form,  from  the  Latin  cuneus.  a  WHipc,  heosu* 
the  marks  compiiKlng  them  are  wnlgi-  »hap,Al 
.Ml  knowledge  of  those  ehararters  an.l  ■  f  tV 
Inngnagcs  expressi'd  in  them  hati  l».i'  1 '«t  f"r 
many  renturies.  and  its  riocnt  re<"v,  n  nunc  if 
thii  most  marvelous  aehie'etninti'  nf  our  ni}- 
"Travtlers  had  discovered  inwripli"iiHrm:nir„| 
'n  cuneiform,  or.  ns  they  were  also  lernii-"!.  ;irrit 
leailed  i  liaraiters.  on  the  riiiii"!  nioiiiiiiiciiu  if 
I'ersefiolis  and  other aneient  sites  in  I'iNii 
The  ins<  riptions  were  in  tliris-  ililTeniil  synlinH 
of  ciiiielform  writing;  and  sinee  llie  IhrtikimU 
of  Inscription  wen'  always  planii  side  l.y  »iiii- 
It  was  evident  that  they  repri-»<nt<d  dilTimil 
versions  of  the  same  teit,  ,  ,  .  The  ilue  to  thr 
derlpherment  of  the  Inscriptions  was  Hrst  ili* 
^over^^l  bv  the  successful  guess  of  a  (lemmn 
scholar.  tJnitefenil.  OMtefemi  noticed  that  tbo 
Inscriptions  generallr  began  with  thn-e  or  U\j 
wonls.  one  of  whiih  varietl.  while  the  olhin 
remained  unthaiigej.  The  variable  wonl  biul 
three  forma  though  the  snme  form  alwsy«  sp 
peare'-i  on  the  same  n>'«U!nent  nr<\\rtfm. 
theri'fore,  ronjeetiireil  that  this  woni  rrpr<'ieiitf<l 
the  name  of  n  king,  the  wonls  whirh  fKllowt^i 
it  being  royal  titlea"     Working  on  this  1  "ujeit 


i 


CUNEIFORM  WRITINO. 


CCWA. 


are,  be  Identified  the  three  names  with  Dariiu, 
Xerx-'»  »nd  Artsxerxes,  and  one  of  the  suppoised 
tltlei  with  a  Zend  word  for  "  king,"  which  gave 
him  a  coneideraWe  part  of  the  cuneiform  alpha- 
het.  He  waa  followed  In  the  work  by  Bumouf, 
Laaarn  and  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson,  until,  finally, 
Aiayrian  inacriptions  were  read  with  "  almost  as 
much  certainty  as  a  page  of  the  Old  Testament. " 
—A.  H.  Sayce,  Frtth  Light  from  t/ie  ancient 
nonnrwntt,  eh.  1. 

CUNIBERTUS,  Kiog  of  the  Lombards, 
A.  I).  691-700.  . 

CUNIMARE,  The.  See  Amibicam  Abomo- 
isEs:  OiCK  OR  Coco  Group. 

CURDS.  OR  KURDS,  The.   See  Cardcchi. 

CURFEW-BELL,  The.—"  Except  from  its 
inSuence  upon  the  imagination,  It  would  be 
lurdly  worth  while  to  notice  the  legend  of  the 
curfi'wbcll,  so  commonly  supposed  to  have  been 
imiioawl  by  William  fthe  Conqueror]  upon  the 
English,  as  a  token  of  degradation  and  shivery ; 
but  tbi'  '  squllla  dl  lontano,  cbe  paja  11  giomo 
planger  die  si  muore,'  waa  a  universal  custom  of 
police  throughout  the  whole  of  mediaeval  Europe. 

not  unconnected  with  devotional  feellLj." Sir 

F.  Palgrave,  llitt.  of  Xormanily  and  Bng.,  r.  3 
f.  637.—"  In  the  year  [1061]  after  King  Henry  s 
deatli  [Henry  I,  of  France],  in  a  Synod  helil  at 
Caen  by  tile  Duke's  authority  [Duke  William  of 
Ximnanily.  who  Iiecame  In  1086  the  Contiuiror 
and  Klnit  of  England],  and  attcndoil  by  Bishops, 
.\l)t»ils,  ttuil  Barous,  u  was  ordered  that  a  bell 
ihiiulil  lie  rung  every  evening,  at  hearing  of 
wliiih  prayer  should  be  olIere<r  and  all  people 
•hould  get  within  their  houses  and  shut  their 
doors.  This  odd  mixture  of  piety  and  police 
weras  1,1  lie  the  origin  of  ihe  famous  and  mis- 
rcpniieiited  Curfew.  Whatever  was  Us  objert. 
i!  waa  al  It  ist  not  ordained  as  any  special  hani- 
(liip III!  William's  English  subjects.  "—E.  .V.  Free- 
mm.  Ilitl.iiffheyurmanConquul  of  Erui  eh  12 
KTt  :lir.  3). 

CURIA,    Ancient    Roaum.     Set;    CoifiTiA 

OlRI  M  « 

CURIA,  Mnaidpal,  of  the  later  Roman  em- 
pire.—Oecurionei.—"  It  is  only  necessary  In 
this  work  to  describe  the  seneral  type  of  the 
municipal  organization  wblcli  existed  In  the  prov- 
Incps  nf  the  iloman  Empire  after  the  time  of 
Constautine.  .  .  The  proprietors  of  lanil  in  the 
Koinan  provinces  generally  dwelt  in  towns  and 
dlics.  aa  a  pmtectlon  agabLit  brigands  and  man- 
•teal.™  tvery  town  Imil  an  aKri<'ultural  dis- 
trill  which  formed  its  territory,  and  the  Uinded 
propil.'li.rs  constltuteil  the  municipality  The 
whiili'  liK-al  authority  was  vesu-d  In  nn  oligarch- 
ical  *Miate  called  the  Curia,  consisting  pnSiMlily 
of  one  liundred  of  Ihe  wealthiest  landed  proprie 
tors  ill  the  city  or  township  This  body  elinted 
tbe  municipal  authorities  and  offlcers,  anil  Hlleil 
up  Tacancles  In  lu  own  hodr.  It  was  thrrefori' 
Independent  of  the  proprietors  fnim  among 
whom  It  waa  Uken,  and  who»  interests  It  ought 
to  hare  represented  The  Curia— not  the  Nilv 
of  landeil  iiMprietors  —  formed  therefore  the 
ft'man  municipality.  The  Curia  was  usetl  by 
itf  mperial  government  ai  an  instrument  M 
WtX  pitortlon."— O.  Flnlar,  Ortte*  t/»,frr  th, 
*>wiw.jA.  2,  ««•<.  1— "When  the  proijrewi  of 
Ssa.  tynr.r.j  fi^.^  aiistost  Sapprd  the  Tig.",r  ..f 
•nclelj-.  the  decuriooea  [roemben  of  the  mi.'nici 
Psl  niriir,  called,  alto,  rurUlcc]  .  .  bring  held 
JotaUy  rcspuulble  (or  tiie  taution,  became  the 


005 


jeriest  ilaves  of  the  empire.  nesponslMs  jclntlr 
for  the  taxes,  they  were,  by  the  sar.ie  token,  re- 
sponsible for  their  colleagues  and  tueir  succcseors ; 
their  estates  were  made  the  securities  of  the  im- 
lierial  dues;  and  If  any  estate  was  abandoned  by 
Its  proprietor,  they  were  compelled  to  occupy  ft 
and  ineet  the  imposu  exigible  from  it.  Yet  they 
could  not  rcllnijulsh  their  offices;  they  could  not 
leave  the  city  except  by  stealth ;  they  could  not 
enter  the  army,  or  the  prir  'hood,  or  any  office 
which  might  relieve  them  ,m  municipal  func- 
tions. .  .  .  Even  the  children  of  the  Curial  were 
ndscnbed  to  his  functions,  and  could  engage  in 
no  course  of  life  Inconsistent  with  the  onerous 
and  Intolerable  duty.  In  short,  this  dignity  waa 
so  much  abhorred  thai  the  lowest  plebeian 
shunned  admission  to  It.  the  members  of  it  made 
themselves  bondmen,  married  slave-women  or 
Joined  the  barbaric  hordes  In  orucr  to  escape  It- 
and  malefactors,  Jews  and  heretics  were  some- 
times condemned  to  It,  as  an  appropriate  penalty 
for  their  olTenaes  "— P.  Godwin,  ifitt.  ofhancf 
Ancient  Gaul,  bk.  2.  eh.  8. 

Also  i.N:  T.  Hodgkin.  Italy  and  her  InmiUrt 
hk.  3,  eh.  9— F.  Guizot.  Uitt.  of  Citilinuion  r  8 
(r.  1,  Fra)iCt),leet.  2.— See,  also  Rome:  A.  D 
36.1-879. 

CURIA,    Papal.— Collese    of   Cardinal*.- 
Consistory.—"  The  Court  of  Rome,  commonly 
ciilleil  the  Roman  Curia,  conslsteil  of  a  numlier 
of  dignified  ecclesiastics  who  a»slste<l  the   I'ope 
In   the  executive  ailmlnistratlou.     The  I'ontirf's 
mor>'  intimate  advisers,  or.  as  we  should  say   his 
privy  council,  were  the  College  of  Cardinals  [see 
PapacV:  a.    D.    10,W].   consistinit   of  a  cx-rtain 
numlier  nf  cardinal  bish<i|is,  cardinal  prlents,  ami 
canlinal  deacons.     The  i  .irdinal  deacons,  at  first 
-I  yen  and  afterwanis  foiirt»H'n  in  nunilsr,  wen' 
originally  ecclesiastics  appointed  as  overseers  and 
guardian.^  of  the  sick  and  poor  in  the  ilitT.rent 
districts  of  Riinie.     Equal  to  them  in  rank  were 
Ihe  fifty  cardinal  priests,  us  the  chief  priests  of 
Ihe  principal  Roman  churches  were  calltKl;  who, 
with  the  cardinal  deacons,  formed,  in  verj-  early 
tiiii.s,  the  presbytery,  or  s<niite  of   the  Bi.shop 
"I    Rome       .   .  According   In  some  authorities, 
I  iinlinal  bishops  were  Instituted  In  the  Ulh  cen- 
tury; according  to  others  not  till  the  lltb.  when 
seven  bishops  of  the  diiKews  nearest  to  Rome 
—  Ostla.    Porto.  Velitrae,   Tusculum.    I'neneste, 
Tibur.  and  the  Subinea  —  wire  adnpliil  by  the 
Popi'  partly  iis  Ills  ossistant.s  in  the  service  of  the 
Laleran.  and  partly  In  Ihe  general  ailiiiinlslration 
of  Ihe  Church      In  priness  of  time,  the  appoiul- 
iiient  of  such  eanliiiiil  bialiopa  was  exteniled  not 
only  111  the   n-»t   of   Italy   but   also  to  foreign 
countries    Though  the  youngest  of  the  canllnals 
In  ixilut  of  time,  canllnnl  bishops  were  the  liigli 
est  In  rank,  and  enjoyed  iIh-  preeminence  In  the 
Ciillege.     Their  Iltli-s  were  derived  from   their 
iliiKeses    .         But   they    were    alto    called    bv 
their  own  names.     Thi'  nuinU'r  of  the  cardlimfi 
was  iiiileflnlle  and   varying.      The  Council  of 
Hash'  endeavoiirtil  to  restrict  It  to  24.     But  thia 
was  not   carried  out.    and   Pope  .SIxtut  V    at 
lenifth  fixed   the   number  at   70      The  Council 
called  the  Consistory,  which  aiivlard   with  the 
Po|)e  Nith  In  temporal  and  ecclesiastical  niatlera. 
Was  onllnarily  pnvale,  and  confined  to  the  car- 
diliaii-  »iuiie .  lliuugii  oil  rairaoniinary  occatioua, 
and  for  lolemn  purpiiaet  of  itate.   at  In    the 
tudlrncei   of  (ofclgii  anitiamadon,   Ac,   othw 
pri'latet,  and  eveo  dittluguitbed  laymen,  mlgbl 


I'd 


CVNA. 


CYN08CEPHALE. 


■ppesr  In  It."— T.   H.   Prer,   Bitt.  of  Modern 
E'irom.  V.  1,  p.  88. 

CURIA  REGIS  OP  THE  NORMAN 
KINGS.— "The  Curia  Rerts  [under  the  Nor- 
mmi  Kiogt  of  England],  the  giiprcme  tribunal 
of  judicature,  of  which  the  Exchi'i|uer  was  the 
flnaorial  department  or  aeaaion.  wa«  ...  the 
ctiurt  of  the  king  sitting  to  admlniiter  juatice 
with  the  advice  of  his  counsellors;  those  coun- 
sellnts  being,  in  the  widest  acceptation,  tlie 
whole  body  of  tcnants-ln-chief.  l)<:t  in  the  more 
limited  usag"  t'\c  gnat  officers  of  the  household 
and  speclttT ;  api>ointed  judges.  The  great 
gatherings  of  the  national  council  may  be  re- 

fnnled  as  full  sessions  of  the  Curia  Regis,  or  the 
uri:t  Regis  as  a  perpetual  committee  of  the 
uatiiiniil  council." — W.  Stiibbs.  Omtl.  Hint,  of 
Eii;i..  <■>!■  11,  teet.  187.— "Not  long  after  the 
granting  of  Magna  Charta,  the  Curia  Rt  gis  was 
perinaiiently  (lividc<l  into  three  committees  or 
ciiurts,  cacli  taking  a  certain  imrtion  of  the  busi- 
ness: (1)  Fiscal  matters  were  conflneil  to  the 
Exchequer:  (3)  cirll  disputes,  where  neltlier  the 
king's  interest  nor  anv  matter  savouring  of  a 
criminal  nature  were  involve*!,  were  decided  in 
the  (•mimon  Pleas:  and  (3)  the  court  of  Kings 
Bench  retaine<l  all  the  remaining  business  and 
soon  »c(iuired  the  exclusivi-  denomination  of  the 
ancient  Curia  Regis.  But  the  same  staff  of 
judges  was  still  retained  for  all  thrt-e  courts, 
with  the  chief  justiciar  at  their  head.  Towanis 
the  end  of  Henry  III.'s  reign,  the  three  courts 
received  each  a  distinct  staff,  and  on  thealKilition 
by  Edward  I.  of  the  office  of  chief  justiciar,  the 
only  remaining  bond  of  union  Mag  severeil, 
they  l)ecame  completely  separBtp<l.  Is<>me  trace 
of  their  ancient  unity'  of  organization  always 
survived,  however,  in  the  court  of  Exchei|u'er 
I  hiunlHT:  until  at  length  after  six  centuries  of 
independent  existence  they  were  again  united  by 
the  Juilieature  Act.  1(*TU.  Together  with  the 
Court  "f  Chancery  and  the  Protmte,  Divorce  and 
Ailmlnilty  courts,  Ihcv  now  form  divisions  of 
a  ciinHiilidaliil  High  t'ourt  of  Justice,  itsi'lf  a 
branch  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature." — 
T  P.  Taswell  Langmead,  Knj.  CmM.  Hint.,  p. 
IM— ■The  Aula  Regia,  or  Curia  Regis  .  .  . 
has  lieen  descrilHtl  in  various  and  at  tlrst  sight 
coatrailictory  terms.  Thus  it  has  l)een  ealle<l 
the  highest  Law  I'ourt,  the  Ministry  of  the  King, 
a  Legislative  Assembly.  4c.  The  apparent  In- 
consistency of  these  descriptions  vanishes  on 
closer  inspection,  and  throws  great  light  on  me- 
dieval history.  For  the  Curia  Regis  ,>o8sesaed 
every  attribuU'  whiih  hai  I  vn  ascribe<i  to  it  '  — 
A  V.  Ulcev,  Tfii'  I'riry  Onu,  U,  i,t.  I.  !<ee,  al*i. 
Law,  Common:  A  I).  HWd-U.'H,  and  Law, 
Ckiminai.  A  I).  lii«(l-ia:s, 
CURIALBS.  See  CfHlA,  MtrwiciPAt,, 
CURtOSOLITiB,  Tha.     See   Vbnkti    or 

Wt.nTKItN  (IaII.. 

CURTIS,  CtOfK*  W.,  sad  CiTil-Strric* 
Reform,    See  Civil  SkRvicr  Hbform  li  tii« 

I'siiKO  Statics. 

CURULE  JEDILES.  See  Romk:  B.  C. 
404—492 

CURULE  CHAIR, -!n  ancient  Rome, 
'certain  high  offices  of  state  conferred  upon 
the  holiler  the  right  of  using,  upon  punllc 
i«  <  ii^iiiiin,  oil  iviiry  i  liair  of  petiiliar  form.  Tliis 
cimit  was  termed  Sella  Curulls.  .  .  .  This  was 
somewhat  in  the  form  of  a  miNlem  camp-stunl.  "— 
W.  lUiuiay,  Manual  of  RmnanAhUg..  eh.  iaikdi. 


CURZOLA,  Bktti.  of  (laoS).  See  Oi^toi 
A.  D.  1261-1299. 

CUSCO :  The  Capital  of  the  locas  of  Pen 
See  Peru:  A.  D.  1538-1548. 

CUSH.—  CUSHITES.-"  Genesis,  like  tiie 
Hebrews  of  later  date,  includes  under  the  name 
of  Cush  the  nations  dwelling  t«  the  Sf)uth.  the 
Nubi.ins.  Ethiopians  and  tribes  of  South  .\rabia. " 
— .M.  Duncker,  Ilitt.  of  Antiquity,  bk.  2,  th.  1.— 
See,  also.  HAMrrES,  and  Arabia. 

CUSHING,  Lieutenant  William  B.-De- 
■truction  of  the  ram  Albemarle.  See  Untted 
Statksop  Am.:  A.  D.  1864  (Octoueu:  N'ortb 
CaholixaI. 

CUSTER'S  LAST  BATTLE,  SeeUxiTED 
Statk«    -  Am.:  A.  D.  IMTIl. 

CU£        MS   DUTIES.     SeeTAiiiKF 

CUSTOMS  UNION,  The  German  (Zoll- 
Terein).     SeeTARiKf :  A.  I).  WAi. 

CUSTOZZA,  Battle*  of  (1848  and  18M1. 
Sec  iTAi.v:  A.  I).  1848-1849;  and  I8«a-1M««. 

CUTLER,  Manatieh,  and  the  Ordinance  of 
1787.  See  S'oKTnwEBT  Tkriutoky  dp  iue 
v.  S. :  A.  0.  1787. 

CUYRIRI,  The.  See  Amkiucan  Auobkii.nes 
OiTK  iiK  CiKo  Urocp. 

CYCLADES,  The.— SPORADES,  The,- 
"  Among  the  Ionic  portion  of  Hellas  are  to  lie 
reckoned  (l>esides  Athens)  Eulxea,  and  the  nu- 
merous gn>up  of  islands  ineluiled  between  Ihe 
southernmost  EulKean  pnmiontory,  tin  easiirn 
coast  of  Peloponnesus,  and  the  niirthwtsitrn 
coast  of  KHite.  Of  these  islands  some  are  lu  lie 
considered  as  outlying  prolongations,  in  a  siiuth 
easterly  direction,  of  the  mountain  system  u( 
Attica;  others  of  that  of  EulKea;  while" a  certain 
numlK'r  of  them  lie  apart  fmm  aither  system,  aui 
8<'ein  referable  to  a  volcanic  origin.  1*ii  the  Urst 
class  iK-long  Keos,  Kytlmus,  Seriphus.  I'lmleiMn 
ilrus,  Sikinus,  Oyarus,  Syra,  Parns,  ami  AntipH- 
ros:  u>  tile  secon<l  class  Androa,  T^nns.  M\  kiiin.i, 
Dflos,  Naxos.  Ainorgos;  to  the  thinl  class  Kimo- 
lus,  >If  los,  ThCra.  These  lslan<ls  piLs.se<l  aniiini.'!>l 
the  ancients  by  the  general  name  of  the  (  yc Imlii 
and  the  Sporades;  the  former  denoininntiub  \w\in 
ctmimonly  understo<Ml  to  C(>mpri8(>  Ihiise  wUith 
immediately  surroundisl  the  sacred  islauil  'if 
IKilos,— the  latter  oelng  given  lo  those  which  lay 
more  scattered  and  apart.  Rut  the  names  m 
not  appliol  with  unlfomdty  o'  steailines«evonin 
ancient  times:  at  present,  the  whole  grniiii  >re 
usually  known  by  the  title  of  Cyelailes  — (J 
(>rote."//Mr  (/  (Irttft,  pi.  3,  fli.  M 

''YDONIA,  Battlet  and  liege  of  iB.  C.  7>- 
68).     Se  Cretk:  H.  C.  88-6« 

CYLON,  Coatpiracy  of.    S<-e  Atmkns:  B  C 

CYMBELINB,  Klafdem  of.    S<  e  roLcnu 

TRR,  llHIOtN  OF. 

CYMRY.  The.    See  Ktmrt.  Thk. 

CYNOSARGES  AT  ATHENS,  The.  S<« 
Gymnasia,  UnKKK. 

CYNOSCEPHALiE,  Battle  of  (B,  C,  3«4'. 
—The  t'«itle  In  which  I'elopldas.  the  Thebiui 
patriot,  friend  and  colleague  of  KpninlmmilM, 
was  slain  It  waa  fought  R.  C.  .W4.  In  ThMnsIt, 
near  Pharsalus.  on  the  heights  ealleil  CyiiiKcep 
halw,  or  the  Dog's  Heads,  and  dellvenil  the 
Thes'wiian  rities  from  the  e  cnsMiimciii-i  "F  iim 
tyrant  of  Phcr»  — C  Thirlwall,  //u(  ./  Ormi, 
(X  4(1 

(B.  C.  197).    8««  Quaes :  a  C,  ati-14t. 


ma 


t^^ 


CYN0S8EMA. 

CTNOSSEMA,  NanU  battle  of.— Two  suc- 
eeMlTe  naval  battles  fought,  one  in  July  and  the 
wcood  in  October,  B.  C.  411,  between  the  Athe- 
nians and  the  Peloponnesian  allies,  in  the  Helles- 
pont, are  jointly  called  the  Battle  of  Cynossema. 
Tbe  name  was  taken  from  the  headland  called 
Cynossema,  or  tbe  ' '  Dog's  Tomb, "  "  ennobled  by 
the  legend  and  the  chapel  of  the  Trojan  queen 
necuba."  The  Athenians  bad  the  advantage  in 
both  encounters,  especially  in  the  latter  one. 
when  they  were  Joined  by  Alcibiades,  with  re- 
enforcements.  Just  in  time  to  decide  the  doubtful 
iiirtunesof  the  day.— E.  Curtius,  Iliit.  of  Greece, 
ilc  4,  ffi.  n.     See  Oreecb  :  B.  C.  411-407. 

CYNURIANS.The.    See  Kt.  ;rian«. 

CYPRES  DOCTRINE.  Seet,AW,EoiiTT- 

A.  1).  l««l. 

CYPRUS:  Oririn  of  the  name.  —  "Tht 
Oreek  name  of  the  island  was  derived  from  the 
tbuDilAnce  in  which  it  proiliiced  the  beautiful 
plant  ('  Coplicr ' )  which  furnishes  the  '  al-benna,' 
coveted  throughout  the  East  for  the  vellow  dve 
wblch  it  communicates  to  the  nails.  It  was  rich 
In  mines  of  copper,  which  has  obtainer'.  for  it  the 
nsme  by  which  it  is  known  in  the  raodem  Ian- 
guajresoftheWeat."— J.  Kenrlck. /"flffniWa,  cA.  4. 

Early  Histoiy.—"  The  flrsi,  authentic  record 
with  regard  to  Cyprus  is  an  inscription  on  an 
Egyptian  tomlwtone  of  the  17th  century  U.  C, 
imin  which  it  appears  that  the  island  was 
cimciuered  by  Tliothmes  III.  of  Egypt,  in  whose 
reign  the  cvmlus  of  the  Chililren  of  Israel  is 
iuppi>s<'d  to  Imve  taken  place.  This  was  no  doubt 
interiiir  to  the  establishment  of  any  Oreek  c<il<i- 
nits,  nnd  nrnlialily.  also,  before  the  Pha-nici.ins 
hul  W'ttliil  in  the  island.  ...  As  appears  from 
Tari.mn  inscriptions  and  other  reconls,  Cyprus 
became  subject  successivilv  to  Egypt,  as  Just 
mentioneil.    to  Assyria,  to  tgvpt  again  in   .168 

B.  C.  when  It  was'ctiniitH-red  fiy  Amasis.  and  in 
M5  B.  ('.  to  Persia.  .Meanwliife  the  power  of 
the  Greeks  had  been  Increasing.  ,  .  .  "i.iecivili- 
rati.in  of  tlie  West  was  «b  lut  to  assert  itself  at 
.Marathon  and  Salamis:  and  Cyprus,  In-ing  mid- 
way tietween  i~jt  and  West,  could  not  'ail  to  lie 
Inrolvwl  in  the  coming  contilct.  (>ii  the  occasion 
of  the  Imilr  revolt  (see  Pkhsia:  H.  C.  531-49,1] 
tlic (ircik  clement  in  Cyprus showeil  its strenglii : 
KDd  ill  Wi  II.  C.  the  whole  island,  with  the  single 
nrf|ii|c)n  of  the  t'luenician  town  of  .\niathus. 
t(»ik  part  with  the  lonians  in  renouncing  the 
sullmriiy  of  the  IVrsian  king."  But  in  the  war 
whldi  fiillowi'd,  the  Persisns,  aided  by  the  Ph(e- 
nlfians  of  the  mainland,  rc-conquered  Cyprus, 
ami  Ihi"  Cyprian  Greeks  wen-  long  disheartened. 
Tliev  rer<ivered  their  courage,  lioweyir.  almut 
4111  n  C.  when  Evagoras.  ,»  Oreek  of  the  royal 
house  of  Teucer,  matle  himself  master  of  Salamis. 
and  linnlly  established  a  general  sovereignty  over 
the  island  — oven  extending  his  power  to  the 
mainland  and  iubjugating  Tyre.  "The  reign 
of  Evngnras  is  perhaps  the  miist  brilliant  period 
in  I  lie  history  of  Cyprus.  Before  his  death. 
whirh  twk  place  In  8i4  B.  C,  he  had  rals«i  the 
lilsnil  from  the  position  of  a  mere  <lependency  of 
imp  nr  other  of  the  great  Eastern  monarchies,  had 
wined  for  it  a  place  among  the  leading  sutes  of 
Oreeee,  and  hail  solvc<l  the  i|uestion  as  to  which 
division  of  the  ancient  world  the  Cyprian  people 
K'Ji.i  U  aMiijueil.  ruuaei|iientiy  when,  some 
forty  yesrs  laUT.  tbe  power  of  Persia  was  shal 
•fri'i  •  V  Aleiander  the  Great  at  the  battle  "f 
iiiut,  Un  klags  of  iJm  UlaiMl  hMtcned  lu  offer 


CYPRUS. 

him  their  tubmistion  ai  the  leader  of  the  Oreek 
race,  and  sent  120  ships  to  assist  him  in  the  siege 
of  Tyre."  After  Alexander's  death,  Cyprus 
was  disputed  between  Antlgonus  and  Ptolemy. 
(See  HACEDoifiA:  B.  C.  810-801.)  The  king  of 
Egypt  secured  the  prlxe,  aud  the  Uland  remained 
under  the  Greek-Egyptian  crown,  until  It  passed, 
with  the  rest  of  the  heriUge  of  the  Ptolemys  to 
OaRomana  "  When  the  [Roman]  empire  was 
alTldec"  on  the  death  of  Constantine  the  Great, 
Cyprus,  like  MalU,  passed  Into  the  bands  of  the 
Byzantine  Emperors.  Like  Malta,  also.  It  was 
exposed  to  frequent  attacks  from  the  Arabs;  btit, 
although  they  several  time*  occupied  the  Island 
and  once  held  it  for  no  less  than  180  vears,  they 
were  always  expelled  again  by  the' Byzantine 
Emperors,  and  never  established  themselves  there 
as  flrmly  as  they  did  In  Malta.  The  crusadet 
arst  brought  Cyprus  into  contact  with  the  western 
nations  of  modem  Europe."— C.  P.  Lucas,  Ilitt. 
Oeog.  of  Brititi'i  Colonia,  teet.  1,  eh.  8. 

Also  in:  R  H.  Lang,  Q/pnu,  eh.  1-8.— P 
v^on  Loher,  Cgpriu,  eh.  12  and  80.— L.  P.  Dl 
Cesnola,  Cmnu ;  if  ancient  eitiet,  dU. 

B.  C.  58.— Annexed  to  the  Roman  Do- 
minions.— "The  annexation  of  Cyprus  was 
decreed  In  696  [B.  C.  58]  by  the  people  [of 
Rome],  that  Is,  by  the  leaders  of  the  democr-cy, 
the  support  given  to  piracy  by  the  Cyprio'ts 
'.King  allege<l  as  the  offlclal  reason  whv  that 
course  should  now  be  adopted.  Marcus"  Cato, 
intrusted  by  his  opponenU  with  the  execution  of 
this  measure,  came  to  the  island  without  an 
anii.\  tint  he  ha<i  no  need  of  one.  The  king  [a 
linilliir  of  the  kingof  Egypt]  took  poison;  the 
Inhiibltants  submitted  without  om-ring  resist- 
ance to  their  IneviUble  fate,  and  were  placed 
under  the  governor  of  Cillcia."— T.  Mommsen. 
Ilitt.  of  Romf.  bk.  5,  eh.  4. 

A.  D.  117.— Jewish  insurrection.— "This 
rich  and  pleasant  territory  [the  Island  of  Cyprus] 
had  clTordetl  a  refuge  to  the  Jews  of  the  contin- 
ent through  three  generations  of  disturbance  and 
alarm,  ana  the  Helirew  race  was  now  [K.  I).  117] 
probably  not  inferior  there  in  number  to  the 
native  Syrians  or  Oreeka  On  the  Brst  outburst 
of  a  Jewish  revolt  [against  the  Roman  domination, 
in  the  last  year  of  the  reign  of  Trajan]  the  whole 
island  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Insurgents,  and 
liecame  an  arsenal  and  rallying  point  for  the 
Insurrection,  which  soon  spread  over  Egypt, 
Cynnc  and  Mesopotamia.  The  leader  of'  the 
n-volt  In  Cyprus  bore  the  name  of  .\rteinlon, 
but  we  know  no  particulars  o5  the  war  in  this 
(|usrter,  except  that  SMO.ttOOof  the  native  popu. 
latii-i  is  said  to  have  fallen  victims  to  the  exter- 
minating fury  of  the  Insurgents.  When  the 
rebellion  was  at  last  extinguished  in  blood,  the 
Jews  were  forbidden  thenceforth  to  set  foot  on 
the  island;  and  even  If  driven  thither  by  stress 
of  weather,  the  penalty  of  dealli  wiw  mercilessly 
enforced.  .  .  .  'The  Jewlsli  jxipulailon  of  Cvre- 
naicaoutnuml)ered  the  natives.  .  .  .  The  hostility 
of  the  Jews  lu  these  paru  was  lesa  directed 
against  the  central  government  and  the  Roman 
residents  than  the  native  race.  ...  Of  tl'es* 
S'Jd.iHSi  arc  said  to  have  perished.  "—€.  Merivale. 
//i«r.  of  the  Himone.  eh.  69. 

A.  5.  iioi.— Coaqntst  br  Richard  Ciaur  da 
Lton.— FoundiUK  01  tha  Latin  Ktlofdon. — 
During  tlie  civil  strife  and  confusion  of  the  last 
years  »t  the  C^omuenlan  dynasty  of  emperors  at 
CoDstautlDople,  oo«  of  tbe  members  of  Um  (aalljr, 


667 


?■* 


fr 


CYPRUS. 


CYRENAICA. 


the   ■OTereigntr  of 
emperor,     With 


! 


Iiaoc  Comnenoi,  lecured 
Cypnu  and  awumed  the  title  of  emperor 
the  alliance  of  the  king  of  Sicily,  he  defeated  the 
Byzantine  forces  aent  against  him,  and  was 
planted  securely,  to  all  appearance,  on  his  newly 
built  throne  at  the  time  of  the  Third  Crusade. 
Circumstances  at  that  time  (A.  D.  1191)  gave  him 
a  fatal  opportunity  to  provoke  the  English  cru- 
saders. First,  he  seized  the  property  and  Im- 
prisoned the  crews  of  three  English  ships  that 
were  wrecked  on  the  Cyprian  coast.  Not  satisfied 
with  that  violence,  he  refused  shelter  from  the 
storm  to  a  vessel  which  bore  Berengaria  of  Na- 
varre, the  intended  wife  of  King  liichard.  ' '  The 
king  of  England  immediately  sailed  to  Cyprus; 
iind  when  Isaac  refused  to  deliver  up  the  ship- 
wrecked crusaders,  and  to  restore  their  property, 
Richard  landed  his  army  ami  commenced  a  series 
of  operations,  whi<h  ended  in  bis  conquering  the 
whole  island,  in  ^vhich  he  abolishe<i  the  adminis- 
trative institutions  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  en- 
sl.iving  the  Oreek  race,  introducing  the  feudal 
system,  by  which  he  riveted  the  chains  of  a 
foreign  domination,  and  then  gave  it  as  a  present 
to  Quy  of  Lusignan,  the  titular  king  of  Jerusalem, 
who  became  the  founder  of  a  dynasty  of  Frank 
kings  in  Cyprus."— O.  Finlsy,  lliit.  of  the  Bytan- 
tine  and  Qreik  Empire*,  fnm  718  to  1453.  ft*.  8, 
e/>.  3,  teet.  1.— Before  giving  Cyprus  to  Ouy  of 
Lusignan,  Richanl  had  sold  the  island  to  the 
Templars,  and  Ouy  had  to  pay  the  knights 
heavily  for  the  extinguishment  of  their  rights. 
Uiehanl,  therefore,  was  rather  a  negotiator  than 
a  giver  in  the  transaction. — W.  Stubbs,  iSewnltm 
Ijtett.  on  the  Study  of  MeriimiU  and  Modern  Hit- 
ton,  left.  8. 

A.  D.  1193-1489.— The  kingdom  under  the 
house  of  Luiinian. — "The  house  of  Lusignan 
maintained  itself  in  Cyprus  fnr  nearly  three  cen- 
turies, during  which,  altliougli  fallen  somewhat 
from  the  blessedness  wliicli  h;iil  iHi'n  broken  up 
by  Isaac  Comnenus,  the  island  seems  to  have  re- 
tained so  much  fertility  and  prosperity  as  to 
make  its  later  history  very  dark  by  contrast. 
.  .  .  Ouy,  we  are  told,  recelvHl  Cyprus  for  life 
only,  and  did  homage  for  the  island  to  Uichard. 
Ashe  already  bore  the  title  of  king,  the  inn'stlon 
whether  he  should  hold  Cyprus  as  a  kingdom 
does  not  seem  to  have  arisen.  .  .  .  On  his  ileath. 
in  April,  11B4,  Richanl  putting  in  no  claim  for 
the  reversion,  his  brother.  Amalric  of  Lusignan, 
constable  of  Palestine,  entered  on  the  posst'ssiim 
as  his  heir  .  .  .  Anmlric  succeeded  to  the  crown 
of  Jerusalem;  the  crown  of  Jerusalem,  which, 
after  the  year  1260.  iMM-amc  permanently  united 
with  that  of  Cyprus,  was  an  Independent  "rown, 
and  the  king  of  Jerusalem  an  anointed  king :  the 
union  of  the  crowns  therefore  seems  to  have  pre- 
cludiKl  any  (juestlon  as  to  the  tenure  bv  which 
the  kingdom  of  Cyprus  should  be  held.  .  .  . 
The  homage  then  due  ui  Richanl,  or  to  the  crown 
of  England,  ceased  at  the  death  of  Ouy."—  W. 
Stubbs,  Sntnteen  Ijeett.  un  tht  Study  of  Mtdiatal 
and  Vodern  Ilitt.,  leet.  8.— See.  also,  Jkbubalcu  : 
A.  D  1391. 

A.  D.  1191-1310.- The  Kaichta  Hoepitallert 
of  St.  John.  Hec  HoarrrALucM  or  St.  John  : 
A.  1)    111»-13I0 

A.  D.  I4l9>is70.— A  Vcaetiaa  dcpeBdency. 
—  The  laal  nigulug  kiuv  of  Cyprus  was  James 
II  .  a  bastard  brother  of  Queen  Charlotte,  whom 
he  drove  fmm  the  Cypriot  throne  in  1464.  This 
king  married  a  Vcueliau  lady,  Caterina  Coniaro, 


in  1471  and  w«»  declared  to  be  "  the  sonin-li 
of  the  Republic."  The  unscrupulous  republic 
said  to  have  poisoned  its  son-in-law  in  order 
secure  the  succession.  He  died  in  1473.  and 
son,  bom  after  his  death,  lived  but  two  yeai 
Cyprus  was  then  ruled  by  the  Venetians  f 
fifteen  years  in  the  name  of  Caterina.  who  tiiul 
renounced  her  rights  wholly  in  favor  of  the  r 
public.  After  1489,  until  its  conquest  by  tl 
Turks,  Cyprus  was  a  Venetian  depeudoncy, 
form  as  well  as  in  fact,  but  tributary  to  tl 
Sultan  of  Egypt.— W.  Stubbs,  Sttentren  Urtt.  i 
the  ^udy  of  Mediatal  and  Modem  Hint ,  krt  % 

A.  D.  1570-1571.— Conqucot  by  the  Turk 
See  Turks:  A.  D.  1566-1571. 

A.  D.  i8ai.— TurkiiA  ouuaacre  of  Chri 
tiant.     SveUllEECE:  A.  D.  1831-1820. 

A.  0. 1878. — Control  turrendered.by  Turki 
to  England.     See  TrnKs;    A.    I).   Imth,  Xt 

TREATIES  or  8aH  STEFANO  AND  BkIII-IN. 


CYREANS,  The.    Sic  Persia:  B.  f  4111 

400. 
CYR  ';NAICA.  — CYRENE.— KVRENI 

—A  city,  growing  into  a  kingdom,  whicb  wi 
founded  at  an  early  day  by  the  Greeks,  im  ili: 
projecting  part  of  the  coast  of  Libya,  or  nurtlni 
Africa,  which  lies  opposite  to  Gnnce.  The  tlr 
settlers  were  said  to  have  been  fmm  llji'  litt 
island  of  Them,  whose  people  wen'  U\A  m 
enterprising.  The  site  they  chose  "was  of  a 
unusual  nature,  especially  for  Islanders,  anil  la 
several  miles  away  from  the  stM,  the  sli.ircs  i 
which  were  devoid  of  natural  boys  for  anchoi 
age.  But,  with  this  exception,  every  adwiritaj 
was  at  hand:  instead  of  the  narcow  smny  ni 
of  their  native  land,  they  found  the  nio^t  firtil 
com-flelds,  a  broad  table-land  with  a  Iji -ilthy  gi 
mosphere  and  watered  by  fresh  spriiii;^;  :i  ncl 
wooded  I'oast-land,  unusually  will  :iiiu|iicil  h 
all  the  natural  products  which  tlit-  llillfuf 
deemed  essential ;  while  in  the  backgniuuil  spA* 
mysteriously  the  desert,  a  world  pas,sinir  tin-  com 
prehensionoftheHellenes,  out  of  which  the  Libya 
tribes  came  to  the  shore  with  horses  and  ram'ilf 
with  black  slaves,  with  apes,  parrots  ami  otbr 
wonderful  animals,  with  dates  and  niri'  fruiti 
.  .  .  An  abundant  spring  of  wiilir  ulxirr  tb 
shore  was  the  natural  point  at  whlili  tlu'  Iimwi 
men  of  the  deserts  and  the  mariucrs  a-w  mlilni 
Here  regular  nieetinits  iMt'amc  custiuiiarv  Th 
bazaar  became  a  permanen'  markit.  uml  lb 
market  a  city  which  arose  on  a  gmml  unit 
bniad  and  lofty,  on  two  rocky  hiitthts,  whid 
Jut  out  towards  the  sea  fn)m  the  pliiuaii  of  tin 
desert.  This  city  wascalliil  Cyrcne.  .  .  .  Ijirifi 
numbers  of  pupi'datlon  'nimigfatiHl  from  I'ntf 
the  islands  and  Peloponnesus,  k  lar>.'i'  ainoiiu 
of  new  land  was  pan-elled  out,  the  Libyans  wen 
driven  back,  the  landing-place  Wcaiiie  tbe  |»r 
of  Apollonhi,  and  the  territory  occupicil  bv  tbi 
city  itself  was  largely  extended.  Cyretie  I* 
come,  like  Massalia,  tbe  starting  point  <>f  a  i:n>u| 
of  Bcttleuients,  the  centre  of  a  small  Unta' 
Barca  and  Hcsperides  (afterwanis  inlltii  Ik'rr 
nice]  were  her  daughters.  Gradually  a  nstioi 
grew  up,  which  extended  Itself  and  its  agricul 
lure,  and  contri«<d  to  cover  a  large  liivislon  0 
African  land  vlth  Hellenic  culture  Thi«  w» 
the  new  eiB  which  commenceii  for  Cyriiu-  »ill 
the  relgo  of  the  tbint  king,  the  Battus  »bu.  or 
accour  of  the  marvellously  rapid  riie  if  ht 
klofdom,  waa  oatebrated  a*  '  the  fortunate  in  si 


668 


CYRENAICA. 


DACIA. 


Bellu.  The  Battiada  [the  family  or  dynasty  of 
Battus]  were  aoon  regara»d  as  a  great  power. " — 
E.  C'urtius,  Hi4t.  ofGretct,  bk.  2,  M.  8. — Cyreualca 
became  subject  to  Egypt  under  the  Ptolem\< 
»nd  was  then  usually  called  Pentapolis,  from  t 
fire  cities  of  Cyrene,  Apollonia,  Arsinoe  (foi 
merly  Teuchira),  Berenice  (formerly  Uesperis,  or 
Hesperides)  and  Ptolemals  (the  port  of  Barca). 
Later  it  became  a  pro  .uce  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pin-,  and  Anally,  passing  under  Mahometan  rule, 
tank  to  its  present  state,  as  a  district,  called 
Burca,  of  the  kingdom  of  Tripoli.  — Cyrene  was 
esiK-cially  famous  for  the  prtxluction  of  a  plant 
called  silphium  —  supposed  to  be  assafortida  — 
OD  which  the  ancients  seem  to  have  set  an  extra- 
ordinary value.  This  was  one  cf  the  principal 
sources  of  the  wealth  of  Cyrene. — E.  H.  Bun- 
burv.  llitt.  of  Ancient  Gf*/.,  eh.  8,  teet.  1,  and 
eh.  12.  »<•<.  2. 

B.  C.  sas-— Tributary  to  Persia.   Sec  Egypt  : 
B  C.  52J5-:»2. 

B.  C.  332.— Absorbed   in  the  Kingdom  of 
Egypt  by  Ptolemy  Lagus.    See  Eovpt  :  B.  C. 

B.  C.  07.— Transferred  to  the  Romans  by 

will.— "In  till-  middle  of  this  reiirn  [of  Ptolemy, 
called  Latliyrus.  king  of  Egypt]  died  Ptolemy 
Api"n,  king  of  Cvrene.  He  was  the  half-brother 
of  Latliyrus  anil  Alexander,  and  having  been 
raaile  kiug  of  Cyrene  by  his  father  Euergetes  IL, 
he  had  there  reigned  quietly  for  twenty  years. 
Biing  Ixtween  Egypt  and  Carthage,  then  calle<l 
the  Kdiiian  province  of  Africa,  and  having  no 
anny  which  he  could  lead  against  the  Koman 
lii;ion.«,  he  hail  placed  himself  under  the  guar- 
<li:in.>hip  of  Home ;  he  had  bought  u  truce  during 
hi.-  lifetime,  by  making  the  Roman  |H'ople  his 
heirs  ill  his  n  ill,  so  that  on  his  death  they  were 
to  Imve  his  kingdom.  Cyrene  had  Ixvu  part  of 
Eirypt  for  above  two  hundred  years,  and  wa.s 
usually  govrued  by  a  younger  son  or  bnither  of 
the  kiiig.     Butontlie  death  of  Ptolemy  Apiou, 


the  Roman  senate,  who  had  latterly  been  grasp- 
ing at  everything  within  their  reach,  claimed  hi* 
khiKdom  as  their  inheritance,  and  in  the  flatter- 
ing language  of  their  decree  by  which  the  coun- 
try was  enslaved,  they  declared  Cyrene  free."- 
8.  Sharpe,  Hut.  uf  Egypt,  eh.  11. 

A.  D.  117.— Jewish  inturrection.  See  Ct- 
PBia:  A.  D.  117. 

A.  D.  616.— Destroyed  by  Chosroes.  See 
Eovpt;  A.  D.  616-«28. 

7th  Century.— Mahometan  conquest.  See 
M.vnoMETAX  CoN<jiE8T:  A.  D.  647-709. 

CYRUS.  See  Peiish  :  B.  C.  54a^21,  aud 
Jews  :  B.  C.  604-oy«.  and  .iST. 

CYRUS  THE  YOUNGER,  The  expedi- 
tion of.     See  Persia;  B.  C.  4ni-40o 

CYZICUS:  B.  C.  411-410,  Battles  at.  See 
Greece:  B.  C.  411-41)7. 

B.  C.  74.— Siege  by  Mithridates.— Cyzicus. 
which  had  tlieu  become  one  of  the  laritest  and 
wealthiest  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  was  besieged  for 
an  entire  year  |B.  C.  74-73)  bv  Mithridates  in  the 
tliird  Jlithridatic  war.  The  Roman  Consul 
Lucullus  came  to  the  relief  of  the  city  and  suc- 
ceeded in  gaining  a  position  which  blwkaded  the 
Iwsiegers  and  cut  olT  tiieir  supplies.  In  the  end, 
Jlilliridates  retreated  w  ith  a  small  renmant  only', 
of  his  great  armament,  and  never  recovered  from 
tile  disitster  — G.  Long,  IkeliiK  uf  the  limian 
Itii'itbUr,  e.'i.ch.\. 

A.  D.  267.— Capture  by  the  Goths.  See 
Goths:  A.  I)  25S-267. 


CZAR,   OR    TZAR      See   Hissi.v:    A.    D 
1547. 

CZARTORISKYS,  The,  and  the  fall  of 
Poland.     Si'c  1'oi.am):  A    I)   17ii:t-1773 

CZASLAU,  OR  CHOTUSITZ,  Battle  of 
(A.  D.  I742>.  See  Austria  :  A.  I).  1742  (Jaxu- 
ahv — Mxv). 

CZEKHS,  The.    See  Bohemia  :  Its  peopls. 


D. 


DACHTELFIELD,  The.  See  Saxoss; 
.V.  1)  772-!<il4. 

OACIA,  The  Dacians.—  .\nrlint  Dacia  em 
hniiii  the  ilist.ict  north  of  thi'  Danube  iMtwcen 
tlie  Tlieiss  aud  the  Dneister.  "  Tin-  Dacians  [at 
tlie  time  of  .Vugustiis,  in  the  lost  half  cciiturv 
B  ('  ]  ixiiipietl  the  whole  of  what  now  forms 
the  wiutlieru  part  of  llungiry,  the  Hanat  and 
Trannylvania.  .  .  .  Tlie  more  pniminent  part 
which  iliey  tiencefortli  assumed  in  Roman  history 
was  prohalily  owing  principally  to  tlie  immediate 
pr"\lmily  in  which  they  now  found  tliem.selves 
I"  the  Koman  frontier  "The  (jiiesthm  of  the  re- 
Uil.in  ill  which  the  Dacians  stood  to  the  tJetie, 
•*\\m  »e  tlnd  in  possi'ssiim  of  these  same  couii- 
tri.sat  an  earlier  [mtIoiI.  was  one  on  which  there 
i\i»ie.|  cniisidi'rabic  dillcrence  of  opinion  among 
amiiut  wriirrs:  but  the  prevailing  coucliishm 
was  that  ihey  verv  only  different  names  applied 
to  tlie  same  p<i>plc.  Even  Strulni,  who  descrilies 
ilieni  as  liistiiut.  though  cognate  trilx-s.  states 
Unit  they  spoke  the  H«me  language.  Ac""r!i"g 
In  his  distinction  the  Uetje  occupied  the  more 
•  •4.1;;  tedious,  ad  joining  tlie  Kuxinc.  and  tlie 
l>aeiiiii8  the  western,  bonli'rinit  on  the  Oer- 
null's  _E.  H.  ■'anbury,  llitt.  vf  Ancient  Ocvij., 
<'■  •:■>.  Hd.  1. 


A.  D.  i02-io6.—Trajan's  conquest.— At  the 

lieginning  of  the  serond  tenliiry.  wlunTnijan 
connuen'd  the  Dacians  and  added  tin  ir  country 
to  the  Roman  £iii|iire.  "lliey  may  be  loii-ideri'd 
as  lacupying  tiie  br.iad  l)|.«k  of  land  iKiiiiidcd 
by  the  Theiss.  tlie  C:ir|iMtliiaii.«,  llie  lower 
Danube  or  Ister.  and  tin  I'ruili.  '  In  his  Hrst 
campaiL'n.  A.  D  Io2.  Trijan  pinilraliil  the 
country  to  the  li.ari  of  iiuMlirn  Triiisyhaula. 
and  forced  the  Dacians  to  give  him  liaillc  at  a 
lihice  cailid  Tap;c.  the  site  of  whieli  is  not 
known,  lie  nmted  them  with  miiiii  slaughter, 
as  tliey  had  been  routed  at  the  siinie  place,  Tapip, 
sixteen  years  before,  in  one  of  the  inelTectual 
campaigns  diricteil  by  Domitian  Tliev  Sub- 
milled,  anil  Tiajan  istablished  strong  Uomon 
iicwis  In  the  country  ;  Init  he  liails<iircely  ri'ttched 
Itiiiiie  and  cehbnueil  his  iriiiiiiph  tliefe.  K'fore 
the  Daiians  were  lU'ain  in  arms  In  tlie  spring 
of  the  year  IIM.  Trajan  repaired  to  the  lower 
Daiiiilie  in  jHTson,  onie  inori',  and  entered  the 
Iiarian  country  wiili  an  overwhelming  force. 
Tliis  time  tlie  subjugation  was  ctmiplete,  and  tb« 
Romans cstahllshcil  tliclrwciipation  of  the  coun- 
tn'  by  the  founding  of  colonies  and  th"  building 
of  roads.  Dacia  was  now  made  a  Roman  prov- 
ince, and  ' '  the  language  of  the  Empire  became. 


CG9 


ill 


•■•i; 


PACIA. 


DALRIADA. 


and  to  tUi  day  lubttantUlIy  tenuklni,  the  luk- 
tional  toD^e  of  the  inhabitant*.  ...  Of  the 
Dadan  province,  the  laat  acquired  and  the  flnt 
to  be  Runendered  of  the  Roman  poneaions,  if 
we  except  lome  transient  occupationi,  aoon  to  be 
commemorated,  in  the  East,  not  many  traces 
DOW  exist:  but  even  these  may  suffice  to  maric 
the  moulding  power  of  Roman  civilization.  .  .  . 
The  accents  of  the  Roman  tongue  still  echo  In 
the  valleys  of  Hungary  and  Wallachia:  the  de- 
scendants of  the  Daclans  at  the  present  day 
repudiate  the  appellation  of  Wftllachs,  or  stran- 

Sers.  ami  still  claim  the  Danu-  of  Romdni. — C. 
lerivale.  Hint,  of  tlu  Roman*,  eh.  63, 
A.  D.  270.— Given  up  to  the  Gothi.    See 
O0T118:  A.  D,  268-270. 

4th  Century.— Conquest  by  the  Hunt.    See 
Goths  (Visiooths):  A.  D.  876,  and  Huns:  A.  D. 
433-4.'i3. 
6th  Century.— Occupied  by  the  Avars.    See 

AVAKS. 

Modern  history.    See  Balkan  asd  Danubian 

STATEa 

DACOITS.    See  Dakoits. 

DACOTAS.  See  Amehica!«  Aborigines: 
8ioi'.\.N  Family,  and  Pawnee  (Caddoan) 
Family. 

DiECSASTAN,  Battle  of.— Fought,  A.  D. 
603,  twtween  the  Northumbrians  iinii  the  Scots 
of  Dalriada,  the  army  of  the  latter  Iwlng  almost 
wholly  de8tr(>ytd. 

DAGOBERT  I.,  King  of  the  Franks  (Neus- 
trU),    A.     D.    «2»MW!*;    (Austrasiai,    622-633: 

(Burarundy),  63iM{:W Dagobert  II.,  King  of 

the  Franks   (Austrasia),    A.    I>.   673-678 

Dagobert  II!,,  King  of  the  Franks  (Neustria 
andSurgTindy),  A.  I).  711-715. 

OAHIS,  The,  See  Balkan  and  D.kncbian 
Stai-ks.  14t»-1»tii  Centi'Uies  (Servia). 

DAHLGREN,  Admiral  John  A.— Siege  of 
Charleston.   See  I'NiTEn  States  ok  Am.  :  A.  I). 

IWW  (.IlLY,  ilUll  .\l"(lU8T— DECKMBKH:  S.  t'ARO- 
LISA). 

DAHLGREN,  Ulric— Raid  to  Richmond. 
See  Uniteo  States  of  Am.:  A.  D.  IStW  (I'eii- 
RCAKY— March :  Virginia). 

DAHOMEY.  Tin-  African  kingdom  of  Da- 
hoiuiv  was  siilijuu'iilcd  liy  tlic  Fn-mh  in  l'<l(2-t, 
the  king  o.xilid  tii  .Martii'iiiiuc.  ami  the  country 
ori?anl/.c<l  milcr  tin-  name  of  "the  Colony  lif 
PalKMiifV  .111(1  l>ei>enticnci<*M." 

DAKOITS.  -  DAKOITEE,  -  The  I>ak  lits 
of  Imiia.  wliii  were  suppresscil  siMin  after  the 
Tliuv'i.  were  ■  niljlicrs  by  profewidn.  ami  even 
by  liirlli  "  Dakuitee  "was  eslabli^ahiil  npon  a 
liriiiul  liasis  of  lienMlltnry  ea.Hle,  and  was  for  the 
must  p;irt  an  organic  slate  of  siH'iety.  I  have 
always  folliiwwl  the  trade  of  mv  ani'esturs, 
l>akiiit^e.'  said  Luklia.  a  notnl  f>akiiit.  who 
8iil)'u'(|iiently  iH'came  approver."  The  hunting 
d'lwii  of  tile  Dakoits  was  begim  in  lM.'|x.  under 
th<'  I  lirectii  m  of  Colonel  Sleeman.  who  had  alreaily 
hunted  dnnn  the  Th\ig8.—.I  \V.  Kaye,  The  Ail- 
minintr.itin)!  nf  the  Kmt  IniUn  (\>.,  pt.  3.  ek.  8. 

DAKOTA,  North  and  South  :  A.  D.  1803.— 
Embraced  in  the  Louisiana  Purchase.  See 
Lori-iANA     A    r»   i:»H-lHii8. 

A 
sion,    to    SSi-zSiga..,    ..  ,..vwu..u. 
Territories.    Ser  Wisconsin  :  K.  D.  iNitvi^m^. 

A.  D.  1889.— Admission  to  tb*  Union.  See 
Uniteu  States  OF  Am      A   I>   lH8V-lMUtl. 


\..  D.  1814-18^8.— Partly  joined,  in  succea- 

■n,    to    Mi-:*Tigan,   Wistoaiin,  and    Iowa 


670 


OAKOTAS.  See  Axebicah  ABoaiam 
610DA11  Family  and  Pawxxk  (Caddoan)  Faiiii 

DALAI  LAMA.    See  LaitAa 

OALCASSIANS.  — The  people  of  Nor 
Munster  figure  prominently  under  that  name 
early  Irish  history.— T.  Moore,  Hiit.  of  InUin 
V.  2. 

DALHOUSIE,  Lord,  The  India  admini 
tration  of^  See  India:  A.  D.  184&-1849'  im 
ri6;  and  1852. 

JALMATIA — "The  nai row  strip  of  land  ( 
the  eastern  side  of  the  Hadriatic  on  whirh  tl 
name  of  Dalmatla  lias  settled  down  has  a  bistoi 
which  is  strikingly  analogous  to  Its  scener\-. 
As  the  cultivation  and  civilization  of  the  lai 
lit..  patches,  as  harbours  and  cities  alterna 
witii  oarren  hills,  so  Dalmatla  has  plaved  a  pa 
in  history  only  bv  flu  and  starts.  This  litfi 
kind  of  history  goes  on  from  the  days  of  Gre« 
colonies  and  IlTyrian  piracy  to  the  lit  vi 
between  Italv  and  Austria.  But  of  conunuoi 
history,  steadily  influencing  the  coutae  of  tb 
world  8  progress,  Dalmatia  has  none  to  show.  "- 
E.  A.  Freeman.  Sulgeet  and  Neighbour  Lamlt, 
Venice,  pp.  85-S7. 

Also  in  :  T.  O.  Jackson,  Dalmatia.  the  ^imi 
nero  and  htria,  ek.  1-2.— Sec.  also.  iLLYKicr 
op  the  Romans:  Salona:  and  Balkan  ax 
Dancbian  Stated 

6th-7th  Centuries :  Slavonic  occupation.  S« 
Slavonic  Peoples:  6th  and  7th  Ckntihie! 
also,  Balkan  and  D.anubian  States:  7tii  Ce.\ 

TVHV. 

A.  D.  944.— Beginning  of  Venetian  Coo 
quest.     See  Venice:  A.  D.  810-961. 

A.  D.  II03.— Conquest  by  the  king  of  Has 
gary.     See  Hinoary:  A.  1).  972-1114 

lAth  Century,— Conquest  from  the  Venetian 
by  Louis  the  Great  of  Hungary,  SMe  Hex 
GARY:  A.  D.  1301-1442. 

i6th  Century.— The  Uscocka.    See  I'mdcKi 

A.  D.  1604-1696.- Conquests  by  the  Vent 
tians.     See  Tihkb:  A.  D.  16(i4-ltt»! 

A.  D.  1699.— Ceasionin  great  part  toVenici 
by  the  Turks.     Si'c  Hinoary :  Iftsl  !iii)9. 

A.  D.  1797.— Acquisition  by  Auv;ria.  S(i 
France:  A.  I).  1797  (May— Octohkui 

A.  D.  1805.— Ceded  by  Austria  to  the  kinr 
dor.,  of  Italy.    S<'e  Germany:  A.  D   Isii.VlS!* 

A.  D.  1809.— Incorporated  in  the  Illyriai 
Provinces  of  Napoleon.  SecOKUMAXV  A  I» 
1809  (.liLY— September). 

A.  D.  1814.— Restored  to  Austria.— Ausir.i 
recovered  iM>sses8ion  of  Dalmatia  niuhr  lliear 
nmgements  of  the  (Ungreas  of  Vienna. 
-♦ 

DALRIADA.— "Adl8trlrtforniin>rllieti"nh 
oast  corner  of  Ireland  and  comprising  llie  iinrit 
half  of  tlie  county  of  Antrim,  was  called  Hal 
riada.  It  appears  to  have  Ix-en  one  of  the  carlicsl 
Si'ttlrmcnts  of  the  Scots  among  the  Piets  of  I  Isiei 
and  to  have  derived  Its  name  from  Its  supiHued 
founder  Calrbre.  siimametl  Hlghfli«<la  <ir  Hiaila. 
It  lay  exactly  opposite  the  peninsula  nf  Kinty-f: 
and  from  this  Irish  district  the  coir  y  ■•(  sinis, 
which  was  already  Christian  [flftli  iintury] 
pussMl  over  and  settle<l  In  Kintyre  iiml  in  liie 
Island  of  Isla"  — estnlilishlng  a Sioii h  Piilriiula. 
—  W.  F.  Skene.  I'tltir  Seotl.iml.  Iii  1,  M  -i- 
Fur  suuie  tti'i'tiunl  uf  (he  Scotch  Dalrituia,  Ht) 
Sco'ii.AM);  7th  Cknti  RV. 

DAMARALAND.  See  QEKMtN  8UITH 
"F.ST  Al  nil  A. 


DAMASCUS. 

DAMASCUS,  Kingdom  of.— The  kingdom 
ofDunaicut,  or  "  Armm  of  DunMcui"  as  it  wm 
entitled,  waf  formed  loon  after  that  Syrian  region 
thiew  off  the  yoke  of  dependence  which  David 
■nd  Solomon  had  impoaixl  upon  it.  "Rezon, 
the  outlaw,  waa  ita  founder.  Hader,  or  Had"^, 
ud  Rimmon,  were  the  chief  divinities  of  the  -  ace, 
ud  from  them  the  line  of  iu  kii^gs  derived  their 
names,— Hadad,  Ben-hadad,  Hadad-czer,  Tab- 
rimmon."— Dean  Stanley,  LeeU.  on  the  Hut.  of 
ihiJeveuh  CAiiiTA,fcc<. 83.— "Though frequently 
captured  and  plundered  in  succeeding  centuries 
tif  Egypt  >i>d  Assyria,  neither  of  those  nations 
WW  able  to  hold  it  long  in  subjection  because  of 
the  other.  It  was  probably  a  temporary  repulse 
of  the  Assyrians,  under  Shalmaneaer  II.,  by  the 
Dtmasceoe  general  Naaman  to  which  reference 
U  made  in  2  Kings  v.  1 :  'by  him  the  Lord  had 
giren  deliverance  unto  Syria.' .  .  .  After    the 

Seat  conquerors  of  Egypt  and  Asia,  each  in  his 
y,  bad  captured  ana  plundered  Damascus,  it 
was  taken  without  resistance  by  Parmenio  for 
Aleiuider  the  Great  [B.  C.  3331.  In  it  Pompey 
ipent  the  proudest  year  of  his  life,  64  B.  C,  dis- 
tributiDg  at  his  pleasure  the  thrones  of  the  East 
to  the  vassals  of  Rome.  Cleopatra  had  received 
the  city  as  a  love-gift  from  Mark  Antony,  and 
Tilxrius  had  bestowed  It  upon  Herod  tlit  Great, 
hcfiire  Aretiis  of  Petra,  the  father  of  the  princess 
whom  HcrtMl  Antlpas  divorced  for  Ilerodias' sake, 
uid  the  ruler  whose  officers  watched  the  city  to 
prevent  the  escape  of  Paul,  made  it,  we  know 
not  how,  a  part  of  his  dominions." — W.  B. 
Wright,  Ancient  Citiei,  eh.  7, 

A.  D,  634.— Conquest  by  the  Arabs.  See 
.Mahometan  Cokcjuest:  A.  D.  6;J3-83«. 

A.  D.  661.— Becomes  the  seat  of  the  Cali- 
phate.   See  Mahometan  CoxQiEST:  A   I>  661 

A.  D.  763,— The  Caliphate  transferred  to 
Bagdad.    See  Mahometan  Conoiest;    A    V) 

:83. 

A.  D.  1148-1317.— Capital  of  the  Ataber 
and  the  Ayoubite  sultana.  Sec  Saladin,  Tub 
EiiriKE  or. 

A.  D,  1401.— Sack  and  massacre  by  Timour. 
S»e  TiMotK. 

A  D.  183a.— Capture  by  Mehemed  Ali. 
SeeTvuKs:  A.  D.  1831-lHlO. 


DAMASUS  11,,  Pope,  A.  D.  1W8.  July  to 
August. 

DAMIETTA:  A.  D.  iaio-i320,-SieKe, 
uptute  and  surrender  by  the  Crusaders.  See 
CRfSADES;  A.  D.  1216-1229. 

A  D.  1249-1250.— Capture  and  loss  by  Saint 
Louis.    8<'e  ("RtdAPEK:  A.  D.  !  'i>'-12.'i4. 

A.  0. 1353.— Destruction  by  ■  e  Mamelukes. 
-■'Two  years  after  llie  delivi  ice  of  the  kiug 
[Stint  Louis],  and  whilst  he  >s  still  in  Pales- 
tine, the  Mamelukes,  fearing  iresh  invasion  of 
the  Franks,  in  order  U)  previ^nt  their  enemies 
from  taking  Damietta  and  fortifying  themselves 
In  that  city,  entirely  destroyed  It.  Some  years 
»ft«f,  iw  iheir  fears  were  not  yet  removed,  and 
tie  lecond  crusade  of  Louis  IX  spread  fresh 
«l»nn«  throughout  the  East,  Me  Egyptians 
Miued  immense  heaps  of  stone  to  be  cast  into 
the  mouth  of  the  Nile,  in  order  tlmt  the  Christian 
flffU  might  not  be  able  to  sail  up  •!»•  riv?r 
since  that  period  a  new  DamietU  has  been  built 
•t  •  unall  dUtance  from  the  site  of  the  former 

t.;:LL?!'P'»»»"''  J**'  "/**«  0"*i*».  a*.  i4. 

DAMNONIA.    See  Bkitaoi  ;  flra  Cbmtcbt. 


DANTZIC. 

DAMNONII.    OR    DAMNII,   The.      See 

Dumoini. 

-PAMOISEL.  —  DAMOISELLB.  -  DON- 
ZELLO.— "In  medisval  Latin  'domicella'  is 
used  for  the  unmarried  d  jghtcr  of  a  prince  or 
noble,  and  'domlcellus,'  contracted  from  dom- 
nicellus,  the  diminutive  of  'dominus,'  for  the 
^'  Thf«  words  are  the  forerunners  of  the  old 
French  'dimoisel '  in  the  masculine,  and  'damoi- 
relle  in  the  feminine  gender.  Froissart  calls 
Richard,  prince  of  Wales,  son  of  Edward:  Me 
ietine  damoUil  Richart.'  In  Romance  the  word 
is  todiflerently  damoisel'  and  'danzel,'  in  Ital- 
ton  donzello.  All  of  these  are  evidently  titles 
under  the  same  notion  as  that  of   child    and 

enfant,  of  which  the  idea  belongs  to  the  knighu 
of  an  eariier  period."— R  T.  Hampson,  Oriainei 
Putneia,  p.  328. 

S^S^iS^' '^''•-    8eeAKooa.-AROOLi8. 
,0?-**'^'*'°  PLAGUE.    See  Plaoce,  A.  D. 
1374. 

DANDRlDGE.EnKarementat.  See  United 
States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1863-1864  (Decembeb- 
APRn, :  Tennessee— Mississippi). 

DANEGELD,  The,— "A  tax  of  two  shillings 
on  the  hide  of  land,  originally  levied  as  tribute  to 
the  Danes  under  Ethelred,  but  continued  [even 
under  the  Plantagenete],  like  the  income  tax.  as 
a  convenient  ordinary  resource."- W.  Stubbs 
Tht  Ekirly  PlanUigent' ,,  p.  53.— See  England- 
A.  D.  »79-1016. 

T^?d^Ahf^°^'  °^  danelaga,  or 

DANELAU.— The  district  in  England  held  by 
the  Danes  after  their  treaty  with  Alfred  the 
Great,  extending  south  Ui  the  Thames,  the  Lea 
and  the  Ousc ;  north  to  the  Tyne :  W"  st  of  the 
mountain  district  of  Yorkshire,  Westmorelaml 
and  Cumberland.  "Over  all  this  n-gion  the 
traces  of  their  colonization  abound  in  the  vil- 
lages whose  names  end  in  by,  the  Scandinavian 
equivalent  of  the  English  tun  or  ham."— \V 
Stubbs,  Cnut.  HiH.ijfing.,  ch.  7,  »ect.  77.— See 
also,  England:  A.  D.  853-880. 

DANES  AS    VIKINGS. 
mans.— Northmen. 

In  England.  See  England:  A.  D.  85,'>-880 
97»-10l6.  and  1016-1042;  also  Normans  A  D 
787-880. 

In  Ireland.  Sec  Ireland:  9th-10tii  Cen- 
turies. 


See,  also,  Nor- 


DANITES,  The,  See  Mohmoni9.m:  A.  D 
1830-1846. 

DANTE  AND  THE  FACTIONS  OF 
FLORENCE.  See  Florence:  A.  I).  1'>«.5- 
1300:  and  1301-131:1. 

DANTON  AND  THE  FRENCH  REVO- 
LUTION. SeeFiiAXrE:  A.  D.  1791  (Octoiieh), 
to  1793-1794  (November— JtsE). 

DANTZIC:  In  the  Hanteatic  League.  See 
Hansa  TowNf. 

A.  D.  1577.— Submission  to  the  king;  of  Po- 
land.    SeePoLA.ND;  .v.  D    H74-l,'(P'l. 

A.  D.  1793.— Acquisition  by  Prutaio.  See 
Poland:  A.  U.  1793-1796. 

A.  D.  i8a6'i8o7.— Siege  and  capture  by  the 
French.    See  Obkuany:  A.  D.  1807  (Febkuaut 

— JCSK). 

A  D.  1807.— Declared  a  free  state.  See 
Germany:  A.  D.  1807  (June- Jclt). 

A.  D,  1813.— Siege  and  capture  by  the  At- 
liea.  See  Germany:  .\  I)  1813  (Octobkr— 
Decimiier). 


C71 


DAKA. 


DEBT. 


DARA.— One  of  the  capitals  of  the  Parthian 
klnits,  the  site  of  which  has  not  been  identified. 

DARA,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  529).  See  Pe^isia: 
A.  D.  228-827. 

DARDANIANS  OF  THE  TROAD.  Soe 
Tiioja:  and  Asia  Minor:  The  Oreee  Coloxies; 
also,  Amohites. 

DARIEN,  The  lathmui  of.    See  Panama. 

The  Scottish  colony.  Sec  Scotland:  A.  D. 
169.'V-lflO». 

DARINI,  The.  See  Ireland,  Trides  of 
KARi.Y  Celtic  iNnABiTANTs. 

DARIUS,  King  of  Persia,  B  C.  .521-4X6 

Darius    II.,     n     r.    4>.V4(r)  Darius     III. 

(Codomannus),  B.  C.  3:i(i-:!:)l. 

DARK  AGES,  The.  The  historical  period, 
sooalled,  is  neiirly  iilriitical  with  that  named  the 
Middle  Ai:is,  Imt  sliorlcr  in  dtirutiim.  perhaps, 
by  a  century  or  two.  .Sc  Middlk  AiiEs. 
'DARNL'EY,  Lord,  The  murder  of.  See 
Scotland:  A    D.  l.Wl-l.W^ 

DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE  and  the  Dart- 
mouth College  Case.  See  Ediiation,  iloo- 
EitN  :  Amkuil'a:  A.  I).  1754-1769. 

DAR-UL-ISLAM  AND  DAR-UL-HARB. 
— "Tlie  Korin  diyide.i  the  world  into  two 
portions,  the  House  of  Islam,  Par-ullslam.  and 
the  House  of  War,  Dnr-ul-harh.  It  has  jienorally 
been  represented  by  Western  writers  on  the  ill- 
stitutes  of  Jlaliomc'tanism  and  on  the  habits  of 
Maliometan  nations,  that  the  Darul-harb,  the 
House  of  War,  comprises  all  lands  of  the  nds- 
beliercrs.  .  ,  .  There  is  even  a  widely-sprciid 
idea  among  supertieiiil  talkers  and  writers  that 
the  holy  hostility,  the  Jehad  [or  Dhihad]  of 
Mussulmans  aeanist  mm-Mussulmaus  is  not 
limited  to  warfare  l>etween  nation  and  nation; 
but  that  '  it  is  a  part  of  the  religion  of  ,viry 
Maliometan  to  kill  as  many  Christians  :is  pos- 
sible, and  that  by  roimting  up  a  certain  num- 
Ixr  killed,  they  think  themselves  seiure  of 
heaven.'  But  careful  historicul  investigators, 
:ind  statesnu  II  long  practically  conversant  with 
Mahometan  popuhitiims  have  exposed  the  fallacy 
of  su"h  charges  against  those  who  hold  the 
creed  of  Isliim.  ...  A  country  which  is  under 
Christian  rulers,  but  in  which" Mahometans  .are 
idloHcd  free  pnifessiou  of  tluir  faith,  and  peace- 
aide  e.\ercise  of  their  ritu:d,  is  not  a  portion  of 
the  Housi'of  War,  of  the  Dar-ulharb;  and  there 
is  no  religious  duty  of  warfare,  no  .Iihad.  011  the 
jiart  of  true  Mussulmans  against  such  a  stativ 
'i'his  has  lieen  of  late  years  fcirnially  lietennini'd 
liy  tlie  chief  authorities  in  Mahonu'tan  law  with 
rrsiiect  to  British  India." — f<ir  E.  S.  Creasy, 
///»r.  ofthf  Otr>m,in  Turku,  eh.  C. 

DASTAGERD.— The   favorite   residi' of 

tlie  last  great  Persian  king  ancl  concpnror.  Clios- 
rois  (A.  I).  5lK)-fl28),  was  fi.xed  at  Dastagenl, 
■  r  .Vrtemita,  sixty  miles  nortli  of  Ctcsiphon, 
: ml  east  of  the  Tigris.  His  palaces  and  pleiLsure 
grounds  were  of  extraordinarj-  magnitleenee. — 
E.  (lililioiL  Dfclinf  and  Fall  nf  the  Roman  Km- 
}»■;.  ,-h.  46. 

DASYUS.    See  India:  The  aroriuinal  in- 

HAIUTANTS. 

DAUPHINS    OF     FRANCE.— DAU- 

PHINE.— In  1340,  Philip  VI.,  or  Philip  de 
Valois,  of  Prance,  nei|Uired  by  punhase  from 
IIuiiiIm'iI  II  ,  rount  of  Vienne,  iiiu  sovereignty 
of  the  pn>vince  of  Daupbine.  TIds  principalily 
Incniue  from  that  time  the  appanage  of  the 
eldest  sons  of  the  kings  of  France  and  gave  them 


their  nMuIlar  name  or  title  nf  the  Daii] 
The  title  in  question  had  been  borne  b 
courts  of  Vienne  (in  Dauphin^),  "on  ac 
of  ihe  dolphin  which  they  carried  uiion 
helmets  and  on  their  armorial  liearin^s. 
De  Bonnechose,  Iliit.  of  France,  bk.  2,  eh.  2 
note. 

Also  in;  E.  Smedley,  ITitt.  of  Fraim, 
eh.  9. — See,  also,  Bl'ro'chdt:   A.  D  1127- 

DAVENPORT,  John,  and  the  foundii 
New  Haren  Colony.    See  CoNNt    ■  tc  ct 
16»<,  and  1639. 

DAVID,  King  of  Israel  and  Judah, 
Jews:  The  Kingdoms  of  I8R.\el  A.sn  Ji 
and  Jeri'salem:  Con<jl'E8T.  ic.  .  D«Ti 
King  of  Scotland,  A.  D.  1124-11.'>:1  I 
II.,  1329-1370. 

DAVIS,  Jefferson.— Election  to  the  F 
dency  of  the  rebellious  "  Confederate  Sta 
S<"e  United  States  of  Am.:  .\.  I).  l(«!i  1 

RCART) Flight  and  capture.    Sr  In 

St.\tes  OP  .\M. :  A.  I).  186.5  (Apuii.—  Mwi 

DAVOUT,   Marshal,   Campaigns  of 
Germany:  A    D.   1806  (OcronKni:  isikj. 
18<>7  (Feiiriakv — JfNEl;   also  1!ism.\    a 
1812;   and   Germany:    A.    D.    1812-1X13; 
(.\fnfST),  (October— December). 

DAY    OF    BARRICADES,   The. 
France:  A.  D.  1.V4-1.5S9. 

DAY  OF  DUPES,  The,  .S .  Ftiance:  . 
1630-1632. 

DAY  OF   THE    SECTIONS,  The, 
Fr\sce:  a.  I).  179.')  (OiTor.KU— Df.i  tMiif 

DAY  OF  THE  SPURS,  ^ee  I..1  in 
Battle  ok. 

DAYAKS,  The.    Ssce  Boicmo 

DEAK,  Francis,  and  Hungarian  nat 
ality.     iS'e  .\i  iTiiiA  :  A.  D.  IWiil-lMir. 

DEAN  FOREST.— Tlie  •■H.y;il  Fore; 
Di^an,"  situated  in  the  so«th\  ,«tini  iiTiL-Iio 
county  of  Gloucester,  Eiiglaiid.  I«i««u 
Severn  and  the  Wye,  Is  still  so  .xteiisivi'  ili 
covers  some  23,  (HK)  acres,  though  iiiinli  nil 
from  its  original  dimensions  Its  o.iks  ;ei 
Iron  mines  have  played  important  parts  in  Bi 
history.  The  latter  were  worked  hy  tli.  Hni 
and  still  give  emph  rment  to  a  lar^'e  i;iimiIi 
miners.  The  fonner  wen'  thnuglit  to  It-  w 
si'niial  to  the  naval  power  of  Euirlan  I  tl1.11 
destruction  of  the  Forest  is  s;iifi  to  iLive  Imi 
of  tlie  special  duties  ]irescrilieil  to  ilii.  Sp: 
Armada. — J.  C.  Brown.  Fini'tA  •■/  Hi.i'. 

DEANE,  Silas,  and  the  American  trai 
tions  with    Beaumarchais    in    France. 
Unite.)  St.\tes  OF -Vm.  :  .\.  D    177ii-I7Ts 

DEARBORN,  General  Henry,  and  the' 
of  i8i>.  See  United  St atis  ok  .\m  :  .\ 
1812  (.it'NE — OcTonER).    (Sei'Tkmiii  k— No 

IIERI;    .V.    I>,    1813  (OlTOUER— XOVKMIIKR) 

DEBRECZIN,  Battle  of  ii849>.    S.i' 
thia:  A.  I).  1848-1M49 

DEBT,  Laws  concerning:  Ancient  Gi 

— At  Athens,  in  the  time  of  Solon  (ilili  nnl 
B.  C.)  the  Thetes— "the  cultivating'  tea 
metayers  and  small  proprietoiN  of  tlie  ci" 
.  .  .  are  exhibiteil  as  weii:lied  down  In 
and  dependence,  and  driven  in  lar.i'  iiin 
out  of  a  state  of  freedom  into  slavery - 
whole  mass  of  them  iwe  are  toMi  h.  in.'  in 
to  the  rich,  who  were  proprietor- oi  \'w  sr- 
part  of  the  soil.  They  li:id  litlier  liorr 
money  for  their  own  neii'ssltii>,  1  r  tley  I 
the  lauds  of  the  rich  as  di  |n  udeiil  u  niiuts. 


672 


■  _ 


Sr.'  Ftiante:  ad 


DEBT. 

big  a  stipulated  portion  of  the  produce,  and  in 
thb  capacity  th^r  were  largely  in  arrear.     All 
the  calamitoua  effects  were  here  seen  of  the  old 
binh  law  of  debtor  and  creditor — once  prevalent 
In  Greece,  Italy,  Asia,  and  a  large  portfcn  of  tlie 
worfd— combined  with  the  recognition  of  slavery 
u  a  legitimate  status,  and  of  the  right  of  one  man 
10  sell  himself  as  well  as  that  of  another  man  to 
buy  him.    Every  debtor  unable  to  fulfil  his  con- 
iract  was  liable  to  bo  adjudged  as  the  slave  of  his 
creditor,  untilhecouldflndmcanseitherof  paying 
it  or  worlting  it  out ;  and  uot  only  he  himself, 
but  his  minor  sons  and  unmarried  daughters  and 
sisters  also,  whom  the  law  gave  him  the  power 
of  selling.     The  poor  man  thus  borrowed  upon 
the  security  of  his  body  (to  translate  literally  the 
Greek  phrase)  and  upon  that  of  the  persons  in 
bU  family.    So  severely  had  these  oppressive  con- 
tracts been    enforced,  that  many    debtors  had 
been  reduced  from  freedom  to  sfavery  in  Attica 
itself.— many  others  had  been  sold  for  expor- 
tation,— and  some  had  only  hitherto  preserved 
their  own  fi-eedom  by    sefling    their  children. 
.  .  .  T"  their  relief  Solon's  first  measure,  the 
memoraMe  Seisachtheia,  shaking  off  of  burthens, 
was  (liri'Cte'"      The  relief  whicli  it  alTorded  was 
compltti'  r   d  immediate.     It  cancelled  at  once 
all  those    .-ontracts    in    which    the   debtor  had 
bomiwi'<l  on  the  security  either  of  lii>:  person  or 
of  his  land:  it  forlmde  all  future  loanj  or  con- 
tracts in  which   the  person  of  the  debtor  was 
pledged  as  security :  it  deprived  the  creditor  in 
future  of  all  power  to  imprison,  or  enslave,  or 
extort  work  from,  his  debtor,  and  c  inflned  him 
tonn  (ffcctive  judgment  at  law  authorizing  the 
siizun' I pf  tlie  pniperty  of  the  latter.     It  swept  off 
all  ihc  numerous  mortgage  pillars  from  the  landed 
pnijiirtiis  in  Attica.  Icivinc  the  laud  free  from 
all  p;ist  claims.     It  liberated  and  restored  to  their 
full  ritrhts  all  debtors  actually  in  slavery  imder 
previous  li^'al  adjudication:  and  it  even  provided 
the  means  (we  do  not  know  hnw)  of  re-purchas- 
ins  in  foreign   lands,  and  bringine   back   to  a 
rene'ved  life  of  liberty  in  Attica,  maiiy  insolvents 
who  had  l)een  sold  for  expt)rtatiiin.  "  \nd  while 
S.i|on  for'oad  every   Athenian  to  pledge  or  sell 
his  own   [HTson    into    slavery,  he  tcnik   a  step 
farther  in  the  same  direction  by  forbidding  him 
to  pKil^re  (ir  sell   his  son,  his  "d  .ughter,   or  an 
luira.irrifu  sister  under  his  tutel,i;,'e  —  cxceptini; 
only  ihi'  case  in  which  either  of  tlie  latter  might  be 
detected  in  unchastity.  .  .  .  One  thing  is  never  to 
be  forgotten  in  ri'gurd  to  this  ineaiiure,  combined 
with  Ilic  concurrent  amendments  introduced  by 
•Solon  in  the  law  — it  settled  finally  the  question 
10  which  it  referred.     Never  again  do  we  hear 
of  the  law  of  debtor  and  creditor  as  disturbing 
.Athenian  tranquility.     The    general    sentiment 
which  grew  up  at  Athens,  under  the  Solonian 
monej-  law  and  under  the  democratical  govern- 
ment, was  one  of  high  respect  for  the  simctity  of 
contnuts.  .  .  .  There  can  be   little  doubt  tha 
■andrr  the   Solonian    law,    which    enabled    th. 
creditor  to  seize  the  property  of  his  debtor,  but 
g»vehim  no  power  ovjr  the  person,  the  sysU'm 
jf  money-lending    assumed  a    more    beneficial 
character'— O.  Grote,  Uitt.  of  Oretet,  pt.   2  eh 

Anciea:  Rom*n.— '  The  hold  of  the  cre<iitor 
»M  on  the  person  of  the  debtor.  The  obliga- 
Uon  of  a  debt  was  a  tying  up  or  binding,  or  bond- 
«ge,  of  the  person:  the  payment  was  a  solu- 
Uoo,  a  loosing  or  release  of  the  person  from  that 
«  ^_ 

01 


DEBT. 

bondage.  The  property  of  the  debtor  was  not  a 
ple^Vre  for  the  debt.  It  could  be  made  so  by 
»ri'-  ■'  agreement,  though  in  the  earliest  law 
.11  ly  oy  transferring  It  at  once  to  the  ownersliip 
(■  *  le  creditor.  Without  such  special  agree- 
mciit,  the  creditor  whose  debtor  failed  to  pay 
could  not  touch  his  property.  Even  when  the 
debtor  had  been  prosecuted  and  condemned  to 
pay,  if  he  still  fai'od,  the  creditor  could  not 
touch  his  property.  He  could  seize  his  person — 
I  speak  now  of  the  early  law,  in  the  first  cen- 
turies of  the  republic— and  after  holding  him 
in  rigorous  confinement  for  sixty  days  with 
opportunities,  however,  either  to  pay  himself  or 
get  somebody  to  pay  for  him.  if  payment  still 
failed,  he  could  sell  him  as  a  T-ve,  or  put 
him  to  death;  if  there  were  several  creditors, 
they  could  cut  his  body  into  pieces  and  divide 
It  among  them.  This  extreme  severity  was 
afterward  softened;  but  the  principle  remained 
long  unchanged,  that  the  hold  of  the  creditor 
was  on  the  (lerson  of  the  debtor.  If  the  debtor 
obstinately  and  to  the  last  refuseil  to  surren- 
der his  property,  the  creditor  could  not  touch 
It.  —J.  Hadley,  Introd.  to  Roman  Late,  Uet  10 

™"J?"^^„'^*  *"'  ■""  "'  ""«  Samn'te  war 
IB.  L.  d26-304J,  but  in  what  year  is  unceriain 
there  was  passed  that  famous  law  which  prol 
hihited  personal  slavery  for  debt.  >'o  creditor 
might  for  the  future  attach  the  person  of  his 
debtor,  but  he  might  only  seize  his  property 
and  all  those  whose  pe"rsonal  freedom  was 
pledged  for  their  debts  (nexi),  were  released 
from  their  liability,  if  they  could  swear  tlmt  they 
had  propertj-  enough  to  meet  their  creditor's 
i-emands.  It  does  not  appear  that  this  great 
alteration  in  the  law  was  the  work  of  any  tribune 
or  that  it  arose  out  of  any  general  or  deliberate 
desire  to  soften  the  severity  of  the  ancient  prac- 
tice. It  was  occasioned,  we  are  told,  by  one 
scvndnlous  instance  of  abuse  of  power  on  the 
pa-c  of  a  creditor.  ...  But  although  personal 
slavery  ft.r  debt  was  thus  done  away  with,  yet 
the  cooseouences  of  insolvency  were  much  more 
serious  at  Rome  than  they  arc  in  modem  Europe. 
He  whose  property  had  once  lieen  made  over  to 
his  crcditore  by  the  prstor's  sentence,  liecame 
ipso  facto,  infamous;  he  lost  his  trilie.  and  with 
it  all  his  political  rights;  and  the  forfeiture  was 
irrevocable,  even  though  he  might  afterwards 
pay  his  debts  to  the  full;  nor  was  it  even  in  the 
power  of  the  cen.sors  to  replace  him  on  the  ndlof 
citizens.  So  sacred  a  thing  did  credit  appear  in 
the  eyes  of  the  Romans."— T.  Arnold,  Ilut  of 
Hume.  eh.  83  (r.  2).  ' 

In  England.—"  Debt  has  Iieen  regarded  as  a 
crime  by  primitive  society  in  every  part  of  the 
world.  In  Palestine,  as  fn  l^lme,  the  creditor 
had  power  over  the  person  of  he  debtor,  and  mis- 
fortune was  commonly  treated  with  a  severity 
which  was  not  always  awarded  to  crime  [Levit 
XXV.,  89-11,  and  2  Kings  iv.,  1].  In  this 
country  [England]  the  same  system  was  grad- 
ually intnxiuceil  in  Plantagenet  time*.  The 
creditor,  who  had  been  previously  entitled  to 
seize  the  goods,  or  even  the  land  of  the  debtor, 
was  at  last  authorised  to  seize  his  person.  In 
one  sense,  indeed,  the  Enelish  law  waa.  in  this 
respect,  more  irrational  tlian  the  cruel  code  of 
the  Jews,  or  the  awful  punishment  [death  and 
dismemberment  or  slavery — Oibbon,  ch.  44] 
which  the  law  of  the  Twelve  Tables  reserved 
for  debtors.    In  Palestine  the  creditor  was,  at 


^i 

■.\ 

•-■ 

.t. 

Jfl 

gj 

1 

i 

if 

Pi 

tr. 

4^ 

f 

& 

* 

m 

DEBT. 


DEBT. 


leatt,  entitled  to  tue  Mrrlce  of  the  debtor  or  of 
bU  children,  and  the  slave  had  the  prospect  of 
an  Insolvent  Debtor's  Relief  Act  in  the  8ab- 
1>atical  year.  Even  the  law  of  the  Twelve 
Tables  allowed  the  creditors  to  sell  the  debtor 
into  slavery,  instead  of  resorting  to  the  horrible 
alternative  of  partitioning  his  body.  But  in 
England  the  creditors  had  nn  such  choice.  They 
had  nothing  to  do  but  to  throw  the  debtor  into 
prison ;  ancf  by  his  imprisonment  deprive  them- 
selves of  the  only  chance  of  his  earning  money 
to  pay  their  debts.  A  law  of  this  kind  was 
intolerable  to  a  commercUl  people.  The  debtor 
languished  in  gaol,  the  creditor  failed  to  obtain 
payment  of  his  debt.  When  traiie  increased  in 
Tudor  times,  the  wits  of  legislators  were  exer- 
cised in  devising  some  expedient  tor  satisfying 
the  creditor  without  imprisoning  tlie  debtor. 
The  Chancellor  was  authorised  to  appoint  com- 
missioners enipowercil  to  lilvide  the  debtor's 
property  among  the  creiiitors.  By  an  Act  of 
Anne  the  debtor  who  compile  \  with  the  law  was 
releaseti  from  further  liabll.  /,  and  was  prac- 
tically enabled  to  commence  life  anew.  In  1826, 
a  debtor  was  allowed  to  procure  his  own  bank- 
ruptcy; while  in  1831,  commissioners  were  ap- 
pointed to  carry  out  the  arrangements  which 
had  l)een  previously  conducted  under  the  Court 
of  Chancery.  The  law  of  bankruptcy  which 
was  thus  gradually  developed  by  the  legislation 
of  three  centuries  only  applie<l  to  persons  in 
trade.  No  one  who  was  not  a  trader  could 
become  a  bankrupt ;  the  onlinary  debtor  became 
as  a  matter  of  course  an  insolvent,  and  p.<i8sed 
under  the  insolvent  laws.  The  statutes,  more- 
over, omitted  to  give  any  very  plain  definition 
of  a  trailer.  The  distinction  tx-twetn  trader  and 
Don  trader  which  had  been  gradually  drawn  by 
the  Courts  was  not  hosed  on  any  very  clear  prin- 
ciple. A  person  who  made  bricks  on  his  own 
estate  of  his  own  clay  was  not  a  trailer;  but  a 
person  who  bought  the  clay  and  then  made 
the  bricks  was  a  trader.  Famurs,  again,  were 
exempt  from  the  Imnkrupti  y  law ;  but  f-;;-  erg 
who  purchased  cattle  fur  .sale  at  a  profit  ■  re 
liable  to  it.  The  possibility,  moreover,  of  a 
trader  iM'ing  maile  a  bankrupt  depended  0:1  the 
sire  of  his  nusiness.  A  petitioning  crediior  in 
bankruptcy  wa.s  reijuireil  ti>  hv  a  jwrson  to  whom 
at  least  £100  was  due;  if  two  (lersons  petitionetl, 
their  debts  were  required  to  aniount  to  £150;  if 
more  tlian  two  persons  [wtltioneil,  to  S'HW).  A 
small  shopkeeper,  therefore,  who  could  not  hope 
to  obtain  credit  for  £800,  £150,  or  £100.  could 
not  lieiome  a  bankrupt:  he  was  forceil  to  iM'come 
su  insolvent.  The  treatment  of  the  ins<>lvent 
was  wlinlly  dllTsTent  from  tliat  of  the  bankrupt. 
The  liiiukruptcy  law  was  founded  on  the  prin- 
ciple tlukt  the  goods  and  not  the  person  of  the 
dibtor  should  be  liable  for  the  debt;  the  insol- 
vency law  enabled  the  person  of  the  debtor  to  be 
seized,  but  provided  no  machinery  for  obtaining 
his  gooda.  ...  Up  to  1838  the  first  step  in  insol- 
vency was  the  arrest  of  the  debtor.  Any  person 
who  nude  a  deposition  on  oath  that  some  other 
person  was  in  debt  to  him,  could  obtain  his 
arrest  on  what  was  known  as  '  mesne  process. ' 
The  oath  might  possibly  be  untrue;  the  debt 
.'itight  nut  *;c  d-ac;  tiic  warmnt  issued  on  the 
sworn  deposition  as  «  matter  of  course.  But,  in 
addition  to  the  impriionnient  nn  mesne  process, 
the  insolvent  could  be  imprisoned  for  a  further 
period  on  what  wu  known  as  '  final  process. ' 


il  ]mn 


ImprlKnunent  (»  meme  prooeia  was  the  cou 
which  the  creditor  took  to  prevent  the  Highi 
the  debtor:  imprisonment  on  final  prooi'ss  1 
the  punishment  which  the  Court  awaniwi  to 
crime  of  debt.  Such  a  system  would  have  U 
bad  enough  if  the  debtors'  prisons  had  Wn  « 
managed.  The  actual  condition  of  these  prin 
almost  exceeds  belief.  Dickens,  imleeil.  I 
made  the  story  of  a  debtor's  Imnri.si  inrocnt 
the  Marshalsea  familiar  to  a  world  of  nwk 
.  .  .  The  Act  of  1818  had  done  somethlni;  III  m 
gate  the  misery  which  the  Uw  occaslouiil  1 
Court  which  was  constituted  by  li  nleiu 
50,000  debtors  in  18  years.  But  large  numb 
of  persons  were  still  detained  in  prisi^u  forde 
In  1827  nearly  6,000  persons  were  committeil 
London  alone  for  debt.  The  Common  I.aw  Co 
missioners,  reporting  in  1830,  decland  that  1 
loud  and  general  complaints  of  the  luw  of  ioj 
veney  were  well  foundeii;  and  CmtiTilium, 
1838,  introduced  a  bill  to  abolish  iriipriM>nmi 
for  debt  in  all  cases.  The  Lonls  win  nut p 
pared  for  so  complete  a  remedy ;  thiy  ilccliii 
to  aboluh  imprisonment  on  final  pruoesit.  or 
exempt  from  imprisonment  on  mesne  prnce 
persons  who  owed  more  than  £20.  iinii  who  i\ 
almut  to  leave  the  country.  Cottenhnm.  ilis. 
pointed  at  these  amendments,  decide' 
enln^  his  own   hands  by    Institii  -t 

inquiry.  He  appointed  a  coinmi 
which  reported  in  1840,  and  whiil 
the  abolition  of  imprisonment  ou 
and  the  union  of  bankruptcy  iinil  iiitil 
In  1841,  in  1843,  in  1843,  and  m  1K44  (Otii'i.lu 
introduced  bills  to  carry  out  this  ri  pnrt  T 
bills  of  1841.  1842,  and  1843  were  Inst.  Tin  t 
of  1844  was  not  much  more  successful  lirouc 
am  declared  that  debtors  who  refisiil  t"  J 
close  their  property,  who  refusiil  tu  un*>« 
questions  about  it,  who  refused  to  give  it  up. 
who  fraudulently  made  away  with  it,  ;is  will 
debtors  who  hail  been  guilty  of  gniss  t-xtnn 
gance,  deserved  imprisimment.  11'  intr»lui 
an  alternative  bill  giving  tlir  Court  iIim  riti"iia 
power  to  imprison  them.  The  Lnnls.  In  wilde: 
by  the  contrary  counsels  of  two  .such  gtvM  la 
yers  as  Cottenham  and  Brougham,  iltiiiled 
referring  both  bills  to  one  Selii  •  {'cimmitti 
The  Committee  preferred  Br  ,, sham's  bi 
amended  it.  and  returned  it  to  the  ilousi-  Tl 
bill  liecame  ultimately  law.  It  enaWwl  !«i 
private  debtors  and  traders  whose  tlel 
amounted  to  less  than  the  sums  named  in  t 
Bankruptcy  Acts  to  become  l)ankrupls;  «nd 
abolished  imprisonment  in  all  cases  wucri'  t 
debt  did  not  exceed  £20, '--S.  Walpole,  Htit 
Bnq.from  1HI,5,  th.  17  (c.  4). 

In  the  United  Stktet.— "In  New  York.  I 
the  act  of  April  26,  1831,  c.  300,  ami  which  we 
into  operation  on  March  1st,  1832,  arrest  ai 
imprisonment  on  civil  prweas  at  law,  and  on  ei 
cution  in  equity  founde<l  upon  contract,  wi- 
abolished.  The  provisio.]  tmder  the  act  was  n 
to  apply  to  any  perr-^n  who  should  have  lieen 
non-resident  of  the  state  for  a  month  prcoedii 
(and  even  this  exception  was  abolished  by  ti 
act  of  April  25th,  1840);  nor  to  pnMwdings 
for  a  contempt  to  enforce  civil  remeiliis;  nor 
actions  for  fines  and  pcmiUies;  t:-r  '•'•  -'■"' 
founded  in  torts  .  .  .  nor  on  promises  to  marr 
or  for  moneys  collected  by  any  public  officer; 
for  misr';uduct  or  neglect  in  offlce,  or  in  any  pt 
feuionai  employment.    The  plaintiff,  howe?« 


074 


« 


DEBT. 


to  tDj  tult,  or  upon  any  judgment  or  decree, 
m«T  «pply  to  a  ]udi;e  for  a  warrant  to  arrest  the 
defendant,  upon  atlldavit  stating  a  del)t  or  de- 
mand due,  to  more  than  |30;  and  that  the  de- 
fendant is  about  to  remove  property  out  of  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  court,  with  intent  to  defraud 
hia  creditors ;  or  that  he  has  property  or  rights 
Id  sction  which  he  fraudulently  conceals;  or 
public  or  corporate  stock,  money,  or  evidences  of 


to  assign  or  dispose  of  his  property,  with  Intent 
to  defraud  his  creditors ;  or  has  fraudulently  oon- 
tracteil  the  debt,  or  incurre<l  the  obligation  rc- 
ipecting  which  the  suit  is  brought.    If  the  judge 
(hall  be  satisfled,  on  due   examination,    of  the 
truth  of  the  charge,  he  is  to  commit  the  debtor  to 
jail,  unless  he  complies  with  certain  prescribed 
cnnilitlons  or  some  one  of  them,  and  which  arc 
calculatcil  for  the  security  of  the  phiintilT's  claim. 
Xor  is  any  execution  against  the  Inxiy  to  l)e  is- 
«ue<l  on    justices'   juilgments.   except  In  cases 
essentially  the  same   with  those  above  stated. 
...  By  the  New  York  act  of  1S46,  c.  l.'iO,  the 
defendant  is  liable  for  imprisonment  as  in  actions 
for  wrong,  if  he  Iw   sued   and  judgment   pass 
against  him  in  actions  on  contracts  for  moneys 
leceivol  liy  him  (and  It  (.pulies  to  all  male  per- 
sons) in  a  fiduciary  characti.     The  leirislature  of 
Masicicliusetts,  in  l^U  anil  lS4i.  essentially  nlxil- 
Ishol  arrest  and  imi'.risonmint  for  debt,  unless  on 
pn«if  that  the  debtor  was  alH)ut  to  abM-ond.     As 
early  as  1790,  the  c  institution  of  Pennsylvania 
establUheil,   as    a    fundament4il   principle,    that 
debtors  should  not  be  continuiKl  in  prison  after 
•urreniler  of  their  estates  in  the  mixie  to  be  pre- 
scrilvd  by  law,  unless  in  cases  of  a  strong  pre- 
«iira|iii()ii  of  fmud.     In  February.  1819,  the  leg- 
isbiure  of  that  state  exempted   women    from 
arrest  and  imprisonment  for  debt :  and  this  pro- 
vision  as  to  women  was  afterwards  applied  in 
Xew  York  to  all  civil  actions  founded  u|)on  con- 
tract.     .  .  Fenialis  were  first  exempted   from 
imprisonment  for  debt  in  Louisiana  and  Jlissis- 
sippl ;  and  imprisonment  for  debt,  in  all  cases  fri'e 
from  fraud,  is  now  abolisheil  in  each  of   those 
states     The  commissioners  in  Pennsylvania,  In 
their  report  on  the  Civil  Code,  in  January,  183.5, 
reeommendeil  that  there  l)e  no  arrest  of  the  Inxiy 
o(  the  debtor  on  mesne  process,  without  an  atll- 
davit  of  the  debt,  and  that  the  defendant  was  a 
non-resident,  or  about  to  depart  without  leaving 
sufficient  property,   except    In  cases  of    forve, 
fraud,  or  deceit,  vcrifletl  by  affidavit.     This  sug- 
Mtion  was  carried  Into  effwt  bv  the  act  of  the 
leitislature  of  Pennsylvanlaof  July  12th,  1842,  en- 
titini  •  An  Act  to  abolish  imprisonment  for  debt, 
and  to  punish  fraudulent    debtors.'      In   Xew 
Hanipshin'.  imprisonment  on  mesne  pnwess  and 
eiecuiion  for  debt  existed  under  certain  ciualirt- 
catinris.  until  December  23,  1840,  when  it  was 
abolished  hy  statute,  in  cases  of  contract  and 
debts  .lecrulng  after  the  Brst  of  March,  t*Jl.     In 
VennoHt,  impriaonment  ^)r  debt,  on  contracts 
made  after  first  January,  1839.  Is  aboli.slied,  as  to 
resident  citizens,  unless  there  be  evidence  that 
they  are  about  to  abacond  with  their  property: 
so  a!i>,  !hp  eiceptloa  Iti  Mississippi  applies  to 
cases  of  torto,  frsudi,  and  meditated  conceal- 
ment, or  fraudulent  disposition  of  property." 
—J.   Kent,    Chmmetitaria  on    Amfrictm    Lnir; 
tt-h  0.  W.  Htlfim,  Jr.,  ».  3  {Jovt-/iok).~-ln 


lei 


DECLARATION  OF  PARIS. 

many  (tate*  the  Constitution  provides  (A)  that 
there  shall  be  no  imprisonment  for  debt:  Ind 
C.  1.  22:  Minn.  C.  1,  12:  Kan.  C.  B.  Ru.  !«• 
Md.  C.  3,  38;  N.C.  C.  1,  16;  Mo.  C.  2,  16;  Tex. 
C.  1,  18;  Ore.  C.  1,  19;  Nev.  C.  1.  14;  8.  C.  C 
1,  20:  Oa.  C.  1,  1,  21;  Ala.  C.  1,21;  Bliss.  C.  1, 
11 :  Fla.  C.  Decln  Rts.  15.  (B)  That  there  shall 
be  no  imprisonment  for  debt  (1)  in  any  civil  action 
on  mesne  or  final  process,  in  seven  states-  0  C 
1,  15:  lo.  C.  1,  19;  Neb.  C.  1,  20;  Tenn.  C.  1,  18: 
Ark  C.  2,  16;  Cal.  C.  1,  15;  Ore.  C.  1,  15;  Ari*. 

B.  Rts  18.  (2)  In  any  action  or  judgment 
founded  upon  contract,  In  three  states:  N.  J  C 
1.  17:  Mich.  C.  6.  83;  Wis.  C.  1,  16.  (C)  In  six, 
that  there  shall  be  no  Person  imprisoned  for  debt 
In  any  civil  action  when  he  has  deli  ered  up 
his  property  for  the  benefit  of  his  creditore  in  the 
manner  prescribed  by  law:  Vt.  C.  2,  83;  R  I 

C.  1,  11;  Pa,  C.  1,  16;  III.  C.  a,  12;  Ky.  C.  13 
19;  Col,  C,  2.  12,  ,  ,  .  But  the  above  principles 
are  subject  to  the  following  exceptions  in  the 
several  states  respectively:  (1)  a  debtor  may  be 
imprisoned  in  crimiunl  actions:  Tenn,  So  (2)  for 
the  non-payment  of  fines  or  penalties  imposed  by 
law:  Mo.  So  (3)  generally,  In  civil  or  criminal 
actions,  for  fraud ;  Vt, ,  R.  I, ,  N.  J. ,  Pa, ,  O. ,  Ind 
111.,  Mich,,  lo,.  Mlim.,  Kan.,  Neb..  N,  C  Kv 
Ark.  Cal..  Ore,  Nev..  C(d,,  8.  C,  Fla.,  Ariz! 
And  so.  in  two.  the  legislature  bus  power  to  pro- 
vide for  the  puidshment  of  fraud  ami  for  reueh- 
iug  property  of  the  debtor  concealed  from  his 
creditors:  Ga  C.  1.2,  6;  La.  C,  223.  So  (4)  ab- 
sconding debtors  iniiy  l)e  imprisoned :  Ore.  Or 
del)toi-s  ,',)  1:;  cases  of  lilxd  or  slander:  Nev.  (6) 
In  civil  cas.s  of  tort  generally:  Cal,,  Col.  (7) 
In  cases  of  malicious  mischief":  Cul.  (8)  Or  of 
breach  of  trust:  Mich,,  Ariz,  (9)  Or  of  moneys 
collected  by  public  officers,  or  in  any  professional 
employment:  Mich,  Ariz,"— F.  J,  Stimson,  Am. 
Sl,itiite  Lair  :  Digest  of  Const »  anil  Ciril  PuUie 
Statutes  of  all  the  States  and  Territories  relating 
to  Persons  and  Proiierty,  in  force  Jan.  1.  18x6 
art.  8, 

DECADI  OF  THE  FRENCH  REPUB- 
LICAN CALENDAR.  See  Fh.\ncb.  A  D. 
1793  COctobeh),     The  new  republican  calendar 

DECAMISADOS,  The.  Sie  Spaln:  A  D 
1814-18'27, 

DECATUR,  Commodore  Stephen.— Burn- 
ing of  the  "Philadelphia."  Sec  B,m!ii.\rt 
8t.\te8:  a.  D  1.80:1-180.5,  ,  .In  the  War  of 
l8ia.  Sec  I'siTED  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1812- 
1813:  1814 

DECCAN,  The.  See  Lndia:  The  Name; 
and  Immiobatios  and  coNijrESTS  or  thb 
Arvas 

DECELIAN  WAR,  The,  See  Greece: 
B,  C,  413, 

DECEMVIRS,  The.  See  Rome:  B.  C.  431- 
449. 

DECIUS:  Roman  Emperor.   A.  D.  249-2.M 

DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE 
(American).  See  I'sited  States  of  Am,  :  A,  D. 
1776  (Jancary— Juke),  and  (Jilt):  also,  Inde- 

PENDKNTK   IIaI.I., 

DECLARATION  OF  PARIS,  The.— "At 

the  Congress  of  Paris  in  1856.  subsequently  to 
the  conclusiion  of  the  treaty,  which  eudtdlhe 
Crimean  war  [see  RrssiA:  "A.  D,  18.%4-1856].  s 
declantlon  of  principles  was  signed  on  April 
16th,  by  the  plenipotentiaries  of  all  the  powers 
represented  there,  wliich  contained  four  articlaa. 


IrtlP 


■t  j»l 


W' 


•#i 


675 


t 


^§ 


V:i 


DSCLARATION  OF  PARIS. 

'Vint.  PriTsteerinc  li  uid  remain*  aboliahed. 
BecoDd,  The  neutnl  Sag  ooren  enemiea'  soodi, 
with  the  exception  of  cootmband  of  war.  Thiid, 
Neutral  KOodi,  except  of  contraband  of  war,  are 
not  liable  to  capture  under  an  enemy's  flas. 
Fburth,  Blockades,  to  be  binding,  must  be 
effective — that  is  to  say,  maintained  by  a  force 
really  sufflcient  to  prevent  access  to  the  coast  of 
the  enemv. '  The  adherence  of  other  powers  was 
requested  to  these  principles,"  and  all  joined  in 
signing  It  except  the  United  States.  Spain,  and 
Mexico.  The  objection  on  the  part  of  the  United 
States  was  stated  in  a  circular  letter  bv  Mr. 
Marcy,  then  Secretary  of  State,  w'-'>  •'  maintained 
that  the  right  to  reaort  to  privateers  la  as  incon- 
testable as  any  other  riebt  appertaining  to  bel- 
ligerents: and  reasoned  that  the  effect  of  the 
decbration  would  be  to  increase  the  maritime 
preponderance  of  Oreat  Britain  and  France,  with- 
out even  lieneflting  the  general  cause  of  civiliza- 
tion; while,  if  public  ships  retained  the  right  of 
capturing  private  property,  the  United  Sutes, 
which  had  nt  that  time  a  large  mercantile  marine 
and  a  comparatively  small  navy,  would  be  ile- 

Srivedof  allmeansofreUlUtion'  .  .  .  The  Presl- 
ent  proposes,  therefore  [wrote  .Mr.  Marcv]  to 
add  to  the  Drst  pro{ioaltinn  oontainiil  In  the  di-rla- 
ration  of  the  Congress  of  Paris  the  following 
words:  'and  that  the  private  property  of  the 
subjects  and  citizens  of  a  belligerent  on  the  high 
aeas  shall  be  exempted  from  seii  .r.  by  public 
armed  vessels  of  the  other  belligerent,  except  It 
be  contraban<l. ' .  .  .  Among  the  minor  stati-s  of 
Europe  there  was  complete  unanimity  ami  a 
gem>ral  readiness  to  aceept  our  ameniimrnt  to 
the  nilo  ':  but  England  'ippiKKsl.  and  the  of- 
fered smrndraent  «•««  sulme<|uently  withdrawn. 
"Events  .  .  .  have  Khown  that  .  .  .  imrnfusal 
to  acrept  the  Derlnrntinn  of  Paris  has  brought 
the  world  nearer  to  the  principle*  which  we  pro- 
poseti,  which  lieoime  known  as  the  '  .Marey 
amendment  for  the  Hlmlitlon  of  war  ag«ln»t  pri- 
vate property  on  the  seas.'"— E.  Schuyler, 
AmertMn  IHnnmnfg,  eh.  T. 

Also  tn :  F.  Wharton,  Digttl  nf  llu-  Interna- 
tinnal  Mw  nf  Iht  {'  .S.,  eh.  17,  ifel  »42  (r  8).— 
H.    Adams.   llUtorieal  K—ay;  eh.  6. — See.  also, 

PlUVATBIIUI. 

DECLARATION  0<'  RIGHTS.  See  Enq. 
l.AMi;  A.  I>.  HW»(.Iani  AHV  — Fkiiki  AKVi.  al*) 
Viiikima:  .K.  I>   ITTtl. 

DECLARATION  OF  THE  RIGHTS  OF 
MAN.     S<-<-  Khamk:  A.  D.  ITW  (Ai<i.-0«t  I. 

DECLARATORY  ACT,  Tht.  See  UiirrxD 
BTA-moF  Am  :  A.  Ii  rwj 

DECRSTA,  Romu  imptrial.  See  Corpi  s 
Ji-Ms  Civii.ia. 

DECRETALS,  Tha  Falsa.  See  Papacy: 
A.  n  H3H-H47. 

DECUMiB.    See  VftmoAi. 

DBCUMATBS  LAND.  He*  Aohi  Dxct-. 
MATE*,  also  Al.RMANNf;  and  Sprvi. 

DECURIONES.  Sei' Cihia.  MixiriPAi   'ir 

THK  LAIKR  KoMAN  EmpIHP. 

DEDITtTIUS.-COLONUS.-SERVUS. 

—  •'The  iKwir  Provincial  (i>(  th.'  pnivim'c*  of  thr 
Roman  empire  at  the  time  nf  itie  hreaklnic  up  In 
the  (Iflh  ifnturyl  who  coiild  not  Hv  to  the  (Ji.iha 
because  his  whole  property  was  lii  land,  hiinicl 
to  deapalr  by  tlie  Ui  gsUierer.  W'>u)<l  transfer 
Uiat  lanl  to  some  wealthy  neighbour,  appar- 
«itly  on  condition  of  rpoHvIng  a  small  life 
•aauity  out  uf  it.     IK  was  then  called  tbs  DcdlU- 


DEIRA. 

tius  (or  Surrendenr)  of  the  new  owner,  towinli 
whom  he  stood  in  a  poaition  of  a  certain  denn 
of  dependence.    Not  yet,  however,  were  his  inr 
rows  or  those  of  hia  family  at  an  end,  for  the 
tax-gatherer  still  regarded  him  as  responsible  for 
his  land.  ...  On  bis  death  his  sons,  who  had 
utterly  lost  their  paternal  inheritance,  and  ttill 
found  themaelve*  confronted  with  the  claim  for 
taxes,   were  obviously  without  resource.    The 
next  stage  of  the  process  aocordlnglv  was  that 
they  abdicated  the  poaition  of  free  citizens  and 
Implored  the  great  man  to  accept  them  aa  C'oluoi 
a  class   of   labourers,   half-free,   balf-rDalsved' 
who  may  perhaps  with  sufflcient  accurarv  be 
compared  to  the  serfs  '  adscripti  glebie '  o{  the 
middle    ages.  .  .  .  Before    long    they    liecame 
mere  slaves  (Servi)  without  a  shadow  of  riKbt  or 
claim  against  their  new  lords."— T.   Holgkin 
Itnly  and  htr  Invaden,  hk.  1,  eh.  10 —With  the 
"Increase  of  great  estates  and  simultaneous  in. 
crease  in  the  numlier  of  slaves  (ao  manv  l!<>thi 
were  made  slaves  by  Claudius  [A.  D.  26(<-270] 
to  give  one  instance,  that  there  was  not  a  ili«trirt 
without  them),  the  small  proprietors  could  go 
longer  maintain  the  fruitless  struggle,  and.  aa  a 
cUss,  wholly  disappeared.     Some,  no  doulit,  be- 
came soldiers:  othere  crowded  into  the  alresdr 
overflowing  towns;  while  otbera  viduntarily  re' 
aign<><i  their  freedom,  attached  themwivestothe 
land  of  some  rich  proprietor,  and  hecume  bi< 
villeins,  or  coloni.     But  this  was  not  the  chief 
means  by  which  this  class  was  formal  an.l  in- 
creaaed.  .   .  .  After  a  successful  war  ihcie  nerfi 
were  given  ...  to  landed  proprietors  withnut 
payment:  and  in  this  way  not  only  was  the  clan 
of  free   peasants  dlminislie<i  or  altoireiher  At 
stroye<l — a  happier  result  —  the  slave  avatem  w«i 
directly  attackni.     The  coloni  thematdves  were 
not  slaves.     The  codes  dinrtly  distinguish  them 
from  slaves,  and  In  several  imrx-rlal  ronstittitinni 
they  «re  called  'ingenul.'     They  couM  contrart 
a  legal  marriage  and  could  hold  pmnertv. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  coloni  wer>-  like  sfavet  in 
that  they  were  liable  to  personal  punishment 
...   A  colonus  was  Indlssoluhly  atlarhiil  lo  the 
land,  and  could  not  get  quit  of  the  tie.  even  hr 
enlisting  as  a  soldier.     The  pmprielor  eould  »ll 
him  with  the  estate,  but  had  no  power  whstevrr 
of  selling  him  without  It:   and  if  he  sold  the 
estate,  be  was  compelled  to  sell  the  cidoni  al'ni; 
with  it.   .   .   .  The  position  nf  these  villeins  »M 
a  very  miserable  one.  .  .  .  These  cidonl  in  (Jsul 
combined    together,    were    Jidnol   liv  the  free 
iieaaanta  still  left  [A.  I>.  387].  whose  l.it  wu  net 
less  wrrlrheil  than  their  own.  and  fonninir  into 
numenius   lianda,   aprea<l   llirmsilves  iiver  Ihe 
rountrv    to    plllsge    anil  ilealmy     TIm  y  wri» 
called  )iagnuilir,  frnm  a  Celtic  wonl  niesnint  a 
mob  or  riol4ius  aasemhiy;  and  iiniirr  tliis  iisnir 
recur  often   In  the  course  of  the  neat  irnlurf 
both  In  (laul  and  Spain  "—W    T  .\nioM.  V» 
Rnman  t^yttm   ^   Pronneinl    Adminulriilii'ii. 
eh.  4. 
DEEMSTERS.    See  Manx  Kt!<oi>oH  Tm 
DEFENDERS.     See  Ihklano    .\    H  I7«4 
DEFENESTRATION     AT     PRAGUE, 
Tha.     See  BoHismA    A.  I).  1(111-1(11'* 
DEFTERP'RS.    See  St  blimi  Poara. 
DEICOL>.  ,  Tba.    See  Cildees 
OEIRA,  Th»  k{ss4«ffi  of  — i>n»  .-? !!«  k!ar 
doms  of  the  Angles,  covering  what  la  now  lalM 
the  East  RIdInf  of  Yorkahlre.  with  snnir  trrri 
tory  ba/oKt  It.    ■mhImis  It  was  ualted  wlik 


678 


DEIRA. 


DELAWARE,  1838-1640. 


the  Ungdom  of  BernicU,  north  of  it,  to  form  the 
cmter  kingdom  of  Mortbumbrt*.  See  Eso- 
Lkb:  a.  D.  S47-488. 

DEKARCHIES.  See  Sfakta:  B.  C.  404- 
403 

DEKELEIA.— DBKELEIANWAR.  See 
Oriece:  B.  C.  418. 

DELATION.— DELATORS.  — Under  the 
empire,  there  was  loon  bred  at  Rome  u  infa- 
mous clau  of  men  who  bore  a  certain  reiemblance 
—  with  signiflcant  coatrasts  likewise  —  to  the 
•Tcophants  of  Athens.  They  were  Itnown  a* 
iMlators.  and  their  occupation  was  delation. 
"Tbe  delator  was  properly  one  who  gave  notice 
to  the  fiscal  offlcers  of  moneys  that  had  become 
due  to  the  treasury  of  the  state,  or  more  strictly 
to  the  emperor's  flscus."  But  the  title  was  ex- 
tended to  informers  generally,  who  dragged  their 
fellow  citizens  before  the  tribunals  for  alleged 
TioUtinns  of  law.  Augustus  made  delation  a 
profewion  by  attaching  rewB«l«  to  tlie  informa- 
tioD  given  against  transgressors  of  his  marriage 
laws.  Under  the  successor  of  Augustus,  the 
nillen  .ind  suspicious  Tiberius,  delation  n-celved 
its  greatest  encouragement  and  development. 
"According  to  the  spirit  of  Roman  criminal  pro- 
cedure, the  informer  and  the  pleader  were  one 
snil  the  same  person.  There  was  no  public  ac- 
cuMT.  .  .  .  but  the  spy  who  discovered  the 
dfllmiuency  was  himself  the  man  to  demand  of 
the iiiuite,  the  pnetor  or  the  judge,  an  oppor- 
tunity of  proving  it  by  bis  own  HtHiuence  and 
iigtrriuity.  The  odium  of  pnisa-cution  was  thus 
remiiveil  from  the  government  to  the  private 
dflstor."— C.  Merivale,  lli»t.  I'f  thr  Riimant.  fh 
44 -See.  iilso,   Rome:  A.  I).  14-87. 

DELAWARE  BAY:  A.  D.  1609.— Dit- 
nvtrtd  bjr  Henry  Hudcon.  S<t<  .\MERir*: 
A  I)   IWW. 

Tht  error  ptrpctnated  in  its  name.— "Al- 
m<*l  cviry  writer  on  American  hi.Htory  that  I 
luvi'  met  with  appears  to  have  taken  pains  to 
perpetuate  the  »tereotv|)e<l  emir  that '  Lord  l>ela- 
warr  tourheil  at  this  bay  in  bis  passage  to  Vlr- 
finln  iu  1810.'.  .  .  Lo'nl  I>elawarT  himself,  in 
U(  Ititrr  of  the  7th  of  J\ilv,  1610.  giving  an 
KHiiiiul  of  his  voyage  to  Virginia,  not  only 
mskiM  110  mention  of  that  I«y,  or  of  his  ap- 
pMwdiing  It,  but  expressly  spi-aks  of  his  first 
wu  hing  the  American  coast  on  the  '  6th  'f  .Tune. 
St  what  Iline  we  mailr  Innil  to  tlie  wuilb"  nl  of 
our  hart>or.  the  ( 'liesiopiock  Hay  '  The  first 
Eunip.an  who  is  really  known  to  have  entefwl 
llu'  Iwv.  after  Hudson,  was  Cant.  Samuel  Argall 
[July  16I0J.  The  name  of  I^.nl  IH-Iawarr, 

n(>»i\(r.  seenu  to  have  t)een  given  to  the  Iwv 
««in«ft  anls  bv  the  Virginians  "—,1  U  BttMi- 
lies.1,  //»(  ./  Me  ititU  of  X  Y  ,  r   1 .  ,1/71. ,  ,u^,  I) 

DELAWARE:    A.'  D.     l6jo.i6]i,-Th« 

patch  occapaacj  «nd  Brit  lettlement.— The 

Up"  <tli  nipt  at  M'ttletnent  on  the  mijiwan-  was 
n».li'  In  the  Dutch,  who  rlnime<l  the  country  In 
Tight  III  lluilsiin's  dianivery  ami  Mev'«  explora- 
tion iif  ilie  Bay,  mHwithalanding  the'hroail  Eng- 
lljh  ilslni.  which  covered  the  wlioie  of  it  as  part 
nf  an  in.li  tliiile  Virginia.  In  l«a«,  pumuanl  to 
Uie  patroni  onltiuuin<  of  the  Outrh  West  India 
*';]^'P«ny,  which  opened  New  Netherianil  terri 
|f*T  -•  r-iivntr  jturrhaami.  -Samtic!  OinitTi  Ami 
»an)ii(.|  nhimmaprt,  both  diirctfimof  the  .\msler 
Mm  Chamber,  latrgalmxl  with  tlie  natlven  for 
u*  soil  frwn  Calx  llraiopeo  to  tbe  muutli  uf 


DeUware  river;  in  July,  1680,  this  purchase  of 
an  estate  more  than  thirty  miles  long  was  ratified 
at  Port  Amsterdam  by  ifinuit  [then  Governor  of 
New  Netherland]  and  his  council.  It  Is  the 
oldest  deed  for  land  in  DeUware,  and  comprises 
the  water-line  of  the  two  southern  counties  of 
that  state.  ...  A  company  was  soon  formed  to 
colonize  the  tract  acquh^  by  Qodyn  and  Blom- 
maert.  The  flm  settlement  in  Delaware,  older 
than  any  in  Pennsvlvania,  was  undertaken  by 
a  company,  of  which  Oodyn,  Van  Rensselaer, 
Blommaert,  the  historian  De  Laet,  and  a  new 
partner,  David  Petersen  de  Vries,  were  members. 
By  joint  enterprise,  in  December,  1630,  a  ship  of 
18  guns,  commanded  br  Pleter  Heyes,  and  laden 
with  emigranta,  store  of  seeds,  cattle  and  agricul- 
tural implementa,  embarked  from  the  Texel, 
Mrtly  to  cover  the  southern  shore  of  Delaware 
Bay  with  fields  of  wheat  and  tobacco,  and  partly 
for  a  whale  fishery  on  the  coast.  .  .  .  Early  in 
the  spring  of  1681,  the  .  .  .  vessel  reached  its 
destination,  and  Just  withto  Cape  Henlopen,  on 
Lewes  Creek,  planted  a  colony  of  more  than 
thirty  souls.  The  superintendence  of  the  settle- 
ment was  Intrusted  to  Glllls  Hoeset.  A  little  fort 
was  built  and  well  beset  with  palisades:  the  arms 
of  Holland  were  afflxed  to  a  pillar;  the  country 
n'celve<l  the  name  Swaanendael ;  the  water  that 
of  Oodyn's  Bay.  The  voyage  of  Heyes  was  the 
cradling  of  a  state.  That  Delaware  exists  as  a 
separate  commonwealth  is  due  to  this  i-olony. 
.\cconiing  to  English  rule,  occupancy  was  neces- 
sary to  complete  a  title  to  the  wilderness ;  ami  the 
Dutch  now  occupleti  Delaware.  On  the  Sih  of 
May,  Heyes  and  llosaet.  In  behalf  of  Gtxivn  md 
Blommaert,  made  a  further  purchase  fnim'ltulian 
chiefs  of  the  opposite  coast  of  Cape  May,  for 
twelve  miles  on  the  bay,  on  the  sea,  and  in  the 
interior;  and,  in  June,  this  sale  of  a  tract  twelve 
miles  square  was  formally  atlesteil  at  Manhat- 
tan. Animated  by  the  counii;e  of  Oodyn,  the 
patnioiui  of  Mwaanenilael  fltt«tl  out  a  second  ex- 
p-dltlon  under  the  command  of  De  Vries.  But, 
fiefore  he  s«'t  sail,  news  was  received  of  the  de- 
struction of  the  fort,  and  the  murtler  of  ita  people. 
Haaaet,  the  commandant,  had  caused  the  death 
of  an  Indian  chief;  and  the  revenge  of  the  sav- 
ages was  not  ap(ieaaed  till  not  one  of  the  eml- 
grants  remnlnHl  alive.  De  Vries,  on  liiH  arrival, 
found  only  the  nilns  of  the  house  and  lis  imli- 
sades,  half  consum»l  by  fire,  and  here  and  Ihera 
the  bones  of  the  colonists." — G.  Bancnift,  //•«< 
"flht  r.  S.pt.  8.  M.  18 (r.  1). 

AlJlO  IN:  J.  R. 
.Y   r,  r.  1.  M 

A,   D.   i6jt.— Embraced  in  the  Marylaad 

ruit  to  Lord  Baltimore,  (tee  .Mamtla.io: 
D   1683. 

A,  D.  i6m— Embrsctdlathe  Pklalioe  grmnt 
of  New  Albloa.    t*ee  New  Ai.nioN. 

A.  D.  i63*-i64o.  —  Tht  pUutting  of  tbo 
Swedish  colonr,  —  "  William  Uaaelinx,  a  dis 
tingulshed  merchant  In  Stockholm,  was  the  first 
to  propose  to  the  Swedish  eovernmenl  a  arhen.e 
fur  planting  a  n<k>ny  in  America.  He  was  a 
nstlve  of  Antwerp,  snd  had  rr«lde<l  in  Spain. 
I'lirtiiiral  and  the  ,\iore«.  at  a  time  when  the 
spirit  of  foreign  adventure  pervaded  every  cl«i« 
of  aocietjr  ...  In  the  year  1634  be  pro|N«ini 
I.I  Ih.'  ,sw»1t>h  liHHwrv'L.  Ouaiavua  Adoiphua, 
u  pliiii  for  tbe  ornoliation  of  a  trading  com- 
pany, to  extewi  II*  operatinni  U)  Asia.  Africa, 
Aiuerlctt  tad  Ttm  MafeUuila.  .  .  .  Whetbef 


Brodheail.  Ilitl.  of  t/u  Hhitt  of 


(J77 


DELAWARE.  1618-1640. 

CHelinx  had  ever  been  In  America  is  uncertain, 
but  lie  liad,  loon  after  the  trganization  of  the 
Dutch  West  India  CompanT,  some  connection 
with  it,  and  by  this  and  other  means  was  able 
to  give  ample  information  In  relation  to  the 
country  bordering  on  the  Delaware,  its  soil, 
climate,  and  productions.  .  .  .  His  plan  and 
contract  were  translated  into  the  Swniish  Ian- 
puaifc  by  Schrader,  the  royal  intt-rprettr,  and 
published  to  the  nation,  with  an  aiidress  strongly 
appealing  both  to  their  piety  and  their  love  of 
gain.  The  king  recommended  it  to  the  8tet«s, 
and  an  edict  dated  at  Stockholm.  Julv  3d,  1636, 
was  issued  by  royal  authority,  in  which  people 
of  all  ranks  were  invited  to  Vncouraire  the  pro- 
ject and  support  the  Company.  Books  were 
openrti  for  subscription  to  the  etoik  .  .  .  and 
Oustavus  pledged  the  royal  trvasurc  for  its  sup- 
port to  the  uiiiount  of  4im\u()0  dollars.  .  .  .  The 
work  was  ripe  for  execulion,  when  the  German 
war  [the  Thirty  Years  War],  and  afterwards  the 
king  s  death,  prvveuted  it,  and  rendered  the  fair 
prospect  fruitless.  .  .  .  The  next  attempt  on  the 
part  of  the  Hwedes  to  plant  a  colony  in  America 
was  more  successful.  Dut  there  has  lieen  much 
difference  among  hbtorians  in  relation  to  the 
period  when  that  settlement  was  made.  ...  It 
a  owing  to  the  preservation,  among  the  Dutch 
recnnls  at  Albany,  of  an  official  protest  issuetl 
by  Kieft,  the  Governor  at  New  Amstenlam,  that 
we  do  <-ert»inlv  know  the  h«pde«  were  here  in 
thespringof  ltf38.  I'eter  Minult.  wliocfinducttil 
to  our  sliorc  the  first  Mwtiljsh  colony,  had  been 
Commercial  Ag«-nt,  and  Diret^tor  General  of  the 
Dutch  West  India  Company,  an<i  Governor  of 
tlie  New  Netherlands.  .  .  .  At  this  time  Christina, 
the  infant  daughter  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  had 
atcendcti  tlie  thntne  of  8we<len.  .  .  .  C'luler  the 
direction  of  Oxenstiem,  the  celebrate<l  chancellor 
of  Sweden,  wliose  wisiiom  oud  virtue  have  shed 
a  glory  on  the  a^e  in  which  he  livt'<i,  the  pat4-nt 
which  luui  been  grnuteii  in  the  relKn  of  Uustnvus 
to  the  company  furnn'*!  under  the  influence  of 
I  wvlinx  was  renewed,  and  its  privileges  extendeil 
t»  the  citizi'us  of  Germany.  Minuit.  being  now 
out  of  cniplovment,  and  prol«l)ly  deeming  him- 
self injunil  by  the  conduct  of  the  Dutch  Com- 
pany [which  hail  diaplaceil  him  fnmi  the  gov 
eruorstilp  of  the  New  Netherlands,  through  the 
iutiuenre  of  the  (Mtrooiu,  and  ap|Niinte<i  Wouter 
Van  Twiller,  a  clerk,  to  sucinil  hini],  Imil 
detemdned  to  offer  his  services  to  the  cMwn 
of  Sweden.  .  .  .  Minult  lahi  U'furc  the  cliun 
cellor  a  plan  of  proreiiun',  urntl  «  settlement 
on  the  Delaware,  and  offen-d  to  conduct  the 
enter|irise.  Uxenstiem  npreaen'ed  the  caM'  to 
the  queen  .  .  .  and  Minuit  was  co.-nmlMlnnnl  to 
<-<>mmand  and  direct  the  expetiition."— II  Ferris, 
Jlul  i>/'  Iht  Urigtmil  Stlllrmtnti  on  tht  /W.iwurr. 
pi  I.  rk.  a-a,  — ■'  With  two  ships  laden  with  pM- 
vlaioiui  and  other  supplies  reijulsile  for  the  Mtlle 
nieul  of  einlgrsnis  In  a  new  country,  and  with 
tifiy  eohmlsu,  Minult  sailed  from  Sweden  late  in 
1607,  anil  entered  IV'Uwarr  Bay  In  April.  183H 
II"  fiiuml  ilic  coiiutrv  as  Iw  ha<f  left  it.  kjiIkmii 
wliite  luhaliitanis  Minqua  Kill,  now  Wilinlng 
ti.n.  was  seleetMl  as  the  phu-c  for  th«'  flrst  settle- 
incnl,  when'  he  iNiught  a  few  acres  of  land  of 
(lie  natives,  landiir  his  eoliHiiats  ami  stores. 
eri'ct<Hl  a  fort.  uihI  U-gan  a  small  nlauinilun  H" 
JiHii  cowlucieit  Ills  cnterpriM'  wlili  some  m^-tvi\\ 
tliiit  he  might  avoid  eo|llal<in  with  the  Dutch; 
but  the  watchful  eyes  of  tlieir  sfenu  suuu  dU 


DELAWARE,  1640-1656. 

covered  him,  and  reported  his  presence  to  \ 
director  at  New  Amsterdam.  Kieft  [succeasoi 
Van  Twiller]  had  just  arrived,  ana  it  lieca 
one  of  his  first  duties  to  notify  a  man  whn  h 
precede)]  him  in  office  that  he  was  u  trcspaa 
and  warn  him  off.  Minuit,  knowing  timt  K{ 
was  powerless  to  enforce  his  protest,  Ixingwi 
out  tnmpa  or  money,  paid  no  attentiua  to  1 
missive,  and  kept  on  with  his  work.  .  .  .  | 
erected  a  fort  of  considerable  strength,  nam 
Christina,  for  the  Swedish  queen,  and  ^arriwm 
it  w'.th  34  soldiers.  Cnilerstanding  the  i  harac 
of  ihe  Indians,  he  conciliated  their  sacliems 
liberal  presents  ami  seeuntl  the  trade.  In  a  fi 
months  he  was  enableii  to  loed  his  ships  wi 
peltries  and  despatch  them  to  his  pntronA. 
The  colony  hail  to  till  appearance  a  pniralsi 
future.  .  .  .  Within  two  years,  however,  th 
prospects  were  clouded.  The  (.'onipanv  h 
fuileii  to  send  out  another  ship  with  sui>|>lfi'9  a 
merclundise  fur  the  Indian  trade,  t'rovisin 
failed,  trade  fell  off,  and  sickness  began  to  pi 
vail.  .  .  .  They  resolved  to  remove  to  Manhaiia 
where  they  could  at  teast  have  'emiU)!li  ima 
On  the  eve  of  '  breaking  up'  to  carry  tliiir  n 
olution  into  effect,  succor  came  frimi  au  ii 
expected  quarwr.  The  fame  of  New  S«icl,. 
B»  the  colony  was  called,  of  its  firtilc-  Ian 
and  profitable  trade,  hail  reached  iitliir  iiaiic 
of  Europe.  In  Holland  itwlf  a  cnnipaiiv  w 
formeil  to  establish  a  settlement  unili  r  ilrV  pa 
ronageof  the  Swedish  Com|ianv."  Tlii>  |)ui( 
company  "freighted  a  ship  with  ci>I.Mii<t«  ai 
supplies,  which  fortunately  arriviil  wliiii  il 
Swedish  colony  was  ab<mt  to  lie  lirokiii  upai 
the  ii)untry  abandoned.  The  «pirii«  of  n 
Swedes  were  revived.  .  .  ,  Tiiclr  projiiliil  t 
moval  was  indefinitely  deferred  and  llnv  m 
tinueil  their  work  with  fresh  viifor.  Tlu'llm, 
colonists  werv  locateil  in  a  s<ttienicut  by  ilm 
wlvm,  only  a  few  miles  from  Furt  ( lirinin 
They  were  loysl  to  the  S»-e«h's.  .  .  In  il 
autumn  of  the  same  year,  1840,  I'etcr  Ij.illifn. 
are.  who  had  Im-n  ap|Hilnte<l  depiilr  f»tim 
of  the  colony,  aud  Jfix'ns  Kllng.  »rrivi'.|  (m 
Sweilen  with  thn-e  ships  laden  with  pnivisim 
and  merchanillse  for  the  stntitiMiil  in|nni«t 
They  alwi  brought  out  a  considcrabli'  c»nipu 
(if  new  emigrants.  New  Sweden  wb«  uhw  w« 
established  and  proapenius  Mun-  lawlt  «ri 
Uiught,  and  new  settlements  were  niiuli'  PrU 
Minult  dieil  the  fiill«wlug  year  "— «!.  \V.  ScLu; 
ler,  lM»nitil  Xeif  York,  r   I,  inlroil ,  ttft  l! 

Also  IN:  I.  Acrelius,  Ilitt  of  Xni  St«li 
(/Van.  Ifitl.  S>e.  Mrm  ,  r  11)  M  1  — /»w  nl. 
lirt  fc.  (U.  Hilt,  of  S.  r,  r  IJ— (!  R  Km 
A»i»  Svnirn  iXiirnilitt  aiut  Critii-fil  lliit  of  Am 
t.  4.  M.  •).  —  J  ¥  Jameson.  WilUm  ruihi 
(hiinrtof  Ihf  Am.  Hint   Amm  .  r  '.'   .„.  Hi 

A.  D.  1640-164).— Intruiioos  of  thtEnfiii 
from  Now  Havoo.  Siv  Ni.w  jF.Hr>Kr  .\  I 
ltH(>-'i».V 

A.  U.  I640>l6s6.— Thcitmnl^hctwttntb 
Swodoo  OM  tht  Dutch  and  Iht  Snal  vicler7< 

the  lotlor.  — ■■  The  lS«e.h»ll|  ciiliMi\  frin  1 
such  im|M)rtance  that  John  I'riut/.  »  lii iiiiiuni 
cokioel  of  cavalry,  was  sent  oul  in  KM'.'  »»  f"^ 
emor.  with  onlers  fi>r  developing  indiixrv  ao 
trade  lie  took  pains  to  itminiaiiil  ilic  iii">itli' 
t!H>  river,  aitlioui'h  ih;-  Duicti  hs;!  •'!tsi'!!*l!*' 
Fort  Nassau  on  itseasu-ni  Iwuk,  anil  the  .''wiili* 
settlements  were  on  the  wealeni  hank  eiclii^irrl) 
CulUaimia  aruae   betwtwji  tlw   Duli:h  sad  11 


678 


DELAWABE,  1640-16M. 


DELAWAKE,  imi-170t. 


gwedei,  and  when  the  former  put  up  the  arms 
of  the  Statcf  OenenU  on  the  completion  of  a  pur- 
cbtae  of  landa  from  the  Indiana,  Printz  in  a 
puiioD  ordered  them  to  be  torn  down.  The 
Swedes  gained  in  atrength  while  the  Dutch  lost 
(round  in  the  rlcinitr.  ^  1<M8  tlie  Dutch 
attempted  to  build  a  trading  post  on  the  Schuyl- 
kill, when  they  were  repulaed  by  force  by  the 
Bwedes.  Individuals  seeking  to  erect  houses 
were  treated  in  the  same  way.  The  Swedes  in 
turn  set  up  a  stockade  on  the  disputed  ground. 
Director  Stuyvesant  found  it  necessary  in  16.51 
to  go  to  conli-r  with  Printj;  with  a  view  to  hold- 
ing the  country  a.i;aiDst  the  aggressive  English. 
The  Indians  were  called  into  council  and  con- 
tirmed  the  Dutch  title,  allowing  the  Swedes 
little  more  than  the  site  of  Fort  Christina.  Fort 
Cusimlr  was  erected  lower  down  the  river,  to 
protect  Dutch  interests.  The  two  rulers  agreed 
to  be  friends  and  allies,  and  so  continued  for 
three  yean.  The  distress  of  the  Swedish  colony 
led  to  sppeala  for  aid  from  the  home  country 
whither  Qovemor  Printz  had  returned  In  16,M 
help  was  given,  and  a  new  governor,  John 
CUude  Kyslngb,  marked  his  coining  by  the  cap- 
ture of  Fort  Caaimir,  pretending  that  the  Dutch 
^Vest  India  Company  authorized  the  act.  The 
ODJy  revenge  the  Dutch  could  take  was  the 
seizure  of  a  Swedish  vessel  which  by  mistake 
rsn  into  Manliattan  Bay.  But  the  next  year 
onlrni  rame  from  Holland  etposlug  the  fraud  of 
Rysiugh,  and  directing  the  expulsion  of  the 
Swedes  from  the  South   Riv  A   tlii't  was 

oriiiuiizeii  and  Director  Stuyveaant  nitiventi 
Fnrt  Caaimir  without  flring  a  gun.  After  somi' 
psrliy  Fort  Christina  waa  also  surreudert-il. 
Such  .Swr<les  as  would  not  take  the  oath  of  alle- 
iriuii'e  to  the  Dutch  authorities  were  sent  to  the 
Lome  country.  Only  twenty  persons  accepted 
tlMM«th,  ancl  of  three  clergymen  two  were  ex- 
priliil.  and  the  thini  escapt-d  like  treatment  by 
till'  nuihien  outbreak  of  IndlaD  tn>ubles.  In 
ICM  till'  iitates  Oeneral  and  Sweden  made  these 
trsDKiu'ttons  matter  of  international  discussion. 
The  Swedes  preaent»Ml  s  prnk-st  against  the  action 
of  the  Dutch,  and  it  was  talknl  over,  but  the 
msttrr  was  Anally  dropped.  In  the  same  year 
tbr  Wiwt  India  (ompany  sold  iu  Interests  on  the 
S.mth  Hiver  to  the  city  of  AmsU'rdani,  and  the 
colmy  of  New  Amstel  was  erect«-d,  so  that  the 
tuthiiritv  of  New  Netherland  waa  extinguished. " 
-E.  II   lioberu,  AVw  Tork.  e.  1,  rA.  ; 

AlM>  IN :  E.  Armstrong.  Inlrod.  t»  tk*  Rttord 
tf  Vj^Utmi  (Ihst.  Sue.  of  Ana.  Memoir;  r.  *),— 
B.  Firrtt,  Uitt.  of  Iht  Original  StttlmuiiU on  tht 
Mimn.  pi.  1,  cA.  8-7.-8.  Hazard,  AntuUi  ../ 
PniH,i>p.  ti-99».—liepl.  of  ;Kt  Amieniim 
Ch.iiiilkTu/  Iht  W.  I.  tJi,  (Ones.  rtUttir*  to  (\M 
Uul  .f.Y  r.  f.  \.pp  JW7-«4fl) 

A.  D.  1664.— CoaquMt  by  tha  Bnfliih,  and 
aaaeaation  to  New  York,— "Five  days  after 
the  <  spiiulathm  of  New  Anulerdani  [surrendered 
liy  the  Dutch  to  the  Eagllab,  Aug  M.  IflM— 
•fi  :<£W  Yowi:  A.  D.  1664]  Niwfis.  with  Cart 
•riftht  and  Maverick  .  .  .  commiMiooetl  llwir 
eoileainie,  Sir  Robert  Carr,  to  «o,'  with  three 
•hips and  an  odequate  military  fonv.  "and  n-- 
du<T  the  Debware  ietUemuita.  Carr  Whs  in- 
•irui'lril  to  promise  the  Dutch  thu  pommmIiui  of 
sii  iiM-ir  property  and  all  their  preaeot  privileges. 
_"b1v  that  they  change  their  maatera.'  To  the 
Bwnlr.  |h>  was  to  '  rpmoostratc  their  hapjiv 
ictura  uader  ■  mooarabioal  guverMBeat,  aad  Us 


majeatr's  good  inclination  to  that  lutlon.'  To 
Lord  Baltimore's  officers  in  Maryland,  he  waa  to 
declare  that  their  proprietor's  pretended  right 
to  the  Delaware  being  'a  doubtful  caae,'  nnaaci 
sion  would  be  kept  for  the  king  'till  his  majesty 
is  informed  and  satisfied  otherwise.'.  .  .  The 
Swedes  «-r>>  soon  made  friends,"  but  the  Dutch 
attemptea  LOctober]  some  resistance,  and  yielded 
onlv  after  a  couple  of  broadsides  from  the  ahipa 
had  killed  three  and  wounded  ten  of  their  garri- 
son. "Carr  now  landed  ,  .  and  claimed  the 
pillage  for  himself  as  'won  by  the  sword.' 
Assuming  an  authority  independent  of  Nicolls, 
he  claimed  to  be  the  '  sole  and  chief  commander 
and  disposer'  of  all  affairs  on  the  Delaware." 
His  acts  of  rapacity  and  violence,  when  reported 
to  his  fellow  commissioners,  at  New  York,  were 
condemned  ami  n-pudiatetl,  and  Nicolls,  the 
presiding  commissioner,  went  to  the  Delaware  in 
persim  to  displace  him.  "  Carr  was  severely  re- 
buked, and  obliged  to  give  up  much  of  bis  ill- 
gotten  spoil.  Nevertheless,  he  could  not  be  pe» 
suadt-d  to  leave  the  place  for  some  time.  The 
name  of  New  AmsU>I  was  now  changed  to  New 
Castle,  and  an  infantry  garrison  established 
there.  .  .  Captain  John  Carr  was  appointed 
commaD<ier  of  the  Delaware,  In  subonlination  to 
the  government  of  New  York,  to  which  it  waa 
annexni  '  as  an  appendage ' ;  and  thus  affairs  re- 
niaine<i  for  several  years."— J.  H.  Brodhead 
Jliil.  oftlu  Sf.itt «/ A    r ,  r.  8,  cA.  2. 

A.  D.  1673.— The  Dutch  rccooqncat.  See 
Nkw  Vobk:  A.  D.  1678. 

A.  D.  1674.— Final  recovery  by  the  English. 
Se«- Nktberi.a.nds (Holland):  A.  1>   16T4 

A.  D.  1674-1740.- In  diapute  between  tbo 
Dukt  of  York  and  the  Proprietary  of  Maryland. 
—Grant  by  the  Dnka  to  WUUam  Pcna.  See 
Pesnsvlv.«nia:  a.  D.  1882;  1BS5;  and  1760-1787. 

A.  D.  1691-1703.— The  practical  independ- 
ence of  Pent  'a  "  lower  coantica "  acquired. 
—"In  .\pril,  18»1,  with  the  reluctant  consent  of 
William  Pfun.  the  '  territories. '  or  '  h>wer  coun- 
ties,' now  known  as  the  State  of  Delaware,  be- 
came for  two  yean  a  government  by  themselves 
under  Mnrkhani.  .  .  .  The  dIsturlNtniv  by  Keith 
[see  Pes>bvlvakia:  A.  D  18»«-18i>6]  creating 
questions  as  to  tlie  administration  of  Justice, 
condnui'd  the  disposition  of  the  English  govern- 
ment to  subject  Pennsylvania  to  a  royal  com- 
mission ;  ami  In  .\pril  irtW).  itenjanilii  Fletcher, 
ap|>olnte<i  governor  by  William  anil  M.irv,  once 
more  unlt«il  IKIaware  to  Peniuylvania.'''  But 
Penn.  restori'd  to  his  authority  'in  16M,  could 
not  resist  the  lealounies  which  tended  s«  strongly 
to  divide  the  Itelawari'  territories  from  Pennsyl- 
vania pro|ter.  "  In  17IHI.  PennsylvanU  convened 
Its  leglsla  ire  apart,  anil  the  two  colonies  were 
never  again  unltitl.  The  kiwer  counties  became 
almost  an  liidi'io'Oiient  republic:  for.  as  they 
were  not  inrludiii  iu  the  ch^.ter.  the  authority 
of  the  pMprieUry  over  them  waa  by  sutrerani-e 
only,  ami  the  exet'ullvr  power  Intnisted  to  the 
govenior  of  Pennsylvanlit  was  lot)  feeble  to  re- 
strain III!'  |Miwer  of  their  |M-ople.  The  leglsla- 
liiri'.  the  tribunals,  the  sulKmlinale  executive 
offlii  n  of  Delaware  knew  little  of  external  ocw- 
IMl    — O    Bancroft,  //irt.  of  tht    V.  S.  {autker'i 

Lutt  rfrimnn)^  ut    M    /-A    'i  ip    %\  — The  question  of 

jurisilicliouover  Di'lawaiv  was  involved  thrungh- 
out  In  the  boumtarr  dispute  between  the  pro- 
prietaries of  Penusvlvaoia  and  Maryland.  Sw 
PKlitiaTi.vAiiu    A  D.  lIMi  aMi  ITW-ITCT. 


f    '-m 


iuJi 


079 


DBIAWARE.  1760-17M. 


DEL08. 


1 

1 

'".i 

A.  D.  iTte-tTM.— The  qnettion  of  t«sktion 
hj  Parluuncnt.— Th*  Stamp  Act  and  it*  re- 
pcaL— The  Dadantoiy  Act.— The  First  Con- 
iittental  Cooktcm.  See  United  States  op  Am.  : 
A.  D.  n«0-1775;  1763-1764:  1765;  and  1766. 

A.  D.  1766-1771.— Opening  event*  of  the 
RevelBtioo.  SeelNiTEDSTATEBor  Am.  :  AD. 
1766-1767  to  1774;  and  BovroM:  A.  D.  1768  to 
1778. 

A.  O.  1775.— The  bcfinniDK  of  the  war  of 
the  Amencan  ReTolntion.— Lexington.— Con- 
cord.—Action  taken  on  the  new*.— Ticon- 
^•rp»a.— The  lien  of  Boeton.— Bunker  Hill. 
— The  Second  Continental  Coop-eaa.  See 
CsiTED  States  OF  Am.  ;  A.  O.  1775. 

A.  O.  1776.— Further  introduction  of  *la*e* 

rrohibitcd.    See  Slavery.  Nkoro:  A.  D.  1776- 
ms. 

A.  D.  I776.1783.— The  War  of  Independ- 
cnce.— Peace  with  Great  Britain.  See  United 
States  of  A.».  :  A.  I).  1776  to  17»8. 

A.  D.  1777-1779.— Withholding;  ratiScatioB 
from  the  Article*  of  Confederation.  See 
United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  17«l-17Mfl. 

A.  D.  1787.— The  adoption  and  ratiCcation 
of  the  Federal  Conititution.  See  United 
State*  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1787.  and  1787-1789. 

A.  O.  1861  (April).— Refueal  of  troop*  on  the 
call  of  President  Lincoln.  See  United  States 
oF.\M  :  A.  D.  IMl  (.Vpkil). 


DELAWARE  RIVER.  Washinrtoa's  pas- 
•an  of  the.  St'e  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D. 
17'(H777. 

DELA WARES,  The.  See  American  Abo- 
lUiiiNKS:  Delawahes. 

DELFT:  Assassination  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange  (15841.  See  N  etherlandh  :  A.  L>.  1581- 
1584. 

DELHI:  nth  Century.— Captnre  by  Mah- 
moud  of  Gasna.     St  Ti'RK!i:  A.  I).  UW-1188. 

A.  D.  ii9a-iS90.— The  capital  of  the  Mame- 
luke or  Slave  dynasty.  S«'  India  :  A  D.  977- 
1290. 

A.  D.  1399.— Sack  and  massacre  by  Timour. 
See  TlMoi-R. 

A.  D.  15*6-1605.- The  founding  of  the  Mo- 
gul Empire  by  Babar  and  Akbar.    S<f  India: 

A.  I>.  I899-1<H)5. 

A.  D.  1730.— Sack  and  ma**acre  by  Nadir 
Shah.    S.ffNi>i\:  A   l>  lrtrt-.'-174H 

A.  D.  1760-1761.— Taken  and  plundered  by 
the  Mahrattas.-Thcn  by  the  Afrhans.— Col- 
lapse of  the  Mogul  Empire.  See  India:  A.  I). 
1747-1761 

A.  D.  i857.-The  Sepoy  Mutiay.-Massacre 
of  >  ropean*.— Explosion  of  the  magaaine.— 
English  siege  and  capture  of  the  city.  !S4i> 
India:  A  U.  1857  (.Mat— AiousT)  and  (Sine— 

SErTKMBr.K). 

DELIAN  CONFEDERACY.    H<'eURU(E 

B.  (•  47N-i:7.  and  Atiienk    U  C  466-454,  and 
after 

DELIAN  FESTIVAL.    See  I>eu>«. 

DELIUM,  Battle  of  (B.  C.  4*4i.-.\  Mriout 
defiat  •iiffenil  liv  the  Atlu'iiiaim  in  llw  l*i>l.>ii.>n- 
neolan  War,  H  V  4S4.  at  the  hamU  (if  the  The- 
ban*  and  other  Ihpotiaa*.  It  wai  i-nnnmiiirnt 
'ty--^  fhrf'  irrlliifr  tjr  ihc  Athmiana  of  ih.-  o.i-.. 
tian  lemplriir  IVIIiim —  a  temple  of  Apollo  — im 
the  MS  (i.ait,  alniiit  live  miles  fr.mi  Tauacnt 
•U;h  they  furtUsil  and  toKnded  10  hold.    After 


the  defeat  of  the  army  which  was  returning  from 
this  exploit,  the  nrrlaon  lefi  at  Delium  vu  be- 
sieged and  mostly  captured.  Among  the  hon. 
Iltes  who  fought  at  Delium  was  the  philosopher 
Socrates.  Tne  commander  Hippocrates  «u 
sUin.— Thucydides,  Hitloiy.  bic.  4,  leet.  89- "vi 

Auo  »:  O.  Grote,irM(.  0/  Oretu,  pt.  2  ch  Si 
—See  Orbmb:  B.  C.  434-421. 

DELOS.— Delo*.  the  smallest  Uland  of  the 
group  called  the  CychKle*,  but  the  most  import- 
ant  In  the  eye*  of  the  Ionian  Greeks,  being  their 
sacred  Isle,  the  fabled  birthplace  of  .\p„iro  and 
long  the  chief  seat  and  center  of  his  wnrsliip 
"The  Homeric  Hymn  to  Apollo  prewnts  to  ui 
the  island  of  DJIos  as  the  centre  of  a  gnat  peri- 
odical festival  in  honour  of  Apollo,  celebrated  lij 
all  the  cities,  insular  and  contlnentnl,  of  the 
Ionic  name.  What  the  date  of  this  hvmn  Ih,  ve 
have  no  means  of  determining:  thucvdidfi 
quotes  it,  without  hesitation,  as  the  pniduction 
of  Homer,  and,  doubtless,  it  was  in  his  time 
universally  accepted  as  such,— though  in(«iini 
critics  concur  In  regarding  both  that  and  the 
other  hymn*  as  much  later  than  the  Iliad  aod 
Odyssey,  tt  cannot  probably  ite  later  than  m 
B.  C.  The  description  of  Uie  Ionic  visitors  prp. 
sented  to  us  in  this  hymn  Is  splendid  and  imp,«. 
ing;  the  number  of  their  ships,  the  displav  of 
their  flnery,  the  beautv  f  their  wmnc  n.'  ilie 
athletic  eihibltlons  as  v,''i  as  tho  m»t<>ifs  ot 
song  and  dance,-- all  these  are  repn-wnuil  u 
making  an  ineffaceable  impression  on  ilie  vpn- 
talor:  "the  assembled  lontans  l<H>k  iw  if  ihiT 
were  beyond  the  resch  of  old  airi-  or  diath!' 
Such  was  the  magniflcence  of  which  Iii^lo-i  «ii 
the  peritxllcal  theatre,  and  which  ciIUhI  forth  ilie 
voices  snd  poetical  genius  not  merely  of  iiim-nmt 
bards,  but  also  of  the  Delian  mafdcn..  iu  Ihe 
temple  of  Apollo,  during  the  century  iircicdini 
560  B.  C.  At  tliat  time  it  was  Ihe  ijrrat  (i-i}tr»l 
festival  of  the  lonians  In  Asia  and  Europe  _ 
O.  Orote,  Ifitt.  of  iirttft,  pt.  i,  eh.  I',' —  liurini! 
the  war  with  Penis,  I)elos  was  mwW  \\v  rora- 
mon  treasury  of  the  Greeks;  hut  Athens  subsf. 
uueotly  took  the  custody  and  manapnunt  •■'. 
the  trraaury  to  henelf  and  reduced  Dij.w  to  t 
dependency.  The  laland  was  long  lhi>  wnt  of  iin 
extensive  commerce,  snd  Delian  lironie  ku  ci( 
note  In  the  arts. 

B.  C.  400.— Spared  by  the  Persians. 
Oref.cE:  ft.  C.  49(1 

B.  C.  477.— The  Delian  Confederacy. 
Okkeck:  M  C.  478-477;  sndATiiK.vv  II  ( 
VA,  and  after. 

B.  C.  4A<-4S4  (')■— Removal  of  the  Conlcil- 
eratc  treaaory  to  Athens.  See  Atiik.nh:  B  c. 
46e-4.>4 

B.C.  4«S-4*'-— PuriScations.-."  Inthemid«t 
(if  the  loases  and  turmoil  of  the  ri'(lo|>onni»iHn] 
war  It  had  lieen  detennined  [at  Allien"]  loolTir 
a  solemn  testimony  of  homage  to  Apollo  nn  IMi<i, 
[B  r.  4W]  —  a  homage doulitleMctinnci  till « ill) 
the  complete  cessation  of  the  prstllin.i-.  which 
had  lasted  as  long  as  the  flfth  }'rar  of  ilic  *sr. 
The  solemnity  consisted  In  the  renewed  coinecrs 
tlon  of  the  entire  island  to  the  divim-  (ilver  nf 
irrare ;  all  the  cotllns  nmtaining  hiim.'iii  renisini 
Mng  removetl  from  Dcloa,  and  l{hiniiiiip|i"inl«d 
U>  be  henceforth  the  sole  Imriul  nlm.  Tlii« 
noiemnity  auppiementrtl  the  an  l.'rnKrIy  pir 
formed  by  the  onlem  of  Pislstratus,  snd  it  w«i 
do'  !itle*a  In  the  present  Instniire  also  IntimH, 
by  /tieans  of  a  brilliaut  renewal  u(  the  Ikllsa 


Sw 


See 
4(i*- 


G80 


DELOS. 


DEMICKGI. 


oclebntfcin,  to  (trengthen  the  power  of  Athens 
In  the  ishuul  aea,  to  give  a  festive  centre  to  the 
Ionic  world.  .  .  .  But  the  main  purpose  was 
clearly  one  of  mo-  Jitv  and  religion.  It  was  in- 
tended to  calm  and  edify  the  minds  of  the  citi- 
icns."— E.  Curtius,  Hiit.  of  Oreete.  bk.  4,  eh.  2. 
—Three  yeara  later  (B.  C.  422)  the  Athenians 
found  some  reason  for  another  purlttcatinn  of 
Delos  which  was  more  radical,  consisting  in  the 
(xpuUioQ  of  all  the  inhabitants  from  the  island. 
The  unfortunate  Delians  founil  an  asylum  at 
Adramyttium  in  Asia,  until  they  were  restnred 
to  their  homes  next  year,  through  the  influence  of 
the  Delphic  oracle.  — Thucydides,  History,  bk.  5, 
leet  1. 

B.  C.  88.— Pontic  Muaacre.— Early  in  the 
irst  war  of  Mitbridates  with  the  Romans  (B.  C. 
i»).  Drios,  which  had  been  made  a  free  poit  and 
had  become  the  emporium  of  Konian  commerce 
in  the  east,  was  seized  by  a  Pontic  fleet,  and 
pillnged,  80,000  Italians  being  massacred  on  the 
Island.  The  treasures  of  Delos  were  sent  to 
Athens  and  the  Island  restored  to  the  Athenian 
contnil.— W.  Ihne,  Uitt.  o/Jiome,  bk.  7,  r/..  17, 

B.  C.  69.— Ravaced  bj  Pirates.—"  Almost 
under  the  eyes  of  the  fleet  of  Lucullus,  the  pirate 
AtliincHlorus  surprised  in  eat  [B.C.  UU]  the  island 
of  Di'los.  destroyed  iU  far-famed  shrines  and 
ti'raples,  and  carried  off  the  whole  population 
luto  nUvcrv. " — T.  Mommscr,  Hut.  of  Rome.  bk. 

5,  th.  a. 

Slave  Trade  under  the  Romans.— "  Thrace 
and  .Sammtia  wen:  the  Guinea  (.'oast  of  the 
Itimans.  The  entrepAt  of  this  trade  was  IHO.w. 
•  Iiirh  had  been  made  a  free  ix)rt  by  Home  after 
the  nmquest  of  Macedonia.  Stralio  tells  us  that 
in  one  day  10.000  slaves  were  wdil  then'  in  open 
nisrkel.  "Such  were  the  vile  uses  to  which  was 
put  the  Sacretl  Island,  once  the  treasury  of 
Ort^Ki','— H.  a.  Llddcll.  Hut.  of  Ronte,  bk.  .'5, 
eh.  4». 

DELPKI.—  KRISSA  (CRISSA).- 
XIRRHA(CIRRHA).— "In  tliosi'  early  times 
«  hi  n  llie  IIiiMieric  Hymn  to  A|k>II(i  was  eomposeil 
Iht'iiiwu  (if  Krisaa  [Jn  PhiN-is,  near  Delphi]  ap- 
liears  to  have  been  gri'at  and  powerful,  poaseiw- 
injr  all  the  broad  plain  iM'tween  PamassuH,  Kir- 
plus,  and  the  gulf,  tu  whli-h  latter  It  gave  Its  name. 
—  and  |Kis»es.Hing  also,  what  was  a  pmperty  not 
li««  VHluable.  the  adjuining  sanctuary  nf  iVthii 
itielf,  whlrh  the  Hynui  identines  with  Krissa. 
niit  indicating  iHdphi  as  a  separale  place  The 
Krisi.a'nns,  duulitless,  deriveil  gri'at  pniHts  from 
till  numlKT  of  visitors  who  came  In  visit  Ih'Iplii, 
l«'ih  liv  liiiid  and  by  sea,  ami  KIrrha  was  nrlgin- 
iily  only  the  name  for  their  seaisyrl.  (Jraduiilly, 
h"»rvir.  the  |»>rt  ap|H>ars  to  have  grown  In  liii- 
I.naii.e  at  the  expense  of  the  town;  .  while 
at  llie  siune  time  the  saiictuarv  of  I'ytho  with  Its 
aimlni.iraliirs  expandiil  into  ihe  town  nf  Delphi. 
anil  laine  In  claim  an  Independent  exlsleni'e  nf 
it«i'»n  .   In  addilhm  to  the  aWive  facts,  al- 

n-adv  Miffl.leiil  In  tliemst'lves  as  seeds  nf  ijuarrel. 
»!•  «rc  tnhl  that  the  Klrrhwans  abustsl  their  piwi- 
ti 'n  as  mastera  of  the  nvenue  to  the  temple  by 
w.->.  and  levied  exorbitant  Inlls  on  the  visitors 
«hH  liiniled  then-.  .  .  .  Besides  such  offence 
uwlnsl  the  general  Qrrrlan  public,  they  ha.'  also 
•^r'Mff>n:  the  rnmiiy  nf  tii,lr  Hin* Uii  neigliUMin 
111  n.iirages  u|)on  woineii.  Pluslan  as  well  as 
Artiliin  who  were  nluriiing  fMm  the  temple. 
Thus  stood  the  ca«v.  apparvolty,  about  589  B.  C, 


when  the  Amphiktyonic  meeting  interfered  .  .  . 
to  punish  the  Kirrhieans.  After  a  war  of  tea 
years,  the  first  Bacred  War  in  Greece,  this  object 
was  completely  accomplished,  by  a  joint  force 
of  Thessalians  under  Eurylochus,  Sikyonlana 
under  Kleisthenes,  and  Athenians  under  Alk- 
mieon ;  the  Athenian  Solon  Iieing  the  person  who 
originated  and  enforced,  in  the  Amphiktyonic 
council,  the  proposition  of  lnt»rference.  KIrrha 
.  .  .  was  destroyed,  or  left  to  subsist  merely  as 
a  landing  place;  and  the  whole  adjotolng  plain 
was  consecrated  to  the  rielphian  god.  whose  do- 
mains thus  touched  the  sea.  .  .  .  The  fate  of 
KIrrha  in  this  war  Is  ascertained:  that  of  Krissa 
is  not  so  clear,  nor  do  we  know  whether  it  waa 
destroyed,  or  left  sulmisting  in  a  position  of  ta- 
feriority  with  regarrl  to  Delphi.  From  this 
time  forward,  the  DelphUn  community  appears 
as  substantive  and  autonomous,  exercismg  in 
their  own  light  the  maiugementof  the  temple; 
though  we  shall  find,  on  more  than  one  o<t:asion, 
that  the  Phocians  contest  this  right.  .  .  .  The 
spoils  of  KIrrha  were  employed  bv  the  victorious 
allies  In  founding  the  Pytliiiin  Games.  The  oc- 
tennial festival  hitherto" celebrared  at  Delphi  in 
honour  of  the  god,  iiiiluding  no  other  competi- 
tion except  in  the  harp  and  the  pwan,  was  ex- 
panded into  compn>liensiyn  games  on  the  model 
nf  the  Olympic,  with  matches  n<it  only  of  music, 
but  also  nf  gymnastics  ami  chariots,— "i-ilebrated, 
unt  at  Delplii  itttelf.  but  on  the  maritime  plain 
near  the  ruined  Kirrha.— and  under  the  din-ct 
su|>erinU'ndeneeof  the  Aniphiktvons  themstdves, 

.  .  They  were  celebrated  in  the  latter  half  of 
^ulnmer,  or  flmt  half  nf  every  third  Olympic 
year.  .  .  .  Nothing  was  coufernil  but  wreaths 
of  laun  I.  '•— G.  (irnte,  /lift,  of  lirftct.  i>t.  2.  eh. 
2X._See,  also,  Atiikni.:  U.  0.  6I0-V>«1:  PvTHO; 
Okacles  ok  the  Ukeeks;  and  Ami'iiiktyom( 
CorNciL. 

B.  C.  357-338.— Seiaure  by  the  Phociani.— 
The  Sacred  Warr  —Deliverance  by  Philip  of 
Macedon.— Warwith Amphissa.  SeeliHEECK: 
H.  V.  s-ir-sw. 

B.  C.  979.- Diacomature  of  the  Gault.  See 
Gails:  U,  C.  •.'WU27H. 


DELPHIC  ORACLE.  The.    See  Oracles 

OF  TMK  ItllKKKS 

DELf  HlC  SIBYL,  The,    Sie  Siuvu.. 

DEMES.— DEMI.  Sn  l'iivi..E;  alsn.  Atii- 
knh:  H   C    Mo-IoT, 

DEMETES,  The.— One  nf  the  irll.  s  of  an- 
cient Wlllit       >ii'  DlltTAIN.  t  Kl.TIl   TliniKS. 

DEMETRIUS,  the  Impostor.  Se  Kissia: 
A.  D  l.'):);!-!!))*.-  Demetrius  Poliorcetea, 
and  the  wars  of  the  Diadochi.  See  .Mack- 
Iminia:  H  C  ;n.V:llo.  :iln-;ioi;  Blsn  (iKKKCE: 
H.  ('   .HOT- lit; :  ami  l(niinK«:  11.  C   !to,-i-;t(i4. 

DEMiURCI. -COSMOS.  — TAGOS  OR 
TAOUS.— Of  the  less  n.nunnn  titles  applied 
aninii;:  I  111  amiiiit  (in'eks  tn  their  supreme 
majrlMli  iir«,  ao'  "(nsmos.  or  Insmios,  and 
Tak'iis  i-ianifying  ,\rninirir  ami  tnuimamUr), 
llie  fnrmer  nf  which  »■  timi  In  Vtvie.  the  latter 
III  the  Tliessalhiii  cities  With  the  fnrnur  we 
■my  cnmparr'  the  title  nf  Cosmiipolls,  »  hkli  waa 
iu  u.^e  amnnif  the  Kpineplivriaii  I.<HTlans.  A 
mnp'  fri'ipient  title  Is  thai  n^  Demlurgl.  a  name 
HJiicii  Mt-iiis  tn  jii.|iiy  a  eniistitiitinii  no  innger 
idlicarrhical,  but  Ahlcli  liestnHed  certain  rignia 
nn  the  Demos.  In  the  tiim'  nf  the  Pelonon- 
uesian  war  magistrates  nf  this  kind  cxIatM  In 


G81 


DIlOUBOl 

nil  and  in  tba  Arcadian  Mantinma.  .  .  .  The 
title  ia  declared  bjr  Grnnmariane  to  bare  been 
commonly  uied  among  the  Doriani.  ...  A 
rimilar  title  la  that  of  Donuchua,  which  the 
■npiema  magiatratea  of  Theapia  in  Boeotia  aeem 
to  have  bona.  .  .  .  The  Aitjmi  at  Epidaurua 
and  Argoa  we  hare  already  mentioned."— O. 
SchOmann,  Antiq.  of  OrttM:  Th»  8taU,  ft.  %, 
tk.  5. 

DEMOCRATIC,  OR  DEMOCRATIC 
REPUBLICAN  PARTY  OP  THE  UNITED 
STATES.  See  Uxited  Statbb  of  Am.  :  A.  D. 
17S0-1T93:  188S-1888-.  1849-1848. 

DEMOSTHENES,  the  reneral  at  SphM- 
teria aod at  Syracoa*.  See  Orebcb:  R  C.  4S9, 
and  Straccw:   B.   C.   415-418;  and  ATRBiia: 

a   C.  415-418 Decdoathcnea   the   ernter. 

The  Phillipica,  and  the  Death  of.  See  Orbbcb  : 
B.  C.  857-388.  851-848,  and  8a3-«a3;  and  Ath- 
na:  a  C.  85IM88.  and  8S6-833. 

DEMOTIC      WRITING.      See      Hiebo- 

OLTPRICe. 

DEMUCHUS.    BeeDcinuBOL 

DENAIN.  Battle  of  (171a).  See  Xsthkr- 
Lunw:  A   D.  1710-1718. 

DENARIUS,  The.    See  Ae. 

DENDERMONDE.— Surrender  to  the 
Spaniarda  (15S4).  See  NETUiRLANDa:  A.  D. 
1884-1.5^. 

DENIS,  Kincof  Portugal.  A.  D.  1379-1888. 

DENMARK.    See  8cAKDtNAVT.\!«  Statu. 

DENNEWITZ,  OR  lOTERBOGK,  Battle 
oL  See  Qernaxt:  A.  D.  1818  (SErrBXBER— 
October). 

DENNIKON,  Peace  of  (1531).  See  Swrr- 
zcrland:  .V  r>.  l.V<l-1«4M. 

DENVER,  The  foundinr  of.  SeeCoLORAOO: 
A.  I)   1H<J6-1878, 

DEORHAM,  Battle  ol.— Fought  A.  D.  .177, 
nnar  n»tli.  Knt'lHiiil.  Mween  the  iDvadiiiK  West 
Sa.\on8  mid  Ilic  Britons— ,1.  R.  Qreeo   Vir  Viik- 

Dfe  PAUW  UNIVERSITY.  See  Emj. 
CATios,    MuuEK.s ;     Amerk  A :     A.    I).     1768- 

INRJ 

DERBEND,  Paa*  of.    See  .IrHoiPACH. 

DERBY-DISRAELI  MINISTRIES  The. 
See  EN<ir.AHD:  A.  D.  1M1-18.W:  1858-18.W;  and 
188H- 1H70. 

DERRY.    See  Lojuhikderbt. 

DE  RUSSY,  Fort,  Capture  of.  See  Uicited 
States   or  An.:    A.   I).    1M64  (Mahch— Mat: 

LOIIMAXA). 

DESERET,  The  propoaed  atate  of.    See 

Utah    A   P.  184I>-1S.'10, 
DESMONDS,  The.    «<■<■  CtERAi  ntxEK 
DBSMOULINS,  Camille,  and  the  French 
Revolution.    See  Khanie     A.  I),  17m»  (Jii.t)- 
17WI,  l7l«(Aluc»T),  to  1798-17IM  (Noveii»EH— 

DESPOT  OF  EPIRUS.-'The  tiile  of 
desiH.l,  by  which  they  (the  medlievnl  prinrei 
of  EpIriM]  are  Kenerallv  dlattni;\iiKlir<l,  waa  a 
Byzanlinr  honorary  diallnction.  never  iHime  by 
the  t-nrlirr  nipinm-'n  of  the  family  until  11  had 
been  r.mferre,!  on  them  by  the  Qreek  Emperor." 
—(J  Fliilay.  llitt.  of  Orrttt  fr-m  if  ronovft  bf 
the  Cnitatlen.  ck.  8,  mtt.  1.— See  Erta(;i:  A.  D 
1904-18.10 

DESPOTS,  Creek.  H»i  Tnuirw.  !tal- 
iaa.    ^^-e  Itai.t:  A    1).  ia.*lO-15»0 

DESSAU,  BatUa  of  (i«a4).     See  Oumairr. 


DETROIT. 

DBSTRIBR&- PALFREYS.-"  A  cart. 
liere  or  man-at-arma  waa  accompanied  by  on* 
'  Deatriero '  or  itrong  war-borae,  and  one  or  two 
aometimea  three,  mounted  aquirea  who  led  thi 
animal  fullv  capariaoned;  or  carried  the  helmet 
lance  and  ahieldof  their  maater:  theie  ■  Deatiini' 
('rich  and  great  boTMa'  aa  Villani  calla  tbemL 
were  ao  named  becauie  they  were  led  on  ih« 
right  band  without  any  rider,  and  all  ready  for 
mounting:  theiqulre'i  horaea  were  of  an  in^rior 
kind  called  '  Ronzini,'  and  on  the  '  Palafreni '  or 
palfreyi  the  knight  rode  when  not  in  battle" 
— H.  E.  Napier,  tlortntint  BMory,  ».  1  1 
68&  »■•'.?. 

DESTROYING  ANGELS,  OR  DAN- 
ITES.    See  MoRXOimM:  A.  D.  1880-1846 

DETROIT :  Firat  occnpicd  by  the  Coureui 
de  Boia.    See  CoiTRBCRa  db  Boia 

A.  D,  1686-1701.— The  «rat  French  fottt.- 
Cadillac'a  fonndiuK  of  the  city.— At  tbe 
beginning  of  the  war  called  "Queen  Anne'i 
War "(1708)  "Detroit  had  already  been  esub- 
liahed.  In  June,  1701,  la  Mothe  Cadillac,  with 
a  Jetuit  father  and  100  men,  was  aent  tu  con- 
•truct  a  fort  and  occupy  the  country;  Uence  he 
la  spoken  of  as  the  founder  of  the  city.  In  im 
a  fort  Icalled  Fort  St.  Joseph]  had  been  con- 
structed to  the  south  of  the  present  city,  where 
Fort  Oratiot  now  standa,  but  It  soon  fell  into 
decay  and  was  abandoned.  It  waa  not  the  tit< 
selected  by  Cadillac.  "—W.  Klngaford.  llut  rf 
Canatla,  r.  8,  p.  408.— "Fort  St.  Joseph  wu 
abandoned  in  the  year  1888.  The  eaulilishment 
of  Cadillac  waa  destined  to  a  better  fate  iind  soon 
rose  tfl  distinguished  Importance  anidnR  the 
westert.  outposts  of  Canada."— F.  Pttrkman.  TA* 
Corupirofg  nf  Pnntint,  »,  1,  p.  818. 

A.  D.  I70I-I7SS.— Importance  to  the  Freach. 
See  Canada:  A.  I).  1700-1785. 

A.  D.  1713.— Siecc  by  the  Foxes  and  Mas- 
aacrv  of  that  tribe.  See  Canada:  A.  I)  i;il- 
1713. 

A.  D.  1780.- The  French  stttlement  whni 
aarrendered  to  the  Enrliah.— "Tlio  Krcncli  ii. 
habitants  here  are  settled  on  lioili  sides. )f  the 
river  for  about  eight  miles.  When  I  tixiii  pot- 
session  of  the  country  soon  afUT  tlio  surren- 
der of  Canada  [see  Canada  :  A.  D.  17(to].  they 
were  atiout  8,500  in  number,  there  iK'Introeir 
500  that  bore  arm*  (to  whom  I  adininittcred 
oaths  of  alleiilance)  and  near  300  dwi'llini;  Imum. 
Our  fort  here  ia  built  of  stookadcx's,  is  «lKiut  2J 
feet  high,  and  LSOOyardalncircumfen'mr.  .  . 
The  Inlmblunia  raise  wheat  and  other  itrain  In 
abundance,  and  have  plenty  of  cattle,  Iml  they 
enrich  themsadves  chiefly  by  their  trmie  with  the 
Indians,  which  Is  here  very  larKvand  luenitive." 
—Major  11  Rogers,  Conntt  A«t.  of  S.  Am.,  p. 
188.  J  y 

A.  D.  1763.— Peatiac'a  Siege.  See  Pontiac'i 
War. 

A.  D.  I775-I7I3,— Held  by  the  Britiik 
throughout  the  war  of  Independence,  sm 
UiirrED  States  or  A¥. :  A.  D.  1778-1T7*, 
Clare's  coNqrEsr. 

A.  D.  tlot.- Made  the  iMt  of  foreraatat 
of  the  Territory  of  MicUna.  Bee  Imdiaxa: 
A.  D.  18UO-1818. 

A.  D.  llts.—Th«Bwrea4af  ef  General  HsU. 
See  I'srrcD  »«tatiu  or  Am     A  P  I»1?-;J'^ 
October). 

A.    D     1113.—  Americaa    recercry. 
Unrnu)  Htatm  o»  Am.  :  A.  D.  IB1»-1B1I. 


682 


DKTTmOEN. 

DBTTINGBN,  B«ttl*  of  (1743).  See  Aue- 
Ru:  A.  D.  1748. 

DEUSDBDIT,  Pf»,  A.  O.  «1S-«18. 

OBUTSCH.  Oriiia  of  the  iwine.  See 
Oukaut  :  Thb  matiokal  maio. 

DEUTSCHBROO,  B«tUe  of  (XAaa).  See 
Bohhoa:  a.  D.  1419-1484. 

DEVA.— One  of  the  Roman  gurffon  towni  in 
Britain,  on  the  dte  of  which  it  modem  Cheiter, 
liking  iu  name  from  the  caatra  or  fortified 
itatioL  of  the  legiona.  It  waa  the  station  of 
tlie  20th  legion.— T.  Mommaen,  BM.  of  Rome 
M.  8,  M.  5. 

DEVB-BOYUN,  BatUa  of  (187S).  See 
Tnuu:  A  D.  18n-1878. 

DEVIL'S  CAUSEWAY,  The—The  popu- 
Ur  name  of  an  old  Roman  road  in  England  which 
nio-i  from  Sllcbester  to  London. 

DEVIL'S  HOLE,  The  ambnacade  and 
■attacre  at.— On  the  18th  of  September,  1783, 
during  the  progreia  of  Pontiac'a  War,  a  train  of 
wigoni  and  packhones,  travening  the  Niagara 
portage  between  Lewiston  and  Fort  Schloaaer, 
giitrded  by  an  escort  of  34  soldiers,  waa  ambus- 
caded by  a  party  of  Seneca  warriors  st  the  place 
called  the  Devlrs  Hole,  three  miles  below  the 
Niagara  caUract  Seventy  of  the  whites  were 
ilain,  and  only  three  escaped.— F.  Parkman,  The 
Cmmratv  cf  J\>rUitie,  eh.  81  (r.  8). 

DEVON  COMMISSION,  The  See  Iu- 
lasd:  a.  D.  1848-1848. 

DEVONSHIRE,  in  th«   Britiah  ace.    See 

DciUiOKII. 

DE  WITT,  John,  the  adminittration  and 
tktmnrderoC  SeeNrrBKBLAsos:  A.  D.  1851- 
1««0.  to  1673-1674. 

DHIHAD.    See  Dab  rL-IsLAM. 

DIACRII,  The.    See  Atbens:  B.  C.  594. 

DIADOCHI,  The.— The  Imrawllate  successors 
of  Al.xaniler  the  Great,  who  divldiil  his  empire 
•re  Mmetimes  so-called.  "The  word  clmilochi 
mesM  'successors,'  and  Is  used  to  include  Aa- 
llgonus,  Ptolemy,  Seleucus,  Lvsimachus,  etc  — 
■be  sctual  companions  of  Alexamler."- J.  P. 
Xahaffv,  Story  of  AlfMiuttfi  Empire,  eh.  S  — 
SeeMACF-noNiA:  B.  C.  83.'(-316. 

DIAMOND,  Battle  of  the  (1795).  See  Ire- 
USD:  a.  I).  179.VI7W1. 

DIAMOND  DISCOVERY  IN  SOUTH 
AFRICA  (ia67).    SeeORKjCAs. 

DIAMOND  NECKLACE,  The  aifair  of 
tit.    .Sr  Fra)«c«:  A.  1).  17(»4-17«5. 

DIASPORA,  The.— A  name  spplle<l  to  the 
Jew*  scattered  tlmiutfhout  the  Ruinan  world 

DIAZ,  Porfirio,  The  Mexican  pratidancr 
d    Nf  Mexico:  A.  I>.  1867-1888. 

DICASTBRIA.— The  great  popular  court 
r  iury,  In  ancient  Athens  cnlknl  the  Hrlliea,  or 
Hfli»«t«  consistlnK  at  one  time  of  six  thousand 
cbiwii  ritiiens,  was  divided  Info  ten  sections, 
ctllcj  Dicasteria.  Their  places  of  meeting  als<i 
ow  the  Bame  name  — O.  F.  SchOmann.  Anlio. 
itlrr'^r,:  The  State,  ,4.  8,  eh.  3. -See  Atbcn* 

B  (•  \  i-jai. 

DICKINSON,  John,  in  the  Amtricaa  Rtro- 
wtioa.   Si^  rNiTED-SxATasor  Am.  ;  K  I>  1767- 

17W;  n74(.SKPTgMBKK);    1778  (JcLT). 

DICKINSON    COLLEGE.     Koe   Ei.rrA- 
Tins.  Muiinix     .\uitu|i4:  A.  D.  ITflB  IRMi, 
DICIAIOR,  Roman.  HteCovsi-m  Rum.k 
BIDIAN  LAW.  The,    (*ee  Ottm,  "  Fan! 
m»,  UiiiiAx  Law». 


Drar 

OIDYM.SUM,  Th«  oraal*  o£  SeeORACua 

OFTH*  OBBBKa 

OIBDBNHOFEN,  Battle  of  (1639).     See 
Oebmaht:  a.  D.  1684-1689.  "' 

°'^**PE— Bombardment  and  deatnictiea 
-  an   EncUah   fleet.     See  Frakce:   A.  D. 


683 


.K  °'^?  ATRL— The  day*  on  which  the  Romana 
thought  it  unlucky  to  undertake  busineat  of 
taportance-for  example,  the  day  after  the 
Calends^  Nones  and  Idea  of  each  month  — were 
railed  Dies  Atri.- W.  Ramaay,  itanwU  of  Soman 

8ee°fcffd\'^°'"  "•'^'•-D'-  F.^ 

DIET.— 'VAn  assembly,  council,  .  .  .  Parlla- 
?*°k:  J,-  ■  ^*  peculiar  sense  of  the  word  un- 
doubtedly arose  from  a  popular  etymology  that 
connected  It  with  the  Ut.  'die*  '  a  day  esp  a 
set  day,  a  day  appointed  for  public  businoa- 
whence  by  exteiision,  a  meeting  for  business,  an 
assembly.  "-W.  W.  Skeat.  Et^notofical  diet! 

The  Germanic— •  The  annual  general  coun- 
cils and  special  councils  of  Charles  the  Great  did 
not  long  survive  him,  and  neither  his  descend- 
ants nor  their  succeasors  revived  them.    Ther 
were  com|)elle<i,  to  be  sure,  both  by  custom  and 
by  policy  to  advise  with  the  chief  men  of  the 
kingdom  before  taking  any  important  step  or 
doing  anything  that  depended  for  success  on 
their  consent  and  cooperation,  but  they  varied 
the  number  of  their  counsellors  and  the  time 
ptace,  and  manner  of  consulting  them  to  suit 
their  own  convenience.     Great  formal  aasembliea 
of  counsiellors  summoned  from  all  parts  of  the 
realm  were  termed  Imperial  Diets  (Reicustage): 
sma  I,  or  local,  or  informal  asaemhlles  of  a  sfmi- 
lar  kind  were  known  as  Court  DieU  (Hoftage) 
Princes  ind  other  royal  vassals,  margraves,  pals- 
graves,  finive-i.  Iwrons,  and  even  royal  Dlenst- 
mannen  were  indiscriminately  suminoned,    but 
the  Diets  were  in  no  sense  representative  bodies 
until  the  Great  Interregnum  [aecOEBMA.NY:  A  D 
ISTMHaral    when  certrtln    cities   acquliwi   such 
Influence  in  public  affairs  that  thev  were  Invited 
to  «<n(l  dilegates.     The  tirst  Diet  "in  which  they 
participated   was  held  at  Worms  in  Februarv 
li.M.  b.v  King  William  of  Holland.     .Most  of  tte 
cities  of  the  Rhenish  League  were  there  repre- 
sent.ll,  and  tliey  constituteil  an  important  factor 
of  the  amrinbly.      The  affairs  (A  the    church 
shannl  attention   with   temporal  affairs  In    the 
Diets  until  the  Popes  sueceeilwi  in  making  good 
tlieir  claims  to  supremacy  in  spiritual  matters. 
Thereafter  they  were  altogether  left  to  synods 
and  church   councils.  .   .  .   Iniiterial   DIeU  and 
Court  Diets  continued   to  Xk  held  at  irregular 
intervals,  whenever  and  wlienver  It  pleased  the 
king  to  convene  tlii-in,  but  Imperial  Diets  were 
usually  held  in  ImiHrial  cities.     These  were  not 
such  lietemirenouB   H^s<>mblies  as  formerly,  for 
few  rovnl  vassals.  ..m,  pt  princes,  and  no  royal 
Dienstnmnnen    whatever  were  now  invited 'to 
atten'l      linives  :uid  barons,  and   prelates  who 
Were  ill  I   princes,  continued  to  lie  summoned. 
but  the  miinlKT  iiml  InllueLce  of  the  Graves  and 
barons  in  the   Diets  steadily   waned.     Imperial 
eltlts   were   for  many  years  only    occasionally 
a«ke<l  to  participate,  that  is  to  say,  only  when 
the  kins  had  ciiioowl  need  of  their  g«o<I  offices, 
but  in  the  latter  half  of  the  14th  century  tliev 
began    to    be    regularly  summoned.      Imperial 
DIeu  were  so  frequently  held  during  the  Huialte 


DIET. 


DINAN. 


War  ud  themfter,  that  It  became  pretty  well 
lettled  vhat  persons  aod  what  citiea  should  take 
part  in  them,  and  only  those  pern'  jS  and  those 
cities  that  were  entitled  to  tak?  part  in  them 
were  regarded  as  Estates  of  tho  realm.  In  the 
ISth  century  thty  developed  Into  three  chamliers 
or  CDllc^ris,  viz.,  the  College  of  Electors  [see 
Oer)i.\.vy:  a.  D.  1125-1152],  the  College  of 
Princes.  Oraves,  and  Barons,  usually  call«l  the 
Council  of  Princes  of  the  Empire  (Relchsfnrs- 
tenratb),  and  the  College  of  Imperial  Cities. 
The  Archbishop  of  Hentz  presided  in  the  Col- 
lege of  Electors,  and  the  Archliishop  of  Salzburg 
and  the  Duke  of  Austria  presided  alternately  In 
the  Council  of  Princes  of  the  Empire.  The  office 
of  presiding  In  the  College  of  Imperial  Cities 
devolved  upon  the  Imperial  city  in  which  the 
Diet  sat.  The  king  and  members  of  both  the 
upper  Colleges  sometimeit  sent  deputies  to  repre- 
sent them,  instead  of  attending  In  person.  In 
1474  the  citiea  adopted  a  raethixT  of  voting  which 
resulted  in  a  divis'-n  of  their  College  Into  two 
Benches,  called  the  Rhenish  Bench  and  the 
Swabian  Bench,  because  the  Rhenish  cities  were 
conspicuous  members  of  the  one.  and  the  Swabian 
cities  conspicuous  members  of  the  other.  In  the 
Council  of  Princes,  at  least,  no  regard  was  had 
to  the  number  of  votes  cast,  but  only  to  the 
power  and  influence  of  the  voters,  whence  a 
measure  might  pass  the  Diet  bv  less  than  a 
majority  of  the  votes  present  Having  passed. 
It  was  proclaimed  as  the  lav  of  the  realm,  upon 
receiving  the  king's  assent,  but  was  only  effective 
law  in  so  far  as  tlie  members  of  the  Diet,  present 
or  absent,  assented  to  It.  .  .  .  Xot  a  single 
Im|K>rial  Diet  was  summoned  between  1613  and 
1840.  The  king  held  a  few  Court  Diets  dur- 
ing that  long  interval,  consisting  either  of  the 
Electors  alone,  or  of  the  Electors  and  such  other 
Princes  of  tlie  Empire  as  he  clio8<>  to  summon. 
The  ccmilitions  of  memlM>rsliip,  and  the  manner 
of  voting  In  the  College  of  Electors  and  the  Col- 
lege o'  Imperial  Cities  n'mained  unchangetl. 
.  .      1  '■"<    limg  »tn)ve   In   vain   to    have 

their  voies  i  i;nized  ns  of  equal  weight  with 
the  others,  but  the  two  up|ier  Colleges  insisted 
en  iegardiog  them  as  sumnioni'd  fur  consultation 
only,  until  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  s»'ttled  the 
matter  by  declaring  that  'a  di'ilaive  vol4'  (votum 
ilecisivum)  shall  belong  to  the  Kree  Imperial 
Cities  not  less  than  to  the  rest  of  the  Estates  <if 
the  Empire.'  Generally,  but  not  always,  the 
tense  of  each  College  was  c.xpnsseil  bv  tile 
mujiirity  of  votes  east.  The  IVare  nf  ^Vcst- 
phslia  prcivideil  that  'in  relipuus  mattirs  ami 
all  iilher  business,  when  tlie  ^stuti'S  cannot  Ik' 
considered  one  IkhIv  (<'orpus),  as  also  when  the 
Calholic  Estates  and  those  of  the  Augsburg  Con- 
feasion  go  Into  two  parts  (in  duas  partes  eun- 
tibus),  a  mere  amicafile  agn'ement  shall  settle 
the  dilleri'uces  without  regard  to  majority  of 
votes'  When  the  'going  into  parts,  (itio  in 
partes)  t(M)k  place  each  ('i)llego  dililierateil  in 
two  bixUes,  the  Ciirpus  CathiiHi-tinim  aii<l  the 
Corpus  Evangelirorum.  Th.-  king  no  hingiT 
attendetl  the  Imperial  Diets  In  (lenon,  but  sent 
ciiinniisKioiiers  insteatl.  and  It  was  now  tlie  e<>ni 
mon  practice  of  members  of  both  the  upiier  C<il- 
leges  to  send  deputies  to  represent  them.  — SH.  E. 
T'jfticf,  i^ltk  tf  the  licrmitnic  Cotatitiitwu,  cA. 
4,  5,  ami  6. — "The  establishment  of  a  perma- 
nent <llet,  attendeil.  nut  by  the  electors  In  person, 
but  by  tlusir  ivpnwuutlvet,  ii  one  of  the  mott 


itilklDg  pecuIUritiei  of  Leopold's  reign"  (Leopold 
I.,  195'7-1706).  Thii  came  about  rather  accidnt- 
ally  than  with  IntentloD,  as  a  consequence  of  the 
unusual  piDlonntion  of  the  session  of  a  genetil 
diet  which  Rudolph  convoked  at  Ratisboo,  gnoo 
after  his  acoeMlon  to  the  throne.  "'Soduht 
new  and  important  objects  .  .  .  occurred  in  tlw 
course  of  the  deliberations  that  the  diet  vu 
unusually  prolonged,  and  at  last  renilind  per. 
petual,  as  it  exisu  at  present,  and  distinjjulslwt 
the  Oermanic  constitution  aa  the  onlv  one  of  iti 
kind  —  not  only  for  a  certain  length  "of  time,  u 
was  formerly,  and  as  diets  are  generally  helil  la 
other  countries,  where  there  are  national  stata; 
but  the  diet  of  the  Oermanic  empire  was  estsb- 
lished  by  this  event  lor  ever.  The  diet  acquired 
by  this  circumstance  an  entirely  difTeri'iu  funi. 
So  long  as  It  was  only  of  short  durati<  n.  it  vu 
always  expected  that  the  emperor,  :>-  will  ii 
the  electors,  princes,  counts  and  pn  i  *,  if  not 
all,  yet  the  greatest  part  of  them,  sh.  aid  aiicnd 
in  person.  ...  It  is  true,  it  had  long  lieeu  cut- 
toinary  at  the  diets  of  Qermany,  for  tlie  sum 
to  deliver  their  votes  occasionally  tiv  moans  of 
plenipotentiaries;  but  it  was  then  consiilind  only 
as  an  exception,  when'os  it  wiu«  mm  eMahlLshed 
as  a  general  rule,  that  all  the  staus  slmulil  stni 
their  plenipotentiaries,  and  never  apjicir  tiiem- 
selves,  .  .  .  The  whole  diet,  tliercfcin-.  Im|«r- 
ceptibly  acquired  the  form  of  a  icin).Tes.i,  con- 
sisting solely  of  ministers,  similar  in  a  irreat 
degree  to  a  congress  where  ?"veral  pnwirs  .>«Dii 
their  envoys  to  treat  of  pi'ace.  In  otlu  ••  n  siwta, 
It  may  be  comparetl  to  a  congress  hiM  ir  ilit 
name  of  several  states  In  per|>i'tu:il  Mma 
with  each  other,  as  In  .Switzerlanil,  the  Inited 
Pn>vinci.-s,  and  as  some  A'liat  of  a  similur  nature 
exists  at  present  In  North  Amerie^i:  luit  wiib 
this  difference, —  that  In  Germany  the  uswraWj 
is  held  under  the  authority  of'  (ini-  tiimnui 
supreme  heail,  and  that  the  meinlxTH  ijn  out 
appear  merely  as  deputies,  or  n'lmwnlaiivei 
Invested  witli  full  power  »iy  tlair  priniipalf. 
which  Is  only  tlic  case  with  the  iiii|«ri:il  riiia; 
but  so  tliat  every  member  of  the  t»i>  .Minrinr 
colleges  of  the  empire  Is  himself  un  m  timl  »i\a- 
eign  of  a  state,  who  permits  liis  niiuisier  to 
diOiver  his  vote  in  his  name  ami  ciiilr  :iccimi' 
Ing  to  his  prescription.'" — S.  A.  Diinliam. /W 
*'f  thr  (rrmuinif  hmpire,  bk.  3.  rh.  11  c  :li — iy^4- 
ing  Pnttrr'g  Hiit'Tiail  l)ml"imuiil  if  tht  Oer 
viiinir  ('"Mf. )— Of  the  later  Diet,  of  Ih.  (nniwnic 
Confederation,  something  inav  l>e  K :>rniil  umlrr 
Or.IIM.\.NV:  A.  D.  1814-IWO.  iind  lH4f<  (Makcb- 
Septkmugiii. 

• 

D 1 F  F I  DAT  ION,  The  Right  of.    S.>e  Laxiv 

rRIKUK. 

DIGITI.    Si'e  Fotrr,  TiiK  Roman. 

DIjON,  Battle  at.  See  Bi'Hui'miu.\8:  A.  D 
5U«i. 

DIJON,  Oricin  of,—  Dijon,  the  old  rapital  of 
the  Dukes  of  Burgundy,  was  originally  u  <tn>ii| 
camp  city — an  "  urbs  quadrita' —  nf  Ihi'  Ro- 
mans, known  aa  the  Castrum  DivimiinM-.  In 
walls  were  30  fe<'t  high,  1.1  fiit  thick.  asJ 
atrengthene<l  with  33  towers.  —  T.  IhKljllua, 
lUUii  iiiiil  Her  Innulm,  bk.  4.  fh   It. 

DILEMITES,  The.  tne  Ma'Iouictax  Coi 
qttoT.   A    IJ.  StLVW.") 

DIIIETIA.     See  Bhitaim  :  6tb  Cixti-ht 

DINAN,  Battle  of  (1597).  S'e  Fhaxcs 
A.  D.  1S93-1SIW. 


G84 


DINAHT. 


DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST. 


DINANT,  Dettnictiun  of.— Some  young 
men  of  Dinant  bavinff  caricatured  Duke  Charles 
the  Bold,  of  BuTcundy,  in  the  coune  of  hU  war 
with  Li^ge  (to  the  bishopric  of  which  Dinant 
iKlooged),  he  took  the  town,  in  1466,  sacked  it, 
tied  WM  of  the  citizens  In  pairs  and  drowned 
tliem,  hanged  many  more,  and  made  slaves  of 
the  surTiTlng  men.  Then  ho  burned  the  city 
suil  removed  the  materials  of  which  it  had  been 
built.— J.  ^  Kirk,  CharUtthtBM,  bk.  1,  eh.  8-9. 

Also  m:  E.  de  Honstrelet  (Jobnes).  Chroniela, 
ik.  S,  eh.  188-189.— Philip  de  Commines,  Me- 

■■ir;  bk.  8,  eh.  1. 

DINWIDOIE  COURT  HOUSE,  Action  at. 
Sn'  United  States  or  Am.:  A.  D.  1863  (Uabcb 
— Aphii.  :  ViRoiRiA). 

DIOBOLY,  The.  Pericles  "was  the  pro- 
poser of  the  law  [at  Athens]  which  instituted  the 
'Dioboly,'  or  free  gift  of  two  obols  to  each  poor 
citl:eD,  to  enable  bim  to  pav  the  entrance-money 
at  the  theatre  during  the  Dionyaia."— C.  W.  C. 
Oman,  Ui»l.  of  Great,  p.  871.^— See  Athknb  : 
B  C.  435-481. 

DIOCESES  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 
—•The  civil  government  of  the  empire  was  dis- 
tributed [under  Constantine  and  his  successors] 
iDtothirtcen  givat  dioceses,  each  of  which  equalled 
tbeju.itme!  ire  of  a  powerful  kingdom.  The 
first  of  tbeke  dioceses  was  subject  to  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Count  of  the  East.  The  place 
of  Augustal  Pnefect  of  Egypt  was  no  longer 
fillwl  l)T  a  Roman  knight,  but  the  name  was 
rctaimtf.  .  .  .  The  eleven  remaining  dioceses  — 
of  Asians,  Pontica,  and  Thrace  ;  of  Macedonia, 
Daciii  and  Pannonia.  or  Western  lllyricum:  of 
Ituly  and  Africa :  of  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain 
—  were  ^overnitl  by  twelve  vicars  or  vicc- 
pnifiits.'  — E.  Gibbon,  Dteline  and  Fall  of  the 
Rmiiiii  Empire,  eh.  17. — Sec  Pbjetoriak  Pb.e- 

rElTB. 

DIOCLETIAN,    Roman    Emperor.       See 

Kcime;  a.  D.  2»4-30.'5 Abdication.— "The 

certniiiiiy  of  his  abdication  was  performed  in  a 
•natious  plain  ahoutthrre  milc»  from  N'iconinlia 
[Slay  1,  k.  D.  !«W].     The  Empiror  ascended  a 
lofty  tlirone,  and,  in  a  speech  full  of  n-ason  and   | 
iliiriiity,  declared  bis  intention,  both  to  the  people 
ami  to  the  soldiers  who  were  assembled  on  this  I 
fitraonlinary    occasion.      As    soon    as  be  had   j 
ilivcstcd   himself  of    the    purple,   he  withdrew   ' 
fnmi  the  gazing  multitude,  and.  traversing  the  j 
cily  in  a  covere<l  chariot,    proceeded   without   | 
lielay  to  the  favourite  retirement  [Sal(>na]^whirli 
\iv  liaii  chosen  In  his  native  country  of   PttlmH- 
tiii.  — E.  (jibbon,  Deeline  nnd  Falli'ifthi  Ilomnn 
F.ihiurt,  eh.  I.S.  — See,  also,  Salona. 

DIOKLES,  Laws  ot.—K  code  of  laws  frameil 
at  MvracuHe,  inunrtliatelv  after  the  Athenian 
•iiili',  by  a eoniniiwion  of  ten  citizens  the  chief 
of  wliom  was  one  Diiiklra.  Tliese  laws  were 
fxlinituislied  in  a  fi-w  ymrs  by  the  Dvonisisn 
I;  ninny,  but  reviviil  after  n  liipseof  siztv  veam. 
Till  code  is  "also  said  to  have  been  copied  in 
Viiri-iH  other  Sicilian  cities,  and  to  have  re- 
iiiiiiiiitl  in  fiirce  until  the  absorption  of  all  Sicily 
mull  r  the  dominion  of  the  Komans."— O  Orote.  i 
11, -t  ..fDrrree.  pt   2,  eh.  HI.  \ 

DIONYSIA    AT    ATHENS.-' The    four  I 
I"    '!|"il  Attik  Dionvslak  festivals  were  (I)  the  j 
r      V-..4  Mikrit.  the  Lraner  or  Rural  DiiiuvHia ; 
(■.''  'ill-  Diunysia  I..enaia:  '3)  the  Anthesteria'  and 
i4i  ihc   Diiinvsia   Megala.  the  Greater  or  City 
Diouraio.    The  Hural  Dionysia,  celebrated  yearty 


in  the  month  Posideon  (Dec.  — Jan.)  throughout 
the  various  tonnships  of  Attike,  was  presided 
over  by  the  demarch  or  mayor.  The  celebration 
occasioned  a  kind  of  rustic  carnival,  distinguislied 
like  almost  Bakchik  festivals,  by  gross  intem- 
perance anu  licentiousness,  and  during  wbicb 
slaves  enjoyed  a  temporary  freedom,  with  licence 
to  insult  their  supenors  and  behave  in  a  boister- 
ous and  disorderly  manner.  It  is  brought  vividly 
before  us  In  the  'Acharnes'  of  Aristophanes. 
.  .  .  The 'Anthesteria.  or  Feust  of  Flowers,  cele- 
brated yearly  in  the  month  Anthesterion  (Feb.— 
March),  .  .  .  lasU'd  for  three  days,  the  first  of 
which  was  called  Pithoigia,  or  Tapbarrel-day, 
on  which  they  opened  the  casks  and  tried  the 
wine  of  the  previous  year.  .  .  .  The  DionysU 
Megala,  the  Greater  or  Citv  Dionysia,  celebrated 
yearly  in  the  month  ElapheboHon  (March— April) 
was  presided  over  by  the  Arehon  Eponymos,  so- 
called  because  the  vear  was  registered  In  his 
name,  and  who  was  first  of  the  nine.  The  order 
of  the  solemnities  was  as  follows :  I.  The  great 

Fublic  procession.  ...  II.  The  chorus  of  Youths. 
II.  The  Komoa,  or  band  of  Dionvsiak  revellers, 
whose  ritual  is  best  illustrate<l  in  'ililton's  exqui- 
site poem.  IV.  The  representation  of  Comedy 
and  Tragedy  ;  for  at  Athenai  the  stage  was  re- 
ligion and  the  theatre  a  temple.  At  the  time  of 
this  great  festival  the  capital  was  fill  -d  with 
rustics  from  the  countrv  townships,  and  ..irangers 
from  all  parts  of  llelfas  and  the  outer  world." 
— R.  Brown,  TTie  llreat  Dioniitiuk  Myth,  eh.  6. 

DIONYSIAN  TYRANNY,  The.  SeeSvRA- 
f  USE  :  B.  C.  3»7-3««,  and  344. 
DIPHTHERIA,    Appearance  of.     See 

Pl.AllfK:    l.STH  CKXTIBT. 

DIPLAX,  The.    See  I>eplim. 
DIPYLUM,The.  8eeCEii.\Micus  ok  Athens. 
DIRECTORY,  The  French.    See  France  : 

\.    D.     179.'5     (Jl'NE- SEPTKMIIE")  ;    (OCTOHER- 
DECEMnEH)  ;    17»7  (SEI'TEMBKH). 

DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST.-"  This  body, 
often  called  alsii  Christians,  was  one  of  the  re- 
sults of  the  great  revival  movement  which  began 
in  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  in  the  earlv  part  of 
t!:e  present  century.  Rev. 'Barton  W. 'Stone,  a 
Presbyterian  minister  who  was  prominent  in  the 
n'vlval  movement,  withilrew  from  the  Presby- 
terian Church,  and  in  1(<04  organized  a  church 
with  no  other  crtcil  than  the  Uilile  and  with  no 
uunii-  but  that  of  rhristiiiu.  One  of  his  objects 
was  to  find  a  basis  for  the  union  of  all  Christian 
believers  A  little  later  Thomas  and  Alexander 
Catnplx'll  father  ami  son.  who  came  from  In-- 
lunii.  where  llie  fmnier  bail  been  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  orpiniiciil  union  s<icictles  in  Pennsvl- 
vania  {'Imncinv-  their  views  as  to  liaptishi, 
they  joined  the  Riilstoiie  .\s,so<iationof  Baptists. 
Shortly  after,  when  .\le\aiider  I'ampbell  was 
eharicMl  with  not  being  in  harmony  with  the 
creeil.  lie  followed  the  Burch  Run  'Church,  of 
which  he  was  pastor,  into  the  Malioning  Baptist 
AssiH'iation.  which,  leavened  with  his  teachings, 
Booii  ccaseil  to  lie  known  as  a  Baptist  aaaocia- 
tion  In  IN'.'7.  after  some  com>s|)oiiilenee  with 
Rev  H  \V.  Stone  ami  his  followers  of  the 
Christian  Connection,  then'  was  a  union  with  a 
larite  nunilii  r  of  congregations  In  Ohio.  Ken- 
tucky, and  Tcniiessn'.  luid  the  orcaiiixiition  vari- 
oiislv  known  as  ■  Piseipies  of  riirist  and 
'  Chrisimns'  [also,  popularly  ilesiirnnteil  Camp- 
billites'l  is  the  result."— H.'K,  Carroll,  lieligiimt 
of  tht  "  •'      ■    '■' 


Foreiiof  tht  V.  S.,  eh.  18. 


685 


DIcUNHERITKD  BARON& 

DISINHERITED  BARONS,  Tht.  Sca 
Boonjuro:  A.  D.  1883-1888. 

DISRABLI-DBRBY  AND  BEACONS- 
FIELD  MINISTRIES.  See  Emoland:  A.  I. 
18S1-1883;  18S8-1880:  1868-1870;  and  I8T8-I881). 

DISRUPTION  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF 
SCOTLAND.    See  Scotland:  A.  D.  1848. 

'"SSBNTERS,  OR  NONCONFORM- 
ISi'S,  Enclith:  Fint  bodies  orruiued.— 
Penccotioiu  under  Charle*  II.  and  Anne.— 
Remotral  of  DiMbilitici.  S<-e  Etioland:  A.  D. 
1650-1586;  1663-1665;  1672-1673;  1711-1714: 
1827-1828 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  SURPLUS, 
The.  See  United  States  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  1835- 
1837. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA,  The.  See 
C01.UM111A,  The  District  of. 

DIVAN,  The.    See  Scbi.ime  Porte. 

DIVODURUM.— The  Gallic  nnme  of  the 
city  afterwards  calle<l  Mediomatrlci  —  now  Metz. 

DiVONA.— Modem  Cahors.     See  Cadirci. 

DIWANI.    Sec  India:  A.  D.  1757-1772. 

DIX,  General  John  A.:  Meuaee  to  New 
Orleans.  See  Unfted  Statf*  or  Am.  :  A.  D. 
1860-1861  (Df.cember— Fkbri-aby). 

DIEM,  OR  JEM,  Prince,  The  Story  of. 
SeeTiRKR:  A.  D.  14l:tl-l.')30. 

DOAB,  The  English  acquisition  of  the.  See 
India:  A,  D.  I79t<-1«0.'>, 

DOBRIN,  Knirhts  of  the  Order  of  the 
Brethren  of.    S<t' I'hissia :  13Tn  C'ENTrRv. 

DOBRUDJA,  The.— The  peninsula  formed 
brtwwn  the  Ditnube,  near  its  mouth,  and  the 
Black  Sea. 

DOBUNI,  The.— A  trilte  of  ancient  Britons 
who  lii'lil  a  region  In-twcen  the  two  Avons.  See 
Britain.  C'ki.tii-  Thiiies. 

DOCETISM.— •  We  note  another  phase  of 
gnosticism  in  tlie  diM-trine  so  directly  and  warmly 
comhatMl  in  the  epistles  o^  .John:"  we  refer  to 
docetism— tliat  is,  the  theory  which  refuse<i  to 
recojriiize  the  reality  of  the  liunmu  IkhIv  of 
Christ."— E.  Ueu»s,  'Ifint.  „/  Chritlian  ThitiUigy 
in  the  A/i-MtuUe  .V/f.  p.  323. 

OODONA.     See  Hellas. 

DOGE.     See  Vknuk:  A.  T1.  6B7-S10. 

DOGGER  BANKS,  N  M  Battle  of  the 
(1781).  S^T  Netiikhl.inu  ill.vxu>:  .v.  1). 
1746-17M7. 

DOKIMASIA.— "  Ail  istmtes  [in  nnrient 
Athens]  whether  electei'  ■  eheirotoniu  or  hv 
lot.  wen-  e(  in|H<lleil.  lief(.  enlerine  U|Mm  their 
ofllie,  to  suhject  thenisi'lveH  to  a  l>o|vimasin.  or 
scrutiny  into  their  tllnev.  for  the  iMmt  "— ().  K. 
Schumann,  Anliu.'ifdn.ft:  The Sl.itr  nl  3  ch  3 

DOLICHOCEI^HALIC  MEN.- a  term 
used  in  ethnolotry.  signifyinif  "  ioni:  hinded." 
as  distinf^uishini;  one  clii>s'or  skulls  nnioni;  the 
it'nmins  of  primitive  men.  from  ano'.lier  elnss 
called  linichvei'phalic.  or  "hmadheinl"     " 

DOLLINGER,  Doctor,  and  the  dogma  of 
Papal  tnfallibilitT.  See  Papaiv:  A.  U  ICfiU- 
1870 

DOLMENS.    S<'0  CitoMi  K)  IIS. 

DOMESDAY,  OR  DOOMSDAY  BOOK. 
See  ICmii.a.nii:  .\.  1)   KKVKWH, 

DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC,  The.  St 
Hayti:  a.  I).  1*»4-1KM(I. 

DOMINICANS.  Srt-  Mfnmi  A.NT  Oiior.i::.; 
also.  Inui  isitio.n:  A.  I).  U'o:t-|.VJ.">. 

DOMINION  OF  CANADA-DOMINION 
DAY.     Se  Ca.Naua:  a.  1).  1867. 


DONEL80N. 

DOMINUS.  See  iMmtATOK,  Final  Sig!!i 
ncATiON  or  m  Roman  Trnjc 

DOMITIAN,  Roman  Emperor,  A.  D.  8|.M 

DOMITZ,  BatU*  of  (1435).  See  Oermaxv' 
A.  D.  1684-1639. 

DON  JOHN  OF  AUSTRIA.  Set  .Ions 
(Dt>N)  or  Austria. 

DON  PACIFICO  AFFAIR,  The.  Se, 
England:  A.  D.  1849-1850;  and  Greece:  A  D 
1846-1850 

DONALD  BANE,  King  of  Scotland,  A  D 
1098-1098  (expelled  during  part  of  the  period 
by  Duncan  If.) 

DONATI,  The.  See  Florencb:  A.  0, 1385- 
1800.  and  1801-1313. 

DONATION  OF  CONSTANTINE.  See 
Papacy:  A.  D.  774 (T). 

DONATION  OF  THE  COUNTESS  MA- 
TILDA.   See  Papact:  A.  D.  1077-1  Kli 

DONATIONS  OF  PEPIN  AND  CHAR- 
LEMAGNE.   See  Papact:  A.  D.  75,v::4 

DONATISTS,  The.—"  The  Donatist  contro. 
versy  was  not  one  of  doctrine,  but  of  evrlesiaj. 
tical  discipline;  the  contested  election  fir  tlie 
archbishopric  of  Carthage.  Two  competitors, 
Cecllius  and  Donatus,  £td  been  coneurrcntly 
elected  while  the  church  was  yet  in  a  deiire^sd 
state,  and  Africa  subject  to  the  tyrant  .Ma.\i'a- 
this  [A.  D.  806-312].  Scarcely  had  CoiiMuutine 
subdue<l  that  province,  when  the  two  rivals 
referred  their  dispute  to  him.  Constantine.  who 
still  publicly  professed  paganism,  but  Imil  shown 
himself  very  favourable  to  the  Christians,  insti 
tuted  a  careful  examination  of  their  resiwotive 
claims,  which  lasted  from  the  year  31-.'  to  31.5, 
and  Anally  decideil  in  favour  of  t'eciliu-.  Fimr 
hundred  African  bishops  protested  H^t.iinst  this 
decision:  from  that  timn  they  were  ilesitrtuiltd 
by  the  name  of  nonatUta.  ...  In  eoiii|iliiince 
with  an  order  of  the  empenir,  solicited  liv  I  wi- 
lius,  the  property  of  the  Donatisis  « .is' siizol 
and  transferred  to  tiic  anla»:<mist  IhsIv  of  the 
clergy.  They  revengefl  themselves  by  p'riniouiiv 
niit  sentence  uf  excommunication  ajrainst  nil  ihi- 
nA  of  the  ChristUn  world.  .  .  .  Persecution  in 
one  side  and  fanaticism  on  the  other  were  ptr- 
IK'tuatcd  through  thn-e  cei;turies,  up  to  tlic  |icri.>l 
of  the  extinction  of  Christianity  in  Afrini.  The 
wandering  preachers  of  the  Doniitic!  Uk\v>h 
had  no  other  means  of  living  than  lln'  iilnis  of 
their  tliK-ks.  ...  As  might  \v  cxpn  inl.  ihiv 
outdid  each  other  in  extniviigance,  nini  smin  i:;;\i. 
intothemost  frantic  ravings:  lhoiisiiiil>.if  |ii:u 
aiit.s,  drunk  with  the  efliKt  <if  these  iXnrt.iiioiH, 
fonMHik  tlieir  jiloughs  and  thd  to  tlje  cIim  .'-!.<  if 
lietulin.  Their  bishops,  a,s»iiiiiingtlie  lit  liifiii|i- 
tuins  of  tlie  saints,  put  themselves  at  tlieir  ln^fl 
Hiid  thcv  rushed  on«anl,  carrying  ilcalli  :iimI  ■!■  il- 
lation into  the  adjacent  proviueii..  tliev  wire 
ilistingiiishcd  by  the  name  of  (in  unmlii  ritk: 
-Vfrlca  was  ilevastated  liv  their  ravnircs.  — 1. 1 
I.,  de  Sismoiidi,  Fall  iif  die  liimni'  Kn.j.ire.  ■*  4. 

Ai.s«>  i.\:  V.  Schaff,  llitt.  of  (/„  rhr-,i„ii 
fhuirl,.  1:  •>    .-//.  0. 

DONAUWORTri  :  A.  D.  1632.-  Taken  by 
Gustavus  Adolphus.  See  Uekmanv  a  1' 
ItWI-l&W. 

A.  D.  1704.— Taken  by  Marlborough.  >■•■ 
Uerma.w:  a.  I).  i;u4. 

OONELSON,  Fort,  Capture  of  v    iMitn 
States  OF  Am.  :  \.  I).  INliJ  (.Iani  ah\     J:.!!!!! 
ART:   KKNTt'CKY— TENKEStiEK.. 


r.86 


DONGAN  CHARTER. 

DONGAN   CHARTER,   Thi.     See   New 
Tom  (Cm):  A.  D.  1886. 

DONUM.    See  Tallage, 

DONUS  1.,  Pope,  A.  D.  67«-«78 Donna 

II,  Popt,  A.  D.  lft4-»76. 

DONZELLO.    See  DXmoibel. 

DOOMS  OF  INE,  The.-"  These  laws  were 
lepubliabed  by  King  Alfred  aa  'The  Doonia  of 
Ine '  who  fine]  came  to  the  throne  In  A.  D.  088 
Id  their  flnt  clause  they  claim  to  have  been 
teconletl  bv  King  Ine  w  1th  the  counsel  and  teach- 
ing of  Ills  father  Cenred  and  of  Ilrdde,  his  bishop 
(who  was  Bishop  of  Winchester  from  A.  D.  676 
to  705)  and  of  Eorcenweld,  his  bishop  (who 
obtsinrd  the  see  of  London  In  675):  and  so,  if 
pnaine,  they  seem  to  represent  what  was  settled 
customary  Itw  In  Wesaex  during  the  last  half  of 
tho  seventh  century.  "—F.  Seelwhm,  EnglM 
Vitlaiie  Cummnnity,  eh,  4. 

DOOMSDAY,  OR  DOMESDAY  BOOK. 
gte  Enuland:  A.  D.  1085-1006. 

DOORANEES,  OR  DURANEES,  The. 
See  India:  A.  D.  1747-1761. 

DORDRECHT,  OR  DORT,  Synod  of.  See 
DoRT:  also,  Nethebla.nds:  A.  D,  1608-1619 

DORIA,  Andrew,  The  deliTcrance  of  Genoa 
by.    S'e  Italy:  A.  D.  1527-1529 

DORIANS  AND  lONIANS,  The.-" Out 
of  ilie  jrrt  lit  PeloDginn  population  [see  Pelasgi- 
AS«],  wliic-li  covcrwl  Anterior  Asia  Minor  and 
the  wlioli'  European  peninsular  land,  a  younger 
Hopli-  hail  issuetl  forth  separately,  which  »e 
find  from  the  first  divided  into  two  races.  These 
nuin  raees  we  may  call,  according  u>  the  two 
dialects  of  the  Greek  lanifiiage,  the  Dorian  and 
tlif  Ionian,  although  the«'  names  ure  not  Ketier- 

■  llf     (iLiiiil       until      B       ln*..«      . t-    1       .  1  f  . 


«Jlr  ii«<l  until  a  laur  p«-rio<i  to  desfgnafe  rii'c 
:  nation.     No  dM:"'in  of 


livisiiiii  (if  the  Hellenic  nation,     .^i,  iin;- 
10  tliomugh  a  bearing  could  have  taken         -e 
unU-ns  »c<oinpani«l  by  au  early  Unal  separau. 
We  aiwiinie  that  the  two  races  parted  company 
will].'  yet  ill  Asia  Minor.     Due  of  them  settles  in 
the  niuiintaincantons  of  Xorllicrn    Hellas    the 
oilier  alniijt  the  Asiatic  coast.     In  the  latter  the 
hiit.mc  mnvement  b«-ginE.     Willi  the  aid  of  the 
in  of  iiavi)fation,  leanit  from  the  Phonieiaiia  the 
Asiatic  (Jreeks  at  an  early  jicritxl  spread  over  the 
«ea;  (lonicsticating  tliiniklves  in  low.r  Egypt 
in ciiintnis  colonized  by  the  Phienieians,  in  the 
whole  .Xnhipelago,  fn.m  Crete  to  Thrace :  and 
Inmi  their  origiual  as  well  as  from  their  subse- 
quint  M-als  m-i.il  out  numerous  settlements  I.. the 
cwsi  of  Kimipean  Grceee,  first  from  the  Ei.st 
side.  imM.  iifler  coiKjuering  their  tiniiditv,  also 
uliMijr  in  ilie  (..initry,  beyond  Capo  Malei  fmni 
the  Wesi.      At  tlrst   they   land  as  pirates  ami 
iii.-n:ip.  ihcn  proceed  to  permanent  settlements 
apM-  :ii„l  straits  of  the  wa,  and  by  the  mouths 
efnv.r>,  wli.re  thiv  unite  with  tl'ie  I'elasitiim 
Pjipula^ioii,     The  (lilTereLt  ixrimls  of  tliis  col... 
BiMtioii  „,.Hy   be  jmlge.1   of   by   the   forms  of 
aiviiie  uor>lMp,  and  by  the  names  umlcr  «lii<U 
lite  mnntinie  trit«»  were  called  l,v  the  iialiv,  s 
•  h.irru.i,>t  appearance  is  as  Cariaus;  as  Leli-cs 
tOeir  iiilliunee    is  more    iH-neliceut   and   ihtiiui 
oral   -l>r.  E.  Curtius,  :iM.,.f  (hw,.  U.  1    ,', 
».-I)i  ihe  view  of  Dr,  Cunois,  the  later  nili:ni 
Km  of  Ionian  trilies  from  S.'ithern  tin-.ee  to  ' 
her«,u:,f  .\-4n  MlQ..f,--  whic.i  i...in  .a„i..ui.ie.i 
totoric  fact.- was   really   a  ntuni    -into  the  i 
oome  „f  ,in,ir  ancestors '■_" the  nmient  home   ' 
M  the  irreat  Ionic  race, "     Whether  that  lie  the  I 
iret  vitw  or  not,  the  movement  in  question  «a« 


DORIANS  AND  lONUNS. 

connected,  apparently,  with  Important  moTo. 
mente  among  the  Dorian  Greeks  in  Greece  itself. 
These  latter,  according  to  all  accounts,  and  the 
JJjpeement  of  aU  historians,  were  long  setUed  fai 
Thessaly.  at  the  foot  of  Olympui  (s^  Greece: 

:  ^'    ii?.**,*?"'*i-    "  ""  *'^'«  »*»«»  "»e»r  moral 
and  pollUcal  development  began ;  there  that  they 
learned  to  look  at  Olympus  as  the  home  of  the 
gods,  which  all  Greeks  afterwards  learned  to  do 
from  them.      ■•  The  service  rendered    by    the 
Dorian  tribe,'  says  Dr.  Curtlus.  "lay  in  havlnir 
wried  the  germs  of  national   culture   out  of 
Thessaly  where  the  Invasion  of  ruder  peoples 
disturbed  and  hindered  their  farther  growth,  into 
the  and  towards  the  south,  where  these  irerms 
rt«eived  an  unexpectedly  new  and  grand  de- 
velopment. .        A  race  claiming  descent  from 
Heracles  united  itself  In  this  Thessalian  coast-dis- 
trict with  the  Dorians  and  established  a  royal 
dominion  among  them.     Ever  afterwards  Heme- 
lidiB  and  Dorians  remained  together,  but  with- 
out ever  forgetting  the  original  distinction  be- 
tween them.     In  their  seau  by  Olympus  the 
foundations  were  laid  of  the  peculiarity  of  the 
IJorians  Injjolltical  oi-der  and  social  customs;  at 
the  foot  of  Olympus  was  their  real  home."— 
Themme,  bk.  1,  ek.  4 —From  the  neighborhood 
of  Olvmpus  the  Dorian;^  moved  souUiwards  and 
found  another  home  in    'the  fertile  mountain- 
recess  between  Pamaiisus   and    OJta,  the 
most  ancient  Doris  known  to  us   by    name  " 
Their  final  movement  was   into  Peloponnesus 
which  was  "the  most  important  and  the  most 
fi'rtile  in  consequences  of  all  the  migrations  of 
Grecian  raws,  and  which  continued,  even  to  tlie 
late^t  periods  to  exert  its  infiuence  upon  the  Greek 
character. "  Thenccforwanls  the  Dorians  were  the 
dominant  race  in  Peloponnesus,  and  to  their  chiefl 
state,  Lacediemonia,  or  Sparta,  was  generally  con- 
ceded the  headship  of  the  Hellenic  family.     This 
Doric  occupation  of  Peloponnesus,  the  periiKlof 
which  is  supposed  to  have  been  aliout  1100  B.  C 
no  doubt  caused  the  Ionic  migration  from  that  part 
of  Gn-ece  and  colonization  of  Asia  Minor.— C.  O. 
Mnller,   Hint,  unit  AnUquitiet  of  the  Vort'e  nice 
bk    I.  eh.  3.— Tiie  subsequent  division  of  the 
Hellenic  world  between   lonlans  and  Dorians  is 
thus  defined   by  Schomaiin:     'To  the  Iiuiiaua 
belong  the  inhabitants  of  .\ttica,  tlie  most  im- 
portant piirt  of  the  population  of  Eiibivii,  and 
I   the   islands  of  the   Jjgean  included  under  tho 
common  name  of  Cyclailes.  as  well  as  the  colo- 
nists Ixith  on  the  Lydian  and  Carian  coasts  of 
Asm  .Minor  and  in  the  two  larger  islands  of  Chios 
ami  Tamils  which  lie  op|>o.sile.     To  tlie  Dorians 
witliin  tlie  I'eloponiies<>  lulonjr  the  S|ianans.  as 
well    us   the   dominant    poiitihilions   of    Argos 
Sieyon,  Philn-,  Corinth    TnKZciie  and  Epiifau- 
riis,  tov'etlur  » ith  the  islanil  of  .-Ejrina:  outside 
till'    PiliiiHiiiiKsc,    but   nearest  to   it.    were  tlie 
Megariil.  and  the  small  1/orian  Tetniiolis  [also 
called  IVntapoiis  and  Tripolis]  near  .Mount  Par- 
nassii.i;  at  a  ifrcatir  distance  were  the  majority 
of    the   scattered    islands  and  a  large    portion 
of   the   Ciiri.in  coasts  of  Asia   Minor  and    tlie 
ncithliourinir  islands,  of  whi.li  Cos  and  HIiimIcs 
were  the  most   important.     Filially,   the  ruling 
I'ortion  of  the  Cntan  populution'waa  of   Itor- 
iim  .Icseeni    —  G.  F.  t^chOmann,  Anlirpiiti.M  nf 
',r„,;  .      r/ir     St.llf.     pi.     1.     rf.     l.—Mj.,.,    „],,;, 

(iKKtcE:  The  MiottATioNs;  Asia  Mi.vou:  Tub 
Gkeek  Culomes;  UKHACLlUik :  bPAKTA;  and 
J^uUA.ve. 


68/ 


DORIS  AND  DRTOPIS. 


DRESDEN. 


DORIS  AND  DRYOPIS.— ■■  The  little  terri- 
tor7  [tn  ancient  Qieece]  called  Doris  and  Dryo- 
^  occupied  the  KUtoiTn  declivity  of  Mount 
u!t>,  diTiding  Fhokls  on  tlie  north  and  northwest 
from  the  .£tolians,  .fnianes  and  MalianK.  That 
which  wa»  called  Doria  in  the  hiatorioal  times, 
and  which  reached  in  the  tlmtM  ot  Herodotus 
nearly  as  far  eastward  as  the  Muliac  gulf,  is  said 
to  have  formed  a  part  of  what  had  been  once 
called  Dryopls;  a  territory  which  had  coi-iprised 
the  summit  of  (Eta  ai  far  hs  the  Sp«  rrhius, 
northward,  and  which  had  been  inhabiteil  bv  an 
old  Hellenic  tribe  called  Dryopes.  The  Dorians 
acquired  their  settlement  in  Diyopisby  gift  from 
H^raklSs,  who.  along  with  the  Maliaos  (s»  ran 
the  legend),  had  expelled  the  Orvopes  anil  com- 
pelled them  to  flnd  for  themsi  ■, .  •«  new  seats  at 
Hermione,  and  AsinS,  In  the  Argolio  iH-ulnHula  of 
Peloponnesus, — at  Stym  viid  Karystus  in  Euboea. 
— and  in  the  island  of  Kythnus;  it  ia  mly  in 
these  five  last-mentiom'd"  places  tha;  history 
rocognlies  them.  The  territory  of  Doris  was 
distributol  into  four  little  townships, —  Pindus, 
crAkvphas,  Boeon,  Kyrinion  and  Erineon.  .  .  . 
In  itself  tills  tetrapolia  fc>  so  invigniflcant  that  we 
shall  rarely  find  occasion  to  mention  it;  but  it 
acquired  "a  factitious  consequence  by  being 
regarded  as  the  metropolis  of  the  great  Dorian 
cities  in   Peloponnesus,    and  receiving  on  that 

S-ound   special   protection    from  Sparta." — G. 
rote.  Hill,  of  Orttee.  pt.  2,  eh.  8. 
Also  m:  CO.  Mailer,  llitt.  and  Antiq.  of  the 
Doric  Race.  bk.  1,  eh.  2.— See  also,  Dobiaxs  awd 

lOJttANS. 

DORMANS,  Battle  of  (1575).  See  Fbabcb : 
A.  I).  l.'iTS-l.'iTe. 

DORNACH,  Battle  of  (1499).  Bee  Swttzeb- 
lASD:  A.  1>   1396-1499. 

DORR  REBELLION,  The.  See  Rhode 
Island  .  A.  I).  1841-1843. 

DORT,  OR  DORDRECHT,  The  Synod  of. 
— "In  the  |ii«  I'liiintries  the  aupr»  ne  govtni- 
ment.  the  states-general,  interfercii  [in  the  Cal- 
rlnisti'"  iimtrovrrsy],  and  in  the  year  1618 
convoki  l  till'  lirsl  and  only  synod  iH-arinj;  some- 
thing of  iIk'  I'li^inu'tir  of  a  general  council  that 
has  been  ■onvincd  by  protestants  It  as-scmbled 
at  Don.  anil  <nntinue<l  its  sittings  from  Novem- 
ber till  May  following.  Its  business  was  to  decide 
the  qiiiiitions  at  Lssue  betwii  n  tlie  Calvinists  and 
Armiiiians;  tlie  latter  pany  wire  also  termed 
rcinonstranta.  James  [I.]  wa'?  ri'nuestid  to  -"nd 
over  ri  insinlatives  for  the  Knglish  C'hurih  and 
chose  four  i!i  vines:  —  Carlton  liishop  of  Llaniaff, 
Hall  ii>  in  of  Worcester,  afterniir  is  bishop  suc- 
cess! v.  ly  of  Exeter  and  Noru  li.  Uavinant 
aftirwii'riis  bishop  of  Salisbury,  an  I  I'..  S  Wiinl 
of  Cambridge.  They  were  nieii  o(  leariiinir  iim! 
miNlenition.  .  .  .  The  history  ■  ?  tliis  famous 
syuoil  ia  lolil  in  varioiLs  ways  !'>  deeisions  wen' 
In  favour  of  IheiliM-trines  termi-.l  1  alvinislir,  and 
the  nmonstraiitu  were  exp<ll  ■■!  from  llollaml 
.  .  Tlie  majority  Kin-  rv  ;.  1  li.irgiil  bv  the 
otlier  INirty  with  linviiig  IkiuihI  tlifiiiM-ivtii  ii\' an 
0;itli  iH'foi*  tbry  tuli-nil  up<in  busini-ss.  to  1' 
deinii  the  retnonstrants  "— .1  IJ  Marsden,  Hi- 
of  Ktrlii  Pnnl'iin.  p  329 —See  NETnEHUkSlw-: 
A.  I)    l'«(i:i-16Ut 

DORVLAEUH,  Battle  of  lioo?  See  Cnr 
8.MUS     A.   1)    1IIW1-1IW9, 

DOUAI:  A.  D.  1667.— Taken  by  the  French 
8"^  Nethbblakds  (The  Sr.v.vuu  I'hovtkcec 
A   i>   1667 


A.  D.  ti68.— Ceded  to  Frmacc.  See  Nrren. 
LAi(M(HoLLAin>):  A.  D.  1668. 

A.  D.  1710.— Siege  and  captore  by  Marlbor- 
ot^[h.    See  NBTHXaLAKUS:  A.  D.  ITlO-iTi; 

> 

DOUAI,  The  Catholic  Seminary  at.  See 
EnoLAKD:  A.  D.  1573-1608. 

DOUBLOON.  -  DOBLON.  See  SPANin 
Conta 

DOUGHFACES.— The  "Missouri  Compro- 
mise," of  1880.  in  the  United  .States,  -wm  4 
Northern  measure,  carried  by  Northern  yot««. 
With  some  the  threats  of  disunion  wrri'  a  suf- 
ficient influence ;  some,  whom  in  the  drlmti'  Ran- 
dolph [John  Randolph,  of  Virginia]  called 
doughfacee,  did  not  n^  even  that.  .  Tlim 
haa  been  always  a  singular  servility  in  the  cliar. 
acter  of  a  portion  of  the  American  people  In 
that  class  the  slaveholder  has  always  fnimd  hii 
Northern  servitor.  Randolph  flnit  gave  it  1 
name  to  live  by  in  the  term  doughface.  "—W  C. 
Brvant  and  8.  H.  Gay.  Popular  Uitt.  .ifthe  V. .-" 
V.  I.  pp.  271  and  294. 

DOUGLAS,  Stephen  A.,  and  the  doctriie 
of  Squatter  Sovereignty.     See  Vmthd  St.mk 

or  Am.  :  A.  D.  1854 Defeat  in  Presidentiil 

election.    See  United  States  or  Am  :  A  D 
1860  'April — November  • 

DOURO,  Battle  of  the  (15801.  Sec  Pon- 
tloal:  a.  D  1.'57»-1580  .  .Wellington's p«»- 
■age  of  the.    See  Spain  ;  A.  D.  1809  (Febrciei 

— JCLTj. 

DOVER,  Roman  Origin  of.    ScePrniui 

DOVER,  Tenn  .  Battle  at.  s.  xttid 
States  OF  .Vm.  :  .\  1>  i^'-'-  Fkbbiauv-.m'ril 
Tennessj  : 

DOVER,  Treaty  of.  N-e  Esoland:  .v  D 
1668-1670 

DOWLAH.  Surajah,  •:  J  the  English  in 
India.    S,i-  India:   A   D.  lT55-i:.",  auil  175: 

DRACHMA.    8e<'  Talent 

DRACONIAN  LAWS  See  Athenv  li  C 
624 

DRAFT  RIOTS,  The.  Seo  New  Yoki 
(Crrvi:  .\.  D   1^63. 

DRAGON.  -PENDRAGON.-  .\  title »  me 
times  givi-ii  ih  Wi  Ish  poetry  to  a  kiiii:  "r  W'st 
military  leader  Supposed  to  Ix'  iliriMil  frn 
the  tigiin'  of  a  dragon  on  their  flags,  n  liidi  ibn 
borniweil  from  the  Romans      See  CimisKH 

DRAGONNADES,  The.  ^iv  Kha.v.e 
A.  1)   16.H1-1698 

DRAKE,  Sir  Francis.  Sr.  AMf :uii  i  .\  I' 
l,5:-'-l.'i«<l:  anil  Kmh, AMI     A    1>   1.>M.>- 

DRANGIANS,  The.     See  Saua.m.hx- 

DRAPIER-S   LETTERS,  The.    See  If 
Lanm     .\    1>.  17->J-1724 

DRAVIDIAN  RACES.  Sec  Triu.MA> 
Raik'.  also,  India:  The  AnoNioiNALisnAiin 

DRED  SCOTT  CASE,  The.  Si.  Isird 
States  ok  Am.  :  .\    I>    IH.*!? 

DREPANA,  Naval  battle  at,  3  C  :« 
6«i  I'l  .VI.  Wab.  Tuk  Fihpi 

DRESDEN:  A.  D.  I750.-C»pturr  aadiK- 
cupation  by  Frederick  the  Great.    >.i.  OtK 

MANY      A.  1)     17.')B 

A.  D.  1759-1760.— Capture  >t  the  Austriasi 
—Bombardment  by  Frederick  N-t  (-i  RXiSC 
A    1».  17.W  (Jllv  — .NovKHiii.Ki.  ;ii"i  i" 

A.  D.  1813.— Oectipied  by  the  Pnissismtiri 
Ruattaai.— Taken  by  the  French. -Invests 
by  the  Allies.— Great  battii-  before  the  atr 


fi88 


DRESDEN. 

udTicteiyfor  Napoleon.— French  rereraei.— 
St  Cyr*!  rarrendcr.  SeeOERMAST:  A.  D  1813- 
1813;  1818  (Aprii^Mat):  (ArocsT);  (Skptbh- 

BB— OCTOBBB);   aud  (OCTOBEB— DeCBMBGII). 

DREXBL  INSTITUTE.  See  Education, 
MoDEsa :  Amxrica  :  A.  D.  1824-1898. 

DREUX,  Battle  of  (1563).  See  France: 
A.  D.  1560-1568. 

DROGHEDA,  OR  TREDAM,  Cromwell's 
mawacre  at.    See  Ireland:  A.  D.  1649-1650. 

DROITWICH,  Origin  of.    S«*  Saus.«. 

DROMONE.'.—  A  name  given  to  the  li;-ht 
Mlleys  of  the  Byzantine  empire.— E  fiibtron, 
icdineiind  Fall  of  the  Homan  Empire,  eh.  53 

DRUIDS.— The  priesthood  of  a  religion  wiiich 
eiistcd  among  the  Celts  of  Gaul  am!  Britain  be- 
fore they  wf-re  Christianized.  "  Greek  and  Ro- 
man writer*  give  us  very  little  information  on 
this  subject  »nd  the  eariy  \\.  sh  records  and 
pixtry  none  at  all.  Modem  Wel^h  writers  have, 
L.wever,  made  up  for  this  want  in  their  genuine 
litirature  by  inventing  an  elaborate  Druidical 
lystem  of  religion  and  philosophy  wl)':h,  they 
fretend.  survived  the  introduction  of  Christianitv 
and  was  secretly  upheld  h^  the  Welsh  liards  in 
the  .Middle  Ages.  This  ><-..  Druidi.  imncisture 
lias  found  numerous  adherents." — V     K    SuUi- 

■sm.  Artielt.  "  O'fii-  Literaturf,"  En-  ,■-.  lint. 

"':iy,  alludint  m  the  Druids'  pmliUction  for 
.mif  oak.  mlds  the  words:  "ut  iii<;  ppellatl 
q,  lue  InterPfMtione  Gneca  possint  hruidie 
via  i'.  .  .  H»  lie  possessed  knowledge  enough 
of  tlie  Gaulish  la.  "lagc,  he  woulii  have  seen  that 
it  supplied  an  i  »  lanation  which  rendered  it 
neeillissto  have  m  urse  to  Greek,  namelv  in  the 
native  word  '  dru, '  which  we  hav  e  in  '  Pr  ineme- 
ion.'  or  the  sacred  Oak-grove,  iriven  bv  Strabo 
as  the  name  of  the  place  of  a»s<  mbly  of  the  Oa- 
latiaos.  In  fact,  one  has,  if  I  am  not  mistaken, 
been  .skeptic  "vith  regard  to  this  etymology,  not 
so  niuili  on  phonological  grounds  as  from  failing 
exactly  to  see  how  the  oak  could  have  given  its 
name t"  such  a  famous- rganizat ion  <lhedriiidic 
one  inu>,t  be  admittea   !•>  have  li-  But  the 

parallels  just  indicated,  u.s  showing  he  impiirt- 
sicecif  the  saer-  I  tree  !n  the  worvi  -.f  Zeus 
and  the  gmls  rej  'sentini.-  him  am  g  nations 
other  than  the  Ga*k  011  help  10  throw 
light  on  this  point.  Ac<-.  lingi  •  theetv- 
bete  alluded  to,  the  Drui.  -  would  he  tli'i 
of  the  god  assoeiateil  or  1(1    .tided -vith  ! 

at  is,  as  -^e  are  toM,  thi 
..ine  who  Were  famtlinr  wii 
'  ihe  Greeks,  to  gtaml  In 
liHulish  the<  iogy  that  Xf 
This   harmi'  Izcg  thor 


Ih. 


•me 

•gy 

su 
.ik; 
:  to 


,gy 
,  in 


■  of  th. 

i-Jved 


known  alKni-   the   Dr 
Ufr:.\'m.  on      Hie  11 

Our  traditions 
ai»  evi  lentiy  dt 
tianitv  ,id  lonj; 
I>nii(l<  .ire  repr- 
crjjuriirs,  tod  ; 
i>be<l  i 

of « 
ton' 
Str.!- 
lirocii 
but  • 

MUl' 


DUBRI3. 

the  Loire.  .  .  .  After  the  conTenion  of  Irelaiul 
W8»  accomplished  the  Druidi  disappear  from 
history.  Their  mystical  powers  were  trsnsferred 
without  much  alteration  to  the  abboM  and  bishops 
who  ruled  the  'families  of  the  salnU.'"- C 
Elton,  Orieint  of  Englith  Hitt.,  eh.  10. 

Also  IN :  Julius  Ciesar,  Oallie  War.  bk.  6  eh. 
18-18.— Strabo.  Geog..  bk.  i.eh.i,teet.  4-6— For 
an  account  of  the  final  destruction  of  the  Druids 
see  BRiTAnt :  A.  D.  61. 

DRUIDS,  Order  ot    See  iKstJKASCE. 

DRUMCLOG,  The  Coveoanters  at.  See 
Scotland;  A.  D.  1679  (May— June). 

DRURVS  BLUFF,  Battle  of.  See  Unitkd 
States  or  Am.:  A.  D.  1864  (Mat:  Virgikia) 
The  Armt  or  the  Jamxs. 

DRUSUS,  Germanic  campains  of.  See 
Germany:  B.  C.  12-9. 

DRYOPIANS,  Thj.— One  of  the  aboriginal 
nations  of  ancient  Greece,  whose  territory  was  in 
^s  valley  of  the  Spercheus  and  exu-nded  as  far  as 
Parnassus  and  Thermopvte ;  but  who  were  after- 
wanls  widely  dispersed  In  many  colonies.  It  is, 
»«ys  C.  O.  MilUer.  "historically  certain  that  a 
great  part  of  the  D'Tophins  wereconsecnitcd  ass 
subject  peopV  be  P)-thian  Apollo  (an  usage 
of  ancient  tlijcs,  of  which  there  are  many 
instances;  and  that  for  a  long  time  tliev  mt-  d 
as  such."— //i>r.  and  Antiq.  of  the  iMrie  Ract,  l,k. 
1.  eh.  2— See.  also,  DoRis;  and  P  ,  'toDCLL 

DUBARRY,  Countess,  Ascen^l-ncy  of.  See 
FntNc       A.  D.  1723-1774. 

See  Ireland:  Oth-Ioth 


See  Poland: 

"7«7). 


iio  set 
igan  ti 
'    lie  posi! 
ul  iu  tiie  fo-nier. 
V    with      II  that    is 
-    -.1.    Rh    -.    //,w.. .' 
'  m.  Ue(.  3,  pt.  2    - 
.iui:,h  and  Irish  Dnii.ls 
im  a  time  when  Chriij- 
■en-     ..blish.i!.     These  insuliir 
■nt<  ^  as  Im  i    j  little  lietfer  than 
ir     ignity  is  as  much  dimiii- 

{Kiv> .  r  (if  the  king  is  exaggerated, 
•har*  h  or  Belshazzar  with  a  trxH>p 
his  c      ■nan  :     but  his  Druids  are 
^;i.:  1  n,i.5. ...t,   -    .  .  .  The  Druids  of 

•'?■ ^'-;— -  -  w=ik;  :  ir.  %.-.-.rirt  .ind  i;,.iii 

*i»i  wori    golden  collar-  and  bracelets: 
'!»trin<-k   may  have    lieen  much   the 
iiKnrof  V     »4»ith8avers  bv  the  Severn, 
il>clri-bmt^;ieloe  Mi  k- rustic  wizards  by 

689 


DUBH   CALLS. 

Cs;XTI  KIES. 

DUBIENKA,  Battle  ofdT 
A    i>    i 791-1792. 

DUBITZA:  Taken  by  the  » -strians 
See     'RKS:  A.  D.  1776-1792. 

E     BLIN:    The    Danish    Kingdom.      S<>e 

TrE.  >ND;  9TH-10THCENTt7RrES;  also  >•'  'KMANM 
— XoBTHMEN:   8TH-9rjI  Cl  STIRIK" 

A.  D.  1014.— The  battle  of  Clontarf  and  the 

5 real    ^•feat   of  the    Danes,    ^.c    Ireland: 
.  D.        4 

A.  D   ;  170.— Taken  by  the  Normao-Enrlish. 
Seclm       ^D:  A.  D.  1169-117- 

A.  D    1646-1640.— Sieges  m  the  Civi    War. 
See  Ireland:  A.  D.  1646-1649. 

A.  D.  1750. — The  importance  of  the  city. 
—  •'  In  the  middle  of  tin-  18th  century  it  was  in 
dimensions  and  populai  'he  second "citv  in  the 
empire,  containing,  accor.i  ,ig  to  the  most  trust- 
worthy accounts,  between  100.000  and  120.000 
inhabitants.  Like  most  ihin^s  in  Ireland,  it 
presented  vivid  contrast  anil  strangers  were 
eijually  struck  with  the  '  mwds  of  beggars,  the 
inferiority  of  the  inns,  the  sii»alld  wretchedness 
of  the  streets  of  the  old  town,  and  with  the 
noble  proportions  of  the  now  quarter,  and  the 
brilliant  aiid  hospitable  so<  ty  that  inhabited  it. 
The  Liffey  was  spanned  hy  "four  bridges,  and 
another  on  a  grander  scale  was  undertaken  in 
!7j3.  St.  Stephen's  Green  .■«  considered  the 
liirgest  square  in  Kurope.  T  quays  of  Dublin 
w ire  widely  cclebr»te<l. " — W  II.  Lecky,  Bitt 
of  Eng..  IMA  Ctnttiry.  th.  7  ir.  i). 


DUBRIS,  OR  OUBRiG.— The  Roman  port 

oil  ir.c  ca^i  coast  of  uril&tu  >«iiloh  is  uow  knuwu 
a-    Dover.      In   Roman  times,   as  now.   it   wa.s 
tl.'    principal  Isndlng-plsce  on  the  British  sid 
of  she  channel.— T.   Wright,   (Mt,  Roman  a< 
btiion,  eh.  8. 


■f^i 


TWUm 


DUCAT. 


DCRHAX. 


DUCAT,  Spaaith.    B«r  SPAimR  Conn. 

DUCES.    See  Cockt  ako  Dukb. 

DUDLEY,  Thomai,  aod  the  colony  of  Mat- 
•achuMttt  Bay.  8«e  Mamacbcutts  -  A.  D. 
l(i2b-tflW),  ud  after. 

DbFFERIN,  Lord.— The  Indian  admiaic 
trationof.     Sra  India:  A.  1>.  1HNU-I8M8. 

DU  GUESCLIN'S  CAMPAIGNS.  See 
Franck:  a.  I>.  l.S«U-tS80. 

DUKE,  The  Roman.— Origin  of  the  Title. 
8ei'  CofN  r  A^D  OrKS. 

DUKE'S  LAWS,  Tht.  8ee  New  York: 
A.  D  llMU. 

DULGIBINI  AND  CHASAURI,  Tbc- 
"  These  people  ftril>eii  of  tlie  anrient  (Jemiann) 
first  resiiletl  near  tlie  liewl  of  the  Llp|w.  and  tlien 
removetl  to  the  at'ttlemi'iits  of  the  t'baniavi  and 
the  Anirrerarii  who  bad  I'ipelled  tlie  Bnicterl" 
— Tacitus,  Urrmanji,  rk.  84.  Orford  Iniiu.,  note. — 
Bee,  iilwi.  Saxons 

DUMBARTON,  Oririo  of.    8ee  Ai.ri.TDK, 

DUMNONIA,OR  DAMNONIA,  Tht 
kinr dom  of.    See  Knola-id  :  A,  U.  477-A37. 

OUMNONII,  Tht.-"  It  is  ...  a  remark- 
al>le  elniiiiKiance  that  the  Diimnnnil.  wbum  we 
fliKl  in  tlie  tlnir  of  Ptolemy  ixx-iipvlnit  the  whole 
of  tbesoiiihwi-itern  extremity  of  (Britain.  Inrliid- 
ing  lioth  IK'Ton.ibin' and  Cornwall,  and  wboiuunt 
therefore  have  iMvn  one  of  the  modi  powerful  na- 
tiona  in  the  islaiHl.  are  nerer  once  nientionetl  in 
the  hixory  of  the  eonqueat  of  the  country  by  tlie 
l<<>man<:  nor  it  their  name  found  in  any  writer 
Ix'f.in'  l*toleiny.  .  .  .  The  ronjerture  "of  Mr 
Hiiili'  I'lwte  .  .  I  lint  they  were  left  in  nominal 
iiide|«ii'lince  nniler  a  native  kinff  .  .  .  appear* 
to  nie  liliflilv  pniliiihle  ■  — K  II  Miinliury.  //i»f. 
<'f  AuriiHl  ».'.<»/  ,  c*.  a.H,  wit  II  —  Then'  appear* 
lo  liiivi-  lierii  n  northern  liranrh  of  tin'  Diimnonii 
or  liiininonil,  whii  li  lii'ld  an  ext<'M«ivi'  lernlory 
im  III!'  I'ly.le  ami  ilii-  Korth.  See  Hiiitain.  fKi'- 
Tn  Tiinif." 

DUMOURIEZ,  Campaicnt  and  trtatoa  of. 

8>iKn»Mh-    .\     l>     1792  iSH'TK.MHf.K— 1>K(  KU 

iimi.  Kti-,'-i:i):i ;  niid  ITlcliKh  HHiAHv— .\pnii  i. 

DUNBAR,  A.  D.  1196.— Battlt.  .^ee  s<ot 
i.AM>    .V  II  r,M«i  lHl^.^ 

A.  D.  1339.— Siere.— The  fortrewof  Dunlnr. 
jM'^iiiti^l  In  ilie  KnffliKh  imilir  the  Km'  of  Salia 
hiiry  in  1*W.  was  «ucci"t"fiillv  defrniliil  in  the 
iiliH4'nr<- of  the  irovi'mor.  tlii-  f".rtrl  of  ^1  irch  Ity 
liM  wife,  known  aftrrwiinU  in  S-titrh  hi^tury  and 
inelitlxii  w   "  Itliirk  .Vuiiio  iif  Miinliar  ' 

A.  D.  1650.— Battit,  s.i'  ,H<im.AM>  .\  |i 
lrt.'>ii  i^iii-iKMnkh) 


DUNCAN  I.,  King  of  Scotland.  .K  D  vm 
Ji>t»  .  ...  Duncan  II.,  .\    l>   HHM  liH« 

DUNDALK.  Battle  of  li3it>.  .Sr  Ikki.a.mi 
.\  II  laii  111" 

DUNDEE  iCLAVERHOUSB)  AND  THE 
COVENANTERS,  n.,  s,oti  «-«ii  A  l>  mTU 
iM«v     .liMi;   Irt-'l   IIIW,  an.t  H«Nlt(.li  I  VI 

DUNDEE  :  A.  U.  164J.  Pillaftd  by  Moo- 
troae     "v..  s.„T,  ,M,     \    I)   iml  IMS 

A.  D.  1651.  — Storm  and  Maaaacrc  by  Monk. 

^•^■   fMoIl.ASIl.    A    ll     lUI   (Al'l't'xl— Sikl-TKM. 
IlKR). 


DUNES.    Battle   of  the  ti6it\.     Hm   Kau.   i  ',ttu. 
1  \Mi    A.  11   ia%-i  in.v> 

DUNKARDS,    The     "Tlie    PunkanU.   or 
ti' ni.tu  lluptiMn,  ur  Uri'tluvu,  are  of  Uerman 


origin,  rnd  trace  their  beginninc  back  toAlrtia 
der  Mack,  of  SchwartMnau,  (Mrmany  .  .  Ig 
1719  moet  of  them  got  together  and  camr  i<i 
the  United  State*,  eettling  in  PtnnsvhimiA, 
where  their  drat  church  waa  organi/.i'<i  i:l>.,ut 
1738." — H.  K.  Carroll,  Beliaimu  t'l/rrm  ..(  /L 
L.S..rh.\9. 

DUNKELD,  Battle  of.  8ee  S<oti<vd 
A.  U.  16H9  (Ai<aKT). 

DUNKIRK:  A.  D.  idai.-Untuccesifn! 
aitrt  by  tht  Dntch.  8ee  Metherla.nu'-  :  A  li 
16aT-I688. 

A.  D.  1646.— Sicfe  and  Capture  by  the 
Frtnch.—Impoftance  of  the  port.— It*  harbor- 
ace  of  piratei.   Sec  NKTiiKRi.AMm  :  A  l>  1M>- 

A.  D.  165a.— Recovered  by  the  Spaniirdt. 
See  Frame:  A   I).  1(B8. 

A.D.  165S.— Acquired  by  Cromwell  for  Ear- 
land  See  K.NULA.ND  :  A.  I).  lfl.V)-lil.>  aud 
FRASrE  :  A.  I)    ltt.W-l«.W 

A.  D.  iMa.— Sold  byCharlet  II.  to  Frtact. 
SeeEiioi.AND:  A   I).  IHAS 

A.  D.  1713.- Fortitcatioat  and  harbor  dc- 
ttreytd.    Seel'THMBr    A.  I).  I71'J-ITl:t 

A.  D.  I7a>.— Dtmolition  of  fortificatioai 
aiain  atipulattd.    See  Aix-la  I'iiai-m.ik   The 

CoMIHKXll. 

A.  D.  1763.— The  demolition  of  fortilSct- 
tiont  pledged  once  more.  .See  Skvln  Vi:a» 
War  :  The  Tkeatie«. 

A.  D.  1793.— Untucceaaful  eiege  br  tht 
Englith.      See  Frame:   A.  I>.    17».'l  i.Ih.t- 

1)E(EIIUERI:    I>RIHtHKl>«  f:.    THE  WaH 

» 

DUNMORE,  Lord,  and  the  end  <■'  royal 
roeemment  in  Virginia.  Stf  Vik<.im<.  .a  I) 
"77.%:  and  I77.V177fl 

DUNMORE'S  WAR.  S.^  iiitio  ,Vaiu:t. 
A    l»    1774 

DUNNICHEN.  Battle  of  (A.  D.  685     h.^ 

SlOTI.ASIl      7tI1  t'KNTlRT. 

DUPLEIX  AND  THE  FRENCH  IN 
INDIA.     Se<' Imma     a    I>    174:i  i;v.' 

DUPONT,  Admiral  Samuel  f.  Niral 
attack  on  Charleiton.  See  Initium  Aiixir 
Am.;  a.  I»   1h«!I  (.Vphii  — S<ii  th  i  iko:  i\»> 

DUPPEL,  SiegeBndcapturcor'1864  <vr 
Okrmant  :  A    II    l>«ll    I'-'ltl 

DUPPELN.  Battle  of  ( 184I1.    s  .  v  ,m,<. 

KAVIAN  SUTEB  lIlKNMAIllil     .V     I>    i"l>    I"".' 

DUPPLIN  MOOR.  Battle  of  1331  vr 
S<..Ti,\M.    A    ll   i:w.J-i:i:n 

DUQUESNE,  Fort,    .-v  •  I'itt-hi  11.  11 

DURA,  Treaty  of.— The  hiiiiiiliiitink;  tMij 
of  iieai'i'  iniii'luili'il  «ilh  lln'  rir«;,iii-  A  |) 
Hit.),  nflir  tlie  defial  and  dinlli  Mf  ihi  lliiian 
eiiiixror  .lulian,  liy  hU  micieiwir  .1  >il»ii  -<1 
lUwIiiiMiu.  SitHlh  linal  UniKlnl  If  ■.iir'*j, 
fA    111 

DURANEES,  OR  DOORANEES,  Th<. 
He..  Imih     a    11    1:4;    Will 

DURAZZO,  Neapolitan  dynatty  of.  ^'t 
Itai.ycs.ithhisi  A  H  l.MIi  litw,  l;l«rt  UU 
aiHl  Itaiv  :  A    li    I4ti!  144; 

DURBAR  OR  DARBAR.-An  «n.|in.r 
n»>m  in  lh>'  imIhh  of  hii  Ij«iil  IihIIhii  priiio 
llrtiri-  Hpplif.fl  to  n  f-trrnai  aiulif'iH'''  "t  I'-o-* 
given  liv   tl»'  uoviTiior  i'l  nernl  of  Imlii    "t  b' 

f   till    liHtil-e  Iiriiii-i-«   ~  t\nluru  th.-fi    mC^ 

DURHAM,  OR  NEVILLE'S  CROSS, 
BAltle  of  'A.  D.  13461.  See  Sioll  AM<  \  1> 
llDi8-t87U. 


890 


DUROBRIV^. 

DUROBRIVA.— A  name  given  to  two  Ru- 
nun  towns  in  Britain,  one  of  wliich  lis«  been 
Uentiflcd  witli  modem  Rochetter,  tlie  other  with 
the  town  of  Caitor,  near  Peterborough. 

OUROBRIVIAN    WARE.      8ee    Caitok 

OUROCOBRIV^.— An  imporunt  marltet- 
town  in  Roman  Britain,  suppowd  to  have  been 
iltuated  at  or  near  modem  Dunstable. — T. 
Wright.  Vflt,  JbmuiH.  and  timon,  eh  ft. 

DuROTRIGBS.    See  BKiTAtx,  Celtic. 

DUROVERNUM.— AKnmantowninBritiOn. 
Idenllfled  with  the  modem  Cautcrburr. 

DUTCH  COMMERCE,  .see  tiuDB;  and 
Ea»t  Irdia  Compakt,  The  Dvtch. 

DUTCH  EAST  INDIES.  See  Mai.ay 
Akihipblaoo. 

DUTCH  GAP  CANAL.  See  Uhitkd 
»TA m  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  1HA4  (Avourt  :  Viruinia). 

DUTCH  REFORMED  CHURCH.  See 
REroRMED  CHCmrii. 

DUTCH  REPUBLIC.  Tha  Conatito- 
doo  aad  dtcisrtd  indtp«Mtact  of  tha.    See 


EARTHQUAKE. 
NETBOWLAKoa:    A.  D.    1577-1581,    and   ISSi* 

DUTCH  WEST  INDIA  COMPANY.  Sea 
N  ew  Yi  >RK :  A.  D.  1821-1640 ;  and  Brazil  :  A.  D. 
liliHWl. 

DUTCH    WEST    INDIES.     See    Waar 

I.MIIKX. 

DUTLINCEN,  OR  TUTTLINGEN,  Bat- 
th  of  ( 1643).     See  Okrii aht  ;  A.  D.  1«43-1)M4 

OYAKS;  The.     See  Mai.avas  Ka.  e. 

DYRRHACHIUM.    See  Koretra 

ProTokiag  caaaa  of  tha  Paloponncaian  War. 
See  Oreeck  :  B  C\  4S.'(-i32 

B.  C.  48.  — Caaar'a  Revaraa.  See  Rome: 
B.  C.  48. 

A.  D  io«i-  loSa.— Sicfe  by  Robert  Gniacard. 
See  Btzantine  Empire  :  A.  U.  10W1-108.V 

A.  D.  1304.— Acquired  by  the  dcapot  of 
Epirus.     Sec  Ei-iRis  :  A.  D.  1204-1350. 

DYRRHACHIUM,  Peace  of.  8eeGBEEC«: 
B.  C.  214-14«  -*»».■. 

DYVEO.    See  Brit  air  .  «th  Centcrt. 


EADMUND,  EADWINB,  ETC.    Sec  Kd 

m  sn.  ETT. 

EALDORMAN.  — "The    rhleftaln*  of  the 
tnl  mttlt'n  In  our  own  iiiUnd  Imre  no  higher 
titli'   ih»n    Ealdonnan  or    Heretoga    .  .   .  The 
naiiK'  i>f    Ealiliirman  is  one  of  a   Urge  claw: 
•innriir  II  primtlivr  pmpjp  tfe  Implies  rommaml 
ami  riiinniand  implicii  age;  benre  In  a  somewhat 
Uirr  «U(«'  i>f  liuiiftiaiti-  the  riden  are  simpiv  the 
riilrrn  and  tin'  rhlent  arc  the   highest  in  rank. 
wiihout  »ujr  lliouglit  of  tlie  number  of  year. 
«liii  h  ihi'y  niiiy  n-nlly  have  llviil     It  la  not  |Hr- 
ftiilv  dear  in  what  the  «utli»rit>    >r  dignilT  of 
III.  King  eiietnleil  iti.ii  nf  \\w  Knhliimian 
Km  11  the  Kmallrst  Kit     l.im  w««  prolwlily  fomieil 
li>  ilw  uiikin  of  the  .ii«iricl«  of  M-vrnl  Kaldor- 
nun  ■—  K.  A.  Frtvnwii.  .V<>rm<in  (xnywraf.  eh  H, 
»••'   1  —-The  organlutliin  of  the  xhln-  wan  of 
niMi  li  till'  same  rhararter  h>  lliat  of  tlH'  hiimlml 
'.11  h  "hire  ointainlni;.  Imwi-ver.  a  numlnT  of 
liMi"ln'<lii].  hut  It  waa  rnlil  by  an  ealdornian  aa 
«.  II  ii«  by  a  gerefa.  and  In  a<ime  mliiT  n-«|H'<'t» 
U.n  ■  viiWrn-e  <>f  lt»  previno.  I'lialrnn- aa  an  In 
i|i|"ii.liiil  unity.     Its  giin.ii  was  ii.>i  .,nl\  ihr 
» ir  iri  "ii>l  but  the  folrgrniot  alao.  the  aaiM''tiil)ly 
i.f   ilii-  jniiplr;   Its  ealilomuih  ciimiiMndiHl  mlt   ' 
till  r.  Iv  iIm'  mllilary  Umv  of  the  huudmU.  Iiiil 
111.'  I..nl«  nf  thr  franrlilai's  and  tlie  rhiirih  v«««al« 
unh  ili.jr  mill      Ita  grrrfa  or  ahi-rilT  iiiII.m  n-.! 
111.' tlMnl  an  Millaa  tlie  liiml  lni|>.wtH      ll>  i-al 
.I'niiiii  naa  one  of  the  king'a  witan      The  i-al 
il'.riiiNn.  the  prilli-ep*  of  Tafltux.  ami  prihi'e|m, 
i-r  ».itrap«,  or  aulireguliis  of  |h.(|i'.  tji,.  ,Ui\  of 
til.  I  alin  I  hninli'Ifni  and  the  rnmi's  of  ihi'  Nor 
timn«.  ».«  .iriifinallv  eIrrttHi  In  IIm'  ifinenil   a» 
wiiil.ly  of  the  nation!  Th<'  liemliurv  prin 

ii|'li'  .ippeam  hoirrrer  In  thf  r-rly  (Iava'..f  ilir 
kini."l..m  aa  w.  II  aa  in  Ibone  of  t^lwanl'llii'  Cm 
(•■"■T.  in  ih«.  laite  of  an  iiwlir  klngilom  lirinit 
•iiiHXiil  lo  a  grralir  Ihi'  old  mval  dvnaalv 
"I  iiK  ti.  hare  ronitniinl  lo  hand  down  liii  deli' 
(:»ii-.l  aiilliority  from  father  I"  i..n  The  iindiT 
'"■«- "f  llwiiiia  thiia  iiintuni|.ii  to  ail  a*  eal 
il.'fimn  uwler  Merria  for  a  i-eiiliirv  atnl  lli.- 
Ml.l.rm«n«hlp  of  the  tiyrwaa  or  fen  ii.iinirvim  11 
a^iu.  Ilkcwiai!  la  have  bv«u  htn-dltarT  '  Th.' 


title  of  ealdormar  <•  -iius  much  older  than  the 
I'Siiaiing  division  of  alores,  nor  was  It  ever  the 
nil.'  for  everv  shin-  lo  have  an  ealdormnn  to  It 
M'lf  aa  it  had  Ita  alii-rilT.  .  .  .  But  each  iihire 
waa  under  an  ealilornian.  who  sat  with  the 
"li'riir  and  liUliop  in  Ihr  folkmoot.  received  a 
llilnl  part  of  the  proHla  of  ihe  jurisdiction,  and 
mimiianiii<'il  the  niiliury  fonr  of  the  whole  ii,- 
viainn.  Kn.m  the  latter  I'hantcter  be  lieriveil  the 
name  of  hentoga.  leader  of  ilii.  h<mt  ('here  ').  or 
iliu.  which  Ih  occaaioiullv  fc'lvin  him  in  cliar- 
I.Ts  ■_«•  Sliihlia.  OiHtl'.  Ili.t  of  Knn  rh  S 
t,,l,  4H-4»  ... 

EARL. —"Tlie  title  of  earl  hail  U-gun  to 
•iijiplaiit  that  of  I'liMorman  in  ihi-rilKn  of  Kth«'l- 
ri'.l .  and  the  L>ani«li  jarl.  fmm  whom  ll«  uae  in 
IhU  wiiw  waa  Imrrowed.  aeeina  to  hnve  lieen 
more  certainly  conuM'teil  bv  the  tie  of  lomilntus 
with  hia  king  than  the  Anglo  Saxon  lalilumian 
iiMii  lie  aupiHMiil  III  have  Ui.n  "— W.  Siuliln. 
'■'ii«f  llinf  nf  Kh.i .  i-h  B.  „fi_  fl«  _(*!•.'.  hI».. 
Komi,  and  Kai.i>iihm«n 

EARLDOMS,  English:  Canute's  creation. 
Sii-  Kmii  »mi    .\    |>  T011I-I04J 

Th*  Norman  change.    .*tii'  Palatine.  The 
KMoi.taii  (  oiNTiKa 

EARLY.  General  Jubal,  Caapaifaa  ia  the 
Shenandoah.    Si.'    I  mtkii    Statu*   or   .\«i 

.\      l>      I-WM     |M»V— .llNK        ViRolNIAl.     (,llLV 
ViKoINU  —  MaHVI.a.NIiI.    I.Vl'oroT  —  IKTonKN 

Vi M«i.  ami  l'<fl.5iKEnRiAH\  — March    Vir 

olMti 

EARTHQUAKE:  B.C.  4«4.-Sparta.  S.v 

MtwfAiAN  WiH.  Thk  Thirii 

A.D.  Ii5.-At  Aatloch.   See  Antioth  a  I» 
ti* 

A.  D.  3«s  — In  the  Roman  world.—    In  the 

ail. mil  i.ar  of  Ihe  nlun  ..f  Valinliiiiaii  aiul 
Valina[A  II  a(W|.  on  the  momiiu  of  the  ^lat 
day  of  July.  Ihe  greater  |iart  of  the  lioninu 
w.irlil  was  shaken  In  a  vlnk'tit  •nij  ij.wini.ilve 
larth.piake  The  lmp^'•■l..n  « an lonimiiiiiialnl 
I..  I  111'  water*;  thi-  alHinii  of  ilie  Miillli'miniiin 
wen'  left  ilry  by  ilie  aiiildiit  ninal  of  IIh'  aia. 
But  the  tkle  suou  relumed  with  Uw  weight 


GUI 


SARTHQCAKE. 


EBIONISM. 


of  u  ImnMiMB  lud  biMiidble  delnge,  whirb 
WM  mtcrIt  felt  oo  the  comU  of  Sidlr,  of  Dal- 
matia,  of  Cmec«  aDd  of  Egypt  .  .  .  Tba  city 
of  Alexandria  annually  oommeoiorated  the  fatal 
day  on  which  SO.OOO  prnon*  had  loat  their  lirn 
In  the  inundation."— E.  Oibbon,  Dtdiiu  and 
/hA  tiflMt  Roman  Empire.  eA.  9t. 

A.  D.  5«6.— la  th*  niga  of  Jvatiaian.  See 
AimocB:  A.  D.  536:  altu,  BERTTva 

A.  O.  iA9«.— In  Jaoaiea.  See  Jamaica  :  A.  D. 
10M. 

A.  D.  I7SS-— At  Liaboo.  See  Lhboh:  A.  D. 
1753. 

A.  O.  Ilia.— In  Venesoala.  See  Co'x>iibia3I 
BTATia:  A.  D.  1810-tt<l». 


EAST  AFRICA,  Britiah  and  German. 
Sre  Afhica:  A.  D.  1(»4-18»1.  ISW,  and  I81« ; 
aim,  Ire.i. 

EAST  ANCLIA — Thr  kincdom  formnl  in 
Britain  by  the  Angle*.  Norfolk  and  ttuffolk 
(North-folk  and  S*outhfolk). 

EAST  INDIA  COMPANY,  The  Oateh  : 
A.  O.  i6o>.— Ita  formation  and  Srat  eotcr- 
priaea.    .4<«  Nethkrlakds:  a.  I)  1SI»4-I)I«I. 

A.  O.  165a.— Settlement  at  Cape  of  Coed 
Hop*.    See  Si.iTH  AmifA    A.  D.  fw«-lN(i«. 

A.  D.  1799.— Ita  diaaolntioa.  See  FnANrs: 
A.  D.  l<W(Si:n'CMBKR— Otober). 

EAST  INDIA  COMPANY,  The  Enflieh: 
A.  D.  1600-170*.— Ita  rlio  and  early  nnder- 
Ukinra.    See  |!<i>ia:  A.  I>.  16iii)-irira. 

A.  D.  177].— Conatitutien  of  the  Company 
changed.    S.*  IsniA  :  A.  I»   KTn-iTTH. 

A.  U.  ili3-it33.— Deprived  of  ita  monopoly 
•f  trade.     Sec  India:  A.  I).  IM-jainaa. 

A.  D.  il56.— The  end  of  ita  rule.  See  In- 
DIA     A.  D   1M3H 

EAST  INDIA  COMPANY,  Th«  Fr«wb. 

See  ImiIa:   a   0    18«.Vi;48 

EAST  INOIES.-llintliMtan.  Farther  India. 
an<l  (he  Malar  Ar<'lilt>'lA|f<>wpre  va^uelr  known 
in  nie<ti«ral  tlmefi  a*  the  ImiHii.  After  theearly 
*  ••ierican  dltroTerien,  then  ■iippdned  to  lie  pirt 
of  the  lamF  regiiin,  Iher  were  lilntiniruiibed  aa 
the  Raat  Iiidh-ii.  anil  the'nnme  hix  laiit«-<i. 

EAST  INDIES,  The  Dutch.     See  Maijit 

Ah<  HIPBLAilO  :    DlT«H  Ka«T  InIIIE* 

EAST  INDIES,  The  Porttineae  la  the. 

8e«-  India     A    l».  14B«-I.V«. 
EASTER  ISLAND.    Hee  Poltkb^ia 
EASTERN  ARCHIPELAGO.   Hee  Malat 

AnrHipRI.Aiin. 

EASTERN  CHURCH.  The.  See  (  bris- 
TIAMTV     A    l>  a!«i-l(t,VI 

EASl.  AN  EMPIRE,  The.  See  lioME; 
TIT  •»«•.  anil  Hrr<!<iifNR  EMriRC. 

EASTERN  QUESTION,  Tb«.-The  flnt 
OniMion  iin  whi<-h  the  pniblenii  of  the  Otttiman 
•ni|>ir<-  re<rlr,'<l  the  name  of  tlie  Kaatem  Hw^ 
tkm  mn-m*  Ui  hare  Uvn  that  ronnerli-,1  with  the 
re»"il  -if  Mehemrt  All  in  liWI  (are  Ttrri  :  A.  D. 
imi  |i««i,  M  <liiii!.>t.  Inhia  •  Mrmiiira,"  when 
ref,rTin<  In  that  rnnipllratlon.  etnplora  the  term. 
*i»l  ninarku  '  I  wr  tlie  Kaatem  giieatinn.  for 
thi>  wa*  In  fmi  the  niune  riven  hv  all  tlie  WiirM 
t<>  *he  quarrel  between  the  Mulian  Mahmoud. 
a~!  h!«  subl!-!  !be  Psrha  ;;•  JtsTpt  Mrh«Bet 
All  Whr  naa  thin  Kninillnr  tllle  applied  to 
a  I'w-nl  r.mlent  ?  KifTiii  in  i«-t  the  whole  (MIo- 
■urn  empire       The  nttoman  empire  I*  b<H  the 


entire  Eaat  The  nbellkm,  eren  the  dlamemher. 
ment  of  a  proTiDoe,  caaaot  compriw  the  h\e 
of  a  aoTerelgnty.  The  neat  aUtea  of  Wcsuth 
Europe  haTe  alternately  Mat  or  arouired.  eiibrr 
by  internal  diaaenafcm  or  war.  conaiderabic  terri- 
toriea:  yet  under  the  oapect  of  thew  cimim- 
atancea   no   one   haa   apoken   of   the  Vinten 

auettion.  Why  then  haa  a  term  never  iihiI  ig 
le  territorial  criaea  of  Christian  Eumpr,  lirrn 
considered  and  admitted  to  be  perfectly  naiuni! 
and  legitimata  when  the  Ottoman  empiie  is  in 
argument  T  It  la  that  there  la  at  present  in  the 
Ottoman  empire  no  local  or  partial  question,  ir 
a  shock  la  felt  In  a  comer  of  the  edilire.  if  a 
single  stone  la  detached.  :ae  entire  biiildinf 
appears  to  be,  and  is  In  fact,  rendr  to  fall.  . 
The  Egyptian  question  waa  in  18)W  the  qiirstion 
of  the  Ottoman  empire  Itself.  And  the  iiuratinn 
of  the  Ottoman  empire  ia  Ui  reality  thr  Knstrni 
question,  not  only  of  the  European  but  nf  tbe 
.Vaiatic  Eaat:  for  Asia  ia  now  the  theatre  i)f  the 
leading  ambitions  and  riTalries  of  ihe  grtM 
powers  of  Europe:  and  the  Ottoman  ein|>iiT  i^ 
the  highway,  the  gate,  and  the  krv  nf  A»ia  "- 
F.  P.  Ouiiot,  Mtmoin  to  lUuMnU'ih-  lli,i„ry  ,,f 
.Vf  (hen  Timt,  t.  4.  p.  SSS.— The  nevenl  woj. 
sions  since  IS40  on  which  the  Eask-m  (^miiii.iii 
haa  troubled  Europe  may  be  found  lumtnl 
under  the  following  captions:  Ri'mia  A  D 
IM.'iS-tS.'M,  to  1854-1856;  TlRKS:  A  I>  IMI- 
1877.  1877-1878.  and  1878;  alao  Bai.k.*!«  axd 
UAXt-aiA!!  Statbsl  —  Among  Englikh  wriirn. 
the  term  "  the  Eastern  Question "  ha*  *<i|,iini|  > 
larger  meaning,  which  takes  In  queaiimn  cm- 
nect-d  with  tlie  advance  of  Kuasia  u|>i>n  ilir 
Afghan  and  Persian  froatiera— Dukeof  Arnvll. 
n*  Eiutrm  Oumtion. — See  AraHAiiiKTAX :  X'l) 
186»-188l. 

BATON,  Dormui  B.,  aad  CiTil-Serrict 
Reiiana.  See  Citil-Srbvicb  Kepohb  id  tu 
I'NrrBit  Statbb, 

EBBSDORF,  OR  LUNBBURG  HEATH, 
Battle  oC— A  great  and  ^Mstmu*  Iwtile  of  thr 
Germana  with  the  Danea,  or  Nortlinu-n,  (oatM 
Feb.  S,  880.  The  Qcrraana  were  terrihlr  beairr.. 
anil  nearly  all  who  surriTed  the  flght  were  ixi-pi 
away  into  captlTity  aad  slaTerr.  Tlie  nUm  tv- 
celved  "  martyrs '  hooours :  ami  theln  oniineiiHin. 
tiim  waa  celebrated  In  the  Hachaen  IhikI  <-himlir< 
till  comparatively  recent  times.  An  unciaiiip  J 
anrmw  wasctcated  throughout  Saxunv  by  lliix'*. 
lamity,  which,  for  a  time,  eihausted  llie  i  imntrv . 
—  Srandinaria  aad  Jutland  and  tlie  liiiliir  i^U 
reanufided  with  exultation."— (*ir  K  IMimvc, 
Hut  of  Sormamhi  ami  Knfhntl.  M   1.  i-A  4 

EBBSFLBBT.— The  supiioactl  llrot  lan'llii(. 
pla<<e  III  Britain  of  the  Jtile*.  umirr  li>niri->i. 
A.  I>.  44Bur  450,  when  English  hUtnrv.  w  i.i<: 
llsh,  beyina  It  waa  also  the  lamlint  pUi^ .  \  D 
507,  of  Augtistiac  and  hia  fellow  nilwii>tt«Hr* 
when  they  entered  the  Wand  l»  un<lrn»ke  ilw 
I  nnversioo  nf  Its  new  inhnbitania  toChri'tmtiitv 
See  KM»l,AKti     44t»-47»   ami  WT-IKV 

BBENEZER  AND  AMANA  COMMUNI- 
TIES.    S«r  IkM  lAl.  MovBaENTii    IMl  ("M 

BBBRSBURC    Battle  of.    fee  iiitNM«n 

A.  U    IMW  (jARt  ARV-Jl  XE). 

BBIONISM.-The  heresy  («.  |.nn<lnl>  >(  > 
aert  of  Jewlab  Chrtatlan*.  whirh  aprinul  umir- 

=*h=Tt  -«<«t=4'^r!¥  in  ifrr  ^rifftti.  ih;^:.  -:"-'  "--fH 

rrnturiea  ■  Tne  rhanuteriatli  m»rK«  nl  Khi..ii. 
i>m  In  all  its  forms  are  dritnwinilini  nf  1  hn> 
liaolly  tothsleeelof  Judakni;  llir  prnmiV •>( 


G02 


EBiomsM. 


BCUADOR 


Ibe  uaireiwl  and  perpetumi  Tallditr  of  the 
MiimIcUw:  and  enmItT  to  the  apostle  Paul." 
The  name  of  the  Ebiooitea  came  from  a  Hebrew 
wonl  ligniiVlDg  "poor."— P.  Schaff,  Hitt.  oftht 
CkriMiaH  Chunk,  tuond  period,  eh.  4,  tfl.  VS. 
EBLANI,  Th*.    See  Ixuisd,  Tbibes  or 

UkRLY  ClLTIC  nfaABIT\2mu 

EBORACUM,  OR  BBURACUM.  — The 
miUiary  capiul  of  Roman  Briuin.  and  after- 
wania  nf  the  Anglian  klncdomt  of  Ddra  and 
Norihumbria.  Id  Old  Engliah  ita  name  became 
Eorfurwick,  whence,  bjr  further  corruption,  re- 
iultr<l  the  modem  Enslkh  name  York.  Tlie  city 
wta  one  of  conaiderable  splendor  In  Roman  timet, 
coouining  the  imperial  palace  with  manv  t«mplea 
and  otJier  impotlng  buildinga.  Bee  Emglakd: 
A.  D.  4S7-48S. 

EBURONES.  Daatnictien  of  tht.— The 
Ebttninei  were  a  strong  Oermanic  tribe,  wlio 
ocriipicd  in  Cvaar'a  time  the  count  rr  between 
Ui-fv  and  Cologne,  and  whose  ancetton  were 
■hi  to  hare  formed  part  of  the  great  migmnt 
hnrcle  of  the  Cimliri  and  Teutones.  Under  a 
Tuung  cliicf,  Ambiorix,  tliev  had  taken  >he  lead 
Id  till'  formidable  revolt  which  occurred  among 
the  Ik'lgic  trilie*.  B.  C.  M-SS.  Ciesar.  when  he 
had  nuppreaseil  the  revolt,  determinetj  to  bring 
dniructlon  on  tlie  Ebunmri,  and  lie  executed 
hia  purpose  in  a  ainguUr  ninnner.  He  rirruliite<l 
spnii'lamHtlun  through  all  the  neighlH>r1ng  part* 
of  Oaul  and  OenuHny,  ilerlnring  the  Ebiinnes 
to  be  traiton  to  Konie  and  outlaws,  and  ottering 
tbrm  and  their  goods  as  common  prey  to  any 
who  would  fall  on  them.  This  drew  the  sur- 
rouniling  barbarians  like  vultures  to  a  feast,  and 
tiir  wretched  Eburones  were  ai»n  hunted  out  of 
eil«<:)re.  Their  name  diaappeare<l  fn)m  tho 
aamlaof  Qaul.— C.  Merivale,  IIul.  iiflhtHomam, 
tk.  W. 

A I  JO  IK:  Ciwar,  Gnllit  Wan.  Nt.  5,  M.  aV-W; 
U.  t.  rh.  1-84.-0.  Long,  liflinf  nf  Iht  Homaa 
gemiNir,  r  4,  i"*.  IS-U  — ^S■^•.  al»<>.  Bki.(I.C 

ECBATANA.— "TIm-  Moutlum  Ert>ataaa  or 
Af listJtiia.—  which  the  Mniet  an<l  Persians  them- 
»lvr«  knew  aa  Hagmalin.  —  was  situated,  as 
we  Ictm  from  Polyblus  and  r>li>iloru>,  on  a  plain 
at  till'  fiKil  of  Mount  Unwiea,  a  little  to  the  enst 
of  the  ZagToa  range.  The  notices  of  tliew 
aullmra  .  .  .  and  othera,  render  it  as  nearly  iir. 
tain  114  possible  that  the  site  wu  that  of  tho 
mi>l.m  town  of  Hamatlan.  .  .  .  Tlie  Meomn 
npiial  has  never  yet  sttrarted  a  scientillr  ex- 
pfliiii.n.  .  .  .  The  chief  citr  of  northern  Media, 
whii  h  liiin>  In  later  Umes  tlie  names  of  Gau, 
OaiwB.  nr  Canxaca,  ia  thought  to  hate  Ihyh  also 
cslliil  l>balana,  ami  to  have  betm  iHcasioaally 
ml»i»kin  by  the  Oreeks  for  the  soutliem  or  niil 
capital   —O.  Rawlinsuo,  Krt  Urtiit  Monarrhif.- 

Mm,,,,  fh.  X. 

KCCBLINO,  OR  IZZILINO  DI  RO- 
MANO,  Tk*   '.jmaay   of,  Mtf  the  cniMrfe 

aniBtl.     !tee  Vbmixa:  A.  I>    l'ja«V-l3.'W 

BCCLESIA.— The  grnrral  Irgl  latlve  assen 
%  iif  .Itliena  in  anrlrnt  Athrn*  and  8paita. — 
0.  F.  HchaoMaa,  AtUia.  </U.-m«v.  Th*  Slotf.  pt.  S. 
,  kCLLBSIASTICAL    LAW.     Hee   Law, 

ECCLBSIASTICALTITLRI  BILL.TlM. 
Kf  l'«P«rT     A.  I».  IMO. 

cCEHI,  OR  iCENI,  TiM.  i<ee  BRiTam : 
.V  l>  Si 

CCCBERHT.  Ktaff  af  WtMM,  A.  0  (WO- 


ECKMOHL,   B«ttl«  o£     See    OsxiuiiTr 
A.  D.  1809  (JaxcAitT-JiniB). 

ECNOMUS,  NanU  tattte  of  (B.  C.  acA. 
See  Pumc  War,  Thb  Fikw.  '^ 

ECORCHEURS,  Lea.— In  the  Uter  period 
of  the  Hundred  Veaia  War.  after  the  death  of 
the  Maid  of  Orleana,  when  the  Engliah  were 
being  driven  from  France  and  the  authority  of 
the  king  was  not  yet  eaUbliahed,  lawless  violence 
prevailed  widely.  "Adventuren  spread  them- 
selves over  the  provinces  under  a  Dime,  'the 
Skinners,'  Lea  Ecorcheura,  which  sufflciently  be- 
tokens the  savage  nature  of  their  outrages.  If  we 
trace  it  to  even  lU  mildest  derivation,  strip 
shirts,  not  skina."— E.  Smedley,  Hitt.  of  r 
pt.  1.  th.  14.  3<  J 

BCTHESIS  OF  HBRACLIUS.  SeeMoHO- 
nRLiTB  CotrrxovnuT. 

ECU,  The  order  of  the.  See  Botnmoit.  Tub 
■orsB  or. 

BCUADOR:  Aboriffiaal  inhaMtaats,  See 
American  AnoBionEa:  Akdesians. 

The  BboiisriaBl  Unrdom  of  Quito  aad  it* 
cooooeat  bjr  tho  Pemviaas  aad  th*  Snaaiardi. 
—'■Of  the  old  Quitu  nation  which  inhabited  the 
highlands  to  the  north  an>*.  south  of  the  present 
capital,  nothing  is  known  to  tradition  but  the 
name  of  its  bist  king,  Quitu,  after  whom  hia  siib- 
tii  t»  were  probably  called.  His  domains  wtre 
liivsde<l  and  conquered  by  the  nation  of  the  Cama, 
or  Csrana.  who  haii  come  by  aea  in  balsas  (mfts) 
from  narts  unknown.  These  Caras.  or  Cnrans, 
eatnblialieil  the  dynasty  of  the  Scvria  at  Quito. 
aiHl  exu-o<led  their  cimquests  to  the  north  and 
south,  uutil  checked  by  the  wariike  nation  of  the 
Pundias,  who  inhabited  the  present  district  of 
Kiolmniba.  ...  In  the  reign  of  Hualcopo  Duchi- 
ctla,  the  18th  Scyri,  the  I'enivisn  Incas  com- 
menced to  extend  their  conquests  to  the  north. 
.  .  .  About  the  mMdle  of  tlie  ISth  centiirv  the 
Inca  Tupac  YupanquI,  father  of  Huaynacapac, 
Invaded  the  dominions  of  the  Scyris.  and  after 
many  bloo<ly  battles  ard  sieges,  conquered  the 
kingdom  of  Puniha  and  returned  in  triumph  to 
Ciiiro.  Hualcopo  survived  his  loss  but  a  few 
years.  He  is  said  to  hsve  died  of  grief,  and  was 
kUiTceded  by  his  sim  C'acha.  the  15th  and  last  of 
the  Scyria  Cacha  Duchirela  at  once  set  out  to 
rcrover  hia  paternal  dominions.  Altlioiigh  of 
ftthle  health,  he  (Kims  to  have  been  a  man  of 
great  enercy  and  Inlrrpiilitv.  He  fell  upon  the 
garrison  which  the  Inca  had  left  at  Mix-ha.  put  it 
to  the  sword,  and  rnieriipied  the  kingdom  of 
Puruha,  where  he  wan  re<'elre<l  with  open  arms. 
He  even  carri«il  hia  l"«in"r»  further  south,  until 
chirked  by  the  (aftan-s.  Ilii  nhaliltanla  of  what 
IS  now  th,-  diatrii't  nf  Cm-ma.  who  bad  vnlun- 
urily  aulimitteil  tn  the  Inca.  and  nx'-  drtalneil 
the  net  ri  until  lliiaynacapar.  the  grveuvl  of  the 
Inca  dynasty,  came  to  their  rescue  '    On  the 

Jilain  of  Tiocajaa.  and  a/ain  on  the  plain  of 
iatuntaqui.  griMt  battles  were  fought,  In  lioth 
of  whkh  the  Scyrt  was  beaten,  and  la  the  hut  of 
« liirh  he  fell.  ' "  On  the  very  flekl  of  hattle  the 
faithful  Caranquis  pmclaimnl  Pacha,  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  falh-n  king,  as  their  Scyri  Huarna- 
raniii-  now  n'gulateahls  conduct  by  p«>Bcy.  '  He 
nnli ml  Itie  deail  king  to  be  hurieif  with  all  the 
liciimrs  due  to  royally,  and  maile  olTers  of  mar- 
riaire  Ui  y"Ui<g  Parha,  bv  whom  iie  was  not  re- 
fiiMil  .  .  .  Tlie  Issue  of  the  marriage  was  Ala> 
huall|>a,  the  last  of  the  native  rulers  of  Pent. 
.  .     A*  pnidMit  aod  highly  poUtk  aa  tka  oa» 


6M 


M  '■! '.'« 


111 


ECUADOR 

duct  of  Husynacapac  h  genenllj   reputed   to 
hare  bren,  ao  imprudent  aod  unpolitiv  wu  tlie 
divUion  of  the  rnipire  which  In-  nude  on  his 
death  bed.  bequrathloK  bin  paternal  dominion!  to 
bis  flrst-bom  ami  undoubtedly  le^timatf  son. 
Huaacar,  and   to   Aubuallpa' tbi'  liinKiloin  of 
Quito.     He  might  have  foreseen  llio  evil  conse- 
qiiencea  of  such  a  partitiou.      His  death  tooit 
pliKf  about  the  year  I53S.     For  6vt  or  seven 
Jcars the  brothen  llvol  In  |>eare. "   Then  ()uarn-ls 
anw.    leadl'ti;  to  civil  war,  reaultinv  in  the  de- 
feat and  dentil  of  Huaacar.     Atahuallpa  luul  just 
become  niaiit<  r  of  the  wenkenetl  and  shaken  em- 
pin-  of  the  Incas.  when  the  invadinf;  Spanianls, 
under  Hjiarm,  fell  on  the  d<H>me<l  htud  and  nuule 
Its  riches  their  own.     The  cominest  of  the  Span- 
lards  dia  not  include  I  lie  lilnKdom  of  (juilo  at 
flnit,  hut  was  extended  to  the  latter  in  1538  bv 
Ki'iMstian  ile  Bt'nulcH/nr,  wlumi  I'izarro  had  put 
in  command  of  the  Port  of  San  Miguel.     Kxcited 
by  stories  of  the  ricbe«  ..f  Quito,  and  invited  liv 
ambassadors  from  the  •  uBares,  the  old  enemies 
of  the  t^uitii  trilws,  Ik-uuleazar,  "  without  orlers 
or  |N-nniMiion  fnmi  i*izarro  .  .  .  left  San  Miguel, 
at  the  head  of  ulH>ut  150  men.     His  si-iiinii  iii 
command  was  the  monster  Juan  de  Ampudia." 
The  fate  of  Quito  was  ajniin  decide<l  on  the  plain 
of  Tiiicnfas,  when-  Uuminagui.  a  tldef  who  luul 
seized  tlu-  vataut  throne,  mwh'  a  desperate  hut 
val      resistance.      He   iralned  time,    however,  to 
remove  wlutever  treasures  lUert- may  have  be«'n 
at  Quito  lN>yoiid  the  reach  of  lu  nipaiious  con- 
uuenirs.nml  "  where  lie  hiil  Ihi'in  is  »  secret  to 
the   present   day.  .  .  .  Trnilitlium  of   the  (fp'irt 
tri'iuures  hidden  in  the  mountidu!.  hv  Kuiniftaitui 
HTf  eajierly  repeated  anil  lielieveil  iit  (Juito.   ... 
Hiiviii):  n'moved  tlie  jtol.l  and  killeil  the  Vir^cins 
of  the  Sun.  and  thus  plaiid  I  wo  i>lijeet«  mi  eam'rly 
coviteil  liy    the    iiivuders    U'Viiud    tlieir    ri-iMli. 
UiiiiiiAaKui  wl  •!"■  to  the  town,  and  ev;i.  iiutid 
It  with  III!  his  tmops  and   folhiwers.     It   u.nilij 
Im-  illtBcull  til  ili-M  rilM-  ilie  raire.  mortilicaiion  uml 
tle»pair  uf  the   Spnnlanls.   iin   finding  smoking 
ruins  lustiiul  ..f  tin-  tre»sun>s  which  they  ha<l  ej 
|Hct«il.         .  ThiiusaiiilsiifiiiriiH'ent  Indians  wen- 
saeridml   to   tlieir   di>ap|uiiul<tl   cupidity.   . 
Kverv    niKik   ai'd   riiriier  nf   the    pn.vlmv    «»« 
scarcheil.  Iiul  only  lu  the  sipulchriM  Mime  little 
l!>i|il  was  found    .   .   .   Of  the  niicieiii  liuildinftsof 

<iulli stiiiH'  was  left  uiKin  Ilie  titln-r  nnddeep 

exi-nVBii.ins  wen-  made  under  tlieiii  tu  «« urth  for 
hidden  tmisun'ii  llemv  then-  is  im  veHliai-  left 
at  Quito  nf  Its  I'lirmercivilJiMtion.  nut  ii  ruin,  imt 
a  wall,  not  u  slnne  to  w  liit  h  the  IrudilinHs  nf  the 
pant  mlirht  elinit  .  .  <hi  the  'iHth  nf  AiiKUst 
l-VK  tin-  Spaiiisli  village  of  tJuito  [>„u  F'niiiei«-n 
de  Quito)  was  fmindiil  "— P  llasaaun-k.  /■'mr 
Venn  iiiiuiiu/  Siuinim/i  Aiitrrifiiiis,  M    18. 

.Vl.so   I.N      \V     II     I'n-aeiitt.    Hint    iifCmu  of 
Ih-ri,    U   ;l,  M.  ■.»  I,     h.  iiwIeA.  1»  (r  »).' 
In  the  empire  of  the  lacu.    Se.>  I'tnt    Tiik 

r.MI-IKK  or  TMK   1m  as 

A.  D.  154a.— The  Attdicncw  of  Qaite  etub- 

llthed.      Se  .'tl  IIIKM  IAS 

A.  O.  i*ai-i8s4.  -EmaacipAtioa  of  ilaTtt, 

S.I- Coi.dMnn^i  >r»rK»    A    I>    iw.'l    \-*M 

A.  D.  Ilia-|888. -Confederated  with  New 
Granada  and  Veneiuela  in  the  Colombiaa 
Republic. -Diteolution  of  the  Coafederac*.— 

The  rule  of  Flaras,—  In  im-j-j  -  ii.,.  i>rT!vi!:t-t-  s^r 
«^iii.i«»«  Itienrp.  ruti-il  Into  Ihi  t'olnuiliian  He 
puiilir     Isw'    ('i.l.iil||||(!(    r^TArKs      A     I)     IHIIJ- 

IMtJJ      It  was  now  divided  Into  thn*  de|>art 


EODAS. 

menu  on  the  French  STitem :  and  the  snntheni 
misttof  tiiese  receive<l  its  oamefnim  tin  Kiiuator 
(Ecua(h)r)    which    passes    thruufth   ii      Sl,„nlv 
after  Venezuela  had  declared    itself    ,n.l,  |»uil 
ent  of  the  Colombian  liepubiic  [IH'.'ii  — J,. 
almvel,  the  old  province  of  Quito  did  Ilie  wmi- 
and  placeil  lu  fortuaet  in  the  hands  nf  „w  i,f 
Bolivars  lieutenanu,  named  Klores.      The  imnu 
of  Ecuador  was  now  exu-nde<l  to  all  ihn-i-il,  iian 
menu.     Flim-s  exenised  the  chief  HUtlmriiv  f„r 
IS  years.     The  ci  jsiitution   limiteii   ti„.  |Vm. 
dency  to  four:    but  Flores  nuule  an  ttmiiii:iiii,iit 
with  one  uf  his  lieuU'nanls  called  li.Ka  Ku,  rt, 
by  which   they  sucoeedetl  each  nllii  r.  tl,.-  ..ii; 
(foing  President  liecoming  gnviriinr  ..f  Hutu 
qiiil        In    IMS    Finn's    foum!    liini.s.|f   ,ir,;„|, 
enough  to  Inipnive  u|h>ii  this  system.     Ih-  ,allnl 

a  < vention.  which  n-formiHl 'the  iimMiiuti,.iiiii 

a  n-uctionary  sense,  and  named  him  dii  i,ii..r  f,.r 
ten  years.     In   im.T  the  lilM-nil  n-iiiiinn  Im.)  m^. 
in  all  over  Cnlombhi;   anil  it  sism  lur.-iin,-  |.,. 
I  simng  for  Flnn-s.      Even  his  nwii   ■.upimrtirs 
I    Is'gan  to  full  him.  and  he  agniil  t.i  .|iiii  ii„. 
!   inuntry  on  la'iug  paid  an  indenuiiiv  nf  ^^hiimi 
i    During  the  next  15  years  Eciiaihir'wiis  imuM,,! 
,    liy  the  plots  and  attempts  of  Flon-»  In  n  ciiii  liu 
I    liwt  power.     Ill   l.N6(l.   with   Periiviiui  |„li.   h 
!   sucifediil    in    pUcinic    ow  nf    hi,  |,:,riy    |(r 
Mnn-no.  in  liie  pn>sidency.  and  lie.  luin-Mlf  I,. 
came  goveninr  of  Ouayao'uil.     In  Aucn-l.  lx;v 
.Mon-iiii  uiiK   UMassinaleJ.— K    J     I'jnu.     //„( 
</  A'«r../».j/.    (;,l4,Hir:  /./p.   '.Jol-'.'.V.' — Afi, r  llif 
assasaintiiinii  nf  President   .Mon-iin.  ■  iln   ,u-tst 
Biuei-etli-d   in   x-aling    Dr     .Vntnnin   lt,i-r,rn  la 
till-  pnsi.lential   chair  liy  a  |K'ueefiil  uin!  ..ur- 
wlielining    election.  .'  Against    hi^    ^.inrii 

meiil   tlie  lils-ral   party  made  a  nvi.liiti.,ii  su,! 
S'litemlM-r  yi.    IHTtl,    siie^-eeili-tj    in   liriMi.i  liim 
fmiii  |Hiwer.  seatinu  in  Ids  iilan-iii m  ril  V^n^i. 
I  lie  Veinteniilia,  wlio  was  oiienf  ll«rrern,,.il)i.c!,. 
j    IniuiuI   In  him  'y  many  tie,  lli  111II.-.I  ui 

i   nluilient  conveiii'nn  at'  Anilwln,  in  !••>  -.Uiitli 
j    named  Idni  Pn-sident  ttd  inli-riiii.  ami  fr:iiiir<i  > 
cniistitutiiin.  the  n-pulilicaniMH  nl  w  In.  Ii  11  i.  ^lif 
tlrull  to  (liid      I'niler  Iliii.  he  w:i,  ,  I, ,  i.-,|  |'ri,i 
dent  f  r  fnur  ye«->,  lirminaiintf  ^loili   .Vuiru-) 

1W<',',   wllhout  right  of   r>  elieti \..|.|  aliir 

an  interval  of  fnur  venr^    — (!    K.  {  Ininii.  /i/( 

■•».   lil'",ul;rlSrluttr'/-:j-     /)..■    6(1.   I'    •>     Cft  ■ .  I.j 

•Ji(  .*«.  ,  r  :ii  ~  Ph«lileiit  Vi  iiiti  inilli  «i»il 
|Miwer  as  a  Dii  Inlnr,  liy  a  pmnun.  iiimi  in.-,  A|iril 
Ii.  IH".'.  Iiul  mil  \»iir"eii,iii-i|  and  In  «ii,  i.nr 
lliriiwn  in  IhkI  S..n..r  .Ihm-  M  1'  ( ,wiiiiifl.i 
was  tlien  ehnsen  ISix  i^innal  PriM.I.  nl,  uml  in 
Fi  liruarv.  1hh4,  he  waselnled  I'riii.l.  m  l-j  lis 

■  .•'gislative    luslv         Hi-    »iW    i.llenr.li'1    III    I** 

liv  linn  .VntonioFUin-s  —  .v,!/..,,,,.., «  l',,ir.i..< 

1*0.1 

ECUMENICAL.  OR  (ECUMENICAL 
COUNCIL.  — ,V  general  nr  unlu  r-il  i  nmi  .1 
lilt    t'lirislian  <  hunh      See   (oimii,  ..»    riu 

(ill  HI  II 

BDOA8,  Thc.-'The  rhiif  d.  |i..-ii  ti,,  .f 
tlM-  Nnrsi-  iiiythnlnKy  an  the  fjiiernr  >.i.  iiiiin.l* 
Eiidai|Hstr;i  and  ihi  Ymiuger  ir  Sn.-it.  .  l..l.la 
(priis<  I  In  lielundii  Kdiia  iiii  an,  ti-.ii  liniiiil 
mother  and  snnie  think  this  apiH  llmi-.n  nfm 
to  Ihi- aneieni  origin  nl  IIm'  niulu  1,  1  ■iiUn» 
tui.i!^  <--^,(iw|  ii  »!Hi  ihr  ilnliaii  Xnh  id 
Ilie  Norse  >lile'  (Swedish  '  m  li  '  I.-  l,ni»'  - 
Ii  II  Aiidertsiu,  A"".  Vjilh.U.^^,  ,h  T  -  Tl«- 
Word  bhla  is  wver  found  at  all  lu  am  of  Ult 


Gl)4 


EODAS. 

dit.'ectt  of  the  Old  Northern  toDgue,  nor  imlitil 
in  toy  other  tongue  known  to  us.  The  Unit 
time  it  if  met  with  i*  in  the  La;  of  lUgh,  wherr 
it  i«  Uied  as  a  title  for  gre-t-gmndmothcr,  and 
from  this  poem  the  won!  ia  cited  (with  other 
termn  from  the  same  aourcc)  in  tliu  collection  at 
Iheendof  Scaldacaparmal.  How  or  why  Snorri's 
book  on  the  Poetic  Art  came  to  he  called  Edda 
«elmTe  no  actual  teatimony.  .  .  .  Snorri'swork, 
fSji'iially  the  lecond  part  of  it,  Scaldw-aparnial. 
handed  down  in  copieaand  abridgmenu  through 
the  Middle  Age*,  waa  looked  on  aa  aetting  tbe 
ttaoilani  and  ideal  of  poetry.  It  seems  to  have 
kept  up  in<teed  the  very  remembrance  of  court- 
piietrv,  tliu  memory  of  which,  but  for  it,  would 
otherwise  have  peruhed.  But  though  the  medi- 
KTsl  i>oeU  ilo  not  copy  Edda  (i.  e. ,  Snorri's  rules) 
tbev  coiutautly  allude  to  it,  and  we  liave  an  un- 
bn>ken  series  of  phrase*  from  1340  to  1<MU  in  which 
Edda  is  used  as  a  synonym  for  the  technical 
laws  of  the  court-metre  (a  use,  it  nwy  be  observed, 
eniin  ly  contrary  to  that  of  our  own  days)." — 0. 
Vigfiiason  and  F.  Y.  Powell,  Corptu  Awftnim 
BmnU,  r.  1.  introd.,  tvt.  4. 

EDESSA  (Macedonim).— Edesaa,  or  ^ga!, 
tbf  ancient  Macedonian  capital,  "a  place  of 
primitln-  antiquity,  aeccr.ling  to  u  I'hrygUu 
I.>,'iii.l  the  site  of  the  gardens  of  Midax,  at  the 
nnrtUem  extremity  of  Mount  Benntua,  when> 
the  Lydius  comes  forth  ft«m  the  niouutaius.  .  .  . 
.tpe  was  the  natural  capiul  of  the  land.  With 
in  f.iimilali>)n  the  history  of  Macedonia  IumI  its 
luirinniiiif ;  .£gic  ia  the  germ  out  of  whioh  the 
Ma.  I'doiiian  enijiire  grew."— E.  Curtius,  Hint.  „/ 
Urnff,  bk  7,  ck.  1. — ttee.  also,  M.\CKI>oxi.\. 

EOESSA  (MMopotamiai.   8e<-(>*Biiu:NE. 

The  Church.  Sec  C'hriitianitt:  A.  U.  33- 
lUI  and  IINt-ai'J 

Tbe  Thcolo^cat  School.    Hi-e  Nkstokianh. 

A.  D.  a«o.— Battle  of.    See  Peiui.\:  A.  1) 

A.  D.  1097-iiM.— Th«  Frank  principality.— 

Ou  the  man  h  of  the  srmiesof  the  First  I'rusade. 
M  thi  y  apiirnaiht^tl  .Syria,  lialdwin.  tliealile  self, 
ikhaiid  aelf'Willi.d  lin>lher  of  OiHlfri'V  of  liouii- 
l"n.  li'ft  the  main  lH«ly  of  the  crusaders,  with  a 
l«ud  of  foUowers,  aiiil  moved  off  eastwanln, 
•"king  the  priies  of  a  very  worldiv  amhitiun' 
•mi  leaving  his  devouter  i-onmules  to  ri'siiic  tiie 
It'ily  M'pulchre  without  his  aid  (>i»ii  fortune 
nwpinliii  hisent<'r)>ri!u*anciheae('iin'<l  |>iiMeMi..ii 
"( tl»'  important  city  of  Edeasa.  It  wax  goveriii^il 
tiy  ■  tiirek  prince,  who  ownl  allegiance  to  the 
lUi.ii.liiH' rm|M<n)r.  but  who  iwlil  tribute  to  Hie 
Turk.  Ii  adsiirremlenHlt.ii'oii/.uii.oiicofthc 
piuriiUof  Mairk miah.  In  the  year  lOMT,  but  diir 
iiiK  til.-  i-iiiittiiia  ,f  the  Turks  and  Marmriw  in 
!l«  iionh  of  hyria  it  had  recf>vere<t  lu  inde|»  ml 
II.  1  lUlilwlu  now  sullied  the  honour  of  (lie 
Kmiiks,  by  exclllngihe  iM-ople  to  munler  their 
pivenii.r  The<i<lon>.  and  relxl  ugiiinnt  the  llv/aii 
tiw  nuiliority  (other  historiaus  say  tluit  he  wn» 
piilty  of  no  more  than  a  passive  |HTiiii««l.>ii  of 
lliew  seta] ,  he  then  U«ik  |K<sapssion  of  ihe  pla<t- 
In  hi',  own  iiame  ami  founded  the  F'rauk  |irin- 
ei|.«lilv  of  Jjiettsa,  whith  lantetl  aUmt  4T  veam 
-<•  Unlay,  Ihtl  ,<(  Ityftnltiu  .tntl  (Irnk  Km- 
lor-.  A  D  T19-141W.  At  8.  M  3.  »<•/  \ -f*^. 
at,  ■•B!-x»r*s  A-  !>.  t-WS-KtSB.  aadHiT  lliS; 
tlSi'.jKHl SALEM:  A.   I>    lUIW-1144 

EDGAR,  Kiag of  Scotland,  A  D  tii»N-llUT 
Edcw,  King  of  WttMS.  A.  U.  »aei-»T3 


095 


EDIXBLKGH 

EOGECOTE,  Battle  of.  See  Hakbcbt, 
Battle  ok. 

EDGEHILL  OR  KEYNTON,  Battle  ot 
(»ee  t.\OL.\KD;  A.  D.  1642  (UcTUBEU— Decbm- 
BEK). 

EOHEL    SeeADEL. 

EDHILING,  OR  ADHILING,  The.    See 
Ethelino. 
EDICT  OF  NANTES,  and  ita  reTocmtioa. 

S>e«  Fhance:  A.  I).  1.5»»-1,599,  and  18W1-16JW 
EDICT  OF   RESTITUTION,   The.    See 

Oekmanv:  a.  n.  1627-1621). 
EDICTS,    Roman    imperial.     See    C'orpiti 

Jl'HIH  ClVILIB. 

EDINBURGH :  Oririn  of  the  city  See 
Enula.nu  :  A.  D.  547-633. 

iith  Century.— Made  the  capiul  of  Scot- 
land.    be<>.S(iyrL.tSD;   A.  I).  IJA^IWS 

A.  D.   1544.— Destroyed   by  the   EnKliah. 

Secbci)TL.vM):  A    D.  1544-154S. 

A.  D.  1559-1560.— Seized  by  the  Lorda  of 
the  CongreKation.— The  Treaty  of  July,  is6o. 
See  ScoTLA.NO:  A.  D.  l.'ijO-I.^tO. 

A.  D.  i57»-«573-— In  the  ciWI  war.  See 
tHoTLAM):  .\.  I).  1.170-1573. 

A.  D.  1637.— Laud'*  Liturgy  and  the 
tumult  at  St.  Gile*'.  See  StoTLA.tD:  A.  D. 
Iti^l7. 

A.  D.  1638.— The  aiKninK  of  the  National 
Covenant.    .See  .StoT'.AM):  A.  1).  lil:t>*. 

A.  D.  1650.  —  Surrender  to  Cromwell.— 
Siege  and  reduction  of  the  Caatle.  ^iee 
S<i>tl.*kd    a.  I>    llkV)  (SeptemukhI;  and  1631 

(AllilHTI. 

A.  D.  1688.— Rioting;  and  revolution.  See 
Son  A.M>:   \.  1).   lOMtt-inud 

^-  "■  'W— Th«  city  at  the  time  of  the 

union.—  ■hiiuiburgh.  thoUKli  »iill  but  a  small 
U)wii,  i-xcited  the  adminiiion  of  tn;vellers  who 
weh-  acijuainteil  with  the  greatest  cities  of 
EuKluiid  Hiiil  tlie  (  ontineut :  nor  was  their  adnd- 
ration  entin  Iv  due  to  the  singular  U-aiitv  of  its 
situation  Thi-  ijtiaint  architecture  of  the  older 
lii>use»— which  Minietlnies  nwe  to  the  lieiulii  of 
nine,  ten  or  eleven  BUiries  — iiideeil,  carrieil  b.ick 
the  mind  to  verv  l«rl>aroiis  times;  for  it  was 
ascriUil  to  tlie  tfesire  of  1!  |Hip»lmion  to  live 
as  near  as  possilile  to  ii„  protidion  of  the 
castle.  The  tilth  of  tlw  strifts  in  the  earlv 
years  of    the    l^•lll   ceulurv   was    indesirilialije. 

The  new  i|iu>rter.  «h!cl w   strikes  cviry 

slniiiger  by  its  spacious  svninictrv.  was  not 
Uguh  till  111.  liilt.r  halt  of  tlie  l><tli  century,  but 
as  earlv  i  TW  m,  KhKlisli  IraMlhr  de8<  rilail 
the   llh  net  as    the  MateliesI   siriit   in  the 

World  t  nder  the  Intluence  of  the  Kirk  the 

pillillc  I,  11  rs  of  tlie  town  Were  nuirkcd  by 
mm  li  dn'iiiii,  and  even  austerity,  but  the 
|si|iuhnf  Mill  iniisually  sus<vptili'lc  of  tierce 
poiiiicul   1  nlhuiiiisni.    anil    when    ladteil    they 

Win  c.\lri  iiiely    loniililalili V  city  guartl. 

coiii|H.s<d  chiitiv  III  llin-c  Highlanders,  ariiuti 
anil  lilsi  ipliii.nl  like  rigiilar  soldiers,  and  pUvd 
under  the  control  of  the  magistrates,  was  es- 
tublishid  in  ItllXI.  and  It  »:»  not  tiiially  aliul- 
ishcil  till  the  pri'Miii  ci-ntury.  Edinlmrgh,  at 
till  Isginning  of  th>'  l"<ili  lintury.  mis  nwie 
than  twill'  as  large  as  any  other  'scmch  town. 
I:^  iini-iiiation  ,it  thr  tinu  '..f  the  uiiioh  siiniiliy 
csciciliil  llo.iHMt,  Willie  thai  of  lilaagow  was  nut 
qiiile  I.I.IHNI.  that  of  l>unde<-  not  ijnilc  III.INM), 
Hiid  that  of  Perth  aUiut  7.(IIN)  — \V.  E  ||  L('<>ky 
//I'f  i<f  AV  )'<  (Ac  im  liHturf,  ik.  3(r,  «), 


KDINBCRGH. 

A.  D.  1736.— The  Portcens  Riot— "The  dr- 
cumMancc*  of  the  Purtrou*  Riot  are  familiar 
wht'fever  the  Engliah  tongue  i«  spoken,  becauie 
they  were  made  the  dramatic  opening  of  one  of 
hi*  flne*t  storie*  by  tliat  admiimble  geniui  who, 
like  Sbakespvarc  in  his  plays,  hat  conveyed  to 
plain  men  more  of  the  spirit  and  action  of  the 
past  in  noble  fiction,  than  they  would  find  in 
moat  profea«e<l  chronicles  of  fact.  The  early 
scenes  of  the  '  Heart  of  Midlothian '  are  an  accu- 
rate account  of  the  transaction  which  gave  so 
much  trouble  to  Queen  Caroline  and  the  min- 
ister [Walpole].  A  smuggler  who  had  excited 
the  popular  imagination  by  his  daring  and  bis 
chivalry  was  sentenced  to  be  hann-d :  after  his 
execution  the  mob  pressed  forward  to  cut  down 
his  iKxIy:  Porteous,  the  captain  of  the  City 
OuanI,  onlcrcd  his  men  to  Are.  and  several  per- 
sons were  shot  dead ;  he  was  trieil  for  murder, 
convicted,  and  sentenced,  but  at  the  last  moment 
a  reprieve  arrived  from  London,  to  the  intense 
indignation  of  a  crowd  athirat  for  vengeance: 
four  days  later,  under  mysterious  rin,{lea(ters 
who  could  never  afterwards  be  discovered,  fierce 
throngs  suddenly  gathcreti  together  at  nightfall 
to  the  beat  of  drum,  broke  into  the  prison, 
ilraggnl  nut  the  unhappy  Porteous,  and  sternly 
banged  him  on  a  dyer's  pole  close  by  the  com- 
miiD  place  of  public  execution.  "—J.  Morley, 
H'.iZ/x^,  <•*.  ». 

.ViJ»  m:  J.  McCarthy,  But.  of  tht  fhur 
(irorgf*.  rh.  U  (r.  8). 

A.  D.  1745.— The  Yoanc  Prtttadcr  ia  tht 
citjr.    See  Scotlasu:  A.  I>.  I74a-17«. 

A.  D.  1779.— No-PoMiy  riot*.  Bee  Eholakd  : 
A.  D   1778-1780. 

• 

EDISON'S  INVENTIONS.  S«e  Ei.bc- 
Tiili  AL  DlSLOVtKT  :  A.  D.  lMl-1880;  187S-18M. 


EDUCATION. 


BDMUNO   IRONSIDE.     See    Englaso 

A.  O.  »7»-101«. 
BOMUNDS  ACT.  See  Utah:  1882-1sb3 
BDOaUTBS,  OR  IDUMEANS,  The.- 
"From  a  Terr  early  period  the  Edomitcs  wen 
the  chief  of  the  naUons  of  Arabia  I'ctrsa. 
Amongst  the  branches  sprung,  acconilDg;  to 
Arab  tradition,  from  the  primitive  Amalika,  they 
correspond  to  the  Araun,  and  the  poatoritj  Jf 
Esau,  after  settling  amoogat  them  as  we  Ii«t« 
seen,  became  the  dominant  family  from  which 
the  chiefs  were  chosen.  The  original  hiihitation 
of  the  Ednmites  was  Mount  8e1r,  whenrc  ihrr 
spreatl  over  all  the  country  called  by  the  (ireeki 
Qebalene,  that  Is  the  prolongation  of  the  mnuD- 
tains  Joining  on  the  north  the  land  of  .M<iab, 
into  the  Valfey  of  Arabah,  and  the  surr«iiu<liiij 
heights.  .  .  .  Saul  successfully  fought  the 
Edomites;  under  David,  Joab  and  Abi^luii.  hii 
generals,  completely  defeated  them,  and  David 
place<l  garriM>ns  in  their  towna.  In  their  |Kini 
of  Elath  and  Eziongelwr  were  built  Ike  Reeit 
seut  to  India  by  Hiram  and  Solomon.  .  .  .  .\fier 
the  schism  of  the  ten  tribes,  the  Edomitrs  re. 
mained  depenilent  on  the  King  of  Judah."— F. 
Lennrmant,  Munualof  Anritnt  JIM.  of  the  Rut, 
M.  7,  fK  4. — See,  also,  Nabatbbans;  J'kwk:  Tax 
Eablt  Hebrew  HitroKV;  and  Amalekites 
EDRED,  Kiof  of  Weucx,  A.  D.  IM7-9.'>.) 
BDRI8ITES,  The.— .\fter  the  n-voli  of 
Moorish  or  Mahometan  Spain  from  the  calliihste 
of  Bagdad,  the  African  provinces  of  the  Mot- 
lems  assumetl  independence,  and  several  livuu. 
ties  became  seated  —  among  tbem  that  n\  the 
Edrisites.  which  f(>und('<l  the  citr  ami  kini;<iiim 
of  Fes.  anil  which  reigned  from  \.  I).  f.MI  t,i 
IW7.— E.  Gibbon,  Xkclint  niul  F\iU  ofth,  ll,„mn 
Rmp.fh.  S3. — See,  also,  Mabohktam  CoMuitn: 
A.  D.  715-750. 


EDUCATION. 


Ancient. 


EcTpt.— "In  the  eduiatioD  of  youth  [the 
Egyptians]  were  panlciilarlv  strict;  and  'they 
knew,'  says  Plato,  'that  children  ought  to  lie 
earlv  ucustoinett  to  such  gesturen,  looks,  and 
motluns  as  are  deo'nt  and  pr>|<er;  and  not  to  be 
suffered  either  to  hear  or  learn  any  vrnaea  and 
wmgs  otluT  than  those  which  are  calciilati^l  to 
inspire  them  with  virtue;  ami  Ihey  ronai-c|Urnlly 
took  rare  tlmt  every  daufv  and  iNle  Introiiureil  at 
their  feasts  or  sacrillces  should  l>e  subject  to  eer 
tain  regulations.  '—Sir  J.  O  Wilkinson.  Tht 
.Viinnrrt  tii>4l  Cvlonu  "f  Iht  Anritnt  Egj/Jitians, 
r.  1,  /).  «31,— "Tlie  chlldri'n  were  educated  ar 
conling  to  their  slall>'n  nod  their  future  poaitlim 
in  life  Tlwy  were  kept  In  strict  sulijecllon  by 
their  parents,  and  respect  to  old  age  was  par- 
llruhirlr  Inculcated ,  the  chlldn-n  of  the  priests 
were  ealucatttl  verr  thoruugbly  in  writing  of  all 
kinds,  hlrn>)tlyphfr,  hieratic,  and  demotic,  and 
in  llie  sclrnii-s  of  astronomy,  matliematics,  etc. 
Th»'  Jewish  deliverer  Moses  was  educated  after 
the  manner  of  the  priesta,  awl  the  'wisdom  of 
the  Kgrptians'  became  a  proverbial  expression 
ainoiiir  the  outside  naticma,  aa  Indicating  the 
utmost  limit  of  human  koowletlge  "— K  A.  W. 
Hudge.  Tht  IhttUtn  on  Ih4  Silt,  eh  10— "fm 
the  e<iucatl<in  of  tlw  Egyptians,  Utodonu  make* 
the  followiog  mutfks:— 'The  cblMrea  of  the 


priesu  are  taught  tw3  different  kinds  of  writlnir. 
—  what  is  called  the  sacred,  and  the  mon-  (••m  ml . 
and  they  pay  great  attention  to  geoinciry  unJ 
arithmetic.  For  the  river,  changing  the  a|iprar 
ance  of  the  country  very  materially  every  ym. 
is  the  cause  of  many  and  various  iliaruwiuDt 
among  neighbouring  proprietors  alwtil  the  11 
tent  of  therr  property;  an<l  it  would  \v  diiflrult 
for  any  person  to  decide  up<in  their  claims  with- 
out geometrical  reasoning,  founded  on  m  tiial  ol> 
servation.  t)f  arithmetic  they  have  alsn  fn  <|iirDi 
nee<l,  both  In  their  domestic  economy,  aii'l  in  the 
applicatiiii)  of  geometrical  theorems.  Ixal'lin  In 
utility  in  the  cultlvatloo  of  aatMnomlcni  utiiiiin. 
fur  the  iinlenaod  motiona  of  the  star*  iirr  ob- 
served at  least  as  industriously  by  the  Kk'.vpiiani 
aa  by  any  iieople  whatever;  and  thev  kii']'  "•■■•ifil 
of  the  motiona  of  each  for  an  Inemlihli-  iiumhrr 
of  yean,  the  study  of  this  science  haviin:  Iim-d. 
from  the  remotest  times,  an  object  «f  naiiiHul 
ambition  with  them.  .  .  .  But  the  generalitr  nf 
the  common  people  learn  only  from  thiir  pait'Dti 
or  relatiooa  that  which  is  required  for  the  rirr- 
else  of  their  peculiar  profeasiona.  :i  f>-« 

nely  b?iBg  t«ijch(  urtiiiog  "f  Mtenit""'  anJ 
those  principally  the  better  class  of  arttlirrn.' 
Hence  it  appran  they  were  n»tconllii<<l  inaar 
pnrUculat  rule*  in  the  mode  of  c<lucstlui;  their 
chlldna,  and  It  depeaiisd  upon  ■  iMftDt  tu  ch«t«s 


696 


BDUCATION. 


EDUCATION. 


the  degree  of  inatniction  he  deemed  most  lult- 
tble  to  their  mode  of  life  and  occupMtoiu,  u 
imoosotbeTdTillndiiatioiu."— SirJ.  O.  WUkio- 
■OD.  Tki  Maimtn  and  Cuttcmi  of  the  BgypHnnt 
t.  I,  pp.  ITO-lTt.—" -There  U  nothing  like  being 
>icribe,'the  wiMny;  '  the  ecribe  gets  all  that  is 
upon  eaitli. ' .  .  .  The  tcrlbe  to  limply  »  man  who 
know!  bow   to  read  and   write,    to  draw   up 
adminiattatlTe  formuUi,  and  to  calculate  inter- 
est.   The  instruction  which  be  baa  leoeived  to  a 
Decenary  complement  of  bto  position  if  he  be- 
ionm  to  a  good  family,  whilst  if  he  be  poor  it 
enables  him  to  obtain  a  lucrative  situation  in  the 
administntion  or  at  the  house  of  a  wealthy  per- 
ioiuge.    There  ia,  therefore,  no  sacrifice  which 
tlR>  smaller  folk  deem  too  great,  if  it  enables 
them  to  giTe  their  sons  the  acquirements  which 
ma.r  raise  them  above  the  common  people,  or  at 
least  insure  a  less  miserable  fate.     If  one  of 
tJiem,  in  hia  infancy,  dtoplays  any  intelligence, 
tbey  send  bim,  when  about  six  or  eight  yean 
old.  to  the  district  school,  where  an  old  peda- 
gogue teaches  him  the  rudiments  of  reading, 
wntiag.  and  arithmetic.     Towards  ten  or  twelve 
years  old,  they  withdraw  him  from  the  care  of 
this  first  teacher  and  apprentice  him  to  a  scribe 
in  some  offlcc,  who  undertakes   to  make   bim 
a  'learned  scribe.'    The  child  accompanies  his 
muter  to  hto  ofllce  or  work-yaid,  and  there  pusses 
entire  months  in  copying  letters,  circulars,  legal 
dix-unienu,  or  accounts,  which  Le  does  not  at 
finit  uuderetand,  but  which  he  faithfully  remem- 
bers.   There  are  books  for  his  use  full  of  copies 
taken  from  weliknuwo  authura,  which  he  studies 
perpetually.     If  be  requires  a  brief,  precise  re- 
l><>rt.  tbto  is  how  Ennana  worded  one  of  hto:  — 
'  1  reached   Elephantine  anil    accomplished  my 
mi»«i(in.     I  reviewed  the  infantrv  ami  tliv  cbariot 
fildiers  from  the  temples,  ta  well  as  the  servants 
BD(I  subordinates  who  are  in  the  houses  of  Phsr- 
ai:h  s  .  .  .  olflciato.     Aa  my  journey  to  fur  the 
miriMise  of  making  a  report  in  the  presence  of 
Lis  Majesty,  .  .  .  the  course  of  my  business  is  aa 
rapiil  Hs  that  of  the  Nile ;  you  need  not,  there- 
(on>,  feel  anxious  about  me.'    There  is  not  a 
»ii|>rrtluous  word.     If,  on  the  other  hand,  a  pe- 
titit>D  in  a  nnrtical  style  be  requiiiHl,  see  how 
Pintotrit  asked  for  a  holiday.     ' My  heart  has 
Itft  me.  it  is  traveling  and  does  not  know  how 
to  return,   it  sees  thmphis  and  hastens  there. 
W.iiilil  that  I  were  in  its  place.     I  remain  here, 
Imiv  fiillowing  mv  heart,  which  endeavours  to 
driw  me  tuwanis  Memphis.     I  have  no  work  in 
haiKl.  mv  heart  to  tormented.     May  It  please  the 
fr»l  l*tah  to  lead  me  to  Memplils,  ami  do  thou 
Kr«nt  that  I  may  be  seen  walking  there.     I  am 
at  leisure,  my  heart  to  watching,  my  heart  Is  no 
liiuiier  in  my   bosom,   languor  has  seizeit  my 
lliiilw;   my  eye  to  dim,  my  ear  hanleue<l.   my 
v.ilif  fwble.  It  Is  a  failure  of  all  my  strength. 
I  pmy  thee  remedy  all  this.'     The  pupil  copies 
SDil  rt'cople*.  the  msster  inserts  forgotten  wonis, 
ri>m>cu  the  faulU  of  spelling,  ami  draws  on  the 
in^ririn  the  signs  or  groups  unskilfully  tractil. 
Wli.n  the  book  to  duly  finished  and  the  appren 
tiie  can  write  all  tlie  formulas  from  memory, 
IH'Hinns  of  phriaes  are  detached  from  them, 
«l>i<h  he  must  Join  together,  so  as  to  combine 
new  fnrmulas:    the  master  tlien  entrusu  him 
*:!:i  ihr  mmpositioil  „t  a  few  telten.  greiiualir 
Itx-nasing  the  number  and  adding  to  tlie  ilitll 
(u  ties     As  soon  aa  ha  baa  fairly  raastensi  the 
orlttiary  daUjr  IOuUm  hto  aduoUon  to  ended. 


and  an  unimportant  post  to  sought  for.  He  ob- 
tains it  and  then  marries,  becoming  the  head  of 
a  family,  sometimes  before  he  to  twenty  yean 
old;  he  has  no  further  ambition,  but  to  content 
to  vegetate  quietly  In  the  obscure  circle  where 
fate  has  thrown  him."— G.  Maspiro,  life  in 
Aneient  Egypt  and  Auyria,  eh.  1.  — "In  the 
schooto,  where  the  poor  scribe's  child  sat  on  the 
same  bench  beside  the  offspring  of  the  rich,  to  be 
trained  in  discipline  and  wise  Teaming,  the  raaa- 
ters  knew  how  by  timelv  words  to  goad  on  the 
lagging  diligence  of  the  ambitious  scholan,  by 
holding  out  to  them  the  future  reward  which 
awaited  youths  skilled  in  knowledge  and  letters. 
Thus  the  slumbering  spark  of  self-esteem  waa 
stirred  to  a  flame  in  the  youthful  breast,  and 
emulation  was  stimulated  among  the  boya  The 
clever  son  of  the  pjwr  man,  too,  might  hope  by 
hU  knowledge  to  climb  the  ladder  of  the  higher 
offices,  for  neither  his  birth  nor  position  nused 
any  barrier,  if  only  the  youth's  menul  power 
justified  fair  hopes  for  the  future.  In  this  sense, 
the  restremu  of  caste  did  not  exist,  and  neither 
descent  nor  family  hampered  the  rising  career  of 
the  clever.  Many  a  nmnument  consecrated  to 
the  memory  of  some  nobleman  gone  to  hto  long 
home,  who  during  life  had  held  high  rank  at  the 
court  of  Pharaoh,  to  decuratetl  with  the  simple 
but  laudatory  inscription,  'Hto  ancestors  were 
unknown  people. '  It  is  a  sattofaction  to  avow 
that  the  training  and  instruction  of  the  young 
interested  the  Egyptians  in  the  highest  degiw. 
For  they  fully  recognised  in  thto  the  sole  niV«ns 
of  cultivating  their  uatinnal  life,  and  of  fulfilling 
the  high  civiliilug  misbion  which  Providence 
seemeil  to  have  i)lacvd  in  their  hands.  But 
alHive  all  things  they  reganled  justice,  and  virtue 
bad  the  highest  price  in  their  eyes.  "—U.  Brugsch- 
Boy.  Hiet.  of  Kiiupt  under  the  Pharaoh;  t.  1,  p. 
i2. 

Babylonia  and  Assyria.  — "The  primitive 
I'lialileans  were  pre-eminently  a  literarv  people, 
and  it  is  by  their  literary  relics,  by  the  scattered 
(X)ntcuts  of  their  libraries,  that  we  can  know  and 
judge  them.  As  iH'fitted  the  inventors  of  a  sys- 
tem of  writing,  like  the  Chinese  they  set  the 
highest  value  (m  education,  even  mgh  exam- 
luationH  mav  have  Iweu  unknown  miong  them. 
E>lucHtliin.  liDWever.  was  widely  diffused.  .  .  . 
AssurlMtni-pal's  lilirnrv  was  o|K'n  to  the  use  and 
enjoyment  of  all  lii.t  siilijects.  auil  the  syltoluries, 
grammar!*,  lexii-ous,  and  reatliug-lxxAs  that  it 
conlaim-il.  show  the  extent  to  which  not  only 
their  own  languuijc  wan  studied  by  the  .issyrians. 
but  the  dealt  lauifiiage  •>(  ancient  .\ccaii  as  well. 
It  became  as  fashiimalilc  to  (i>ni|KMi-  In  this  ex- 
tinct tongue  iM  it  is  niiwa-ilays  to  display  one's 
pMflcieucy  in  Latin  prose,  aiid  '  ili)g-.\cn«li«u  ' 
was  |H'r|M'tmtiHl  with  as  little  reniowe  as  'dog- 
Ijitin  '  at  till'  iinwnt  time.  Dnc  of  the  Babylon- 
ian cylimlent  fnunit  by  Ueneral  di  Ccsnola  in  tba 
temple  ircasuri'  of  Kiirium.  which  probably  be- 
long*  |M  the  iK'ri'nl  of  Nebiichaiinezzar's  dynasty, 
has  a  li'Ki'Oil  nlilcb  endeavours  to  imitate  the 
inscnptiiins  of  the  early  Accadian  princes;  but 
the  Very  finl  wonl,  by  an  unhappy  error,  be- 
trays the  insuHtcient  khowle<lgr  of  the  old  Ian- 
image  iMWnesseil  by  Its  composiT.  Besides  a 
knowliilge  of  A(-caillan,  the  iilucated  Assyrian 
«»!«  n-iiiiinii  to  have  also  a  kiiiiwinigv  ot  Ara- 
maic, wliich  had  now  U-come  the  '  l.ugua  franca' 
of  trade  and  iliiiliimacr ;  and  we  find  tlie  Rab- 
shakeh  (liab-sakki),  or  prime  mintotcr,  who  was 


697 


EDUCATION. 


EDUCATION. 


imtaninitHeteUah  by  Srnnscherib,  acquainted 
with  Hebrew  a<  well.  The  Knunmatical  and 
leiicsi  works  In  the  library  of  Nineveh  are  r«- 
pecially  intereitins.  as  being  the  earliest  attempts 
of  the  kind  of  whfrh  we  know,  and  it  is  curious 
to  find  the  Hamiltonian  method  of  leaminj; 
bngusses  forestalled  by  the  scribes  of  Assur- 
bam-pal.  In  this  rase,  as  In  all  others,  the  fltst 
enquiries  Into  the  nature  of  speech,  and  the  first 
grammars  and  dk-tlonaries,  were  due  to  the  nv- 
ceasit V  of  comparing  two  languages  together :  It 
was  the  ArradUn  which  forml  the  Semitic  As- 
syrian or  Babylonian  to  study  his  own  tongue. 
And  already  in  these  flrat  efforts  the  main  princi- 
ples of  Semitic  grammar  are  laid  down  clearly 
and  definitely." — A.  H.  Sayee,  Hih^loni-iii  Lihrii- 
tun.  ftp.  71-72. — "The  Babvlonlans  were  the 
Chinese  of  the  ancient  worfd.  They  were  es- 
sentially a  reading  and  writing  people.  .  .  .  The 
books  were  for  the  most  pnrt  written  ui>on  clay 
with  a  wooden  rwil  or  mctnl  stylus,  for  day  wiis 


cheap  and  plentiful,  luid  easily  impre8.>ie<l  with 

;e-»liaiH' "  "' 
were  compostil.     But  besides  clay,  papyrus  und 


the  wpdge-sliaiHMl  lines  of  which  the  characters 


possibly  also  (mivhmcnt  were  employt-d'as  writ- 
ing materials.  .  .  .  The  u»e  of  ciavfor  writing 
purposes  exten<le<l.  along  with  Bal>y!<inlun  cul- 
turr,  to  the  ni'iglilNiuriiig  populations  of  the 
East.  ...  It  is  aatoniiliing  how  much  matter 
can  lie  comprewe<l  into  the  compass  of  a  siugle 
tablet.  The  cuneiform  sviitem  of  writing  allowi-il 
the  use  of  many  abbreviations  —  thanks  to  its 
•  ideographic '  nature  —  and  the  characters  wcr- 
fn'nuc-ntly  of  a  very  minute  size.  Indee<l.  »o 
minute  is  the  writing  on  nuny  of  the  Assyrian 
(as  distluguishcd  from  the  Babylonian)  tablets 
tliat  it  Is  clear  not  only  that  the  Assvrian  srrilM-s 
iind  reailers  mint  hiive  licen  dcifdeillv  short- 
siicliled.  but  also  that  tlier  must  have  uiaile  use  of 
m.ik'oifying  gliMw'H.  We  mtsi  not  U'  surpriseil, 
tli<nfiire.  to  Iftirn  that  Sir  A.  H.  I.,nyanl  ilis- 
cipvinnl  a  crystal  lens,  which  had  Nr'n  tumcil 
on  a  liitlie.  U|Kin  tlii-  site  of  llie  gr<-at  lilirary  of 
Xin**veh.  .  .  Tt»  Irarn  tlie  cumlform  svllatmry 
WHS  a  task  of  much  time  iind  lnN>ur  Tlu'  stii- 
diiit  was  acconlingly  pmvidiil  with  vuriou.* 
means  of  nwistancc.  Tlic  >'liiir»<  li  rs  of  tin-  syl- 
laliiiry  1  were  classitled  iiml  niuiitsl.  tiny  were 
further  iirranged  ai-c>)nliMi  to  a  uriiiiri  onler. 
whii'li  jHirtly  <li'[K*ndfd  oti  tlu-  nunilHTof  wedges 
or  lines  iif  n  hicli  cHcli  nuscumiiovd.  .Mon'over. 
wliat  wi-  may  term  diclioUiiries  were  iimipileil. 
To  liaru  the  signs.  !n.  vever.  with  llieir  mul- 
titiKlliioiis  phoni'lic  values  ami  idtsiirmpliie  sii; 
nitiiatiniis,  was  not  the  wlioleof  the  lalsHir  wliieli 
the  llalivloiiian  Isiy  liail  to  ncc-nniplish  The 
cum  ilMrin  s\  >leui  of  wrilinir,  along  with  the  ciil- 
tiiii'  Willi  li  )iail  pnsluod  it.  liml  In-en  tlie  inveii- 
lioh  nf  the  lion  St'iuilie  .VieHilo  Siinierian  niii. 
froir  .I'umi  it  Imd  Ins'n  iKirrowisI  by  the  S<>miles 
In  N  jiiitii  Imiiiistbesvlluliary  unili'meut  further 
miHlitleaiioiis  and  adAiiions.  but  it  Isire  U|ioii  it 
to  the  l.i-.t  till'  stamp  of  its  alien  origin.  On  this 
account  alone,  therefon-,  the  llabyloi  '  .  studenl 
who  wished  to  acquire  a  kliowleu,  reaaling 

niid  writing  was  otiliBe.1  to  lean  the  .ni  lau- 
jiiiaife  of  the  older  )K>piiliition  of  ||„  aintry 
Then-  was.  Iiowever.  Hnolher  reason  w  i..  'i  even 
inon-  im|M>rativelv  obllgisl  him  to  sti,dy  the 
rtflief  limswr.  .\  iarjrr  pninnrtion  of  tiir  in 
ch'ni  Ittenitim'.  mon'  esiwially  that  whiih  «•■ 
lalcsl  to  n'lliiiiiussiilije<'t'<.  was  written  In  Viiado 
Hunu'rian      Kveu  the  law  cases  of  earljir  times, 


which  formed  precedents  for  the  Uw  of  a  later 
age,  were  In  the  same  language.  In  fact,  Accaili). 
Sumerian  stood  in  much  the  same  relation  tci  ilu> 
Semitic  Babylonians  that  Latin  has  stood  to  the 
modem  inhabitanta  of  Europe.  .  .  .  Ib'siiU.) 
learning  the  syllabary,  theivfore,  the  BahylnDian 
boy  had  to  leara  the  extinct  language  of  Arnd 
and  Sumer.  .  .  .  The  study  of  foreign  timeim 
naturally  brought  with  It  an  inqulaitlveneKs  ulmut 
the  Unguages  of  other  people,  as  well  hs  a  ium- 
sion  for  etymology.  .  ,  .  But  there  wen-  nihtT 
things  besides  languages  which  the  Toiimr  stu- 
dent in  tlie  schools  of  Babylonia  and  Aiisyriavaa 
called  upon  to  leam.  Oeography,  hist'orv.  the 
name*  and  nature  of  planta,  blnls'  animals,  and 
stones,  as  well  as  the  elements  of  law  awl  n-. 
Ilgion,  were  all  objects  of  inatruction.  The  Ilrit- 
lab  Museum  possesses  what  nuy  be  callcl  the 
historical  exercise  of  some  Babylonian  1a<l  in 
the  age  of  Nebuchadnezzar  or  Cyrus,  iiinsi!,! 

ing  of  a  list  of  the  kings  behinging  In if 

the  early  dynaaties,  which  he  hailbeen  rii|iiinil 
to  leam  by  heart.  ...  A  considerable  iiM|sir 
tion  of  the  inhabitants  of  Babylonia  coiilil  n-nil 
and  write.  The  contract  tablets  are  written  in 
a  variety  of  running  hands,  some  of  nhii h  an- 
as Imd  as  the  worst  that  passes  through  the  ni  >i 
em  |K>st.  Every  legal  d(X!ument  reipiin.l  ilir 
signatures  of  a  numlier  of  witnesses,  and  imttt 
(if  these  were  able  to  write  their  own  namfs. 
.  .  In  Assyria,  howerer,  c<lucatiiin  wiis  by  n  i 
means  so  widely  spreatl.  A;iart  from  the  iifiptr 
and  professional  classes,  including  the  nun  I'f 
busiiieHS,  it  was  confined  to  a  "P*''''»l  '""l.t'  "' 
men  —  the  nubile  scribes.  .  .  .  Tlien'  was  nom- 
of  that  ieaioiis  excliuion  of  women  In  aiiriitit 
Babylonia  which  characterizes  the  Fjihi  nf  t.: 
day.  and  it  is  imiliable  that  iHiya  and  ifirls  pur 
s>ie<l  their  stiiiiirs  at  the  same  schools  I'lie  i-il)|. 
cation  of  a  cliilil  must  hare  begun  earl\  —  X 
II.  Havce,  Siaal  Lift  amnng  the  /t;'-»/.//ii.ii.«. 
ch.  8   ■ 

Chinm. — "It  is  not,  perhaps,  generally  known 
that  Peking  contains  an  .iM-ient  iinivi  r-.iiv :  f  >r 
though  certain  buihiings  i-oniR-<'te<l  with  ii  luv- 
lieen  fn-i|uciitly  descrflied,  the  instiliition  ilM-lf 
has  lN'4'n  Imt  little  notlcisl.  It  gives,  iiiilei.i|.>aif)ti: 
signs  of  life  that  It  Is  not  surprising  it  slmulil  hi- 
overlisikeil.  .  .  If  alocal  sltiialinii  IsileeiiiiiUn 
essi>ntl»l  eleiTii-nt  of  iileiitlty,  this  iilil  iiiiiveroity 
must  yielil  the  palm  of  age  to  iiianv  In  Kunin, 
for  In  its  pri'M-iit  site  It  dates,  al  n.ost,  only  fr-iu 
the  Yuen,  or  Mongol,  ilynaMv.  in  iii<-  iH-iriniiiui; 
of  tilt-  iourteenth  ei-ntiiry.  Ibit  a-,  an  ini|«  ri,il 
institution,  having  a  Hxisl  organi/Mtiim  ami  lif 
inite  (li.jct  ts.  it  carries  its  history,  or  at  li  i-t  its 
m-di^n-o,  Imck  to  a  pertisl  far  iiiti-ri-ir  t--  tlw 
foiiniling  of  the  (ireat  Wall  .Vni -iiirlhe  lli';:u 
latiiiiis  of  the  Mouse  of  ('how,  wliii  li  tlouri-he-i  :i 
llioiisnii'l  yeai'i  liefin-  the  (.  hristlnii  en.  v\-  nii»-t 
witli  ii  alrcHily  in  'nil  blown  vigor,  aii'l  iinli  riln- 
idi-iitiral  name  'vhi  h  I',  now  iM'ari..  that  of  K-i"l» 
/ekien.  or  ■,Hehi«i|  f..r  t'le  Sons.if  tin-  Kmnm- ' 
It  was  in  'Is  glory  Is  fore  the  liclil  "f  -lew'' 
i!awnis|  on  (lnv<v,  '»ni|  when  l'ytliairori«  and 
Plain  were  pumping  :heir  sjiri-is  from  tin- i>rii-«i» 
of  IIeli.i|Hilis  And  It  still  exists,  but  it  i«  «i>ly 
an  emtssliinent  of  life  in  det.:h:'  Us  halls  an- 
tairolM,  aiHl  its  officers  living  mummies     In  ihi- 

j:tth liis.kof :;,.  t 'ii.,wtei>r<- Tutes li.  T. i :i  -n 

diiction  par  (-/loiiar<l  lilni).  we  find  (In-  fumtmni 
of  thelleitila  nf  (he  Kwntsrekien  lai'l  .l.'»ll»ith« 
gi«»l  deal  of  inluuleonui      The  presldriits  wertW 


0U8 


KDCCATION. 


AneitHt 


KDUCATIOy. 


■dmoabh  the  Emperor  of  that  whkb  la  good  and 
jiut,  and  to  inatruct  the  Sona  of  the  State  In  the 
•three  conatant  virtuea'  and  the  '  three  pnctlcal 
duties  '—in  other  worda.  to  siTe  a  ooune  of  lee- 
turai  on  moral  philoaophy.  TTie  rice-presidenta 
were  to  reprove  the  Emperor  for  hi*  faiilu  (L  e., 
to  perform  the  dutj  of  official  cenion)  and  to  dia- 
dpline  the  Sona  of  the  State  in  the  Kiences  and 
irti— >ii.,  in  arithmetic,  writing,  music,  arch- 
nr,  horsemanship  and  ritual  ceremonies.  .  .  . 
The  old  curriculum  is  religiously  adhered  to,  but 
greater  latitude  is  given,  as  we  shall  have  occa- 
don  to  obserre,  to  the  term 'Sons  of  the  State.'  In 
the  lUvs  of  Chow,  this  meant  the  beir-appat«nt, 

Erinces  of  the  binod,  and  children  of  the  nobility 
niltr  the  Tataing  dynasty  it  signifles  men  of 
drfectire  wholarship  throughout  the  prorinces, 
who  purchase  literary  degrees,  and  more  speciflc- 
illy  certain  indigent  studeuts  of  Peking,   who 
sreaiile<t  by  the  imperial  Iniunty.    The  Kwotsze- 
kien  a  located  in  the  ni)rtlieiiiiu-m  angle  of  the 
Tsrurrity,  with  a  temple  of  Confucius  attached 
which  is  one  of  the  flnest  in  the  Empire.     The 
Diain  riMnre  (tiiat  of  the  temple)  comiists  of  a  sin- 
gle Mnry  of  imposing  height,  w  ith  a  porcebtin  tiof 
of  tent  like  curvature.  ...   It  contains  do  seats 
usil  comers  are  ex|>ecte<l  to  stiuiii  or  kneel  in 
pTMcniT!  of  the  Great  Teacher.     Neither  rtoj-s  it 
biisst  annhing  in  the  way  of  artistic  decoration, 
nor  eibiblt  any  trace  of  tliiit  neatness  anil  taste 
which  we  look  for  in  a  sncnii  iiliup.     Perhaiis  ita 
Tsit  area  is  liesigoetily  left  to  Jiiiit  and  emptiness, 
hi cnlir  that  nothing  may  intervene  to  disturb 
the  mind  In  the  contemplation  of  a  great  lume 
whii  h  ri-ci'ives  the  homage  of  a  nation.   ...  In 
ill  n.lja<rnt  block  or  s(|iiare  stands  a  pavilion 
known  »s  tht-  'Imperial  Lecturen«ini."  Iiecaime 
ItiiimumlM'nt  on  each  occupant  of  the  Draeon 
throni-  to  go  tbcrt-  at  least  once  in  hin  lirrtiini-  to 
bttr » ilisc.urse  on  the  nature  ami  nsiMinsihiliiies 
of  his  ortlce.  ...  A  canal  spanwii  by  marlile 
briiliri's  imirclcs  the  paviHon.  ami  arches  of  glit- 
leriiic  |>.)nelain.   in  rMillent  r.pair,  ailorn  the 
pomi.ls.     Hut  peither  Ihi'te  nor  the  pavilion  it- 
<elfr..n«Iitiite8  the  chief  attraction  of  the  place 
IwliT,!  hinitcorrichir  which  eniloncs  the  entire 
»piirr  limy  lie  B«'n  as  many  ns  one  humlreil  and 
riithiv  iuoct>luinnsof  iimwive  granite   each  In- 
<crilie.|  with  a  portion  of  the  cam.nicnl  iHH.ks 
Tli<«f  nri'the  '»<lone  Claitsicii'— the  entire  'Thir- 
twii.   whi.li  foniK  .|  the  staple  of  »  Chinese  oiii- 
iiiii.n  tuinKhcriMiiiihrimtlina  iimtirialsiipposiil 
ti)l«  iniiHTlBbal.le.      Amoiiii  all  llic   rniversities 
imli.' «,,rhl.  tlie   Kwiitazekien  is  iinii|iic  in  the 
pi»«.*,it,n  nf  »ii<  li  a  litirarv.     This  |h  n.il  im\nt\ 
the. .Illy  sl.me  lihrarv  extant —  Bii..||i.r  of  eiiiiai 
Mtiiil  Uin,'  foiiiKl  at  ,>»ini.'anf«.  tl.i' ancient  capi 
isi.if  ih..  Titnt!*.     Hut,  thut  t.Ki.  was  the  proiiertv 
01  Ih"  Kwotsiekh'n  ten  centuries  aifo.  wliin  .>4iii 
pn  wi.  the  m-at  of  empire.     The  •  ScIhhiI  for 
Ih.   s..ns  of  the  Umpire  '  must  nintls  foUow  the 
mi.TTitionsof  tlieniiirt;  ami  tliat  library,  costiv 
>iii  KAs.  iH-ingt.si  heavy  for  transiiorirtilun   (t 
vwih...ii.-ht  beat  t..  «upplv  its  place  by  the  new 
ftfiii-.i,  «hich  weliave  l)f.n  dewribing  In 

iMii!  "f  Die  temple  stamis  a  fort-st  of  •iilumin  ,>f 
«m  K  inferior  intere»t  Tliev  «irthn-e  hiimirt'.l 
soil  i«.  my  in  numU  r  ami  contain  the  univer. 
It^rull  „,  hom«..  a  com|ilele  list  of  all  wlio  simr 
■-  ■■  ■.■••!:!i--  If  the  inslitiiiiou  Uv.-  Hilaimti  lo 
Ihe  'i.-nitv  ..f  thed(K-l..rate  AUow  to  each  an 
«irrHi;,M,(  two  hundred  iiaines,  ami  we  have  nn 
a-aiv ,  .f  .|<ict4irs  siity  tbtmaaud  st  rong  !    ,  Bv  t  he 


6t)0 


doctorate  I  mean  the  third  or  hlgheat  degree.)  AU 
toe«i  received  their  investiture  at  the  KwoUie- 
Uen,  and,  throwing  themaelvea  at  the  feet  of  iu 
prerident,  enrolled  themaelvea  among  the  •  Sona 
of  the  Lmpire.'  They  were  not.  however  — at 
least  the  most  of  them  were  not—  in  any  tiroper 
sense  alumni  of  the  Kwotsaekien,  having  pirsued 
their  studies  in  private,  and  won  their  honors  by 
public  competition  In  the  halls  of  the  Civil-serv- 

i~. ^"'.   .^  ^'^ There  b  an  immense 

arro occupied  by  lecture-rooms,  examination-haila 
and  kxlKing-apanmenU.  But  the  visitor  is  liable 
to  unagine  that  these,  too.  are  consecrated  to  a 
monumental  use -so  rarely  is  a  student  or  a  pro- 
lessor  to  be  seen  among  them.  Otdinarilv  thcv 
are  as  desolate  as  the  lialls  of  Baalbec  or  Pal- 
■"/rS-  J°  f«it  this  great  schcx.l  for  the  'Sona 
ot  tbe  Empire  has  long  ceased  to  be  a  seat  of 
instniction.  ami  degenerated  into  a  mere  append- 
age of  the  civil  mrvice  competitive  examinatlona 
on  which  It  hangs  as  a  dead  weight,  corruptinir 
and  delwsing  instead  of  a<ivancing  the  standard 
of  national  .Klucation.  — W.  A.  P.  .Martin  Tht 
tAin».  Ihfir  tkiuentitm.  Philomphy  and  Ittlert, 

Peraia — "All  the  best  authorities  are  aKree<i 
tiiat  gr.ttt  pains  were  taken  by  the  Persians  — 
or,  at  any  rate,  bv  those  of  the  leading  clans  — in 
the  ediuation  of  their  s.ins.      During  the  drat 
Ave  yeara  of  lii.  life  the  boy  nmaininl  wholly 
with  the  women,  ami  was  8<-arcelv,  if  at  M  seen 
by  his  father.     After  that  time  bis  training  com- 
memvd.     He  was  exiiected  to  rise  l-fore  dawn 
and  to  appear  at  a  i-ertain  spot,  where  he  was 
exercised  with  other  Ixiys  of  Ids  age  in  runninir 
slinirinir   stones,   sh.Hiting   with  the   Uiw.   ami 
throwing  the  javelin.     At  seven  lie  was  taught 
to  rtdc,  and  soon  afu'rward  he  was  aHoweil  to 
begin  to  hunt.     The  riding  included,  not  <inlv 
the  <inlinary  manairenient  of  the  horse,  but  the 
power  of  jiimpinit  on  and  oir  his  l>a<k  wlieu  lie 
was  at  »p<iil,  and  of  8li<M)tin«  with  the  liow  ami 
throwing  the  javelin  with  unerring  aim   while 
the  horse  w.is  still  at  full  galh.p.     The  huntinir 
was  conducted  by  sUte-olticers,    wIid  aimed  at 
fonning  by  its  means  in  the  youths iDinmitted  to 
lliiir  charge  all   the  ijualiths  m-etlwl   in   wjr 
The  lioys  wen-  made  lo  iMvir  <\trenii's  i.f  h,„t 
ami  cold,  to  (Mrforni  long  marches,  to  en  >s»  rivers 
without  wettinK  their  weapons,  to  sl.np  in  llie 
o|H'ii  air  at  niirhl.  to  W  content  with  a  nincle 
meal  In  two  davs,  ami   to  supjiort  tlieinsilves 
oivasiiinally  on  thf  wil,|  pn«liict«of  the  country, 
acnnis,  wild  |«ars  ami  the  fruit  of  the  ten>liinth- 
tnr      (In  days  »li.  n  thir.-  was  no  hunting  they 
paiiiM.ll  ihrir  inoniiMi.'»  in  allihlic  ixircises  and 
cont.-sts  with  the  Ix.w  or  Hit-  javtlin.  after  which 
they  diiinl  simply  on  the  plain  f.KHl  inenthmed 
alHive  as  ihiit  .>r  (In-  niin  in  the  earlv  times,  and 
thi'n  employ. d  l!iini«.lves  duriiii:  llie  afternoon 
in  (a'inpnii..iis  nitanhil  as  not  illilH'ral  — for  in- 
stance, in  till'  pursuits  of  a^rriciilturi',  plttnting 
iliu'iriiiL'  for  r.«.i»,  and  the  like,  or  iu  ilie  eon- 
striiition  ,.f  arms  and  hunlini;  implemenu,  suih 
as  mis  .Old   spriutf.-s.      Ilanlv   and   teiiiiwrate 
habits  Ising  M-ciiriHl  by  this  training,  the  in.lnt 
of  morals  on  wliiili  their  pniTplora  mainly  In- 
Msliil  wiis  the  rigid  olmervan<.|'  of  truth,     (if  ii|. 
lellei'tiial  education  they  bail  but  iliili.      Jt  m-  !•.•« 
lo  tiave  iH-eu  no  |ian  of  the  n-guiar  training  of  a 
I'lTsiaii  yoiiib  that  he  shoiilii  leani  to  read.     He 
w^as  irlv.n  ri'liiioiisnothiiuiand  a  ivrtain  iimoiin: 
of    moral    knowledge  by   means  of    legeudary 


IDUCATION. 


EDCCATION. 


poems,  iu  which  the  dcedi  of  goda  >ad  heroM 
were  let  before  him  by  hii  teachen,  who  recited 
or  sung  them  In  hli  preeenoe,  and  afterwuda  re- 
quired him  to  repeat  wtiat  Ite  luul  lieard,  or,  at 
any 'rate,  to  gire  aome  account  of  it  This  educa- 
tioo  continued  for  fifteen  years,  commencing 
when  tlie  boy  waa  fire,  and  terminating  when  lie 
readied  the  age  of  twenty.  The  effect  of  tills 
training  wss  to  render  tlie  Persian  an  excellent 
soldier  and  a  most  accomplished  horseman.  .  .  . 
At  fifteen  years  of  sge  the  Persian  wss  con- 
sidered to  MTe  attaiiMd  to  manhood,  and  wss 
enrolled  in  the  ranks  of  the  army,  continuing 
liable  to  military  service  from  that  time  till  be 
reached  the  age  of  fifty.  Those  of  the  highest 
tank  became  the  body-guard  of  the  king,  and 
these  formed  the  garrison  of  the  cspltsl  .  .  . 
Others,  though  liable  to  military  serrice,  did  not 
adopt  arms  ss  their  profession,  but  attached 
themselves  to  the  Court  and  looked  to  cirll  em- 
ployment, as  satraps,  aecretarlea,  attendants, 
ushers.  Judges,  inspectors,  messengers.  .  .  .  For 
trade  and  commerce  the  Perslana  were  wont  to 
express  extreme  contempt. "— O.  RawUnson,  l%t 
/Vw  Orsof  JfonartUf  of  tke  Aneunt  Eatttm 
Warld,  e.  »,  pp.  3aB-M3.— After  the  death  of 
Cyrus,  according  to  Xenophon,  the  Peislans  de- 
generated, in  tM  education  of  their  youth  and 
otherwise.  "To  educate  the  youth  at  the  gates 
of  the  palace  Is  still  the  custom,"  he  says:  "but 
the  attainment  and  practice  of  tiorsemsinship  are 
extinct,  because  they  do  not  go  where  they  can 

(ain  applause  by  exhibiting  skill  in  that  exercise. 
V'licreas,  too,  in  former  times,  the  boys,  hearing 
rausfs  Jiatly  decided  there,  were  considered  by 
timt  means  to  learn  Justice,  that  custom  is  alto- 
gcllier  nkrred .  for  they  now  see  those  gain  their 
causes  wito  offer  tlie  highest  bribes.  Formerly, 
also,  boys  were  taught  the  virtues  of  the  various 
prtMluctionsof  the  i-arth,  hi  order  that  they  might 
use  the  fierviceat)le,  and  avoid  the  noxiiAis ;  but 
now  they  wvui  to  be  taught  those  particulars 
that  they  may  <lo  as  much  liarra  as  nissible ;  at 
least  tlH-rc  are  nowhere  ao  many  killeu  or  iiijiirvd 
by  poison  as  in  tliat  country." — Xenonlion.  l)/m- 
podia  and  IMknif;  tram,  by  J.  S.  n'atmn  and 
U.  VaU.  i>i>.  art-atM 

Jndssa. — "Aroirding  to  the  stalrnirnt  uf  Jo- 
sephus.  Muses  luul  already  preMTilHil  '  that  buys 
should  learn  tlie  nxwt  important  lawn.  IxKsuse 
that  U  the  best  knowlctlgi-  aud  the  ruuiu'  of  pros- 
|M-rity.'  '  He  comnuniltil  tu  instruct  childn'n  in 
tlic  elements  of  Ituuwled^e  (n.-a<linK  ami  writ- 
ing), to  teach  them  to  walk  accnrcliug  to  tlie 
laws,  and  to  know  the  dee<ls  of  their  fiinfutlifn. 
The  Utter,  that  they  might  imlute  them,  the 
fonm'r,  tlut  growing  up  with  tiie  laws  they 
might  not  transgress  them,  cor  have  the  excuse 
of  ignorance.'  Joaephus  repeatedly  cnmmeniis 
the  zeal  with  which  the  instruction  of  the  voung 
was  carried  on.  '  We  take  moat  pains  of  afl  witL 
tlif  instruction  of  children,  anil  esteem  the  ob- 
servance of  tiie  laws  ami  tlH-  piety  oorrespMuiiing 
with  them  tlie  moat  important  affair  of  our  whole 
llfi'  '  'If  anv  line  shouki  oucstiun  one  of  us uin- 
nrnhig  the  Uws,  he  would  mote  easily  repeat 
all  than  his  own  name.  Since  we  iram  llicm 
from  our  lirM  iiiust'iouiiness,  we  havi*  tliuiii,  ss  It 
were,  eugravt'u  on  our  souls;  and  a  traiiatfression 
1=  rare,  twit  the  averting  of  pUiil-itiiin-Hl  mij?-)*il 
bir  '  In  like  cianner  does  Pnllo  pxpniw  himself : 
'  Since  the  Jews  esteem  llieir  laws  as  divine  revc- 
lathwa,  and  are  instructed  in  the  knowledge  uf 


them  from  their  earlieM  youtl^  they  bear  the 
Image  of  the  Uw  in  their  souls.' ...  In  vhw  of 
all  this  testimony  it  cannot  be  doubtt^l,  tlut  is 
the  drdea  of  genuine  Judaism  ooys  win-  iraa 
tlieir  tenderest  childhood  made  acquaiuttil  with 
the  demands  of  the  law.  That  this  education  is 
the  law  was,  in  tiie  first  pUce,  the  duty  and 
taak  of  parents  is  self-evidenL  But  it  appcara. 
that  even  In  the  age  of  Christ,  can-  was  alw 
taken  for  the  Instruction  ol  youth  by  ilu-  tnc- 
tion  uf  schools  on  the  part  of  the  comiiiuiii' v 
The  later  tradition  that  Joahiu  ben  Uanila'iJititt 
the  son  of  Oamallel)  enacted  that  teachcn,  of  Imn 
.  .  .  should  be  appointed  in  eveiy  proviwi'  ami 
in  every  town,  and  that  chlMren  of  I  lie  anv  uf  sii 
or  seven  should  be  brought  to  them,  is  l>v  m 
meana  incredible.  The  only  Jesus  ilie  «.«  of 
Gamaliel  known  to  hiatory  U  the  hi^h  pritst  uf 
that  name,  about  68-49  after  Christ.  .  .  .  Ii  niun 
therefore  be  he  who  Is  Intended  in  the  alaivr  mv 
tice.  As  his  measures  presuputise  a  M^nitKliat 
longer  rxistence  of  boys  schools,  we  inav  «iili. 
out  hesitation  transfer  them  to  the  see  iif'riiri< 
even  though  not  as  a  general  and  esiubli.shiil  m- 
atltution.  The  aubject  of  instruction,  us  ainaj; 
appean  from  the  above  passage:)  of  J.Mpljua 
and  Phllo,  waaaa  good  as  exclusively  ilic  law 
For  only  its  inculcation  In  the  yiiutl'iful  miuii 
and  not  the  meana  of  geurnti  e<luctiti<iu.  via 
tht.  aim  of  all  this  zeal  for  the  iiistrui  ii«D  of 
youth.  And  indeed  the  earliest  iiistruciion  «u 
in  the  reading  and  inculcation  of  ihc  lot  of 
scripture.  .  .  .  Habitual  practice  ni:H  baiul  in 
hand  with  theoretical  Instruction.  For  ilii>ui;ii 
children  were  not  actually  Imund  to  fultil  tW 
law,  they  were  yet  acrustonied  to  it  from  thrir 
youth  up."— E.  8chQn-r,  Hittwy  ./  tl„  Jt^ruk 
nopU  in  tht  time  of  Jttut  Chritt,  r.  i.  ;<ji.  i'Jd. 
—In  the  fourth  century  B.  C.  the  {"iuk  il  i.f  M- 
enty  Elden  "instituted  rrgiilurly  npiu'inied 
readings  from  the  Law ;  i«  every  stibbaih  ami  on 
every  week  day  a  portion  from'  tlic  I'lniaiiucli 
was  to  be  read  to  the  assembli'l  con^  <  caiiua 
Twice  a  wi-ek,  when  the  coinitri.  |nc.|.i.  (an» 
up  from  the  villages  to  market  lii'thi  m  i^-lilaiur- 
ing  towns,  or  to  appeal  at  the  courtn  <'(  j  mm. 
some  verses  of  the  Pentateuch.  bo«i\,r  tr« 
were  reail  publicly.  At  first  onlv  th.'  I.ani«t 
were  allowed  to  read,  but  at  last  ft  u:ih  Imilieil 
upon  as  so  great  an  honour  to  Ik  lom;  in  thr 
reaiiera,  tliut  every  one  attrniptid  nrdi^jriil  in 
do  so.  Unfortunately  tlie  cbunu  |<  r>  in  uhiili 
the  Tonh  was  written  wen'  luinllv  nail.il<lr 
Until  that  date  the  text  of  the  Tomh  In.l  lurn 
written  In  the  ancient  style  wiih  I'limiiiian 
or  old  Babylonian  charaflers,  wbiili  iMiililuoIr 
be  decipbennl  by  piuctisetl  M-riUv..  .  Fnim 
the  constant  eadiug  of  the  Ijiw,  llnn-  ar<« 
amimg  the  JuiheaDS  an  intellectual  ariivily  and 
vigour,  which  at  last  gave  a  aiM-cial  ciiaractfr 
to  the  whole  nation.  The  Tomb  !«< ;iim  ilirir 
spiritual  and  intellectual  property,  uiui  ilKtruan 
inner  sanctuary.  At  this  lime  "tl»rf  spninu  up 
other  important  institutionji.  num.  !y  •«  In**. 
where  the  young  men  could  stiun.Iiilr  liuirat 
dour  snd  increase  their  knowb'<lk!i  'f  tin  I.aa 
and  its  teachings.  The  iutellectiial  InuUm  uf 
tile  |)eoplc  continually  enjoiixd  mi  il"  fi»i«!! 
generation,  'Bring  u|i  s  great  nuiiiy  di^ipln' 
AntI  what  tl«ry  cajulord  3t>  sin  :;i".-'y  '!»■? 
themselves  must  have  asslsteil  I"  an'oniplali 
One  of  these  ndlitlous  scIhs.U  ill.  Ih  \Va«llwa« 
piubaUy  csUbliabcd  iu  Jerusalem     rUc  tcadi' 


700 


EDUCATION. 


Plata  and  ArUtolU. 


EDUCATION. 


en  were  oiled  KtibM  (lopheriin)  or  wbe  men 
tbe  ditdplea.  puptla  of  the  «i«e  (Talmude  Cha- 
eturnim).    Tbe  wlae  men  or  mibei  had  a  two- 
fold work;  on  the  one  hand  they  had  to  explain 
the  Torah,  and  on  the  other,  to  make  the  laws 
tppUcable  to  each  individual  and  to  the  commu- 
nity at  larae.    This  lupulementary  ioterpreU- 
tim  wa»  called  'explanation'  (Midrash);  it  was 
mrt  altogether  arbitrary,  but  rested  upon  ceruin 
rult-s  laid  down  for  the  proper  interpretntion  of 
iIht  law.    Tbe  supreme  council  and  tbe  liouscs  of 
Inmittg  worked  together,  and  one  completed  the 
othir     A  hardly  perceptible,  but  must  import 
sst  morement  was  tbe  result :  for  tbe  descend 
tnu  uf  the  Judmns  of  that  age  were  endowed 
with  a  chancteristic,  which  thcv  might  other- 
wine  have  claimed  a*  inborn,  the  taleut  for  rc- 
vsrch  and  the  intellectual  penetration,  neede<l 
for  tumbig  and  returning  wonis  and  daU,  Ui 
onlcr  to  dbcover  some  new  and  hidden  mean- 
ing."—H.  Oraetz,  UM.  nf  the  Jtin,  r    1   cA  20 
-ScbooU  of  the  Prophets.—'-  In  hia  ISBmuel'si 
time  we  first  hear  of  what  in  modem  phraseology 
at  called  the  Schools  of  the  PropheU.     What- 
f  ter  be  the  precise  meanio,;  of  the  wculiar  word, 
wiiich  now  cnme  first  into  use  as  the  designation 
of  tlii-se  companies.  It  U  evident  that  their  im 
meiliute  mission  cunsiiiti^l  in  uttering   religious 
hymns  or  sougs,  acconipnnled  by  musical  instru- 
ments—psaltery, ubret.  pijie  ajiil  harp,  and  cym- 
lisls     lu  tliem,  as  in  the  few  solitary  instanres 
of  their  predecesson,  the  characteristic  element 
wss  lUiit  the  silent  seer  of  visions  found  an  articu- 
l»l<-  vokv,  gushing  forth  in  a  rhythmical  flow, 
wliii  h  St  once  riveted  the  attention  of  the  hearer 
The*-,  or  such  as  these,  were  the   gifu  whicli 
umler  Samuel  were  now  organized.  If  one  may 
•sy  so,  into  a  system.  "—Dean  Stanlev,  Ltet:  on 
tin  llift.  of  the  Jtvith  Churrh,  leet.  IH.' 

Greece.- A  description  of  the  Athenian  educa- 
ti..n  of  tlie  young  is  given  by  Plato  In  one  of  his 
.imloirues:  "Education,"  he  says,  "and  a<imoni- 
11.11  nimmence  in  the  first  years  of  childhood 
«n.l  l;i»t  to  the  very  end  of  life.      Mother  ami 
miiv  Hiid  father  and  tuUir  are  quarrelling  almut 
ih.  Iiiiiinivement  of  the  chihl  as  soon  as  ever  he 
i»  uliU-  to  uiKleiatand  them :  he  cannot  say  or  do 
•n.Mliinif  wiihout  their  setting  forth  to  him  that 
t  lis  IS  juHt  and  that  U  unjust;  this  is  hoiKiunible 
tliat  la  dishonourable;  this  is  holv.  tliat  in  unholy 
d»  this  and  abstain  fmm  that.     And  if  he  obeys' 
well  and  giMid;   If  not,  he  is  straightened  by 
thnats  and  blows,  like  a  piece  of  warpetl  wood 
At  a  later  stage  they  send  him  to  teacher*,  and 
fiij"m  them  to  see  to  his  manners  even  more  than 
to  111.  nading  and  music;  and  the  teachers  do  as 
llii\  uri' desired.     And  when  the  Ixiv  has  leameti 
Ills  I.  Iters  and  is  beginning  to  underitand  what  is 
wniti'n,  as  before  he  understood  only  what  was 
•pokin,  they  put  into  hia  hands  the  works  of  great 
p<|«t»  which  ht  reads  at  s«hool ;  in  these  ar« con 
tainol  many  admonitions,  and  many  tales    and 
[iraises   and  encomia  of  ancient   famous  men, 
«biih  he  Is  required  to  learn  by  heart,  in  order 
hat  be  may  imiute  or  emuhte  them  and  desire 
!.■  iKwrne  like  them.    Then,  again,  the  tea.  hers 
of  the  lyre  take  simifau'  care  that  their  voung  dis- 
ciple Is  temperate  and  geu  into  no  mischief;  and 
wben  they  have  tMight  him  the  use  of  the  lyre, 
"*>'  '•'=«''=»lu«r  him  lo  the  pociM  of  oUier  e»«l-   , 
rk!.'^^  *•«;"•»»»  lyric  poeu;  and  these  ! 
ifj*»  •"  ?"^'  *^  ""k*  *^r  harmonies  and  ! 
riiythiia  itiUte  foailkr  to  the  chiUieD.  in  order  j 


701 


that  they  mar  learn  to  be  more  gentle,  and  har- 
monious, and  rhythmical,  and  so  moie  fitted  tor 
speech  and  action;  for  the  life  of  men  in  erirv 
part  has  need  of  harmony  a. id  rhythm     Then 
they  send  thein  to  the  master   .'  gymnastic,  in  order 
that  their  bodies  may  better  minister  to  the  vir- 
tuous mind,  and  that  the  weakness  of  their  bodies 
may  not  forci-  them  to  play  the  coward  In  war  or 
on  any  other  occasion.    This  U  what  is  done  by 
tnose  who  haVB  the  means,  and  those  who  have 
the  means  are  the  rich ;  their  children  begin  edu- 
cation (Mwnest  and  leave  off  latest.     When  they 
have  done  with  ma.sters,  the  state  again  compels 
them  to  learn  the  laws,  and  live  after  tlie  pattern 
which  they  furnish,  ami  not  after  their  own  fan- 
ciei, ;  anil  just  a^  in  learning  to  write,  the  writing- 
master  flrst  dniws  lines  with  a  style  for  the  use 
or  the  .voung  Uginner,  and  gives  "him  the  tablet 
«id  makes  him  follow  the  lines,  so  the  city  draws 
till-  Uws,  which  Win"  the  invention  of  good  hiw- 
givers  who  were  of  old  times;  these  are  given  to 
the  young  man,  in  onler  to  guide  him  in  his  cm- 
duct  whether  as  ruler  or  niled ;  and  he  who  trans- 
gresses tlii-ni  is  to  be  corrw  tid,  or.  In  other  words 
culleil  to  account,  which  is  a  term  usi-d  not  only 
in  your  country,  but  ahm  in  many  others.     Now 
when  tliere  is  all  thU  care  alxiut  virtue  private 
and  public,  why,  Socrates,  do  you  still  wonder  and 
doulit  whether  virtue  can  be  taught  ?  "—Plato 
Pntaijonu  {Diiilogtia ;  tmu:  hj/  Jovtll,  r   1) — 
The  iileas  of  Aristotle  on  the  subject  are  in  the 
following ;  •  •  There  ran  ln'  no  doubt  tliat  children 
slioiild  be  taught  those  useful  things  which  are 
rvally  n.'cessary.  but  not  all  things;  for  occuiia- 
tions  are  divided  into  liberal  and  illilieral ;  and  to 
young  children  should  be  lniparte<l  only  such 
kinds  of  knowledge  as  will  U'  useful  to  them 
w  ithout  viilgariring  them.    And  any  occupation 
art,  or  scienci-,  which  makes  the  Uxly  or  s«)ul  or 
mmd  of  the  freeman  less  fit  for  the  practice  or 
exercise  of  virtue,  is  vulgar;  whervfore  we  call 
those  arts  vulgar  wliKli  tend  to  deform  the  UkIv 
and  likewise  all  paid  employmenU,  for  they  ab- 
«<>rb and  degrade  the  mind.     There  are  aUiaoine 
lilH'ral  arta  quite  proper  for  a  freenutn  to  ai'iiuire 
but  only  in  a  certain  degn-e.  and  if  he  attend 
to  them  t(Hj  cUisely.  In  onler  to  olitain  p<Tfe<il,>u 
in  them,  the  same  evil  effects  will  follow      The 
object  also  which  a  man  sets  tn'fore  liim  makes  a 
gn-at  dUTen-nce:  if  he  does  or  learns  anything 
for  his  own  sake  or  for  the  sake  of  his  friebcN  or 
with  a  view  to  excellence,  the  action  will  not  ap- 
pear illiberal ;  but  if  done  for  the  sake  of  others, 
the  very  same  action  will  lie  thought  menial  and 
servile.     The  reivived  subjecu  of  instruction,  as 
I  have  alreaily  ninarkiil.  art  partly  of  a  liU'ral 
and  partly  of  an  lllilierHl  character  "  Thi'  custom, 
ary  branches  of  iiluoatioii  an-  In  number  four; 
they  are  — (1)  reading  and  writing,  (J)  gymiuutlc 
exercises.  (3)  music,  lo  which  is  sometimes  addetl 
(4)  drawing.    Of  these,  reailing  and  writing  and 
drawing  are  regarded  as  useful  for  the  purposes 
of  life  in  a  variety  of  ways,  and  gyiiinaatic  exer- 
cises are  thought  to  infuse  cmiragc.     Conci'ming 
music  a  doubt  may  lie  ralse<i— in  our  own  dav 
moat  men  cultivate  it  for  tlie  sake  of  pletuurv 
but  ,)riginally  It  was  Included  in  education,  bc- 
causi'  nature  herself,  as  has  been  often  said,  re- 
quires that  we  should  be  able,  not  onlv  to  work 
well,  but  to  use  leisure  well:  tor.  as  f  must  re- 
prat  once  «nd  again,  the  first  principle  of  all 
action  Is  kisutv.     Bo<'.  arc  required,  but  lelaut« 
i*  betU'r  than  occupation ;  and  tlwivfoiti  the  que*- 


EDUCATION. 


antk 
SdkooUif. 


EDUCATION. 


ItoD  muft  be  Mk(d  in  good  eunett,  what  ought 
we  to  do  when  >t  leisure  t  C1e«rI.T  we  oug^it 
not  to  be  >mu*ing  ounelvet,  for  then  unuiement 
would  be  tlH-  end  of  life.  But  If  this  is  in- 
cnnrriTftble,  ind  yrt  smld  aerious  occupations 
•muwmrnt  i!<  Dfedi-d  mon-  than  at  other  timet 
(for  bf  »  ho  is  hard  at  work  has  need  of  relax- 
ation, an<t  amusement  gix's  n'laxatioD,  whereat 
ocrupatiim  is  always  at  0(>m|>aaie<l  with  exertion 
and  rffort ).  at  suitable  times  we  should  introdure 
amusements,  and  they  should  lie  our  meilicinet, 
for  the  i-motion  which  they  create  in  the  soul  is  a 
relaxation,  and  from  lli''  pleasure  we  obtain  rest. 
...  If  is  clear  then  lliat  there  are  blanches  of 
learning  and  nlucation  which  we  must  study 
with  a  vi«-w  to  the  enjorment  of  leisure,  and 
thewarr  i-ibevaluett  for  tWir  own  sake;  whereas 
thow  kiniis  nf  knowled^  which  are  useful  in 
busiiK  •.«  »rf  to  be  d«»-m«l  ni'cessary.  and  exist 


for  the  sake  of  othe- 
fathrrs  admitted  mi 

round  cither  of  f 
ncit  necessary.      >t 
manner  as  n'wl''      i 
in  money-mak,. 
hold,  in  the  m 
politicHi  life,  nc 
correct  iudgmi 
lib 


ngi.  And  therefore  our 
>lo  p-liieation.  not  iin  the 

V  salt/  or  utility,  for  it 
ed  ''seful  in  the  same 

1  >.iDf,  which  are  >i.->efiil 
inaitement  of  a  honse- 
of  knowledge  ami  in 

.rawing,  useful  for  a  more 

the  works  of  artists,  nor 
•  ■^ain  like  gymnastic,  which  gives  health  and 
tfrengih:  for  neither  of  these  is  to  be  gained 
from  music.  There  remains,  then,  the  use  nf 
music  for  intellectual  enjoyment  In  leisure; 
which  api)ear»  to  have  been  the  reason  of  Its  in- 
tmluction.  this  being  one  of  the  ways  in  which  It 
is  tliought  that  a  freeman  sliould  pain  his  leisure. 
.  ,  .  We  are  now  in  a  position  to  say  that  the 
ancli-nts  witness  to  us:  for  their  opinion  mar  )>e 
gathcreil  from  the  fact  that  music  is  one  of  the 
rec<-ive<l  and  traditional  branches  of  e<lucation. 
Further,  it  is  clear  that  children  should  be  in- 
Mnirti'il  in  some  useful  things. —  for  example,  in 
reading  itnd  writing. — not  only  for  their  useful- 
ness, but  also  because  mnnr  other  sons  of  knowl- 
e<lge  are  acqulrett  through  them.  With  a  like 
view  thev  may  he  taught  drawing,  not  to  pre- 
vent their  making  mistakes  In  their  own  piir- 
ch»se«.  or  in  onier  that  Ihey  may  not  he  lni|i<ise<l 
uium  in  the  Imying  or  selling  of  articles,  but 
rather  t)ecause  it  makes  them  judgesof  the  beauty 
of  the  human  form.  To  be  always  seeking  after 
the  useful  does  not  become  free  and  exalted  <<<>uls. 
.  .  ,  We  reject  the  professional  instruments  ami 
also  the  pnifessional  mode  of  education  in  music  — 
ami  by  professional  we  mean  that  which  is  itdopted 
In  cont»-sts,  for  in  this  the  |wrforroer  practises  the 
art.  not  for  the  sake  of  bit  own  iniproTcment.  but 
in  onier  to  give  pleasure,  and  that  of  a  vidgar 
tort,  to  hit  hearere.  For  thit  reason  the  execu- 
tion of  such  music  is  not  the  part  of  a  freeman 
but  of  a  paid  performer,  and  the  result  is  tliat  the 
performers  are  vulgarized,  for  the  end  at  which 
they  aim  it  bad. "— Arittotle,  l\)lttie*  (Jmrtllg 
TrivisMinn},  hk.  8.— "The  most  tttlking  differ- 
euce  U'tween  early  Oreek  educatioa  and  ourt  wat 
unilouliledly  this:  that  the  physical  development 
of  boys  was  attended  to  in  a  special  place  and  by 
a  sp<-eia]  master.  It  was  not  thought  tufflcient 
for  them  to  play  the  chance  cames  of  chlldhoud : 
tlM-y  underweot  careful  bodUy  tntining  under  a 
verv  flxed  lyitem.  which  was  detenniiMd  by  the 
athletic  rontetu  of  after  life.  .  .  .  When  we  com- 

Cre  what  the  Oreekt  afTorded  to  their  boTs,  we 
d  It  divided  into  two  cuntnMd  kinds  of  exer- 


cise: hunting,  which  was  practised  bv  the  Spar- 
tans very  luenly,  and  no  doubt  also  ■  y  the 
Eleaos  and  Arcadians,  as  msy  be  se  i.  (n)ni 
Xenophon's  •Tract  on  (Hare)  Ilimiink-'.  snd 
gymnastics,  whiili  in  the  case  of  boys  ».  -,•  ru- 
ried  on  in  the  to-called  paUettra,  a  tort  .i  ..peg. 
air  armnasium  (in  our  sense)  kept  by  |,n\  nti.  in. 
divtdtuls  aa  a  tpeculation,  and  to  which  tin  Iwiyi 
were  sent,  as  thev  were  to  their  ordinan  -  1)..,' 
matter.  We  find  that  the  Spartans,  w,<>  I, 
ample  icope  for  hunting  with  dogt  in  iIh'  t!  . 
and  coverts  of  Mount  Taygetus,  rather  il'-^,- . 
mere  exercises  of  dexterity  in  the  paUestrii  jii-r 
as  our  sportsmen  would  think  very  little  of  ^l.  ..| 
ing  houn  in  s  gymnasium.  But  those  lirerk^  ;i.> 
lived  in  towns  like  Athens,  and  in  the  mid^i  nf  i 
thickly  populated  and  well-cultivatiMl  ciiunir)-, 
could  not  possibly  obtain  hunting,  and  tlien-fn'ri' 
found  the  most  efficient  aubttitute.  Still  no  Hn<! 
them  very  fsr  behind  the  English  in  their  kirns  i 
edge  or  "taste  for  out-of-door  games.  ...  The 
Greeks  ha<t  no  playgMunds  Iwyond  the  nslsstrs 
or  gymnasium:  thiey  had  no  piaygroiiDils  in  i>ui 
sense,  and  though  »  few  proverlm  spi-sk  of  swim. 
ming  as  a  universnl  accomplltliiiu-nt  which  Imvi 
leamnl.  the  tileix-r  of  Oreek  literature  on  tbe 
subject  makes  one  very  suspicious  aa  to  the  ki-n- 
erelity  of  such  training.  .  .  .  lu  one  point,  cer- 
tainly, the  Oreekt  agreed  more  with  the  nvulrni 
Engfith  than  with  any  other  civilised  iistion. 
They  regarded  tport  at  a  really  s— '  ■"«  thinit. 
.  .  .  The  namea  applied  to  the  ex«  •  ,.Iii«« 

indicate  their  principal  uses.  Pal«^.  ,  means  i 
wrestling  phfv ;  gymmwium  originally  a  plan'  fnr 
naked  exercise  but  the  word  early  lo"t  this  ecu- 
notation  and  i  ime  to  mean  mere  pbyaital  train, 
ini:  .  .  .  Inirder  to  leave  home  aiid  ri-:u  h  ih( 
paiiestra  safely  at  well  as  to  return,  (Sr. .  k  hnij 
were  putundir  the  charge  of  a  jinKlagoKiii-  iniio 
way  to  be  ideniifled  (as  it  now  is)  k  ith  asilioimiu 
ter.  .  .  .  I  think  we  may  be  Justified  ill  a«srniB|: 
that  thesiiidv  i  f  '!«•  epic  poets,  espt-ciallv  if  ibf 
Iliad  and  (JiIvsk  y  was  the  earliest  intrlii-itiu: 
exereise  of  scn<Hil)>i>yt,  and,  in  the  case  of  (airly 
educated  parents,  even  anticipateil  the  learri  j<i( 
letters.  For  ilie  Utter  is  never  spoken  of  »• ;  sn 
of  emother'sor  '  liome  educatkm.  Kemlinewu 
not  so  universal  -  so  necessary  as  it  now  l« 
We  may  assume  mat  ts>oks  of  Homer  wire nml 
or  reciteii  to  gmwing  boys,  and  that  tlnvw. rr 
encourage<l  or  requirml  to  "learn  thcni  off  liy  In  .  • 
This  is  (juite  certain  to  all  who  cttinmli-  ju.-iiv 
the  enormous  Influence  ascribed  o  Honnr.  soil 
the  principles  assumed  by  the  Greeks  to  hate 
underlain  his  work.  He  was  universiiliy  cnn- 
si<lered  to  lie  a  moral  teacher,  wh'^ae  cbaracten 
wereiirawn  with  a  moral  intent,  aud  for  the  pur- 
pose of  exsmple  or  avoidance.  .  .  .\i-<'oi'lingly 
the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  were  suppoixd  !<•  contain 
all  that  was  us<'ful.  not  only  for  (;.«lliniia.  but 
for  life.  All  the  arts  and  sciences  were  to  heifc- 
rive«l  (by  InterpretatitHit  from  these  sacn^l  triu. 
...  In  early  days,  and  in  poor  towns  thi-  piste 
of  teaching  was  not  well  appointed,  nn-.  v«nin 
many  phicea.  teachluc  in  the  open  air ) :  'a!M. 
.  .  .  This  wat  .  .  .  ;i.<e  .,n  "M  hedge  »iioi  lis  nf 
Ireland,  and  no  iloiii  ■  .'  frcotland  too  They 
slso  took  advantage  .  ipeciai'  •  In  hot  wesili-r  >}l 
to.onnades,  or  shady  >meri  .uiong  public  ^lild- 
Inga.  as  at  Wincbeaiei  :<.c  ummertcrmwas'silfd 
ddatcr-time,  fmm  a  simiiar  pracliix?,  even  i"  iu«; 
wealthy  fouodatioD,  of  instructing  in  theclointrn 
On  the  other  haod,  pmperly  apprmtcd  iclioub  is 


702 


EWTATION. 


n>*  Onek 
ackooi-room. 


EDUCATION. 


ciDK   iWe  to*  m  werr  f ui Disked  » iui  Home  taate, 
and   .    ordiog  to   -faditlonal  notiou.  .  .      We 
BUT  K  tUK  that     lere  werr  no  tablet  or  dtsl>- 
Birt    tirniture  beiii  •  <'.nuiual  in  Greek  liouw» 
it  »  i*  the  univer-      ruitom.  while  n-i;   log  or 
wriiiiiif.  to  hold  ti      look  or   roll  on  the  knee 
—  to     •  iin  lnc<>nvii.,^nt  thiiiif  to  do.  but  still 
oimDt'   .  In  ihe  Eaat.     There  are  some  inteieatlii  ,• 
lenience*,  civen  for  exerciae  in  Greek  and  Latin, 
in  the  littU'  known  '  InterpreMnwnta '  of  Dosi- 
tbeus.   now  e<i  •<•!  and  explaiiii<l    by   German 
H-bolara.     The  i  rurv  of  the  boy  in  ;  bus  ile»rrib<'d, 
in  imrallel  Umk  and  Latin:  '  Fir»t  I  salute  the 
rn«m.  r.  who  returns  my  salute:  G<>(xl  morning. 
martrr;  tf'xl  morning,  school  fellowa.     Give  me 
my  plai-<-   my  luat,  my  stool.     Sit  eli«er.     Move 
ii|  iliai  way^    Tliia  is  my  place,  I  took  It  lir^t.' 
This  mixture  of  iMiliteni-xiand  wrangling  it  an  us- 
in.:,  an  1  no  iloubt  to  lie  found  in  .ill  agea.     It 
«.-rni»    <mt  the  seats  were   moTable.   .  .  .  The 
u.u.ii  "UinliTislon  of  edur:ttion  was  into  three 
i  rt-i,  litters.         .   iiHliiiling  reading,  writinjr. 
li.injr.  and  leamiu);  <ii  rhe  p<K-l»:  music  in  the 
.     ^irsunse,  imludin);     iii:in>j  and  playing  on 
•i         ri'.  and  lastly  g.v  ..luiKtic.  which  iuHiided 
<U.i.    it    .  .      It  is  saiil  ilmt  at  .-parta  the  e<lu- 
(:iii..:i  lu  reading  and  writing  wa»  ni>t  thought 
ueiesvirj-.  and  iberc  have  I'-en  lonif  discussions 
.tmon,:  till'  li-iriiiil  whetL       the  ■  rdinirv  Spar- 
111,  in  .  la»i.i<  1,  .lays  wm  :■.    .■  to  read      NVe  t\nd 
tint  Aristotle  adds  a  foiir-;,    -ubjcct  to  the  thiee 
al.  I      lamei!  —  (Ir'iMiu-   m  itich  lie  thinltii  requi- 
>i!.     \"  mu^'     !i    e:mlile  the  educateti  inan  to 
ju.i^     .iiihtl'     .1  worWaof    irt      But  there  is  no 
iHi  i. :  I  ■  of  a  w  id.  diffusion  of  >  r  vwing  or  paint- 
\uf  ipr.  .1.- the  f)ri  •!;.«.  ts  amon^;  ii»,  .  .  .   Later 
ID   ,:i,  I  ■;  the  kumi.!   i.  rlueni-es  of  Alexandria, 
bikI  tir.    ,,;ii,l  profesMiriaie  of  Roman  days,  sub- 
Jiil-   imiltlplie<l    witJi    the    deilii.e   of    mental 
vig.Hir  .-iiHl  spontaneity  of  the  ag,    ami  children 
\Kti:m  lo  lie  pestered,  as  they  now  are,  with  a 
c|uantily  of  Kubjecto.  all  tljought  necessary  to  a 
Iir..iMr«iuiaiioii.  and  awordingly  all  imperfectly 
a..(uire<l.     Thix  wiw  called  the  encvclinil  edii- 
cation,  which  is  preserved  in  our  Encvclopnnlia 
(knowledge     It  included. (II grammar.|2)rbeto- 
nc.  .:)i  dialccnc,  (4)  arithmetic.  ,3)  mu^ic,  (8)  ge- 
"ineirv,  (7)  astnmomv.  and  these  were  dlTideil 
ini..  the  earli.  r  Trivium,  and  the  later  Quadrl- 
.1,;,,,    —J.  p.  Mahaffy,  Old  Orttk  m^catiun.  cA 
;  .  -  'Reading  was  taught  with  the  greatest 
pniii.i.  the  utmost  care  was  Uheu   with  the  In- 
toiwllon  of  the  voice,  and  the  articulation  of  the 
tliroBt.     We  have  lost  the  jiower  of  dUtinguish- 
iDi;  lietween  accent  and  quantitv.    The  Greeks 
di.1  not  ai'ijUire  it  without  long  anil  anxious  train- 
ing .f  the  ear  and  the  vocal  organs.     This  was 
the  limy  of  :he  phonascus.     Homer  wa«  the  com- 
mon study  of  all  Greeks.    The  IlUd  and  ().lv». 
ipt  »  ere  at  once  the  Bible,  the  Shakespean-   <iie 
R'i'inson  Crus<»'.  and  the  Arabian!  XighUof  liie 
He Uenic  race.     Ixjng  paataget  and  indeed  wl.  le 
t>*ik.s  were  learnt  by  heart.     The  Greek,  a-s  a 
rule,  learnt  no  language*  but  hit  own.     Next  to 
nrwling  and  repetition  came  writing,  which  was 
canfiilly    taught      Compoaiti.'u   naturally   fol- 
lowed, and  the  burden  of  correcting  exercises 
whieh  still  vei^hs  down  the  backs  of  schoolmas" 


tem.  dau-o  -r,,, .  U.aM  early  timet  Closely  con- 
nect-,; -Aith  --4  Ues  an-i  — rftin?  t-Hr  art  of 
^e<•t•l^lll;^^  «,  i  ;h,.  itcienoe  of  numbers  leads  us 
«ki  .-  i>:  miinc  Plato  coniidere<l  arithmetic  as 
Uif  Le,i  spur  to  •  ilMpjt  and  uniiutructm]  spirit : 


we  see  from  the  Platonic  dialogues  how  mathe- 
mati.nl  problems  employed  the  mind  and  thoughU 
of  ji.ijug  Athenians.     Many  of  the  nioredirticult 
aritiimetical  operations  were  solved  by  geomet- 
riciii  methods,  but  the   Greeks  carried  the  art 
of  teaching  numbers  to  considemble  refinement. 
Thev   used  the  abacus,  and   had  an  elaborate 
method  of  flnger  reckoning,  which  waa  service- 
able up  to  10,000.     Drawing  wna  tiie  crowning 
accomplishment  to  this  vestibule  of  training.     By 
the  time  the  fourteenth  year  wns  completed,  the 
Greek  Ixiy  would  have  begun  to  devote  himself 
seriously  to  the  pre.  tice  of  athletics.  "—O.Bniwn- 
ing,  An  I„tra,i„eti.,„  t.,the  Ilitti.rg  „f  K(lur„u„nnl 
Th(r>nt:  eh.  1.—"  It  hus  sometimes  N-en  imagineil 
•hat  in  Greece  ai'pMrate  oliflces  were  not  erected 
as  witf,  us  expressly  for  s(  limilhouses,  but  that 
both  the  didaskalos  and  the  philosopher  tought 
their  pupils  in  field*,  ganlens  or  shadv  groves. 
But  this  "IS  not  the  ciminioii  pnci'  "    though 
many  who.  Imasters  appear  to  liav  ■  j, ,      lo  other 
place  wherein  to  assemble  their  jn.,  :  .  than  the 
portico  of  a  temple  or  son  ■  she'ured  .  orner  to 
the  street,  where  in  e,\K    ■  of  the  diu  .if  businesa 
and  the  throng  of  paswmiers  the  worsh  ip  of  learn- 
ing w;ls  publicly  pi-rfonticd.  .  .  .  Butthesewere 
the  «'  !)(M)ls  of  the  hiimliler  classts.     For  the  chil- 
dren  of    the   noble  ..iii.!    the  opulent    Bpucious 
structures  « .re  raised,  and  f  umishi-d  with  tallies, 
desks.— for  tliat  pec-ilkr  species  of  grammat.  ion 
which  n-smlil<d  the  plate  cuplioanl.  can  have 
be<'n  v.    bing  but  :i  desk,—  forms,  mil  whatsoever 
els.-  th.  ir  studies  required,     Meniion  |g  made  of  a 
school  at  Chios  which  contaiiui  one  hundred  and 
twenty  l»iy«.  nil  of  whom  sav,  .me  wen-  kilhil  br 
the  falling  in  of  the  ri«.r   .  .      The  apparatus  o'f 
an  ancient  school   was  s.imewhat  complicated: 
there   w-re    niiitliematicul    iniitrunieut.s,    glol>. 
maps,  and  charts  of  the  heavens,  together  witii 
lioards  whereon  to  trace  geometrical  tigures,  tab- 
let*, large  and  small,  of  box  wikxI,  fir,  or  ivory, 
triangular  in  form,  some  folding  with  two,  and 
others  with  il  ny  leaves.  Ixxjks  loo  and  paper, 
skins  of  ii.-»rchment,  wax  for  coverinir  the  'ablets] 
which,  if  XV  nuiy  believe  Aristophanes,  people 
s<inietime«  fiti  wher  tliey  were  hungry.     To  tha 
"    I  mlera,  ree<I-pens.  (len-cuses, 
'  and  last,  though  not  least,  the 
■    1  J  the  steady  use  of  all  theso 
iie-e  schools  were  not  pro- 
n.ey  were  private  specu- 
lati.ns.  and  each   :iiaster   was  regulated  in  his 
char^en  by  the  ripntaiion  he  had  acquired  and 
the  f'liiu  les  o,"  !:U  pupils.     Some  appear  to  have 
Iieeii .  xtiemeiy  moderuie  in  'heir  demands.  .  .  . 
The  earliest  task  'o  lie  performed  at  school  was  to 
gain  a  knowiedte  of  the  Greek  characters,  large 
and  small,  to  -jmII  iex».  next  to  reail.  ...  In 
teaching  the  art  of  writing  their  practice  nearly 
resembled  ourown.  .  .  .  These  things  were  neces- 
sarily the  first  step  in  the  first  claaa  of  studies, 
whieh   were  denominated   music,   and   compre- 
hended everything  connected  with  the  develope- 
meut  of  I  he  mind:  and  they  were  carried  to  a 
cerr.iin  extent  before  the  second  division  called 
gymnastica  was  commencoi    They  reverted  the 
plan  commonly  adopted  among  ourselves,   for 
with  them  poetry  preceded  prose,  a  practice  which, 
(oOperating  with  their  susceptible  temperameot, 
{-.r.jcsif.-)  i!p--.n  th?  Haff-r-na!  mioti  that  !ui«gin«- 
tive  character  for  which  It  was  preeminently  dis- 
tinguislied.     And  the  poets  in  wboae  works  ther 
were  first  initiated  were  of  all  Um  most  poettou. 


ab-. 

v». 

i\. 

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■■'(i. 

p.n 

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r.l 

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f  ■ 

tbn 

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■     St 

70S 


IDCCATIOX. 


Tninimg. 


EDUCATION. 


the  tutbon  of  lyTtcal  »ad  dithTTMiibic  piece*, 
•elertioiu  from  whoM  renei  tbej  committed  to 
memory,  tbu*  >rqutrlog  early  a  rich  etoie  of 
•enlrDcee  umI  imaKery  ready  to  be  adduced  in 
argumi-Dt  or  illiutration.  to  fumiah  familiar  allu- 
ainiu  ur  to  be  wuveD  into  tb«  texture  of  tbeir 
•tyle.  .  .  .  Among  tbe  otber  brancbe*  of  knowl- 
edirr  moat  nfc«*aary  to  be  atudiod.  a^d  to  which 
thi'V  applied  tbemaeWea  nearly  from  the  outlet. 
«ai  arithmetic,  without  aome  inkling  of  which,  a 
num.  in  I'Uto't  opinion,  could  icarcely  be  a  citi- 
ten  at  all.  .  .  .  The  Importance  attached  to  this 
brunch  of  education,  nowhere  more  apparent  than 
ill  the  dialogue*  of  Plato,  f  uriiUhe*  one  pn»f  that 
till'  Atlii'iiian*  were  preSmin.  otiv  men  of  bu*lne«*. 
who  lu  all  their  ailmlnMion  for  the  good  and 
Iniiiitirul  never  lo»t  »igbt  of  those  thing*  which 
promote  the  comfort  of  life,  and  enable  a  man 
effectually  to  perform  hi*  onlinary  .lutle*.    With 
the  laine  view*  were  geometry  and  antronomy 
piiniietl    .   .   .  Thrfrnportam-e  of  miulc,  In  the  I 
education  of  the  tireelu.  I*  generally  under»to<xl. 
It  was  einplovcd  to  effect  neveral  purpoae*.    FInt. 
to  KMrtb  and'nMillIfy  the  Hercene**  of  tlie  national 
character,  and  im'pan-  the  way  for  the  leiaon*  of 
the  iMK-t*.  which,  d.llveml  amid  the  aoundlng  of 
nielodiou*  atriugn,  when  the  toiil  wa»  rapt  and 
el-ratnl  by  harmony,  by  the  eicitement  of  iium- 
iH-ni.  by  the  magic  of  the  »we<te*t  anaocialion*, 
took  n'tlrui  bold  ui>on  the  mind,  and  generally 
n  liiiueil  it  during  life,     S.i-ondlv.  It  enabled  the 
clllieu*  gracefully  U)  perform  their  part  In  the 
amuaenieuU  of  fcx-lal  life,  every  |)er»>n  lieing  in 
bin  turn  callwl  upon  at  enUrtalnmeiit*  to  alng  or 
plav  upon  the  .yre.     Thirdly.  It  »a»  uece«*ary  to 
iiKilile  them  to  join  in  the  aacnil  choruie*.  ren- 
il<  rh^\  fr»H|Uinl  fiy  the  piety  of  the  nUte.  rnd  for 
til.  ■Iiie  |»Tfonim'ii<r  In  old  itge  of  many  offlceaof 
r>  liirion,  the  MM-rrdotnl  ilunwter  txlouglng  nion> 
or  U-»»  to  111!  till   litiieu*  of  Atbenx      Fourthly. 
a<  much  of  tlie  li-arning  of  a  Oreek  »a>  martial 
and  <li'»lgn<'<l  to  At  him  for  ilefending  hi*  country, 
he  niiurnil  Home  knowltKlge  of  mimic  that  on 
till'  rteVi  of  liatile  hU  voice  might  barmonloiuly 
mingle  wi;>i  iIkiw  of  bin  countryim'O.  in  chaunt 
lug  t!»*e  atirrlnii,  lm|Mtuou».  abil  terrible  nie'.o- 
ilim,  called  p«aii».  wlili  h  im'citliHl  tlie  tlrnl  tbock 
<>(  tight      F<ir  Home,  or  all  of  tlietie  rea»on«.  the 
»< lime  of  inuaic  U'giin  to  !»•  iultlvaHil  among 
till'  Ilellenea.  at  a  jiertml  nlmiint  U-voiid  the  reach 
even  of  tradition    —J  A  f*t  John.  Thr  Urll"u: 
U  2,  r*  4 —•■In  thinking  of  tJreek  eilucatlona* 
fi.niUbing  a  |>oMilih-  nii«tel  for  uannalerns.  there 
!•  one  |x>lnt  wliii'h  It  I*  Important  to  bear  In  mimi 
Or<ek  iHiuii.tt.'ii  w»«  InU'nileil  only  for  the  few. 
f..r  the  wealthy  and  well  Imrii      I  |ion  al'  oth>  r*. 
uix'U  ulavea.  Inirlwrlauii.  the  working  and  trailing 
I  liiuu  *  ami  geiM'rally  U|Min  all  |ierw>us  «|ieiiditig 
tlii'ir  live*  In  puraultiif  wealth  or  any  private  enda 
wlialaoever.  It  woulil  have  ipemeil  loin  thrown 
away      Kven  well  Imm  women  wen'  gem-rally 
e>i  ludeil  fMin  iiii*t  of  It*  Ixurfltii     Tin  «u!iliiU 
of  iilutatlon  were  the  aona  of  full  rlllieiiii,  tlieni 
aelvi-*  preparlor  •••  Iw  full  rttllen*.  and  to  e»er 
ri«  alllhe  fun<         tof  aucb      The  dutle*  of  iuch 

C-rwinii  were  conipletrlv  •iimiiuil  up  under  two 
'aili.  ilutie*  to  the  famllr  and  <liitl>-«  to  tbe 
Htate,  or,  a*  tbeOn-t-kaaald,  ■e'luionih'  ami  (miIIi 
b  al  dutte*  The  free  citlten  not  only  acknowl 
edgni  DO  oUwr  dutle*  lieahie*  th'-ae,  hut  be  looked 
down  u|«>ti  |N'r«on>  who  kiugbt  wH'upatlon  In 
any  otlwr  aphere  iKii'iiomr  an<l  I'olltlca,  huw- 
ever,  weie  very  couprelMiiMlve  tcima     Tbe  tut- 


mer  Included  tbe  three  reUtkma  of  hushud  to 
wife,  father  to  children,  and  maater  to  alavrtaod 

Eropert  J ;  tbe  latter,  three  public  function*,  legU- 
itire,  admlnUtratlve,  and  Judiciary,     .\ll  ix-cu- 
pationi  not  included  under  these  *ix  hiailithe 
nee  citizen  left  to  ilave*  or  resident  fonl^ners 
Honey-making,  In  the  modem  aenae,  he  di'iiiiMil, 
and.  If  he  devoted  himaelf  to  art  or  pbiKisophv, 
be  dhl  *o  only  for  tbe  beneBt  of  tbe  State   -t 
Itavidaon.  Aritt-ttt,  M.  1.  (A.  4.— Spartan Trais- 
ia(.— "From  hi*  birth  every  Spartan  l»l"iii.'f,l 
to  the  ataU".  which  decided  ,  ,  .  whether  In  wu 
likely  to  prove  a  UMful  member  of  the  com 
muulty,  and  extlngulRbeil  the  life  of  the  oiillr 
or  defomted  Infant,     To  tbe  age  of  «i-vi  n  |ii.«, 
ever  the  care  of  the  child  waa  dulegatiil  in  In 
natural  guardian*,  yet  mil  «o  a*  to  \w  left  nli'illv 
to  their  diwretlon.  but  aublect  to  certain  ■  «t,ili 
lUhnI  rub's  of  treatment,  .'hlch  guanltti  ai:ain«t 
every  miac-hievou*  indulgeni-e  of  pari'ntnl  iimli-r 
nes*      At  the  end  of  seven  year*  tiegaii  a  I.hik 
coune  of  public  discipline,  which  grew  i .  .ii>iaiitlt 
mori'  and  more  ai-ven-  a*  tbe  iKiy  a|ipr<>a>lutl 
towant  manbooil      The  education  of  tin-  v.iunii 
wan  in  some  degree  the  business  of  all  Ihi  il.ier 
citizens;  for  there  was  none  who  illil  noi  iiia. 
tribute  to  it.  If  not  by  his  a»-t!ve  Interfi nui-^,  at 
least  by  bin  presence  and  iiwiieetioii      Bui  It  wa> 
placeil  under  the  e«pe<ial  aiilK-rlnti'iuleiu  .  .  (  sii 
offli-er  selei  till  from  the  men  of  moi.1  a|'|iniri-.l 
worth:  and  he  again  chose  a  niimlar  of  \'<iilh«. 
Just  past  the  age  of  twenty,  and  who  in.nt  enil 
neti'ly  united  courage  witb'dlscretion,  i.m  xini*- 
a  more  imnieiilate  iiimiiiauil  over  the  i  laiw-  iiii" 
which  the  liova  were  illvideil.     Tbe  leaili  r  .if  imh 
claaa  dln'cte>l  tlie  simrts  and  '.osIlh  of  liii  .V"unii 
tn«'p.  and  punlslieil  their  offiiicen  wiih  iiiilitanr 
rigour,  be'  was  himself  responsible  I..  lii-.rlilin 
for  llie  lii.Kle  In  «  hlch  he  di9i'hargi'.l  hi.  .ifflc-r 
Tlie  S|iartau  iilucation  was  simple  In  l'«  "lijiii> 
it  was  hot  tlie  result  of  any  general  view  if  Iniinao 
nature,  or  of  any  attempt  to  unfold  li-im.ui 
i-apaclttea    It  aiineil  nt  trainlnii  men  olin  mn  i. 
live  In  tlie  midst  of  diltieulty  and  ilaiiiiir,  ami  «lii< 
could  only   lie  safe  themw'lves  while  tiny  hrM 
rule  over  others      The  citizen  wan  to  l»  al»«i» 
really  forllH'  defence  of  himself  ami  hU  ■ouuIrT 
at  home  and  aliroail.  and  he  was  then  f.r.- i.'l* 
eijuallv  fliteil  to conimatid and  toiiln)     Ili-lxK 
bis  inliiil,  and  bis  i  hanuter  were  formi.l  fir  tliia 
pur|iose,  ami  for  no  other    and  heme  tin  Spaftaa 
system,  makli.g  illn'<-lly  for  Its  main  en.l  awl  n 
j'ei  ting  all  that  was  fonlgn  to  |i.  atiaim  '1.  "Ulna 
;   Its  i-.wn  spheri'   to  a  iierfecllon   whii  li  it  l»  Im 
possible    11"!    to    ailmire       The    yoiuiK  ^|«rt*i 
was  |M'rliap>  unable  either  to  rewl  or  wnii    W 
i   M-rcil)    piMiai'aiM'.l   the  elements  "f  am    "f  lln 
;  arts  or  Mfaiiees  by  which  smlelv   i«  i  urii bnl  iit 
'  a-lorniil    but  he  could  run    h-ap    «r.»ll>-,  kutl 
the  dUk,  or  the  Javelin,  a.i.l  wh-1,    •\,r\  .tbfr 
weaiHin,  with  a  vigour  and  aglMti,   ami  gnn 
'    which  Wet*' no  when- •lirjiHS-^l      These  hiwurtr 
'    wen-   aiMompllahimnts    to    U-    li-snil    lu   nm 
\  Orwk  palirstra    he  nilittit  lii'l  many  rt'tW  inaii 
I   that  he  could  do,  but  frw  i-oiild  appr.wi  h  him  la 
:  the  flmineaa  with  which  he  was  la'iKlit  i •■  »ii!T.-r 
'    From  the  tender  age  at  which  he  hf:  hit  imnhrti 
lap  for  thi'  public  si-hools   his  life  wm  ..iiroiii 
llnueil  trial  of  i>atb-n«T      f.sirse  am!  »  anU  far. 
and  this   iKiaslonalW    withlield,   s   lUlil  -I'M* 
without  any  ilianie  In  the  depth  of  m'nirt  sM 
of  re.il»,   which  Tie  himself  gsllien..  f"  m  lb» 
KurulM.   Wows  rlcbatt(«d   with  hU  >   mrkh*. 


704 


EDUCATION. 


>W»ae»oo<M«rM. 


ZDUCATIOV. 


ilripe*  inflicted  bj  bit  goTeraM*,  mon  by  way 
of  rxercite  tban  of  puuiihrneat,  inund  htm  to 
crrryfonnof  paintnahardihip.  .  .  .  TbeMuiM 
wire  upproprUtcly  hoooured  kt  Spiuu  with  » 
arriflce  on  tlie  ere  of  >  battle,  and  the  unioo  of 
the  tpear  and  the  lyre  waa  a  favourite  theme  with 
the  Laconian  poeta.  and  thoae  who  aaog  of  Spar- 
tan ruitoma.  Though  bred  in  the  diaeipline  of 
ihr  ramp,  the  young  Spaitan^lUu  the  hero  of  the 
I  liwi ,  wa*  not  a  itranger  to  muiic  and  poetry.  He 
vM  taught  to  iing,  and  to  play  on  the  flute  and 
the  lyre:  hut  tile  ttraloa  with  which  hia  memoiT 
vu  irtnml,  and  to  which  hia  roioe  waa  formed, 
win-  riibrr  lacnHl  hymna.  or  breathed  a  martial 
•liiiil ;  and  it  waa  becauae  thry  rhrriabed  luch 
■rniimenta  that  the  Homeric  layt.  If  not  intni- 
iluml  by  Lycuraut,  were  early  welcomed  at 
Sparta  .  .  .  Aa  toeae  muaioal  etercine*  were  ile- 
■ignnt  to  cultirate.  not  •»  much  an  IntellM-tual, 
u  »  moral  taatv :  ao  it  waa  proliahly  lew  for  the 
laiK'  '>(  aharpenlng  their  ingenuity'  lbi>n  of  pn>. 
moling  preaence  of  mind,  and  promptneaa  of 
dni»lon.  that  ll»e  biiya  were  led  into  the  liabit  of 
iiMwrrinK  all  i|Ue<itlona  propoMil  to  tbeni.  with 
>  n  .-lily.  iKiiiilfii,  lei.  rntioua  Im'Vlty,  which  wm 
■  [irovirMal  rlianu'lcriatir  of  Spariaa  convrrsa- 
lion  Kilt  th<  le««in«  which  were  inont  •tiiiii 
.iu»ly  liKiilcaleil.  more  inileiil  Iiy  example  Ilmn 
bv  pnii-pt  were  thoae  of  inodeatr.  olieiliemv. 
aoil  ri'viniice  for  »gr  mui  rank  ,  for  thcti'  wen'  .be 
.(iialilii'i  oil  which,  aliove  all  utlien.  Ilie  ataliililv 
.■(  'Ill  I'oiiiinonwialth  reptaieil.  The  gait  nnil 
I<a4  of  llie  Spnrtaii  voutha,  aa  they  named  aloiii; 
till  »intii<,  olxervi'il  \.-nopboD.  breathiil  modtiity 
iml  riMMTVi-  In  tlie  preae-jir  of  their  elder*  they 
>\<n'  IniKlifiil  aa  Tiri(ini  and  tilent  aa  •lalueii. 
MM  n lull  a  <|iii->tion  wa I  put  to  them.  .  .  tn 
irtiili  tin-  n-»i«Ht  for  lli<  fawa.  which  ^•ll^len1i 
til.  r>|i«rt«n  nvirw  to  irnovation  at  hoiiu',  wii* 

liiili- "■  tban  tnotlu-  form  of  tliat  awe  with 

Hliiih  liitrarly  li«i.i'>  itianirol  him  for  tin-  miiKia- 
tni.'.  ami  the  hiiimI  With  lhl»  InUng  wan  in 
liuiii.  Iv  rLtinwItil  thai  <|Uirk  ami  ilii  p  m'tiw  <if 
<bMiu .  whk  li  •hrank  fmiii  illalionoiir  n»  the  in<ni 
Innlful  of  evila,  and  rtmliliil  him  to  nicit  death 
-■  lainily,  when  he  >aw  In  it  the  «i||  ,,(  hi< 
'  iiiilrv  — (' Thirlwall,  IlitI  „flin,<;,  r  1.  M  N 
-  Frtc-School  Idcu  in  Greece—  It  taa  pri'va 
iriii  <'|>tiiiiin  that  loniniou  wtuaiU.  aa  we  now 
luvt  ilwiii,  win  Vimriran  invinti'iii  N..|iu 
(■.Uii.  M.  it  ia  aawnol  taxini;  all  in  i.nler  Ihit  all 
rii»>  1.-  i:iiiKlit  can  Ulnireil  lauk  fiirllier  limn  In 
Iii.nrl\  l;i\»aof  MaaNM'hilM'tta  TI'o*- who  ,1,  ny 
tin*  a•^«  rl  li  n  an-  Ci  .ntent  w  iih  nhow  lui;  w  innlhini; 
"f  till-  »in  in  .Si'>landnnit()<'niiaii\  ;■  );t'ii>'r:iti.in 

•  r  t».i  liefnre  iIm-  laiidini:  of  iIm-  ('1\  nioiitli  |.il 
Irini«  TIb'  iniih  l«.  lumever.  that.  a«  iiiiii  h  .if 
'ijir  filial  nit  ia  now  <  retliteil  I,,  the  aii<  ii  lit 
lin-il.,,  xiinelhini;  of  oiir  itlurall.  ■.»!  wixi.nii 
"  iiKli!  t.i  l«-  Two  I  iniurlaa  a(o  liMiii  !..«  kc  ■.« 
•lul.li  (I.  litlial  wrilir    wa«  Invllnl  I..  .Imw  ii|i 

•  ■■■li  ••!  fiiiiilanHnlal  l.i»«  f..r  lUe  imw  i.il..iiy 
.(I  .^^'lmu.  anil  in  like  iiianinr    iisnrr  ibnii  S.:i<»i 
ir.r.  ;i^,;  Charoiiilaa,  a  iiia«iir  .if  »  •iinilur  ivix 
It.  M.ii.-tia  iinrrU.    waa  i'alle.1  t..  a  >iiiillnr  liiak 
Till.  «.i,  I.I  frame  ««»rieaof  alaiiiiis  f..r  llw  »(..> 
ifiinHii,  .if  a  Oreek  colon;  foiiiiiltil  alu.iit   4W 
H    I       111    the    fiait    of  llafy       Tliia  iiilmii    »4, 
Tliitn.  ami  ronapiriioua  among  the  •iia.iiiu  iii< 
»f  I  lla^.mlaa  waa   the  following         1  haMmlii. 
•M-i     a  law    tinllke    IhiaH.  of  lawifivrra   liefon 
ktm    f  .r  be  enatb'd  that   the  MMia  of  ihi    till 
fm  •!,  ,nh|  all   leam  Irttera  (or  whtluir. 


the  city  making  payment  to  the  teachan.  H« 
thought  that  the  poor,  not  able  to  pay  wages 
themaelTea,  would  utberwiae  fall  of  the  beat  trdn- 
ing.  He  counted  writing  the  most  important 
atudy,  aud  with  reaann.  Through  wriilng.  most 
thiaga  In  life,  and  those  the  most  useful,  are  ac- 
compllahed  —  aa  ballota,  epiatlea,  lawa,  corenanta. 
Who  can  sufficiently  pralae  the  learning  of  let- 
ters ?  .  .  .  Writing  alune  preaerrea  the  moat  bril- 
11?5'  "«»«'"'"•»  ot  wiae  men  and  the  oraclea  of 
goda.  nay  pbiloanphy  and  all  culture.  All  these 
things  It  alone  bauds  down  to  all  future  genera- 
tlona.  Wherefore  nature  ahould  be  viewed  aa 
the  aource  of  Ife.  but  the  source  of  living  well 
we  should  consider  the  culture  deriveil  from  writ- 
ing. Inasmuch,  then,  aa  Illiterates  are  deptlved 
*_?"*•'*'""'•  ''I'SfJudaa  came  Ui  their  help, 

Judging  them  worthy  of  public  care  and  outhiy. 
ormer  legisUum  hail  caused  the  sick  Ui  be  at- 
j  tendwl  by  phvaiciana  at  the  public  exnense,  think- 
ing their  laaliea  worthy  of  cure,  lie  did  more, 
for  he  cureil  souls  afflicted  with  ignorance.  The 
iliK-tore  (  f  the  Ixaly  we  iiray  that  we  nuiy  never 
iH-tni.  while  we  would  fain  aliiib-  for  ever  with 
tliiaM-  who  minister  to  the  mind  dlaeasetl. '— Thia 
extract  la  fmm  the  •  Biblloihcca  lliatoricaof 
OiialoruaSiculusdlook  x.  ;i  lai.  who  was  Houriah- 
iiig  at  the  birth  of  fbriat  and  waa  the  most 
paiualaking  chronicler  of  the  Augustaii  age. 
The  legislation  Is  worth  uotii*  for  mon-  ibun 
.me  reason.  It  rebukes  the  aelfconceit  of  thoae 
who  hold  that  th^-  eiliication  of  all  at  the  <  Imrge 
of  all  ia  an  i.lea  lami  in  our  own  time  or  coun- 
try It  hna  aUi  lict-n  ntningelv  unnoliceil  !iy 
hiatoriant  who  ought  to  have  li'pl  It  Iwfore  the 
|i,...|.l,.  —r*,.  Xition.  M,in-h  U.  l»»i.  III.  jai*- 
•iM  — Socratsaand  the  Philosophical  Schools. 
—  ■  liefore  tlie  ri»>:  of  phil.atophy,  the  teiiclurof 
llie  (Hiiple  had  Iwn  the  rhaiiao'le.  or  piitilic 
nriliT;  after  that  event  he  grailiiullv  givia  place 
lo  the  aophiat  I  one  who  niakia  wlaei.  or,  im 

he  later  with  more  nualetty  lalla  himxlf  the 
philoaopher  (  lover  of  Wiailoni)     The  hi>lory 

111  <tn-.-.T  for  .rnturiea  i«,  on  ila  inner  ai.l.-.  a 
hiatory  of  the  alruggle  U'tw.in  whiit  the  rlmp 
aiale  reprewnla  and  what  the  phil.Htopher  n  |in- 
ai'Ula.  Iietwi-in  |i..[iiiliir  tni<li'l..ii  an.l  c.iniii.in 
aeiiae  .in  the  .me  Iminl.  ami  inili%iliii  '  .pinion 
Hii.l  philiMO|ihy  on  the  oili.r  Tlii'  Irui-iii  n 
from  tin-  llr.t  to  tii.-  •■■..iiil  ..f  tlieae  niuilal  ciui- 
liili.iua  Wiia  aii'oinplialii<.|  for  llie  w.irl.l  .nice  for 
all.  Iiy  thi<;r»-.k»  — T  Haviilxm  .\ii,l.,iu  .U  1. 
fh  .V—  Tliiri  i»  ii.i  iiniaiiie  ..ii  mnnl  ..f  a 
philinoiilirr  wh.iw  iuiih.rtiiiice  na  a  tliiiikiT  l<  mi 
<  loxly  iK.iiii.l  lip  with  the  laraoiialilv  of  Hie  man 
aait  waaiii  llmiiiai.  .if  •fcH-ratea  )li»  teaching 

»a«  n..|  .if  a  kiii.l  t.i  !«■  .lin-ctlv  imparlcil  and 
faithftillt  Imii.li.l  .i..wii.  Iiiii  (.iiifil.inly  la- left  to 
I'Mj.ak'al.  it~  It  fm  ly  I'V  ..tirriiig  up  oihern  to  a 
•Imilar  ".If  ciiliunv  '  .  .  The  v.nith  ami  eariv 
iiianh.ioi  ..I  '..«mli«  fall  In  Hie  .mait  lirilliant 
|«rt.<|..li-  ..in  hi»li.ry  Itom  itiirlug  the  lam 
ytart  of  ilic  I'miaii  war  In-  waa  a  mar  nm- 
i.-iuprary  of  all  tli.na'  gnat   men  who  ii.l.iniid 

the  aij.of  IVri.  le.      .\a  «clti( f  .\tlHti«  be 

i.iiil.i  inj.'V  the  opiairiuoitlea  altonliil  liy  aiily. 
wliiih  unii.il  every  iiieaua  of  culture  liy  lt«  un- 
rtvallci  fertility  .1  tlmiight  l*o\erty  ami  |..w 
lilrili  «.  n  tint  •letiiler  olwlHcii"  in  ihc'.Vlliena  of 
|Sni  I.  .  !*aniti«   ii.i  .l.iubt,  la-gali  life  liy 

iiiniiiiiC  Ilia  falliir  •  tr..  '. .  .   which  he  prob- 

alily  m  >i  r  pruiiival.  ami  la  rtainly  «ain  gave  up. 
He  ivuai^tert-d  it  to  lie  lii«  K|M'ctal  calling  Xa  labour 


',»') 


IDCCATION 


l%t  FkiUfOfhiml 
SduioU. 


EDUCATION. 


for  thr  morsl  and  intellectiul  impntTement  of 
binurif  tod  othen — ■  cunviction  which  h«  fril 
(n  atninsly  that  it  appearwl  to  him  in  tlir  liirl't 
of  a  liivlde  nveUtion.  Mom>viT  bv  wu  con- 
tinni'il  in  it  by  a  Delphic  uracic,  which,  of 
coiirw.  miut  D«t  bp  reganivii  aa  tlie  cauae  uf. 
>>iil  rnthvr  as  an  atlditmnal  tupiHirt  to  hit  rr- 
fonninfi  leal.  .  .  To  lie  in<ir|M>n<lent,  he  Irieil. 
Ill«-  the  (tods,  to  rise  <u|M'rfor  ti>  bia  wants;  ami 
liy  mrefully  prartisini;  self-denial  and  aldtenii- 
niiiuieits,  he  was  really  able  to  lioast  that  hit  life 
WM  more  pleasant  and  more  free  from  tnmblcs 
tlun  that  of  tlie  rest  of  maiikiml.  Thus  be  was 
nlile  to  devote  his  whole  |>ower»  to  the  service  of 
olliers.  without  askini;  or  tuliing  rewani:  ami 
tbiM  Ilk  lierame  so  eDKRHyKHl  by  his  laliours  for 
his  lutive  city,  that  be  ran'ly  |>ssse<l  its  iKiuud 
ariea  or  even  went  outside  its  frutes.  He  ilid  not, 
h,i\vever,  fwl  himsi'lf  calk-d  u|>on  to  tal(i'  iwrl  in 
tlie  iiffslni  of  llie  state.  .  .  .  .ny  one  convince"! 
Ha  he  was.  that  care  for  oni-'a  own  culture  iiiunt 
pn'i'i'de  cnre  for  public  liiisiuess,  and  that  a 
IborouKb  knowliilfre  of  wlf.  to^tether  with  a 
divpiind  ninny  alileiiexpt'rienif,  whs  a  neeesaary 
comllticm  of  pulilic  activity,  must  have  tbouirlit 
IImI.  to  iihunle  iiuiividuala  liy  lutluence.  was 
Ilie  mon-  pn-aainit  neetl,  and  have  held  that  be 
wait  doiuK  his  country  a  lietter  service  by  eilii 
ratiiii;  slile  staU-smen  for  it,  than  by  actually 
diacliarKing  a  statesiiun's  duties.  AcrordinKly. 
Nocnites  never  aimeti  at  lielnit  anythinit  but  a 
priviile  citizen.  Jiiat  as  little  was  be  desir 

oiii  of  lM>inK  a  pulilic  tcHclier  like  the  Sipbists 
III'  not  only  look  no  piiv,  but  lie  itave  no  me- 
tbiKlii'iil  co'uriH'  He  did  not  nrofesa  lo  teach, 
but  lo  li  arn  in  ci>mnion  wltli  olbers.  not  to  force 
bi'<<'>>nvb'tion*u|ion  liietn.  but  lo  examine  theirs; 
not  iM  piiKs  liie  Iriitli  tlial  came  to  Iwnd  like  a 
coin  fn  oil  from  tlic  mint,  but  to  stir  up  a  desire 
for  iriiib  mill  virtue,  lo  |i<iinl  out  tlie  way  lo  It. 
tooMrlliniw  what  wiu  spurious,  and  to  seek  out 
n-ul  kii'iMlitlKc  Nevir  weary  of  talklnK.  he 
»»«  on  Ibe  liDik  out  Tor  every  op|M>rtunlty  of 
([Ivlm;  nn  inainictlve  and  moral  turn  to  the 'con 
verwilli'ii  Day  liy  diiy  lie  whs  alKXit  in  the 
markit  and  pulilic  proiiiciiadia  in  Bclmols  iinil 
work>bo|M.  cier  nwly  to  converw  with  friends 
or  alriitiiffTa.  with  <  ili/iiis  and  foniiEUers.  but 
alws>»  iinpariHl  to  biid  Ibrin  to  biitbi  rsubjci  ta. 
ami  wliiUt  thus  111  biobixbcr  callinK  MTvini;  (iol. 
Ih'  whs  |H'rsuaibii  lliat  he  was  alxi  >  ivIuk  bia 
country  In  a  way  that  no  on«*  t-lae  cnuii]  do 
I>i'<  ply  aa  lie  deplon-d  the  ibiline  of  lilmipllni' 
awl  iVluintioii  in  Ilia  nallvi'  ritv,  be  Ml  Iliat  hi- 
<oultl  <lr|N'tid  but  llille  on  ibe  Soplilata  ilii- 
moral  liaibrn  .'f  bis  day  Tin- atinullve  |hiw 
era  <>(  hit  dlM-ourar  won  for  him  a  lirtle  of 
adfulrerv  for  tlie  in<>«i  part  con»iatini{  of  vouiin 
men  <<<  family  ilravtii  to  him  bv  Ibe  m  M  \ariiil 
Ittotivii.  aisniltu^  lo  lilm  iu  vaWousrelalitiiia.  and 
oHHiut;  to  lilni.  Boiiii'  for  a  loii)ii  r.  olli  ra  dr  a 
abortiT  lime  K'>r  his  own  part,  Ih*  maile  it  Ida 
li(laliii'«i  not  only  to  educate  tbeae  friends  but 
to  advla«-  iIh'Ui  In  evi  rvtiiint!,  even  iu  w,  rhily 
iniiler*  Hut  out  of  ibis  cbaniiinv.  ami  in  |iart 
|.«m'lv  rixuiet'led.  toclely  a  no  ieiia  was  i(ntdu 
iilly  foriniil  of  de<'ide<f  admirers.  — a  ,"<<Hralb' 
s*  teh'l  Htiiiii  He  niuat  itiiialiler  unlteii  far  b*as 
l<>  1  t  'iiimou  •■  I  i'f  ilia  iriiiea  than  by  a  common 
l"vi-  f,,r  iIh-  iiiTSiai  of  S.»T»lea  ■  E  Zeller 
S  ■'  ilrt  in.l  l\,  .Srr,ilif  .VAr»W«  i*  X  —  So 
Hlufv  I'tcrpi  In  Alliens  do  «e  bear  of  a  pbilo 
•••I'liii  Ualy  wllb  I'lubiwiiieios,  k(at  tucCMliua, 


and  the  other  rights  of  a  coi^poratloo.  This  Met. 
which  has  never  since  died  out  of  tlie  w.irld. 
was  due  to  I'lato,  who  bequeathed  liia  L'.inlrD 
.mil  aiipointmenu  in  the  place  calleil  sdir  the 
hero  Hekademut.  to  his  followers.  But  \u-  was 
obliKeil  Iu  do  it  iu  the  oulv  form  |K's.'<il>|i.  xt 
Athens.  He  made  it  a  relighms  foiiml.-iiioti  og 
the  basU  of  a  fixed  wuiship  to  the  Mu~  s 
The  head  or  t>resident  of  Plato's  'Aasociaticin  nf 
the  Muaes.'  was  the  treasurer  a  d  manaitir  ,>f  Hk 
common  fund,  who  inviteil  )('lests  totlitir  fisala. 
to  which  each  nu'mlxT  coniriliiiteil  lii>  shair 
.  .  .  The  memliers  had.  moreovir.  a  rii'hi  i.. 
attend  lectures  and  use  the  library  .ir  stiiutidc 
ap|>oiiitiiieuts.  such  as  iiiaiia,  which  iMliriL-ni  to 
the  SI  biail.  It  wastbis  emlowinenl  on  a  n'lii:iiiiu 
liasik  which  savt><l  the  income  and  i><niiii>ii  uf 
I'lato  a  school  for  centuries  .  .  .  Tlii>  iliin  it 
tlie  tint  Academy,  so  often  imitateii  in  mi  miwt 
lamia,  and  of  which  our  collekea  an- tin-  .llm^ 
deaia'ndaul.s.  .  .  The  aihiail  of  Plato,  tiiiu  gyv 
emeil  by  Xema-mtea,  beini;  the  lN-i|Urst  <tf  as 
Athenian  citizen  who  understaMal  the  law  anma 
never  to  have  Iwen  assailed  Tin  aili'«,U  ,,( 
Epicurus  and  Zem>  were  |<erhapa  not  mi  nt-nf 
niM^I.  But  that  of  TlHiipbmatu.^,  |h  rliaps  the 
niiNti  crowdtil,  certainly  the  mimt  iliatniriiv  t.hiio 
Maceilonian,  this  was  tlie  schiail  uhii  h  vrai 

exiliil.  and  which  oweil  its  rebabiliiaiinn  Qot 
only  to  the  lejfal  di-cision  of  the  courta,  luit  >till 
luorv  to  Ibe  larvi'  views  uf  King  Deiiiitriiin.  wU<> 
would  not  loiirrte  the  perseeullon  of  <>pinii« 
Hut  it  was  the  other  Ih'inetrius.  the  phil<~>|>lirr, 
the  pupil  of  Ariatotle,  the  friend  of  Tlii'i'lirnvut. 
U)  whom  the  BchiHil  owihI  iiii«t,  and  to  mIkiiu 
Ibe  world  owes  most  in  the  matter  of  iiiiivumt 
and  acaiiemiea.  next  after  I'lato  Kor  ll.i^  wat 
the  man  who  tiaik  care,  durlUK  lii<  I'Mieitonte 
of  Athens  in  the  interi'St  of  (.'aaiuelir  i"  i  <tal> 
liab  a  gnnlen  and  '  |N'r1|>atos'  for  tin  I'l  rliiattiic 
schiail.  now  under  Tlieophrastua  It  i>  n 

markable  that  Ibe  Stoic  s<-iiiail  — It  tia>  ilu  xlvxl 
of  sliena  —  did  nol  eatabliab  a  Imal  r'iiin'laii.« 
or  Biicci'sslon.  Imt  lauKht  in  pubU<  pl.i>">  onk 
aa  the  l*alntiil  I'onico  In  Ibia  iln-  I  >  iit<  >I  i  « 
of  the  I'onb  cniinsout  llenci' llir  »iii ivwing 
de|>ended  Ujam  Ibe  Keniua  ,if  tin-  li-.uli  r  -.1  P 
MalMlTy.  I'l-nk  l.ifr  iii„t  Thfu.jhi.  ,',  7 -.\n 
account  of  Ibe  Academy,  tlie  l.ynuni  . '■  aill 
lie  fiiiiiiil  under  the  caption  <iTM>.vai  \  UaiTtr- 
•itjrof  Atbtat.—  "Somescholan  iiiii>  •i'>uU 
If  then'  was  anvthinK  at  Albeiin  nlii>li  roiilil 
answer  to  the  (olk'Ke  l.ife  of  niiabni  linn"  la 
ili-ed  It  niiiat  lie  owmai  tlul  lomial  ii|.i,irv  i" 
niarlv  aiUnt  on  the  sul>]e<'t.  thai  am  ii  m  orltrr* 
take  little  iiotiia'  of  it.  and  aiicb  cvi.li  n.  i  h  u  *t 
liiive  an' drawn  nimia't  enliri'ly  fnaii  i  ■"  ri^-a  "f 
biix  ripti^ma  on  the  tnarbje  talilrl".  alu.  h  »i-r» 
covend  with  the  rulna  ami  the  i|ii"l  ol  itr*  illi 
one  after  anoibrr  came  lo  jitihl  In  r<<  i  in  ilaii. 
t"  ».|d  fnab  paifea  In  Ilii'  ator*  "I  iliv  ym 
Happily  tbi'V  are  Uilb  nun»'r<iii'<  tint  It  n,;llir 
and  iiiliy  !»'  aln-adv  pleia-.!  IokiIIu  r  iii  m  -rVt 
wbbli  exieiiila  for  ivnlurlia  Tiny  af  liti,«» 
lo  Kpiurapbli  aliidenia  sallie  ni-mli  «l'i.  I. 'iial 
wllb  111.- ■"■ciilli-il  Kpbil.l.  »ilb  III.   .      ■!.-  'Iial 

la.  lual   paaoliiK  liilo  itmnlioial    firnl ,  <  •!»•• 

rial  dU'itilllle  «».  pMt  tiled  li.V  iIm  >UW  !■• 
fit  llH'ni  for  tlw  rea|ailialbillll<'a  of  ,ii,i.  llfc 
It  xaa  a  Nallonal  «yaieni  «itli  i  ii'ii'>  W'W 
tralnliiir.  tin-  leaibera  were  meiiil«r».!  iH.  i  iril 
Hirvbv,     Ibe   renlalera   Were    pul'lu     .|.»   imiBla. 

and,  aa  sucU,  Ulougeil  Ui  Ihe  Anhli.  •   il  il» 


7(Wi 


XDCCATION. 


n«  UniiMrttty 
o/AIUm. 


EDUCATION. 


Bute.  The  earUer  imerlptlona  o(  tbe  mte*  d*te 
fmm  the  period  of  lUcedooUm  uoeiMleiicy,  but 
io  much  euiier  timei  there  had  been  fomu  of 
public  drill  pmcribed  for  the  EpbebL  .  .  .  We 
tad  from  a  aeoee,  which,  if  genuine,  dater  eveu 
fmm  the  dajn  of  Periclea,  that  the  jroung  men 
of  Coa  were  allowed  br  special  favour  to  (lure 
tb«  diicipline  of  tlie  Athenian  Epbebi.  titxin 
ifltTwartln  other*  were  admitted  on  all  (ides. 
Tbe  aliens  who  bad  gained  a  competence  a*  mer- 
chanu  or  as  banliers,  found  their  khu  welcomed 
in  tbe  rank*  of  tbe  oldest  families  of  Athens ; 
■trangers  floclud  tbither  from  distant  countries. 
Dot  only  from  the  isles  of  Oreeoe.  and  from  tbii 
coMt*  of  the  .Cgean,  but,  as  Ilrllrnic  rullure 
nude  iu  way  tbrougb  the  far  East,  studeou  eTeu 
ot  the  Semitic  race  were  glad  i»  enrol  their  namra 
upon  tbe  College  registers,  where  we  may  ctill 
uv  ibem  with  the  marks  of  their  several  naiidu 
aliiii-a  affixed.  The  young  men  were  no  longer, 
like  aoldier*  upon  actual  service,  begiuniug 
tln'sdy  the  real  work  of  life,  and  on  that  account, 
perhaiw,  tbe  term  was  shortened  fn)ni  the  two 
vrar^  to  onei  but  the  old  asMxialions  lasted 
on  for  agea,  even  in  realistic  Athens,  which  in 
rarlv  politics  at  least  bad  matle  so  clean  a  sweep 
The  oiitwanl  form*  were  still  prwerveil,  the 
•oltlier's  drill  was  still  enforced,  and  though 
many  aootlier  feature  bail  lieen  added,  tbe  whole 
innliiutioa  lM>re  upon  Iu  face  tbe  look  ralliiT  of 
•  Miliury  College  than  of  a  tnilnbig  iK'lii>>l  for  a 
M'bolar  or  a  statesman.  The  College  year  began 
ktimwhat  Uter  than  the  opening  of  tlie  cTvii 
Tear,  and  it  was  usual  for  all  the  students  to 
nuiriiMilate  together;  that  is.  to  enter  fonnallv 
their  names  upon  the  registers,  wblrh  wen' 
mpiitl  afterwards  upon  the  marble  ubieu.  of 
n  lilch  large  fragments  have  surrired.  .  '  To 
put  Ihe  gown  on,"  or,  as  we  should  say,  ■  to  be  a 
'ununao,'  was  the  phrase  which  'stniHl  for 
Inic  a  member  of  the  College:  and  tbe  gown. 
ti>>,  nuof  black,  as  oonmiunly  among  ourselvra 
Dili  I'bllostratua  tells  us.  Iiy  tbe  wav.  that  a 
lUange  was  maile  from  black  to  white  at  tbe 
pr..iiipilng  of  llemdes  Altlcus.  the  munitlceut 
au'l  learue<i  sublect  of  llie  Antonlnes.  who  was 
It  iiwuy  years  the  prrsliiing  g>-nlii»  of  the  Inl- 
iir»ity  of  Atheiu  The  fragninit  of  an  inacrip- 
li.ai  latily  found  curiously  rontlrnm  and  supple- 
iiients  the  writer's  sUlement  Tlw  niemhen 

I'f  the  College  are  spoken  of  an  '  frieuil*' and 
nii'Mmates'.  ami  It  is  prolmble  iImi  nxmv  form 
(•f  lonventual  life  prevailed  among  tlirni.  with- 
I'lil  Khirlt  tbe  drill  ami  suiM-rvialon.  wbiib  are 
r..ii.i*nlly  implied  In  the  inai-ripliona.  ti.iild 
x-nriTly  have  lieen  enforced  by  llie  olllrlaU  Itiit 
«■'  kiiow  mitbing  of  any  pulillc  liuildlng*  for 
tilt  it  UM-  nave  Ihe  gymnaaia,  whirli  in  all  tlretk 
t.mii.  wire  th«'  centres  of  eilmalioiial  routliii'. 
mi. I  of  Khiib  \hrn-  were  aeverNl  well  known  ut 
Ailu'us  .  Tlie  Collegedid  not  try  to  nionoim. 
Ii»'  the  education  of  its  ■tudenlri  It  liml 
iftlnnl  Iu  own  lulors  or  inatnirtor*.  Imt  tin  v 
"•It  k.pt  for  humliler  drill ,  it  di.l  not  evin  f.^r 
>  i>>ii<  time  keep  an  organUt  or  itioiriimsti't  of 
luimn.  It  Bint  ila  •ludenU  out  for  leacblnii  In 
phihw.phy  ami  rlu-toric  and  grammar  or.  In  it 
»"r,l  for  all  iltp  larger  and  mote  lllxml  uliidie* 
N'T  .liij  it  favour  any  •(N'l'lal  x't  of  icmia  I.,  ili.' 
f»i  lii.ioii  of  tbe  reiii  ■  li  em-ouraged  Inipanlnlh 
xlltlH  xlM.ilaof  blglierlbotight  Tlie  lli'wl 

'I  111'   CoUegr  liehr  the  lltir  of  Coamrteii.  or  of 
hitor  ^Thc  lirctof,  ap|iututvd  only   for  a 


t 


year  by  popular  election,  was  no  merely  hononiy 
head,  out  took  an  important   part  u  the  real 
work  of  education.     He  was  sometimes  clothed 
with  priestly  functions.  .  .  .  The  system  of  edu- 
cation thus  deacrilietl  was  under  the  control  of 
the   government  throughout.  ...  It  may  sur- 
prise us  that  our  information  comes  almost  en- 
tirely   fnini   the  Inscriptions,    and    that  ancient 
'   writer*  are  till  nearly  silent  on  the  subject.  .  .  . 
Hut  there  was  little  to  attract  the  llterarv  circles 
I  in  arrangemenu  so  niecbanical  and  formal ;  there 
was  tiHi  much  of  outwani  pageantry,   and   too 
little  of  real  character  evolveti.  — W.  W.  Capea, 
CmterHlj/  Lifr  in  Aufient  Athrm.  eh.   1.— J.  H. 
Newman.  Uiuturinit  Sktifha.  ch    4.— The  reign 
I  of  the  Emperor  Jiutiuian  "may  be  signaliwil  as 
tbe  fatal  epoch  at  which  several  of  the  noblest 
I   iiutitutloiis  of  aiitii|uity   were  alxilisiietl.      He 
;  shut  tliif  M'liixiU  of  Athens  (A.  1).  .ViUi.  in  which 
;   an  uninlemipteil  aurceialon  of  pbiloMiphers.  sup- 
I   |iorte<l  by  II  public  stijiend,  had  taught  the  d<«- 
j   trine*  of  Plato,  Aristotle,  Zeno,  and   Epicurus, 
I  ever  slure   tbe  lime  of  the   AnUininen       They 

■  wen',  it  ia  true,  mill  attachetl  to  paganism,  and 
even  to  the  art* of  magic." — J.  C.  iL  Jc  Ejiamondl, 

,    K:M  i>f  Ihr    liiimin    A'liiinrr.    r.    1.   eh.    tU  — See 

'   Athexh:  a    0   ,V» 

Alexandria.  —  "  Itohiuy.  upon  whom,  on 
Alexanders  death,  <leVolve<l  the  kingdom  of 
Egypt,  supplii-*  ua  with  the  lir»t  great  instance 
of  what  may  !»'  calli-d  the  i-*tal>lishment  of  Let- 
ters. He  and  Eumeni>s  may  lie  consideml  the 
lint  founder*  of  puhlir  lilirnrir<..         .  A  library, 

'  however,  was  only  one  of  two  great  coun-ptions 
bnitiglit    into  etei-utiou    by    the  Unit    Ptolemy; 

;   and   a*   the    tlr»t    wnn   the'  emlmliuing  of  dead 

f renin*,  »o  the  M'Cond  was  the  endowment  of 
Iving  Ptolemy.      .  .  pmnipted.  oratleaul, 

encouraged,  by  tlu'  n'lebrateil  IVuietriu*  of  Pha- 

i  leriiK.  put  into  execution  n  iihin  for  the  formal 
endowment  of  llteraliin'  anil  »<-ienre.  The  fact 
luilittl  of  the  poKM-saion  of  an  ininieuse  library 
M't'mwl  aulHclent  to  nnder  Alexandria  a  I'nlver- 
•ily.  for  what  could  U'  a  gn-aler  attraction  to 
the  atudent.1  oi  all  lands,  than  Ihe  opportunity 
alT'inled  them  of  inielle<-tuul  coiivenx'.  not  only 
with  the  living,  but  with  the  deaii.  with  all  who 
hail  anrwiien'  at  any  time  thrown  litfht  U|Kin 
any  subject  of  lui|Uiry?  But  Piolemv  ileier- 
mined  that  hi*  teaiben  of  knoaleilge  aLould  be 

i   a*  stationary  iilid  a*  |H'rnianent  as  hi>  laaik*;  so, 

■  n-solvlng  t'l  make  .Vlexaiulria  the  »enl  of  a  't^l'i 

i  ilium  tJemrah','  be  fiMiiided  a  College  for  i:» 
ilomlcile.  and  emlowed  llial  College  with  ample 
nveuue*  Hen'.  I  < onaiiler.  he  iliil  more  than 
ha*  lat-n  commonly  il"iie  till  mmlern  time*.  It 
n'tpllria  iiMlaiilernMe  knonle'liii  of  metlieval 
l'ni%erailies  to  In-  entitle*!  io  tfive  All  opinion,  as 
n'gnnla  (leriimtit  I'r  liialauee,  or  Poland,  or 
r«pnin  I'lil,  n»  far  ris  I  linve  a  right  to  sfteak. 
Bill  b  an  enilowiiieni  lia>  U'tn  ran'  down  to  ttw 
aixtiiiiili  ieiitur\  an  well  ua  lirfore  i't<i|emy, 
T'lretuni  to  tin-  .Alexandrian  College  It 
waa  inlliil  the  MiMiim,  —  a  name  Blnce  appnv 
pri:<ie,|  I'l  Hiii'iher  iiiatituiion  eoiiniH'teii  with  the 
Biata'tMieiHi'  There  was  a  i|uarter  of  the 

em  «.!  iliaiimi  fnnn  tin  n-at  Ih  .\lexaiidria, 
Ihiit  li  l>  BoiiU'timea  BIKiken  of  aa  a  auliurli  ll 
w,i«  pleiiBHnllv  •iliMiteil  on  tbe  water  aeilge  awl 
hii'l  la^  n  M't  aalili  lor  omanienial  bulliiiuga.  anal 
»ii«  Innraeil  liv  itrove*  of  trees  Hen'  stiaal 
tlie  rota!  pnlao'.  Inn  the  theatre  and  araphl- 
tbtatrv.  lurv  iIh.'  (>iuuasia  and  stadium ,  ban 


I 


707 


BDVCATIOM. 


EDUCATION. 


the  fuBona  Sermpaum.  And  hen  it  was,  ckae 
npon  tbe  Port,  that  Ploleiny  placed  bia  Ubnur 
aod  CoUece.  Aa  might  be  auppoaed,  the  build- 
ing waa  wmthy  of  ita  purpoae;  a  noble  portico 
stretched  along  ita  front,  for  exerdae  or  conver- 
aation.  and  opened  upon  the  public  rooma  de- 
voted to  diaputationi  aod  lerturea.  A  certain 
number  of  Profruora  were  lodged  within  tbe 
preriorta,  and  a  bnndiome  ball,  or  refectonr,  waa 
pniTlded  (or  the  common  meal.  The  Prefect  of 
tbe  bouae  waa  a  priest,  whose  appointment  lay 
with  the  govemnifiit.  Over  the  Llbrarj  a  dig- 
nified pvrsDn  presided.  ...  As  to  the  Pmfes- 
sort,  sc>  liberal  was  their  maintenance,  that  a 
philosopher  of  the  very  age  of  the  flnt  founda- 
tion ralir<l  the  place  a  '  bread  baaket,'  or  a  '  bird 
cnop '  ■  yet.  In  spite  of  accidental  exceptions,  so 
careful  on  the  whole  was  their  selection,  that 
eri'n  six  bumlrril  years  aftrrwartls.  Ammlanus 
(lewrlties  the  Muaru'm  under  the  title  of  '  the  laat- 
Idk  itlxMie  of  illstingulshrd  men.'  Philostratua, 
tiH.  "Ixuit  s  crntury  before,  calls  It  'a  table 
pilliiriiiK  '"iretber  n-lebrateii  men.'  ...  As 
timi-  wi'iil  "ii  new  Collrirrs  were  addeil  to  the 
oriitiniil  .Muarum:  of  whii-h  one  waa  a  founda- 
lioii  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  and  calleil  after 
his  nuiiir  .   A  itiTerslty  of  teachers  secumi 

an  iilmnilaixt  of  stutlrnts  'IIItlM-r,  wyii  C'hvo, 
u  to  a  public  emporium  of  polite  litirntiirc 
ion(r»«'P«led.  fn^n  cTery  part  of  the  world, 
yoiiihful  students,  and  atwailid  the  lertiiri'ii  in 
Grammar.  Khelori<-.  l*oetrT.  I*hil<imi|>iiT,  Astmn- 
omv.  Munir.  Molk-int'.  anil  other  nrti  nihI  arj. 
en<T«\  sihI  hi-ner  pro<-e«lv<l.  ns  It  woiiM  ap- 
|>e«r.  tlir  invHl  I  hriMian  writcn  nnil  diMtor'), 
('linient.  oricin.    AnnioHuit    hih)  Atlmnn- 

•ilia  Si  (fO'Cory  Tliaiini»tiiriru«,  in  tlw  tlilnl 
ivniiiry  iiihv  I»-  aililnl;  hr  i-nitu-  arrow  .\«» 
Miimr  ttiiil  Syriti  fntni  Ponltw,  a>4  to  a  placf.  ^«*ii 

lli^    ti;llrH-'«»kf    nf    Nv^Wrt.     "to    Wllil'll    VOUhi:    lllrn 

from  »ll  piirts  hhiIhtmI  logi-llifr.  wlio  wm-  sp- 

ll|>illl.'     til.  IllMhl'H    to     IllliiOHipliy    '       .\»    III    tin- 

Hiilijii  t«  laiinlil  in  till'  MuM'uni.  Cave  hitknlrrnily 
tniiiiii  nitol  till'  priiiri|ml  hut  lit'  liiin  not  i lour 
Jii«tiri'  to  till'  {Hriiliiir  i  Iwinu  ti-r  "f  thf  .\ii'\aii- 
ilriiiii  'uliiK'l  Kpiii  till'  tiiiH  ilmt  hIi'Ihi-  (JoI 
out  of  till'  linniii*  of  thi'  pun*  <«n-«lii4.  into  tlioae 
of  «  iKivvi  r  wliii-li  lm<l  II  talent  f.tr  ailiiiiiitMrti- 
lloM,  11  U-iaiiu'  li'»»  tliiiiri'lii'ul.  ntiil  liori'  mori' 
ilialiii'ih  it|H>ii  ilHIniti-  iiiiil  lanirllili'  ohjwtn 
Kutptlitii  .\ntii|iiitii'»  Wirt'  Invrntimttil  at 
l«-nat  li\  III.-  illiu  ipli'H  of  till'  Kityplain  MHrn-tho, 
friiuni.-nl..  of  hIiimk*  liintor)  an'  i-oiiatitenil  to  r.'- 
maiii.  wliil.  ('.iitlmifinlaii' niHl  Ktriiwan  liml  :i 
phi.'.'  in  till-  «tiiilini  of  till'  (Iniiillnn  ('.'ll<'k.'i 
Till'  Miw  iim  waa  oililinit.il,  moniivi  r.  for  ii« 
irrainiimriaiiii.  il«'  w.irit  of  ilrpliH>Hlioii  '  ilr  Mr 
tris  -till  nlTopI^  matter  of  thoiitclil  <o  i  Ihini; 
Priti»«i.r  .'f  i'\foril.  ami  .\rlHtarrhiia.  lUi-  tlif 
Atlii'iihin  tViM  lan.  ban  aliiiont  iM-ronie  tlii' iii' k 
■»■>•'  I  >r  I  1  rttir  Yit.  cniincnt  as  is  tli>>  \U  \ 
ar»lri.iii  iM  liiiol  in  Hh'w  •lepaniiii'nlii  of  mii'iii. 
U«  l:iMit'  r'*i«  •till  nioft'  wi-iin  ly  u|Min  its  pr» 
nrii'iit  y  III  iiii-ilti-tm-  anil  mathimati<-«  Ani-iii;: 
tia  pliy-trtariM  m  tlH>  ii-li'liratiil  tiitli-ii.  w*Hi  WKM 
atlrw-li'l  iIiIIIhi  fnan  I'lrmaiu*  anil  we  are 
liilil  t,y  a  »rH-r  .f  thi'  foiMtli  n-ntiiry  ilial  in 
I4U  111114-  till-  >.r\  fa<«  o(  a  pbya^-tan  ImTtsc 
•lihli.'il  .11  ,Vti'ii.iii'ltia.  mum  an  i-»liien«T  of  hat 
•11.1111-  Hhlili  iiiana-il.il  fiirtlirr  trstlmiinlal 
.V>  lo  Maltwmali.a  It  la  aDinrlpnl  to  nay  tlurt. 
of  four  lirt-Hl  am  iriil  uaim-a  oil  wlMini  Ihr  m<al- 
em  wlfuii'  is  fiHiii,ti-il  ttirti-  taaw  fruai  Akaaa- 


drfa.  Aichlmedea  hidced  waa  a  SyrMusan;  but 
the  Muaeum  may  boaat  of  Apothmlua  of  Pern, 
Diophantua,  a  natiTe  Alexandrian,  and  Euclid. 
wlKMe  country  la  unknown.  To  these  illustri- 
ous namea,  may  be  added,  Eratoatlienea  of  ( 'y  reat, 
to  whom  aatronomy  baa  obligationa  so  coiiiuiler' 
able:  Pappua;  Tlieao;  and  Ptolemy,  saiil  to  be 
of  PeluHum,  whoaa  celebrated  system,  railed 
after  him  the  Ptolemaic,  reigned  m  the  Hlumlt 
till  the  time  of  Copernicus,  and  whose  Oeng. 
rapby,  dealing  with  facta,  not  theories,  is  ia 
repute  atill.  Such  waa  the  celebrated  '  Sluilium ' 
or  Unleeraity  of  Alexandria:  for  a  whlli>  in  the 
coutae  of  the  thini  and  fourth  centurim.  It  wu 
subject  to  reverses,  principally  from  war.  The 
whole  of  the  Bruchion.  tbe  quarter  of  tin-  liiy  in 
which  It  waa  aituated,  waa  given  to  tbr  tlmiu'ii: 
and.  when  tlllarioo  came  to  Alexandria,  the 
holy  hermit,  whose  rule  of  life  did  not  sulTi-r  him 
to  lodge  In  cities,  took  up  bis  lodfcmi-nt  with  s 
few  solitaries  among  the  ruins  of  its  iiliflii-s. 
The  schools,  howerer,  and  the  library  i-ontiiiin-ij; 
the  library  was  reserved  for  the  Caliph  Oniari 
famous  Jiiilirnient ;  as  to  the  schixils.  I'vin  m  Ute 
as  the  twi'lflh  ci-ntury,  the  Jew,  K<>njainiu  nf 
Tuilrla.  givn  us  a  surprising  re|H>rt  of  vliat  be 
found  iu  .\K'xandrin." — J.  H.  Newman,  //..(..r- 
if)il  Sl-rt'-lirt :  Hifinil  Piyignmof  I'nirrrnlh'.'h. 
H. — "In  the thrfecenturit.s which  Intrrvi-mil  he- 
twe<>n  .Vlexanili-r  and  Augustus,  Atlii-na  wu 
I>re«niim-ntly  the  training  schtail  for  plill.»..i.hT, 
IUkhIi's.  on  tbi-  other  band,  as  tlir  only  (Irnli 
state  nf  polillrni  imiHirtanrc  in  wliirh  a  rapi  r  nf 
Kraiiil  and  diirnltlcil  Rctivity  was  o|m'ii  fcirihc 
orator.  dlalini;iiiahed  Itself  In  the  study  i.f  i-lo. 
(Itn-iKt-,  wliili'  .\lfxandria  resttsl  Ita  fam'i-  ilii.-i!y 
on  the  i-xii'lli-ncv  of  its  instruction  In  I'hll'.l.'i'y 
and  Mrdli'ine.  At  a  subM'i|urnt  (H'riol  thf  last 
iiii-ntioniil  Inlverally  olitaiiuil  even  ttrrait-ri.  Iili- 
nty  as  havinif  ^ivi-ii  birih  to  n  wIiimiI  of  phil  "»• 
phi-rs  » (ill  I'lidi-avontl  t*i  ronililni'  Into  »  «|i(iin 
of  tluiMi.iihIr  diH-trini-  tin-  nirntal  w  ii-iuv  'f 
KuroiH-  with  till-  niori-  •plrilii.-il  nilndnl  ;iii.l  pni 
foniHlly  human  n-lluiona  of  ihr  Ka»t  In  llj.- 
Ihird  iiMitury  Ali-x.indria  lai-ami'  ion»|ii.  uchkh 
till'  luailiiiiarlint  of  the  Ei-lii-tirs  and  \i-.i  I'lii.i 
niiitK.  "— E  Kirkpatriik.  Hitft  I>,n)"fm,:i  ./ 
S'lfirri--  Itt»ti  'trti"H  ttdirttiirt's  Am.  J"ttr:i,t!  f 
hjl-r.>t,..„,  r   i4.  /'/.   ■»«tl~-tfl7>. 

Home.  —  '  If  we  raat  a  Unal  itlanre  at  tin  -lUn 
tioii  of  iiliiriiilon.  we  hIiuII  tIniT  liiit  llltli-  to  wy 
of  it,  aa  fur  aa  n-irnnU  till'  ihtIimI  U'f.'r.  <i'.r> 
In  the  h'puliliran  tiniea  tin-  alnte  di.i  not  tr-uhle 
llailf  ^ilu.iii  tlielraininiiof  voulh  afi  w  priiiMt- 
■ry  n-i-iibiiion.  ».  re  laid  ilown,  and  the  r.  .1  lift 
I.,  pntale  individuals  Thii*  no  iiiiMir  iii-.!™- 
lion  \i;i«  iriviii,  piilillr  HrlnNtU  tlien-  wir>  I'ut 
oiiK  ii«  priviiie  iiiii|ertalilni{4  f.  r  the  "ike  ..f  tin- 
ihihii.iii'f  ilieriili  All  deia'ndnlon  lli.-fiiliif, 
hiM  iH-r^. mil  i-liariu'li'r  atid  till- Hire  laUi  11  !'«  tin- 
niotlii  r  ill  i-ilurntiou  dwiileil  lie-  iIi-m  lopni.  n!  "( 
the  1  hilil  -  dl>|Hwllh.n  ll<«ik«  tin n-  w.n-  h  -ti-. 
and  then  f. .re  they  i-oidd  not  Im- put  iniotht  li.iii-U 
of  rliildnn  .V  few  riig>rtil  In  inua,  iiurh  -ii  ^wm> 
of  tlH-  Kiilii  and  Arval  lirolliirs.  with  the  .  iik'» 
in  Keweiinine  verae.  siinic  on  feativuU  aii'l  .it  '■•ei 
<|u<'ts.  tornieil  the  pia-iieal  lileralur.  .V  i\'M 
would  hear,  lattiles.  Ilie  illrKeii.  'f  tii.  niinil 
versMi  I'omiaaH-illiy  women  In  honour  "ftl»'<l>  el, 
and  Munetiinrs.  ti>i.  the  Iiulille  pHnei-\  n-  •  pr.' 
nounceil  on  tin  ir  ile|iartiHl  relatiiris.  a  ilt>lii»n"a 
ammlml  to  women  rIm>  from  the  time  of  <  ninil 
Ilia      Wbatcvi-r  was  laiiitht  a  l«  v  I  v  I  tile  1  •« 


708 


lOCCATIOM. 


Biother,  or  seqolnd  extonullr  to  the  houw,  wm 
calculated  to  make  the  RomaD  '  Tlrtiu '  appear 
In  bli  eye*  the  bigheat  aim  of  Ua  ambition ;  the 
trrm  iDcludinf  •elf-maitei7,  an  nnbendtng  flrm- 
mta  of  win,  with  pMieoce,  aod  an  iron  tenacity 
of  purpoae  in  canjins  through  whatever  wa* 
oaix  acknowledged  to  be  right.  The  Oreek  pa- 
Intra  and  lt«  netted  combatanta  always  leemed 
•trange  and  offeniiTe  to  lioman  eyec.  In  the 
repiibliran  times  the  ezecciaesof  the  symnaaium 
vrro  but  little  in  fashion;  though  riding,  awim- 
ming.  and  other  warlike  ezerciaes  were  Indus- 
triouily  pmctlaed,  as  pn-paratlons  for  the  cam- 
paign. The  stare  ptedagogus,  aasignetl  to  young 
proplr  to  take  chargp  of  them,  tud  a  higher  poal- 
tiun  uitli  the  Komans  than  tiie  Oreeks;  and  was 
not  alliiwnl  to  let  his  pupils  out  of  bis  sight  till 
their  twentieth  year.  The  Latin  Odyssey  of  LItIus 
Aoilniniriu  was  the  srbool-book  first  in  use:  and 
thia  and  Ennius  were  the  only  two  works  to  create 
ami  foster  a  literary  tnMe  before  the  ileatruction 
of  Carthage.  The  freetlinan  Up.  Cnrvilius  waa 
the  flrst  to  oiien  a  school  for  hlKber  e<liication. 
After  tills  the  Oreek  language  and  literature  i-anie 
into  the  circle  of  studies,  and  in  couwiiuence  of 
the  vara  in  ^ilcily,  Maredon,  and  Asia,  families 
of  ilistinctioii  kept  slaves  who  knew  Ureek. 
Teschers  quickly  multiplied,  and  were  either 
liberti.  or  their  descendauls.  Xo  freebom  Itonian 
would  consent  to  lie  a  paid  teacher,  for  that 
was  held  to  iw  a  de)nsdation.  The  Ureek  Ian- 
pmitf  remalneil  throughout  the  classical  one  for 
Bimiaii.»:  they  even  made  their  children  liegin 
Kith  Homer  A«.  by  the  wveiith  century  of  the 
repulilic,  Ennlua,  I'la'utiis,  I'acuvlus.aud  Terence, 
bail  alreaily  becoRie  ol<l  poets,  dicutiotu  were 
([iveip  to «cbohnt  from  tlieir  writlii)fa.  The  inter- 
nri't.ition  of  Virgil  began  under  Augualun.  and 
iij  tlii»  time  the  younifir  Koniaiis  weri-  renortliiif 
to  Aili'iiH.  KIiihIcs.  Apollonia.  nml  .Milvliiie.  in 
oriir  1.1  make  pri>greu  in  tireek  rhetoric  niid 
pliil'~opli,\.  As  Konmn  notions  were  IiumiI  en 
lire!)  oil  lb)'  practical  and  the  uaefid.  uiii«ic  was 
iirvlii  lid  as  a  imrt  of  iilucation.  while,  an  a  ion- 
lni.1.  I«.y«  were  cuni|H'lliHl  to  Irani  tile  la»»  of 
111.-  iiiilii-  tallies  by  heart.  I'lceni,  who  bail 
■(.'lit  iliroiiL-b  this  iliM-lnlinc  with  otiier  I  i>vi>  of 
bi<  liim-.  I'ifniphtinaof  the  practice  bavim;  lieKun 
to  Ih- ml  ai.iib -,  and  Meipio  .fimilianiiH  lieiiloreil. 
a»  nil  evil  omen  of  degeneracy,  the  mndini;  of 
\i-'\»  iiiid  Kirl^t  111  the  acailemies  of  arton.  where 
tlHv  I.  ami  ilaminx  and  alnKinit.  iiiconipaiiv  with 
yi'tiiu'  women  of  plea-oire.  In  one  of  thiiH'ac'hooU 
•en-  to  lie  fouml  Hi  many  as  hve  hundnil  yoimi; 
perxiii-.  all  lieing  iiwlrui>i<-<l  in  |i.wtiiri"»  and 
oi"li..inof  the  most  shandoiied  kind  i  >n  the 

iillii T  hanil.  the  gymnaslic  e»trci»e«.  which  had 
..nil  «  rvi-d  the  younK  men  ana  iraiuini.'  for  war. 
f.ll  ml.,  illsuae.  having  naturally  Uhiuh.  olijcct 
li-M  loiil  liiirilenMime.  now  Ihat.'umb  r  Anituniua. 
n..  ni..re  Koman  citi/eii.«  cb.iae  to  enlial  in  the 
it  III  in  still  slavery  was.  and  continui.l  t.i  In  . 
till  f..n>m.«i  i-auM' of  the  depravation  of  voiitli. 
•n.t  ..f  iHi  .vil  eilucallon  .  .  It  was  no  longer 
the  Mi..||iera  who  eilucaled  their  own  chllilren 
thi  y  li.id  iiilther  liiillnation  nor  raiiacilv  for  mn  li 
iliity.  I..r  niotbera  of  the  utamp  of  (  ornella  ha.l 
iliwi.)  eared  Imnu.<lialelv  on  its  birth,  the  child 
•n-iiitnisteil  toa  tJreeh  female  slave,  with  si.uie 
mall  »lave  often  of  the  worst  description,  to  help 
ker  The  young  Itoman  waa  not  e<|iicate.l 


in  I  hi- constant  ci.inpanlonshlp  of  ymithi  of  hit 
t>wu  «({«,  under  rt(ual  illscipllnr    surrounded  by 


EDCCATtON. 


his  father's  aUret  and  parasites,   and  alwan 
accompanied  by  a  alave  when    be  went   out, 
he  hardly  received  any  other  impressions  than 
such  aa  were  calculated  to  foater  conceit,  in- 
dolence, and  pride  ta  him."— J.  J.  I.  DOllfaiger. 
Th*  OentiU  and  th4  Jev,  ».  8,  pp.  970-881.— 
HiKher  BdncaUoa  nader  the  Bmpirt.— "Be- 
sides schools  of  high  eminence  in  My  tilene,  Ephe- 
sua,  Smyrna,  SIdon.  etc..  we  read  that  Apollonia 
enioyed  so  high  a  repuution  for  eloquence  and 
I  political  science  aa  to  be  entrusted  with  the  educa- 
tion of  the  heir  apparent  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
Antiocb  was  noted  for  a  Museum  modellnl  after 
that  of  the  Egyptian  metropolis,   and  Tarsus 
boastetl   of  Oymnasla  and  a  University  which 
BtralK)  does  not  hesitate  to  describe  as  mote  than 
rivaling  those  of  Athens  and  Alexandria.    There 
can  lie  little  doubt  that  the  pbilosophere,  rheto- 
ricians, ami  grammarians  wlui  swarmed  In  the 
princelv  retinues  of  the  great  Koman  arishK-racy, 
and    whose  schools  nbuuniled   in  all   the  most 
wealthy  and  iKipulous  cities  of  the  empire  east 
and  west,   were  preparr<l  for  their  several  call- 
ings in  some  one  or  other  of  these  institutions. 
Straljo  tells  us  .    .    .  that    Home   was  overrun 
with  .Vle.\andrian  and  Syrian  grammarians,  and 
.luvenal  descrities  one   of   the  (julrites   of   the 
ancient  stamp  as  emigrating   in   slieer  disgust 
fMm  a  city  whicli  from  thesis  caum-s  ha<l  U'come 
thoroughly  and  utterly  Ureek.  .  .  .  That  exter- 
nal indiici'meiitu  wire  held  out  amply  siilHcieut 
to    |iri'\ail   u|Kin   [Mmr  and   ambitious   tnen    to 
iiualify  tiieniM-lvcs  at  some  cost  for  vocations  of 
thi.4  descriplion  i»  evident  from  the  wealth  to 
which,  a*  we  are  told,  ninny  of  them  nine  from 
extreme  indiifeiuv  an.l  olisciirity.     Siietoniu*.  in 
llie  still  e\taiit  frau-meiit  of  his  essay   ile  cliiris 
rliitiiriliim.' after  alliiiiing  to  the  imnienst-  nuin- 
In  r  of  pn.fessorx  ami  ihntors  met  with  in  Itonie, 
ilniwit  iittenliiin  to  the  frei|(ieucy  with  which  in- 
ilivi.liialH  who  had  dLstingiiished  thcniM-lveH  as 
till,  liim  of  rhetoric  liiul  been  elevateil   into  ibe 
M  null',  and  ailvaii<-ed  to  the  hi^ihcM  ilii,'nitii'>i  of 
tile  ►tate      That  the  Iir.ife»sion  of  a  |iliili.logist 
wa«  .«-<!i»ionallv  at    least   will   rx  inniiiratini    is 
e\iilcnt   (niin   tlie    facts   ni-onled    liy    ihe   wime 
author  In  bis  w..rk  '.le  cinriii  >:miiiiiiaiiii9  '  met. 
II      lie  thire  mi'iitioiiii  that   liiire  wire  iit  one 
time  upwani*  ..f  tw.-nly  «i  II  attni.ii.l  -^h.n.ls 
lievoieil  to  thiit  niil.Jiirat    K.mie.  aii.i   tliat  one 
fiirtuniite  iuiiiviiliial.  H  Hiiiimiin*  I'alainioii.  ile- 
rivinl  four  huii.lre.l  iIioiikiihI  i«.>i.neH,  or  con- 
si. hralily    alhiVf    thr.-e    Ihoii-uind  a  y.  ar.    fnuu 
in<,tnuii..n    in  |'liilol..i.'y  ah.n.       .IiiUik   Caesitr 
i-oiifem.l    the   1  iiiii  iisliip.  toir.ihcr  wiih   large 
l>oiiiiiir4  ill  III..I1I  \ .  uiiil  iiiiniunity  from  piilillo 
liiirilii  ns.  on  ili«iini:ui«lii'<l  riiitoricianA  ami  phi. 
I.i|.ii:i*l*,  in  orii.T  to  cin'ounu'c  their  preseii.e  at 
Uonii  Tliiit  liuii\iiiiial»  wli.' thim  •iij.iyi'd 

an  inronii'n.'l  iin.iily  IkI.iw  the  n  vi uui'«  of  au 
Knitii^ii  lli»lioprlr  win-  n.it.  as  the  name  might 
l.ii.l  ii«  I.,  iiiiiiiriiii'.  iinp|..y.'il  in  tiuchiug  Ihe 
itri  i.li'iiu  of  k'l'iniiiiar.  but  possenw-d  mnsiileralile 
pr.  1. 11^1.11.  1..  thai  liik'lii  r  and  nmri'  thoughtful 
Hiar.ii  I.  r  of  iln-  w  liolar  which  it  has  Unn  re- 
MTv.il  t..r  ni.nl.  rti  Kiin.pe  to  exblliit  In  iHrfer- 
Hon  i-.  n..t  iiiK  in  ii«ilf  highly  prolmble,  but 
«iip|Hirteil  by  t)ie  ilUtlmieHt  olid  iii.ml  iiniin- 
|ieaihal'le  evidence.  H«-m-<a  tell»  u>  ilial  history 
Hiu  aniongiit  the  subjriia  profeua.i  bv  gram- 
MmnaiiK.  aii.i  I'ici TO  rt  garil--  iln-  nioal  l)i.in>ngh 
an.l  nrtiiiil  |Mrnpii..|i  ..f  all  il.:.l  pi  rlain«  I.,  ilie 
•pirit  dud  ludivliliiality  ..f  llu   author  aa  an  la- 


ru'j 


^m 


EDUCATION. 


MiMk  Age: 


EDUCATION. 


diapranble  requtiite  In  tbow  who  undertake  to 
give  inatnirtinn  In  thl«  iubject  .  .  .  The  ginni- 
matirl  a|>|M-ar  to  h»ve  occuplfKl  a  pocitiim  very 
cUwely  aualugou*  Ui  that  of  the  teachera  of  colle- 
giate Khooto  In  England,  and  the  grmnaalal  pro- 
feMori  in  Germany.  "—E.  KIrkpatrick,  lUU'l  Ik- 
rrlopneHt  of  Ifiipefitir  Intlnietion  {B*nutrd'i  Am. 
Journal  of  Eiwatioo,  t.  34.  pp.  MIM70. 

McdiaTsl. 
The  Chaos  of  Barbaric  CoBqnctt.— "The 
utter  confuaion  aubattjuent  upon  the  downfall 
of  the  Kiiinao  Empit«  and  the  irruption  of  the 
(Jtrnianlc  race*  waa  caualng,  by  the  mere  bnitc 
foni-  of  I'lrt'umataniv,  a  gtadual  extim-tion  of 
MlioUrHliip  l(«i  iK)werful  to  lie  arrcated.  The 
ti-arhiiig  i>(  gramnmr  for  eccle»ii»»tli-iil  purpiws 
»•««  iiiaulilrlent  to  check  the  InHueuir  of  many 
<'au«-8  leading  to  thia  overthrow  of  leamiug 
It  waa  inipoaaible  to  communicate  more  lliau 
a  mere  tini'turv  of  knowlitlge  to  atudeuU  aepa- 
ratwl  fnini  the  rlasaii-al  trndilion.  for  whom  tho 
antcci-'lent  hiatory  of  Home  waa  a  dead  letter. 
The  nieaniuK  of  Latin  wonla  ilerlve<l  from  the 
Ureek  wa*  Tost.  .  .  .  Theological  notlona.  gro- 
ti'Miue  and  clilliliah  iM'yontl  deacription.  found 
their  way  into  etymolojfy  ami  grammar.  The 
tlm-f  iMTKiua  of  the  Trinity  wen-  dis<i>vi-ml  in 
tile  virli,  and  mvulie  nuimiera  In  tin'  parts  of 
ain-ith.  Thua  aiialytlcal  atudlea  like  that  of  Ian- 
>;uai:e  came  to  lie  regarded  a»  an  ojien  lleld  for 
the  exeniae  of  the  mythologlalug  faiuT  ;  ami  ely 
nuilogy  waa  reilu- I'd  to  a  avMem  of  ingiliinU!! 
punning;  .  .  Virgil.  Ilie  only  clajMlc  who  re 
tuiniil  dii>tinrt  and  living  |K'nioiiality,  pa»i(e<l 
fnmi  |niel  to  iihlloaopher.  fMm  philowipher  ti> 
Mliyl.  fniiii  siliyl  t<i  inagiiian.  by  aucivK^ive 
hi.'ik'i'sof  tranamutalion.  aa  the  truth  nlN>ut  him 
ri  «  iiiiin-  dim  ami  tlie  faculty  to  apiirelicml 
III)  wiukeiietl.  Kiirmliig  the  ataple  of  nlucnlion 
In  the  M'liiiola  of  the  i:mniiiiarian»,  and  meia- 
m'lrplioM'd  by  the  viilirar  conMiouaneu  Itiio  a 
wizard,  he  w'aititl  ou  the  cxireme  verge  of  tln' 
dark  agea  to  take  Diinli-  l<y  the  liaml.  anil  liail 
him.  aa  the  tvpe  of  human  nwiMin,  IhMuiih  the 
realiiu  of  Hell  and  I'urgalory  —.1  A  WymomU. 
lit  lull— linn'  in  llnljt :  ll>r  Uinmlnf  I  ••irnimj.t'h  i 
Caul:  ath-5th  Ctoturita.— "  If  lii>iiiutiou> 
rould  ilo  all,  if  lawa  aupplitil  an<l  the  iiuann  fur- 
lit^heil  to  MK'iety  I'liuld  do  everything,  the  in 
lellntual  atale  iif  Oaullah  civil  MK'iely  at  thia 
c|"icli  |4lli  ">lh  cinluri™)  would  have  Intn  far 
aiilnrior  tn  that  of  the  nligioiM  wniily  The 
Urol,  in  fuel,  aloni'  |ioMeM<il  all  the  in!<iituti4in>i 
pnipiT  tti  M'l'ond  the  ili'Veloptneiit  of  iiiind.  the 
prni;rt"i)i  and  empire  of  IdeaA  I^tl1lll^  t«aui  ua<t 
iciMfi-)!  with  large  a<lioolii  The  pnuiijiul  wer> 
thiHi'  irf  Trivea.  Uonliaim.  Aiilun.  lonlmiM- 
I'liiiiiTH.  l.jiina.  NarlmniK.  .\rlii«.  .Murmilli" 
Vi*  niie,  ll4'Minv*)fi.  Ac  Suiie  were  very  aiieienl . 
tliiMi'  cif  Mar-Milieu  and  <<f  .Viiltin,  fur  itanipli', 
dalfl  from  tin-  tlmt  nnlnrv  Tlii  y  win-  taunlil 
philinophy.  nii'iliiine.  jnrUpnuliMii    llirraliin. 

friiniiiiiir.  atlnilogy.  all  lite  m  ii-mi-ii  of  the  atfe 
II  ll»  irn  Mttr  |i«rt  of  iIh-m-  m  IhmiIn.  lutie«-il.  they 
»l  ttr->l  laoglit  oiilv  rhrlorii  and  ifraiiimnr  Imii 
t  iunr<N  till-  fiuirtii  ntiiiir)  p^.lt••»..r»  of  phi- 
liniiphy  and  liiw  Mtn-  it>i\Hlitrt  !nir<Mi(Mt.tt 
N'll  iMitv  were  llteM-  mIuh'U  llunuftMi..  iili'l  pT" 
vldinl  with  many  eliuir*.  but  ilie  em|i<rr(i  (on- 
Ihiiiall)'  look  Hie  pnifcMiora  I't  new  iiieaoiirf* 
Ini"  l:i>iir  Till  Ir  InlereiU  iir< .  fMiu  t  miaHin 
Um  to  Tlieo>l<a>iua  Ike  youu^er.  the  aubjeit  of 


r; 


fnN|uent  imperial conatltutiona,  which aonuiinm 
extemled,  aunietimea  coadrmed  their  privilem'a. 
.  .  .  After  the  Empire  was  divided  amoui:  luaiiy 
masten,  each  of  them  concerned  hiniHelf  i:iilk'r 
more  about  the  proaperity  of  bia  atatvs  aul  ilw 
public  eatabliahmenu  which  were  in  tliitn. 
Thence  aroae  a  momentary  amelioration,  of  n  hieli 
the  achoola  felt  the  effecta,  particularly  tli<«e  of 
Oaul,  unih'r  the  adminlatration  of  ('oii>i.'iiitiiu 
(iorus.  of  JiilUn.  and  of  Uratiati.  By  Ilii-  >.\,W 
of  the  ai'liiMila  were,  iu  general,  pla'inl  ..iher 
analogous  exiabliahmeuta.  Thua,  at  Tn'  v<  ■.  i  ln.rr 
waa  a  gniiul  library  of  the  lm|ierial  palm  < .  i  .la- 
cvmingwliiehnospecial  information  ha>  riuiluti 
ua,  but  of  which  we  may  Judge  by  tin  .litaijj 
which  have  reaclie<l  ua  contvrning  that  of  ( im. 
atantinople.  ThU  last  had  a  Mlirurian  aii'l  m  ..'i 
acrilK'a  couatnntly  ca'ciipied  —  four  fur  i  in  i  k  lii.i 
thn-e  for  Latiu.  They  «-opie<l  In-Ill  ;iiiri-  iii  ami 
new  worka.  It  la  prolmlile  tliat  tlu  -unii-  iiiMiiu- 
tion  exiatnl  at  TrJvea,  and  in  the  gri-:ii  iuui,v  of 
Gaul,  t'lvll  aoclety,  thiMi,  waa  pnoiili-l  «i;|i 
nieaiia  of  inatruetlon  and  iutellei<iim|  ili  vi|.i|i. 
iiieut.  It  waa  not  the  aaoie  with  n  liciuui  mi. 
clety.  It  liad  at  thia  e|HKh  no  ln.-titii1iuni»iH-,i. 
ally  devoted  to  teaching;  a  itiil  not  retiivi  tmiu 
the  atate  any  aid  to  thia  piirticiilar  aim  i  l.rit 
tiana.  aa  well  aa  othera.  could  fn-ipienl  tin  pi-lilic 
fclioola:  but  most  of  the  profenwini  «•!•  ^liil 
pagana.  ...  It  waa  fur  a  long  'iiiie  in  iln  in- 
K'lnor  claaaea.  amoni;  the  p<'op!i'  tli;il  i  lira- 
tiaulty  waa  propagateil.  eaiM'cially  In  tin-  limili. 
aud  it  waa  the  KU|"riur  claiwea  wlii.  h  |..'l"»iil 
tlH'  great  aiiiiHiln.  .Muni-ver.  it  v.iin  h  ir  llnnilil 
tile  commeneeiinul  of  the  fuurlh  ciniun  Hut 
the  Chrialiaiia  ap|H-an-<l  there,  ami  the  m  t.ui  tiw 
in  numlier  Nu  otlar  tou  i-e  oi  minlj  mi>.[«ii 
to  thi'in  The  entalilisliiiienLs  Hlii'h  .1  little 
afterwanla.  iMtaiiie,  in  the  I'brisiiiia  rliun  !i.  ili» 
refuge  and  aaoetiiary  of  inatriiiliun.  Iii<  ni-iua- 
terlia.  were  hunily  commemiHi  iu  tln' 1.  i-il.  h 
waa  only  after  the  year  ■W»  thai  llu  i«  .  lirit 
were  fonn-htl  by  St  Martin  —  urn  11'  l.ik-uiif. 
Hear  l'uitier!<.  tlie  other  at  .Nlunnuiiii,  r>  ii-ir 
T-air*.  and  they  wen'  lii  vutitl  rather  t"  r.  lifi^m 
eunteniplati<in  than  lu  teaehiuK  .\i>>  iinit 
.vhool.  anr  >|HK'ial  i;iKlituti<in  <livnir.|  1..  lUt 
■ervire  and  to  the  pmun-iw  uf  lnilli-i  «:i«  at 
that  time.  Iheri'fore.  « anting  !•>  Ilif  <  liri-luia 
.  .VII  iliinga  In  the  tlflli  ivninry  aiiiM  iW 
decay  uf  the  civil  xhooln  rii'i^'nleni|..ir4iie.iua 
writiTi.  .•'idunlua  A|iolliiiari»  and  Mawi  nlua 
ClaudlanUK.  fur  example,  depl.-re  ii  ii. .  v,  r\  piifc 
Mving  lliat  Hie  young  iinu  iiu  Lmuit  ^t.ilml. 
tlmt  prul.iuMir*  wen-  wllhuul  pnpil-,  1I1.1I  «  auor 
litnirui^liKl  aii'l  »a»  U'lui:  l-"t  li  »  ■•  '•• 

peiiaiiy  till    \uiiiig  men  uf  Hie  !iiii«ri.r  .  I  ii»r« 
» liu  trti|iit  uinl  ill.    »« Ini-ilf.     I'lil  111.  ~ 
»i  h'  In  rapid  iliM>iliiliun      The  w  li  ' 

Hlth  lllelti      llle  ll-nlltlltiuIlN  Mill  e»l^li<t    I' 

«.  n  »-iiu  —  llle  auiil  hail  i|;iiiiiHl  ilii  l"«!'. 
iniiiiiTliiui  aap>Ht  of  t'hrialinn  -"»i'l.»  » 
ditfen  111  InatitiitioiiH  Ut'in  I"  r'v 

I*  r-nulated  am-ai.;  IU«  ('hri»ii»«»u'  '>.'» 
I.iiiriilaiiun  uf  tlie  i-riaier  |i--rii..ti  .1  'i- 
iiiuniulerii*  uf  iIh- >  ullum  pT-mi" ■  > 
tin  ttn.1  half  uf  111.  tilili  ..111.11. 
iiiuna»terie«u;  tl»'  •..illl|..r  lialll  «if>  I  111 
inil  t.  li.Nil<  ..f  I  lin»li.ui'!x  ii  «  1^  111' 
illtt  1I.'<'IiimI  men  nitililalt-.l.  .Ilm  ii«m-.l   i  tu 


ii  ili.r 

Tii 

..  ».ry 

ami  to 

Tlw 

l.irm 

.:•  Ill 

rbt 

-    Mai 
.■hi    4 
»a»  fiuni  llume  Ihii  tii  »  iilea». liarini  ti.' mfh'*. 
beri'Mii.    «.r<i«Bi  lorth  !'■.»   ni-  lii.  'Uii 

.f    Ihi'   alilh   ivulm.     cvel^lhlu^   l»  .Ujut"!- 


Tin 


EDUCATION. 


IrUk  SdiooU  at  tite 
ilk  and  KM*  CnihirMa. 


EDUCATIOX. 


there  an  do  kMicer  civil  kImmIs;  eccleiiastlcal 
MliooU  alone  suMlit  Thow  great  municipal 
Kboula  of  TriTct,  of  Poitiers,  of  Vienne.  of  Bur- 
ilcaux.  Ac,  have  diaappeared ;  In  their  plan- 
|i:>\  r  ariwn  arhoola  called  cathmlral  or  eplacopal 
lu'liiioU.  becauae  each  epiicupal  see  had  lU  own. 
Tilt'  cathedral  acfaool  waa  not  alwara  alone :  wc 
liiiil  In  certain  dioceaes  other  achoola,  of  an  un- 
irrtnin  nature  and  origin,  wrecka,  perhaps,  uf 
h<iiu'  undent  civil  school,  «hich,  in  becoming 
■111  t:iiiiiirplioacd,  had  perpetuated  iticlf.  .  .  .The 
iMi'-l  rtouriaiilng  of  the  eplacopn!  schools  fmni 
tia'  nixth  to  tlie  middle  of  the  cif^hth  century 
»ir»-  Ihoae  of:  1.  Poittera.  There  were  manv 
mIkxIs  In  the  monaateriea  of  the  dioceae  at  Pol 
liin  Itself,  at  LiiUKe.  at  Analon,  dec.  2.  Paris. 
:!  Ij-Mana.  4.  Bourgea.  3.  Clermont.  There 
nu  another  school  in  the  town  where  they 
t:iui.'ht  the  Tbeodosian  code;  a  remarkalile  cir- 

<  iiiiistance.  which  I  do  not  find  elsewhere.  H. 
V'ii'une.  7.  CliAlona-surSaoiu'.  M.  Arkn.  0.  Uap. 
The  moat  tlouriahing  of  the  monastic  schools  of 
till'  wHK'  epcx'h  were  those  of:  1.  Luxeuil.  in 
Fniiiilii'-l'Diiile.  2.  Fontcnolle.  or  8aint  Van- 
ilriili'.  iu  NoniuUMlyi  In  which  were  aNiut  HiNl 
stiiili'Uta  3.  Hlthiu,  iu  Xormandv.  4.  Saint 
MittanI,  at  S<>iaaona.  i.  Lerens.  It  were  eany 
to  I  xteud  this  list :  liut  the  pniaperlty  of  monastic 
Mlicxla  waa  aubject  tu  j^reat  viriiiiiltudeti;  tliey 
III  ari»hi'd  unier  a  diatiuguialieti  abUil,  and  do- 
(liiii^l  under  his  sun'eaaiir.  Even  In  nunoerieit. 
Hilly  was  nut  neglef-tetl ;  that  whii'li  Suint 
( t'xiire  fiiunded  at  Arlea  contained,  at  the  eiini- 
iiuuirment  of  the  sixth  cvntur}-.  two  huudreil 
Dun».  for  the  niimt  part  occupies!  in  copylui; 
l>>>ks.  sometimes  n'ligioua  Ixjuks,  sometimes. 
|ir.il«lily,  even  the  works  of  the  ancients.  The 
nil  laiiior|>lHnis  of  civil  schools  into  ecclesiastUa! 
MiKKila  waa  compl-'te.  Let  us  see  what  was 
laiiL'lit  in  them.  We  aliall  often  dud  In  them 
she  iiaiiiraof  si^'-m-ea  formerly  profe<ae<l  in  the 
mil  mliiails,  rhetoric,  IukIc,  frrammar,  )r<'ome' 
!rv  aatrology,  Jtc  ,  but  theni'  wen- evliliiilly  no 
I  iii:rr  taiiirht  except  iu  their  relullonn  In  the 
I'l  Pk'>  This  ia  the  foundation  of  the  Ihoiniriinu 
:ill  WHS  turned  into  commentary  of  the  .Srip- 
I  in  J.  hittorical,  philoaophical.  allefrorical.  moral. 
I    iiiiiientary.     They  deoired  only  to  form  iirie>tit. 

>  !  -iiiilH">.  H  halwiever  their  nature.  «ere  ilinn  tetl 
!  "  inis  this  result.  Simellmes  tlity  weut  even 
'■irlliir  they  n>je<'ted  the  prufaui  M'.e  lid's  tlieiii- 
x:»n.  ■<  iialvver  miKht  U  the  lue  nuileof  them.' 
—  K  (iiii/iil.  UiBli'm  "f  CirilitiitioH  In  thf  FrtHfh 
I ■iti-H.  -   '.'.  I,rl  4  iinil  16. 

Ireland.— Scotland.— Schools  of  tona.~l'op 
I.;  If  iin.Minu  n-pr-w  at  .St  Patrirk  as  fnuiHl. 
1 ..  lit  least  a  liuiulntl  monasteries,  slid  ivrii 
lii  M  who  ttiiiaiiler  Ibut  lite  Kreuti'r  oiimlK-r  of 
'■■■  Iri^li  i-oIIik™  •vn-  tainfif  h\  M»  fiillnwem 
:>:  '  r  Ilia  di-alb   admit  the  fact  of  his  haviiii;  ■■* 

<  :  il^lll1l  all  epiMCo|ial  tlionaatery  and  wIiiniI  al 
.Xnn.nih,  where  lie  aoil  hU  i  lerity  •■«rTli'>l  out  the 
vii...  rule  of  life  that  he  hiwl  si^'ii  foilimiil  In  the 
•  i  ifiiesofUauI  Tlu'scliool.  ul'leli  foriiu'il 
I  i  --ion  of  »b«'  Cathinlral  evlalilialihieiit  »«»mi 
I    -     I  iin|Nirtaiier      Uildaa  taU|{ht  here  for  i«>iiii' 

>  Ufore   Joining  »l    t'ailia-  at  l.luiuarviin , 
[leiMfs*  of  time  tlie  nuinlwr  of  aiiitti'iii-., 

iiatt'.e  autl  fori'Ign,  a»  iuereaaiil  that  ilie 
1. mi.  rally,  as  we  may  justly  call  It,  wa«  .lixlilco 
ii'i  lliree  |wrta.  one  of  '.r|i|t<h  waa  tle^oteil  en 
ii?>i\  losliHlentaof  the  Anglo  Sasonraie  Oraiii" 
t  f  Um-  suppurt  uf  the  acbuula  were  iiuide  by  tiie 


IrUli  kings  in  the  eighth  centurr ;  and  all  through 
the  tn>ul>loua  times  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  centu- 
ries, when  Ireland  was  overrun  by  the  Osnea, 
and  so  many  of  her  sauctwariea  were  given  to  tha 
Haines,  the  succession  of  divinity  professors  at 
ArmaKb  remained  unbroken,  and  has  been  care- 
fully tnu'eil  by  Usher.     We  need  not  atop  to  de- 
tennlne  how  many  other  establlahmenta  aimiUr 
to  those  of  Armagh  were  really  founded  in  the 
lifetime  of  8t.  Patrick.     In  anv  case  the  rapkl 
extension  of  the  monastic  institute  in  Ireland, 
and  the  extraordinar}'   unlour   with  which  the 
Irish  oenobites  appHiHl  themselves  to  the  culti- 
vation of  letten  remnin  umliapuletl  facta.  '  Within 
a  century  after  the  death  of  St.   Patrick.'  saya 
Bishop  Nii'iiolson.  'the  Irish  acmiiukries  bad  ao 
i   inen-aaiil  that  most  parts  of  Euro|>e  sent  their 
'   eliililnn  to  N'  e<lucated  here,  and  drew  thence 
;   their  lilsho|>s  and  teachers.'     The  whole  country 
i   for  miles  round  Ijiglilln  waa  deuominatetl  the 
'  land  of  sidula  and  m-holars.'     Bv  the  tinth  cen- 
tury Amwgh  could  lawsl  of  7,001)  students,  and 
llii-  scbiails  of  Cashel,  Dlnilaleathglius.  and  Lis- 
more  vhsl  with  It  In  ri'iiowu     Thisextruordinary 
niulilplicntion  of  monastic  seminaries  and  schol- 
ars limy  Ix'  ex  plained  partly  by  the  constant  Imml- 
gnilion  of  British  refugn-s  'wlio  bniught   with 
them  the  learning  and  nligious  observances  of 
their  native  cloisters,  and  partly  by  that  aacred 
;  and  Irresistible  Impulse  which  animates  a  newly 
converted  |H'ojilt'  to  heroic  aciii  of  sacritice.     In 
In-)und  the  infant  chiirth  was  not.  as  elsewhere, 
'   watensl   with  the   liltaxi  of  martyrs.  .  .  .  "The 
j   Imnls.  who  were  to  !«•  found  in  great  numliers 
aiiiDiig  the  early  converts  of  St   Patrick,  had  also 
I  a  loiisiiliralile  shari'  in  diniting  the  energies  of 
I   tlii'ir  eoiinlryinen  to  hilelleetual  lalxiur.     "They 
I   forineil  the  leamisl  class,  and  on  their  ctiiiverwiou 
I   to  Clirisiianity  were  readily  disposed  to  devote 
I   tlieiiiailves  to  the  culture  of  sacred  letters.   .   . 
^    ll  would   Im'  iiii|>oiwilile.  within  the  limits  of  a 
!   single  chapter,  to  notiee  even  the  names  of  all 
I   the  Irish  Mala  of  liiiming.  or  of  their  most  cele- 
j   liraliil  teachers,  e.ery  one  of  whom  has  his  own 
leKi'iiil  ill  wliieh  siiinsl  and  immmIc  ta'auties  an'  to 
N' foiinii  bhndiil  together      One  of  the  earliest 
{   monaaiii  sehisila  was  that  en-cteil  by  Ends,  prince 
I   of  nrgiel.  In  thai  uisiern  Manii  calliil  fnim  the 
I    Willi  tlowers  Willi  h  I'veii  still  cover  lis  nskv  soil, 
j    Aran  of  the-Klowi  rs.  a   name  it  afteru  arils  ex- 
I  clianv'iil  for  that  of  Ar.n  iia  luomh,  or  .'irauof- 
I   the  Saints.   .  A  little  later  St    Kiuian  founded 

lii-s  ^real  siinN'l  of  ('lonanl.  whence,  says  I'slier, 
,   issiii'il  forlli  a  sirnini  of  Niints  ami  distors.  like 
i   the  tini  k  wiirri'Ts  from  tlie  wisalen  horse. 
■    Tills  ilrs-ilaii'  wiidrniess  WHS  siwii  |HMiple<l  bv  his 
(list  iplrs.  «  ho  ah'  said  i.i  have  numliensi  8,0<k),  of 
wlioin  the  iwelie  iii.wi  eniipeiit  an-  often  termed 
till-    'TwiIm'    .\|>os||is  ..f    Inland.   .   .   .    Among 
lliriii  iii'iie  Win'  mon'  fiiiioiis  iliaii  St   Culumlm, 
.■>!    Kieriii   uiiil  SI    llniiilaii      The  tlrat  of  theae 
is  Itiiuwii  I..  iMTV  Kiiiiiish  nadir  as  the  foiindrr 
of  l.iim    anil  Kier.iii.  tin  rar|M'iitet  s  sou.  aa  he  ia 
iiilliil,  Ismiinely  li'sa  reiiowiiiil  among  lilaown 
itiiiiiirviiii  n  ,    ll  W'ts  ill  the  year  .Vl>'t  that  .St. 

(  . iliiiiiUi.  after  foiiiiilini;  the  niiiuisterii's of  iNiire- 
(  iiUait'h  Hihl  Itaiitiia^rh  in  hi:  native  ianti.  and 
im  iirring  tie'  eumiiy  ><f  one  of  the  Irish  kh:gs, 
iliii  riiiiiieil  on  innslnn  over  into  Stoiland  in 
oiili  r  I"  |>ni"  h  Itie  faiwi  to  the  .Northern  Ilcta 
.Xni'inpanii'it  I'v  twelve  i  niiipunions.  Ii"  passed 
the  (  liaiiiii  I  ill  -i  null'  wiiki  r  Unit  covensi  with 
skins  :iiid  laudid  at  Port  ua  t  urrachan.  un  a  s(>ot 


Til 


BDUCATIOIf. 


dbarlMMaiM'f 
ac'Mt  of  A«  Palaet. 


KDCCATION. 


BOW  naikad  by  •  Imm>  of  hun  eoaiol  ftooea. 
OouUl,  kiof  of  the  Albanlu  Soota,  fimntcd  bim 
the  Wud  of  t  Hi.  or  Al,  httkcrto  occupied  by 
tlie  Druida,  and  thm  ba  cfcctod  the  mooaitery 
which.  In  time,  became  the  mother  of  three  hun- 
dred reli^oui  bouaea  .  .  .  lona.  or  I-Colum-kil, 
aa  It  waa  called  by  the  Irlah,  came  to  be  looked  on 
aa  the  chief  aeat  of  learning,  not  only  In  Britain, 
but  in  the  whole  Weatera  world.  '  Thither,  aa 
tf'm  a  imt,'  aaya  OdoneUua,  playing  on  the 
Latin  na-ne  of  the  founder,  '  theae  lacicd  dovea 
tiiok  thrir  flight  to  every  quarter. '  They  atudied 
tlie  clHMlra,  the  mechanical  arta.  law,  hiatory, 
ami  pliraic.  They  improved  the  arte  of  hui- 
lian<irr  and  horticulture,  aupplied  the  rude  peo- 
ple wrfiom  Ibry  had  undertaken  to  ciTlllae  with 
pl<Mii;lislian>s  and  othrr  utenalla  of  labour,  and 
taiiL'lil  them  the  iiae  of  the  forge.  In  the  myalerie* 
of  wliloh  every  Iriah  monk  waa  InHlructnl  from 
his  U>>'h(><al.  Tbrv  lnu»(i'm'<l  to  their  new 
horora  all  the  Ipaming  of  Armagh  i>r  C'lonanl. 
In  everj-  rollece  of  Iriah  origin,  l>y  whom- 
iiirvrr  they  wi-re  munded  or  on  whatever  aoil 
they  flouriiihiil,  nrp  thua  aee  itudy  bleD<le<l  with 
thc''<lutit:a  of  the  miwiionary  and  the  ciruobite. 
Tliey  were  rrlijrioua  tiouaeo,  no  doulit.  in  which 
tbo-elebratioaiif  the  Chuirh  office  waa  often  kept 
up  without  intenniiiainn  by  dav  ami  niglit ;  but 
they  wet*  als>>  leminarien  of  learning,  wherein 
aarrt'il  iind  profane  atuilien  wen*  eiiltivatni  with 
e<|iinl  siirn'M.  Not  only  theirown  nioiiaaterien but 
thoM'  of  every  Enrttin-an  etmntry  were  enrirhe<l 
witJi  tiieir  itianiiM-nptH,  ami  the  reaeanhi-a  of 
niolern  lilliliopoliKt*  arc  eontiniialiv  diiiin:-rring 
fMh)  Oeriniin  or  itulinn  lilimrie*  a  ilorBee.  or  an 
OvI.I,  orn  f<»i'riil  C"o<hx  wlii»u  lri»h  ghwabetrava 
the  hiin.l  whleli  Iracetl  ila  (ielicateletters.  "— .V.  f, 
Pranr.  ''hrixliitn  S'ftii*U  'iiiit  Sth<ttitrM,  rh.  *2. 

Charlemagne.— "  If  tiiere  ever  wua  a  man 
»lio  liy  lii»  r  .TV  niitiinti  enilowmenta  noared 
alxive  otlicr  nidi,  it  hii«  t  liarleniu itiie.  Ilia  life, 
like  Ills  hiiiliiri'.  wiif  ii'loxMil  Time  never  Mvnie<l 
waiiliMif  li>  liiin  f"r  nnylhiiiic  that  lie  villeil  to 
areoihplihh.  Hiitl  liiiHnif  lii^  im  wnn  cHmpaiun 
agniiiHt  the  Siixoiia  nnit  l.onilninU.  he  ituilriviil 
to  get  ielMiire  eiiotiirh  to  Htuiiy  gniinnmr.  niiil 
render  hlinaelf  toleralily  prolli  lent  aa  ii  l.»tln 
wrili-r  In  yrtims  awl  vefw  lie  foiiml  hia  tutor 
in  Ilie  <llli-!i  that  he  n<Ui|Uere<l.  Wllen  lie  U' 
i»"ie  iiiiikter  of  IMaa.  he  i;alne<l  the  nrvirei  of 
r  r  of  I1»«,  whom  be  let  over  the  rulaline 
M  h<nil.  wnlch  hnii  exi»le<i  even  under  tlie  .Me 
ro\iiii;itin  ktn^s.  thoui(h  aa  yet  it  waa  f.tr  fi.itii 
eiij"viiu.'  the  fame  to  whleti  it  ««a  aft>  rwunla 
mI».|  tiv  the  leaehinjf  of  .\hiihi  He  |x'«-«— «.i 
the  lift  of  liiraluK  eiMiiiiea  inl'i  'rien.la.  ami  'li-ia 
(Inn  to  hia  rourt  the  famoua  hia.orian,  faiil 
VVariH  Trill,  ileai-on  of  tlie  Chnreh  of  l<>>nii ,  uho 
bii'l  pre\iMii«|y  acted  aa  Mtntary  to  IMilier.  king 
of  thr  I.,>nil>«r<la.  .  .  Another  Italian  aeholar. 
Ht  I'ioillniia.  of  .\iiiiileja,  wna  <>>n\ei|  Into  the 
wrilie  of  the  Fralikiall  aovenlKn  nfter  Ilia  run 
ijiKai  <if  Khiill.  I  Wi.l  not  <utv  that  he  una 
l>oiii-hl.  Iiut  III-  »««  iirtaialy  |>aii1  (•<T  by  it  lurue 
grniil  of  eonltMaled  lerrilorv  niinl'  >ver  hv  ill 
plnliia  111  I'le  Vinenilite  I'ltnliliiia,  li  -vsUrMr  llie 
art  i'f  L'ratitiii;ir  '  Hut  intuenf  tlii'n-  lear!.."*!  ;i»-r- 
aoiiiii:!^  »rii  ih  >;iiii<l  to  tA|>e  ao  Urjji  r.  part  In 
thm  ri  \i\n\  ..f  li.tniini;  whlrh  maile  'hi-  glory  f 
(Imrienw^iie  D  rt  ign.  aa  our  own  eountrynmii 
Ah  iiiii  It  waa  in  7K1,  on  oe<'a«ion  of  the  lting'« 
aiKMi.l  vUit  to  llalv,  that  the  meeting  tuk  pliu-r 
at   I'amm.  the  irault  of  which  waa  lo  fli  the 


Engliah  aehofaw  at  the  Ftankiik  court.  HaTiDg 
obtained  the  oonaent  of  hIa  own  Mahrp  and  ioTrr- 
eign  to  thia  arrangement.  Alcuin  came  over  to 
Pmnoe  in  788.  bringlnf  with  htm  aeveral  of  th« 
beat  adiolan  of  York,  amoag  whom  were  Wim, 
Fradegia,  and  ^gulf.  Charlemagne  reiHlved 
him  with  Joy,  aM  aaaigned  hha  three  ahlieyi 
for  the  mawtenanoe of  hunaelf  and  fala  diaiiplrt, 
thoae  namely,  of  Ferritrea.  St.  Lupua  nf  Tnaea. 
and  8t  Joiae  in  Ponthleu.  From  thia  tinie'.\|. 
cuin  held  the  flrat  place  in  the  literary  atnlrty 
that  aurrounded  the  Fnuikiah  aovere'ii'ii.  iii»j 
filled  an  office  the  dutiea  of  which  were  a»  vut 
aa  they  were  Tarioiu.  Three  great  worku  ai  unce 
chimed  hia  attention,  the  correction  of  the  limr. 
gical  hooka,  the  direction  of  the  court  neaih  niv. 
and  the  eatabllahment  of  other  public  « lii>ili 
thruugliout  the  empire,  .  .  .  But  it  waa  iw  hiMil 
of  tlie  Palatine  arhool  that  Alcuin'a  iiilliiime 
waa  cbieHy  to  be  felt  in  the  restoration  of  Utii n. 
Charlemagne  preaente<i  lilmaelf  aa  hia  ltr<i  pupil, 
together  with  the  lh~v'  princes.  I'eplii,  Charlr*. 
and  I»ula,  hia  alalcr  OlaU  ami  bla  ilaiiiiliirr 
Hiebtriide,  his  councillori  AdaUnI  ami  .\ni;i|. 
Iiert,  nnil  Eginhard  hia  secretary.  Sueh  IIIik 
trii'us  Bchoiars  soon  found  plenty  to  iniitnte  tlirlr 
example,  and  .\lcuin  saw  himself  ralle<i  in  lo 
lecture  daily  to  a  goodly  cMwd  of  hiiiliiipi, 
iioblea,  and  coui  tiers.  The  king  wiaheil  lotnni. 
form  his  court  into  a  new  Athens  pnfenihU'  to 
that  of  aneient  Qreece,  in  so  far  as  the  ilxirliw 
of  Clirlat  Is  to  lie  preferreil  to  that  of  |>Ul»  .Ml 
the  liU-ral  arta  were  to  be  taught  there,  li  it  in 
aiieh  a  way  a«  tliat  each  should  liear  rtfeniiie  l<< 
reliKion,  for  this  waa  reganletl  lu  the  Itiul  eml  of 
of  all  learning.  Qrammar  waa  sliiiHeil  in  nnlrr 
better  tu  iiiiilerstand  the  Holy  8cripture'i  ami  in 
traiiacrilie  them  more  correctly;  muaie.  to  whiih 
much  attention  was  given,  was  chietly  i-onlini'l 
to  the  eeeleaiHalicul  chant;  and  it  wai  priw  i|>ally 
to  exphiin  the  Katliera  and  n  fiitu  erron  i  nnirirr 
to  the  faith  tiiat  rhetoric  and  (lh«le<'tii'H  viri; 
Ktiiilie<i.  'In  abort.' says  Cti'vier.  'the  lli.iiiL-ht 
Iniih  of  the  king  ami  of'the  scholar  who  lalmur  I 
with  liini  WHS  to  H'fer  all  thinga  to  p  Hiii<  ii 
nothing  U-Int;  ■'onaiilerinl  aa  truly  noful  v>!ii,|i 
iliil  not  U'ltr  Home  reiali.in  to  tliat  eml  .\'.  lirtt 
.\hiiiii  alloneil  the  atudy  of  tiie  i  hi»«ii'  piult, 
itiiii  lit  hia  iMiyhiwal.  as  we  know.  In-  hail  I  < '  !i  a 
gnaler  ri'iuie'r  of  Virnil  ih»n  of  the  Si ripnma. 
.  .  The  autimrs  wliiate  atudy  tharlenin,:rii  Hiiii 
.\h  tiln  (lealretl  to  promote,  were  iioi  m,  iiiiiili 
Viruil  mill  Cieero,  aa  St.  .lero;.ie  aii.l  >t  .Vii.'iii. 
line,  iiiel  Clmrh'iimifne,  In  hia  exteMhue  iiilniiri- 
lion  of  lhi>M'  KHtlura,  gave  utternuiv  to  iln  »i>l> 
liiat  he  limi  a  dozen  such  nxn  at  bin  loiin  Tin) 
'llty  of  tiod'  was  read  at  the  royiil  la' !■  i:i'l 
the  ipiiatlona  Kiiln'sai'ii  hr  the  court  -.lU'li  ii!*  i<i 
their  miater  tiiroeii  "liber  on  tlie  oli»i  viriM.«  f 
iioir  Writ  than  the  illlHcullirii  of  pro»>lv  In 
one  thintf.  however,  they  ln-traye«i  n  i  l,i»*i'  l.i-ir, 
anil  Itmt  »ni  In  their  lieleelloii  of  huniii  Tbe 
Itoiitl  .Veaiieiiih  iana  all  re]oii-e<i  in  wniu'  Vtrrirjr 
iioiilirli|int,  .\l.uin  w«a  Flarins;  .\ngii|Hrl.  II" 
nwr.  hill  (harlemaitne  hlni««'lf  aih.jileil  ihe  nute 
n.-riiiiurnl  npiH-IUilon  of  Ihiviil.  The  e»,'eniv«s 
»ilh  Hhh  h  tills  exttnorimary  man  applieii  hliS' 
ailf  to  itri|iilre  leaniiog  foi  himself,  »iid  to  tl- 
lend  It  throiii;hout  his  iloniinloiis.  la  truly  ailinir' 
able,  Winn  «e  r>-ineiiilier  the  eiwirmoim  la'outa 
In  wliieh  be  wa^  loiiatanlly  enifsgeil  -  .'.  T, 
I  •  tne. ' ')  •^tlMi,  .r/K.«'a  :iHtt  .VA.*ir«.  i-A  5  !««, 
also,  KCBUOI.  or  TUK  I'aU^CB,  CHAaLKUAUMa 


:i-' 


IDUCATION. 


at*    ■    ' 


EDl'CATION. 


Kaffl*a4:  Kiac  Alfred.— King  Alfred  "nUi-  ! 
(Rd  round  him  M  U«  own  court  thv  ions  M  bU  < 
U'lillity  to  rereiTc,  in  coniunctkn  with  hii  own 
I'bililren,  a  lietter  education  than  tlifir  piuenu 
viiukl  he  able  or  wUlinc  to  fire  them  in  their 
,,wn  hi'inehoWa     To  thh  aaaemblafe  of  pupils 
AsM-r  lias  attached   the  name  of  ichoul,  and  a 
Uolrnt  controTei»jr  ouc»  illatnrted  the  llterarj- 
n  orlil  concerning  the  tone  in  which  the  woril 
nan  to  be  undentmal,  anil  whi^Uier  it  wa«  nut 
iln-  licfrinning  or  origin  of  a  learned  Inatilution 
Mill  I'llMlng.     In  •iM'iiking  of  till*  aubji-rt,  Am<t 
li^i>  taken  (Hcasion  to  rnumemte nnil  dew-rilw  ibv 
ihililn-n  wlio  wrn-  liorn  t4>  Alfred  fn>ni  hii  wlfi-   I 
KNnitlia.  daiightrr  of  Ktlirln-il  the  '  UIk.'  alilcr-    | 
ii:aii  of  the  Uuni.  and  a  uohlv  of  gnvt   «i-alili   j 
uiil  Intluenc-e  In  Mrrcia.       The  Mm!  auil  dsuirli 
tir"    Mivii  Aiwr,  '  uliirh  briiail  by  bl<  wifraUit)'   ! 
uii  iiiioiii'il.  wirr  El!."ll1<'«l  tbeilifcki,  aftrr  wbiuii 
ciiiii'  l^lwiinl.  then  Klhelgiva.  then  Etlu'liwiibu. 
•ikI  Kthvlwenl.  beiiiilcii  tbiMe  who  died  in  tbtir 
lufmirr,  one  of  nboin  wm  Kilmuiul.     Etbi'Idttl. 
viirn  •ill'  arrived  «t  a  niarrbiKi'alib'  aire,  wax  i 
iiniird  l<>Elbeln-<l.  <'irl  uf  Mirciii;  Ktbrl^lvu  was   | 
il-'<lii-.iir<l  til  tiixl.  ami  ■uliiiiitte<l  to  the  rulra  uf   j 
a  mi'Oiwtic  life:  Etlirlwi  nl  the  youogeiit,  by  the    | 
IMviiie  ctiuiiM-l*  and  admirable  prudence  of  the   \ 
iiiiiir.  « aa  ivuaigneil  to  the  aeboola  of  leandni(, 
«lii'rv,  with  the  tbildreii  of  aliiiimt  nil   tie  u<i     i 
liiliit  of  the  country,  and  inanr  ulwi  hbi'  »er<'   j 
Dot  iiolile.  be  pnM|ien-d  under  the  dllii;ent  can- 
niliMeaehers.    IhNikitinlMnhUDguagiii,  uanitlr.   | 
in  Ijilin  and  Saxon,    were  rea<l  iii  the  xlxail     [ 
Tliiy  alw  leanM-<l  to  write;  to  that,  liefore  ihev    ; 
am''  o!  an  age  to  practite  maoly  una,  uanirlv 
liuiitiug  and  aurh  other  puraulu'ai  befit  noble 
imn.  tiiey  bei'ame  (tudloua  and  clever  in  tlK  lib- 
rnil  arta      KtlwanI  and   Etbelawitlia  were  lireil 
up  iu  the  king  a  court,  aiui  rvceiviHl  gn-at  alien 
lion  from  their  MTvaiita  and  nuraea:  nar,  thev 
toiiilnue  to  tbla  day,  with  the  love  of  alf  aUiul 
llina   and  abew  altability,  and  even  gentleiieaa, 
toaarda  all.  both  forrigiiera  anil  nativea,  and  are 
in  I  iHuplete  aubiection  to  their  father  i  nor.  nmoni; 
till  ir  other  atudiea  which  ap|ieruin  to  Ibia  life 
and  are  dt  for  noble  youtba,  are  tbev  auffemi  !■> 
JAM  tlitir  time  blly  and  uiiprotltaViv,  wllbmit 
iianiing  the  llbenrarta,  for  they  have  carefully 
linriied  the  I*ialma  and  ttezon  l>iH>ka,  ea|Mi'ially 
lUi'  Saion   Hoeina,  and   are  continually   iu  the 
Uliil  of  making  uae  of  liia>lu.'    The  arluMila  of 
karninii.  to  which  Aaarr  alludea  in  thia  paaaum-. 
a«  |..rnied  for  the  uae  of  the  king'a  cbildr-n  and 
till'  »ina  of  bla  noblra,  are  again  mtniioiHil  elae- 
Kluri'  by  the  aanie  author,  aa  'th^<  a.  bi«d  which 
111  liad  aliiilioualy  colliiU'd  togettHi,  conaiatiUK 
■  fiiuni  > 'i|h>  iirbillty  of  hia  own  nation     and 
ill  9  iliiid  iMUaagr,  Aaarr  ajieaki  of  the    aona  of 
till  iioliiliiv  who  Were  bre«l  up  In  llw  royal  hoUM' 
lii'lil       It  Uilear,  tlien,  from  theae  ex|in-««lonti 
Hal  ilie  kiiig'aexertiooaloapread  leaniing  anioiii; 
bit  iiohU  a  and  to  educate  hia  own  children,  m  re 
•  I  a  nil*!  active  and  penoiutl  nalun'.  uni-oimecte.' 
a  nil  any  inalltuiiona  of  a  mon-  iiublu  clmradi  r 
till  xlioiil  was  kept  In  hia  ohu  houaebold   and 
till  111  «  iiulillc  aeat  of  b^amhig.     We  may   iH-r 
lia|i»  alduce  theae  rxprrMl.ma  of  Aaaer  i*  n'lillli': 
iiiK  uualnat   the   iiotinn,   that  an  I  iiiTcraitv  or 
I'.ililir  .Seniiunry  if  l/e*ni>  g  eilst4it  in  il>e  il»y» 
if  Alfml      T'jiiugli  it  la  luoat  pr<>)>able  that  iJi. 
ai'it.jl  nionaalerira,  and  other  aix-ii    "a  of  mouka 
rihi  1  liiirebnun.  « nuld  employ  a  portion  of  t^^■ir 
l-ti>  lime  in  teaching  yiv  it.  anil  ppaecuting  tiwh 


own  atudiea ;  j'et  there  la  no  proof  that  an  author' 
lied  aeat  of  learning,  auch  a«  the  Vnitrrnltiea  of 

Oxforii  or  Caniliridge,  exlal«t!  In  England,  until 
many  hundred  yeara  r.(ter  tlie  tfmeofAlfred." — 
J.  A  Gilea,  HjhimI  Tiiuuia  Alfnd  Iht  Great, 
M.  II. 

Saracaoic  and  Mooriib  Icammr.— "Erenaa 
earlv  aa  the  tenth  irntiry,  pewiua  having  a  taata 
(or  learning  and  (or  elegant  amenitiea  found  tiieil' 
way  into  ^pain  froin  nil  adjoining  counlriea:  a 
limctii-e  in  Miiliix-ijuent  years  still  niori'  indulged 
In,  when  It  U-came  niuairattil  bv  the  brilliant  suc- 
c.a»o(  Uilliirt,  will.  .  .  |<aaa<Ml  from  the  Inddel 
Inlvemitv  of  lonlo>tt  to  the  iMipacv  of  Home. 
Tlie  kimlif.i  of  the  \\e»t  carrieil  out  the  prt'ci  pu 
of  All.  the  fourth  fcuceMuirof  Moliainnnil,  in  the 
patronage  of  liiemiure.  Tbey  eaiBblialicl  libra- 
riea  ill  ull  till  ii  chief  tow!i.H;"it  ia  aald  timt  uot 
fewer  thnn  mvinty  wiTi'  iu  exiatelicr  To  everv 
nioMiue  vtnautluclied  a  public  aciioil,  in  wbicb 
the  children  of  tlii-  |Hior  were  taught  to  read  and 
write,  mill  lu»lniciii|  intlie  preceptaof  the  Koran. 
For  tboM'  in  eaaiircirriiniataiicTa  there  were  acad- 
emic, usually  amiiniil  in  t»i  nty-tive  or  thirty 
apunmcniii,  cui  h  cuUulated  (or  iiccommoiluting 
four  aliideutK;  the  lU-uiU'liiy  1«  iiiB  pniiidiHl  o»-er 
liy  a  rector  In  Ciirdovii.  (imi'mda,  and  other 
L'reat  cities,  there  «<re  uiiiieraitiea  (riouently 
uiiiler  the  au|N'rintendence  ii(  Jews,  the  .Moiiam- 
unslun  muxin.  iM-iug  Ihui  the  real  h.iniiu)[  of  a 
man  la  of  more  public  <iuiiortance  than  iiuy  par- 
ticular ni||gioiia  opinions  be  may  entertain  Iu 
tbla  this-  followid  the  exaii.ple  of  the  iVslutii; 
klialif.  llaMiin  .\lmacbiil.  « lio  i.i  iuhIIv  coiiferrrti 
tliesii|K'rinleiii|en(S'iif  hisM'hoolaon  John  Maaue, 
u  Neaioriun  t'briatian  Tlie  .Mohammedau  lilar- 
alltv  was  in  atriking  >  ontnisi  wiib  the  intoleriuice 
of  Eur<i|»-  .  .  Ill  the  iinivi  rsitiea  aoiiie  of  the 
profi-aaon  of  |Milite  llterulure  gave  leiturea  on 
Arabic  classical  works;  ollnnt  tau,:hl  rlieloric 
or  coni|NMitiiin,  or  matbemuiic^.  or  uslniimmy. 
Kmui  these  inalitutioua  many  if  the  pnictii.Taob- 
stTVisi  in  our  colleges  »•  n  derlvcil  Tli-y  held 
t'uninHnceu.ents.  at  whhb  isHina  wen-  nad  and 
orations  dilivensl  In  pres»'iice  of  the  public. 
Tlicy  iind  also,  in  addition  to  tliiae  scbiMilsof  gen- 
eral learning,  profeaaioual  ones,  purtiiularly  for 
mnliclne  AVIIb  a  pride  |H'rliaps  not  ulioKitber 
lurxi'Uaable.  the  .\ml>ians  Ismsti'd  of  Ilieir  lan- 
guage as  laluif  the  niiwt  |»rfict  a|><ikeii  by  mau. 
It  ia  iioi  ilieii  stirprisinit  Ihal.  in  the  .Vrobhtn 
MbiNila,  gttnl  nllention  was  paid  to  tlic  atudy  of 
language.  Slid  that  so  ni.;iiy  islebnil.il  grainmur- 
iana  Were  priHluctsl  lly  ibi-si'  ai  liolnrs.  dliilon- 
aries.  aimifar  totbiM'  now  in  list',  werecompoaeti; 
tlieir  coplousut  ss  is  indicated  iiy  the  circuiiulancc 
that  one  uf  tlicin  iiiusisiid  of  sixty  volumes,  the 
deliniiion  of  each  noni  Ihilii  illiiairatisl  or  sua- 
tainid  iiy  iin  lalions  imm  Anili  nutbora  of  ac- 
kill  w  I-  .iirnl  1'  1  ;;ti  nicy  had  alao  lexieous  of 
tinsk.  I.iiii  llclinw  .  and  cvcbiiH-difta  such  a* 
tin  lli-i  •rji  :il  lliitimwry  lY  f^k'mfs  of  .M... 
Iiaiiiiiiiil  lliii  .VIslullah.  of  tiranada  " — J  W 
I>ia|Hi  //iW  .."  '.  Inl'"  i-liiiil  O'tii-pii.ri.t  -f 
Kiir.,ii,,r  i  .'  .  -  TbcSarai-enIr kinirsfiTiiu-d 
libr:irii-  .■(  iiii(.^  ,i''-  l<s|  sUe  and  nutnlsr  Tliat 
of  Ilaki  i>>  anioiin  |o  liiai  laa)  voltiiiiea.  oi  nldch 
■H  wen-  ciiiploynl  in  the  men-  calabiitue  I'p- 
waniaiii  To  publii  liorarira  wer-  esiahilslusl  In 
hiA  domiuiona  IIMI.INIO  vuluniea  were  ciniU-ivd 
in  the  library  of  s'aiM.  and  were  fnsi  lei  i  to 
the  aiiidloiia  citizen.  The  laate  of  the  »  ui  i<  Ign 
communicitcd  itaeif  to  tbu  aobject.  and i,  prieat* 


^10 


KDCCATION. 


flehoohmtn  Mtd 
ackolatMettm. 


EDUCATION. 


loctnr  decUrrtl  that  hli  books  w«ic  Mlffleirnt  to 
kwl  xn  raineU.  Nor  weie  the  Sumcena  k-u  at- 
t4Dtl^  •*  to  the  fouDilntloD  of  irboftliaod  collews. 
Eighty  of  tlw  latter  Inatitutiniu  adorned  Conk)Ta 
In  the  rrlipi  of  Hakem :  in  the  flfteeoth  prntury 
flftv  were  wattmcd  over  the  dty  and  plain  of 
Oranatla.  200.000  dinara  (about  £100.000  tter- 
Ung)  were  Mp«'niled  on  the  foundation  of  a  lingle 
colTeee  nt  Baishilail  It  wiu  endnwetl  with  an 
anniiiil  n'rrntir  of  lS.(i>iOdlnan.  ami  waa attended 
by  (I.IHMI  dliiilinU.  The  prince*  of  ilie  liouae  of 
o'meyn  li<aioure<l  the  SpanlUi aeadeinii*  liy  their 
pirm-iu'e  and  •ludiea,  and  t'onipele<l,  i-  i  without 
•ufe«>s  for  llir  prize*  of  learning.  Niimrroua 
nolic"!-!  for  the  purpose  of  elementary  instrur'i.n 
wi-n  iindeti  by  a  long  aerietnf  monnnliR.  . 
Id  this  manner  tne  .Vrnhlana,  within  twi .  <  i  ntiin  «, 
eonrtnitied  an  apparatua  for  mental  imiirorp- 
nwnt  whieh  hlther«o  Imd  not  been  eiitialleii  wve 
in  .Vit'Xnmlrin.  ami  to  which  the  (  iiireh.  after 
rulirif  tlie  IntelU-ct  of  Eun>pe  for  uiorr  than  Hve 
huii.ln  •!  VI  ura,  could  offer  no  parallel." — Thr  In- 
tfllffl-i.it'llrriml  </  thf  MiiMlf  Ai^f  ( Wrutmiiultr 

Jirru 'r    Jilitvmy,   18*tfl). 

Scholasticiam.  —  Schoelman.  —  In  the  later 
tlnK-i  if  the  Kiiinnn  i  mpire.  "the  Ioh  of  the  dig- 
.lily  of  piiliticnl  fri't'ili'in.  the  want  of  the  iheer- 
fuliieiui of  ailviiui  in^  pr»K|M'rity,  anl  the aubstltu- 
lion  if  the  leMpliilcMopliicaUtructureof  the  Latin 
luntituige  for  the  delicHli-  intellectual  mechanism 
of  the  Greek,  fixed  and  avi^nnented  the  prevalent 
feebleness  nnd  bartenneas  t>f  intrlli  ct.  Men  for- 
got, or  feared,  to  consult  nature,  to  wek  for  new 
truths,  to  do  what  the  great  liisunvrnT*  of  other 
fli..i'»  had  iliine;  they  were  content  to  consult 
libmrits.  to  study  and  defend  old  opinionn.  to 
talk  of  what  great  geniuses  had  snid.  They 
Hougbl  tlieir  pnlloaopny  In  accn'dited  Ireiilisea, 
and  dared  not  question  such  doctrines  at  they 
there  founil.  .  .  .  In  the  mean  time  the  I  liristian 
nliglon  had  liecome  the  l<>ading  subject  of  men's 
thoughts,  and  divines  liaii  putforwanl  its  claims 
to  Ih'.  not  merely  the  guiile  of  men's  lives,  and 
the  means  of  n-conciling  them  to  their  heavenly 
Master,  but  also  to  be  a  Iliiloanphy  in  the  widest 
seiiM'  in  which  the  term  had  been  umiI  , —  a  con- 
siotent  specuUtivc  view  of  man's  condition  and 
nature,  and  of  the  world  in  which  he  is  plnce<l. 
...  It  was  held,  without  any  n-gulating  prin- 
ciple, that  the  philonopliy  which  ha<l  Ixrn  l>e- 
i|Ueallied  to  the  world  by  the  great  gi  i'iii»«-s  of 
hriitlH'n  antiii'.iily.  nnd  the  philosophy  « Iiich  was 
dciluceil  from,  nml  Implied  hv.  the'Ri'velations 
made  by  Oixt  i<i  man,  must  W  identical;  and, 
then-fore,  that  Theology  is  the  only  true  philosn- 
phT.  .  .  .  Tills  view  was  c<inlfrme<l  by  the 
ontnion  whiih  prevailed,  concerning  the  liature 
of  philosophical  tnith:  a  view  supported  by  the 
Ihwry  of  Plato,  the  practice  of  Aristotle,  and  the 
general  propensities  of  the  human  mind :  I  mean 
the  opinion  tliat  all  science  mav  be  obtained  by 
till-  line  of  n-asoning  alone;— tliat  by  analyzing 
and  combining  the  notions  which  common  Un- 
giiage  brings  liefore  us,  we  may  learn  all  that  we 
can  know.  Thus  Logic  came  tn  Incluile  tb<' 
wlioleof  Science:  and  acconllngly  this  AlielanI 
esiiresaly  nuintained.  .  .  .  Thus  a  Universal 
Hclence  waa  eatablishetl,  with  the  authority  of  a 
Religious  Creed.  Its  universality  restetl  on  er- 
rimeoiis  viem-iof  the  relation  of  w.irdsami  truth, 
its  pretensi./F.j  as  a  science  were  admlttetl  by  the 
servile  teM;.<i  of  men's  intellects;  and  its  re 
■flaua  autliuiitjr  was  assifced  it,  by  makio^  all 


truth  part  of  rellfion.  And  •■  Religion  claimed 
aiaent  wtthln  her  own  Juriadictloa  under  the  must 
solemn  and  Impentnre  auiction*,  Philnsophr 
shared  in  her  imperial  power,  and  disw-nt  fMm 
tlH-ir  doctrinea  waa  no  loager  blameless  or  allow- 
able. Error  became  wfcked,  dlsaent  Unmt 
heresy;  to  reject  the  received  human  doctrinn. 
was  nearly  the  same  aa  to  doubt  the  Divlm- 
dechiratlons.  The  Bcholaatic  Philosophy  clainMl 
the  assent  of  all  belleTer*.  The  exterasl  form, 
the  details,  anl  the  text  of  this  Philosopliy.  wire 
taken,  in  a  great  measure,  from  Aristotle .  tlii>ii|;li, 
in  the  spirit,  the  pixril  notions,  and  the  atvl; 
of  interpretation,  Plato  and  the  Platoni^in  linl 
no  inconsiderable  share.  ...  It  does  not  Ixlnni: 
to  our  purptise  to  consider  either  the  theolnuii-,! 
or  tlie  metaphysical  doctrines  which  form  so  lnr|,'r 
a  portion  of  the  tn-atisesof  the  schoolmen  IVr- 
haps  It  may  hereafter  appear,  that  some  liclit  ia 
thrown  on  some  of  the  questions  which  Imvi-  iie- 
cupietl  metaphysicUns  in  all  agi-s.  by  thai  I'mm- 
Inatlonof  the  history  of  the  I>r(igre.Jiive  .><i  imo-i 
In  which  we  are  now  engaged;  but  till  »>-  nrc 
able  to  analyze  the  leading  contn>venle»  of  ilii, 
kimi.  It  would  be  of  little  service  to  niKak  of 
them  in  detail.  It  may  be  noticed,  however,  iliat 
many  of  the  most  prominent  of  them  refir  tn  ilie 
great  question,  'What  is  the  relation  lietwira 
actual  thing*  and  general  terms  T'  t'erliupn  is 
modem  times,  the  actual  things  would  Im>  m<n 
commonly  taken  aa  the  point  to  start  from  hii'I 
men  would  begin  by  conaidering  how  cI»im'<i  and 
universal*  are  ubtainni  from  imlividimls  But 
the  sclioolmen,  founding  tlieir  s|ieeiilnli>iii«  mq 
the  received  modes  of  considering  such  siiliji-rK. 
to  which  Imth  Aristotle  and  Plato  Im.l  i,n 
tributeil,  travelled  in  the  oppoaite  direclin'i.  aii.l 
enileavore<l  to  discover  how  iwlividuaU  «i  n-  ili  - 
duce<l  from  genera  and  species;-  what  ».-»  the 
I*riiicinle  of  Individuation.'  This  whs  v:irioii»lr 
statetl  W  different  leasoners.  ThusUoniiviniuii 
solves  the  dlfflculty  by  the  ahl  of  tlie  Ari>i<<ii'liao 
distinction  of  Matter  and  Form.  Tlie  imliviiiual 
derive*  from  the  Form  the  pni|H>rty  of  luinit 
something,  and  frt>m  the  Matter  the  proix-rty  of 
being  that  particular  thing.     Dunn  S-oiii^.  tlir 

gri'st  ntiversary  of  Thomas  .\iiiiiniu<  in  il Ii'cr. 

pUctii  the  principle  of  Individuation  in  sirr 
tain  determining  positive  entity,' whiili  hioM  III »l 
calle<l  llRK-c-eity  or  'thisnes*.'  Tliiiii  nn  in 
dividual  man  U  Peter,  because  hU  liiuii.iiiitr  is 
eombiniil  with  Petreity.'  The  forii-  of  nlistrnit 
terms  la  A  curious  uiiestion.  and  some  n  iimrlial>l« 
experiments  in  their  use  bad  been  nin>le  bv  thr 
Latin  Aristotelians  before  this  time.  In  ilie  nam' 
way  In  which  we  talk  of  the  quantit^v  ami  i^mli'r 
of  It  tiling,  they  spoke  of  its  'i|uiiliiity.  ^^'r 
mav  conuder  the  reign  of  nu're  liispuliiii'Hi  a« 
fully  established  at  the  time  of  whicii  we  sn-  ii"if 
speaking  {the  Middle  Ages];  andtheonlv  i>iriil"f 
philosopliy  henceforth  studied  waa  one  In  hIiuIi 
no  sound  jihvsical  sc'ence  had  or  eoulil  li;ivi-  i 
p:*!*."— W.  '  Whrwill,  //(•»«.  of  Ihf  lu'li'llH 
Srirnfft,  hk.  *.  ■'>!  4  (t.  1) --••Scholaslii  i»ni  wis 
philosophy  In  tlie  service  ot  established  uml  a< 
i-eptiii  thiHihigiral  doctrines.  .  .  .  M.r.  par 
ticularly,  SehoMsticisni  was  the  rrprmiuciion  "t 
ancient  pfaihaophy  under  the  coutMl  of  n "  li-fi 
astiral  doctrine.  .  .  The  name  of  S  li"l.o'ii''« 
(doctfires  srholsstlel)  which  was  givin  t.'  lli<- 
teachers  of  the  septeinliberalessrtea[wvcii  lil«nl 
arts]  (grammar,  dialectic,  rhetoric,  in  iIm-  Tr. 
vium,  arithmetic,  geometry,  music  and  uiros 


714 


EDUCATION. 


HI— of 


EDUCATION. 


,iiny,  in  the  QuadriTlum),  or  at  leaat  mme  of 
tbem,  in  the  Cl<>i«ler8clinoto  (inuided  bjr  Ciuirle- 
uMKne,  M  klto  to  teachen  of  tbcolugy,  wm  >f ter- 
w«nU  giren  to  all  who  occupied  theiiiwWea  with 
tbv  irirncn.  Mid  eapcclallr  with  |riiila*ophy. 
.  .  JohannnHratu*,  or  Erlgeoa  (ninth  coituiT] 
hi  tlir  earllvtt  noteworthy  philaaoplier  of  tbe 
Ifk'hiilaitic  period.  He  waa  of  Sootttah  nation- 
alitr,  but  waa  probably  bnm  and  brought  up  in 
Irrlami.  At  the  call  of  Charlea  the  Bald  he  «mi- 
cntrd  to  France."— F.  Ueberweg,  IIul.  of  PM- 
Imiphp.  r.  1.  pp.  855-484.— "Scholaatlcltm.  at  the 
la«t.  from  tlie  pnidlgioua  mental  actirity  which 
it  kept  up.  lircane  a  tacit  unireml  insurrection 
iipiiiut  authority:  it  waa  the  iwelling  of  the 
(Htan  lirfore  the  itorm.  ...  It  waa  a  dgn  uf  a 
crrst  awalivnin);  nf  the  human  miiHl  when  theo- 
luirinnii  lhout;ht  It  both  their  iuty  and  their 
prIvik-KP  to  philoaonhize.  There  "waa  a  viiat 
waale  of  Intelk-ctiial  labor,  but  Mill  It  wni  Intel- 
Irrtiial  labor,  ami.  aa  we  ahall  tee,  it  waa  not  In  the 
fD«l  unfniltful. "— C.  J.  Still*,  Stuitir*  in  Mnlit- 
ml  IlitliTji,  eh.  13.— ■■8cholaatirUm  hati  Its  hour 
of  (tlory.  its  enuille  doctors.  Its  elo<|iirnt  pro- 
fnaors,  chief  amonx  whom  was  AlielanI  (107^ 
11431.  ...  At  «  time  when  priming  did  not  ex- 
ist, when  mauiiM-ript  copies  wrre  rare,  .■»  ti>achi-r 
Till) combined  kruwlnljte  with  the  (rift  of  speech 
was  a  phenomenon  of  incomparable  interest.  aiMi 
•tiidrnts  flocke<l  from  all  partaof  Europe  to  take 
Sllvanut^'  of  his  liH-liin-s.  AbelanI  is  the  most 
brilliant  reprenentntivr  of  the  schoUatic  peda 
fogy,  with  an  oripinal  and  personal  tewlencv 
townnis  the  emancj{Mtion  of  the  mind.  '  It  (a 
riili<'uloiis.'  he  said,  'to  preach  to  others  nlmt 
we  can  neither  make  them  understand  nor  under 
•tsuil  ourselves."  With  mi>n>  bokineas  than  Saint 
AnM'Im.  he  applinl  ilialectics  to  theology,  and 
sttrnipte<l  to  rraaon  out  the  grouodaof  his  faith. 
Till-  seven  liberal  arta  conatTtuted  what  may  lie 
fsllnl  the  secondary  Inatructlon  of  the  Miilille 
Ap-,  such  aa  was  given  in  the  rlaiistml  or  con- 
Tt-ntual  schools,  and  later.  In  the  unWenities. 
The  lilieral  arts  were  ilistribiite<l  into  two  courses 
of  »tuiiy,  known  aa  the  '  trivium "  and  the  '  (juad- 
rivium.'  The  'trivium'  comprlse<l  grammar 
(Utin  giamitur,  of  course),  dialectlc-s,  or  logic, 
•nil  rhetoric :  aiwl  the  '  (|uattrlvium. '  music,  arlth. 
metii'.  geometry,  and  aatronomy.  It  is  im|Mirtnnt 
lo  tmte  the  fact  that  thia  programme  roiiiains 
only  nlwtnu't  ami  formal  studies, —  ih)  n-ul  an<i 
nmrn-ie  studies.  The  sciences  which  teach  us 
to  know  man  and  the  world,  such  aa  history, 
eiliiiii,  the  phyaicnl  and  natural  sciences,  were 
oiniittil  and  unknown.  »Mve  perhaps  in  a  few  con- 
vi-n!«of  the  Benedlctiiiea.  Nothing  which  can 
tnilt  i-iiucate  man,  ami  devekip  his  faculties  ass 
«h..lf.  inlisu  the  sttention  of  the  Middle  Age. 
From  A  course  of  stuily  thus  limltisl  there  might 
come  tkillful  rvasoner*  ami  men  formiilnblc  in 
sririiment,  but  never  fully  ileveloped  men.  The 
nn-iliinU  employed  in  the'ecclesiaalicai  sclioolsiif 
iht-  Middle  Age  were  In  accord  with  the  spirit  of 
tin-  iliiu-a,  when  men  were  m>t  concemiil  aNxil 
lllx-rty  ami  intelk>ctual  freedom:  ami  when  they 
thi>ii|iht  more  about  the  teaching  of  dogmas  than 
aliout  the  training  of  the  Intelligence.  The 
teachers  n-clted  or  read  their  lectures,  ami  the 
piipilt  k-amed  by  heart.  The  diadpline  waa 
harsh  Corrupt  human  nature  waadlatrusti-<l.  In 
l-WI.  puplla  were  forbiddra  the  uae  of  benches 
•nit  rhsirs,  on  the  pretext  that  such  high  seats 
were  an  encuurafcmmit  to  prfcle.     For  securing 


obedlenoe,  corporal  chaatiaements  were  used  ud 
abuaed.  The  rod  la  in  faahion  in  the  flfteenth  aa 
It  waa  in  the  fourteenth  century.  '  There  la  no 
other  difference, 'wya  an  historian,  'except  that 
the  roda  in  the  fifteenth  century  are  twice  aa  k»f 
as  those  in  the  fourteenth. ' "— O.  Ccmpayr^,  Tin 
llif.  of  ndagajii:  IntHM.  bf  W.  U.  A»a«,  ek.  4. 
UaiTMsiti«a.Tli«ir  RIm.- Abcliwd.— "  Up  to 
the  end  of  the  eleTenth  century  the  Inatruction 
was,  speaking  generally,  and  allowing  for  tranai- 
tory  periods  of  revival,  and  for  a  few  excep- 
tional schools,  a  shrunken  survival  of  the  old 
'  trivium  et  quadrivlum. '  The  lessons,  when  not 
dicuted  ami  learnt  by  heart  from  notes,  were  got 
up  from  bald  epitomes.  All  that  wasuught,  more- 
over, waa  Uught  tolc'ly  with  a  view  to '  pToiis  uses. ' 
Criticism  dill  not  exist .  the  free  spirit  of  specu- 
lation could  not.  of  course,  exist.  ...  As  we 
approach  liie  periixl  which  saw  the  birth  of  those 
institutions  known  aa  !Studi.i  Ihiblica  or  Oenrr- 
alU,  and  ere  long  to  be  known  aa  '  universities,' 
we  have  to  extend  our  vision  and  recognize  the 
circumaUncea  of  the  time,  and  those  changes  in 
the  tocial  conilition  of  Eimipe  which  made  great 
central  achoaila  poaaible— achiKila  to  be  freqiienUil 
not  merely  by  the  young  ecciiiiiastic,  but  liy  lay- 
men. Among  other  caiiaes  which  led  to  the  ilff 
fusion  of  a  demand  for  education  among  the  laity, 
was,  I  think,  the  institution  or  n-firganiration  of 
municlnalities.  It  was  about  the  en.l  of  the 
elrvcntli  century  that  the  civic  Communes  (Com- 
munittl  liegan  to  w-vk  ami  obuin,  from  royal  and 
otiier  authorities,  charters  cf  incorpointion  con- 
stituting their  internal  government  and  confer- 
ring o-rtiiiii  freedoms  and  privilegi-s  as  against 
the  cncMiichmeiit  of  lay  and  et'clealastical  h-iidal 
baroiia.  .  .  .  ANiut  the  same  time,  an(l  some- 
what prior  to  this,  trade  guilds  had  Uf  n  formol 
In  many  cities  for  mutual  protection,  the  advi>nc<'- 
ment  of  commerce,  and  the  internal  n-gulatloii  of 
the  various  crafts.  There  Immediately  followetl 
a  draire  for  schools  in  the  more  important  com- 
mercial towns.  In  Italy  such  schools  afvv  la 
R4il(igna,  MiUn.  Brescia,  and  Florence;  and  in 
Germany  they  arose  in  I.Qbeck,  Hamburg.  Bres- 
laii.  Nonlhauaen,  Stettin,  Ijeipaic.  ami  Mlm- 
lierg.  The  <listinclive  charact<-ristic  of  tlieso 
city  schools  was,  that  they  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  under  the  direct  control  of  the  Church, 
or  to  have  been  always  taught  by  priests;  fur- 
ther, that  tiM'  native  tiingue  (tjlerriutu  or  Italian, 
as  the  caite  might  lie)  was  Uught.  Reading, 
writing,  and  a  little  arithmetic  seem  to  have 
fomiiiT  the  staple  of  the  instruction.  The  cua- 
timi  of  <lictnting.  writing  down,  and  then  learn- 
ing by  lu-art  what  was  written  —  universal  in 
tlie  schools  of  the  preceding  centuries  —  waa, 
of  course,  still  followed  in  tlieae  burgh  ichoola. 
Thia  niaiom  was  alinoat  Inevitable.  .  .  .  The  in- 
crcascil  communication  with  Africa  uml  the  Eaat 
through  the  Crusades  hail  Introduced  men  to  a 
aundard  of  learning  among  the  Arabs,  unknown 
In  Euni|H'.  Outside  the  school,  the  onler  of  chlv- 
airy  had  Introduced  a  new  ami  higher  ethical 
apirit  than  had  lieen  known  In  the  previoua  cen- 
turies Civic  communities  and  trade  guilda  were 
forming  themselves  and  seeking  charters  of  In- 
c«rp<iration.  Above  all.  the  Crusades,  by  atlmu- 
Istlng  the  aniour  and  exciting  the  intellecu  of 
men,  hail  iinai-ttkHi  oM  oonventhio  by  bringing 
men  of  all  ranks  within  the  sacred  circle  of  a  com- 
mon enthusiasm,  ami  Into  contact  with  foreig-,; 
civilliatluoa.    The  deaire  for  a  higher  eduokUon, 


s:  ^\. 


71o 


ss.* 


EDUCATION. 


The  influ«nc€ 
of  Aboard. 


EDUCATION. 


and  the  impulae  to  more  profound  InTestigation, 
that  characterized  the  beginning  and  courae  of 
the  twelftli  century,  was  thus  only  a  part  of  a 
widespread  movement,  political  and  moral.  .  .  . 
While  the  Romano- Hellenic  achoolshad  Ion; dis- 
appeared, there  still  existed,  in  many  towns, 
ipisropal  schools  of  a  high  class,  many  of  which 
might  l)e  regarded  as  continuations  of  the  old 
imperial  proriucial  institutions.  ...  In  Bologna 
and  Paris,  Ilheims  and  Naples,  it  was  so.  The 
iirt )  curriculum  professed  in  these  centres  was,  for 
the  time  and  state  of  knowledge,  g(X)d.  These 
schools,  indeed,  had  never  quite  lost  the  fresh 
impulse  given  liy  Charlemagne  and  his  successors. 
.  .  .  Acuirding  to  my  view  of  educational  history, 
the  great '  studia  publica '  or  '  generalia '  arose  out 
of  them.  They  wen-  themselves,  in  anarrowsensc, 
already  'stuclla  publica.'.  .  .  Looking,  first,  to 
the  germ  out  of  which  the  universities  grew,  I 
think  we  must  siiy  that  the  universities  may  be 
regarded  as  a  natural  development  of  the  cathe- 
dral und  monastery  schools ;  but  if  we  seek  for  an 
citernal  motive  force  urging  men  to  undertake 
the  more  profound  and  independent  study  of  the 
lil'inil  art.s,  we  ciiu  Und  it  only  in  the  Saracenic 
M'liixils  of  Biigdud,  Babylon,  Alexandria,  and 
{'orilova.  ...  To  fix  precisely  the  da«e  of  the 
rise  of  the  first  specialized  schools  or  universities 
is  impossible,  for  the  simple  reason  that  they 
were  not  founded.  .  .  .  The  simplest  account  of 
the  new  university  origins  is  the  most  c<)mK?t. 
It  would  appear  that  ci'rtain  active-minded  men 
of  marked  eminence  began  to  give  instruction  in 
medioal  subjects  at  Salerno,  and  in  law  at  Bo- 
logna, in  a  spirit  and  manner  not  previously 
attempted,  to  youths  who  had  left  the  monastery 
and  cathi'dnil  scIimiIs.  and  who  desiretl  to  equip 
themselves  for  professional  life.  Pupils  Hocked 
to  them:  and  the  more  able  of  thesi'  'tudents, 
tiridiiig  that  there  was  a  public  demand  for  this 
higher  speelallzed  instruction,  remained  at  heaii- 
(oiarters,  an<l  tlieiiiselves  became  teachers  or 
(liK'tors.  The  Church  did  not  found  universities 
any  more  than  it  founded  the  order  of  chivalry. 
They  were  founde<i  by  a  concurrence  (not  wholly 
fortuitous)  of  able  men  who  bad  something  they 
wished  to  t(  ach,  and  of  youths  who  desired  to 
leani.  None  the  less  were  the  acquiescence  and 
protirtliin  of  I'hurch  and  Stale  necessary  in  those 
(lays  fi>r  the  fostering  ol  these  infant  semiuaries. 
.  .  .  Of  the  three  great  schools  which  we  have 
named,  there  is  ■ufHcient  ground  for  believing 
that  the  lirst  to  reach  such  a  dex  "opment  as  to 
iniiileitto  the  name  of  a  studium  generate  or 
luilverMlty  was  the  '  Sehola  Salernitaua,'  although 
it  never  was  a  university,  t<>chnlcally  speaking." 
— S.  S.  Laurie,  Hint  imiitiirln  Gimtitution  of  I  iii- 
r.r»i7i'.«.  Uct.  6-7.— "Ideas,  till  this  time  seat- 
tend,  or  watched  over  in  the  various  ecclesiastical 
seliools.  iH'gan  to  converge  to  a  common  centre. 
Till'  great  name  of  Vnivenity  was  recogniBe<l  in 
till'  cHpilal  of  France,  it  the  moment  that  the 
Kh'neh  tongue  had  iH'come  almost  uulveraal. 
The'  ecinquests  of  the  Normans,  and  the  first  cru- 
sade, ha<l  spreiul  its  powerfully  phllosophle  idiom 
ill  every  direction,  to  England,  to  Sicily,  and  to 
JiriiKuleni.  This  rlrttimstancc  alone  'loves'  d 
FraiH-e,  central  Pram*.  I>»ris,  with  an  immen'  at- 
tractive power,  lly  decrees,  Parisian  Kreiu-ii  be- 
came a  proverb.  Keiidalism  had  found  it*  political 
centre  in  the  Myal  city ;  and  this  city  was  alxiut  to 
Is'come  the  capital  of  hunwii  thought.  The  be- 
giuuef  ul  Ihis  revuiultoii  was  not  a  pricat,  but  a 


handsome  young  man  of  briUUnt  talents,  ami- 
able and  of  noble  family.  None  wrote  love 
verses,  like  Lis,  in  the  vulgar  tongue ;  be  sang 
them,  too.  Besides,  his  erudition  was  extmordi- 
nary  for  that  day.  He  alone,  of  his  time,  knew 
both  Oreek  and  Hebrew.  May  be,  he  had  studied 
at  the  Jewish  schools  (there  were  many  in  the 
Sout'.),  or  under  the  rabbins  of  Troyes,  Vitry, 
or  of  Orleans.  There  were  then  in  Paris  two 
leading  scliools:  the  old  Episcopal  sciiool  nf  the 
parvis  Notre  Dame,  and  that  of  St.  Oeneviivc, 
on  the  hill,  where  shone  William  of  Champiaux! 
Abelanl  joined  his  pupils,  submitted  to  hi'ii  his 
doubts,  puzzled  him.  laughed  at  him.  and  iliised 
his  mouth.  He  would  have  serveil  Aiiselm  of 
Laon  the  same,  had  not  the  professor,  biini;  a 
bishop,  expelled  him  from  his  diocese,  lu  iliia 
fashion  this  knight-errant  of  logic  went  on.  un- 
horsing  the  most  celebrated  champions.  He  him- 
self declared  that  he  had  only  reuounceil  tilt  and 
tourney  through  his  passion  for  intellectui' .  .,n\- 
bats.  Henceforwanl.  victorious  and  win.  it  a 
rival,  he  taughtat  Paris  and  Melun,  the  ri'>iili'iici' 
nf  Louis-le-()ros,  and  the  lords  flocked  to  lu-ar 
him;  anxious  to  encourage  one  of  theiiiMlvrs, 
who  hud  discomfited  the  priests  on  their  iiwu 
ground,  ami  had  silenced  the  ablest  ch'rks.  Alxl 
ard's  wonderful  success  is  easily  exphiineil.  All 
the  lore  and  learning  which  had  Iti'eu  Biiinihircil 
under  the  heavy,  dognnuical  forms  of  ilirictil 
instruction,  and  hidden  in  the  rude  Latin  nf  the 
middle  age,  suddenly  appeared  arniviil  in  the 
simple  elegance  of  anti(|uity,  so  that  men  sii  mini 
for  the  first  time  to  hear  and  recognise  a  liiimaii 
vrice.  The  daring  youth  slmpUfled  and  explaiiinl 
everything;  pn^sentiug  pbiUisophy  in  a  familiar 
form,  and  bringing  it  home  to  mens  busnms. 
He  hardly  suffered  the  obscure  or  su|ieniatii- 
ral  to  rest'  on  the  hardest  mysteries  of  faith.  It 
s<'emed  as  if  till  then  the  Church  had  lis|.i'il  ami 
stammereil;  while  Abelard  spoke.  All«a>niaiie 
smooth  and  easy.  He  treati-d  ri'ligiim  iniirti'- 
ously  and  handled  ler  gently,  but  she  niiltiil 
away  in  his  hanilr  Nothing  embarras-seil  the 
fluent  S|ieaker:  he  re<luce<t  religion  to  pliilimi. 
phy,  and  morality  to  humanity.  •C'riiin','  ho 
said,  '  con.si.sts  not  in  the  act,  but  in  the  intm. 
tion.'  It  followed,  that  there  was  mi  sm  li  tliiug 
OS  sins  of  habit  or  of  ignorance— 'Tiny  who 
crucifitKl  Jesus,  not  knowing  him  to  have  been 
the  Saviour,  were  guilty  of  no  sin  '  What  is 
original  sin  f — 'Less  a  sin,  than  a  punishnunt.' 
But  then,  wherefore  the  redemption  and  the  pa» 
sion,  if  there  was  no  siuT — 'It  was  an  ai  tof  \\nK 
love.  Ood  deslntl  to  substitute  the  law  of  Inve 
for  that  of  fear.'" — J.  Michelet.  J/itloryf  thmrt. 
r.  1,  A*.  4.  eh.  4  — "  It  Is  dlHIcull,  by  a  im  ri'  luru- 
sal  of  Altelnnl's  works,  to  uudentaiid  the  rlTirt 
he  prixluiitl  ujKm  his  hearers  bv  the  fnne  of  hit 
argumentation,  whether  sludleil  or  liii|iroviv<il, 
and  by  the  anlor  and  animatluu  of  his  elmiurnre. 
and  the  gracv  and  attractiveness  of  his  inrson. 
But  the  testimony  of  his  contem|M>raries  is  iiiiani. 
moui;  even  his  adversaries  theiiiselvcs  reiiilir 
Justice  to  his  high  oratorleni  qualities  Nnutw 
ever  reasoned  with  more  subtlety,  or  handlnl  the 
dialectic  tool  with  more  athlreas;  and  assurnlly. 
something  of  these  qualities  is  t<-  be  found  In  llie 
writings  be  has  left  us.  But  the  intense  lifi .  tin- 
enthusiastic  arthir  which  enlivened  hisdisCKirsi'i, 
the  beauty  of  his  face,  and  the  chann  of  hii 
voice  cannot  Iw  Imparted  by  cold  mttnu«i  rti'in 
U«i(4ie,  wiiuK  name  is  inieparabiy  linKi'i  "uii 


71G 


BDUCATION. 


Latin  Languagt  and 
Ltaming. 


BDCCATION. 


that  of  her  unfortunate  huiband,  and  whom 
Charles  de  Rfmusat  does  not  hesitate  to  call  '  the 
first  of  women ' ;  who.  in  any  case,  was  a  superior 
person  of  her  time;  Heloise.  who  loved  Abelard 
with  'an  immoderate  love,' and  who,  under  the 
veil  of  a  '  religieuse '  and  throughout  the  practice 
of  devotional  duties,  remained  faithful  to  him 
until  death ;  Heloise  said  to  him  in  her  famous 
Utter  of  1136:  '  Thou  hast  two  things  especially 
which  could  instantly  win  thee  the  hearts  of  all 
women :  the  charm  thou  knowest  how  to  impart 
to  thy  voice  in  speaking  and  singing.'  External 
(rifts  combined  with  intellectual  qu^ities  to  make 
of  Abelard  an  incomparable  seducer  of  minds 
nud  hearts.  Add  to  this  an  astonishing  memory, 
11  knowledge  as  profound  as  was  compatible  with 
the  resources  of  his  time,  and  a  vast  erudition 
which  caused  his  contemporaries  to  consider  him 
a  master  of  universal  knowledge.  .  .  .  How  can 
one  be  astonished  that  with  such  qualities  Abel- 
ard gained  an  extraordinary  ascendency  over  his 
UL'i';  that,  having  become  the  intellectual  ruler 
iinil,  as  it  were,  the  dictator  of  the  thought  of  the 
twelfth  century,  ho  should  have  succeeded  in 
attracting  to  his  chair  and  in  retaining  around  it 
thousands  of  young  men;  the  first  germ  of  Uu«v 
assemblages  of  students  who  were  to  constitute 
the  universities  several  years  later  ?  ...  It  is 
not  alone  by  the  outward  success  of  his  scholastic 
apostolate  that  AbelanI  merits  consideration  as 
tlie  precursor  of  the  modem  spirit  and  the  pM- 
iiioter  of  the  foundation  of  the  universities;  it  is 
also  by  his  doctrine,  or  at  least  by  his  method. 
.  .  .  Ao  one  claims  that  Abelard  was  the  first 
who.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  had  hitttxluced  dialect- 
lc«  into  theology,  reascm  into  authority.  Ir  the 
iiinlh  eenturv,  Scotus  Erigena  had  already  said: 
•.\utiioritv  is  derived  from  reason."  Stholustl- 
cisni,  which  is  nothing  but  logic  enlightening 
theology,  an  effort  of  reason  to  demonstrate 
donnia,  had  begun  before  Abelard ;  but  it  was  lie 
who  gave  movemeut  ami  life  to  the  metlKnl  hv 
linding  it  his  power  and  his  renown.'"— G.  Coni- 
I'lvre,  AM)iril,  pt.  1,  eh.  "i-S. 

Latin  Laoguace.— "Oreek  was  an  unknown 
ti'iiKue:  only  a  very  .'ew  of  the  Latin  classics  re- 
iilved  a  perfunctory  attention:  Boethius  was 
pr.  ferred  to  Cicero,  and  the  Moral  Sentences 
iivrilH'd  to  Cato  to  either.  Htiles  couched  in 
liiirlmrous  Latin  verse  were  committed  to  mem- 
iry.  Aristotle  was  known  only  in  ineorrect 
Latin  translations,  which  manv  of  the  taught. 
imd  some  of  the  teachers  probalily,  supp.wed  to 
!h'  ihi'  originals.  Matters  were  not  mended 
wlii'U  the  student,  having  passed  through  the 
pnlimlnary  course  of  arts,  ailvanceil  to  the  study 
of  the  sciences.  Theologv  meant  an  acciimlni- 
niK  e  with  the  •  Sentenci's"  of  IVter  I^mlmnl  <.r 
lu  other  cases,  with  the  "Summa"  of  Thoniu!* 
A'lUlnas;  in  medlelne,  Oalen  was  nn  auihoriiv 
fnnu  which  there  was  ni> np|HMd.  t)n  everv  hUiv 
the  student  was  fenenl  round  bv  InidllioiiM  un.l 
prejudices,  through  which  It  wiis  Impossible  to 
break.  In  truth,  he  had  no  means  of  knowing 
timt  there  was  a  wider  and  falnr  world  Ivi  vond. 
Till  the  classical  revival  eanie.  every  die:i.le 
made  the  yoke  of  prewriptlon  heavier,  "and  each 
t'l  iH'ratlon  of  students,  thenlore,  a  fwbler  <(.pv 
f  the  last. "—C.  MeanI,  Marlin  l.ullur  nmt  the 
i:.i„rmnli,m.  th.  8.— "What  at  flmt  lia<l  lui-n 
'  >i  rvwiiere  a  Greek  became  In  Western  Euro|«' 
'  -  "in  rs'llgttm.  Thr  discipiinc  of  Unma  liiuin- 
'  lined  the  hotly  of  doctrine  which  the  thought  of 


Greece  had  defined.    A  new  Latin  version,  super- 
seding alike  the  venerable  Greek  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament  and  the  original  words  of 
Evangelists  and  Apostles,  became  the  received 
text  of  Holy  Scripture.    The  Latin  Fathers  ac- 
quired an  authority  scarcely  less  binding.    The 
ritual,  lessons,  and  hymns  of  the  Church  were 
Latin      Ecclesiastics  transacted  the  business  of 
civil  dei>artments  -eciuiring  education.    Libraries 
»_ere  armories  of  ti.e  Church :  grammar  was  part 
of  her  drill.    The  humblest  sch.jlar  was  enlisted 
in  her  service:  she  recruited  her  ranks  by  found- 
ing Latin  schools.     •  Education  in  the  rudiments 
of   Latin,'    says    Hallam,  "was   imparu-d  to  a 
grt'ater  uuml)cr  of  individuals  than  at  present;* 
and,  as  they  liad  more  use  for  it  than  a^  present, 
it  was  longer  retained.     If  a  boy  of  humble  birth 
had  a  taste  for  letters,  or  if  a  bov  of  high  birth 
had  a  distaste  for  arms,  the  first  step  was  to  learn 
Latin.     His  foot  was  then  on  the  ladder     He 
might  rise  by  the  go<xl  oftices  of  his  family  to  a 
bishopric,  or  to  the  papacy  itself  by  merit  and 
tlie  grace  of  Grxl.     Latin  enabled  a  Greek  from 
Tarsus  (Theodore)  to  become  the    founder    of 
learning  in  the  English  church ;  and  a  Yorkshire- 
man  (Alcuin)  to  organize  the  schools  of  Charle- 
magne.    Without  Latin,  our  English  Winfrid 
(St.  Boniface)  could   not   have   been  apostle  of 
Gernmuy  and  reformer  of  the  Prankish  Church; 
or  the  German  All)ert,  master  at  Paris  of  Tiiomas 
Aquinas;    or  Nicholas    Bn-akspeare,    Pope   of 
Home.     With  it.  Western  Christi'ndom  was  one 
vast   field  of  labor:    calls  for   wlfsacriflce,   or 
offers  of  pMniotion.  might  come  fn)m  north  or 
south,  fnim  east  or  west.     Thus  In  the  Middle 
Ages  Latin  was  mailc  the  groundwork  of  educa- 
tion; not  for  the  beauty  of  Its  classlcul  litera- 
ture, norliecause  the  study  of  a  dead  language 
was  the  Ih^si  mental   gymnastic,    or  the    only 
means  of  acqidring  a  masteriy  freedom  In  the 
use  of  living  tongues,   but  because  it  was  the 
langiiago  of  e<lucateil  men    throughout  West- 
ern EunijH'.  employed  for  public  business,  litera- 
ture,   phihisophy,    and    selen.e;  alK)vc    all.    In 
G'«r«   pMvidence,   essential   to  the   uidty.  and 
therefore  enforced  bv  the  authority  of.  the  West- 
ern Chunh.'— C.   S.   Parker,  Umiy  ,„,  tht  Hit- 
torj/  of  t'liim,;it  EilnMti,m  {quulrd  'in  Dr.  llenty 
Biniitnlt   ••  l,ithi:    tjuui^t    and    Tlmnghtt   on 
Stiiifiiniiiiil  Ciniihii-t,"  p.  407). 

France,— "The  countries  of  western  Europe, 

leaveniHl,  all  of  them,  by  the  one  spirit  of  the 

feudal  and  eutholii-  Middl.>  Al-c,  formed  in  some 

seUBi'  one  community,  ami  wire  more  assiK-iated 

than  they  have  thin  slme  the  feudal  and  catholic 

unity  of  the  .Middle  A«e  bus  ilLsappeaad  and 

given  pl.ue  to  the  divliled  ami   various  life  of 

inixlirii   Europe.     In  the  iiiiillieval  community 

Knuice  helil  the  tirst  place.     It  is  now  well  known 

that  to  pl.iiv  In  till'  I'lth  irnturv  the  revival  of 

liitilli.  iiial  lite  and  the  reestalilishment  of  civ- 

ilisulioii.    and    to   tnat  tlie  periiKl   between  the 

.'nh  iiuiiiry.  w  hen  iineient  elvlllsation  was  ruined 

,   by  the  liailiarlaiit.  and  the  l.lth.  when  the  life 

and  liilelliit  of  llila  elvillsation  reappeanil  aiut 

tniusf.iriiiiil  ilii>  worid.  as  one  chaos,  isamislake. 

I   The  (liaos  ends  alKiut  the  loth  century:  In  the 

j    mil  there  truly  comes  the  first  reestalilishment 

I  of  elvillsiilion.  the  first  n'vlval  of  intellectual  life; 

1   Uie  prinilpal  cintri'  of  this  n-vival  Is  France,  ita 

I  eldef  monuments  of  literature  ntv  In  the  French 

j   i.iiiguu^e.  iis  liiii T  iiiouunieuts  of  art  are  the 

i  French  catbedrals.    This  revival  fill*  the  Itlth  and 


■flJ 


il7 


EDUCATION. 


The  rniirrwYy 
of  Pari: 


EDUCATION. 


1 3th  centuries  with  its  activity  and  with  ita  works : 
all  thi-]  time  Ftance  has  the  lead ;  in  the  14th  cen- 
tury the  lead  passes  to  Italy;  but  now  comes 
the  commencement  of  a  wholly  new  period,  the 
period  of  the  Renaissance  properly  so  called,  the 
beginning  of  modern  European  life,  the  ceasing 
of  the  life  of  the  feudal  and  catholic  Middle  Age. 
The  anterior  and  less  glorious  Renaissance,  the 
Renaissance  n-itliin  the  limits  of  the  Middle  Age 
itself,  n  revival  whirh  came  to  a  stop  and  could 
not  successftdly  develope  itself,  Init  which  has 
yet  left  profound  traces  in  our  spirit  and  our  liter- 
atun'. —  lliis  revival  belongs  chiefly  to  France. 
France,  then,  may  well  serve  as  a  typical  countir 
wherein  to  trace  "the  mediieval  growth  of  intel- 
lect and  learning ;  above  all  she  may  so  stand  for 
us,  whose  connection  with  her  ia  the  Middle  Age. 
owing  to  our  Norman  kings  and  the  currency  of 
her  language  among  our  cultivated  class,  was  so 
peculiarly  close;  so  close  that  the  literary  and 
intellectual  development  of  the  two  coimtries  at 
that  time  interndngles,  and  no  important  event 
can  hapi>en  in  tliat  of  ihe  one  witho\it  straight- 
way affecting  and  interesting  that  of  the  other. 
.  .  .  With  the  hostility  of  the  long  French  Wars 
of  Edward  the  Third  comes  the  estrangement, 
never  afterwards  diminishing  but  always  increas 
ing. '■ — M.  Arnold,  Schools  and  Cnireriiitie*  on  the 
Contiiifiit.  eh.  1. — University  of  Paris. — "The 
name  of  Aljelard  recalls  the  European  celebrity 
and  immense  intellectual  ferment  of  this  school 
[of  Paris]  In  the  12th  centnrj-.  But  it  was  in  the 
nrst  year  of  the  following  century,  the  13th,  that 
it  received  a  charter  fn>m  Philip  Augustus,  and 
thenceforth  the  name  of  University  of  Paris  takes 
Ihe  place  of  that  of  8<'liool  of  Pans.  Forty-nine 
veiirs  later  was  founded  University  College,  t)x- 
ford.  the  oldest  lollege  of  the  oldest  English  Uni- 
versity. Four  iiations  coniposed  the  tniversity 
of  I'aris— the  nation  of  France,  the  nation  of 
I'icanix  the  nation  of  Normandy,  and  (signal 
mark  of  the  close  interi'ourse  which  then  citisteil 
iKtween  Frame  and  usi )  tlie  nation  of  England. 
The  fiMir  naliims  united  formed  the  faculty  of 
arts.  Tlie  fiicultv  of  theologv  was  creaU'd  In 
li.*>7.  that  of  law  in  1271.  that  of  medicine  in  1ST4. 
Thiiilogy,  law.  and  medicine  had  each  their  Than ; 
arts  had  four  Pncuralors,  one  for  each  of  the 
four  nations  composing  tids  faculty.  Arts  elected 
the  nctor  of  the  University,  and  had  possession 
of  the  University  chest  and  anhlvis.  The  pre 
emimnie  of  the  Vacuity  of  Arts  indicates,  as  in- 
deed liiHS  the  virv  di'Velopmciit  of  the  Univer- 
sity, all  Idia.  grailually  Rtreiicilicnlnu  itself,  of  a 
lay  instnictlon  to  he  no  longer  absorlied  in  llie- 
oloKv.  but  separable  from  it.  The  growth  of  a 
lay  and  niislern  spirit  in  society,  the  prepcm 
dirarice  of  the  cmwn  over  the  papacy,  of  tiie 
civil  over  the  ecclesiastiral  [Hiwer.  is  the  gnat 
fealim'  of  Frenrli  history  in  the  14th  century, 
and  to  this  cc ntiiry  iH'limgs  the  highest  ilevilnp- 
meiii  of  ilie  Iniverslly.  .  .  The  Imixirtance  of 
Ihi'  I'nivirslly  In  the  IXthand  14th  <'eMluries\vfis 
exiraiitilinary.  Mi  ns  minds  were  ixisseswil  with 
a  wciiidirful  real  brr  kuowleilgc,  or  what  was 
then  tliouirltl  kniinlitlge,  ami  the  University  of 
Paris  Was  the  gnal  fnunt  fMin  which  this  kni>w!- 
edge  issueil.  The  Iniverslly  and  those  de|K'nd- 
lug  nn  It  nnide  at  this  time,  (t  is  said,  actually  a 
third  of  the  iBipulalInn  iif  I'arls;  when  llie  Uni- 
versity went  on  a  stilenin  imm  a^ion  in  pnMession 
fu  Sdnt  Lk'td".  the  he'id  "f  the  !-r"»eess!on.  it  Is 
•■id.  had  reached  ^i.  Denis  before  the  cnt'     f  It 


had  left  its  starting  place  In  Paris.  It  had  im- 
munities from  taxation,  it  had  Jurisdiction  of  its 
own,  and  its  members  claimed  to  be  exempt  from 
that  of  the  provost  of  Paris :  the  kings  of  France 
strongly  favoured  the  University,  and  leaned 
to  its  side  when  the  municipal  and  acaileniical 
authorities  were  in  conflict;  if  at  any  time  the 
University  thought  itself  seriously  aggrievicl,  it 
had  recourse  to  a  measure  which  threw  Paris 
into  dismay, — it  shut  up  its  schools  and  sus- 
pended its  lectures.  In  a  body  of  this  kind  the 
discipline  could  not  be  strict,  and  the  colli  .,•(.) 
were  created  to  supply  centres  of  discipline  w  hii  li 
the  University  in  itself, — an  apparatus  merely  nf 
teachers  and  lecture-rooms, — did  not  prmiile. 
The  14th  century  is  the  time  when,  one  after 
another,  with  wonderful  rapidity,  the  French  col- 
leges appeared.  Navarre,  Montaigu,  Harcinirt, 
names  so  familiar  in  the  school  annals  of  Fninre, 
date  from  the  first  quarter  of  the  14tli  century. 
The  Colhge  of  Navarre  was  founded  liv  the 
queen  of  Philip  the  Fair,  in  1304;  the  C'olli'iie  of 
Montaigu,  where  Erasmus,  Rabelais,  and  Igna- 
tius Loyola  were  in  their  time  students.  »»$ 
founded  in  1314  by  two  members  of  the  'aniily 
of  Montaigu.  one  of  them  Archbishop  of  .iomn. 
The  majority  of  these  colleges  were  fou.iiUil  liy 
magnates  of  the  church,  and  designed  to  niaiii- 
tain  a  certain  number  of  bursara,  or  scholars, 
during  their  university  course.  .  .  .  Along  with 
the  University  of  Paris  there  existed  in  Kraaie. 
in  the  14th  century,  the  Universities  of  Orltanii, 
Angers,  Toulouse,  and  Montpcllier.  Orleans  was 
the  grei  ♦  French  school  for  the studv  of  the ( nil 
law.  .  .  .  The  civil  law  was  studiously  kipt 
away  from  the  Unlveraity  of  Paris,  forfiar  it 
shotdd  drive  out  otiier  studies,  and  especially  the 
stuily  of  theology ;  so  late  as  the  year  IfiTl*  ihi  'e 
was  no  chair  of  Roman  or  even  of  Fniii  li  law 
in  the  University  of  Paris.  The  strength  nf  this 
University  was  concentrated  on  tUeoIoL'v  and 
arts,  and  its  celebrity  arose  from  the  multituilcnf 
students  which  in  these  branches  of  iustruiiina 
It  attracted." — M.  Arnold,  S-hm-U  unit  I'nmr- 
rilumm  the  Continent,  eh.  1. — The  Sorbonne.— 
The  University  of  Paris  acquired  the  ii.itin-  nf 
"the  Sorbonne"  "from  Rolwrt  of  SorlKni.  aiilic 
chaplain  of  St.  I»ui9,  who  established  oin'  of  the 
03  colleges  of  the  University.  .  .  .  The  iiaiin'  nf 
Sirlsmne  was  first  applleil  to  the  tliii'l"airal 
faculty  onlv ;  but  at  length  the  whole  I'liivc  r>ity 
n-ceivisi  this  dc -dgnation.  ' — J.  Alzog.  .U.in«.i{./ 
I'liirernil  Church  Ilirtory,  r.  8,  p.  'ii.f'"t  ""l>. 
—The  Nations.— "The  "pri'clse  date  o(  liu-  "t- 
L'anization  at  Paris  of  the  four  Nations  uhiih 
midntidntsi  themselves  there  until  llie  late  -I  'lay« 
of  the  university  esinilH'S  the  most  niiimii'  re- 
searrli.  Neither" for  the  Nations  nor  fur  iln  Ku- 
ulties  was  then'  any  sudden  lilosaiaMiiiL'.  tint 
rather  a  slow  evolnllon,  an  Inwnslbli'  |mp;ii  iiion 
for  a  detlnlte  cundltion.  Already  at  llie  el  -i  uf 
the  twelfth  o'niiiry  there  is  mention  in  luiili  la- 
piirary  iIim  iiiucnts  of  the  varlcms  proviiii  i  -  "f 
thes(inKiliif  I'aris.  The  Nations  are  iiniitii'iied 
In  Ihe  bulls  of  Ori'gory  IX.  (1231)  and  .if  tiiii"- 
cenl  IV.  (I24.">).  In  1245,  they  already  eliit  liu  Ir 
altendanls,  the  U'lidles.  In  1241>.  Ihe  <\i>o mtj 
of  the  four  Nations — France,  Picardy.  N"f- 
mandy.  and  England  —  is  proved  by  their  ciuar- 
rels  over  the  election  of  a  rector.  .  "  .  Inlii  ilie 
definitive  conslliulion  of  the  Fscultiis.  Ihit  n. 
until  !37<>  I'r  I'J'i'O.  the  f<>ur  Niiiions  Inilu'liil 
the  totality  of  students  and  masU'rs.     .Vlt<  r  tne 


•18 


'Hi 


KDCCATION. 


"  ml 


study  0/ 
Roman  Lata. 


EDUCATION. 


formation  of  the   Facultiet,  the  four  Nations 
comprised  only  the  members  of  the  Faculty  of 
Arts  and  those  students  of  other  Faculties  who 
had  not  yet  obtained  the  grade  of  Bachelor  of 
Arts.    The  three  superior  Faculties,  Theology, 
Medicine,  and  Law,   had  nothing  in   common 
thenceforward  with  the   Nations.  ...  At  Bo- 
logna, as  nt  Paris,  the  Nations  were  constituted 
in  the  early  years  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
but   under  a   slightly   different   form.     There 
the  students  were  grouped  In  two  distinct  associa- 
tiims.  the  Ultramuntanes  and  the  Citramontanes, 
the  foreigners  and  the  Italians,  who  formed  two 
universities,  the  Transalpine  and  the  Cisalpine, 
each  with  it«  chiefs,  who  were  not  styled  pi  jcu- 
nilors  but  counsellors;  the  first  was  composed  of 
eighteen  Nations  and  the  second  of  seventeen. 
At  Piiilua  twenty-two  Nations  were  enumerated. 
Montpellier  had  onlv  three  in  1339,— the  Cata- 
lans,  the    Burgundians,    the   ^rovenpals;  each 
subdivided,    however,   into  numerous  groups. 
Orleans  had   ten:  France,    Germany,  Lorraine, 
Burgundy,    Champagne,    Picardy,    Normandy, 
Touraine,  Quyanne,  and  Scotland;  Poitiers  had 
four:  France,  Aquitaine,  Touraine,  and  Berry; 
Pniiiue  had  four  also,   in  imitation   of   Paris; 
Urida  had  twelve,  in  imitation  of  Bologna,  etc. 
Bui  whether  more  or  less  numerous,  and  what- 
ever their  special  organization,  the  Nations  in  all 
tlie  universities  bore  witness  to  that  need  of  asso- 
ciation which  is  one  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
Miil'lle  Ages.      .  .  One  of  the  consequences  of 
tliiir  orjfanization  waa  to  prevent  the  blending 
and  fusion  of  races,  and  to  maintain  the  distinc- 
tion of  provinces  and  nationalities  among  the 
pupils  of  the  same  university.  "—0.  Comuavre 
.I'W.in/,  ;)?.  8,  M.  2.  ^ 

Italy :  ReviTcd  Study  of  Roman  Law.— "  It 
Is  known  that  .lustiuian  eojiblir.l  e  i  in  Rome  a 
8<li(H)l  of  law,  similar  t.  tlios"  .if  Consuntinople 
and  Berytus.     When  Komi  ci  .ised  tt.  V  subject 

10  ByzHutine  rule,  this  lawschool  seems  lo  have 
Ui n  tnmsferred  to  lilavenua.  where  it  continued 
to  keep  alive  the  knowle<lge  of  the  Justinian  svs- 
t<  ni.  Thai  system  continued  to  be  known  and 
11-1,1,  from  century  to  century,  in  a  tradition 
n.  V  er  wholly  Interrupted,  especially  In  the  tnc 

■lis  of  Xoriheru  Italy.  It  seems  even  to  have 
j»  III  trilled  lieyond  Italy  into  Southern  France. 
Bui  .t  was  dentlued  to  have,  at  the  beginning  of 
Mie  twi  Ifth  century,  a  very  extraordinary  revival. 
Tills  n  vival  was  part  of  a  general  movement  of 
il"  Kuni|M.'an  mind  which  inukes  Its  appcanince 
»t  Hint  epoch.  The  darkness  which  si'ttled  down 
111  lie  world,  iit  the  time  of  the  Imrlmrian  inva- 
■iiiK.  had  its  midnight  in  the   ninth  and  tenth 

11  iitiirii ».  In  the  eleventh,  signs  of  progres.s  itiicl 
liiipruvenient  1m  tfiu  to  show  themwlveii.  Ik'coiu- 
iii<  iiioie  (llsllii.t  towimli  its  close,  when  the 
IK  rioil  uf  the  I'rusiules  was  o(H'iilng  upon  Europe 

Jii-l  lit  this  time  we  find  a  fu u*  s*hiKil  of  law 

<  Mihlishctl  In  BoUigim.  ami  fn-quentcl  by  luulti- 
tiiilis  of  pupils,  not  only  fr,  i  all  parts  of  Italy. 
Iiiit  froiii  Uermany.  France,  and  other  countrii"». 

Ill  basis  of  all  Its  instruction  was  the  Corpus 
.liirl«  fivllls  [w,.  (owis  JiHls  I'lviLls],  li< 
ti  ;  111  rs,  who  conslitutc  a  series  of  distini.'ui,shiil 
)  I  ^U  extending  over  a  ci'uturv  and  a  h.ilf.  ili-. 
I'd  thein»*'lve»  to  the  work  of  expounding  the 
■lAt  and  elucidating  the  nrinciples of  the  Corpus 
Jiin«.  and  especially  the  Digest.  Fmm  the  form 
■"•■■•  Tiita  Ihrv  rrconicd  aDiiTisndeil  iii.»ii  ilie  n- 
suits  of  their  studies,  they  have  obtahied  the 


name  of  glossators.    On  their  copies  of  the  Cor- 
pus Juris  they  were  accustomed  to  write  glosses, 
i.  e.,  brief  marginal  explanations  and  remarks. 
These  glosses  came  at  length  to  be  an  immens3 
literature.  .  .  .  Here,  then,  in  this  school  of  the 
glossators,  at  Bologna,  in  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries,  tlie  awakened  mind  of  Europe 
was  brought  to  recognize  the  value  of  the  Corpus 
Juris,  the  almost  inexhaustible  treasure  of  jur- 
istic pnnciples,  precepts,  conceptions,  reasonings, 
stored  up  in  it.''— Jas.  Hadley,  Inlrod.  to  Uoi.uin 
L,iw  Uct.  2. -University  of  Bologna.-'  In  the 
twelfth  century  the  law  school  of  the  University 
of  Bologna    -lipsed  all  others  in  Europe      The 
two  gaat  brunches  of  legal  study  in  the  middle 
ages,  the  Roman  law  and  the  canon  law    began 
in  the  teaching  of  Imerius  and  Gratian  at  Bologna 
in  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth  century     At  the 
begmning  of  this  century  the  name  of  university 
first  replaces  that  of  school ;  and  it  is  said  that 
the  great  university  degree,  that  of  doctor    waa 
first  in.5tituted  at  Bologna,  and  that  the  ceremony 
for  conferring  it  was  devised  there.     From  Bo- 
logna the  degree  and  ita  ceremonial  travelled  to 
Pans.     A  bull  of  Pope  Honorius,  in  1220   saya 
that  the  study  of  •  bima;  litene '  had  at  that  time 
made  the  city  of  Bologna  famous  throughout  the 
'■0£}<i-    Twelve  thousand  students  from  all  parts 
of  Europe  are  said  to  have  been  congregated  there 
at  once.     The  different  nations  had  their  colleges 
and  of  colleges  at  Bologna  there  were  fourteen 
These  were  founded  and  endoweil  by  the  liberal- 
ity of  private  persons;  the  university  professors 
the  source  of  attraction  to  this  multitude  of  stu- 
denu.  were  paid  by  the  municipality,  who  found 
their  reward  in  the  fame,  business,  and  import- 
mice  brought  to  their  town  by  the  university 
The  municipalities  of  the  great  cities  of  northern 
ami  central  Italy  were  not  slow  In  following  the 
example  of  Bologna;  in  the  tliirteenth  century 
Padua,  .MiKlena,  Piacenza,  Parma,  Fcrrara    had 
each  its  university.     Frederick  II.  founded  that 
of  Naples  in  1224 ;  in  the  fourteenth  century  were 
addwi  thosi'  of  Pa  via,  Perugia,  Pisa,  and  Turin. 
Colleges  of  examiners,  or,  as  we  should   say 
boards,  were  created  by  Papal  bull  to  e.vamiue 
in  theologv,  and  by  imi)erial  decree  to  examine 
n  law  and  meiliciiie.     It  was  iu  these  studies  of 
law  and  medicine  that  the    Italian  universities 
were  chiefly  distinguisheil."—>t   Aruolil,  S/„>,.la 
mill  Cnicrsituii  uii  tin    I'unliiuiit,  cli.  9.- '■The 
Bologna  schiHil  of  jurisprudeiau   was    several 
times  Ihreuteueil  with  total  extinction,     In  the 
repeated   dittkiilties  with  the  lily  the  students 
wouhl  march  out  of  the  town,  liouuil  by  a  solemn 
oath  not  to  nturn;  and  if  a  compromise'  was  to 
111-  elleeteil,  a  papal  ilispensatiou  from  that  oath 
must  first    lie  ublaineil      Gemrallv  on  such  oc- 
casions, the  |irivll|.>;i,  ,,f  ilii.  universitv  wen'  re- 
alHrmeil  ami  often  inlargeil.     In  other  eases,  a 
iiuarnl  111  twiiii  ihc' pope  and  the  city,  and  the 
ban  plaieil  over  the  latter,  obliged  the  stuileiils 
to  leave;  and  then  tile  elty  often   planned  and 
furtlieix'd  the  removal  of  the  universitv.     King 
KriiLric   II..  iu   1220,  iluriiig  the  war  against 
llulogna.  dissolved  th..  sehoolof  jurisprudence, 
which  seems   to  havi'   been  not  at  all  affected 
tlienbv.  and  he  formallv  recallnl  that  ordinance 
in  the  following  year.    Originally  the  only  schixjl 
Iu  Bologua  was  the  scIhhiI  of  jurisprudence,  and 
ill  counectiou  with  it  ahiue  a  universitv  nuild  >m 
fiiriiieii.   .      .  puiiseijuently  eminent  teachers  of 
medicine  and  the  liberal  arts  ap|>eared,  and  their 


II 


5, 


»ll 


ria 


EDUCATION. 


JTedtevol  ttaUcn 
UnivenitiM* 


EDUCATION. 


m 


r' 
111 


pupils,  too,  sought  to  form  a  untvenity  and  to 
choose  their  own  rector.  As  late  as  1295  this  in- 
novution  was  disputed  by  the  jurists  and  tnter- 
dictwl  by  the  city,  so  that  they  had  to  connect 
tlivmsclves  with  the  university  of  jurisprudence. 
But  a  few  years  later  we  find  them  already  in 
possession  again  of  a  few  rectors,  and  in  1816 
tlicir  right  was  formally  recognized  in  a  com- 
promise between  the  university  of  jurisprudenie 
and  the  city.  The  students  called  themselves 
•  pliilosophi  et  medici '  or  '  physicl ' ;  also  by  the 
common  name  of  'arttstJE.'  Finally  a  school  of 
theology,  founded  by  pope  Innocent  VI.,  was 
■>'Me<l  in  the  second  half  of  the  14th  century;  it 
was  placed  under  the  bishop,  and  organized  in 
imitation  of  the  school  at  Paris,  so  that  it  was  a 
'  universitas  magistrorum,'  not  '  scholarium. ' 
As,  however,  by  this  arrangement  the  students 
of  theology  in  the  theological  university  had 
no  civil  privileges  of  tlieir  own,  they  were  con- 
sidered individually  as  belonging  to  the  '  artistte.' 
From  this  time  Bologna  had  four  universities, 
two  of  jurispruilence,  the  one  of  medicine  and 
philosophy,  and  the  theological,  the  first  two 
jiaving  no"  connection  with  the  others,  forming  a 
unit,  and  therefore  frequently  designated  as  one 
university.  "—F.  C.  Savigny,  Tfie  L'niTenitiet  of 
tlie  Midtite  Aget  (Uirnnrd'i  Am.  Journal  of  Edu- 
cation, r.  23.  pp.  278-279).— Other  UniTertitiet. 
—"The  oldest  and  most  frcijuunted  university 
In  Italy,  that  of  Bologna,  is  ri'presentcd  as  hav- 
ing flourished  in  the  twelfth  century.  Its  pros- 
pe"'y  in  early  times  depended  greatly  on  the 
perw)nal  conduct  of  tlie  pnneipal  professors,  who, 
when  they  were  not  satlstied  with  their  entertain- 
ment, were  in  the  habit  of  seceding  with  their 
pupiU  to  other  cities.  Thus  high  schools  were 
omncd  fmm  time  to  time  in  Modena,  Reggio,  and 
cWwliire  by  teachers  who  broke  the  oaths  that 
IniuimI  them  to  ri'side  in  Bologna,  and  fixed  their 
centre  of  education  in  a  rival  town.  To  make 
such  temporary  changes  was  not  ditflcult  in  an 
age  when  what  we  have  to  call  an  university, 
consisted  of  masters  and  scholars,  without  col- 
lege buildings,  without  libraries,  without  endow- 
ments, and  without  scientific  apparatus.  The 
technical  name  for  such  institutions  seems  to 
have  Imm  'studium  scliolariuni,'  Italianised  into 
'  studio '  or  '  studio  pulibllco.'  /  mong  the  more 
permanent  results  of  these  secessions  may  l)c 
mentioned  theestal)llshment  of  tlie  high  school  at 
\ henza  by  translation  from  Bologna  in  1204, 
anil  the  opening  of  a  school  at  Arezzo  under 
similar  circumstances  in  lai."!;  the  great  Univer- 
sity of  Padua  first  saw  llie  light  in  conse(iuence 
of  nolltical  discords  forcing  the  professors  to  quit 
Bologna  for  a  season.  The  first  half  of  tht  tlilr- 
teeutli  century  witnessi'd  tlie  foundation  of  tlicBe 
'stiiill'in  coiislderable  numliers.  That  of  Ver- 
celli  was  opened  In  122«.  the  municipulily  pro- 
viding two  certified  copyists  for  the  convenience 
of  students  who  mlglil  wish  to  purchase  text. 
books.  In  1224  the  Emperor  Fn-<lerick  II.,  to 
whom  the  south  of  Italy  owid  u  precocious  em 
Imiice  in  literature,  establishiil  the  University  of 
Niiples  by  an  Ini|H'rial  diploniii.  With  a  view 
to  n>niliring  It  the  chief  seat  of  learning  in  his 
ilominlons,  he  forbaile  the  subjects  of  tlie  Regno 
to  fri'ijuent  other  schools,  and  RMppresscnl  the 
University  of  Bologna  by  letters  general.  There- 
upon BoUiirna  joined  the  Loinlmrd  Leaffuo.  de- 
lii  il  the  Emperor,  and  ri'fuBid  toelose  the  schools, 
will  1  numbered  at  tli;it  pcrinil  alu.ut  ten  thou- 


sand students  of  various  nationalities.  In  13!!7 
Frederick  revokwl  his  edict,  and  Bologna  n- 
mained  thenccfoi  ward  unmolested.  Political  and 
internal  vicissitudes,  affecting  all  the  Italiau  uni- 
versities at  this  period,  interrupted  the  pros 
pcrity  of  that  of  Naples.  In  the  middle  of  tlit 
thirteenth  century  Salerno  proved  a  damjirous 
rival.  ...  An  important  group  of  '  stmli  pub 
blici '  owed  their  origin  to  Papal  or  Imperial  char 
ters  In  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth  eiuturv. 
That  of  Perugia  was  founded  In  i:W7  by  a  Biill 
of  Clement  \ .  That  of  Rome  dated  from  VM, 
in  which  year  Boniface  VIII.  gave  it  a  c.jnstl 
tution  by  a  special  edict;  but  the  trauslaiimi  ul 
the  Papal  See  to  Avignon  canoed  it  to  fall  intc 

Iiremature  decadence.  T'  •  University  .  f  I'isa 
lad  already  existed  Tor  soi  years,  when  it  re 
celved  a  charter  in  1348  from  Clement  VI.  Thai 
of  Florence  was  first  founded  in  1321.  .  ,  .  Tbi 
subjects  taught  In  the  high  schools  were  Canoii 
and  Civil  Law,  Medicine,  and  Theology.  Tliest 
faculties,  important  for  the  professional  ciluca 
Hon  of  the  public,  formed  the  staple  ..f  thf 
academical  curriculum.  Chairs  of  Rhetoric.  Phi 
losophy,  and  Astronomy  were  added  acconling  tc 
occasion,  the  last  sometimes  Including  the  Ktuilj 
of  judicial  astrology.  If  we  enquire  liow  tbi 
humanists  or  profissors  of  classic  literature  wers 
related  to  the  universities,  we  find  that,  at  flrsi 
at  any  rate,  they  always  occupied  asecuml  nink 
The  permanent  teaching  remained  in  the  liumh 
of  jurists,  wlio  enjoyed  life  engagements  at  a 
high  rate  of  pav,  while  the  Latlnistsand  Ore  lam 
could  only  aspire  to  the  temporary  occupaticmol 
the  Chair  of  Uhctoric,  with  salaries  consiilemlilj 
lower  than  those  of  lawyers  or  phyiilcian>  "— J, 
A.  Syraonds,  Renaimince  in  Italy :  tin  Hi  ri ml  o^ 
Lenrn  ;,  (It.  8. — "Few  of  the  Italian  ui'-ersi 
ties  show  themsi'lves  in  tlieir  full  vigour  .ill  tlu 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  wlicii  tlie  In 
creasi-  of  wealth  rendered  a  more  systematic  rati 
for  education  possible.  At  first  tliere  Here  gen 
crallythreesortsof  professorships  — oue  fnr  eivi 
law,  another  fi  t  canonical  law,  the  third  f  >r  me<li 
cine;  in  coupm  of  time  professorships  of  rlieturio 
of  phiiosopliv,  and  of  astronomy  were  aiMeil.  tin 
last  commonjy,  though  not  always,  iihiitiialwhl 
astrology.  The  salaries  varied  greatly  in  ilillir 
ent  cases.  Sometimes  a  capital  sum  was  iiai'. 
down.  With  the  spread  of  cultun-  cunipctliiui 
became  so  active  that  tlie  dllTereut  unhersitlei 
tried  to  entice  away  distinguished  teaclu  r»  frn 
one  another,  under" which  circiimstamen  Iinl..i;n: 
is  said  to  have  sometimes  devoteii  the  half  of  Iti 
public  income  (20,IHK)  ducats)  to  Hie  uuiversitv 
The  appointments  were  as  a  rule  niaile  only  fm 
a  certain  time,  sometimes  for  only  liiilf  a  year,  §• 
that  the  leiwhers  we.t!  forieil  to  leail  ii  wander 
lug  life, '  ke  actors.  Appointments  fcr  life  m  n 
lioweviT,  not  unknown.  .  .  ,  Of  the  chairs  nhkl 
have  iH'en  meiitioueil,  that  of  rhetoric  was  is 
peclally  sought  by  the  humanist ;  yet  It  ilepi  nile( 
only  oii  his  familiarity  with  Hie  malterof  aiiciiu 
learning  whellier  or  no  lie  could  aspire  M  tin* 
of  law,  mciliciiie,  philoBopliy.  oraslrMiioiiiy,  Ti* 
inward  conilitions  of  the  seiciici'  of  tlie  ilay  lur 
as  variable  as  the  outwanl  conilili'iis  "f  Ih 
teacher.  Certain  jurists  and  physicians  n(civui 
by  far  the  largest  salaries  of  nil.  llie  f'lrmc 
cliietly  IIS  coiisultinir  lawyers  for  llie  suits  am 
rliilliipt  iif  Ijie  male  uhlcll'l'lliployed  tllein  . 
Persoimi  liitercoiirsi'  iKtwwii  the  teailn  r«  am 
the  taught,  public  dispiitatloua,  the  toustanl  u» 


r^o 


EDUCATION. 


Utdiaval  Oerman 
Vnivertitiet. 


EDUCATION. 


of  Latin  and  often  of  Greek,  the  frequent  changes 
of  lecturers  and  the  scarcity  of  books,  gave  the 
studies  of  that  time  a  colour  which  we  cannot 
represent  to  ourselves  without  effort.  There  were 
Latin  schools  in  every  town  of  the  least  import- 
ance, not  by  any  means  merely  as  preparatory  to 
higher  education,  but  because,  next  to  reading, 
writing,  anil  arithmetic,  the  knowledge  of  Latin 
wiis  a  necessity;  and  after  Latin  came  logic.  It 
is  to  Ixj  noted  particularlv  that  these  schools  did 
not  depend  on  the  Church,  but  on  the  municipal- 
ity; some  of  them,  too,  were  merely  private  en- 
terprises. This  school  sysU'm,  directed  by  a  few 
distinguished  humanists,  not  only  attained  a  re- 
markable perfection  of  organisation,  but  became 
an  instrument  of  higher  education  in  the  modem 
sense  of  the  phrase.^'— J.  Burckhardt,  T/u  Citili- 
mttiun  of  the  Period  of  the  lienaiuance  in  Italy. 
r.  1,  ft.  3,  eh.  5. 

Cermanjr.— Prague  and  its  Offspring.—"  The 
earliest   university    in    Germany    was   that  of 
IViguc.     It  was  in  1348,  under  the  Emperor 
Charles  IV.,  when  the  taste  for  letters  had  re- 
viled so  signally  in  Euroiie,  when  England  may 
be  said  to  have  poasi'sscti  her  two  old  universi- 
ties already  for  three  centuries,  Paris  her  Sor- 
twiine  ain-ady  for  four  that  this  university  was 
erected  as  tlie  first  of  German  Universities.    The 
idea  oripinuted  in  the  mind  of  the  Emperor,  who 
was  educated  in  Paris,  at  the  university  of  that 
town,  and  was  eagerly  taken  up  by  the  towns- 
people of  that  ancient  and  wealthy  city,  for  ttiey 
foresaw  that  afliuence  would  shower  upon  them 
If  they  could  induce  a  numerous  crowd  of  stu- 
ilt-nts  to  flock  togetlier  within  their  walls.    But 
the  Pope  and  the  Emperor  took  an  active  part 
in  favouring  and  authorizing  the  institution; 
thoy  willinglv  granted  to  it  wide  privileges,  and 
niiidu  it  entirely   iii<lenendent  of    Church  and 
Stale.    The  teaching  of  tlie  professors,  and  the 
sttulies  of  the  studc.its,   were  submitted  to  no 
ciuitrol  whatever.    After  the  model  of  the  Uni- 
vir!.ity  (if  Paris,  they  divitled  themselves  into 
.lilleriMit  faculties,  and  made  four  such  divisions 
—  one  for  divinity,  another  for  medical  science, 
:i  tliiril  for  lew,  and  a  fourth  for  philosophy. 
Tliu  last  order  comprised  those  who  taught  and 
Ifuriied  the  flnc  ar.s  and  the  sciences,  which  two 
clipartmcnts  were  separate  at  Sorbonne.     All  the 
German  universiti  :^s  have  preserved  this  outward 
constitution,  and  'a  this,  as  in  many  other  cir- 
cumstances, the  prt.-v-dent  of  Pragun  has  had  a 
liK'vailing  influence  on  her  younger  sister  insti- 
tutions.   The  same  thing  may  be  said  particu- 
larly of  the  disciplinary  tone  of  the  university 
III  other  countries,  universities  sprang  from  rigUi 
clirical  and  monastic  institutions,  orkire  a  more 
or  leas  ecclesiastical  characUT  which  imposed 
upon  them  certain  more  retired  habits,  and  a 
•evcrir  kind  of  discipline.     Prague  took  from 
the  lieginning  a  course  widely  differi'nt.    The 
stuilents,  who  were  partly  Germans,  partly  of 
Slavonian  blood.  enioye<l  a  boundless  liberty. 
Tliiy  lodged  in  the  houses  of  the  townspeople 
and  by  their  riches,  their  mental  superiority, 
and  their  number  (they  are  recorde<l  to  have 
tfin  as  many  as  twenty  thousand  'u  the  year 
Uiitf),  liecame  the  undisputetl  masteri  of  the  city. 
The  professors  and  tbo  inhabitanU  of  Prague, 
far  from  checking  them,  rather  protectol   thj 
pnrogatives  of  ilie  st  ii|ent«.  for  thev  found  oui 
luat  ail  their  prosperity  depended  on  them.  .  .  . 
>ot  two  generations  had  passed  since  the  erec- 


tion  of  an  Institution  thus  constituted,  before 
Hubs  and  Jerome  of  Prague  began  to  teach  the 
necessity  of  an  entire  reformation  of  the  Church 
The  phenomenon  is  characteristic  of  the  bold 
spirit  of  inquiry  that  must  have  grown  up  at  the 
new  Iniversity.     However,  the  political  consc- 
ciuences  that  attended  the  promulgation  of  such 
doctrines  led  almost  to  the  dissolution  of  the 
Lniversity  itself.    For,  the  German  part  of  the 
students  broke  up,  in  consequence  of  repeated 
".     if  ^°"'  quaTels  that  had  taken  place  with 
the  Bohemian  and  Slavonic  party,  and  went  to 
Leipzig,  where  straightway  a  new  and  purely 
Ueriiian  Lniversity  was  erected.     While  Pras.-e 
became  the  seat  of  a  protracted  and  sanguinary 
■war,  a  great  number  of  Universities  rose  into 
existence  around  it,  and  attracted   the  crowds 
that  had  formerly  flocked  to  the  Bohemian  capi- 
tal.   It  appeared  as  if  Germany,  though  it  had 
received  the  impulse  from  abroad,  would  leave 
all  other  countries  behind  itself  in  the  erection 
and  promotion  of  these  learned  insti.jtions  for 
all  the  districts  of  the  land  vied  wiih  each  other 
in  creating  universities.     Thus  arose  those  of 
Rostock,    Ingolstadt,  Vienna,   Heidelberg    Co- 
logne, Erfurt,  Tubingen,  Greifswalde,  Treves, 
Mayence  and  Bales  —  scliools  which  have  partly 
disappeared  again  during  the  political  storms  of 
subsequent  ages.      The  beginning  of  tlie  six- 
teenth century  added  to  them  one  at  Frankfort 
on  the  Oder,  and  another,  tlie  most  illustrious  of 
all,   Wittenberg.     Everyone   who  is  acquainted 
with  the  history  and  origin  of  the  Reformation, 
knows  what  an  importunt  part  the  latter  of  these 
universities  took  in  the  weighty  transactions  of 
those  times.  .  .  .  Wittenberg  remained  by   no 
means  the  only  champion  of  Protestantism     At 
Marburg,    Jena,    KOnigsberg,    and    Helmstadt, 
universities  of  a  professedly  Protestant  character 
were  erected.    These  schools  became  the  cradle 
and  nurseries  of  the  Reformation."— TAe  rnirc-. 
ntUtofOfrmaiiji  (Dublin  Unirxrrity  Mngati.,e  t 
48,  pp.  83-«5).— "The  German  universities  of  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centiries  were  founded 
in  the  following  order:    Prague,  1848;  Vienna 
1388;  Erfurt,  1893;  Leipsic,  1409;  Rostock,  1419; 
Grelfswald,    1456;    Freiburg,    1437;   Ingolstadt 
1472;Tabingen,  1477;  andSlayence,  1477.  Thus, 
it  will  be  seen  that  they  were  established  in 
quick  succession  —  an  unmistakable  proof  of  the 
growing  scientific  interest  of  the  age."— F.  V. 
>'.  Painter,  IIii>t.  of  Kiumtion,  eh.  3,  uet.  5  (k). 
Nethtrlands.—"  1  raditioQ  n^Kirte  tliat  a  school 
had  .  .  .  lieen  fo.^ded  at  Utrecht,  by  somi- zeal- 
ous missionary,  in  the  time  of  Charles  Martel,  at 
which  his  sou   Pepin    received  'his  education. 
Ilowi  ver  tills  may  Lave  been,  the  renown  of  the 
Utrecht  SchiKil  of  St.  Martin  is  of  very  ancient 
date.  .  .  .  During  tlie  i.ivasion  by  the  Normans, 
this  scIkkiI  at  Utrecht  was  suppressed,  but  was 
reestablished  In  917,  and  regained  itf  former  re- 
nown.   The  Emperor,  Henry  the  Fowler,  placed 
Iierc  his  three  sons,  Otto,  Henry  and  Bruno,  to 
lie  eilucated,  of  whom  the  lasi,  became  afterwi..u 
archbishop  of  Cologne  and  archduke  of  Lottring- 
en,  nnd  was  noted   for  hit  extraordinitry  learn- 
ing and  friendship  for  the  poet  Prudi'nfius.     .it 
the  lieginning  of  the  12th  century,  Utrecht  pos- 
M'ssed  DO  lesc  than  five  flourishing  schools,  sev 
eral  of  which  hod  each  a  '  rector '  in  addition  to 
the  prip«t«  who  hs.i   thp   gpnrra!  or-ntrol.     At 
aliout  the  same  time,  several  convents  bocam* 
distinguished  as  educational  institutions,  esped- 


|i|^ 


EDUCATION. 


Uediavat  EnglWi 
Uniwrtitiet. 


KDUCATIOX. 


ally  those  of  Egmond,  Nymwegen,  Mlddleburg, 
in  Zealand,  and  Aduwert,  near  OrOningen.    In 
Holland,  as  in  Belgium,  in  addition  to  the  schools 
that  were  attached  to  the  cathedrals,  convents, 
and  chapters,  there  were  established  in  the  course 
of  the  twelfth  century,  hy  the  more  wealthy 
communities,  public  schools  especially  designed 
for  the  instruction   of  the  citizens  and  laity. 
It  is  also  worthy  of  notice  that  the  authority  to 
open  such  scliools  was  always  derived  from  the 
counts  — by  whom  it  was  conferred,  sometimes 
upon  the  cities  as  an  especial  privilege,   and 
sometimes  upon    merely  private   persons  as  a 
mark  of  particular  favor.     The  jurisdiction  of 
the  feudal  lords  was  the  same  here  as  in  Bel- 
gium; but  while  in  the  latter  country,  with  the 
exception  perhaps  of  the  elementary  schools  in 
some  of  the  cities,  the  rinht  of  supervision  everj-- 
where  devolved  upon  the  chapters,  instruction 
in  these  public  schools  of  Holland  was  wholly 
withdrawn  from  the  clergy,  and  they  were  made 
essentially  secular  in  their  character.     The  privi- 
lege of  tlius  establishing  schools  was  conferred 
upon  some  of  the  cities  at  the  following  dates ; 
Dort,  bv  Count  Floris  V.,  A.  D.  13iX);  the  Hague, 
1322  — "Levden,  1324  — and  Rottenlam  in  1328, 
by  William  III. ;  I>clft  and  Amsterdam,  in  1334, 
bv  William  IV. ;  Levden  again,  1357  —  Haarlem, 
1389  — Alltmar.  1398  — Hoom,  1358  and  1390  — 
the   Hague,    1393— Schiedam  and   Ondewater, 
1394  — and   Uotteriiam,  in  1402,  by   Albert  of 
Bavaria.     These  schcxils,  adds  Stallaert,  on  the 
authority  of  Buddinjrh,   were   generally   stvleil 
'School  en   Schryfambarht,'    'Schoole  en   Kos- 
tern,'   (school  and  writing  offices,    schools  and 
clerks'  houses,)  and  the  •  Schoolmijsters '  (school- 
mastirs)  were  looked  upon  .  s  professional  men  or 
(raftsmen  —  as  wus  the  case  also  in   Belirium, 
where   tlu  y  formi'd  distinct   guilds  and  frater- 
nitiis.     Tlli'sc  public  schools  of   Holland  were 
divi.lid  into  'largo'  and  'small'  sc'  xils,  (groote 
en  bijsclioiilen,)  Latin  being  taught  in  the  first 
division.    The  institution  at  Zwolle.  attaineii  spe- 
cial notoriety  in  the  fourteenth  century,  under 
tile  direction  of  the  iel(  lirated  .lohau  t'ele.     Ac- 
cording to  Tlionias  &  Kiiniiis  and  Tin  Bussche. 
its  piiiills  iiumlH'red  about  a  thousand,  gathered 
from  lloUauil,  Belgium,  and  the  principal  pro- 
vim-.-s  of  Germany." — I'liHir  Iu'lr'n-ti'm  in  Jlnl- 
l.iml  i,lt<iriiiird'i  .ill).  J'liirmi! "f  K'l'initi'iii.  r.  14). 
England. — Early  Oxford.— "The  ruivirsity 
of  Oxford  did  not  spring  in'"  biingin  any  par- 
tiewlur  year,  or  at  the  bidding  of  any  particular 
foundei-:  it  was  not  establislii'd  by  any  fiprinal 
charter  of  incorporation.     Taking  its  rise   in  a 
small   anil  obscnie  association  ol    tiarhers  and 
liarners,  it  developed  spontaneously  into  a  large 
and    important    bcxiy,  long  lieforelts  existence 
was  reeogiiiscd  by  pVinee  or  by  prelate.     There 
were  certainly  si  lioiils  at  Oxford  in  the  reign  of 
lliiirv  I,  but  the  previous  hi.storv  of  the  place 
dots  "not   throw  much  light  on  tlieir  origin,  or 
explain   the   causes  of  their  popularity.      The 
town  seems  to  have  gri>\vu  up  under  the  shadow 
of  a  hinini-rv,  which  is  said  to  have  Imtu  founded 
by  St     Frideswyde  us  far  buck   as   tin.'  eighth 
ciiiturv.     Its  authentic  annals,   however,  Ingln 
with  the  year  912,  when  it  was  (Hcuplc^i  aiul 
aimexed  by  E<lward  the  Folder,  King  of  the  West 
Saxons.  .  .  .  Oxfonl  was  consideri'd  a  place  of 
gnat  strategical  itnpurlatit-v  hi  the  cleVeiHli  Orii- 
lury.     Its  position  on  the  Ininlers  of  Mi'rdaaml 
Wcbsex  ri'udered  It  also  particularly  touveuieul 


for  parleys  betv  Kngliahmen  and  Danes,  and 
for  great  nation:  mblies.  .  .  .  Retaining  for 

a  while  its  rank  as  one  of  the  chief  centres  of 
political  life  in  the  south  of  England,  ami  as 
a  suitable  meeting-place  for  parliaments  and 
synods.  Oxford  became  thenceforward  more  ami 
more  distinctively  known  as  a  seat  of  leaniiiig 
and  a  nurserv  of' clerks.  The  schools  which  ex- 
isted at  Oxford  before  the  reign  of  King  ,lohn, 
are  so  seldom  and  so  briefly  noticed  in  contem- 

Eorary  records,  that  it  would  be  diUlcult  to  show 
ow  tliey  developed  into  a  great  university,  if  it 
were  not  for  the  analogy  of  kindred  institutions 
in  other  countries.     Tliere  can  be  little  diaibt, 
however,  that  the  idea  of  a  university,  the  sys- 
tems of  degrees  and  faculties,  and  the  nomen- 
clature of  the  chief  academical  oHleers,   were 
alike  imported  into  England  from  abroad.  .  .  . 
In  the  earliest  and  broadest  sense  of  the  term,  a 
university    had    no    necessary    connexion  with 
schocds  or  literature,  being  merely  a  comintniitv 
of  individuals  bound  together  by  some  more  or 
less  acknowledged  tie.     Kegarded  collectively  in 
this  light,  the  inhabitants  of  any  particular  lun-n 
might  1k'  said  to  constitute  a  university,  and  iu 
point  of  fact  the  Commonalty  of  the  town  nun 
of  Oxford  wa.^  sometimes  descrilK-d  as  a  univer- 
sity in  formal  documents  of  the  midiUe  aijes. 
The    term    was,  however,  specially  applinl  to 
the    whole    1k«1/    of    piTSons  frequeiuiae  the 
schools  of  a  large  studium.     Ultimately  it  came 
to  be  employed  in  a  technical  sense  as  synnny- 
mous  with  studium,  todenote  the  institution  itjitf. 
Tills  last  use  of  the  term  seems  to  Ih'  of  Kni;Ii5h 
origin,  for  the  Uinversitvof  Oxfonl  ismeniiimeJ 
as  such  in  writs  and  ordfnances  of  the  years  l',':}"*, 
1240,  and  1253.  whereas  the  greater  scat  of  learn- 
ing cm  the  bauks  of  the  Seine  was.  until  the  year 
1-203,  styh'd  'the  University  of  the  Masters''  ur 
'the  University  of  the  Scliolars,'  of  I'aris     Tht 
svstem  of  academical   degrees  dates   fniin   tlit 
si'cond  half  of  the  twelfth  century  '—II   ('  M. 
Lyte.  .1  Jlittori/  -if  till-  I'metrnitii  iff  Off^'nl.  r],_  I 
—"  In  the  early  Oxford  .  .  .  of  the  tweltili  ;iiid 
most  of  the  tliirteenth  centuries,  colle.'c  *  witli 
t'leir  statutes  wire  unknown.     The  Vnivi  r^iiy 
was  the  only  corporation  of  the  learned.  mii'I  -he 
struggled  into  existence  after  hani  tii-liis  with 
the  town,  the  .lews,  the  Friars,  thi'  I'apal  mart-. 
The  history  of  the  University  iH'gins  »iih  the 
!  thirtiinth  century.     She   may   \k  sidd  tn  have 
come  into  iK'iug  as  .soon  as  she  possessi'd  inmnwn 
funds  and  rents,  as  siMjn  as  thies  were  as-iL-iail. 
or  lieiu'factions  contributed  to  the  niainli  n  nici-of 
scholars.     Now  the  first  reconled  fine  i-  ih.  i«y- 
inent  of  fiftv-two  shillings  by  the  t.iwii-iiicn  "f 
( Ixfonl  as  p"art  of  the  coinpei'isiition  for  the  Ikiuit- 
ing  of  certain   clerks.      In   the  year   1-14  the 
I'apal  Legate,  in  a  letter  to  his  'iH'l.ive.l  s.^iis  in 
Christ,  the  burffcs-ses  of  Oxford.' bade  the  ni  ei- 
cusethe  'scholars  studving  in  Oxfonl' h;ilt  the 
rent  of  their  halls,  or  liospitia.  for  tin'  spaei' of 
ten  years.     The  buru'hers  were  also  to  ilo  piu- 
'   aiiei'.  an  1  to  feastthi'  poorerstudentsomea  year. 
but  the  important  point  is,  that  they  Inid  I"  pay 
that  large  yearly  fine  •  propter  suspendiuni  i  Uri- 
i   coram— all    for  the    hanging    I'f    tin-    ihrks, 
;   Twentj-six  years  after  this  decision  of  the  le- 
gate,   HolK'rt    Orossteste,    the   gnat    liishop  of 
Lincoln,  organized  the  pavmeni  aiul  di-trilmtinn 
i.f  Hi,,  fine,  and  foimdci!  the  first  of  <!-.■  '!"-'«■ 
the  chest  of  St.  Frideswvde.     These  clasis  were 
a  kind  of  Mont  de  Hutu,  and  to  found  tUtiB 


mdmMk 

.    '  MIWbiB 


EDUCATION. 


Oxford  in 
M«  ItulMt  Aget. 


EDUCATION. 


va*  at  flnt  the  favourite  form  of  benefaction. 
Money  wa«  left  in  this  or  that  chest,  from  which 
students  and  masters  would  borrow,  on  the  se- 
curity of  pledges,  which  were  generally  books, 
cups,  daggers,  and  so  forth.  Now,  in  this  affair 
of  1214  we  have  a  strange  passage  of  history, 
which  happily  illustrates  the  growth  of  the  Uni- 
versity. The  beginning  of  the  whole  affair  was 
the  quarrel  with  the  town,  which  in  1309,  had 
banged  two  clerks,  '  in  contempt  of  clerical  lib- 
erty.' The  matter  was  taken  up  by  the  Legate 
—  in  those  bad  years  cf  King  John,  tlic  Pope's 
viceroy  in  England  —  and  out  of  tlie  humiliation 
of  the  town  the  University  gained  money,  privi- 
leges, and  halls  at  low  rental.  These  were  pre- 
cisely the  things  that  the  University  wanted. 
About  these  matters  there  was  a  constant  strife, 
in  which  the  Kings  as  a  rule,  took  part  with  the 
University.  .  .  .  Thus  gradually  the  University 
got  the  command  of  the  police,  obtained  privi- 
leges which  enslaved  the  city,  and  became  mas- 
ters where  they  liad  once  been  despised,  starve- 
ling scholars.  .  .  .  The  result,  in  the  long  run. 
was  that  the  University  received  from  Edward 
III.  'a  most  large  charter,  containing  many  lib- 
erties, some  that  they  had  before,  and  others 
that  he  had  taken  away  from  the  town."  Thus 
E<lward  granted  to  the  University  '  the  custody 
of  the  assize  >  bread,  wine,  and  ale,'  the  super- 
vising of  measures  and  weights,  the  sole  power 
of  clearing  the  streets  of  the  town  and  suburbs. 
M.ircover,  the  Mayor  and  the  oliiof  Burghers 
were  condemned  yearly  to  asort  of  public  pen:ince 
and  humiliation  on  St.  Scliolostica's  Day.  Thus, 
by  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,'  the  'trife 
of  Town  and  Gown  had  ended  in  tlie  complete 
virlory  of  the  latter." — A  Lang.  Oxford,  ch.  3.— 
"To  mark  off  the  Middle  Age  from  the  M<«UTn 
Pcriixi  of  the  University  is  certainly  very  ditfl- 
eult.  Indeed  the  earlier  times  do  not  form  a 
linniogeneous  whole,  but  appear  perpetually 
sliifting  and  preparing  for  a  new  stale.  The 
main  transition  however  was  undoubtedly  ab<iut 
till-  middle  of  the  fourteeut'-  centurv ;  ."ind  the 
Hiforniation,  a  remarkable  vrisis.  did  but  con- 
liiiii  what  had  bi-en  iu  progress  for  mori  than  a 
<i'nlnry  aii<l  a  half:  so  tlr  '  tiv  VkUWt  Aw  of 
till'  Vnlversltv  conlaiiie  '  -t).,  century, 

nuil  barely  the  former  lurteeutli. 

There    is    no  (|ui  ,riug    this 

Miildle  Age  the  Engi  >  w^re  dis- 

tiu!:in.shed   far  more   \  w»rt!»  by 

em TL'v  and   variety   o.  i,ater  '..les 

(  iniiot  prwluco  a  concen.  i  men  i       leiit 

in  all  the  learning  and  science  of  the  ai.  such 
as  Oxford  and  Cambridge  then  poured  lorth, 
niiirlitilv  influencing  the  intellectual  developc- 
111!  Ill  of  all  Western  Ohristeudoin.  Tlicir  nanus 
itiilicil  may  warn  us  against  an  undlseriiiiiiiatiuir 
ili-Ii'inigement  of  the  Monasteries,  as  'hotbeds  of 
ii'iioraiice  and  stupidity';  when  soniauv  of  those 
worthies  were  monks  of  the  Beiiediiiiiie.  Fran- 
fisian.  Dominican,  Carmelite,  or  reformi'il  Aii- 
puslinian  order.  But  in  consequence  of  this  sur- 
passing celebrity,  Oxford  became  the  fix-us  of  a 
prodigious  congregation  of  students,  to  which 
nothing  afterwards  Iwre  comparison.  "The  siune 
was  jirobably  true  of  Cambridge  in  relative  pro- 
portion. ...  A  tolerably  well  aiitlientieated 
ai(ount,  attacked  of  late  by  undue  scepticism. 
tUr.«  [Dip  number  of]  those  of  Oxfohl  at  ihirty 
tliiaisand,  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
The   want  indeed    of    contemporary   evidence 


inust  make  us  cautious  of  yielding  absolute  be- 
lief to  this:  in  fact  we  have  no  document  on  this 
matter  even  as  old  as  the  Refcmation.  .  .  .  Not 
only  did  the  Church  and  the  new  orders  of  Monks 
draw  great  numbers  thither,  but  the  Universities 
themselves  were  vast  High  Schools,  comprising 
boys  ami  even  children.  It  is  not  extravagant, 
if  Cambridge  was  not  yet  in  great  repute,  to 
imagine  rtfteen  thousand  students  of  all  ages  at 
0.vford.  and  as  many  more  attendants.  Nor  was 
it  at  all  difficult  to  accommodate  them  in  the 
town,  when  Oxford  contained  three  hundred 
Halls  and  Inns:  and  as  several  students  dwelt  In 
one  room,  and  were  not  careful  for  luxurv,  each 
building  on  an  average  might  easily  ho"ld  one 
hundred  persons.  The  style  of  Architecture  was 
of  the  simplest  and  cheapest  kind,  and  might 
have  been  easily  run  up  on  a  sudden  demand: 
and  a  rich  flat  country,  with  abundant  water 
carriage,  needed  not  to  want  provisions.  That 
the  numtiers  were  •  ist,  is  implied  by  the  highly 
respectable  evideme  which  we  have,  that  as 
many  as  three  thousand  migrated  from  Oxford 
on  the  riots  of  1209;  althougli  the  Chronicler  ex- 
pR'ssly  states  that  not  all  joined  in  the  secession. 
Ill  the  reign  of  Henry  IIL  the  reduced  numbers 
are  reckimed  at  fifteen  thousand.  After  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  they  were  still 
as  many  as  from  three  to  four  thousand;  and 
after  tlie  Reformation  they  mount  airaiu  to  five 
tliousjinil.  On  the  whole  therefore  the  computa- 
tion of  thirly  thousand,  as  the  maximum,  mav 
seem,  if  not  positively  true,  yet  the  nearest 
approximation  which  we  can  ex'pect.  Of  Cam- 
bridge we  know  im  more  than  that  the  numbers 
were  miieli  lower  than  at  Oxford,  .  .  ,  While  in 
the  general,  then'  was  a  substiuitial  identity  be- 
nveeu  the  scholastic  learning  of  Oxfonl  and  of 
Paris,  yet  Oxford  was  more  eager  in  following 
po>itiveseieiiee:  —  and  this,  although  such  stu<lie8 
were  disparaged  by  the  Ciiuroh,  and  therefore  by 
the  public.  lnde<d  originally  the  Church  had 
been  on  the  opposite  side,  biit  the  speculative 
li-mUncy  of  the  times  had  carried  her  over,  so 
that  speculation  and  theology  went  hand  iu  hand. 
In  the  middle  of  the  thirteeiilh  centurv  we  mav 
name  Koberl  Grossetcste  and  John  Basingstocli, 
lis  cultivating  physical  science,  and  (more  re- 
markable still)  the  Franciscan  Uo);cr  Bacon:  a 
man  whom  the  vulgar  held  to  be  ei|ual  to  >Ier- 
lin  and  Miiliael  Scott  as  a  niaL'ician,  ami  wIkuu 
posterity  ranks  by  t lie  iiolilest  spirits  of  the  lif- 
teeiilli  and  sixtceiilh  centuries,  in  all  branches  of 
positive  science.  —  e.vecpt  theology.  AbioL'raphy 
of  Hogcr  B.ieon  should  surely  be  written !  \'ufor- 
tiinately.  we  know-  notliiiiir  .is  to  the  influence  of 
tliese  men  on  their  tiiiies,  u<ir  Ciiii  we  e\rii  learn 
wlieilier  tile  University  itself  w.isatall  intereslud 
ill  tlieir  siiiilies.  .  .  .  We  ii.'ivc  ...  a  strange 
testimony  to  llu-  iiitenst  wiiich  in  tlie  begiuuing 
of  till'  foiirieeiith  eeiitiiry  llic  mass  of  the  stu- 
dents look  ill  the  speculation  of  their  elders;  for 
tlie  street  nws  were  carried  on  under  the  banners 
of  Noiiiiinilists  and  Healists.  .  .  .  The  coarse 
and  ferocious  manners  prevalent  in  llie  Univer- 
sities of  the  Midille  Aires  are  every  where  in 
siuLMilar  contrast  to  their  intellectual  pretensions; 
but  the  Universities  of  the  Continent  were  peace- 
ful, decorous,  dignitied, — compared  with  those 
of  Kiiglaiid.  The  stonns  which  were  elsewhere 
tn-caskfUal.  wefeat  O.\ford  the  perniaucul  attnus- 

iiliere.  For  nearly  two  centuries  our  'Foster 
iluther '  of  Oxford  lived  iu  a  diu  of  uninterrupted 


'  I. 


23 


M 


EDUCATION. 


Cttmtridge  m 
Me  lliddlt  Aga. 


EDUCATION. 


(urioiu  warfare;  nation  againit  nation,  cchool 
againat  idiool,  faculty  agalnat  faculty.  Halls,  and 
ilnally  Colleeea,  came  forward  as  combatants ;  and 
the  ITnlvenity,  as  a  whole,  against  the  Town;  or 
against  the  Bishop  of  Lincoln;  or  against  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Nor  was  Cambridge 
much  less  pu^acious."— V.  A.  Huber,  TheEng- 
lith  Vnittrtitiet,  v.  1,  eh.  8. — Cambridge. — 
"  Various  facts  and  circumstances  .  .  .  lend 
probability  to  the  belief  that,  long  before  the 
time  when  we  have  certain  evidence  of  the  exist- 
ence of  Cambridge  as  a  university,  the  work  of 
instruction  was  there  going  on.  The  Cambori- 
turn  of  the  Roman  piTiiKi,  the  Grantebrycgr  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  the  Grentebrige  of 
Domesday,  must  always  have  been  a  place  of 
some  importance.  It  was  the  meeting-place  of 
two  great  Roman  roads, — Akeman  Street,  running 
east  and  west,  ard  the  Via  Devana,  traversing 
the  north  and  the  south.  .  .  .  Confined  at  first  to 
the  rising  ground  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river. 
It  numbercil  at  tnc  time  of  the  Norman  Conquest 
as  many  as  four  hundred  houses,  of  which  twenty- 
seven  were  pulled  down  to  make  way  for  the 
castle  erected  by  William  the  Conqueror.  .  .  . 
Under  the  castle  walls,  with  the  view,  it  would 
seem,  of  making  some  atonement  for  many  a 
deed  of  violence  and  wrong,  the  Norman  sheriff, 
Picot  by  name,  founded  the  Church  of  St.  Giles, 
and  instituted  in  connection  with  it  a  small  body 
of  secular  canons.  .  .  .  The  year  1112  was 
marked  by  the  occurrence  of  an  event  of  consid- 
erable importance  in  connection  with  the  subse- 
guent  history  of  the  university.  The  canons  of 
t.  Giles,  attended  by  a  large  concouree  of  the 
clergy  and  laity,  crossed  the  river,  and  took  up 
their  abode  in  a  new  and  spacious  priory  at  Bam- 
well.  .  .  .  The  priory  at  Barnwell,  which  always 
ranked  among  the  wealthiest  of  the  Cambridge 
foundations,  seems  from  the  first  to  have  been 
closely  associated  with  the  university;  and  the 
earliest  university  exhibitions  were  those  founded 
by  William  de  Kilkenny,  bishop  of  Elv  from 
1354  to  1257,  for  two  students  of  divinify,  who 
were  to  receive  annually  the  sum  of  two'marks 
from  the  priory.  In  the  year  1133  was  founded 
the  nunnery  of  St.  Rhadegund,  which,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VII.,  was  converted  into  Jesus 
College;  and  in  1135  a  hospital  of  Augustinian 
canons,  dedicated  to  St.  John  the  Evangelist, 
was  founded  by  Henry  Frost,  a  burgess  of  the 
town.  ...  It  was  ...  a  very  important  foun- 
dation, inasmuch  as  it  not  only  became  by  con- 
version in  the  sixteenth  century  the  College  of 
St.  John  the  Evangelist,  but  was  also  .  .  .  the 
foundation  of  which  Peterhouse,  the  earliest 
Cambridge  college,  may  be  said  to  have  been  in 
a  certain  sense  the  offshoot.  ...  In  the  year 
1229  there  oroke  out  at  Paris  a  feud  of  more 
than  onlinary  gravity  between  the  students  and 
the  citizens.  Large  numbers  of  the  former  mi- 
grated to  the  English  shores;  and  Cambridge, 
from  its  proximity  to  the  eastern  coast,  and  as 
the  centre  where  Prince  Louln.  but  a  few  years 
before,  had  raised  the  royal  standard,  seeins  to 
have  attracted  the  great  majoritv.  .  .  .  The 
university  of  Cambridge,  like  tliat"  of  Oxford, 
was  modelled  mainly  on  the  university  of  Paris. 
Its  constitution  was  consequently  oligarchic 
rather  than  democratic,  the  government  being 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  teaching  boiiy,  while 
the  buchelurs  miJ  uudergraduates  had  no  share 
in  the  passing  of  new  laws  and  regulations.  "—J 


B.  MulUnger,  A  EUtorn  ef  the  Vniterntt^  of  Cam- 
bridge,  «A.  1-2.— "The  earliest  existing  college 
at  Cambridge  is  St.  Peter's,  generally  called 
Peterhouse,  historically  founded  A.  D.  12,57.  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  lU.  The  Universities  are 
known  merely  by  their  situation;  as  Oxfonl, 
Cdinbridge,  Durham,  St  Andrews';  but  caili 
college  has  a  name,  accordiiig  to  the  taste  of  itt 
founder  or  first  members.  These  names  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes,  those  named  from  the 
founder,  as  Pembroke,  Clare,  Oonville  and  Caiua 
(this  had  two  founders,  the  restorer  l>eing  Dr. 
Kaye,  who  Latinized  his  name  into  Caius,u1<vavs 
pronounced  Keys),  King's  (from  King  Henry 
VI.), —  Queens' (from  the  queens  both  of  Henry 
VI.  and  Edward  IV.),  Sidney  Sussex,  and  Down- 
ing;— and  those  named  for  beatified  persons  and 
objects  of  worship,— St.  Peter's,  St.  John's,  St. 
Catharine's,  St.  Mary  Magdalene,  Corpus  Christii 
Emmanuel,  Jesus  Chrisvs,  Trinity  and  Trinity 
Hall.  The  apparent  impiety  of  these  names, 
which  in  one  case  of  an  ancient  name  now  chanced, 
was  absolutely  revolting,  entirely  passes  oil  with 
a  few  dsTs' use.  St.  Catharine's  soon  bee  niej 
Cats,  and  St.  Mary  Magdalene  U  always  i  Llled 
Maudlin.  You  readily  admit  the  superiority  of 
Trinity  over  Corpus  ale ;  go  to  see  a  friend  who 
lives  on  Christ's  piece;  and  hear  with  regret,  that 
in  the  boat  races  Emmanuel  has  been  bumpeil  by 
Jesus;  an  epithet  being  probably  pretiied  to  the 
last  name.  These  names  of  course  were  plven  in 
mon.  oh  times,— Trinity  oy  Henry  VIII.,  but 
all  the  colleges  except  one  were  founded  'lefire 
the  reign  of  James  I.  .  .  .  The  seventeen  col. 
leges  .  .  .  are  distinct  corporations.  Their  foun- 
dations, resources,  buildings,  governing  autliori- 
ties  and  students,  are  entirely  separate  from  each 
other.  Nor  has  any  one  college  the  least  eontrol 
in  any  other.  The  plan,  however,  is  mueli  the 
same  in  all.  The  presiding  authority  is  in  most 
cases  called  the  Master,  or  speaking  more  ucner- 
ally,  the  Head;  while  the  net  proceeds  of  iill  the 
college  funds — for  the  vast  wealth  supposed  to 
belong  to  the  University  really  is  in  the  hands  of 
the  separate  colleges — are  distributed  among 
certain  of  the  gr^uates,  called  Fellows,  who 
with  the  Head  constitute  the  corporation.  Tliese 
corporations  give  board  and  lodging  on  various 
terms  to  such  students  as  choose  to  enter  the  eo|. 
lege  and  comply  with  its  rules,  in  order  to  re- 
ceive its  assistance  in  obtaining  the  honors  of  the 
University;  and  each  college  offers  Its  own  pe. 
culiar  inducements  to  students.  .  .  .  The  whole 
body  of  the  colleges,  taken  together,  constitutes 
the  University.  All  those  who  after  residing 
seven  rears  at  some  college,  have  taken  the  de- 
gree of  Master  of  Arts,  or  a  higher  one.  ami  keep 
their  name  on  the  college  lists  by  a  .small  pay- 
ment, vote  at  the  University  elections  for  mem- 
bers of  Parliament  and  all  other  ollleers.  and 
manage  its  affairs.  .  .  .  The  colleges,  at  certain 
intervals,  present  such  students  as  comply  with 
their  conditions  to  University  authorities  for  ma- 
tritulatlon,  for  certain  examinations,  ami  fur  liie 
reception  of  degrees;  and  until  one  receives  the 
degree  of  Master  of  Arts,  he  must  renmiii  u  mem- 
ber of  some  college,  not  necessarilv  one  and  the 
same,  to  hold  any  University  privileges.  .Vfter 
this  stage,  he  may,  under  certain  conditions,  break 
up  all  his  college  connections,  and  yet  remain  la 
the  University.' —W.  Everett,  Onths  Cam.,  led.  1. 
Spain  and'PortnpU. — "Salamanca  was  found- 
eil  in  the  tSth  centuiy,  and  received  Its  statute* 


724 


EDUCATION. 


Idtat  0/  Kaielait, 


EDUCATION. 


In  the  year  1432,  out  of  which  wag  developed  the 
(oUowiot;  coDMitution.  The  rector,  with  eight 
'conilUarii,'  all  students,  who  could  appoint  their 
■uccesaors,  administered  the  ul  versity.  The 
doctors  render  the  oath  of  obedience  to  the  rector. 
The  'domscholaster'  is  the  proper  Judge  of  the 
■ohool;  but  he  swears  obedience  to  the  rector. 
A  bachelor  of  law  must  have  studied  six  yt„.s, 
and  after  five  years  more  he  could  become  licen- 
tiate. In  filling  a  paid  teachership,  the  doctor  was 
chosen  next  in  age  of  those  holdmg  the  diploma, 
unless  a  great  majority  of  the  scholars  objected, 
'a  which  case  the  rector  and  council  decided.  This 
liberal  constitution  for  the  scholars  is  in  harmony 
with  the  code  of  Alphonzo  X.,  soon  after  1250, 
in  which  the  liberty  of  instruction  was  made  a 
general  principle  of  law.  This  constitution  con- 
tinued in  Salamanca  into  the  17th  century,  for 
Retes  speaks  of  a  disputation  which  the  rector 
held  at  that  time  under  his  presidency.  Alcala 
university  was  established  by  cardinal  Ximenes, 
in  1510,  for  the  promotion  of  the  study  of  the- 
ology and  philosophy,  for  which  reason  it  con- 
tained a  faculty  of  canon,  but  not  of  civil  law. 
The  center  of  the  university  was  the  college  of  St. 
IWefous.  consisting  of  thirty-three  prebendaries, 
who  could  be  teachers  or  scholars,  since  for  ad- 
mission were  required  only  poverty,  the  age  of 
twenty,  and  the  completion  of  the  course  ol  the 
preparatory  colleges.  These  thirty-three  mem- 
bers elected  annually  a  rector  and  three  council- 
ors, who  controlled  the  entire  university.  Sala- 
ried teachers  were  elected,  not  by  the  rector  and 
council  alone,  but  by  all  the  student*.  It  had 
wide  reputation.  When  visited  by  Piancis  I., 
while  a  prisoner  of  Spain,  he  was  welcomed  by 
11,000  students.  The  Coimbra  university,  in 
Portugal,  received  statutes  in  1309,  from  king 
Dionysius,  with  a  constitution  similar  to  those 
just  mentioned."— F.  C.  Savigny,  T/ie  Unicern- 
lift  of  tht  Middte  Ago  {Barnard't  Am.  Jourmil  of 
Education,  t.  22,  p.  824). 

Renaisiuice. 

"Modem  education  begins  with  the  Itenais- 
sance.  The  educational  methods  that  we  then 
begin  to  discern  will  doubtless  not  be  develooed 
anil  perfected  till  n  later  period;  the  '  doe- 
's will  pass  into  practice  only  grad  .  and 
V  he  jreneral  progress  of  the  times.  '  rom 
the  sixteenth  century  education  is  in  p>.  sion 
of  its  essential  principles.  .  .  .  The  men  of  the 
sixteenth  century  having  renewed  with  classical 
aniiijuity  an  intercourse  that  had  been  too  long 
intirrupted,  it  was  natural  that  they  should  pro- 
rose  to  the  young  the  study  of  the  Greeks  and 
the  Uomang.  What  is  called  secondary  instruc- 
ticm  really  dates  from  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  crude  works  of  the  Middle  Age  are  suc- 
c«cltd  by  the  elegant  compositions  of  Athens 
anil  Rome,  henceforth  made  accessible  to  all 
thruuKh  the  art  of  printing;  and,  with  the  read- 
liii.'  of  the  ancient  authors.there  ri'appear  through 
till'  fruitful  effect  of  imitation,  their  qualities  of 
lomctness  in  thought,  of  literarv  taste,  and  of 
tligauce  in  form.  In  France,  as  in  Italy,  the 
nivtional  tongues,  moulded,  and,  as  it  were,  con- 
sirrated  by  writers  of  genius,  become  the  instru- 
ments of  an  intellectual  propaganda.  Artistic 
fciste.  revived  by  the  rich  prodtir'ts  of  a  race  of 
incomparable  artists,  gives  an  extension  to  the 
imrizon  of  Ufe,  and  creates  a  new  class  of  emo- 
lions.    Finally,  the  Protestant  Reform  develops 


Individual  thought  and  free  inquiry,  and  at  th« 
same  time,  by  iu  success,  it  imposes  still  greater 
efforts  on  the  Catholic  Church.  This  is  not  say- 
ing thatevervthing  is  faultless  in  the  educational 
efforu  of  tlie  sixteenth  century.  First,  as  it 
natural  for  innovators,  the  thought  of  the  teach- 
ers of  this  period  is  marked  by  enthusiasm  rather 
than  by  precisioa  They  are  more  zealous  in 
pomting  out  the  end  to  be  attained,  than  exact 
in  determining  the  means  to  be  employed.  Be- 
sides, some  of  them  are  content  to  emancipate 
the  mind,  but  forget  to  give  it  proper  direction. 
Finally,  others  make  a  wrong  use  of  the  ancientt; 
thev  are  1  >  much  preoccupied  with  the  form 
and  the  p  ity  c'  language;  they  fall  into  Cice- 
romania,  and  it  is  not  tneir  fault  if  a  new  super- 
stition, that  of  rhetoric,  does  not  succetd  the  old 
superstition,  that  of  the  Syllogism."— G.  Com- 
pavre,  Tht  Hi*t.  of  Pedagogy,  eh.  6  {.ttet.  92-93). 

Rabelai«'Gar«uitu«.—Kabelai8' description  of 
the  imaginary  education  of  Gargantua  gives  ua 
the  educational  Ideas  of  a  man  of  genius  in  the 
16th  century:  "Gargantua,"  he  writes,  "awaked, 
then,  about  four  o'clock  in  the  morning.    Whilst 
they  were  rubbing  him,  there  wes  read  unto  him 
some  chapter  of  the  Holy  Scripture  aloud  and 
clearly,  with  a  pronunciation  fit  for  the  matter, 
and  hereunto  was  appointed  a  young  page  bom 
in  Basche,  named  Anagnostes.     According  to  the 
purpose  and  argument  of  that  lesson,  he  often- 
times gave  himself  to  revere,  adore,  pray,  and 
send  up  his  supplications  to  that  go<Hl  God  "whose 
word  did  show  His  majesty  and  marvellous  judg- 
ments.    Then  his  master  repeated  what  had  Iwen 
read,  expounding  unto  him  the  most  obscure  and 
difficult  points.    They  then  considered  the  face 
of  the  sky,  if  It  was  such  as  they  had  observed  it 
the  night  before,  and  Into  what  signs  the  sun 
was  entering,  as  also  the  moon  for  that  day. 
This  done,  he  was  appareled,  combed,  curled, 
trimmed  and  perfumed,  during  which  time  they 
repsated  to  him  the  lessons  of  the  day  before. 
He  himself  said  them  by  heart,  and  upon  them 
grounded  practical  cases  concerning  the  estate  of 
man,  which  he  would  prosecute  sometimes  two 
or  three  hours,  but  ordin.j11y  they  ceased  as  soon 
as  he  was  fully  clothcil.     Then  for  three  good 
hours  there  was  reading.    This  done,  thcv  went 
forth,  still  conferrine  of  the  substance  "of  the 
reading,  and  disported  themselves  at  ball,  tennis, 
or  the  'pile  trigone,'  gallantly  exerci.sing  their 
bodies,  as  before  thev  hail  done  their  minds.  All 
their  play  was  but  In  liberty,  for  they  left  off 
when  they  pleased,  and  that  was  commonly  when 
they  did  sweat,  or  were  otherwise  wearv.    Then 
were  they  very  well  dried  ana  rubbed,  siiifted 
their  shirts,  and  walking  soberly,  went  to  see  if 
dinner  was  ready.     Whilst  they  stayed  for  that, 
they  did  clearly  and  eloquently  recite  some  sen- 
tences that  they  had  retained  of  the  lecture.     In 
the  mean  time  JIaster  Appetite  came,  and  then 
very  orderly  sat  they  down  at  table.     At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  meal  there  was  read  lome  pleasant 
history  of  ancient  prowess,  until  he  had  taken  his 
wine.     Then,  If  they  thought  good,  they  eon- 
tinu'>d  rcajling,  or  l>egan  to  discourse  merrilv  to- 
getl      ;  speaking  first  of  the  virtue,  propriety, 
elBca..y,  and  nature  of  all  that  was  served  Ui  at 
that  table ;  of  bread,  of  wine,  of  water,  of  salt, 
of  flesh,  fish,  f   liu,  her.'s,  roots,  and  of  their 
dressine.     By     leans  whereof,  he  Iramcd  in  a 
little  time  all'the  passages  that  on  tl.ese  subject* 
are  to  be  found  in  Pliny,  Atheuteui,  DtoKondeik 


:'^. 


1''-,  ? 


1  .1 


if 


*^* 


'J 


iFMv 


EDUCATION. 


Btnaiuance  in 
Qermany. 


EDUCATION. 


I 


Juliut,  Pollux,  Oalen,  Porphyrius,  Oppian,  Poly- 
bitu,  Hellodoros,  Aristotle,  (Elian,  and  otbora. 
Whilst  they  talked  of  these  things,  many  times, 
to  be  the  mope  certain,  thev  caused  the  very 
bf>oks  to  be  brouglit  to  the  table,  nnd  so  well  anil 
perfectly  did  he  in  his  memory  remin  the  things 
above  said,  that  in  that  time  there  was  not  a 
physician  that  knew  half  so  much  as  be  did. 
Afterwards  they  conferred  of  the  lessons  read  in 
the  morning,  and  ending  their  repast  with  some 
conserve  of  quince,  he  washed  his  hands  and 
eves  with  fair  fresh  water,  and  gave  thanks  unto 
dod  in  some  tine  canticle,  made  in  praise  of  the 
divine  bounty  and  mimiticencc.  Thisdone,  'hey 
brought  in  cards,  not  to  play,  but  to  learn  a 
tliousand  pretty  tricks  and  new  inventions,  which 
were  all  grounded  upon  arithmetic.  By  this 
means  'le  fell  in  love  with  that  numerical  science, 
and  every  diy  after  dinner  and  supper  he  passed 
his  time  in  it  as  pleasantly  as  he  was  wont  to  do 
at  cards  and  dice.  .  .  .  After  this  they  recreated 
themselves  with  singing  musically,  in  four  or 
five  parts,  or  upon  a  set  theme,  as  it  best  pleased 
them.  In  matter  of  musical  insiniments,  he 
learned  to  play  the  lute,  the  fpinet,  the  harp,  the 
German  Hute,  the  flute  with  nine  holes,  the  violin, 
and  the  sackbut.  This  hour  thus  spent,  be  be- 
took himself  to  bis  principal  study  for  three 
hours  together,  or  more,  as  well  to  repeat  bis 
matiitiuttT  lectures  as  to  proceed  in  the  book 
wherein  he  was,  as  also  to  vr'"  handsomely,  to 
draw  and  form  the  antique  i  '  Koman  letters. 
This  being  done,  tliey  went  o  f  their  bouse, 
and  with  tliem  a  young  gcntlenmu  of  Touraiue, 
named  Gynmast,  who  taught  the  art  of  ridiii;;. 
Changing  then  his  clothes,  he  mounted  on  nuy 
kind  of  horse,  wliieh  be  made  to  bound  in  tlie 
air,  to  jump  the  ditoli,  to  leap  the  palisade,  and 
to  turn  short  in  a  ring  both  to  the  right  ami  left 
hiiiid.  .  .  .  Tlie  time  being  thus  Ix'stowed,  and 
himself  rublK'd,  cleansed,  and  refreshed  with 
other  clothes,  tliey  returned  fair  and  softly;  and 
passing  through  certain  meadows,  or  other  grassy 
pliues,  Nehelii  the  trees  and  plants,  comparing 
them  with  what  is  written  of  them  in  the  btKiks 
of  the  ancients,  such  as  Theoplimstus,  Uioscori- 
<U's,  Marinus,  I'liny,  Nicamler,  Jlacer,  and  Galen, 
and  carrieii  home  to  the  house  great  handfuls  of 
them,  whereof  a  young  page  called  Hhizotomos 
bill  charge  —  together  with  hiH'S,  picks,  spuds. 
pruniug-Univcs,  and  other  instruments  reijuisite 
for  lierlKirising.  Being  come  to  their  li«lgiiig. 
whilst  supiH'r  was  making  ready,  tiny  repeat! cl 
certain  pas.sagcs  of  that  which  had  been  rend, 
and  then  sat  down  at  tal)lc.  .  .  .  During  that 
n'past  was  continued  the  lesson  rea'i  at  dinner  as 
long  as  they  thouglit  good:  the  rest  was  spent  in 
go'xl  discourse,  learned  and  profitable.  After 
tluit  they  had  given  thanks,  thi  y  set  themselves 
to  sing  musically,  and  play  uixmi  harnxaiious  in 
struments,  or  at  thost'  pretty  sjHirts  made  with 
cards,  dice  or  cups.  —  thus  niade  merry  till  it  was 
time  to  go  Ui  bed  ;  aial  sometimes  they  would  go 
make  visits  tmto  learned  men,  or  to  such  as  had 
been  tnvellers  in  stninge  countries.  At  full 
night  they  went  into  the  most  (i|K'n  place  of  the 
house  to  sec  the  face  of  the  sky,  and  there  iKheld 
the  comets,  if  any  were,  as  likewisi!  the  figures, 
situaticms.  aspeets,  oppositions,  and  coniunetions 
of  the  .stars.  Then  with  !  i.smasterdid  lie  liriefiy 
reeapituUte,  after  the  manner  of  the  Pytbagof- 
tans,  thiit  which  he  had  read,  seen,  learned,  done, 
and  understood  in  the  whole  course  of  that  day. 


Then  ther  prayed  unto  God  the  Creator,  fallin? 
down  before  Him,  and  strengthening  their  faith 
towards  Him,  and  glorifying  Him  for  His  bound- 
less Imunty ;  and,  giving  thanks  unto  Him  for  the 
time  that  was  past,  they  recommemled  them. 
si'lves  to  His  divine  clemency  for  the  future. 
Which  being  done,  they  entered  upon  their  rc- 
po.se  "—W.  Beaant,  B  'innt  in  linbetain,  in, 
30-23. 

Germaoy. — "The  schools  of  France  and  Italy 
owed  little  to  the  great  modem  movement  of  tliV 
Renaissance.  In  both  these  countries  that  niovi- 
ment  operated,  in  both  it  produced  mighty  re- 
suits;  but  of  the  otScial  establishments  fur  iu. 
struction  it  did  not  get  hold.  In  Italy  the 
mediteval  routine  In  those  establishment;  n't  first 
opposed  a  passive  resistance  to  it;  presently 
came  the  Catholic  reaction,  and  sedulou.sly  slnit 
it  out  from  them.  In  France  the  Henaissiiice 
did  not  become  a  power  in  the  State,  ami  \\w 
routine  of  the  scbfwls  sufficed  to  c.\eluile  the 
new  influence  till  it  took  for  itself  othiTclian 
nels  than  the  schools.  But  in  Germany  ilie 
Renaissance  lucamc  a  power  in  the  State;"iilli(il 
with  the  Ref  rinatlon,  where  the  Reformntion 
triumphed  in  t  Jerman  countries  the  Renaissince 
triumphed  with  it,  and  entered  with  it,  into  the 
public  schools.  Melancthon  and  Erasmus  wi  re 
not  merely  enemies  and  subverters  of  the  iloniiu- 
ion  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  tliey  were  einim  lit 
humanists;  and  with  the  great  but  single  <X(i  p 
tiim  of  Luther,  the  chief  German  refonuers  wire 
all  of  them  distinguished  friends  of  the  iiiw 
classical  learning,  as  well  as  of  I'rotestaiiti-Mi. 
The  Romish  party  was  in  German  couiitrii  >  ilie 
ignorant  party  also,  the  party  untouched  by  tin- 
humanities  and  by  culture.  Perhaps  oiu'  naMin 
why  in  England  our  schools  have  not  li.el  tin 
life  and  gniwth  of  the  schools  of  GerniMiiv  and 
Ilollanil  is  to  lie  found  in  the  separation.  \\\'.\\ 
us,  of  the  power  of  the  Reformation  aiil  tin- 
power  of  tlie  Renaissance-  Witli  us.  too,  iht 
Reformation  triumphed  and  gtit  possis>ioii  u( 
our  r.chools;  but  our  leading  reformers  wi-rc  not 
at  the  same  »ime,  like  those  of  Germany,  the  na- 
tion's leading  spirits  in  intellect  and  euiinri-.  lu 
Germany  the  best  spirits  of  the  nation  wen-  tin  u 
the  reformers;  in  England  our  best  .■•iiiiii-.— 
IShaks[)eare,  Bacon.  Spenser, —  were  men  ot  tlie 
Renaissance,  not  men  of  the  Reformation,  and 
ur  reformers  were  men  of  the  second  onhr. 
The  Reformation,  tlierifore,  getting  Indd  of  the 
schools  in  Englanil  was  a  very  dilTerent  forci-.  a 
forie  far  inferior  in  light,  resources,  and  prov 
peets,  to  tlie  Reformation  getting  hold  of  the 
schools  in  Germany.  Hut  in  Germany,  m  vir- 
theless,  as  Protestant  orthodo.vy  gn  w  ]iiliili<d 
like  Catholic  orthtnioxy,  and  as,  in  eonsi-niifnee. 
Protestantism  flagged  and  lost  the  powirfcil  im- 
pulse with  which  it  started,  the  selend  llai'Vid 
also,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  last  c iiitin.v  the 
classir.il  t>.  'ing  of  Germany,  in  spile  of  a  fe'v 
honou  mnies  like  Gesiier's,    Erm  sii's.  and 

r  yne's,  ..cems  to  have  lost  all  the  .'■pirit  and 
power  of  the  lOth  century  humanists,  to  h.ive 
lieen  sinking  into  a  mere  church  appendiL-i .  and 
fast  becoming  torpid.  A  theological  slinliiit, 
making  his  livelihood  bv  teaching  till  he  could 
get  appointed  to  a  parish,  was  the  usual  sdioi  I- 
master.  'The  schools  will  never  \k  better.'  said 
their  great  renovator,  Friedrich  August  Wolf,  the 
willkiiuv.ucrllii;  of  lloo.i  r,  •  b<)loug  a.s  tin  ^.  h-»ii 
masters  an  theologians  by  profession.  A  theolug- 


720 


EDUCATION. 


Re/ormatiirx 
and  iCducotion. 


EDUCATIOX. 


leal  coune  In  s  uniTerslty,  with  its  smattering  of 
classics,  Is  about  as  good  a  preparation  for  a  classi- 
cal master  as  a  course  of  feudal  law  would  be  ' 
AVolfs  coming  to  Halle  In  1783,  invited  by  Von 
Zodlltz,  the  minister  for  public  wnrskip  undi-r 
Frederlclt  the  Great,  a  sovereign  whose  civil  pro- 
ject, and  labours  were  not  less  active  and  remark- 
able than  his  militarj-,  marks  au  era  from  which 
the  classical  schools  of  Germany,  reviving  the  dor- 
mant sparlt  planted  in  them  by  the  Renaissance, 
awoke  to  a  new  life."— M.  Arnold,  SehaoU  ami 
Vnitertitiet  on  the  Continent,  ch.  14. — It  is  sur- 
prising to  learn  "  how  much  was  left  untaught, 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  in  the  schools.  Geog- 
rapliy  and  history  were  entirely  omitted  in  every 
SI  heme  of  instruction,  mathematics  played  but  a 
subordinate  part,  while  not  a  thought  was  be- 
stowed either  upon  natural  philosophy  or  nutunil 
history.     Every  moment  and  every  iffort  were 

£iven  to  the  classical  languages,  chittiv  to  the 
atin.    But  we  should  be  overhasty,  should  we 
conclude,  without  further  inquirv.   that    these 
branches,  thus  neglected  in  the  solio()ls.  were  there- 
fore every  where  untaught.     Perhaps  they  were' 
reserved  for  the  university  alone,  and  there,  too, 
for  the  professors  of  the  philosophical  faculty, 
as  is  the  case  even  at  the  present  daj  with  nutu- 
nil philosophy  and  natural  historv;  nav,  logic, 
wliich  was  a  regular  school  study  in  "the  si.\- 
titiith  centurj-,  is,  in  our  day,  widely  cultivated 
.11  the  university.     We  must,  therefore,  in  order 
t"  form  a  just  judgment  upon  the  range  of  .sub- 
jilts  taught  in  the  sixteenth  centurv,  as  well  as 
upon  the  methods  of  instruction,  "first  cast  a 
irliince  at  the  state  of  the  universities  of  that 
period,  especially  in  the  philosophical  faculties. 
.V  prominent  source  of  information  on  this  point 
i«  to  be  found  in  the  statutes  of  the  I'niversity 
of  Wittenberg,  revised  by  .^lelanethon.  in  the 
yiiir  1545.     The  theological  facultv  appears,  by 
these  statutes,  to  have  consisteil  o"f  four  profes- 
sors, who  read   lectures  on  the  (>ld  and  Xew 
Testaments,— chieliy    on  the  Psalms,    (Jenesis, 
Isaiah,  the  Gospel  of  John,  and  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans.     They  also  taught  dogmatics,  coni- 
niinting  upon  the  Xicene  creed  and  Aut'ustine's 
IxKik,    'De  spiritu   et  litera.'    The  Wittenberg 
lecture  schedule  for  the  year  l.'ifll,  is  to  the  siuiie 
elli  I  • ;  only  we  have  here,  Ix'sides  e.\egesis  ami 
ilogi:.,>tics,   catechetics  likewisi'.     According  to 
tlie  .•^latutes,  the  philosophlenl  facultv  was  com- 
1>..M(1  of  ten  professors.     Tlie  tirst  \Vns  to  read 
npoii  logic  and  rhetoric;  the  .second,  ujion  pliys- 
i<>.  and  the  second  biKik  of  Pliny's  natural  liis- 
ti'iA  ;  the  third,  upon  anthniitic  and  the  '  Sphere ' 
uf  .lohn  de  .Sacro  Husto  \  the  fourth,  upon  Euclid. 
till'    'TlieoriiB    Planetarum'    of    IJurbiich,    and 
I'tolcniv's  •  Almagest ' ;  the  fifth  and  si.\th,  upon 
til"  L:itui  pix'tsand  Cicero;  the  seventh,  who  was 
till-  •  Pedagogus,"  explained  to  the  younger  class. 
I.:itin  Gnunmar,  Linacer  'de  eniendata  structuni 
I.atini  siTmonis,'  Terence,  and  some  of  Plautus; 
till  eighth,  who  was  the  'Physicus,'  explaimd   i 
Aristotle'3  '  Plijsics  and  Diosc'orides ' ;  the  ninth   ' 
gave  instruction  in  Hebrew;  and  the  tenth  re- 
viiwed  the  Greek  Gnunmar,  read  lectures  on 
tireek  Classics  at  intervals,  also  on  one  of  St.    j 
Paul's  Epistles,  and,  at  the  same  time,  on  ethics. 
■  ■  .  Thus  the  philosophical  facultv  apjuars  to 
h.ivp  ix-en  the  most  fullv   repn'wntcd   at  Wit-    ' 
teuherg,   aa    it  included"  ten   professors,   wliile 
till-  theological  had  but  four,  the  medical  but 
three.  ...  We  have  a  .  .  .  criterion  by  which 


o  judge  of  the  limited  nature  of  the  studies  of 
that  period,  as  compared  with  the  wide  field 
•which  they  cover  at  the  present  day,  in  the  then 
almost  total  lack  of  academical  apparatus  and 
eiiuipments.     Tlie    only    exccp'     n    was  to   be 
found  in  the  case  of  libraries;  out,  how  meager 
and  insufltclent  all  collections  of  books  must  have 
lieen  at  that  time,  when  books  were  few  in  num- 
ber and  very  costly,  will  appear  fror..  the  fund, 
for  example,  which  was  a.'-signed  to  the  Witten- 
berg library;  it  yielded  annually  but  one  hun- 
dred gulden,  (about  803,)  with  which,   '  for  the 
profit  of  the  university  and  chieflv  of  the  poorer 
students  therein,  the  library  mav  \)t  adorned  and 
enriched  with  Inxiks  in  all  the"  faculties  r  d  in 
every    art,   as  well  in  the  Hebrew  anc'      teek 
tongues.'    Of  other  apparatus,   such  a       dlec- 
tions  in  natural  historv,  anatomical  n.     -i  .as 
botanical  gardens,  and  the  like,  we  find       jien- 
tion;  and  the  less,  inasmuch  as  thei        as  no 
need  of  them  in  elucidation  of  such  lectures  as 
the    professors    ordinarily    gave.      When    Paul 
Eber,  the  theologian,  read  lectures  upon  anat- 
omy, he  made  no  use  of  dissection.'— K.   von 
Hiiumer,    Viiinnitut  in   the  t^ixteeuth   Ctuturi) 
Uliintiird'e  Am.   Jutinuil  uf  Editeution,  r.  5,  /iji 
.■;;)5-54      -Luther  and  the  Schools.—"  Luther 
■  ■  .   !■  h    l:at,  to  strengthen  the  Reformation,  it 
was  reij.isite  to  work  on  tlie  young,  to  improve 
the  schools,  and  to  propagate 'througliout  Chris- 
tendom tlie  knowledge  necessarv  for  a  profound 
study  of  the  holy  Scriptures,     "fliis,  accordint'lv 
was  one  of  the  objects  of  his  life.     He  Sfiw  it  in 
particular  at  tli<  period  which  we  have  reached 
and  wrote  to  thi    councillors  of  all  the  cities  of 
Germany,  callinir  upon  them  to  found  Christian 
scliools.     'Dear  sirs,'  siud  he,  'we  aunuallv  e.\- 
piud  so  mucli  money  on  arquebuses,  roads',  and 
dikes;  why  sliould  we  not  spend  a  little  to  give 
one  or  two  schoolmasters  to  our  poor  children? 
GckI  stands  at  the  door,  and  knocks;  l/ussed  are 
we  if  we  open  to   him.     Xow  the  word  of  Gmi 
abounds.     O  my  dear  Germans,  buv.  buv.  while 
tlie    market   is  ojien   before   vour'hou.sls 
Buy  yoursi'lves  witli  the     '  Idren.'  iciuinues 
Luiiier,  still  addressing  tlie  maj,.        lis;  'for  many 
parents  are  lilie  ostriches;  thiv  aie  har.lened  to- 
wards their  little  oms,  and  sarisiii d  with  li;ivlng 
hiid  the  egg,  they  care  nntliing  lor  it  af,  ;-.,aids. 
The  prosperity  of  a  city  docs  ii^it  cc-i<i.,t  iic.  n  \\   .a 
heaping  up  great  treasures,  in  build!       str  ug 
walls,  in  erecting  splendid  mansions,  iu  1ios.m'ss- 
ing  glitlering  arms,     V     admen  fall  u,    a  r    its 
ruin  will  only  be  the  ,        i   ■■.      The'  trui     ,\    .ilth 
of  a  cilv.  its  s,ifcty,  am'  tp  nu'tli,  is  tc  have 

many  learned,  serious.  .oftliy,"well-i;!ueated 
citizens.  Am!  «liom  must  we  blame  bi-cause 
there  are  so  U\\  at  jireseiit,  except  you  magis- 
trates, who  have  allowed  our  youth  to  trow  up 
like  trees  in  a  forest';'  Luther  jiarlicularly  iu- 
sistcil  on  the  necessity  of  studving  lilemturt'and 
languages:  '  Wliat  use  is  !liiie,  it  may  be  asked, 
in  Icarniug  Latin.  Greek,  and  Hebrew;  We  caii 
read  the  Bible  very  well  in  German,  AVithout 
languages,' replies  lie,  'we  couhl  not  have  re- 
ceived tlie  gos|K'l.  .  ,  .  Languages  are  the  scab- 
bard that  coulains  the  sword  of  the  Spirit ;  they 
are  the  casket  that  guards  tlie  jewels;  they  are 
the  vessi'l  that  holds  the  wine ;  and  as  the  gospel 
pays,  ih.-.y  are  the  baskets  iu  « hieli  the  loaves 
and  fishes  are  kept  to  feed  the  multitudi.  It  we 
neglect  the  hinguages,  we  sliall  not  on'"  eventu- 
ally lose  the  gospel,  but  be  unable  t    ipeak  or 


I'  2! 


i'f~* 


k\^ 


^Ij 


727 


'^'^W 


v<m 


EDUCATION. 


Brethren  of 
fke  Common  Lot. 


EDUCATION. 


write  in  Latin  or  in  German.  No  sooner  did  men 
ceaie  to  cultivate  them  than  Cbriitendom  de- 
clined, even  until  it  (ell  under  the  power  of  the 
pope.  But  now  that  Ungiiages  are  again  honored, 
they  ihed  auch  light  that  afi  the  world  ia  aaton- 
tahed,  and  every  one  is  forced  to  acknowledge  that 
our  goapcl  ia  almost  as  pure  as  that  of  the  apos- 
tles themselves.  In  former  times  the  holy  fathers 
were  frequently  mistaken,  because  they  were 
ignorant  of  languages.  ...  If  the  languages 
lud  not  made  me  positive  at  to  the  meaning  of 
the  word,  I  might  have  been  a  pious  monk,  and 
quietly  preached  the  truth  in  the  obscurity  of  the 
clDistcr;  but  I  should  have  left  the  pope,  the 
sophists,  and  their  antichristian  emoirc  still  un- 
shaken. "—J.  H.  Merle  d'Aubigne,  Iliit.  of  (he 
Reformation  of  the  18rt  Century,bk.  10,  eh.  9(r.  8). 
— Luther,  in  his  appeal  to  the  municipal  magis- 
trates of  Germany,  calls  for  the  organization  of 
common  schools  to  be  supported  at  public  cost. 
"Finally,  he  gives  his  thought  to  the  means  of  re- 
cruiting the  teaching  service.  '  Since  the  greatest 
evil  in  every  place  is  the  lack  of  teachers,  we  must 
not  wait  till  tliey  come  forward  of  themaelves ;  we 
must  take  the  trouble  to  educate  them  and  pre- 
pare them.'  To  this  end  Luther  keeps  the  best 
of  the  pupils,  boys  and  girls,  for  a  longer  time 
in  school ;  gives  them  special  instructors,  ar ', 
opens  libraries  for  their  use.  In  his  thought  no 
never  distinguishes  women  teachers  from  men 
teachers:  he  wants  schools  for  girls  as  well  as 
for  boys.  Only,  not  to  bunlen  parents  and 
divert  'children  from  their  daily  labor,  he  re- 
quires but  little  time  for  school  duties.  .  .  . 
'  .My  opinion  ia  [he  says]  that  we  must  send  the 
boys  to  school  one  or  two  hours  a  day,  and  have 
them  learn  a  trade  at  home  f  >r  the  rest  of  the 
time.  It  is  desirable  that  these  two  occupations 
march  side  by  side.'.  .  .  Luther  gives  the  first 
place  to  the  teaching  of  religion :  '  Is  it  not  reaaou- 
able  that  every  Christian  should  know  the  IK-spel 
at  the  age  of  nine  or  ten?'  Then  come  the  lan- 
guages, not,  as  might  lie  hoped,  the  mother 
tongue,  but  the  leame<l  languages,  Latin,  Oreek, 
and  Hebrew.  Luther  had  not  yet  been  sufScicntly 
rid  of  the  old  spirit  to  comprehend  that  the 
language  of  the  people  ought  to  be  the  basts  of 
universal  instruction.  He  left  to  Conientua  the 
glory  of  making  the  final  aepamtlon  of  the 
primary  school  from  the  Latin  achool.  .  .  . 
Plirslcal  eieicites  are  not  forgotten  in  Luther's 
pedagogicHl  regulations.  But  he  attaches  an 
eapeclul  importance  to  singing.  '  Unless  a  schml- 
mastiT  know  how  to  sing,  I  think  him  of  no  ac- 
count. '  '  Muaic'  he  says  again,  '  is  a  half  disci- 
pline which  make*  men  more  indulgent  and 
more  mild.'  A'  the  same  time  that  he  cxteoda 
the  programi-.-  of  studies,  Luther  intriKluces  a 
new  spirit  Into  methmls.  He  wishes  more  lib- 
erty and  more  Joy  in  the  school.  '  Solomon,'  lie 
says,  'is  a  fnily  royal  schoolmaster.  He  dws 
nut.  like  the  monks,  forbid  the  young  to  go  Into 
the  worid  and  t)e  happy  Even  as  Antrim  said ; 
"A  young  man  turned  aside  from  the  worlil  It 
like  n  young  tree  made  to  grow  in  a  vasi-."  "The 
monks  have  imprisoned  young  men  like  binis  in 
tht'lr  rage.  It  Is  dangerous  to  isolate  the  young. ' 
.  .  .  l>o  not  let  oiirsclvea  imagine,  however,  that 
Lulher  nt  once  exercise<l  a  decisive  influence  on 
the  carrKnt  «hira!l;-.n  "f  hiadsiy.  \  fear  !«^Jkio!9 
wire  founiletl,  called  writing  schools;  but  the 
Thirty  Years'  War.  and  other  events,  interrupted 
Um  uuvement  of  whlcli  Lutber  bat  the  honor  of 


having  been  the  originator.  ,  .  ,  In  the  first  half 
of  the  leventeentb  centurj ,  Ratich,  a  Germun, 
and'  Comeniua,  a  Slave,  were,  with  very  differ'- 
ent  degreet  of  merit,  the  beirt  of  the  educational 
thought  of  Luther.  With  tomething  of  the 
charutan  and  the  demagogue,  Ratich  devoted 
hit  life  to  propagating  a  novel  art  of  teacbioi;. 
which  he  called  didacttct,  and  to  which  he  at- 
tributed marvels.  He  pretended,  by  his  method 
of  languages,  to  teach  Hebrew,  Oreek,  and 
Latin,  in  six  months.  But  nevertheless,  out  of 
many  stmnge  performances  and  lofty  promises, 
there  issue  some  thoughts  of  practical  value. 
The  first  merit  of  Ratich  was  to  give  the  inothtr 
tongue,  the  Oerman  language,  the  precriUnie 
over  the  ancient  languages.  "—O.  Compayre 
The  But  of  Pedagogy,  eh.  6  (teet.  130-134). 

Nethcrlaada, — "  When  learning  began  to  re- 
vive after  the  long  sleep  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
Italy  experienced  tne  first  impulse.  Next  came 
Germany  and  the  contiguous  pro vlncesof  the  Low 
Countries.  The  force  of  the  movement  in  thtse 
regions  is  shown  by  an  event  of  great  imiwrt- 
ance,  not  always  noticed  by  historians.  In  14(H), 
there  was  established  at  Deventer,  in  the  north- 
eastern  province  of  the  Xetherlands,  an  associa- 
tion or  brotherhood,  usually  called  Bretlireu  of 
the  Life  in  Common  [see  Brbturen  of  the 
Common  Lot].  In  their  strict  lives,  partial  com- 
munity of  goods,  industry  in  manual  lalH)r,  fvr- 
vent  ifevotlon,  and  tendency  to  mystiiiam,  tlif-y 
bore  some  resemblance  to  the  modern  Moravians. 
But  they  were  strikingly  distinguished  from  the 
members  of  this  se<:t  by  their  canu'st  cultivation  of 
knowledge,  which  was  encouraged  among  ihim. 
selves  and  promoted  among  others  by  sclii»>l8. 
both  for  primary  and  advanced  (Hliicallon.  In 
1430,  the  Brethren  had  established  fortytive 
branches,  and  by  1460  more  than  thricr  that 
number.  They  were  scattered  through  iliHinut 
parts  of  Germany  and  the  Low  Countrits,  rwh 
with  its  ichool  lubordlnate  to  the  heaii  cullece 
at  Deventer  It  wat  in  these  schools,  in  tM 
middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  that  a  few  (ler- 
mans  and  Netherlanders  were,  as  Hallain  sayi, 
routed  to  acquire  that  extenaive  knowledge  of 
the  ancient  languages  which  Italy  as  vet  delu- 
sively nostetseu.  Their  names  should  never  be 
omitted  In  any  remembrance  of  the  revival  of 
letters;  for  great  wat  their  Influence  iipua  tub- 
sequent  timea  Chief  among  these  men  wei« 
Weiacis,  of  Oronlnven,  'one  of  those  who  con- 
tributed most  steadily  to  the  puriflcatinn  of  re- 
ligion ' ;  Hegius  of  Deventer,  under  whom  Eras- 
mus obtained  his  early  e<lucatlon,  ami  who 
probaoly  was  the  flrtt  man  to  print  Qnek  north 
of  the  Alpi;  Dringeberg,  who  foun(le<l  a  f,<xA 
school  in  Alsace;  and  Longius,  who  prenlded 
over  one  at  Munster.  Thanks  to  the inlluiiire of 
these  pioneers  in  learning,  education  had  iiisile 
great  progress  smong  the  Netherlanders  by  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  .  .  .  We  have 
the  testimony  of  the  Italian  Ouiccianiini  to  the 
fact  that  before  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with 
Spain  even  the  peasant*  in  Holland  cmild  rtwl 
and  write  well.  At  the  war  went  on,  the  people 
thoweii  their  determination  that  in  this  niiiur 
there  should  be  no  retrogression.  In  tin  nr>.t 
Synod  of  Dort,  held  In  l.'S74,  the  clergy  expn  ^mJ 

thrlr  Opinion  upon  ilit-  Stiiijn-t  ItV  p4*,!-!s  ft  ■■-- 

lution  or  ordinanrf  which,  among  oIIh  r  iliiniii, 
directed  'the  se.vanu  of  the  Church' to  ritia 
froB  Um  mailttiatet  la  every  locality  s  penult' 


728 


EDUCATION. 


TKe  VnivtTMitt 
0/  Ltyden. 


EDUCATION. 


■ion  for  the  •ppointment  of  acboolmMten,  and 
an  order  for  tbetr  compenaation  as  in  the  pait. 
Before  many  yean  lisd  elapied  the  civil  authori- 
ties began  to  establish  a  general  school  Bystem 
for  the  country.  In  1583,  the  Estates  of  Fries- 
land  decreed  that  the  inhabitants  of  towns  and 
Tillages  should,  within  the  space  of  six  weelcs, 
provide  good  and  able  Reformed  schoolmasters, 
and  those  who  neglected  so  to  do  would  be  com- 
pelled to  accept  the  instructors  appointed  fur 
them.  This  seems  to  have  been  the  beginning  of 
the  supervision  of  education  by  the  State,  a 
system  which  soon  spread  over  the  whole  repub- 
lic. In  these  schools,  however,  although  tboy 
were  fostered  by  the  State,  the  teachers  seem,  in 
the  main,  to  have  been  paid  by  their  pupiU. 
But  as  years  went  on,  a  cliange  came  about  in 
ibis  part  of  the  system.  It  probably  waa  aided 
bv  the  noteworthy  letter  wUch  John  of  Nassau, 
the  oldest  brother  of  WillUm  the  Silent,  the 
Diible  veteran  who  lived  until  1606,  wrote  to  hU 
tim  Lewis  William,  Stadtholder  of  Frieslaud. 
lu  this  letter,  which  is  worthy  of  a  place  on  the 
walls  of  every  schoolhouse  in  America,  the  gal- 
lant young  stadt-holder  is  instructed  to  urge  on 
the  States-General  'that  they,  according  to  the 
example  of  the  pope  and  Jesuits,  should  establish 
free  schools,  where  children  of  quality  as  well  as 
of  poor  families,  for  a  very  small  sum,  could  be 
well  and  christianly  educated  and  brought  up. 
This  would  be  the  greatest  and  most  u«fiil 
work,  and  the  highest  service  that  you  otmld 
ever  accomplish  fur  God  and  Christianity,  and 
r8|ieclally  for  the  Netherlands  themselves.  .  .  . 
lu  summa,  one  may  jeer  at  this  as  popish  trick- 
cry,  and  undervalue  it  as  one  will:  there  still 
1  iialns  in  the  work  an  inexpressible  benefit. 
.^  Hers  and  patriots  thus  educated,  with  a  true 
knowledge  of  G<xi  and  a  Christian  conscience, 
Item,  churches  and  schools,  good  llliraries,  IxKiks, 
ami  prhiting-presses,  are  Ix'lter  tlian  all  armies, 
arsenals,  armories,  munitions,  alliances,  and  trea- 
tii'S  that  can  bo  had  or  imagined  lu  the  world.' 
.Such  were  the  words  In  which  the  I'atriarch  of 
tlie  Nasaaus  urged  upon  his  countrymen  a  com- 
mou-school  system.  In  1609,  when  the  I^ilgrim 
Fathers  took  up  their  residence  In  Leydon,  the 
ncliiiol  had  become  the  common  ph)|K'rty  of  the 
l«'"|ile,  and  was  paiil  for  among  other  municipal 
cj|>cu»es.  It  was  a  land  of  schools  suimorted 
liy  the  State  —  a  land,  according  to  JiDtley, 
•wliere  every  child  went  to  school,  where  almost 
cvt  ry  liiilivldual  Inhabitant  could  write  and  reail. 
w  lure  even  the  middle  classes  were  pn)flrient  In 
iii:tlliematlcs  anil  the  classics,  and  cnuld  sixuk 
twii  .ir  more  moilcrn  languages.'  Dm  s  anv  reader 
li.iw  ask  whence  the  settlers  of  I'l'  iiouth.  wlio 
came  directly  from  llnlliiiid,  and  ihe  other  sit- 
lliTH  of  New  England  ohow!  I'urilun  bnthreii 
wi  n-  to  lie  founil  In  Ihoiisanda  timiugliout  tlie 
I'm.  U  Itepublir,  derlvetl  their  Ideas  of  schools 
fir-t  directed,  and  then  suppurted  by  lln'  Stall?" 
— Leyden  University.— 'To comiiietiiumte  tliede- 
liviranreof  l^'yden  from  the  !<piinl»li  sleire  in 
l'>;i  IXC  Nktiiehi.ands:  A.  1).  1,'5T3-1.17-1).  ''anil 
a-  a  nwanl  for  the  heroism  of  the  citizens,  tlie 
I'linie  i.f  Orange,  with  the  consent  of  the  E» 
I  111  1  I.f  the  province,  founded  the  University  uf 
I'Vd.ti.      Still,   the  figment  of  allegiance'  n- 

!!;::!!:i:!,  tln'  l-.r.ij-.!.-.  WFr?  only  Sglii!;!;;  f  f  Ilr-if 
crii.t  ii  III  iiMial  rights,  and  so  wen' doing  their  dot  V 
ti'  Ihe  wivercign.  Hence  the  chsrier  of  the  um(- 
rir>iiy  rau  In  the  name  of  Philip,   who  was 


credited  with  It*  foundation,  as  a  reward  to  hil 
subjects  for  their  rebellion  against  his  evil  coun- 
sellors and  servants,  'especially  lu  consideration 
of  the  differences  of  religion,  and  the  great  bur- 
dens and  hardships  borne  by  the  citizens  of  our 
city  of  Leyden  during  the  war  with  such  faith- 
fulness.' Motley  calls  this  'ponderoiu  irony," 
but  the  Hollanders  were  able  lawyers  and  in- 
tended to  build  on  a  legal  basis.  This  event 
marks  an  epoch  in  the  Utellectual  history  of 
Holland  and  of  the  world.  .  .  .  The  new  univer- 
sity was  opened  in  1575.  and  from  the  outset 
took  the  highest  rank.  Speaking,  a  few  veara 
ago,  of  its  famous  senate  chamber,  Nie'buhr 
called  it  'the  most  memorable  room  of  Europe 
In  the  history  of  learning.'  The  first  curator 
was  John  Van  der  Does,  who  had  been  militarv 
commandant  of  the  city  during  the  siege.  Hfe 
was  of  a  distinguisheil  family,  but  was  still 
more  distinguished  for  his  learning,  bis  poetical 
genius,  and  his  valor.  Endowed  with  ample 
funds,  the  university  largely  owed  its  marked 
pre-eminence  to  the  intelligent  foresight  and  wise 
muniticenee  of  its  curato'ra.  They  sought  out 
and  obtained  the  most  distinguished  scholars  of 
all  nations,  and  to  this  end  spared  neither  pains 
nor  expense.  Diplomatic  negotiation  and  even 
princely  mediation  were  often  called  in  for  the 
acquisition  of  a  professor  Hence  it  was  said 
that  It  surpassed  all  the  universities  of  Europe 
lu  the  uunilier  <if  its  scholars  of  renown.  These 
scholars  were  trciteil  with  prineelv  honors.  .  .  . 
The  'mechanicals 'of  Holland,  as  Elizabeth  called 
tlii'm,  may  not  have  paid  the  accustomed  wor- 
ship to  nmk.  but  to  genius  and  learning  they 
were  always  willing  to  do  homage.  Space  would 
fall  for  even  a  brief  account  of  the  great  men, 
foreign  ami  native,  who  illuminated  Leyden  with 
their  presence.  .  .  .  But  it  was  not  alone  in 
scholarship  and  In  scieutlHc  researeh  that  the 
University  of  Leyden  gave  an  lra|)etus  to  modem 
thought.  Tlieological  disputes  were  developed 
there  at  times,  little  tempesU  which  thre>atened 
destruction  to  the  institution,  but  they  were  of 
short  durathm.  The  right  of  conscleuci;  was 
always  resiKKJled,  and  In  the  main  the  right  of 
full  and  public  discussion.  .  .  .  When  It  was 
settled  that  diwtentcrs  could  not  Iw  educated  In 
the  English  universities,  tliey  Hocked  to  Leyden 
in  great  numlKTs,  niakiuir  tliat  city,  next  to 
Edinburgh,  tlieir  chief  nsort.  Eleven  years 
after  the  o|>eidii>r  of  the  Uulversity  of  Leyden, 
the  Estates  of  dciiuM  iriiic  Kriesiaml.  amiil  the 
■lin  of  war,  foiiiidc.i  llie  Lidversity  of  Francker, 
an  iiistltiiii.M  wliiili  Has  to  U'ccmie  famous  as 

till' lion f  .Vriiiiiiiiis.   .  ,  .   Both  of  these  uni- 

versiliis   Were   |ur|i.tiiiilly  cndowe<l    with    the 
iiriHtrds  of  till'  erilixi  isiical  property  which  had 
Ihiu  roMti»(ait.|  iliiii   ,'  the  proirn»s"of  the  war" 
—1)    Caiui'li.  II,  7'/r.    I'lirit'in  in  UMiml,  Eng- 
I   lit.'l.  ,n„l  Aii,ii'i';i,  eh.  S.  'Jn.  „/„/ 3, 
j       En|r|and.— "  111  ronti'mplatiiig  the  events  of 
;   tlie  tjlie.nili  and  sixtiiMith  centuries.  In  their  in- 
'   tlueiicc  on  KiiL-liili  civilisation,  we  are  reminded 
once   more  of    the   fiitiliiy   of    certain   inislem 
n'tpiralions      No  amount  of  Universjtv  Conimla- 
sions.  not   of  wellnieaiit   reforms,  will   clmiige 
t  lie  iiatUH' of  Englishmen      It  Is  lin|HHuilile,  by 
dislriliiitionsof  Uidversitr  prizes  and  pMfessiir- 
ruS\".   !■•  atintct   int"  ti:c  carrcr  .;f  icttcri  that 
pn.|i.irilon  of  Indiis'ry  ami  ingi'iiuity  which,  in 
Oi  rinany   for  ixaiiiple.  Is  devoted  to  the  scho- 
lastic life.     Politics    trade,  law,  sport,  religion 

.'It 


#  -'ii 


*•■ 


§{ 


m 


■■'*!ti 


EDUCATION. 


CoUt  and 
ai.  Plaul'l  School. 


EDCCATION. 


will  claim  their  own  in  Ihigland,  lust  a*  they  did 
St  the  Revival  of  Letters.  The  illustrious  cen- 
tury which  Italy  employed  in  unburying,  appro- 
{)riating,  and  enjoying  the  treasures  of  Greek 
iterature  and  art,  our  fathers  gave,  in  England, 
to  dynastic  and  constitutional  squabbles,  and  to 
religious  broils.  The  lienaissance  in  Englani'. 
and  chiefly  in  Oxford,  was  like  a  bitter  and 
cliangpful  spring.  There  was  an  hour  of  genial 
warmth,  there  breathed  a  wind  from  the  south, 
in  the  lifetime  of  Chaucer;  then  came  frosts  and 
storms:  again  the  brief  sunshine  of  court  favour 
shone  un  literature  for  a  while,  when  Henry 
Vni.  encouraged  study,  and  Wolsey  and  Fox 
fcmiiiled  Christ  Church  and  Corpus  Christi  Col- 
lo^'f,  once  more  the  bad  days  of  religious  strife 
returned,  and  the  promise  of  learning  was  de- 
stniyed.  Thus  the  chief  result  of  the  awakening 
tlioiight  of  the  fourteenth  century  in  England 
was  not  a  lively  delight  in  literature,  but  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  Lolliirds.  The  intensely  prac- 
tical genius  of  our  race  turned,  not  to  "letters, 
but  to  questions  about  the  soul  and  its  future, 
about  property  and  its  distribution.  The  Lol- 
lanis  were  put  down  in  Oxford :  '  the  tares  were 
weeded  out'  by  the  House  of  Lancaster,  and  in 
the  process  the  germs  of  free  thought,  of  origin- 
ality, and  of  a  ratiocrj  e<lucation,  were  de- 
stroyed. 'Wyclcvism  did  domineer  among  us,' 
■ays  Wood;  and,  in  fact,  the  intellect  of  the  Uni- 
versity was  absorbed,  like  the  intellect  of  France 
during  tlie  heat  of  the  Jnnsenist  controversy,  in 
defending  or  assailing  '  367  damned  conclusions,' 
drawn  from  the  Inrnks  of  Wyclife.  The  Univer- 
sity '  lost  many  of  her  children  through  the  pro- 
fession of  Wvclevism."'— A.  Lang,  Oxford,  en.  3. 
— Colet  and 'St.  Paul'*  School.— Dr.  John  Colet, 
appointed  Dean  of  St.  Paul's  in  l.%5,  "  resolved, 
whilst  living  and  in  health,  to  devote  his  patri- 
mony to  the  foundation  of  a  school  lu  St.  Paul's 
Churcliyard,  wherein  153  children,  without  any 
restriction  as  to  nation  or  country,  who  coidil 
already  ri'ad  and  write,  and  were  of  'giiod  piirts 
and  capacities,'  should  receive  a  sound  Christian 
education.  The  '  Latin  adulterate,  which  Igno- 
rant blind  fools  brought  into  this  world,'  poison- 
ing thereby  '  the  old  Latin  speech,  ami  the  very 
Roman  tongue  use<l  in  tlie  time  of  Tully  and 
Salhist,  and  Virgil  and  Terence,  and  learned  liy 
8t.  .lerome,  St.  AmbMse.  and  St.  Augustine.' — 
all  that  'abusion  which  the  later  blind  worlil 
lirnimlit  In,  and  which  may  rather  lie  culle<t 
Ulutlimture  than  Literature,' — should  Ik-  '  iitter- 
Iv  iiliaid^hed  and  excluded'  out  of  this  mli>Hi|. 
The  ( liililren  shoulil  he  taught  goixl  litenilim'. 
IkiIIi  Laihi  and  Greek,  'such  authors  that  have 
with  wlmliim  loinvd  JMire  chaste  elmiuince' — 
•»|Hi  hilly  Christian  autlinrs  who  wrnle  tlnlr 
wlwhiin  In  clean  and  chaste  l^itln.  whether  In 
pMse  fir  verw',  fur,'  said  Colet,  'my  Intent  is  liy 
this'<ihiHil  specially  to  ineri'ase  knonledge.  and 
worshipiiini;  nf  UimI  and  Our  Lord  .lesus  Christ, 
and  gtssl  Christian  life  and  manners  in  the  chil- 
dren.'. .  .  The  building  nmsisted  of  one  large 
room,  ilivided  into  an  upwr  and  lower  sc^hool  l)y 
a  curtain,  which  could  in'  ilniwn  at  pleasure; 
and  the  ehariie  of  the  two  scIiihiIs  devolvwl  u|«m 
a  hlirh master  and  a  sub-master  respectively 
Till'  fiirnis  were  arrangoi  so  as  each  to  scat  six- 
V*!'*!  tstya.  tinit  Wert*  prfivliliH)  f*ach  w|Ui  h  ni{w><l 
desk,  at  which  the  head-lioy  sat  as  presldwit 
The  tiiiildlni;  also  enilinKrd  an  entninee-iinrch 
iud  a  li    te  chapel  for  divine  servirt,     Uwelllug- 


houses  were  erected,  adjoining  the  school,  for 
the  residence  of  the  two  masters ;  and  for  their 
support,  Colet  obtained,  in  the  spring  of  isiii,  ^ 
royal  license  to  transfer  to  the   Wardens  and 
Guild  of  Mercers  in  London,  real  property  to  the 
value  of  £33  per  annum  (equivalent  to  at  least 
£580  of  present  money).   Of  this  the  headmuiiler 
was  to  receive  as  his  salary  £35  (say  £3.'>(i)  and 
the  under-master  £18  (say   £180)  per  annum. 
Three  or  four  years  after,  Colet  made  provision 
for  a  chaplain  to  conduct  divine  service  in  the 
chapel,  and  to  instruct  the  children  in  the  Cate- 
chism, the  Articles  of  the  faith,  and  the  'Ten 
Commandments, —  in  English;  and  ultimately, 
before  his  death,  he  appears  to  have  inereused 
the  amount  of  the  whole  endowment  to  t'123 
(say  £1,300)  per  annum.     So  that  it  may  lie  inn- 
sidered,  roughly,  that  the  whole  endowmeut.  in- 
cluding the  buildings,  cannot  have  represented 
a  less  sum  than  £30,000  or  £40,00t  nf  presint 
money.     And  if  Colet  thus  sacriUced  bo  iiiiKh 
of  his  private  fortune  to  secure  a  liberal  (an  1  it 
I  must  be  concoled  his  was  a  liberal)  proviiticin  for 
I   the  remimeration  of  the  masters  wboshoiiM  e<lu- 
I  cate  his  153  boys,  he  must  surely  have  had  deiply 
at   iieart   the   welfare  of   the  boys  themselves. 
I  And.   in  truth,   it  was   so.    Colet   was  like  a 
father  to   his  schoolboya  ...    It  was  imt  t« 
I   be  expected   that    he    should    find  the  ^eliinil- 
lxK>ks  of  the  old  grammarians  in  any  way  ailapt- 
'  ed  to  his  purpose.     So  at  once  he  set  his  learned 
friends  to  work  to  provide  him  with  new  ones. 
;   The  first  thing  wanted  was  a  Latin  Granimai 
for  beginners.     LInacre  undertook  to  pniviile 
\  this  want,   and   wrote  with   great    pains  and 
j   labour,  a  work  in  six  books,  which  afterwards 
came  into  general  use.      But  when  Cnlet  «iw 
it,  at  the  risk  of  displeasing  his  friend,  he  ;  ; 
it  altogether  aside.     It  was  too  loni;  anil  li<> 
learned   fnr  his   'little   beginners.'    So  lie  ii>n- 
I  dense<i  within  the  compass  of  a  few  pugtn  two 
little  treatises,  an  'Accidence'  and  a    Syntax.' 
in  the  preface  to  the  first  of  which  nei'nr  the 
'.   gentle  words  (luoted  above.     These  little  iMi.ks, 
after  receiving  additions  from  the  hands  uf  Km»- 
mils.  Lilly,  and  others,  finally  becami'  ^lencrillv 
I  adopted  and  known  as  Lilly  a  Grammar     Tlid 
rejection  of  his  Grammar  seems  to  have  \mn  a 
sore  (Hiint  with  LInacre,  but  Enisniiis  t"ld  Cnlet 
not  to    Ik'  too  much   concerned   alsiul  it.  .  .  . 
Erasmus,  in  the  same  letter  in  which  lu' spoke  (if 
Llnaere's  rejected  Grammar  .  .  .  put  on  pa|*r 
his  niitlons  nf  what  a  scli(M>ltiiaster  oiii|;lit  in  In', 
and  the  iH'st  methisl  of  leochlni;  Ihivs,  wliii  h  lie 
fancied  Cnlet  might  not  alUigether  appmve.  a* 
he  was  wiint  wimewhat  mure  to  despise  rlido- 
rie  tliin   Erasmus  did       He  staled  his  "piiiioa 
that  — •  In  nnhr  that  the  teacher  iiililit  In  tlior- 
iiu^hly  up  to  his  work,  he  slunild  not  merely  )ie 
a  mas  er  of  one  particular  brum  li  of  stmly      lie 
should  himself  have  traveUeii  liiniiigh  tlie  wliule 
circle  of  kniiwledge.     In  philnsophv  lie  slemlil 
liii\e  studliHi  I'hitoand  Arlsiotle.  I'lieophraslus 
and  Plotinus;  In  Theohigy  the  Sacred  Siriiiiiin  s 
and  after  them  Origen.  Chrvsoatoiii.  mul  ll.Ml 
among  the  Gri-ek  fatlwrs.  and  Ainlin*'  aiiJ  h- 
i   mine  among  the  Latin  fathers.  aiiuinK  lit  |'"<ti, 
.   Ilomei  and Ovi,; ;  in  geography,  whiili  i«  ^ry 
;   ImiMirtant   in  the  study  nf  history,  I'lMnimnim 
I    Melji.  Ptolemy.  Pllny,  Htrnlio       He  sholll  I  kllotV 
I    what  ancient  names  nf  rivers,  mountains,  .  oun- 
I   tries,  cities,  answer  to  the  inislern  ones,  and  the 
{  lauie  of  lrv«s,  aulinalt,  lustruuienu,  clutbei,  sail 


;}() 


EDUCATION. 


n<  Jautt  Ttadien. 


EDUCATION. 


genu,  with  regard  to  which  It  la  Incredible  how 
ignorant  even  educated  men  are.  He  should  take 
note  of  little  facts  about  agriculture,  architect- 
ure, military  and  culinary  arts,  mentioned  by 
different  authors.  He  f,houId  be  able  to  trace 
the  origin  of  words,  th'ir  gradu'<I  corruption  in 
the  languages  of  Condtantinoplc,  Italy,  Spain, 
and  France.  Nothing  should  be  beneath  his  ob- 
serration  which  can  illustrate  history  or  the 
meaning  of  the  poets.  But  you  will  say  wha 
:»  load  you  are  putting  on  the  back  of  the 
poor  teacher!  It  is  so;  but  I  burden  the  one  to 
relietre  the  many.  I  want  the  teacher  to  have 
iraversejl  the  whole  ranee  of  knowledge,  that  it 
m.iy  spare  each  of  his  scholars  doing  it.  A  dill- 
gent  and  thoroughly  competent  master  might 
give  boys  a  fair  proficiency  in  both  Latin  and 
Greek,  in  a  shorter  time  and  with  less  labour 
thiin  the  common  run  of  pedagogues  tc'  ■  to 
teach  their  babble. '    On  receipt  of  this  .  olet 

wrote  to  Erasmus:  .  .  .  '  "  What!    I  shall  not  ap- 
prove  I"    So  you  say!     What  is  there  of  Eras- 
muss  that  I  do  not  approve?'"— P.   Seebohm 
Th*   Orford  Hfformerii.   ch.  6.  — Ascham    and 
"The    Seholemaater."  — Roger   Ascham.    the 
friend  of  Lady  Jane  Grey  and  the  tutor  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  was  bom  in  l.'ilS,  and  died  in  l.'!S8 
"It  was  partly  with  the  view  to  the  Instruction 
of  his  own  children,   that  ho  commenced  the 
'  !l<rhole-master, '  the  work  by  which  he  is  most  and 
Iwst  known,  to  which  he  did  not  live  to  set  the 
l«»t  hand.     He  communicated  the  design  and 
impiirt  of  the  book  in  a  letter  to  Sturmius.  In 
width  he  states,  that  not  being  able  to  leave  his 
sons  a  large  fortune,  he  was  res<jlve«l  to  provide 
them  with  a  preceptor,  not  one  to  be  hired  for  a 
great  sum  of  money,  but  marked  out  at  home 
Willi  a  homely  pen.     In  the  same  letter  he  gives 
his  reasons  for  employing  the  English  language 
the  capabilities  of   whioh  he  clearlv  perceived 
anil  candidly  ackuowle<lgcd,  a  high  virtue  for  a 
mm  of  that  age.  who  perhaps  could  have  writ- 
ten Latin  to  his  own  satisfaction  much  more 
easily  than  his  native  tongue.     But  though  the 
benillt  of  his  own  offspring  might  be  his  ulti- 
miile  object,  the  imnmliate  (K-caslim  of  the  work 
WH«  a  conversation  at  ("cell's,  at  which  Sir  Rich- 
snl  .Sickville  expresstnl  great  ln<ilgnation  at  the 
•everlties  prncticwl   at    EU)n  and    other    great 
Mli.mls,  HO  that  l>oys  actually  ran  away  for  fear 
of  inerclli-ss  flagellation.     This  led  to  the  general 
sul.JKt  of  schiNil  discipline,  and  the  deft'cts  in 
the  then  fHtalilished  modes  of  tuition.     Aiicham 
n.im  iiling  with  the  seiitimenu  of  the  companv, 
iinl  iimeeeding  to  explain  his  own  views  of  lih- 
prnvriiient,  Sackvllle  requestetl  him   to  eoiiiinlt 
lii*  "pillions  to  p«p,.r  and  the  ' SoholemaHt.r ' 
»i»  the  result     It  was  not  published  till  1(170 
J;!;  ■   ■   .   quote   a    few  passaws.   which 
throw  light  upon  the  author's  gcnxl  sens<'  and  giK«| 
uaiure      To  all    violent  ct*reion.  and  exin'nie 
liuiiMiment,  he  was  derldediv  opposed:  —  •  I  i|,i 
«:r>,;.,iy»he.  ■Willi  all  goil  s<fnM,l.mai.ler«  In 
all  ihi  .,■  points,  to  have  children  brought  to  go.><| 
l>trf..in.ss  iu  leiimliig,  to  all  honestv  in  man- 
HIT,    i„  iiuve  all  faults  righllv  amend.Hl.   and 
evirv  \kv  wverely  correcU'd,  but  for  the  order 
sii'l  way  that  leadelh  rightly  to  thew  points,  we 
•oinrnhat    differ.'     'Love  is   Mter  than   fear. 
KinileiieM  than   beatiui.    to  lirinj   up  s  child 
iini.iiy  in  learning.      ■  1  do  Mture  you  there  Is 
D"  »m  h  wheUtoiw  to  sharpen  »  )H«»1  wit,  anil 
•ocourage  %  will  to  learning,  ai  ii  praite  ' 


The  scholar  is  commonly  beat  for  the  making 
when  the  master  were  more  worthy  to  be  beat 
for  the  mending,  or  rather  marring,  of  the  same- 

In?"?^''  '"'"'J'  *'■"«»  '^'•'K  a*  ignorant  as  the 
cmid  what  to  say  property  and  fitly  to  the  mat- 
ter. ...  '  This  will  I  say,  that  even  the  wisest 
of  your  great  beaters  do  as  oft  punish  nature  aa 
they  do  correct  faults.  Yea  many  times  the  bet- 
ter nature  Is  the  sorer  punished.  For  If  one  by 
quickness  of  wit  take  his  lesson  readilv,  another 
by  hardness  of  wit  taketh  It  not  so  speedily  the 
nrst  is  always  commended,  the  other  is  com- 
monly punished,  when  a  wise  school-master 
should  mther  discreetly  consider  the  right  dispo- 
sition of  both  their  natures,  and  not  so  much 
wdgh  what  either  of  them  is  able  to  do,  as  what 
either  of  them  is  likely  to  do  hereafter.  For  thl» 
I  know-,  not  only  by  reading  of  iKwks  in  my 
study,  but  also  by  experience  of  life  abroad  in 
the  wor  d,  that  those  which  be  commonly  the 
wisest  the  best  learned,  and  best  men  also,  when 
they  be  old,  were  never  commonly  the  quickest 
of  wit  wlicn  they  were  young.  Quick  wiu 
commonly  be  apt  to  take,  unapt  to  keep.  Some 
are  more  quick  to  enter  speedily  than  be  able 
to  pierce  far.  even  like  unto  oversharp  tools 
whose  edges  be  very  soon  turned. '  "—  H.  Cole- 
ridge, lii-H/ntpliiii  Bnrnilii,  pp.  328-380 

Jeauit  Teaching  and  Schoola.— '■  'The  educa- 
lion  of  youth  Is  set  forth  In  the  Formula  of  Ad- 
priival  granted  by  Paul  lU.  in  1540,"  to  the  plana 
of  Ignatius  Loyola  for  the  foundation  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Jesus,  "as  the  first  duty  embraced  by 
the  new  Institute.  .  .  .  Although  the  new  re- 
ligious were  not  at  once  able  to  begin  the  es- 
tablishment of  colleges,    yet  the  plan  of  those 
afterwards  founded,  was  gradually  ripening  in 
the  sagacious  mind  of  St.  Ignatius,  who  liMiked 
to  these  Institutions  as  calculated  to  oppose  the 
surest  bulwarks  against  the  jirogress  of  heresy 
The  first   regular  college  of   the   Society    was 
that  establisheil  at  Oandia  in  1546,   tliroiigh  the 
zeal  of  St.  Francis  Borgia,  thini  General  of  the 
StHiely;  and  the  regulations   by  which   it   wat 
governed,  and  which  were  emlHHiie<|  in  the  con- 
stitutions, were  extended  to  all  the  Jesuit  col. 
leges  afterwards  fouiideil.     The  studies  were  to 
include  theology,  both  positive  and  sclinla-itic  a* 
well  as  grammiir,  piK-trv,  rlntoric.  and  philoso- 
phy.    The  lourse  of  philosophv  was  to  lust  three 
years,  that  of  theology  four:  and  the  rrofrssora 
of  Philosophy  were  eiijoine.1  to  tn-at  their  sub- 
ject iu  sueli  a  way  as  to  dispose  the  mind  for  the 
study  of  Iheolotfy,  Instead  of  setting   up   faith 
and   reiisoii  in  opposition  to  one  anoiher      The 
theology  of  St,   Thomas,  and  the  philosophv  of 
Aristotle,  Wire  to  lie  followed,  except  on  those 
points  where  llie  teaching  of  the  latter  was  op. 
poM'iltotliel'.iil.ilIc  faith. "—AT.  Drane  r/irii- 
^,(/,  .Sr-,',,,. ./,,„„/  v-A,.A„.,y,,  7i(H,_"ABearlvnsthe 
mlddleof  the  sixteenth  century  .  .  .  [theScH-lety 
of  Jesus]  had  several  colleges  In  France,  partiru- 
liirly  those  of  liillom.  .Mauriac,  Kodez.  Tournon 
and    Piinilers      In  l.WI  it  secured  a  fimting   lii 
Paris,  notwithstanding  the  niilstan.-e  of  the  Par- 
lliiiii.  lit.  of  the  university,   and  of  the  bishops 
theniwlvi-s.     A  hundriKl  years  later  it  counted 
nearly  fourteen  thouMiid  pupils  in  the  pMvince 
of  Paris  alone.     The  eoltege  of  Clermont,  in  1«.->1 
e'lroUeil  mi-.Tv  !h.iii  iw:.  th-->iiisnd  }-.tiii»  tnrn. 
Tlie  middle  anil  higher  elaases  assureil  to  Oir  col- 
leges of  the  s<K-U-ty  an  everinereaslnir  memlivr- 
shlp.     At  the  emi  of  the  seventeenth  century, 


731 


EDUCATION. 


SducU  <n  modem 
JBurope. 


EDCCATION. 


the  Jeauits  could  inicribe  on  the  roll  of  honor  of 
tiieir  classes  a  hundred  illustrious  names,  among 
others  those  of  Condi  and  Luzemboure,  Flichier 
and  Bossuet,  Lamoignon  and  Siguier,  Descartes, 
ComeiUe,  and  Moliire.  In  1710  they  controlled 
six  hundred  and  twelve  college*  ^d  a  large 
number  of  universities.  They  were  the  real 
masters  of  education,  and  they  maintained  this 
e<lueational  supremacy  till  the  "nd  of  the  eigh- 
t< '  ill  century.  Voltaire  said  of  these  teachers: 
'  Tlie  Fathers  taught  me  nothing  but  Latin  and 
nonsense.'  But  from  the  leTentcenth  century, 
opinions  are  divided,  and  the  encomiums  of 
Bncon  and  Descartes  must  be  offset  by  the  severe 
judgment  of  Leibnitz.  '  In  the  matter  of  educa- 
tion,' says  this  great  philosopher,  '  the  Jesuits 
have  remained  below  mediocrity."  Directly  to 
the  contrary.  Bacon  had  written:  '  As  to  what- 
ever relates  to  the  instruction  of  the  young,  we 
muHt  consult  the  schools  of  the  Jesuits,  for  there 
can  be  nothing  tliut  is  better  done. ' .  .  .  A  per- 
manent and  characteristic  feature  of  the  educa- 
tional policy  of  the  Jesuits  is,  that,  during  the 
whole  course  of  their  history,  they  have  delib- 
erately neglected  and  disdained  primary  instruc- 
tion. The  earth  is  covered  with  their  Latin  col- 
leges; and  wherever  they  have  been  able,  they 
have  put  their  hands  on  the  institutions  for  uni- 
versity education;  but  in  no  instance  hnvo  they 
founded  a  primary  school.  Even  in  tbilr  estab- 
lislimcnt  for  secondary  instruction,  the)  entrust 
the  lower  classes  to  teachers  who  do  not  belong 
to  their  order,  and  reserve  to  themselves  the 
dlreciion  of  the  higher  classes. " — Q.  Compayri, 
Ilitt.  of  Pedtigixiy,  pp.  141-U3.— See,  also,  Jesu- 
its; A.  D.  l.'UU-l.l.'HJ.— "The  Jesuits  owed  their 
fcuccess  partly  to  the  very  narrow  task  which  the; 
set  themselves,  little  beyond  the  teaching  of 
Latin  style,  and  partly  to  the  careful  training 
which  they  gave  their  students,  a  training  which 
often  degenerated  into  mere  mechanical  exercise. 
But  the  mainspring  of  their  induence  was  the 
manner  in  which  they  worked  the  dangerous 
force  of  emulation.  Thiw  pupils  who  were  most 
distinguished  at  the  end  >  f  each  month  received 
the  rank  of  pnctor,  consi>r,  and  deciirion.  The 
class  was  divided  into  two  parts,  called  Romans 
anil  Carthaginians.  Hrtiks  and  Trojans.  The 
students  sat  oppcMi.  lacb  other,  the  master  in 
the  middle,  the  walls  were  hung  with  swords, 
speaM  and  shields  which  the  contending  parties 
carried  off  in  triumph  as  the  prize  of  victory. 
These  pupils'  contests  wasted  a  ^reat  deal  of 
time.  The  Jesuits  establisheil  public  school  fes- 
tivals, at  which  the  pupils  might  lie  exhibited, 
aii<i  the  parents  flattered.  They  made  their  own 
rcIkmiI  lHK)ks,  in  which  the  requirements  of  good 
t<  aching  were  not  so  important  as  the  religious 
oljjictH  !  the  order.  "They  preferred  extracts 
to  whole  authors;  if  they  could  not  prune  the 
dawics  to  tlii'ir  fancy  tiny  would  not  read  them 
nt  all.  What  judgment  are  we  to  pass  on  the 
Jrniiit  tea>  liing  as  a  whole  ?  It  deserve*  tiraiw 
oil  twiiaccoiiiits.  Klnt.  ii  mainlaiwd  the  dignity 
of  lilrralure  in  an  age  which  wo*  too  liable  to  lie 
lulliK'iu'iil  liy  consiiTerattoua  of  practical  utility. 
It  nialiitaini'd  the  study  uf  Greek  in  France  at  a 
higher  level  than  the  I  nivenily,  anil  resisted  the 
asxa'  It*  of  ignorant  parent*  on  the  fortress  of 
Ilellcntun.  Secondly,  It  seriously  ut  Itiu'lf  to 
liiidi'.-stand  the  nature  and  character  of  tlie  Indi- 
vidual pupil,  ami  to  suit  the  manner  of  etiucatiou 
to  tlu)  mlod  that  wa*  V)  receive  it.     Whatever 


I  may  have  been  the  motive*  of  Jesuits  in  gainiog 
the  affections,  and  securing  the  devotion  of  tlie 
children  under  their  charge;  whether  thiir  de- 
sire wa*  to  develop  the  individuality  whi(  h  tbty 
prolKd,  or  to  destroy  it  in  its  germ,  and  plant  a 
new  nature  in  its  place ;  it  must  \k  admitted  that 
the  loving  care  which  they  spent  upon  their 
charge  was  a  new  departure  in  education,  and 
has  become  a  part  of  every  reasonable  system 
since  their  time.  Here  our  praise  must  end 
.  .  .  They  amused  the  mind  Instead  of  strtnirth. 
ening  it.  They  occupied  in  frivolities  siuhaj 
Latin  verae*  the  year*  which  they  feared  misht 
otherwise  be  given  to  reasoning  and  the  arc|uj. 
sition  of  solid  knowledge.  .  .  .  Cehthniiiil  as 
the  Jesuit  schools  have  oeen,  they  have  mvid 
much  more  to  the  fashion  which  tilled  theiu  with 
promising  scholars,  than  to  their  own  cMilli'tice 
in  dealing  with  their  material.  .  .  .  They  hare 
never  stiKid  the  test  of  modem  criticism. '  Thty 
have  no  place  in  a  rational  system  of  mmlcni 
education." — O.  Browning,  Introd.  to  tin  Uiti, 
of  Educational  Theoriet,  eh.  8. 

Modem :  European  Countries. 

Auatria. — "  The  annual  appropriatious  passed 
by  Parliament  allow  the  minister  of  puUic  in 
structton  88,807,774  for  all  kinds  of  piililic  cdu. 
cational  institutions,  elementary  and  siinnJaiy 
schools,  universities,  technical  and  art  s('hc«)l8, 
museums,  anil  philanthropic  institution*.  Gen- 
erally, this  principle  is  adhered  to  by  the  staii'.  to 
subsidize  the  highest  institutions  of  lianiin;,'  moat 
liberally,  to  share  the  cost  of  muintuluiug  woinj. 
ary  schools  with  church  and  coninuinily,  uml  to 
leave  the  burden  of  maintaining  elinuntaiy 
schools  almost  entirely  to  the  local  or  roiunnnal 
authorities.  ...  In  the  Austrian  pulilic  s<  hmili 
no  distinctions  are  made  with  tlie  pupils  as  re- 
gards tlii'ir  religious  confessions.  The  si  lim)U 
are  open  to  all,  and  are  therefore  coninmn  t.i\mM 
in  the  sense  in  which  that  term  is  eiupli'Mil  with 
us.  In  Prussia  it  Is  the  policy  of  tlietinveni. 
ment  to  separate  the  pupils  of  differiMit  reli);iiiu» 
confessions  in  .  .  .  elementary,  but  not  ti>»t  pa- 
rate  them  in  secondary  schools.  In  Austria  and 
Hungary,  special  teacher*  of  religim  f.ir  the 
elementary  and  secondary  schwils  are  1 1,  i  i'lyed; 
in  Prussia  this  is  done  onlv  In  si'comhiry  selnKiU. 
while  religion  Is  taught  by  the  sei  uliiV  ten  hen 
lu  elementary  schixils.  This  Is  a  very  vi;  il  (lit- 
fm'nce.  and  shows  how  miieli  iicari  riln  Au-lrian 
schools  have  come  to  our  Ideal  of  a  (ciiiMKin 
schiKil."— L'.  8.  Comm'r  of  Education,  lin'^rt, 
1881»-0t).  pp.  4fl.5-46e. 

Belgium.—  "  The  treaty  of  Paris,  of  Mnn  h31), 
1814.  lixed  the  iKiundarlfs  of  the  XetherlamU, 
and  united  Holland  and  Beltrluni.  In  ihi  se  new 
circumslunces.  thesysleiii  of  pulilic  iiislrnelloD 


iH-cBiue  the  siilijeit  of  much  dllHcultj  lutweeo 
llie  t'alvlnists  of  the  norllieru  provinces  iiii'l  the 
Calliolics  of    the  southern.      The    !.'• 'veruinent 


therefore  underti«)k  llwlf  to  manage  the  orirani- 
xation  of  the  system  of  iustructlou  in  its  thn-e 
grades.  .  .  .  \VlllliUii  I.  disirtil  to  five  the  lUl- 
giuns  from  French  liilluence.  and  with  tliisilijcol 
Hiloptid  till'  injiiiliiioua  measure  of  aitiinpling 
to  forie  the  I)utch  language  upon  lliein  llealw 
endeavond  to  familiarize  them  with  PnlisUint 
ideas,  and  to  this  end  determined  to  gel  the  lare 
of  religious  Instruction  exclusively  into  liie  i>au>i> 
of  tlie  state.  Hut  the  clergy  were  eiieri;'  tie  hi 
asKrting  their  rights ;  the  beildnes* of  the  IklgiiS 


732 


EDUCATION. 


Bngtand. 


EDUCATION. 


deputies  to  the  SUtes-General  increased  daily ; 
and  the  project  for  a  system  of  public  and  pri- 
vale  instruction  which  was  laid  before  the  second 
chamber  on  the  26th  November,  1829,  was  very 
unfavorably  received  by  the  Catholics.  The 
government  very  honorably  confessed  its  error  by 
repealing  the  obnoxious  ordinances  of  1825.  But 
it  was  too  late,  and  the  Belgian  provinces  were 
lost  to  Holland.  On  the  12th  October,  1830,  the 
provisory  government  repealed  all  laws  restrict- 
ing the  free<lom  of  instruction."  (For  some 
particulars  of  the  later  history  of  the  educational 
luntlict  in  Belgium,  see  Xktiibklands:  A.  D 
ls:iii-1884]. —/•«//.•(>  ImtmetiuH  in  Iklgium 
\liimanli)  Aiiurirun  Journal  of  Educatiun.  v.  8 

Denmark.—"  Denmark  has  long  hem  noted  for 
the  excellence  of  her  schools.  .  .  .  The  perfection 
;ii:d  extension  of  the  system  of  popular  instruction 
(late  from  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, when  Bishop  Thestrup,  of  Aalberg,  caused 
6  parish  schools  to  be  established  in  Copenhagen 
p  1  when  King  Frederick  IV.  (1899-1730)  had 
24(1  schoolhousi's built  .  .  .  Christian VI. (1730- 
1740),  .  .  .  ordained  in  1739  the  establishment  of 
ciminion  or  parish  sch(Kjls  is  every  town  and  in 
evury  larger  village.  The  branches  of  instruction 
were  to  be  religion,  reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
initic.  No  one  was  to  be  allowed  to  teach  unless 
111-  !iad  shown  himself  qualilicd  to  the  satisfaction 
1.1  the  clergyman  of  the  parish.  .  .  .  Many  dilli- 
culties,  however  (especially  the  objections  oi' 
Uie  landed  proprietors,  who  had  their  own  schw.ls 
on  their  estates),  hinJen^d  the  free  development 
of  tlie  common  school  system,  and  it  was  not 
until  1814  that  a  new  and  more  favorable  t  ra  was 
inaugurated  by  tlic  hiw  of  July  29  of  that  year 
According  to  this  law  the  general  control  of  tl  ,■ 
schools  is  In  the  hands  of  a  minister  of  public  in 
stniction  and  subonlinatc  su|,erintvndents  for  the 
several  departments  of  the  kingdom."— £(/«/-<i. 
tiun  in  Denmark  (C.  S.  Bureau  of  Ediiealivn, 
"irciiUir$  of  Infvrniiitiun,  1877,  no.  2),  pp.  40-4l' 
— "Withapopuhition  in  1890  of  2,18.5,1.'>7,  the 
pupils  en.  'led  In  city  and  rural  schools  in  l>en- 
murk  numbt..  _d  231,9^0,  or  about  10  per  cct.  of 
the  population  receivInK  the  foundation  U  au 
iducatfon.  In  1881  the  llliteratct  to  100  recruits 
numbered  0.36;  In  Sweden  at  that  date,  ll'e  per 
itut.  was  0.39."— C.  S.  Comm'r  of  Education 
/i;»'rf,  1889-90,  n.  523. 

England:  Oxford  and  Cambrida;e.— "Oxford 
iiiiil  Cambridge,  as  establishments  for  educat;„n 
KMisistof  two  parts  — of  the  I'niversitv  proper 
and  of  the  Colleges.  The  fc-nier.  original  ami 
IS.*  iitlal.  Is  founded,  controlled,  an>I  privileged  by 
piililie  authority,  fortheadvanUge  of  the  nation. 
Til.-  lalU'r,  accessory  and  contingent,  are  cri'ated 
renulaled,  and  endowed  by  i-rivute  munlllcen(\e 
]»'  lUe  InU'rest  of  certain  favc  ud  Individuals 
Tune  was,  when  the  Colleges  dil  no' exist  and 
tlie  Lnlverslty  was  there;  ami  wi  re  tlie  Coli^t'is 
iiKiin  ahollsliiNl,  the  I'niversity  vould  rei-.aln 
euiire.  The  former,  founded  sole.'y  fur  ediu-i- 
tioii.  exists  only  as  It  acccmpllslies  the  ,tid  of  its 
insiitution:  the  latter,  founded  prlneipallv  for 
ahuHiit  ai..l  habiuilon,  would  still  exist,  'wire 
nil  education  abandoned  within  their  walls.  The 
I  ni\ersity,  tn  a  national  establishment.  Is  ueces- 
»arily  o|H'n  to  the  lieges  in  general;  the  Colleges, 
=■-  i-.ivatc  institulioUi^  might  uuivenutily  do,  us 
some  have  actually  dime  —  close  their  gau's  ui«>n 
•U.  except  their  fouudatiuo  members.     The  L  nl 


versities  and  Colleges  are  tlius  neither  identical 
nor  vicarious  of  each  other.     If  the  University 
ceases  to  perform  Its  functions,  it  ceases  to  exist; 
and  the  privileges  accorded  by  the  nation  to  the 
system  of  public  education  legally  organized  in 
the  L  niversity,  can  not,  without  the  consent  of 
the  nation—  far  less  without  the  consent  of  the 
academical  legislature  —  be  lawfully  transferred 
to  the  system  of  private  education  precariously 
organized  in  the  Colleges,  and  over  which  neither 
Uie  htate  nor  the  IJniversity  have  any  control 
They  have,  however,  been  unlawfully  usurped, 
through  the  suspensioi      f  the  University,  and 
u    """■'P'*"'"'  of  its  functions  and  privileges  by 
the  Collegial  bodies,  there  has  arisen  the  second 
of  two  systems,  diametrically  opposite  to  eacl 
other.  —The  one,  in  which  the  University  was 
paramount,  is  ancient  and  statutory;  the  other  in 
which  the  Colleges  have  the  asfviidant,  is  recent 
and  illegal.—  In  the  former,  all  was  subservient 
to  public  utility,  and  the  interests  of  scieui  u ;  in 
the  latter,  all  Is  sacrificed  to  private  monopoly 
and  to  the  convenience  of  the  teacher.  .         In 
the  original  constitution  of  Oxford,  as  in  tiiat  of 
all  the  older  U  iversities  of  the  Parisian  model 
the  business  of  .nstruetion  was  not  confided  to  a 
special  bixlyof  )irivllege<i  professors.     T',|.  Uni- 
versity was  go\ .  rued,  the  I  niv(  rsity  w        lught 
by  the  gmduates   at  large.     I'tofessoi       hister, 
Uoctor,    were    oriirinallv    synonvnious.     l^verv 
praduute  had  an  equal  right  of  teaching  publicly 
in  the  1, niversity  the  subjects  competent  to  h{s 
faculty,  and  to  the  rank  of  his  degree;  nay  every 
graduate  ineurnd   tlie  obligation   of    teaching 
publicly,  for  a  certain  period,  the  subjects  of  hU 
faculty,  for  such  was  the  condition  involved  In 
the  gr-.nt  of  the  degn-e  itself."— Sir  Wm.  Ham 
lllou,  /JitdimiDiit  on  PJdIiiuiphy  and  Literature, 
etc.:   t:i»nition,  ch.  4. 

England:  The  "Great  Public  School*."— 
\  .lat  is  a  public  school   In   England?     "The 
question  is  one  of  considerable  dlfllculty.     To 
some  extent,  however,  the  answer  has  been  fur- 
nished by  the  Koyal  Commission  appointed  in 
1861  to  hKiuIrr;  Into  the  nature  and  application  of 
the  eii<lo»mentsaiid  revenues,  aiul  Into  the  ad- 
ministration and  management  of  certjiin  si)eeitled 
colleges  and  8<:1khi18  commouiy  known  as  the 
I'ublic  Schools  CommUsiou.     Nine  are  named  in 
the  Queens  letter  of  appointment,   viz.,  Eton, 
\\  Inchester,  Westminster,  the  Cliurterhouse,  St. 
Paul's.  Merchant  Taylors',  Harrow,  Kugby,  aud 
Shrewsbury.     The  reasunj  pmliablv  which  sug- 
gesU'd  this  seleciion  wire,  that  the  nine  named 
fou    latiotishadinlluidursi  of  einiuries  emerged 
fiom  till-  nm».s  of  enilnwed  grtiminarseliool'-;.  and 
hail  niiiile  f,ir  tliinisi Ives  a  piwilion  wliiih  justl- 
tiei'  their  being  plaeid  iu  a  distinct  <-ate  ,ipry,  and 
cla^sw-d  as  •  public  schools.'     It  will  be  seen" as  wo 
priKeeil  thai  nil  tlie.se  nine  he  ,e  certain  fi-atures 
In  niimni.ii,  distinguisliini'  iliein  from  the  ordi- 
nary graiimmi  si-liiHilsv  iiiche.xi.st  In  almost  every 
loimtry  t.iwn  in  England.     .Many  of  tin.*  latter 
an-  now  waking  up  to  the  ri-iiulrenu-nts  of  the 
new   time  and    folluwing  the  example  of  their 
mure  illii.strious  sisic-rs     The  most  notalili-  exam- 
ples of  this  revival  are  smh  si  limils  as  lliiise  at 
.Slii-rborne.  Oiggk-sw  lek,  and  Tiinnridge  Wells, 
whii-h,  while  reinoih-lling  tlii-nm:lve8on  the  lines 
laid  down  by  the  Public  ScIkhiIh  CimiiiiMnncrs. 
an-  to  some  extent  providing  a  tralwlng  more 
ttilaptiKl  to  the  means  and  reiiulremeiits  of  our 
middle  cluwt  la  the  nineteenth  century  than  cm 


733 


EDUCATION. 


71u  p*vj(  Engiitk 
Pultic  SdlooU. 


EDUCATION. 


15 


j;4' 


liiWl 


be  found  at  nnj  of  the  nine  public  icuooli.  But 
twenty  years  ago  tlie  movement  which  has  since 
made  such  astonishing  progress  was  scarcely  felt 
in  qiiiet  country  places  like  these,  and  the  old 
enilowments  were  allowed  to  run  to  waste  in  a 
fashion  which  is  now  scarcely  credible.  The 
same  impulse  which  has  put  new  life  into  the 
endowed  grammar-schools  throughout  England 
has  worked  even  more  remarkably  in  another 
direction  The  Victorian  age  bids  fair  to  rival 
the  Eliza betiian  in  the  number  and  importance  of 
the  new  schools  which  it  has  founded  and  will 
hand  on  to  the  coming  generation.  Marlborough, 
Halleybury,  Uppingham,  Hossall,  Clifton,  Chel- 
tenham, liadley,  Malvern,  and  Wellington  Col- 
lege, are  nine  schools  which  have  taken  their 
place  in  the  first  rank.  ...  In  order,  then,  to 
get  clear  ideas  on  the  general  question,  we  must 
keep  these  three  clas-ses  of  schools  in  mind  —  the 
nine  old  foundations  recoiinized  in  the  first  in- 
stance by  the  Royal  Commission  of  1861 ;  the  old 
foundation!)  which  have  remained  local  grammar- 
schools  until  within  the  last  few  years,  but  are 
now  enlarging  their  Ixiunds,  conforming  more  or 
less  to  the  public-school  8y.stem,  and  becoming 
national  institutions;  and,  lastly,  the  modern 
foundations  which  started  f-om  the  first  as  public 
schools,  professing  to  adapt  themselves  to  the 
new  circumstances  and  requirements  of  modem 
English  life.  The  public  schools  of  England  full 
under  one  or  other  of  these  categories.  .  .  .  We 
may  now  turn  to  the  historic  side  of  the  ques- 
tion, dealing  first,  as  is  due  to  their  importance, 
witli  the  nine  schools  of  our  first  category.  The 
oldest,  and  in  some  respects  iiiost  famous  of 
these,  is  Winchester  School,  or,  as  it  was  named 
by  its  founder  William  of  Wykclmm,  the  College 
of  St.  Mary  nf  Winchester,  founded  in  iSSii.  Its 
constitution  still  retains  nuich  of  the  impress  left 
on  It  i)y  the  great  Bishop  of  the  greatest  Plan- 
tagenet  King,  live  centuries  ago.  Toward  the 
enil  of  the  fuurtiTnth  century  Oxford  was  already 
the  center  of  English  e<lucation,  but  from  the 
want  of  gmniniar-schools  Imys  went  up  by  I-un- 
dreds  untaught  in  the  simplest  rudiments  of 
learning,  and  when  there  lived  in  private  hostels 
or  lodging-houses,  in  a  vast  throng,  under  no 
discipline,  and  exposed  to  many  hardships  and 
temptations.  In  view  of  this  state  of  things,  Wil- 
liam of  Wykeham  foimded  his  grammar-school 
at  Winchester  and  his  college  at  Oxford,  binding 
the  two  together,  so  that  the  school  might  send 
up  properly  traine<l  scholars  to  the  university, 
when'  they  would  Iw  received  at  New  College, 
in  a  suitable  acmiemlcal  home,  which  should  in 
its  turn  furnish  governors  and  masters  for  the 
school,  .  .  .  Next  in  date  comes  the  n>yal  fiun- 
dation  of  Eton,  or  'Tlie  College  of  the  Bli  sed 
Maiy  of  Eton,  near  Winiisor. '  It  was  foiin<led 
bv  Henry  VI.,  A.  I).  1446,  upon  tlie  model  of 
Winchester,  witli  a  collegiate  establishment  of  a 
pn)Vost,  ten  fellows  (roluced  to  seven  in  the  reign 
of  Edwanl  IV.),  sevc.ty  »  "  olars,  and  ten  chap- 
Uins  (now  reduced  to  two,  ,ho  are  calliHl  '  con- 
ducts '),  and  a  head  and  lower  master,  ten  lay 
clerks,  and  twelve  choristers.  Tlie  provost  and 
fellows  are  the  governing  body,  who  appoint  the 
head  master.  .  .  .  Around  this  center  the  great 
■chool,  numl)ering  now  a  tliousand  iHiys,  has 
fsthered.  the  cdjleee.  however,  stil!  T<'t*|nlne  lt» 
own  separate  organization  and  traditions.  Be- 
(liles  the  splendid  btiildin^  and  playins-flelds  at 
Eton,  the  college  holds  real  property  of  Hie  yearly 


value  of  upward  of  £20,000,  and  fortv  livinge 
ranging  from  £100  to  £1,200  of  yearly  value.  .  .  . 
The  school  next  in  date  stands  out  in  sharp  con- 
trast to  Winchester  and  Eton.  It  is  St.  Paul'! 
School,  founded  by  Dean  Colet.  .  .  .  Shrews 
bury  School,  which  follows  next  in  order  ol 
seniority,  claims  a  royal  foundation,  but  is  Ic 
reality  the  true  child  of  the  town's  folk.  The 
dissolution  of  the  monasteries  destroyed  also  th( 
ser^inaries  attached  to  many  of  them,  to  the  great 
in]  try  of  popular  ^ucation.  This  was  spe 
cla  ly  the  case  in  Shropshire,  so  in  1  Wl  the  bailiffs, 
burgesses,  and  Inhabitants  of  8l;rewsbury  and 
the  neighborhood  petitioned  Edward  VI.  for  a 
grant  of  some  portion  of  the  estates  of  the  rtis 
solved  collegiate  churches  for  the  purpose  n\ 
founding  a  free  school.  The  Kiii,<r  conscntid 
and  granted  to  the  petitioners  the  apprnpriiiii d 
tithes  of  several  livings  and  a  c.larter,  but  di.i: 
before  the  school  ivas  trga'nized.  It  was  in  abiv 
hnce  during  Mary's  rMgo,  but  opened  in  the 
fourth  year  of  Elizabeth,  1562,  by  Thomas  .Aston 
,  .  .  We  have  now  reached  the  great  group  ni 
Elizabethan  schools,  to  which  indeed  Shnws 
bury  may  also  be  said  to  belong,  ns  it  was  noi 
opened  until  the  Queen  had  been  three  years  or 
the  throne.  The  two  metropolitan  sch'iols  oi 
Westminster  and  Merchant  Taylors'  were  in  fari 
foimded  in  l-IBO,  two  years  before  It  opening  ol 
Shrewsbury.  Westminster  as  a  roj„i  ."onndatiot 
must  take  precedence.  It  is  a  grammar  srhno 
attached  by  the  Queen  to  the  i'ollc?iitf  chiirol 
of  St.  Peter,  commonly  called  Westniinstor  .\b 
bey,  and  founded  f,>r  the  free  education  of  fortj 
scholars  in  Latin,  Oreck,  and  Helmw  Tin 
Queen,  with  characteristic  thriftiness,  proviili< 
no  emiowment  for  her  school,  leaving  the  cost  ol 
maintenance  as  a  charge  on  the  gemnd  nv.  nucs 
of  the  dean  and  chapter,  which  indei-d  were  ili<> a 
as  now,  fully  competent  to  sustain  the  Imrilcn. 
.  .  .  Merchant  Taylors',  the  other  metropolitan 
school  founded  in  l.')60,  owes  its  ori^rin  to  Sii 
Thomas  White,  a  memlier  of  the  Court  of  .\ssist- 
ants  of  the  company,  and  founder  of  St.  .John's 
College,  Oxford.  It  was  probablv  his  promise  to 
connect  the  school  with  his  college  whidi  in- 
duced the  Company  to  undertake  the  task.  .  .  . 
Sir  Thomas  White  redeemed  his  ,  roinise  liy  en- 
dowing the  school  with  thirty-seven  fellowsliips 
at  St.  John's  ( i>llege.  .  .  .  Kugby.  or  tlie  fret 
sch(K)l  of  Lawrence  SherifT,  follows  next  in  order, 
having Ix'en  founded i..  15tl7 by  Ijinrenee SlurilT, 
grocer,  and  citizen  of  London,  His  '  iiiien'' (us 
the  <locuinint  expressing  his  wishes  isealleillile- 
dares  tliat  his  lands  in  Kugby  and  lirownsovir, 
and  his  'third  of  a  ,>asture-grounil  in  (iniy's  Inn 
Fields,  caMeii  Conduit  Close,'  shall  1m'  applied  tn 
inaintain  a  free  grammar  scliool  for  the  ( liildrcn 
of  Uugt)y  and  Hrown8<iver,  and  the  places  adjoin- 
ing,  and  four  p(H>r  almsniin  of  the  same  jiarislies. 
These  estates,  after  providing  a  fair  solioolhony' 
and  residences  for  tlie  master  and  alinsinf n,  at 
first  prcHluced  a  rental  of  <mly  CU  lUs  4i|  In 
due  time,  however.  Conduit  Close  Ueanie  a  |i:ir( 
of  eentnil  l,<>ndon,  and  Unghy  Sc  Inxil  (lie  oi\nri 
of  eight  aer-s  of  houses  in  and  about  tlie  present 
I,jtmb's  Conduit  Stn'et.  The  income  of  the  whole 
trust  property  amounts  now  to  about  I'tl.tKW,  ol 
which  £2.M  Is  expendeil  on  the  maintenance  ol 
the  twelve  slmsmi'U,  .  .  Harrow  School  wai 
founde<l  In  I.")7I,  f<mr  yean  latter  than  Uugby,  bj 
John  Lynn,  a  yeoman  of  the  parish.  Ho  wsi 
owner  of  certain  (null  esUkte*  In  and  about  Uir 


73-1 


EDUCATION.  ih«,^^ir,<rf«  EDUCATION. 


row  and  Barnet  and  of  others  at  Paddtagton  and 
Kilbura.  All  these  he  devoted  to  public  nur- 
poses,  but  unfortunately  gave  the  former  forthe 
perpetual  education  of  the  children  and  youth  of 
the  parish  and  the  latt  -r  for  the  maintenance  and 
repair  of  the  highwa-rs  from  Harrow  and  Edee- 
ware  to  London.  The  present  yearly  revenue 
of  the  school  estates  is  barely  over  £1  000  while 
that  of  the  highway  trust  is  nearly  £4.'0OO.'  But 
taough  th "  poort  St  in  endowments,  Harrow,  f roni 
lU  nramess  to  London,  and  consequent  attrac- 
tions for  the  classes  who  spend  a  targe  portion  of 
their  year  in  the  metro,  lis  either  In  attendance 
!?  V''''?,™e°t.  Of  for  pleasure,  has  become  the 
rival  of  Eton  as  a  fashionable  school.  Last 

on  the  list  of  the  nine  schools  comes  the  Charter- 
house (the  Whitcfriars  of  TLoCKeray's  novels) 
It  may  be  fairly  classed  with  the  Elizabethan 
schools,  though  actually  founded  In  1609  after 
the  accessi-n  of  James  I.    In  that  year  a  substan- 
tial yeomi;  ..  Thomas  Sutton  by  name,  purchased 
from  Lord  Suffolk  the  lately  dissolved  Charter- 
house, by  SinithJield,  and  obtained  letters  patent 
empowering  him  to  found  a  hospital  and  school 
on  t,he  old  site.  "-T   Hughes,  7%?  PuUie  &hool» 
ofbnglandiA.  Am.  Itev.,  April.  1879).— Faeginr 
-"In  rougher  days  it  was  found,  that  iu  TarKi- 
schtmls  the  stronger  and  targer  boys  reduced  the 
smaller  and  wealitr  to  the  condition  of  IleloU 
Here  the  authorities  stepped  in,  and  despairinir  of 
eradicating  the  evil,  took  the  po-er  which  mere 
strength  had   won,  and   conferred  It  upon  the 
seniors  of  the  school  — the  members,  that  Is  of 
the  highest  form  or  forms.     As  in  those  du'v.s 
promotion  was  pretty  much  a  matter  of  rotation' 
every  one  wlio  remained  his  full  time   at  tin' 
•chooi,  was  pretty  sun-  to  reach  in  time  the  <iomin- 
ant  class,  and  the  humblest  fag  looked  forward 
to  tlic  day  when  he  would  join  the  ranks  of  the 
ruling  aristocracy.     Sleanti.ne  he  was  no  longer 
at  the  beck  of  any  stronger  or  ruder  classfellow 
Hi.s  ■  niiister '  was  in  theory,  and  often  in  practice' 
lis  bi'st  protector:  he  imposed  upon  him  very 
ik(  ly  what  may  l)e  called  menial  olBces  —  miidV 
liim  carry  home  his  'Musie'- field  for  him  at 
-d.krt- brush  his  coat;  If  we  are  to  believe 
s.Ikk.1  myths  and  traditions,  black  his  shoes,  anil 
<  V,  11  lake  the  chill  off  his  sheets.     The  boy,  how- 
i v.r,  s;.w  the  son  of  a  Howard  or  a  Percy  simi- 
larly (inployi-d   by  his  side,  and  In  cheerfully 
siiliiiiilliiig  to  an  ancient  custom,  he  was  but  fol- 
low lii«„„t  the  tendencies  of  the  age  and  •la.ss 

o  whi,. ,  he  lH.|on|^ed The  mere  "bolitioii  of 

the  riL'ht  of  fagging,  vague  and  undefiu.d  as 
were  tlie  duties  attacheil  to  l(,  would  have  been 
a  loss  rather  than  a  gain  to  the  oppressed  as  a 
clxss      It  would  merely  have  substituted  for  Ihe 
Misting  law,  imiM'rfect  and  anomalous  as  tli.it 
law  might  be,  the  licence  of  i.rute  force  and  iIr. 
iloniinion  of  Iwylsh  trueulence.  .  ,  .  Such  wis 
more  or  less    the  state  of  things  when  he  i,', 
w  horn  Lnglish  education  owes  so  Incalculable  a 
Ucbt.  was  placed  at  the  head  of  Kugby  School 
.  .  It  was  hoped  that  he  who  braved  the  anci  r 
of  his  order  by  his  pamphlet  on  Cliunh  Keform 
—  at  whose  bold  and  uncompromising  laiiuuiiKe 
bishops  stood  aghast  and  ourtly  nobles  nnioii- 
strated  in   vain  — would   make  short  work  of 
sncient  saws  and  medisvsl  traditions- that  a 
ftvoluUnn  In  wbool  life  was  at  hand.     And  lluv   , 
were  not  miiUken.  .  .  .  What  he  did  was        I 
•eiJc  on  the  really  valuable  part  of  the  e»lslin« 
lyitem  — to  inipln  it  with  that  new  Ufe.  and 


those  lofJer  purposes,  without  which  mere  In- 
St  tiitions,  great  or  small,  must,  sooner  or  later 
witlier  away  and  perish.  His  first  ,U=p  was  U> 
fj'' »!?  '""?<"*»'>'  c'lange  in  the  actual  mtchln- 
.'ry  of  the  school  —  one  wlich,  in  itself,  amounted 
to  a  revolution.  The  hisrhest  form  In  the  sch^ 
was  no  longer  open  to  all  whom  a  routine  pro- 
motion miglit  raise  in  course  of  time  to  its  level. 

m  L^^-  *"  '■*'"''''".'  '""•''«")•  "ere  the  only 

■'sixth  for?  J"=''.«';r''u     ■^■"^   °ew-modelli 
si-xth  form    were  told,  that  the  privilcirea  and 

powir,  ^.,neh  their  predecessors  hJETenof^d  for 

tl^y  ^  ;.«.  ?o'/°  ^M 'f '^'l'"""  '^^  but  thTt 
t  cj  ^^,  re  to  Iw  held  for  the  cojimon  good  as 

s  hilhl^"'"  "l'^  '"''"'"■ents  of  .-utiesandiTpoS! 
sibihties  such  as  any  one  with  less  confidence  ta 
those  whom  he  addressed  womd  have  hesitated 

mitTf  '^"^^'  ^:*^«  ""'1  Pi»inrthat  wiS 
out  tlu-ir  co-operation  then  was  no  hope  of 
keeping  ,n  check  the  evils  inherent  in  al^ie°y 
of  boys.  Tyranny,  fals,.h.Hx ,  drinking  Tny^ 
spirit,  coarsi-iiess,  seltishne'. -the  evil  spirilts 
that  infest  schools -these  -aey  heard  Sunday 
after  Sunduv  put  in  their  true  light  by  a  maiei- 
tic  voice  ana  a  manly  pre.s.„,.e,  with  words  ac- 
icnts  ami  manner  which  would  live  in  their  mem- 
ory lor  y.i.rs;   but   they  were  warned  that,  to 

l^J^'Z  u"  l.r?";""'  *'r  "''"8  more  was  needed 
than  the  M.tehfulncss  ot  masters  and  theeuerKV 
of  their  chief.     They  tliemselves  must  use  tS 

arge  po^yers,  entrusted  to  tli»m  .'-i  n^eognitlon  of 
the  principle,  or  rath.rof  th.  fact,  thatlnalarge 
wc  ety  of  boys  some  must  of  necessity  hold  sway 

o  ke,,,  down  in  tliemselves  and  those  aboit 
'I  .'in,  prineiples  and    practices  wliKh  are  ever 

of  all  that  is  fair  and  noble  in  such  institutions 
iJr.  Ai.old  i)ers<.v,.red  in  spite  of  opposition 
obloquy,  and  mi.srepresentatlon.  .  .  But  I, 
firmly  establ:  •d  his  system,  and  his  success.,rs. 
leii  d'  fenng  i  training  and  tempcram.nt  fnmi 
I  ill  self  and  from  each  other,  have  agn^d  in  cor- 
dially suslaining  it.  His  pup.ls  and  theirs,  men 
in  very  different  walks  of  life,  filling  honourable 
posts  at  the  iimve.>ities  and  public  s.hools,  or 
r  Mug  the  millions  of  India,  or  working  amonir 
th.  blind  and  toiling  multitudes  of  our  great 
towns,  leel  diiily  how  n  ueh  of  their  Usefulness 
and  power  they  owe  to  the  s<.nse  ot  high  trust 


1  powir 
I  hii.'li  di 


and  hi,.-li  duty  ■\  hicli  ti'  .y  lmliilH.d  at  school 
Our  r>,hl,c.\-h..„h—-ll„ii.  J)i,a/,l-iiie  „mi  In- 
strnri,  ,1  (  hntx  r,  .\[ai,azii„<.  r.  1,  jip.  407-409) 

England:  A.   D.  1699-1870. -The    rite    of 

tlementary  Schools.-  •The  recognition  by  tlic 

hnu'lisli  Stale  of  its  pi.ramount  duty  in  aiding  tlie 

work  of  national  education  is  scarcely  more  than 

a  generation  old,     Tlie  recognition  of  the  further 

■md  far  more  extensive  work  of  supplementinir 

i.y  state  aid,  oj  by  State  agency,  all  deficiencies 

m  the  supply  of  scIkh.Is,  dates  only  thirteen  vean 

buck  [to  isfoj;  while  the  equally  pitssing  duty 

of  iiiforcing,  by  a  universil  law,  the  use  of  the 

o|ip(>rtuiiiliea  of  education  tlius  supplied    is  a 

inatler  almost  of  yestenlay.     The  State  has  only 

slowly  stepiH'd  into  Its  pn.pcr  place :  more  slowly 

In  the  case  of  England  than  in  the  case  of  any 

other  of  the  leadinir  European  ns'i"u«  In 

ir.B9  the  SjKiety  lor  the  Propagation  of  Chris- 

tlan  Knowledge  was  founded,  and  by  it  Ttrioiu 

•chools  were  established  throughout  the  country 

In  1782  Robert  Itaikes  eiubllshed  bis  lltit  Bus- 


7J5 


!»•!■ 


EDUCATION. 


Education. 


KDUCATION. 


d*7  ichool,  and  in  a  few  yean  the  Union,  of 
wUcli  be  was  the  founder,  had  under  its  contToI 
schools  scattered  all  over  the  country.  But  the 
most  extensive  efforts  made  for  popular  educa- 
tion were  those  of  Andrew  Bell  and  Joseph  Lan- 
caster towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. .  .  .  They  misconceived  and  misjudged 
the  extent  of  the  work  that  had  to  be  accom- 
plished. They  became  slaves  to  their  system — 
that  which  was  called  the  Monitorial  system  .  .  . 
and  by  elevating  it  to  undue  importance  they 
did  much  to  diwredit  the  very  work  in  which 
tbev  were  engaged.  .  .  .  Amongst  the  Noncon- 
formist followers  of  Lancaster  there  arose  the 
British  and  Foreign  School  Society;  while  by 
those  of  Bell  there  was  established,  on  the  side 
representing  the  Church,  the  National  Society. 
The  former  became  the  recognised  agency  of  the 
Dissenters,  the  latu-r  of  the  Church ;  and  through 
one  or  other  of  these  channels  Stat"  "'d,  when  it 
^rst  began  to  flow,  was  obliged  to  take  itu  course. 
...  In  1803  the  first  Sir  Robert  Peel  passed  a 
Bill  whi  'a  restricted  children's  labour  in  factories, 
and  required  that  reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic should  be  taught  to  them  during  a  part  of 
each  day.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  factory 
legislation.  .  .  .  In  1807  Mr.  Whitcbread  intro- 
duced a  Bill  for  the  establishment  of  parochial 
schools  through  the  agency  of  local  vestries,  who 
were  empowered  to  draw  on  the  rates  for  tlie 
purpose.  The  House  of  Commons  accepted  the 
Bill,  but  it  was  thrown  out  in  the  House  of 
Lords.  .  .  .  The  movement  for  a  State  recogni- 
tion of  education  was  pressed  more  vigorously 
when  the  fears  and  troubles  of  European  war  were 
clearing  away.  It  was  in  1816  that  Brougham 
obtained  his  Select  Committee  for  Inquiring 
Into  the  Education  of  the  Poor  in  the  Metropolis. 
...  In  1820  Brougham  introduced,  on  the  basis 
of  his  p;°cvious  inquiries,  an  iMucation  Bill.  .  .  . 
By  thfa  Bill  the  issue  between  tlic  contending 

Sarties  in  tlie  State,  which  was  henceforward 
esUned  to  be  the  chief  stumbling-block  in  the 
way  of  a  State  education,  was  placed  on  a  clear 
and  well-defiued  basis.  .  .  .  The  Church  was 
alarmed  at  anything  which  seemed  to  trench  upon 
what  she  naturally  thought  to  be  her  appointed 
task.  The  Dissenters  dreaded  what  might  add 
to  the  impregnability  of  the  Cliurob's  strong- 
holds. .  .  .  When  the  beginning  was  actually 
made  it  came  ...  as  an  almost  unnoticed  pro- 
posal of  the  Executive.  In  1833  the  sum  of 
£20,000  for  public  education  was  placed  In  the 
estimates ;  it  was  passed  by  the  Committee  of  Sup- 
ply ;  and  the  first  step  was  taken  on  that  course 
from  which  the  Stiite  has  never  since  drawn  back. 
No  Icgislution  was  necessary,  .  .  .  The  next 
great  step  was  taken  in  183S,  when  the  annual 
vote  was  increased  from  £20,000  to  £30,000,  and 
when  a  spicial  department  was  creoted  to  super- 
vise the  work.  Hitherto  grants  had  been  a<l- 
ministered  by  the  Treasury  to  meet  a  certain 
amount  of  local  exertion,  and  in  general  reliuueo 
upon  vague  assurances  as  to  maintenance  (if  tlie 
schools  by  hx^al  promoters.  .  .  .  The  ciuiilitions 
which  were  soon  found  to  be  necessary  as  secu- 
rities, either  for  continuance  or  for  elliciency, 
were  not  yet  insisted  upon.  To  do  this  it  was 
necessary  to  have  a  Oepartmeut  specially  devoted 
!. .  this  work  ;  ami  the  nieanH  adoptiil  for  creating 
such  a  Department  was  one  which  bad  the  ad- 
vantage of  requiring  no  .\(t  of  Parliament.  By 
an  Order  In  Oouncila  Special  Committee  of  the 


Privy  Council  was  established,  and,  in  connec- 
tion with  tUs  Committee,  a  special  staff  of  ofli- 
cers  was  engaged.  The  same  year  saw  the  ap- 
pointment of  uie  first  inspectors  of  schools.  It 
was  thus  that  the  Education  Department  was 
constituted.  The  plan  which  the  advisers  of  the 
Oovemment  in  this  new  attempt  had  most  at 
heart  was  that  of  a  Normal  Training  College  fur 
teachers.  .  .  .  But  it  was  surrounded  with  so 
much  matter  for  dispute,  gathered  during  a 
generation  of  contention,  that  the  proposal  all  but 
wrecked  the  Government  of  Lord  Melbourne. 
The  Church  object-id  to  the  scheme.  .  .  .  lu  tlie 
year  1844,  after  five  years  of  the  new  adminstra- 
tion,  it  was  possible  to  form  some  estimate,  not 
only  of  the  solid  work  accomplished,  but  of  tlie 
prospects  of  the  immediate  future.  .  .  .  Between 
1839  and  1844,  under  the  action  of  the  Committee 
of  Council,  £170,000  of  Imperial  fuuds  had  been 
distributed  to  meet  £480,000  from  local  resources. 
In  all,  therefore,  about  one  million  had  lieen 
spent  in  little  more  than  ten  years.  What  solid 
good  had  this  accomplished  ?  .  .  .  According  to 
a  careful  and  elaborate  report  in  the  year  1>H5, 
only  about  one  in  six,  even  of  the  children  st 
school,  was  found  able  to  read  the  Scriptures 
with  any  ease.  Even  for  these  "ho  power  of 
reading  often  left  them  when  they  tried  u  secular 
book.  Of  reading  with  intelligence  there  wus 
hardly  any ;  and  about  one-half  of  the  children 
who  came  to  school  left,  it  was  caleuLited,  un- 
able to  read.  Only  about  one  ci'ild  in  four  liad 
mastered,  even  in  the  most  mechanical  way,  the 
art  of  writing.  As  regards  arithmetic,  not  two 
per  cent,  of  the  children  had  advanced  as  far  as  the 
rule  of  three.  .  .  .  The  teaching  of  the  sclnmls 
was  In  the  hands  of  men  who  had  scarcely  any 
training,  and  who  had  often  turned  to  the  work 
because  all  other  work  had  turned  away  from 
them.  Under  them  it  was  coudu;;ied  upmi  Hut 
monitorial  system  which  was  the  inheritauie 
from  Dr.  Bell,  the  rival  of  Lancaster  The  pupils 
were  set  to  teach  ore  another.  .  .  .  The  iu<iuiries 
of  the  Committee  of  Council  thus  gave  the  iKath- 
blow,  in  public  estimation,  to  the  once  highly- 
vaunted  monitorial  system.  But  how  was  it  to 
be  replaced?  The  model  of  a  better  state  of 
things  was  found  in  the  Dutch  schools.  Tlit't« 
a  selected  number  of  the  older  pupils,  who  in- 
tended to  enter  upon  the  profession  of  teailuiii, 
were  apprenticed,  when  they  had  reaclu'd  the 
age  of  thirteen,  to  the  teacher.  .  .  .  After  thiir 
apprenticeship  they  passed  to  a  Training  t'olUue. 
.  .  .  Accordingly,  a  new  and  important  start  was 
maile  by  the  Department  on  the  2.5tli  of  August 
1848.  .  .  .  In  1851  twenty-tlve Training Cdlhs'is 
had  been  established ;  and  these  hud  a  suri'  sup- 
ply of  qualified  recruits  in  the  «,000  pupil  liaih- 
ers  who  were  by  that  time  being  trained  t.i  the 
work.  .  .  .  The  U'n  years  between  1»4J  ami  1W3 
saw  the  Parliamentary  grant  raised  frmu  £40, tM) 
to  £100,000  a  year,  with  the  certainty  of  a  still 
further  increaa<!  as  the  augmentation  gniiiis  W 
teachers  and  the  stipends  to  pupil  teacliers  gnw 
In  numlier.  Nearly  3,800  schools  had  biH  ii  liiiilt 
with  Parliamentary  aid,  providing  acconinu"!*- 
tion  for  no  less  than  540,000  children.  Thi'  State 
had  contributed  towards  this  more  than  £4(K),iH)0; 
and  a  total  expenditure  had  been  incurred  in  pro- 
viding schoolsof  more  than  Sl.OOO.OOO  .  But 
the  system  wasas  yet  only  tentative;  aiiilainassnf 
thorny  religious  Questions  had  to  be  faced  Ixtfore 
a  really  national  system  could  be  esuiblibhcJ. 


(30 


EDUCATION. 


Xngliik  tklltcatton  Act 

of  tS70. 


EDUCATION. 


...  All  partie*  became  convinced  that  the  first 
ftep  was  to  inquire  into  the  merits  and  defects  of 
the  existing  system,  and  on  the  basis  of  sound 
Infonnation  to  plan  some  method  of  advance. 
Under  this  impression  it  was  that  the  Commis- 
sion on  Public  Education,  of  which  the  Duke  of 
Newcastle  was  chairman,  was  appointed  in  1858. " 
The  result  of  the  Commission  of  IS-W  was  a  re- 
vision of  the  educational  Code  which  the  Com- 
■nittee  of  the  Privy  Council  had   formulated. 
I'he  New  Code  proved  unsatisfactory  in  its  worli- 
tog,  and  every  vear  showed  more  plainly  the  ne- 
cessity of  a  fully  organized  system  of  national 
education.     "  Out  of  the  discussions  there  arose 
two  pocieties,  which  fairly  expressed  two  different 
views.  .  .  .  The  first  of  these  was  the  Education 
League,  started  at  Birmingham  in  1869.  .  .  .  lu 
basis,  shortly  stated,  was  that  of  a  compulsory 
system  of  school  provision,  by  local  authorities 
through  means  of  local  rates ;  the  schools  so  pro- 
vided to  be  at  once  free  and  unsectarian.  .  .  . 
In  this  programme  the  point  which  raised  most 
opposition  was  the  unsectarian  teaching.    It  was 
chiefly  to  counteract  this  part  of  the  League's 
objecto  that  there  was  formed  the  Education 
Union,  which  urged  a  universal  system  based 
upon  the  old  lines.  ...  By  common  consent  the 
time  for  a  settlement  was  now  come.    Some 
guarantee  must  be  taken  that  the  wliolc  edifice 
should  not  crumble  to  pieces ;  that  for  local  agen- 
cies there  should  be  substituted  local  authorities; 
and  that  the  State  should  be  supplied  with  some 
mschinery  whereby  the  gaps  in  tlie  work  might 
■e  supplied.     It  was  in  this  position  of  opinion 
that  Mr.  Forstcr,  as  Vice-President,  introduced 
his  Education  Bill  in  1870.  .  .  .  The  measure 
passed  the  House  of  Lords  without  any  material 
alteration ;  and  finally  became  Law  on  the  9th  of 
August  1870."— H.  Craik,  The  tHaU  in  iit  HeUi- 
tion  to  EdHcatioii.—  T\ie  schools  to  whicK  the 
provisions  of  the  Act  of  1870  extends,  and  the 
regulations  under  which  such  schools  are  to  be 
conducted,  are  definnl  in  the  Act  as  follows: 
"Every  elemcntarv  school  whicli  is  conducted 
hi  accordance  with  the  following   regulations 
shall  be  a  public  elementary  school  within  the 
m.aning  of  this  Act;  and  every  public  element- 
ary school  shall  be  copducted  in  accordance  with 
the  following  regulations  (a  copy  of  which  regu- 
lations shall  be  tonspicuously  put  up  in  every 
such   school);   namely  (1.)  It   shall  not  Ik-   re- 
quired, as  a  condition  of  any  child  being  admitted 
Into  or  continuing  In  the  school,  that  he  shall  at- 
tend   or    abstain   from   attending  any  Sunday 
school,  or  any  place  of  religious  worship,  or  that 
he  shall  attend  any  religious  observance  or  any 
instruction  in  religious  subjecu  in  tlie  school  or 
elsewhere,  from  which  observance  or  instruction 
he  may  be  withdrawn  by  his  parent,  or  that  he 
shall,  if  withdrawn  by  his  parent,  attend  the 
school  on  any  day  exclusively  set  apart  for  re- 
ligious observance  by  the  religious  body  to  wluch 
his  parent  belongs:    (3.)  The  time  or  times  dur- 
ing  which   any  religious  observance    is    prac- 
ti-scd  or  instruction  in  religious  subjects  is  given 
at  any  meeting  of  the  school  shall  lie  eitlii  r  at 
the  iK'ginning  or  at  the  end  or  at  the  begiimiiiin 
and  the  end  of  such  meeting,  and  shall  1*  in-   i 
serted  in  a  time-table  to  be  approved  by  the  I 
Education  Department,  and  to  he  kppt  pi'miii-   ! 
nently  and  conspicuously  affixed  in  every  school-  I 
room;  and  any  scholar  may  be  withdrawn  by  his  j 
pirent  from  such  observance  or  instruction  with-   I 
47 


out  forfeiting  any  of  the  other  benefits  of  th« 
school:    (8.)  The  school  shall   be  open  at  all 
times  to  the  inspection  of  any  of  Her  Majesty's 
inspectors,  so,  however,  that  it  shall  be  no  part 
of  the  duties  of  such  Inspector  to  inquire  fato 
any  instruction  in  religious  subjects  given  at 
such  school,  or  to  examine  any  scholar  therein 
in  religious  knowledge  or  in  any  religious  sub 
ject  or   book:    (4.)  'The  school   shall   be   con- 
ducted in  accordance  with  the  conditions  required 
to  be  fulfilled  by  an  elementary  school  in  order 
to  obtain  an  annual  parliamentary  grant."— J. 
H.  Rigg,  National  Bdumtion,  app.  A.—"  The 
new  Act  retained  existing  inspected  schools,  .  .  . 
it  also  did  away  with  all  denominational  classifi- 
cations of  schools  and  with  denominational  in- 
spection, treating  all  inspected  schools  as  equally 
belonging  to  a  national  system  of  schools  and 
under  national  inspection,  the  distinctions  as  to 
inspectors  and  their  provinces  being  henceforth 
purely  geographical.    But  the  new  Act  no  longer 
required  that  public  elementary  schools  estab- 
lished by  volunury  agency  and  under  voluntary 
management  should  have  in  tliem  any  religious 
character  or  element  whatever,  whether  as  be- 
longing to  a  Christian  Church  or  denomination 
or  as  connected  with  a  Christian  philanthropic 
society,  or  as  providing  for  tiie  reading  of  the 
Scriptures  in  the  school.     It  was  left  open  to  any 
party  or  any  prson  to  establish  purely  volun- 
tary schools  if  they  tliought  fit.     But,  furtlier- 
more,  the  Act  made  provision  for  an  entirely 
new  class  of  schools,  to  be  established  and  (in 
part)  supported  out  of  local  rates,  to  be  governed 
by  Iwally-elected  School  Boards,  and  to  have 
just  such  and  so  much  religious  instruction  given 
in  them  as  the  governing  boards  might  think 
proper,  at  times  preceding  or  following  the  pre- 
scrilwd  secular  school  hours,  and  under  the  pro- 
tection of  a  time-table  Conscience  Clause,  as  in 
the  case  of  voluL'ary  schools,  with  this  restric- 
tion only,  that  in  tiiesc  schools  no  catechism  or 
denominational  religious  formulary  of  any  sort 
was  to  be  taught.     The  mode  of  electing  mem- 
bers to  the  Scliool  Boards  was  to  lie  by  what  is 
called  the  cumulative  vote  — that  is,  each  elector 
was  to  have  as  many  votes  as  there  were  candi- 
dates, and  these  votes  he  couhl  give  nil  to  one, 
or  else  liistribute  among  the  candidates  as  he 
liked:   and  all  ratopayere  were  to  be  electors. 
.  .  .  The  new  law  .  .  ,  made  a cliar  8<'paration, 
in  one    respect,  beiwcen    voliintarv  and    Board 
f  hiiols.      Ikitli  wore  to  stand  cciually  in  relation 
to  the  National  Education  Department,  under 
the  Privy  Council;   but  the  voluntary  schools 
were  to  have  nothing  to  do  with  local  rates  or 
rate  aid,  nor  Local  Uoarcis  to  have  any  control 
over  voluntary  schools. '—.J.  I{.  Rig<T,  National 
Kiliifiitioii,  rh.   10.— "To  sum  up  ...  in  few 
words  what  may  be  set  down  a.%  tlie  chief  char- 
artcristics  of  our  English  systoin  of  Elementary 
Kducation,  I  should  say  (1)  tirst,  that  whilst  about 
30  per  cent,   of  our  school   accommodation  is 
under  tlie  control  of  school  Ixiards,  the  cost  of 
maintenance  being  home  in  part  by  local  rates  as 
well  as  by  the  Parliamentary  grant,  fully  70  per 
cent,  is  still  in  the  hands  of  voluntary  school- 
managers,  whose  subscriptions  take  the  place  of 
the  raU's  levied  by  school  boards.    (2)  In  case  a 
deficiency  in  school  aocommudation  is  rcponcd 
in  any  school  district,  the  Education  Department 
liave  the  power  to  require  that  due  provision 
shall  be  made  for  the  same  within  a  limited  time; 


73: 


EDUCATION. 


#Vm  Sdioolt  tn 
Aviaiid. 


EDUCATION. 


m 


^i : 

"trrr- 


the  '  leicw '  to  be  Bpplled  to  wtlful  defaulten  in 
•  TolUDtarT  BCbool  district  being  the  threat  of  a 
board,  and  in  a  school  board  dutrict  the  auper- 
cewion  of  the  existing  board  by  a  new  board, 
nominated  by  the  Department,  and  remunerated 
out  of  the  local  rates.  (3)  Attendance  is  enforced 
eirerywhere  by  bye-laws,  worked  either  by  the 
school  board  or  by  the  School  Attendance  Com- 
mittee: and  although  these  local  authorities  are 
often  very  remiss  in  discharging  their  duties,  and 
the  magistrates  not  seldom  culpably  lenient  in 
dealing  with  cases  brought  before  them,  there 
are  plenty  of  districts  in  which  regularity  of 
school  attendance  has  been  improved  fully  10 
per  cent,  in  the  past  two  or  three  years.  ...  (4) 
The  present  provision  for  teachers,  and  the  means 
in  existence  for  keeping  up  the  supply,  are  emi- 
nently satisfactory.  Ksides  a  large  but  some- 
what diminishing  body  of  apprenticed  pupil 
teachers,  there  is  a  very  considerable  and  rapidly 
Increasing  number  of  duly  qualified  assistants, 
and  at  their  head  a  large  array  of  certifi'-nted 
teachers,  whose  ranks  are  being  repleni. ned, 
chiefly  from  the  Training  Colleges,  at  the  rate  of 
about  2,000  a  year.  (5)  The  whole  of  the  work 
done  is  examined  and  Judged  every  year  by  in- 
spectors and  inspectors'  assistants  organised  in 
districts  each  superintended  by  a  senior  inspector 
—  the  total  cost  of  this  inspection  for  the  present 
year  being  estimated  at  about  fl.W.OOO.'— Rev. 
H.  Roe,  The  Kng.  Syttem  of  Elementary  Edtiea- 
tion  {International  Health  Exhibition,  London, 
1884:  Conference  on  Education,  tect.  A). — "The 
result  of  the  work  of  the  Education  Department 
is  causing  a  social  revolution  in  KnglancL  If  the 
character  of  the  teaching  is  too  mechanical,  if 
the  chief  aim  of  the  teacher  is  to  earn  as  much 
[-•oney  as  possible  for  his  managers,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  this  cannot  be  done  without  at 
least  giving  the  pupil  the  ability  to  read  and 
write.  Of  course  the  schools  are  not  nearly  so 
good  as  the  friends  of  true  education  wish.  Much 
remains  to  be  done.  .  .  Free  education  will 
shortly  be  an  accomplished  fact ;  tb"  partial  ab- 
sorption of  the  voluntary  schools  by  the  School 
Boards  will  necessarily  follow,  and  further  facili- 
tate the  abolition  of  what  have  been  the  cause  of 
so  much  evil  —  result  examinations,  and  'grant 
payments.'  'Write  "Grant  fiiftory"  on  three- 
fourths  of  our  schools,'  said  .iii  educator  to  mc. 
.  .  .  The  schools  are  known  as  (1)  Voluntary 
Schools,  which  have  been  built,  and  are  partly 
supported  by  voluntary  subscriptions.  These 
arc  under  denominational  control.  (2)  Boanl 
Schools:  viz.,  schools  built  and  supported  by 
money  raisiHl  bv  local  taxation,  and  controlled  by 
elected  School  boards.  Out  of  4,688,000  pupils 
in  the  elementary  schools.  2,154.000  arc  in  the 
schools  known  as  Voluntary,  provided  by,  and 
under  the  control  of  the  Church  of  England; 
1,780,000  are  In  Board  Schools;  830,000  attcu.l 
schools  under  the  British  School  Society,  or 
other  undenominational  control;  'i48,000  arc  in 
Roman  Catholic  schools;  and  174.000  belong 
to  Wcsleyan  schools.  The  schools  here  spoken 
of  correspond  more  nearly  than  any  other  in 
England  to  the  Public  School  of  the  United 
States  and  Australia ;  but  are  in  many  respects 
very  different,  chiefly  from  the  fact  that  they 
are  provided  expressly  for  the  poor,  and  in 
many  cases  are  attended  by  no  other  class." 
— w.  C.  Oratby,  Teaching  in  Three  Continentt, 
•A.  2. 


Bnf  land ;  A.  D.  1891.— Attainment  of  Pne 
Edncation.— In  1891,  a  bill  passed  Parliament 
which  i'ms  at  making  the  elementary  schools  of 
the  country  free  from  the  payment  of  fees.  The 
bill  as  explained  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
"proposed  to  give  a  grant  of  10s.  per  head  to 
each  scholar  in  average  attendance  between  five 
and  fourteen  years  of  age,  a  >J  as  regarded  such 
children  schools  would  either  become  wholly 
free,  or  would  continue  to  charge  a  fee  reduced 
by  the  amount  of  the  grant,  according  as  the  fee 
at  present  charged  did  or  did  uot  erceed  IO9. 
When  a  school  bad  become  free  it  would  remain 
free,  or  when  a  fee  was  charged,  the  fee  would 
remain  unaltered  unless  a  change  was  required 
for  the  educational  benefit  of  tie  locality;  and 
under  this  arrangement  he  believed  that  two- 
thirds  of  the  elementary  schools  in  England  and 
Wales  would  become  free.  There  would  be  no 
standard  limitations,  but  the  grant  would  be  re- 
stricteii  to  schools  where  the  compulsory  power 
came  in,  and  as  to  the  younger  children,  it  was 
proposed  that  in  no  case  should  the  fee  charged 
exceed  2d."  In  a  speech  made  at  Birmingham  on 
the  free  education  bill,  Mr.  Chamberlain  dis- 
cussed the  opposition  to  it  made  by  those  who 
wished  to  destroy  the  denominational  schools, 
and  who  objected  to  their  participation  in  the 
proposed  extension  of  public  support.  "To  de- 
stroy denominational  schools,"  he  said,  "was  now 
an  impossibility,  and  nothing  was  more  astonish- 
ing than  the  progress  they  had  made  since  tlie 
Education  Act  of  1870.  He  had  thought,  he 
said,  they  would  die  out  with  the  establishment 
of  Board  schools,  but  he  had  been  mistaken,  for 
in  the  lost  twenty-three  years  they  had  doubled 
their  accommodation,  and  more  than  doubled 
their  subscription  list.  At  the  present  time  they 
supplied  accommodation  for  two-thirds  of  the 
children  of  England  and  Wales.  That  belns  the 
case,  to  destroy  voluntary  schools  —  to  supply 
their  places  witli  Board  schools,  as  the  Daily 
News  cheerfully  suggested  —  would  be  to  in- 
volve a  cai  ;ial  expenditure  of  £50,000,000,  and 
£5,000,000 extra  yeariy  in  rates.  But  whither 
voluntary  or  denominational  schools  were  good 
or  bad,  tlicir  continued  existence  had  nothing  to 
do  with  the  question  of  free  cduca'ion,  and 
ought  to  be  kept  quite  distinct  from  it.  To 
make  schools  free  was  not  to  give  one  penny 
extra  to  any  denominational  endowment.  At 
the  present  time  the  fee  was  a  tax,  and  if  the 
parents  did  not  pay  fees  they  were  brought  be- 
fore the  magistrates,  and  if  they  still  did  not  pay 
they  might  be  s-nt  to  gaol.  The  only  thiu.i;  the 
Government  proposed  to  do  was  not  to  altir  the 
tax  but  to  alter  the  incidence.  The  same  amount 
would  be  collected;  it  would  be  paid  by  the 
same  people,  but  it  would  be  collected  from 
the  whole  nation  out  of  the  general  taxation." 
The  bill  was  passed  by  the  Commons  July  S, 
and  by  the  Lonls  on  the  24th  of  the  same  month. 
The  free  education  proposals  of  the  Oovernnunt 
are  said  to  have  been  generally  accepted  thnuiKh- 
out  the  country  by  both  Board  and  Voluntary 
schools.— .InnwaJ  Jiegitter,  1891,  pp.  128<ij/'/97", 
and  pt.  2,  p.  51. 

France:  A.  D.  1565-1802.— The  Jesuits.— 
Port  Royal.— The  Revolotion.— Napoleoa.— 
"The  .Jesuits  invadeti  the  province  lonsr  r'lled 
by  the  University  alone.  By  that  adroit  man- 
agement of  men'  for  which  they  have  nlways 
been  eminent,  and  by  the  more  liberal  spirit  ot 


738 


EDUCATION.  F, 

thdr  metboda,  they  outdid  in  popularit;  their 
Buperuinusted  rival.    Their  flnt  school  at  Paris 
was  established  in  1S6S,  and  in  1762,  two  years 
before  their  dissolution,  they  had  eighty-six  col- 
leges in  France.     They  were  followed  by  the 
Port  Royalists,  the  Benedictines,  the  Oratorians 
The  Port  Royal  schools  [see  Port  Royal],  from 
which  perhaps  a  powerful  influence  upon  educa- 
tion might  have  been  looked  for,  restricted  this 
influence  bv  limiting  verjr  closely  the  number  of 
their  pupils.     Meanwhile  the  main  funds  and 
endowments  for  public  education  in  France  were 
in  the  University's  hands,  and  its  administration 
of  these  was  as  InelTectiT'e  as  its  teaching.  . 
The  University  had  originally,   as  sources   of 
revenue,  the  Post  Office  and  the  Messageries,  or 
Office  of  Public  Conveyance:  it  had  lone  since 
been  obliged  to  abandon  the   Post   Office   to 
Qovemment,  when  in  1719  it  gave  up  to  tlie 
same  authority  the  privilege  of  Uie  Messageries 
receiving    io    return  from  the  State  a  yearly 
revenue  of  150,000  livres.     For  this  payment, 
moreover,  it  undertoolc  the  obligation  of  mailing 
thcinstruiticn  in  all  its  principal  colleges  gra- 
tuitous.   Paid  or  gratuitous,  however,   its  in- 
struction was  quite  inadequate  to  the  wants  of 
the  time,  and  when  the  Jesuits  were  expelled 
from  France  in  1764,  their  establishments  cWd, 
and  their  services  as  teachers  lost,  the  void  that 
was  left  was  strikingly  apparent,   and  public 
attention  began  to  be  drawn  to  it.     It  is  well 
known  how  Rousseau  among  writers,  and  Tur- 
got  among  statesmen,  busied  themselves  with 
schemes  of  education:  but  the  interest  in  the 
subject  must  have  reached  the  whole  bod?  of  the 
community,   for  the  instructions  of   all    three 
orders  of  the  States  General  in  1789  are  unani- 
mous in  demanding  the  reform  of  education,  and 
its  establishment  on  a  proper  footing.     Then 
came  the  Revolution,  and  the  work  of  reform 
soon  went  swimmingly  enough,  so  far  as  the 
abolition  of  the  old  schools  was  concerned.    In 
1791  the  colleges  were  all  placed  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  administratis  authorities ;   in  1792 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  University  vas  abolished : 
in  1793  the  property  of  the  colleges  was  ordered 
to  be  sold,  the  proceeds  to  be  taken  by  the  State : 
in  September  of  the  same  year  the  suppression 
of  all  ihe  great  public  schools  and  of  all  the  Uni- 
versity faculties  was  pronounced.    For  the  work 
of  reconstruction  Condorcet's  memorable  plan 
had  in  1793  been  submitted  to  the  Committee  of 
Public  Instruction  appointed  by  the  Legislative 
Assembly.  This  plan  proposed  a  secondary  school 
for  everv  4,000  inhabitanU;   for  each  depart- 
ment, a  uepartmenul  institute,  or  higher  school ; 
nine  lyce  s,  schools  c.irrying  th  t  studies  yet 
liigher  than  the  departmental  int..   ite,  for  the 
whole  of  France;  and  to  crown  the  edifice,  a 
National   Society  of  Sciences  and  Arts,  corre- 
sponding in  the  main  with  the  present  institute 
of  France.    The  whole  expense  of  national  in- 
struction was  to  be  borne  by  the  State,  and  this 
expense  was  estimated  at  29,000,000  of  francs 
But  1793  and  1798  were  years  of  furious  agita- 
tion, when  it  was  easier  to  destroy  than  to  build. 
Condorcet  perished  -Arith  the  Girondists,  and  the 
reconstruction  of  public  education  did  not  begin 
till  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre.     The  decrees 
of  the  Convention  for  establishing  the  Normal  ! 
School,  the  Polytechnic,  the  School  of  Mines, 
and  the  icoles  centrales,  and  then  Daunou's  law 
in  1795,  bore,  however,  many  traces  of  Condor- 


"•  EDUCATION. 

cet's  design.  Daunou's  law  established  primair 
schools,  centr  '  schools,  special  schools,  and  at 
the  Iliad  of  u  lie  Institute  of  France,  this  last 
a  memorable  mid  enduring  creation,  with  which 
the  old  French  Academy  became  incorporated. 
By  Daunou's  taw,  also,  freedom  was  given  to 
private  persons  to  open  schools.  The  new  legis- 
lation had  many  defects.  .  .  .  The  country,  too, 
was  not  yet  settled  enough  for  its  education  to 
organise  itself  successfully.  The  Normal  School 
speedily  broke  down:  the  central  schools  were 
established  slowly  and  with  difficulty;  in  the 
course  of  tlie  four  years  of  the  Directory  there 
were  nominally  instituted  ninety-one  of  these 
schools,  but  they  never  really  worked.  More 
was  accomplished  by  private  schools,  to  which 
full  freedom  was  given  by  the  new  legislation, 
at  the  same  time  that  an  ample  and  open  field 
lay  before  them.  They  could  not,  however,  suf- 
fice for  the  work,  and  eilucation  was  one  of  the 
matters  for  which  Napoleon,  when  he  became 
Consul,  had  !■  >  provide.  Fnurcroy's  law,  in  1803, 
took  as  the  ba.sis  of  its  school-system  secondary 
schools,  whether  established  by  tlie  communes 
or  by  private  individuals;  the  Government  un- 
dertook to  aid  these  schools  by  „rants  for  build- 
ings, for  scholarships,  and  for  gratuitifs  to  the 
masters;  it  prescribed  Latin,  French,  geography, 
history,  and  mathematics  as  the  instruction  to  be 
given  in  them.  They  were  placed  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  prefects.  To  continue 
and  complete  the  secondary  schools  were  insti- 
tuted the  lyeeums;  here  the  instruction  was  to 
be  On'ek  and  Latin,  rhetoric,  logic,  literature, 
moral  philosophy,  and  the  elements  of  the  matb- 
ematicai  and  physical  sciences.  The  pupils 
were  to  be  of  four  kimls :  boursiers  nationaux, 
scholars  nominated  to  scholarships  by  the  State; 
pupils  from  the  secondary  schools,  admitted  as 
free  scholars  by  competition:  paying  boarders 
and  paying  day-8cho!ars."— M.  Arnold,  Sehoolt 
ami  Unirertitieii  on  the  Cimtinent.  <•/■    1. 

France :  A.  D.  1833-1889.— The  present  Sy»- 
tem  of  Public  Instruction.— "  The  question  of 
the  education  of  youth  is  one  of  those  in  which 
the  struggle  between  the  Catholic  Church  and 
the  civil  power  has  been,  and  still  is,  hottest.  It 
is  also  one  of  those  in  which  BVance,  wliich  for  a 
long  time  had  remained  far  in  the  rear,  has  made 
most  efforts,  and  achieved  most  progress  in  these 
latter  years.  .  .  .  Napoleon  I.  conceived  educa- 
tion aa  a  means  of  disciplining  minds  and  wills 
and  moulding  them  into  conformity  with  the  po- 
litical system  which  he  had  put  in  force:  accord- 
ingly he  gave  the  University  the  monopoly  of 
public  education.  Apart  from  the  official  system 
of  teaching,  no  competition  wa'  allowed  except 
that  specially  authorised,  regulated,  and  con- 
trolled by  the  State  itself.  Religious  instruction 
found  a  place  in  the  olflcial  programmes,  and 
members  of  the  clergy  were  even  called  on  to 
supply  it.  but  this  instruction  itself,  and  these 
priests  themselves,  were  under  the  authority  of 
the  State.  Hence  two  results;  on  the  one  hand 
the  speedy  impoverishment  of  University  eauca- 
tion,  .  .  .  on  the  otlier  hand,  the  incessant  agita- 
tion of  all  those  wiio  were  prevented  by  the 
special  organisation  given  to  the  University  from 
expounding  their  ideas  or  the  faith  that  was  in 
them  from  the  profesanri.i!  ch.iir  This  agita- 
tion was  begun  and  carried  on  by  the  Catholic 
Church  itself,  as  soon  as  it  felt  more  at  liberty  to 
let  its  ambitions  be  discerned.     On  this  point  the 


:iii;i' 


!*  '!l  1,1 


(39 


;k''>j 


EDUCATION. 


IVyWMft 
adkool  Sifitm. 


EDUCATION. 


Oburch  met  with  the  lupport  of  a  good  number 
of  Llbenli,  and  it  ii  In  a  crest  measure  to  its  in- 
itlatire  that  an  due  the  three  important  lawa  of 
1883,  1800,  and  1875,  which  have  reapectirely 
given  to  Prance  freedom  of  primary  education, 
of  secondary  education,  and  Anally  tliat  of  liigher 
education ;  which  have  given,  that  ia  to  say,  the 
right  to  every  one,  under  certain  conditions  of 
capacity  and  character,  to  open  private  schools 
in  competition  with  the  three  orders  of  public 
schools.  But  the  Church  did  not  stop  there. 
Hardly  had  it  insured  liberty  to  its  educational 
institutior.it  —  a  liberty  by  which  all  citizens 
might  r  fit  alike,  but  of  which  its  own  strong 
organisi  .inn  and  powerful  resources  enabled  it 
more  easily  to  take  advantage — hardly  was  this 
result  obtained  than  the  Church  tried  to  lay 
hands  on  the  University  itself,  and  to  make  its 
doctrines  pai  amount  there.  .  .  .  Thence  arose 
a  movement  hostile  to  the  enterprises  of  the 
Church,  which  has  found  expression  since  1880 
in  a  series  of  laws  which  ezc  Jed  her  little  by 
little  from  the  positions  she  had  won,  and  only 
left  to  her,  as  to  all  other  citizens,  the  liberty  to 
teach  apart  from,  and  concurrently  with,  the 
State.  The  right  to  confer  degrees  has  been 
given  back  to  the  State  alone ;  the  privilege  of 
the  '  letter  of  obedience '  has  been  abolished ;  re- 
ligious teaching  *•••^  been  excluded  from  the 
primary  schools;  and  after  having  'laicized,'  as 
the  French  phrase  is,  the  curriculum,  the  effort 
was  persistently  made  to  '  laicize '  the  staff.  .  .  . 
From  the  University  point  of  view,  the  territory 
of  France  is  divided  into  seventeen  academies, 
the  chief  towns  of  which  are  Paris,  Douai,  Caen, 
Rennes,  Poitiers,  Bordeaux,  Toulouse,  Mont- 
pellier,  Alx,  Grenoble,  Chamb£ry,  Lyons,  Besan- 
con,  Nancy,  Dijon,  Clermont,  and  Algiers. 
Each  academy  has  a  rector  at  its  head,  who, 
under  the  authority  of  the  Minister  of  Public 
Tnstruction,  is  charged  with  the  material  admin- 
'.stration  of  higher  and  secondary  education,  and 
with  the  methods  of  primary  instruction  in  his 
district.  The  administration  of  this  last  belongs 
to  the  prefect  of  each  department,  assisted  by  an 
academy-inspector.  In  each  of  these  three  suc- 
cessive stages — department,  academy,  and  central 
administration  —  is  pit)  cd  a  council,  possessing 
administrative  and  c'  cipliimiT  powers.  The 
Departmental  Councl.  of  Public  Instruction, 
which  comprises  six  oiflclala  .  .  .  forms  a  disci- 
plinary council  for  primary  education,  either 
public  or  free  (i.  e. ,  State  or  private).  This  coun- 
cil sees  to  the  application  of  programmes,  lays 
down  rules,  and  appoints  one  or  more  delegates 
in  each  canton  to  superintend  primary  schools. 
llie  Academic  Council  .  .  .  performs  similar 
functions  with  regard  to  secondary  and  higher 
e<1ucation.  The  Higher  Council  of  Public  In- 
struction sits  at  Pans.  It  comprises  forty-four 
electe<l  representatives  of  the  three  educational 
orders,  nine  University  otncials,  and  four  'free' 
schoolmasters  appointe<l  by  the  Minister,  and  is 
the  disciplinary  court  of  appeal  for  the  two  pre- 
ceding councils.  .  .  .  Such  is  the  framework, 
ailministrative  as  well  as  Judicial,  in  which  edu- 
cation, whether  public  or  free,  lives  and  moves. 
.  .  .  Since  1883  Primary  Education  has  been 
compulsory  for  all  children  of  both  sexes,  f-om 
tlip  age  of  six  to  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  year, 
unless  before  reaching  the  latter  age  they  have 
bci'n  able  to  pass  an  examination,  and  to  gain  the 
certificate  of  primary  studies.     To  saosfy  the 


law,  the  child's  name  must  be  entered  at  a  pob- 
lie  or  private  school ;  he  may,  however,  continua 
to  receive  Instruction  at  home,  but  in  this  rase, 
after  he  has  reached  the  age  of  eight,  he  must  bs 
examined  every  year  before  a  State  board.  .  .  . 
At  the  age  of  thirteen  the  child  is  set  free  from 
further  teaching,  whatever  may  be  the  results  of 
the  education  he  has  received.  ...  In  piihllc 
schools  the  course  of  instruction  does  not  include, 
as  we  have  said,  religious  teaching ;  but  one  day 
in  the  week  the  school  niust  take  a  holiday,  to 
allow  parents  to  provide  such  teaching  for  tlicir 
children,  if  they  wish  to  do  so.  'The  schral 
building  cannot  be  used  for  that  purpose.  In 
private  schools  religious  instruction  may  lie 
given,  but  this  is  optional.  The  programme  of 
primary  education  Includes:  moral  and  civic  In- 
struction; raading,  writing,  French,  geography 
and  history  (particularly  those  of  France);  gea- 
eral  notions  of  law  and  science ;  the  elements  of 
drawing,  modelling,  and  music ;  and  gymnastics. 
No  person  of  either  sex  can  become  a  teacher, 
either  public  or  private,  unless  he  possesses  the 
'certlflcate  of  capacity  for  primary  instruction' 
given  by  a  State  lx>ara.  For  the  future  — put- 
ting aside  certain  temporary  arrangements  —  no 
meml>er  of  a  religious  community  will  be  eligible 
for  the  post  of  master  in  a  public  school.  .  .  . 
As  a  general  rule,  every  commune  is  compilled 
to  maintain  a  public  school,  and,  if  it  has  more 
than  500  inhabitants,  a  second  school  for  girls 
only.  .  .  .  The  sum  total  of  the  State's  expeiL^es 
for  primary  education  in  1887  is  as  high  as  eiglitj'- 
flve  million  francs  (£3,400,000),  and  that  without 
mentioning  grants  for  school  buildings,  whereas 
in  1877  the  sum  total  was  only  twelve  millions 
(£480,000).  .  .  .  From  1877  to  1886,  the  number 
of  public  schools  rose  from  61,000  to  6(i,.'iOO; 
that  of  the  pupils  from  4,300,000  to  4,riW,l)nn, 
with  96,600  masters  and  mistresses ;  that  of  train- 
ing schools  for  male  teachers  from  79  to  H9,  o( 
training  schools  for  female  teachers  from  IH  to 
'?7,  with  5,400  pupils  (3,500  of  them  womrn).  and 
1,200  masters  As  to  the  results  a  single  fact 
will  sufllce.  In  these  ten  years,  before  the  gen- 
erati  ns  newly  called  to  military  service  have 
Ijeeu  iible  to  profit  fully  by  the  new  state  of 
things,  the  proportion  of  llliterato  recruits  (which 
is  annually  made  out  directly  after  the  lots  are 
drawn)  has  already  fallen  from  15  to  1 1  per  cent. " 
— A.  Lebon  and  P.  Pelet,  Franeeat  it  in,  eh.  .I.— 
"  In  1873,  after  the  dreadful  disaster  of  the  war, 
Monsieur  Thiers,  President  of  the  Oouvemcment 
de  la  Defense  Nationale,  and  Monsieur  .lules 
Simon,  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  felt  that 
what  was  most  important  for  the  nation  was  a 
new  system  of  public  instruction,  and  they  set 
themselves  the  task  of  determining  the  basis  on 
which  this  new  system  was  to  be  established.  In 
September,  1883,  Monsieur  Jules  Simon  issued  a 
memorable  circular  calling  the  attention  of  all 
the  most  distinguished  leaders  of  thought  to 
some  proposed  plans.  He  did  not  long  remain  in 
power,  but  in  his  retirement  he  wrote  a  Ixwik  en- 
titled: ' Refornie  ill!  rEnseignement  S<!CiiTiii:iire.' 
Monsieur  Breal,  who  was  commissioned  to  visit 
the  schools  of  Germany,  soon  after  published 
another  book  which  aroused  new  enthusiasm  in 
France.  .  .  .  From  that  day  a  complete  i-duoa- 
tional  reform  was  decided  on.  In  1873  we  had 
at  the  Minister^  de  I'lnstructlon  Publique  tlirp.e 
distinguished  men:  Monsieur  Dumont  for  the 
Enaeignement  Supirieur,   one  from  whom  we 


740 


EDCCATION. 


IrUh 
tfalUmat  aduoU. 


BDCCATION. 


^n^j^VSL'^  whoae  airly  death  we  had  to 
mourn  in  1884 ;  Momieur  Zevort  for  the  Enseiirne- 
ment  Secondaire.  who  al«odied  ere  the  good  feed 

rrult  (1887);  and  Monsieui  Bulsson  to  whose  wis- 
dom zeal,  and  energy  we  owe  most  of  the  wort 
of  the  Enseignement  Primalre.  At  their  side 
of  ^turer  years  than  they,  stood  Monsieur  Ore- 
sid,  Recteur  de  I'Acadtoie  de  Paris.  All 

«ie  educationists  of  the  first  French  Revolution 
hwiinsisted  on  the  solidarity  of  the  three  orders 
of  education;  maintaining  that  it  was  not  pes- 
slWe  to  separate  one  from  another,  and  thatthore 
ought  to  be  a  close  correspondence  between  them 
P"^'P'e  lies  at  the  root  of  the  whole  svs- 
^„°1  ^rench  national  Instruction.     Having  es- 
tablUhed  this  principle,  the  four  leaders  called 
upon  all  chuses  of  teachers  to  work  with  them 
and  professors  who  had  devoted  their  life  tr  the 
promotion  of  superior  hutructlon  brough*  thpu- 
experience  and  their  powers  of  organization  lo 
bear  upon  schools  for  all  classes,  from  the  richett 
to  the  poorest.  .      .  Brt  to  reform  and  w  recon- 
struct a  system  of  instruction  U  not  a  small  task 
It  to  not  easy  to  change  at  once  the  old  methods 
to  give  a  new  spirit  to  the  masters,  to  teach  those 
who  think  that  what  had  been  sufficient  for  them 
need  not  be  altered  and  is  sufficient  forever 
However,  we  must  say  that  as  soon  as  the  French 
tMChers  heard  of  the  great  changes  which  were 
about  to  take  place,  they  were  alf  anxious  to  rise 
to  the  demands  made  on  them,  and  were  eager 
for  advice  and  help.    Lectures  on  pedagogy  and 
psychology  were  given  to  them  by  the  highest 
professors  of  philosophy,  and  these  lessons  were 
so  much  apprecated  that  the  attention  of  the 
pni^".r8ity  of  France  was  called  to  the  necessity 
foi    .eatmg  at  the  Sorbonne  a  special  course  of 
lectures  on  pedagogy.    Eleven  hundred  masters 
and  mistresses  attended  them  the  first  year  that 
thev  were  inaugurated;  from  that  time  till  now 
their  number  has  always  been  increasing     Now 
we  have  at  the  Sorbonne  a  Chaire  Magistrale  and 
Conferences  for  the  training  of  masters  and  pro- 
fessors; and  the  faculties  at  Lyons.  Bordeaux 
Nancy,  and  Montpellier  have  followed  the  ex- 
?SE'*.u'^',*,°  ?'  ''"'   Sorbonne,   Paris.  ...  In 
iSS'  I,      ""JS*   Pfdagogique  was  fo.inde<l;  in 
1883,  began  the  publication  of  the  Revue  Peda- 
gogique  and  the  Kevue  Internationale  de  I'En- 
selgnement      Four  large  volumes  of  the  Diction- 
nalre  de  Fedagogie,  each  containing  about  S  000 


^i  JI.*"^?^***  P"?*"'  ^^"^  "''«'  <=o™«  out  under 
the  editorship  of  Monsieur  Bulsson,  all  the  work 
of  zealous  teachers  and  educationists.  In  1879 
normal  schools  were  ocenod.  Then  in  1880  ari- 
mary  8oh.«ls.  and  in  188S  we  may  gay  that  the 
tcoles  Matcmellcs  and  the  Ecotos  Enfaatines 
were  created  so  different  are  they  from  the  infant 
-chools  or  the  Salles  d'Asilc;  iu  1883  a  new  ex- 
amination was  established  for  the  Profcssorat  and 
the  Direction  des  Ecoles  Normalcs,  as  well  as  for 

Ini.  ?Lm"'.'?  °f  P''™*'?  '"'"-"rtion;  and  In 
July,  1889,  the  law  about  ^ablic  and  private 
teaching  was  promulgated,  perhaps  one  of  the 
most  Important  that  has  ever  been  passed  by  the 
Republic.  '-Mme.  Th.  Armagnac.  The  dtuea- 
twnal  Senawance  of  France  (Bdueation.  Sept., 


wh  1  "•,*•  °:  '*9»-l«9i.-Statiitici.-The 
whole  number  of  pupils  regtatered  in  the  pri- 
mary, elementary  and  superior  schools,  public  and 
pnvate,  of  France  and  Algiers  (excluding  the 


741 


«cole«  matarnelles")  for  the  school-yeir  18«H 

n  .•r.iT"  W'?f^-.°'  ^'''=''  4,884,9i55  wereln 
public  schools  (3,760,801,  "laluue,"  and  624  804 
congrSganiste  ■'),  and  1,2.)8,«78  in  orivata 
^"°\  (J',»;«3 ''!a-ques,"'and  l,Oi57  866  "co^ 
greguiUte  '2.  Of  36,484  communes,  35,508  pSS- 
sessed  a  public  school,  and  875  weri  join^i  for 
school  purposes  with  another  commune.  The 
«,^rf^."*'''lw  ""P'''?"^  '"  '•"«  elementary  and 
??i^  8!?yiS"''°°'»  numbered  28,657;  female 
sl^Scfln^ **' hi?  =  "'^r|.''2-''^-Minlst^re de  rin 

1890^1891  P"'Mtre  pour  Vannie  uolaire 

F<'nciTfnnTi"'?"' P'^'^"'  ^yfeni  of  National 
E'lucation  ic  Ireland  was  founded  in  1831  In  this 
year  grants  of  public  money  for  the  education  of 
wd/rThHrfr""";"!""*  '°'''«  lord-lieutenant?n 
tlnn  nf^l"**^  might  be  applle.1  to  the  educa 

given  to  children  of  every  religious  belief  and 
to  be  superintended  by  commissTone™  ap^'in^ 

fhP^lf"^"*-  7^"  «««'  principle  on  «S 
the  system   was  founded   was  that  of  Mmi  ed 

secular  and  separate  rellgic  IS  instruction.'  No 
child  should  be  required  to  attend  any  religious 
^struction  which    should    be  contmry  t^^  th^ 

T^.f  J"  •"  S'  ■■"  P""^"'*  Of  guardians 
Times  were  to  be  set  apart  during  w-hlch  chill 
dren  were  to  have  such  religious  instruction  as 
their  parenta  might  think  proper.  It  was  to  be 
the  dutv  of  the  bommissioLrT  to  s/e  that  the^ 
Principles  were  earned  out  and  not  infringed  on 
fn  any  way.  They  had  also  power  to  giveo? 
refuse  money  to  those  who  applied  for  aid  to 

^»i  i^\°?''-  .,^'""''  "«  '^«s'«'l'  and  'non 
vested.'    Vested  schools  are  those  built  by  the 

^^t  "^  ^'."'"""  E-i^^'ion ;  non-vested  scWo  s 
are  the  ordinary  schools,  and  are  managed  by 
those  who  built  them    If   ,  commltne  of  pe/. 
sons  build  a  school  it  is  looked  on  ..,•  the  B.!ard 
if  ,f?^"^K    "  »  landowner  or  private  per- 
son builds  a  school,  he  is  regarded  as  the  patron 
if  he  has  no  committee.    The  patron,  wluther 
landlord  or  committee,  has  pownr  .o  appoint  or 
dismiss  a  manager,  wfco  corresponds  wit.,  tlie 
Board.    The  manager  is  also  responsible  for  tlip 
due  or  thorough  observance  of  the  laws  s    ■ 
rules     Teachers  are  paid  by  him  after  he  C(-  • 
lies  that  the  laws  have  been  kept,  and  gives  .ue 
attendance  for  each  quarto'.     \v  heu  an    indi- 
vidual Is  putron   he  may  appoint  himself  mana- 
ger, and  thus  fill  both  offices.  ...  The  -.achera 
are  paid  by  salaries  and  by  results  fees.    The 
Boards  of  (Juardians  have  power  to  contribute 
to  these  results  fees.     Some  unions  do  so  and  are 
called    contnl.iitory.'    School  managers  in  Ire- 
and  are  nearly  .'•-ays  clerics  of  some  denomina- 
tion.    1  here  are  sometimes,  but  very  rarely   lav 
managers,  .  .  ,  From  the  census  returns  of  1881 
It  appear  that  but  fifty-nine  per  cent,  of  the 
people  of  Ireland  are  able  to  read  and  write 
1  lie  greater  numlier  of  national  schools  through- 
out Ireland  are  what  are  called  'unmixed,'  that 
is,  attended  by  chlhlreu  of  one  denomination 
only.     The  rest  of  the  schools  are  called  '  mixed  ' 
that  is  attended  by  children  of  diflfcrent  forms 
of  religion      The  percentage  of  schools  that  show 
a     mixed     attendance  U'nds  tn  hwome  amaller 
each    year.         .  There    ue    also    twenty-nine 
model    schools  in  different  parta  of  Ireland 
I  hese  schools  are  managed  directly  by  the  Board 
of  National  EducaUon.  .  .  .  According  to  the 


III 


ttm 


EDUCATION. 


Prumia. 


BDCCATION. 


r 


report  of  the  Commiasionen  o(  Katlonal  Educa- 
tion for  1890,  the  '  percentage  of  average  attend- 
ance to  the  average  number  of  children  on  the 
rolls  of  the  schools  waa  but  59.0,'  and  the  per- 
centage of  school  attendance  to  the  estimated 
population  of  school  age  in  Ireland  would  be 
ess  than  50.  Different  reasons  might  be  given 
for  tills  small  percentage  of  attendance.  The 
chief  reasons  are,  first,  attendance  at  school  not 
being  compulsory,  and  next,  education  not  being 
free.  .  .  .  The  pence  paid  for  school  fees  in  Ire- 
laml  may  seem,  to  many  people,  a  small  matter. 
But  in  a  country  like  Ireland,  where  little  money 
cireulttU'S,  and  a  number  of  the  people  are  very 
poor,  school  pence  arc  often  not  easily  found  every 
week.  In  1890.  £104,.'»0  4a.  and  8d.  was  paid 
in  school  fees,  being  an  average  of  4s.  3Jd.  per 
unit  of  average  attendance. " — The  Irith  Peasant ; 
by  a  (hiiiniiaiiofthe  Px'r,  eh.  8. 

Norway. — "In  1739  the  schools  throughout 
the  country  were  regulated  by  a  royal  ordinance, 
but  this  paid  so  little  regard  to  the  economical 
and  physical  condition  of  Norway  that  it  had  to  l)e 
alteri'd  and  modified  as  early  as  1741.  Compul- 
sory instruction,  however,  had  thus  been  !idopt*Ht, 
securing  to  every  child  in  the  country  instruction 
in  the  Christian  doctrine  and  in  reading,  and  this 
C(MTei(>n  was  retained  in  all  later  laws.  .  .  . 
Many  portions  of  the  country  are  intersected  bv 
higli  mountains  and  di-ep  fiords,  so  that  a  small 
population  is  scattered  over  a  surface  of  several 
miles.  In  such  localities  the  law  has  established 
'  ninliulatory  schools,'  whose  teachers  travel 
fniiii  one  farm  to  another,  livine  with  the  dilTer- 
inl  piMisants.  Although  this  kind  of  instruction 
has  often  In^eu  most  incomplete  and  the  teachers 
very  meiliiKre,  still  eilucatlonal  coercion  has 
everywhere  iM'en  in  force,  and  Christian  instruc- 
tion even-where  provided  for  the  children. 
These  ' iinibulatory  scIichiIs '  formerly  ixistetl  in 
larpe  numbers,  but  witli  the  Inrtease  of  wealth 
ana  population,  ai.d  the  growing  inU'ri'st  taken 
in  eduralion.  tlieir  number  has  gradually  dimin- 
ished, and  tiiat  of  fixed  circle-schools  augmented 
in  the  same  pn)pi)rtion  " — O.  Oaite,  Ilen't  en  the 
Ulunitioiuil  Sj/Klemof  Xorviiy  (('.  .S.  liureiiu  of 
Riiinitinn,  Cireulart  of  Informatiiin,  July,  1871). 
— •'  He'iool  attendance  is  d  mpulsory  for  at  least 
13  wet  .ji  each  year  for  all  '  lilldren  in  the  coun- 
try districts  from  8  years  of  age  to  conflrniafion, 
anil  from  7  years  to  confirmation  in  the  towns 
Aeronliiig  to  the  law  of  1889,  which  In  a  meas- 
ure only  empha»l.:e«  pri'cedlng  laws,  eaili  school 
la  to  have  the  necessary  furnishinis  ami  all 
indispeiisiible  phool  material.  The  Norwegians 
are  so  intent  upon  giving  Inatrucllon  to  all  cliil- 
dren  Miat  in  case  of  poverty  of  the  parents  the 
autliiirllles  furnish  text  liooaa  an<!  ''le  necessary 
clothing,  so  tliHt  sehiM)!  privileges  may  Ih'  ac- 
conled  to  all  of  sehisil  age,"—"  8  Comra'r  of 
K.Im.-.i(I..ii,  /4;►./•^  18H9-90,  n.  913 

Pruttta:  A.  D.  1809.— Educktion  and  the 
liberation  moTemcnt.— ' '  The  most  linmirtant  era 
In  the  history  of  p\ibUc  Instruction  in  rnisBla,  as 
well  as  in  nther  parts  of  Germany.  o|«'ns  with  the 
olTorIa  put  forth  by  the  king  and  (K'ople.  to  rcM'ue 
thi'  kingdom  from  the  yoke  of  NHi>oleon  In  1^109 
In  that  year  the  army  was  if  modeleil  and  every 
citizen  converted  Into  a  soldier,  lamled  properly 
w^  i{i''.-!!ire'J  free  of  feiiiltti  Mervlee  n>MtrlrtioriH 
onfreethiniof  trade  werealHillslied.  and  the  whole 
itate  was  n'orgntilwd  Oreni  nlliini'r  wa«  placed 
on  Infusing  a  Oerinnn  spirit  liiin  the  jKople  by 


giving  them  freer  access  to  Improvcil  institutions 
of  e<liicatlon  from  the  common  school  to  the  uni- 
versity. Under  the  councils  of  llardenberg. 
Humboldt,  Stein,  Altenstein,  these  reforms  and 
improvements  were  projectied,  carried  on,  and 
perfected  in  less  than  a  single  generation.  The 
movement  in  liehalf  of  popular  schools  com- 
mence<l  by  inviting  C.  A.  Zeller,  of  Wirtemberg, 
to  Prussia.  Zeller  was  a  young  theologian,  who 
had  studied  under  Pestalozzi  in  Switzerland,  and 
was  tlioroughly  imbued  with  the  method  ■■  i 
spirit  of  his  master.  On  his  return  be  had  con- 
vened the  school  teachers  of  WIrtemberg  in  bams, 
for  want  of  better  accommodations  being  allowed 
him,  and  inspired  them  with  a  zeal  for  I'esta- 
lozzi's  methods,  and  for  a  better  education  of  the 
whole  people.  On  removing  to  Prussia  he  firet 
took  charge  of  the  seminary  at  KoenigstxTc,  soon 
after  founded  the  seminary  at  Karalene,  and  went 
about  into  different  provinces  meeting  with 
teachers,  hoMlng  conferences,  visiting  scliools, 
and  inspiring  school  oflicers  with  the  right  spirit. 
The  next  step  taken  was  to  send  a  number  of 
young  men,  mostly  theologians,  to  Pestalozzi'a 
institution  at  Ifferten,  to  acquire  his  metlnHl.  and 
on  their  return  to  place  them  in  new,  or  reorgan- 
ized teachers'  seminaries.  To  these  new  igents 
in  school  Improvement  were  joined  a  large  liody 
of  zealous  teachers,  and  patriotic  ami  enlightened 
citizens,  who,  in  ways  and  metluHls  nf  their  own, 
lalKin-d  Incessantly  to  I'onlirm  the  lYussian  state, 
by  forming  new  organs  for  its  internal  life,  and 
new  means  of  protection  from  foreign  foes.  'They 
proved  themselves  truly  educators  of  the  people. 
.Although  the  government  thus  not  only  encour- 
aged, but  directly  ai'"tKl  in  the  Introduction  of 
the  methods  of  PestaU.zzl  into  tlie  public  8<hoola 
of  Prussia,  still  the  school  board  In  the  different 
provinces  sustained  and  encouraged  those  who 
approved  and  tauglit  on  different  systems  .  .  . 
Music,  which  was  one  of  Pestalozzi's  gnat  In- 
struments of  culture,  waa  maile  the  vehicle  of 
patriotic  songs,  and  through  them  the  hear!  of 
all  Germany  wi«  moved  to  bitu>r  hatred  n(  the 
concjucror  who  hail  desolated  her  flilils  an<l 
homes,  and  humbleil  the  pride  of  her  monarrhy. 
All  tlies<>  efforts  for  the  Improvement  of  element- 
ary I'ducation,  accompanied  by  expensive  iiiihII- 
ficatlons  In  the  establUhments  of  seconilary  and 
suiM'rioreilucatlon,  were  made  when  the  treasury 
was  impoverished,  ami  taxes  the  mo-t  ex.irl.itant 
in  amount  were  levied  on  every  iiMvini'  ami 
eommune  of  the  kingdom.  " — 11.  Itariiar'l.  .Vi- 
tiiiiml  fiiiiie.ition  in  Kiirime.  /i;i  W.V*\  —  Kortliia 
iiotHlile  educational  work  iHgun  in  Prussia  In 
1S09.  and  which  gave  a  new  cimracUT  In  llie  na- 
tion, "the  Pr.vldentUl  man  apiM^and  In  Hum- 
ixildt.  .  i  gri'at  a  muster  of  the  science  and  art  i>f 
educati  m  as  Scharuhorst  was  a  master  of  the 
organlsatlnii  of  war.  Not  only  was  he  liliii«lf, 
as  a  scholar  and  an  InTcstlgator,  on  a  level  with 
the  very  first  of  his  age,  not  only  had  he  lived 
with  pneisely  those  maaters  of  literatun'.  S<hil- 
ler  and  tJiwlhe.  who  wiTC  most  deliberate  in  Ihtlr 
self  culluri',  ami  have  therefore  left  Uhiml  mwt 
lustnictioii  on  llie  hlglier  parts  of  education.  Imt 
he  had  iM'eii  »|ieclally  intimate  with  K  A  Wdf 
It  is  not  generally  known  In  England  tint  \V"lf 
was  not  menly  the  gnatest  phllologer  Imt  also 
the  gr<>ateBt  U'aeher  and  ediicathmlst  of  Ills  linw. 
.  .  h'ormeti  liy  such  tea<'liers,  and  supportiti  by 
a  more  intenar  Ix-lief  In  culture  than  almost  any 
man  of  his  time,  Humboldt  liegan  his  work  la 


743 


EDUCATION. 


Uumboldti 
"ork  in  Pnutta. 


EDUCATION. 


April.  1809.    In  primur  education  Fichte  had 
already  pointed  to  PeBtalozzi  as  tlie  best  guide 
Oi.e  of  that  reformer's  disciples,  C.  A.  Zeller. 
was  summoned  to  KOnigsberg  to  found  a  normal 
school,  while  the  reformer  himself,  in  his  weekly 
eduaitional  journal,  cheered  fallen  Prussia  by  his 
panegyric,  and  wrote  enthusiastically  to  Nicolo- 
Tius  pronouncing  him  and  hia  friends  the  salt 
and  leaven  of  the  earth  that  would  soon  leaven 
the  whole  mass.    It  is  related  that  in  the  many 
difficulties  which  Zeller  not  unnaturally  had  to 
contend  with,  the  King's  genuine  benevolence, 
interest  in  practical  improvement,  and  strong 
fsmily  feeling,  were  of  decisive  use.  .  .  .  The 
reform  of  the  Oymnasia  was  also  highly  success- 
ful.    8Qvem  here  was  among  the  most  active  of 
those  who  worked  under  Humboldt's  direction 
In  deference  to  h-!  authority  of  Wolf  the  classics 
preserved  their  tra<titlonaI  position  of  honour, 
and  particular  importance  was  attached  to  Greek! 
.  .  .  But  it  was  on  the  highest  department  of 
education  that  Humboldt  left  his  mark  most 
visibly.     He  founded  the  University  of  Berlin; 
he  gave  to  Europe  a  new  seat  of  learning,  which 
httH  ever  since  stood  on  an  equality  with  the  very 
greatest  of  those  of  which  Europe  boastcil  before. 
We  are  not  indeed  to  suppose  that  the  idea  of 
such  a  University  sprang  up  for  the  first  time 
at  thi.s  moment,  or  in  the  brain  of  Humlmldt. 
Among  all  the  losses  which  befell  Prussia  by  the 
Peace  of  Tilsit  none  was  felt  more  bitterly  than 
the  loss  of  the  University  of  Halle,  where  Wolf 
himself  had  made  his  fame.     Immediately  after 
the  blow  fell,   two  of  the  Professors  of  Halle 
made  their  way  to  Memel  and  laid  before  the 
KInif  a  proposal  to  establish  a  High  School  at 
Berlin.     This  was  on  August  aSud.  1807 
On  Siptcmber  4th  came  an  Order  of  Cabinet,  iu 
which  it  was  <leclared  to  be  one  of  the  most  im- 
portjint  objects  to  c  ompensate  the  loss  of  Halle 
U  «iis  iMl.led  that  neither  of  the  two  Universities 
which  remained  to  PrussU,  those  of  KOnlgsberg 
and  Frankfurt  onthe-tWer,  could   be  made  to 
supply  the  pla<-«  of  Halle.  KOnlgsberg  being  too 
remote  from  the  seat  of  Government  anil  Frank- 
furt not  aiilliclcnily  provided  with  means      At 
B.  rlin  a  University  could  best,  and  at  least  ex- 
l«  mi;   be  esUblisb<Hl.      Accordingly  all   funits 
whl(  h  had  hitherto  gone  to  Halle  were  to  go  for 
the  future  to  Berlin,  and  assurances  were  to  lie 
givi'H  to  the  expelled  Pnifeiwors  which  might 
prevent  their  talenu  bi'ing  lost  to  the  country. 
A  tnlversity  Is  not  founded  in  a  day,  ;md  accord 
Innly  while  SU'in  held  olBce  the  design  did  not 
i):wii  lieyond  the  stage  of  discussion.   .  .      Hum- 
lH>lilt  H'M  In  his  lii'port  on  May  18,  1H09  and  on 
August  16th  followed  the  Oriler  of  Cabinet  iis- 
si^'ning  to  the  new  University,  along  with  the 
Acad,  niies  of  Science  and  Art,  an  annual  iloia 
tl-n  i)f  IM.OOO  thalers.  and  the  Palace  of  Prime 
III  nry  as  Its  residence      During  the  rest  of  bin 
l<'rm  of  ofljce  iiumboldt  was  mcupled  in  negnliu- 
li.>ns  with  eminent  men  nf  science  all  over  tier 
many,  whose  services  he  hoped  to  prixuri'      Hi' 
was   rerUinly   not    unsuccessful.      He  s<cure.l 
FichU'  for  I'hilosophy ,  Hchlelermacher,  I)e  Wille 
•nd    Marheineke  for   Theology;    Savi^'iiy    ,,„.\ 
*li'niil/  for  Jurisprudence,   FrieillUndi  r"  K.ilil- 
r;iii».h    Ihifeland,  and  Hell  for  Mwlidnc .  Wolf, 
!l!!!!!;,ane.    !ti\r!=h.   Hriih'mff.  nnii  Hi.:ihii!,i.-  f,;r 
til.  .Study  of  Antl(|ulty;  .Nlebuhr  ami  lltili«  for 
History ;  Tralles  for  Mathi'malh-s  (Gnuwi  rcfum'd 
Uw  ioviuUuo).     The  University  was  c.|H.ned  at 


Michaelmas  of  1810,  and  as  the  first  tesult  of  it 
the  first  volume  of  Niebuhr's  lioman  Histjrr 
opening  so  vast  a  field  of  historical  speculation 
was  published  in  1811.  .  .  .  Altogetlier  in  that 
period  of  German  history  the  relations  of  litera- 
ture, or  rather  culture  in  general,  to  politics  are 
remarkable  and  exceptional.     There  had  been  a 
mostextraordinary  intellectual  movement  a  great 
outpouring  of  genius,  and  yet  this  had  taken 
place  not,  as  according  to  some  current  theories 
It  ought  to  have  done.  In  the  bosom  of  political 
liberty,  but  in  a  country  where  liberty  was  un- 
known,    And  as  it  was  not  the  effect,  so  the  new 
literature  did  not  seem  disposed  to  become  the 
cause  of  liberty.    Not  only  was  it  careless  of  In- 
ternal liberty,  but  it  was  actually  indifferent  to 
national  independence.     The  golden  age  of  Oer- 
man  literature  is  the  very  period  when  Germany 
was  conquered  by  France.  ...  So  far  literature 
ami  culture  seemed  a  doubtful  benefit,  and  might 
almost  be  compared  to  some  pernicious  drug 
which  should  have  the  power  to  make  men  for- 
get their  country  and  their  dutks.     Not  un- 
reasonably did  Friedrich  Perth-s  conso     himself 
for  the  dlsastera  of  Germany  by  retitctlng  that 
at  least  they  had  brought  to  an  end  '  the  paper 
time,'  the  fool's  paradUe  of  a  life  made  up  of 
nothing  more  substantial  than  literature      In 
tlumboldt's  reform  we  have  the  coraiiensatlon  for 
all  this.     Here  while  on  the  one  hand  we  see  the 
grand  spectai  le  of  a  nation  In  the  last  extremity 
refusing  to  part  with  the  treasun's  of  lu  higher 
life,  on  the  other  hand  that  higher  life  is  no  longer 
unnaturally  divorced  from  political  life.     It  is 
prizeil  as  one  of  the  bulwarks  of  the  Stale,  as  a 
kind  of  spiritual  weapon  by  which  the  enemy  may 
be  resisted.     And  In  the  new  and  public-spirited 
generation  of  thinkers,   of    which   Fichte    and 
Bchlelermacher  were  the   principal   representa- 
tives, culture  returns  to  politics  th<^  honour  that 
has  bi-en  done  to  It.  .  .  .  In  Humboldt  and  his 
great  aebievements  of  1809,  1810,  meet  and  are 
reconciled  the  two  views  of  life  which  found 
their  most  extri'iue  repn'senhitives  in  Goethe  and 
Stein.  "—,T.  H.  Sueley,  Life  and  Titntt  of  Stan. 
;.f.  «.  M.  3  (r.  a).  J      '<•. 

Pruisia :  A.  D,  1874.— The  Educational  Ad- 
ministration.—"There  is  no  organic  BcluKil-law  in 
I'russia,  .  .  .  though  sketches  and  projects  of 


such  a  law  have  more  thau  once  been  prepared. 
But  at  present  the  public  cimlri.l  of  the  higher 
schools  Isexereised  through  administrative  orders 


and  in.Ht ructions,  like  the  minutes  of  our  Com- 

">''<! f  Council  on  Kducatioii.     But  theadmin- 

Istralivi'  authority  li.is  in  I'russia  a  verv  different 
ba.sis  for  Its  openitions  from  that  wlilcli  It  has  in 
England,  and  a  mueli  limicrone.  It  has  for  its 
basis  these  articles  of  the  Allgemclne  Undrecht, 
or  eoinnum  law  of  I'russia,  which  was  drawn  up 
in  writing  In  Frederick  the  Greats  reign  and 
pronuiljtated  In  1794,  In  the  reign  of  his  suc- 
cessor:—' Schools  ami  universities  are  State  In- 
stitutions, having  for  their  object  the  Instruction 
of  youth  In  useful  and  siieiillHc  knowletlge. 
Sucli  establishments  are  to  Ik'  instituted  only 
wlilitlii' State's  previous  knowh-dgeand  consent. 
.\M  public  mhisils  and  public  esuihlishments  of 
eilucaiioii  are  under  the  Stale's  supervision,  and 
iiiusl  ut  nil  limes  submit  thenuH'lves  to  Its  exam. 
iri.uioii..  .>ii,|  liinpecliuiis.  Whriiever  liie  ap- 
poliitmeiit  of  tciulicrs  Is  not  l)y  virtue  of  the 
fouihlailon  or  of  n  specini  privlleire  vesuti  In 
certain  perwuu  or  corporations.  It  belongs  to  tha 


Wli; 


H 


743 


EDUCATION. 


The  PnuHan 
Moot  Suttem. 


EDUCATION. 


Hi 


ir 


State.  Even  where  the  immediate  (upervision 
of  Bticli  Khools  and  tlie  appnintment  of  tlieir 
teachers  is  committed  to  certain  private  persons 
or  corporations,  new  teacliers  cannot  be  appointed, 
and  important  clianges  in  the  constitution  and 
teaching  of  the  school  cannot  be  adopted  with- 
out the  previous  luowiedge  or  consent  of  the 
provincial  school  authorities.  The  teachers  in 
the  gymnasiums  and  other  higher  schools  have 
the  character  of  State  functionaries.'.  .  .  It 
would  be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  State  in 
Prussia  shows  a  grasping  and  centralising  spirit 
in  dealing  with  education;  on  the  contrary,  it 
makes  the  a<lministration  of  it  as  local  as  it  possibly 
can ;  but  it  takes  care  that  education  shall  not  be 
left  to  the  chapter  of  accidents.  .  .  .  Prussia  is 
now  divided  into  eight  provinces,  and  these  eight 
provinces  are  again  divided  into  twenty -six  gov- 
ernmental districts,  or  Ilcgierungen.  There  is 
a  Provincial  School  Board  (Provinzial-Schulcol- 
legium)  in  the  chief  town  of  each  of  the  eight 
provinces,  and  a  Qovemmentai  District  Board  in 
that  of  each  of  the  twenty-six  Regierungcn.  In 
general,  the  State's  relations  with  the  higher 
class  of  secondary  schools  are  exercised  through 
the  Provincial  Board ;  its  relations  with  the  lower 
class  of  them,  and  with  tin'  primary  schools, 
through  the  District  Board.  In  Berlin,  the  re- 
lations with  these  also  are  managed  by  the  Pro- 
vincial Boiinl.  A  Provinzial-Schulcolfegium  has 
for  its  president  the  High  President  of  the  pro- 
Tince;  for  Its  director  the  vice-president  of  that 
rovernmontal  district  which  happens  to  have  for 
ns  centre  the  provincial  capital.  The  Board  has 
two  or  three  other  members,  of  whom.  In  general, 
one  is  a  Catholic  and  one  is  a  Protestant:  and 
one  Is  always  a  man  practically  conversant  with 
school  matters.  The  District  Board  has  in  the 
pn  ivincial  capitals  the  same  president  and  director 
as  the  ProvinciHl  Hoard ;  in  the  other  centres  of 
Hegieriuigcn  it  has  for  its  president  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  IV'glcrung,  and  three  or  four  mem- 
bers selected  im  the  same  principle  as  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Provincial  Boanl.  The  provincial 
State  authority,  therefore.  Is,  In  general,  for 
gynmnsiunis,  the  larger  protjymnasiums,  and 
Kealschulrn  of  the  flnit  rank,  the  Provincial 
School  Boanli  for  the  smaller  progymnaaiums, 
Kcalschulen  of  the  second  r.ink,  tlie  higher 
Burgher  Schools,  and  the  primary  schools  of  all 
kin(lii,  the  (]ovrrnmental  Oistrirt  Boarii.  Both 
Ninrils  are  in  continual  communication  with  the 
Eilucationul  Minister  at  lierlin.  .  .  .  Besides  the 
central  and  provincial  administration  there  is  a 
tiH'al  or  nuinicipal  admlnlptratlon  for  schix)ls  that 
•re  not  Crown  patronage  schools.  ...  In  most 
towns  the  liwal  authority  forschoolsof  municipal 
patroniige  is  the  town  muglstracy,  aasiNtcd  by  ii 
BtaiilKi  hulrath  i  sometimes  the  hJcal  authority  is 
k  Curalorium or  Schulicitnmlsslon."— M.  Ariinid, 
Ui'jhtr  Srtiii-J»  nml  I'nirrrtilirt  in  OrrnMnfi.  eh. 
8 -l-"The  wi-ondary  sclioul  differs  from  the  ele- 
mentary mliools  by  a  counteof  iiiatrucllon  going 
beyond  the  lmni<-illate  demands  of  everyday 
life,  fp>m  the  sixiial  schiH)!,  by  the  more  gen- 
eral character  of  the  courses  of  instruction:  fiom 
the  unlvi-rslty,  liv  its  pri-paratory  character.  It 
ha*  the  •peclal  aim  l<i  give  that  sound  basis  of 
sclent  illc  and  literary  iwlucatlon  which  enables  a 
ms:i  ?.••  f-nrtlfifrStp  In  --'ving  >h>=  hfgh'T  prr.b- 
Vms  nf  life  in  church,  state,  ami  society.  In 
accordance  with  their  historical  development, 
two  diractioiia  can  be  cleariy  tracnl,  via.,  the 


gymnasium  and  the  real-school:  the  former  com. 
prising  gymnasia  and  pro-gymnasia;  and  the  lat- 
ter real-schoolsof  the  first  class,  real-schools  of  the 
second  class,  and  higher  burgher-schools.  "—Ilitt. 
of  Seeondary  Irutruetiim  in  Oermany  {If.  S.  Ilii- 
nau  of  Education.  Oireulanoflnfor.iation,  1KT4. 
no.  3),  p.  41. — "The name  gymnasium  came  into 
use  as  early  as  the  sixteenth  century.  "The 
ministerial  decree  of  the  12th  of  November,  1812, 
ordered  that  all  learned  school  institutions,  surh 
as  lyceums,  pedagogiums,  collegiums,  I.atin 
schools,  etc.,  ihould  biear  the  name  gymna.sium. 
A  gymnasium  is  and  has  long  been  a  classical 
school." — U.  8.  Comm'r  of  Education,  Kejxtrt, 
1889-90,  p.  818. 

Also  m:  V.  Cousin,  Report  on  the  >>■!',■  nf 
ptiMie  irutruetion  in  I'muia. 

Pruuia:  A.  D.  l885-t8to.— The  Elemental; 
School-Syitem.— "  "The  New  Yorker,  luiximis 
for  a  high  degree  of  perfection  in  the  elenicntury 
schools  of  his  State,  must  be  struck  forcibly  liy 
the  following  merits  of  the  Elementary  Schixil 
System  of  Prussir  ...  1.  Compulsory  educHtion 
laws,  necessitatiLg  a  .ull  and  n-giilar  attcmlunce 
of  the  children  of  school  age.  3.  Othciuhnurses 
of  study  fixing  the  work  to  be  accoinplNhiil  In 
each  of  thfl  different  grades  of  schiM)ls.  I'ni- 
formlty  is  '.fas  secured  in  the  work  doin'  in  all 
schools  of  the  same  class.  3.  Definite  (iu»lji1i'.'t- 
tions  and  experience  in  teaching  for  elijjihility 
to  the  office  of  scliool  commissioner.  4.  I'riivl- 
slons  elevating  teaching  to  the  dignitv  of  :\  pro- 
fession and  mnking  the  tenure  of  olflrc  secure. 
6.  Trained  teachers  in  niral  as  well  ih  dty 
districts  and  a  schix)!  year  of  at  least  fnrty 
weeks.  6.  0<'neml  supervision  of  instru<i  ion  for 
children  of  school  age  In  private  scIuhiIs  .iiid 
families,  including  the  qualifications  of  instriKt- 
ors.  .  .  .  Every  Prussian chilillK'tween  t|]i' iii;!* 
of  6  and  14  must,  except  in  cases  of  scvrn'  ill- 
ness or  other  extraordinary  cause,  l«!  pn  sent  at 
every  session  of  the  school  he  atlrnils  Tin'  lists 
of  the  children  of  school  age,  in  cliHrjri'  nf  the 
local  police  (In  rural  districts  the  Burgcnmi.slfrt, 
are  kept  so  carefully  that  It  is  impossitilc  toes- 
cap*!  the  provisions  of  the  compulsory  eilucntiim 
laws,  as  much  so  as  it  is  to  evade  the  Miilii»ry 
service  Dispensations  amounting  to  nn  ri>  thin 
four  weeks  In  the  school  year  are  never  L'iven  lo 
children  under  13  years  of  Hge.  ami  In  lliein  "iily 
when  sickness  in  the  family  nr  nilier  iiiiMsn.il 
cause  make  it  advisable.  .  .  .  Inonler  iiiindi  r 
stanil  the  qualifications  required  of  schonl  i  nm- 
mlssloners(KreiHschullnspeKtoren)lii  I'nissi.i,  Id 
us  review  briefly  the  reqidn'miiiis  ,.f  mule 
tt'achers.  1.  Elci'nentary  schiniN  It  imy  lie 
stated  at  the  outset  that  almost  nil  the  luile  elc- 
meutarv  school  teachers  are  noi  nml  si  li(«il  ltuIu- 
ntcs.  To  Insun-  similarity  In  triinini;  :inil  a 
thoMU(;h  knowledge  of  cluiracter.  few  fori  ii'iun 
nml  few  iK'slde nonnal  scIumiI  (Hihullelin  r  N  »il- 
tiar)  graduates  are  admitted  to  the  mule  ti  u  liiiiij 
fonc.  From  6  to  14  the  wouhllie  ten  her  li  is  it 
tendeil,  let  usstippose.  an  elementary  w  hi«>l  Me 
must  then  absolve  the  three  veiirs'  cmipii  hiid 
down  for  the  preparatory  schoofs.  .  .  .  llrlsnmf 
ready  for  the  normal  bcIumiI  At  the  i  lose  "f  a 
three  yeara'  course  at  the  normal  school  lie  Is  :\'\- 
milted  to  the  first  teachers'  cxamlnatliiti     11  «iie 

,-.-.ssf:i!      h.'    mi:=f    ncit   pr.M!i!-.-   ss  i:l!!;!!i!;Lte  or 

assistant  teacher  not  less  than  two  years  >in  I  imt 
more  than  five  years  U-fon'  his  adnii»>iliin  ti  lbs 
flnal  teat.  .  .  .  U  a  leMber  (ails  to  |mm>  the  ex 


44 


EDUCATION. 


iVuMten 
Sdkool  AoMiKct. 


EDUCATION. 


aminttlon  within  flre  yean,  he  is  dropped. 
Middle  KhooU.    For  teachers  of  lower  cIl 
the   same  lequirements  with  the  addition   of 
ability  to  teach  a  foreign  tongue,   or  natural 
history  in  its  broadest  sense,  and  the  attainment 
of  the  mark  '  good  '  in  all  subjecU  at  the  final 
examination.  .  .  .  For  higher  classes,  a  special 
examination  provided  for  middle  school  teachers. 
.  .  .  There  is  really  no  gradation  between  ele- 
mentary and  middle  schools.     The  latter  merely 
go  on  somewhat  further  with  elementary  school 
work,  introducing  French,  Latin  and  English. 
3.  High  schools   (Rcalscbulen,  Realgrmnasien, 
I^rogymnasien  and  Oymnaaien).    All  high  school 
teachers,  except  those  engaged  in  technical  de- 
partments, must   first  absolve  the   nine  years' 
gymnasia!  course,  which  commences  at  the  close 
of  the  third  school  year.     Next  comes  the  uni- 
versity course  of  three  or  four  years.     The  can- 
didate is  now  ready  for  the  State  examination. 
The  subjects  for  this  State  examination  ...  are 
divided  into  four  classes:    1.  The  ancient  lan- 
guages and  German ;  2.  Mathematics  and  uutuml 
sciences;  8.  History  and  geography ;  4.   lieligion 
and  Hebrew.    At  the  close  of  one  year's  practice 
to  test  teaching  capacity  he  receives  a  second 
certificate  and  is  thercupotj  engaged  proviition- 
ally.  .  .  .    The  school    c    nmissioners  ...  are 
either  former  regular  hi.,     school  teachers,  gen- 
eral doctors  of  phikwophv  or  more  rarely  theo- 
logians, or  former  normal  school  teachers.     All 
must  have  had  practical  eX[)erience  in  teaching, 
.  .  .  The  work  to  Ite  accomplished  in  each  Prus- 
sian elementarv  sch(M>l  is  definitely  laid  down  by 
law.     Each  school  is  not  a  law  unto  itself  as  to 
what  shall  be  done  and  when  and  how  this  is 
to   be  done.     I  have  learned  by  practical  ex- 
perience that  the  work  in  ungraded  schools  com- 
psres    most    favorably    with    that    of    graded 
wliools."— J.   H.  Parsons.  Jr.,  Prutinn  tirhoala 
t/iruugh  Ameriean  eye*,  eh.  1,  tet.  ft-10  —  Prus- 
siiui  elementary  schools  are  now  free.     "  lu  this 
ns|Hia  Prussia  has  passed  through  three  stages. 
I  iHler  the  first  elementary  schools  were  entirely 
Klf  supporting;  under  the  second  they  received 
Smteald,  but  wore  still  largely  self-Hup|H)rtlng ; 
iiniler  the  IhirtI,  Laws  of  1888  and  188tf,  element- 
iiry  schools  were  iiiiulv  frvc  and  the  State  pays 
a  liircer  proiHirtion  of  the  cost  of  maintenance. 
Districts  must  pay  for  repairs,  new  buildings 
ami  cost  of  heating.     If  unwilling  to  provide 
lirciper  accumniodatlons  for  the  children  of  school 
«»ie,  they  can  be  forcetl  by  the  govermnent  to  do 
*><      Poor  districts  may  n     i   ,    B|Kcittl  govern- 
imnt  Hill  to  meet  such  exlnll.■>l.^       .   .  The  direct 
aim  cif  the  laws  of  June  14,  IN»».  and  .March  31, 
1M»,  was  to  lighten  the  burden  of  local  Uxatloii 
fur  mIhkiIs  for  children  of  scIuhiI  Hgc      These 
ia'VH  have  had  a  Umptlclal  effect  lu  Increasing 
slightly  the  wages  of  teachers.     Teacher..'  wila- 
riis  are  still  quite  Hinnll  In  i'ruiwia,  |«rtii  ularly 
in  llie  i^aae  of  females.    Allowanis'sare  giiierallv 
11111,1,.  for  hous<'  n^nt  and  fuel.    Teiich<-r«  in  runil 
ilislriets  arv  pMvidtnl  with  a  house  and  ganli  it. 
I  heir  salaries  arc  ofu-n  not  much  more  than  Imlf 
tlDse  paid  city  teachers  of  the  same  graile,  and 
.vel.  as  rcganls  pMli^ssional  training  and  char 
niter  of    work,    they   an'   fully   eiiual    lo  clly 
t<»rlier».  .  .   .  Tlie   average   annual    salary   re 
■  .•ivuil  ij.  tsacbers  m  Pnisiiain  !•'<-•*«  a-sif'^,;  .v> 
The  averave  fur  the  same  year  in  New  York  was 
fliW.87.    The    Prussian  ieauher,   however,   re- 
•elvod  fuel  kud  dwelling  free,  in  addiUtn  to  iiii 


regular  laUry.  ...  In  1885  the  population  of 
Prussia  was  28,318,470,  and  the  total  cost  of 
public  education  per  caput  was  |1.7717.  Drs. 
Schneider  and  Pelersilie  of  Berlin,  in  '  Preussische 
Statistik  101, 'published  in  1889,  reckon  the  total 
cost  for  1888,  excluding  army  and  navy  schools 
at  150.192.857.  ...  In  Prussia,  elementa-y  in- 
struction is  the  first  consideration.  The  resolu- 
tion adopted  by  the  national  assembly  (Landtae) 
December  22.  1870,  is  a  gcxxi  Illustration  of  thfi. 
It  was  at  the  very  crisis  of  the  Franco-German 
war,  yet  the  Landtag  called  on  the  government 
to  increase  the  number  of  normal  schools  and  the 
capacity  of  those  already  existing,  and  '  thus  to 
put  an  end  to  the  practice  of  filling  up  u>achen' 

vacancies     bv    annnlmimr     iin....„11«„l     :-.i:..ij 


vacancies    by  appointing    unquallfil^  "indi'vid- 
— J-    "•.  Parsons,   Jr.,    Pnutian  Sehoolt 


uals  . .    _.. „,„^ 

through    Ameriean    eye*,    eh.   1,    tect     15-17  _ 
••Throughout  Prussia  there  is  now  one  school- 
room and  one  teacher  to  44fi  itiliabitants  and  78.8 
children  actually  attending'  ,s,  Ii,k)1.     This  showi 
that  there  arc  far  too  few  teachers.    But  the  gov- 
ernment and  the  cities  have  recently  devoted  con- 
siderable sums  to  the  establishment  of  new  places 
for  Uachers,  so  that,  in  thuvear  1881,  there  were 
10,000  more    teachers  working    in   the    public 
schools  than  In  1878.   The  salaries  of  the  teachers 
were  also  raised.     The  average  payment  in  the 
country  is  854  marks.  In  the  cities  1,430  marks. 
.  ,  ,  The  expense  of  maintaining  the  Prussian 
national  schools  amounU  annually  to  about  102  - 
000.000  of  marks,  43,000.000  of  which  are  paid 
by  the  cities.     One  hundred  and  ten  colleges  for 
the  training   of  teachers  are    now  engaged  in 
the  education  of  male  and   female  instructors 
with  an  attendance  of  9,893  pupils ;  that  is,  there 
U  one  pupil  to  every  2,758  inhabilants.     In  the 
case  of  the  female  teachers  only,  a  considerable 
degree  of  assistance  is  rendered  by  private  Insti- 
tutions.   .  .  .    The  intcrmediaty  scIiikiIs  esUb- 
lished  in   1872,  and  n-cently  eonverteii  Into  the 
higher  citizen  schools,   form  a  transition  from 
the  national  schools  to  the  higher  schools.    These 
tench  religion.  German,  Frencli,  Kn»:llsli,  history 
and    geography,   arithmetic    and    mathenitttlcs, 
natural  history  and  physics,  writing,  lirawing 
singing,  and  gymnastics.     The  course  cinliracts 
sin  years  without  Latin,   with  the  privilege  of 
one  year's  service  in  the  arm v  lusteiul  of  ■',,  .. 
CoinplenienUry    to  the  natii'mal  s<liool    ,        ic 
finUhing  wins,!     There  are  a  l.irge  ni,mi,w  in 
I»russiii.   nuniely.  1,2«1  with  fl8,7««  pupiN    617 
with  lo.au.")  lu  the  country,  iiu,l  (144  with  5«<  371 
in  the  cities.     <  »f  these  644.34J  an'  oliliguiory  by 
local  statutes,  302  are  optioii,!      Hlnei-  the  law 
of  1(^78  ap,'i  liil  care  h.isl)eeu  ,i,  voted  lo  the  cora- 
Jiulsory   educatiiiu  of    orphaned   children,   .   ,   . 
file  pnpariitory  instruellon  of  femiile  teaehera 
leav.smurli  to  be  dmired"— F.  Kirehner,  r'ua- 
temfnifu  /.lumliMuU  Tlwuyht  in  I'ruuia  («/«• 
eatiMMl  11,1.,  .Way,  1891).  — ■■  About  25  per  cent, 
of  all  the  teachers  In  pi.   .c  middle  sthools  are 
women,    hence  .  .  .    »„  .,n   hold   positions  in 
llie«'  BihiHila  III. .re  frequently  than  in  the  lower, 
the  iMirely  elementary,  schiMils  of  the  kingdom. 
The  cn'aU'St  ratio  of  women  teaehern  in  I'rissia  li 
found  In  privaU!  uiiildle  »<'hools,  where  8,422  of 
3, 1'.>«(ornearlyHO  |)ereent.)ar<' wcmien,  .'.  .   In 
all  the  public  schools  of  Prussia  (ek-nientory,  mld- 
,llf.  iilh!  srCrrBdrtf j i  only  10,300  wonitU  («Mviieti 
were  employed  |18«7).  or  14^  per  cent,  of  all  the 
tcacliers  In  the  kingdom    .  .  .   Before  tlie  nubile 
•diuols  u(  Dm  kiogdum  bad  the  core  and  doM 


745 


im 


I 


EDUCATION. 


m 


m 


m' 


[; 


Scottith  Schoolt 
and  Cnivenitiet. 


EDUCATION. 


supervision  on  the  part  of  the  state  which  they 
have  now,  many  more  private  schools  were  in 
existence  than  at  present.  During  the  last  2S 
years  the  private  scliools  have  not  Increased  In 
numbers,  but  perceptibly  decreased." — U.  8. 
Commr  of  E<iucation,  Beport,  1888-90.  pp.  887- 
289. 

Ri-Mia. — "After  serfdom  had  been  abolished, 
the  Lmperor  Alexander  TI.  saw  that  the  Indis- 
pnsablc  consequence  of  this  great  reform  must 
\k  a  thorough  rcorganiz  .tion  of  public  instruc- 
tion. In  18B1  a  comr.ittee  was  appointed  to 
drnv  up  tlie  plan  of  *  1  iw.  In  1882  M.  Taneef 
submitted  to  the  Empcior  a  'General  plan  for 
the  organization  of  popular  education,'  which 
contained  some  very  excellent  points.  The  re- 
sult wa.1  tlip  Oencral  Regulations  of  1864,  which 
are  still  in  force.  .  .  .  The  difflculties  which  a 
compli'te  norgaiii/.ation  of  popular  education 
meets  in  Hussia  uie  enormous.  They  are  prin- 
cipally eiiused  by  the  manner  in  which  the  in- 
habitants live,  seattercd  over  a  large  extent  of 
country,  and  by  their  extreme  poverty.  .  .  . 
The  density  of  population  is  so  small  that  there 
an."  only  13.6  inli»l>itunts  to  one  square  kilometer 
(2|  sqiiare  kilometers  to  1  square  mile),  instead 
of  t!U  as  in  France.  Under  these  circumstances 
only  the  children  from  the  center  hamlet  and 
tlinse  living  ncan-st  to  it  could  attend  school 
reirularly.  especially  during  the  winter-months. 
Tlie  rctnainder  of  the  inhabitants  would  pay 
their  dues  without  having  any  benefit,  which 
would  neees.sarily  foster  discontent.  As  Prince 
Uagarin  siiys.  '  It  has,  therefore,  not  been  pos- 
sil)li;  to  make  education  in  Russia  compulsory, 
as  in  (Jerniany,  nor  even  to  enforce  the  establish- 
ment of  a  s(h(Mil  in  each  community.'  It  Is 
doubtless  impossible  at  present  to  intrmluee  into 
Russia  llie  eduritional  systems  of  the  western 
countrirs  " — i),  lU  '  aveliye,  ProrfriM  of  Kihicit- 
tion  in  ll'imtiiiiC.  -  Itnrntu  of  f-jhtrtition,  fir- 
euliirK  of  /nforrii'r    o,  1H7,1,  „o'.  ii),  ;,/).  'M-'.Vi. 

Scotland.  he  existiii:;  system  of  e<lucation 

In  Seollan!  .;i  (mteome  iif  causes  deeply  in- 
Vdlved  in  till  pcilitiealund  reliitious  history  of  tlie 
country.  .  .  .  This  system  was  pni  eded  by  a 
complieateil  varlet}'  of  ecturalional  agencies,  of 
which  till'  cliief  wen'  Jiarisli  .schools,  founded  upon 
a  statute  of  ItMfl,  which  was  revived  and  niaile 
operative  In  ItHM).  I'arish  and  burgh  schools, 
BUpporteil  by  local  funds  and  by  tuition  fees, 
made  up  tliepiiblic  provision  for  education.  In 
addition  ilii  n?  wen'  schools  partly  maintained  by 
parllainehiary  u'rants.  mission  and  sessional 
schools  innintained  by  tlie  Established  C'hureli  and 
llie  Kri  e  Chun  li,  and  other  paniclilal  anil  private 
KcliKols  I'arish  and  burgh  schools  carried  In- 
stnietlon  to  the  level  of  the  universities,  wlilc' 
were  easily  accessible  to  all  classes.  The  (i'\te  of 
the  passage  of  the  '  Hcolch  Education  Act  (1872) 
was  oppiirtiine  for  the  organization  of  the.se  vari- 
ous agencies  into  a  system  maintained  by  t'.ie 
romliineii  action  of  the  Oovemment  and  local 
aiitliorities  In  framing  the  Mcotch  act  care  was 
taken,  as  in  framing  tlie  English  ai  t  two  years 
Ihfon'.  to  guard  the  rights  of  tlie  (lovemment 
with  r.  >|H'et  to  funds  appropriated  fnmi  the 
piiblii  tressury.  At  the  same  time  equal  caf« 
was  siiiiwn  for  the  preservation  of  the  Scotch 
Ifls'ii!  'I'his  v.-:!^  a  !ir:«(!  ntiti  rniuprehenaivr 
I'leal.  embracing  the  different  gnuics  of  seho. 
laslic   «iirk  .  This  ideal   (liffcrenliales   the 

(W'olch   act   fMin   the    Ku{[lisb    act   iMWtsI   two 


years  before.  The  latter  related  to  elententary 
schools  exclusively;  the  former  has  a  wider 
scope,  providing  the  foundations  of  a  system  of 
gradeil  schools  correlated  to  the  universities 
whicli  lie  Iieyond  its  province.  Witli  respect  to 
the  interestsof  the  Government,  the  two  acts  are 
substantially  the  same.  .  .  .  For  the  general 
direction  of  the  system  a  Scotch  educational  de- 
partment was  created,  composed,  like  the  Eng- 
lish department,  of  lords  of  the  privy  council, 
and  having  the  same  president.  .  .  .  Tlic  act 
ordcre<i  every  parent  to  secure  the  Instruction  of 
his  children  bctwecen  the  ages  of  5  and  13,  or 
until  a  certificate  of  exemption  should  be  se. 
cured.  Parents  failing  in  this  obligation  are  siiii. 
jeit  to  prosecution  and  penalty  by  fine  or  imprisun- 
meut.  The  compulsory  provision  extends  to 
blind  children.  Parochial  or  burglial  authori- 
ties were  authorized  to  pay  the  tuition  fees  of 
those  children  whose  parents  could  not  meet  the 
expenditure,  a  provision  rendered  unnecessary 
by  the  recent  remission  of  all  fees.  The  Scoicli 
act,  by  n  sweeping  clause,  made  compulsory  at- 
tendance universuT;  the  Englisli  act  left  the  mat- 
ter of  compulsion  to  Uwal  managers.  A  subse- 
quent act  (1878)  fixed  the  standard  of  exeniptiim 
in  Scotland  at  the  fifth  [grade,  or  year  of  study], 
which  pupils  should  pass  at  U  years  of  age. 
In  1883,  the  'ipjicr  limit  of  compulsory  attend. 
ance  in  ''iiitiand  was  raised  to  U  years  .  .  . 
The  universities  of  S<'otland  have  iK-cn  more  in- 
timately nlati'd  to  the  life  of  the  common  people 
than  those  of  any  other  country.  In  this  re- 
sp»"ct,  even  mon'  if  possible  than  ic.  their  cnii>tl- 
tution,  they  pnsent  a  marked  contrast  i.i  the 
Englisli  universities.  To  their  (hmocralic  spirit 
may  1k'  traeiil  many  of  the  cliariieteristies  whii  h 
dirfenntlate  tlie  Scotch  people  and  policies  fnun 
those  of  England.  To  their  widespnail  inllii- 
encc,  to  tiic  amiiitions  whiih  they  awukinnl, 
and  the  opportunities  which  tliev  brought  within 
the  riacli  of  the  whole  liody  of  Scottish  ynulli  is 
due,  in  large  measuri',  the  independent  and  liun- 
ortilile  part  that  Scotland  hasplaycilin  thehiMnry 
of  the  United  Kingdom.  Tliis  popular  eliamitiT 
of  the  universiH"S  has  Ih'cii  foslercii  by  tlu'  eiirric- 
ulum  of  the  cc  .itnon  scIkmiIs,  by  the  easy  imssiije 
fmmlhesclKxils  to  Ihebigher  institutimis;  liy  iju! 
inexpensive  misle  of  sirdent  life  in  the  uninri-ily 
towns,  and  bv  the  gn'iit  niimlHr  of  si  hulir^liip 
funds  available  for  the  )  isir.  These  iii'iililimis, 
however,  have  not  iH'er.  witliout  their  dismlvan- 
tacis.  Of  these,  tile  chief  are  the  Ion- i  ntrauie 
slanilanls  and  the  consi'iiuent  forcing  nf  pri  para- 
liiry  Instruiiioii  upon  tlie  university  prfe'^scrs. 
.  ,".  .^s  a  risull  of  liingenntinueil  ilTurts  n 
Scotch  universities  act  was  passed  in  l^-"'.!  This 
act  jiriivliled  for  the  reorganization  of  I  lie  fmir 
universities;  for  tlie  elevation  of  their  stainlunls; 
the  enriihnient  of  their  curricula,  and  the  in- 
crease iif  their  n'sources.  .  .  The  Smtrli  mil' 
versities  have  taken  part  in  the  jiopiilar  nuive- 
ments  of  tlie  last  ilecaih'.  They  inaliiliiin  l"r:d 
examinations  for  seeondary  scIumiW  ami  simlints. 
St  .Vndn'ws  bus  lieen  particularly  ai  live  in  pro- 
moting  the  higher  education  of  "»..itien.  having 
institulecl  the  s|H'iial  degree  of  I.  I.  .\.  (lailv 
literate  In  arts).  Edinburgh  also  gnuils  a .  erliti- 
c«(i  In  arts  to  women  Alxnleeii  has  reeeiitly 
appjiluti'd  a  lecturer  on  c.luciti.'n  foHowinff 
thus  the  pn'ciilent  set  by  Edinburgh  ami  St. 
Andrews.  The  four  iinlversltiea  are  unitati  in  a 
■chenui  of  university  exleusiun."— U.  8.  Cum- 


746 


BDUCATION. 


AwdM 
cmd  atHu  School: 


EDUCATION. 


mlMiODer  of  EducatloD,  Beport,  1880-80,  t.l.pp. 
188—207. 

Sweden. — "Sweden  has  two  ancient  and  fa- 
moui  universitieB— Upsala  and  Lund.  That  of 
Lund  is  In  the  Bouth  part  of  the  kingdom  and 
when  founded  was  on  Danish  territory.  The  in- 
'^l^'^J"""  "*  esutea  is  about  178,000  rix-dollarB 
(•46,815)  per  annum.  It  also  receives  yearly  aid 
from  the  state.  In  1867  it  had  75  professors  and 
tutors,  and  400  students.  Upsala  is  the  larircr 
university,  located  at  the  old  town  of  that  name 
—  the  ancient  capital  of  Sweden  —  an  hour  and  a 
half  by  rail  north  of  Stockholm.  It  has  100  pro- 
fessors ttud  tutors,  and  1,449  studenta,  an  increase 
of  131  over  the  year  186B.  .  .  .  This  university 
had  iu  begmning  as  an  institution  of  learning  as 
far  back  as  1250.  In  1488  it  had  one  academic 
professorship,  and  was  dedicated  as  an  univer- 
sity in  1477.  Its  principal  endowment  ivas  by 
Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1684,  when  he  donated  to 
it  all  of  the  estate  in  lands  that  he  po-wiv-.d 
amounting  in  all  to  300  farms."— C.  C.  Auilr  vs, 
Kept,  on  ths  Bduciitional  Syttem  of  Sweden  ( (  .s' 
Bureau  of  Bducativn,  dreulart  of  Tnformativn 
Ju^,  1871). 

Switxerland.— "The  influence  of  the  Refor- 
mation, and,  in  the  following  age,  of  the  Jesuit 
reaction,  gave  to  Switzerland,  as  to  Germany,  its 
original  and  fundamental  means  and  agencies  of 
national  education,  and  impressed  also  upon  the 
population  H  !il>it  of  dutiful  regani  for  schools 
-d  learning      It  was   not,  however,  till  forty 
.   rs  ago  thai   the  modem  education  of  Swit- 
'•rland  was  organized.      'The   great   develop- 
r.cnt  of  public  (•ducatlon    in    Switzeriand  '  to 
quiite  Mr.  Kay,  •dates  from  1832,  after  the  over- 
throw of  tin-  old  oli,{,,rthical  forms  of  cantonal 
EovcTiiiiieut  and  thi-  cstablislmient  of  the  present 
deni()<ratic  forms.'    Zurich.  Ijiusanne,  and  Ge- 
neva take  the  lead  In  t^witzerland  as  centres  of 
ediKMlional  influence.     Thi'  cuntiin  in  which  the 
work  of  ediinitioiial  reform  began  was  Zttriih 
The  inKlrument  of  the  nfomi.  rather  thi' 
rivolution,  was  Sclierr,  a  trained  school-teacher 
fnim  WUrtemlxTL'.  a  teacher,  in  particular,  of 
deaf  mutes  to  speak  articulately.     This  man  in- 
itiated in  Ztirlcli  the  new  scheme  and  work  of 
education,  aii.l    founded  the  flm  Tminiiig  Col- 
lege     lie        s   I.H)ked   upon   l)y  the  oligarchs, 
partly  feu.i  ..i.sts,  and  partly  manufactun'r!).  as 
a  dangerous  revolutiotiist,  and  was  .-xlled  from 
Zllriili.     Hut  now  a  monument  to  his  iiiemory 
adorns  the  rity.      The   work   which   he   began 
could  not  be  suppressed  or  arrested.     Zurich  lias 
ever  since  taken  the  lead  in  education  among  the 
t^nlons  of  Switzerland.    Derived  originally  from 
0<'rmany,  \\w  system  is  substanttafiv  identical 
with  that  r)f  Germany.   .  .  .  The  principles  and 
melhiKis    an'    substantially     alike    throughout 
There  are,  tlrst,  the  communal  schools— these  of 
cours<'  in  largest  number— one  to  every  village 
even  for  every  small  hamlet,  provided  and  main- 
tained, wholly  or  chiefly,  by  the  commune:  then' 
are  burgher  schools  In  towns.  Including  eli'ment- 
itry.  real,  and  superior   schiH)ls,   supported   by 
Ihe  towns;  there  an'  cantonal  schools  —  gymns- 
Ma  and   Indu.strlal   or  U'chnical  schools  —  sun. 
Bortid  by  the  btate,  that  Is,  by  the  canton     Then' 
Is  often  a  t'untonal    University,      Then'   Is  of 
ewursc  a  Cantonal  Trajnini;  skhoo!  or  C!!!!!-:.'!' 
and  there  are  InstltuU'S  of'various'kinds.      I'li. 
ttntonal  Universlllet,  however,  are  cjn  a  small 
•no  eoooomical  Male;  at  yet  there  ia  no  Ted.  ml 


University.  School  life  in  Switzerland  is  ■my 
long,  from  six  to  fourteen  or  fifteen,  and  for  all 
who  are  to  f  jliow  a  profession,  from  fifteen  to 
twenty -two.  "-J.  H.  Rigg,  National  EdwxUvm. 
en,  4. 

Hodem:  Asiatic  Couatrifs. 
China.— -"  Every  step  in  the  process  of  teach- 
ing is  fixed  by  unalterable  usage.    So  much  Is 
this  the  case,  that  in  describing  one  school  I  de- 
scnbe  all,  and  in  tracing  the  steps  of  one  student 
I  point  out  the  course  of  all ;  for  in  China  there 
are  no  new  methods  or  short  roads.     In  other 
countnes,  a  teacher,  even  in  the  primary  course, 
finds  r.>om  for  tact  and  originality.    In  those 
who  dislike  study,  a  love  of  it  is  to  be  inspired  by 
making  -knowledge  pleasant  to  the  taste';  and 
the  dull  apprehension  is  to  be  awakened   by 
striking    and  apt  illustrations.  ...    In  China 
there  is  nothing  of  this.    The  land  of  uniformity 
all  processes  in  crtsond  letters  are  as  much  fixed 
by  universal  custom  as  is  the  cut  of  their  gar- 
ments or  the  mcxie  of  wearing  their  hair.     The 
pupils  all   tread  the  path  tnnlden  by  their  an- 
cestors of    a  thousand    years  ago,    nor  bus  it 
grown  smoother  by  the  attrition  of  so  many  feet 
1  he  undergraduate  course  mav  be  divideil  into 
thne  stages,  in  ea<liof  which  tliereare  t-o  lead- 
ing studies:     In  the  first  the  occupations  of  the 
student  are  committing  to  nieiiiorv  (not  reading) 
the  canonical  Ixioks  and  writing  in  infinitude  of 
diversely  formed  characters,  as  a  manual  exer- 
cise.    In  the  sciond,  they  are  the  translation  of 
his  text  books  (I,  e.,  nading),  and  lessons  in  com- 
position.    In  the  third,  they  an'  Ullcs  lettres  and 
the  composition  of  essays.     Nothing  could  Ih; 
more  <lrear)-  than  the  labors  of  th,.  ilrst  stage 
[   ,  .  .  tvinthestiinulusofcompanionsliip  In  study 
is  usually  denied,  the  adviuitagis  n'sulting  from 
the  formation  of  classes  Ik  ing  as  little  apprecialed 
i.s  lhos«'  of  other  labor  K,'iviiig  machinery.     Each 
pupil  reads  and  writes  alone,  the  penaltv  for  fat'- 
ure  iK'ingBomany  blows  with  the  ferule'or  kneel- 
ing for  so  nniny  minutes  on  the  mugh  brick  pave- 
ment which  serves  for  a  ficHir     At  this  pericul 
fear  is  the stniiigesi  motive addnsscd  to  the  mind 
of  the  scholar.      .  .  This  arctic  winter  of  mo- 
notonous toll  once  passed,  a  nion  aus|iicjiius  sea- 
son dawns  on  the  ynnthful  iindcrst.imlinc      The 
key  of  the  cabala  w  huh  he  h.'is  U'l'ii  s<i  |o.     and 
so  lilimlly  acquiring  is  put  into  his  harid.s     He  Is 
Initiated  m  the  translation  nnd  eximsilioii  of  thosn 
sacred    b.niks  whit  h  he  I     I    previously  storeil 
away  in  his  meiiinry.  .  i,,.  light  however  is 

let  in  but  spariu.L'ly,  as  through  chinks 

and  nils   in  the  loni;  sige.     A  simple 

chanu  Icr  hen'  u:'(l  thci  lined,  and  then 

It  may  be  afli  r  tlie  lajis.  year  or  two,  the 

teai  her  pron  cds  to  the  e.x,  ,tion  of  entire  sen- 
tence s  .Now  for  the  first  time  the  mind  of  the 
stiiili  lit  begins  lo  tnKe  In  the  thoughts  of  those 
hi'  has  been  taught  to  regani  us  tile  oracles  of 
wisdom.  The  value  of  this  exenise  can 

hardly  Im-  overestimated.  When  Judldously  em- 
ployed It  diM'S  for  the  Chinese  what  translation 
into  and  out  of  the  dead  languages  of  the  west 
does  for  ua  It  calls  into  play  memory,  judg- 
menl.  taste,  and  gives  him  a  command  of  his  own 
virnacular  which.  It  Is  safe  to  assert,  he  would 
;:ever  se-foin.  in  ^ny  vl!,-f  whv.  ...  The  finit 
step  In  1  .iniiMisition  Is  the  yoking  together  of 
iliiiible  chsraeters  The  xcoiid  Is  the  reduplica- 
tion of  these  binary  compounds  and  ttMOOBStruo 


'111 


EDUCATION. 


HCkltt. 


BDDCATION. 


tioD  of  parallels — an  idea  which  runs  lo  com- 
pletely through  the  whole  of  Chineie  literature 
that  th°  miiKTof  the  student  requires  to  be  im- 
bued with  it  at  the  very  outset.  This  is  the  way 
he  begins:  The  teacher  writes,  '  wind  blows,'  the 
pupil  adds,  '  rR'n  falls ' ;  the  teacher  writes, '  rivers 
are  long,'  the  pupil  adds,  'seas  are  deep,'  or 
'  mountains  are  high, '  &c.  From  the  simple  sub- 
ject and  pnHiicate,  which  in  their  rude  grammar 
they  describe  as  '  dead '  and  '  living '  characters, 
the  teacher  conducts  his  pupil  to  more  complex 
forms,  in  which  qualifying  wotds  and  phrases 
are  introduced.  lie  gives  as  a  model  some  such 
phrase  as  '  The  Emperor's  grace  is  vast  as  heaven 
anu earth,'  and  the  lad  matches  it  by  'The  Sov- 
ereign's fa  vol'  is  profound  as  lake  and  sea. '  These 
couplets  often  contain  two  propositions  in  each 
member,  accompanied  by  all  the  usual  modifying 
terms;  and  so  exact  is  the  symmetry  required 
by  the  rules  of  the  art  tlmt  not  onlj  must  noun, 
verb,  adjective,  and  particle  respond  to  each 
other  with  scrupulous  exactness,  but  '.le  very 
tones  of  tlie  characters  are  adjusted  to  each 
other  with  the  precision  of  mu.sic.  Begun  with 
the  first  strokes  of  his  untaught  pencil,  the  stu- 
dent, whiitever  his  proficiency,  never  gets  beyond 
the  construction  of  parallels  When  he  becomes 
a  member  of  the  institute  or  a  minister  of  the 
imperial  cabinet,  at  classic  festivals  and  siKial 
entertainments,  the  composition  of  impromptu 
couplets,  formed  on  the  old  model,  constitutes  a 
favorite  pastime.  Iteficcting  a  poetic  image  from 
every  syllable,  or  concealini;  the  keen  point  of  a 
cutting  epigram,  they  alTord  a  tine  vehicle  for 
sallies  of  wit ;  and  poetical  contests  suc'i  as  that 
of  Mi'libceus  and  Mennlca"  are  in  China  matters 
of  il'iily  occurrence.  If  a  pre.sent  is  to  be  given, 
on  the  occasion  of  a  marriage,  a  birih-day,  or  any 
other  remarkable  occasion,  nothing  is  deemed  so 
•ilegant  or  acceptable  as  a  pair  of  scrolls  inscribed 
with  a  complimentary  distich.  When  the  novice 
is  sulflciently  exercised  In  the  '  parallels '  for  the 
Idea  of  symmetry  to  have  become  an  instinct,  he 
Is  permitted  to  advance  to  other  species  of  com- 
position which  atTord  freer  scope  for  his  facul- 
ties. Huch  are  the  'shutiah.'  in  which  a  single 
thought  is  expanded  in  siniple  language,  the 
'lun,  the  formal  (liseussi  in  of  a  subject  more  or 
less  extended,  and  epistlt!-  luldressed to imaghiary 
persons  and  adapted  to  all  conceivable  circum- 
gtaucis.  In  these  liust,  the  forms  of  the  'com- 
plete lettiT  writer  '  are  copied  with  t(K>  much 
servility  ;  but  in  the  otii'  r  two,  substance  being 
det'innf  of  more  eoiis4M|iH  nee  titan  form,  the  new 
fledu'nl  thought  is  peiniitted  to  essay  its  powers 
and  t'j  exp.aiate  witli  but  little  restraint.  In  the 
thiril  stage,  composition  is  the  leading  object, 
reading  being  wholly  subsidiary.  It  taki'S  fur 
the  iiK  .St  part  the  artificial  form  of  verse,  and  of 
a  kind  of  prose  called  '  wenchaiig.'  which  is,  if 
possible,  still  mon^  artificial.  The  reading  ri'- 
quired  emliraees  iiiainlv  rhetorical  miHtels  and 
sundry  aiitliologies  llfstory  iHitiidied,  but  only 
tha  of  China,  and  that  only  in  coui|ieuds;  not 
for  iu  luiwiiiis  of  wisdom,  but  for  the  sake  of  the 
allusions  with  uliieh  it  enables  a  writer  to  ein- 
Ik'IIIsIi  cla.ssie  essays.  The  same  may  lie  said  of 
other  stiidiei, ;  knowledge  and  mental  dUcipline 
are  at  a  disco^int  and  style  at  a  premium.  The 
eoal  uf  the  lonsr  cottrse.  the  dower  and  fruit  of 
til"  whole  system,  is  the  'wen-cluing':  for  this 
iiloue  can  Insure  success  in  the  public  examina- 
tions (or  the  civil  service,  in  which  itudeota  be- 


gin to  tdTentttie  soon  after  entering  on  the  thhd 
stage  of  their  preparatory  course.  .  .  We  hear 
it  asserted  that  '  education  is  universal  in  Chiii:i: 
even  coolies  are  taught  to  read  and  write. '  In 
one  sense  this  is  true,  but  not  as  we  imderstaiid 
the  terms  'reading  and  writing.  In  the  alpha- 
betical vernaculars  of  the  west,  the  ability  to 
read  and  write  implies  the  ability  to  express  one's 
thoughts  by  the  pen  and  to  grasp  the  thoughts 
of  others  when  so  expressed.  In  Chinese,  and 
especially  in  the  classical  or  book  language,  it 
implies  nothing  of  the  sort.  A  shopkeeper  may 
be  able  to  write  the  numbers  and  keep  tn  unts 
without  being  able  to  write  anything  el  p'd 
a  lad  who  has  attended  school  for  severa  \  i  irs 
will  pronounce  the  characters  of  an  ordinary 
book  with  faultless  precision,  yet  not  compre- 
hend the  meaning  of  a  single  sentence.  Of  those 
who  can  read  understandingly  (and  nothing  else 
ought  to  be  called  reailing),  the  proportion  is 
greater  in  towns  than  in  rural  districts.  But 
striking  an  average,  it  does  nut,  according  to  my 
observation,  exceed  one  in  twenty  for  the  niHlV 
sex  and  one  in  ten  thousand  for  the  female.  "  The 
literary  examinations,  "coming  down  from  the 
past,  with  the  accretions  of  many  centuries.  .  .  . 
have  expanded  into  a  system  whose  mat  liinery 
is  as  complex  as  its  proportions  are  enuniKius. 
Its  ramifications  extend  to  every  district  of  tlic 
empire;  and  it  comnuiuds  the  services  of  district 
magistrates,  pref"Ct8,  and  other  civil  function- 
aries up  to  governors  and  viceroys.  These  are 
all  auxiliary  to  the  regular  officers'  of  the  literary 
corporation.  In  each  district  there  are  two  resi- 
dent examiners,  with  the  title  of  professor,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  keep  a  register  of  all  competing 
students  and  '  ^  exercise  them  from  tim<>  to  time 
in  order  to  stimulate  their  efforts  and  keep  iliem 
in  preparation  for  the  higher  exanunatiuns  in 
which  degrees  are  conferred.  In  eacli  province 
there  is  one  chancellor  or  superintendent  of  iu. 
struction,  who  holds  office  for  three  years,  and  is 
ri  ioired  to  visit  every  district  and  hold  tlie  cus- 
Itiiiury  examinations  within  that  time,  conferring 
the  first  degree  on  a  certain  percentage  of  lije 
camlidates.  There  are,  moreover,  two  Bpeei:il  ex- 
aminen  for  each  province,  generally  meinUrs  of 
the  Ilanlin,  deputed  from  the  capital  to  eomiuet 
the  great  triennial  examination  and  c<iu[>  r  tlie 
second  degree.  The  regtdar  degri'es  are  three: 
1st.  'hiutsai'  or  '  Uiidding  talent.'  Uil.  '  Kn- 
jin'  or  'Deserving  of  promotion.'  8d  'Tsiu 
shi '  or  ■  Fit  for  office. '  'To  which  may  be  ad.li  .i, 
as  a  fourth  degree,  the  Uaulin,  or  memlnrof  the 
'  Forest  of  Pencils '  .  .  .  The  first  degne  only  is 
conferred  by  the  provincial  chancellor,  and  tlie 
happy  nciplenls.  fifteen  or  twenty  in  each  de 
partmeni,  or  1  t-er  cent,  of  the  candidates,  are 
dworated  with  the  insignia  of  rank  and  admitted 
to  the  ground  Ihsir  of  the  nine  storiid  piig'Hia. 
The  trial  for  tlie  M^cond  degree  is  helil  in  the  capi- 
tal of  each  province,  by  special  commissinners, 
onc<-  in  tliree  years.  It  consists  of  thri'e  sessions 
of  three  days  each,  making  nine  days  of  almost 
continuous  exertion  —  a  strain  to  the  nieutal  and 
physiejil  iHiwers,  to  which  the  infinii  and  ai;ed 
irequently  succumb.  In  addition  to  (oniposltioa 
in  prose  and  verse,  the  candidate  is  nipiireil  to 
show  bis  acijuaintance  with  history,  iilie  history 
of  China.)  philosophy,  criticism,  wnd  various 
branches  of  arclueology.  Again  1  per  cent  is 
decorated;  but  it  Is  not  until  the  more  foriiumie 
among  them  succeed  in  paaiiug  the  metropollinn 


748 


EDUCATION. 


CoOtoe  of 
Wittiam  amniarr. 


EDUCATIOK. 


ttiennial  that  the  meed  of  civil  office  Is  certainly 
bestowed.  They  are  not,  howeTer,  auigned  to 
their  respective  offices  until  they  have  eone 
through  two  special  examinations  within  the 
palace  and  in  the  presence  of  the  emperor.  On  this 
bceasion  the  highest  on  the  list  is  honored  with 
theMtleof  'chuang  yuen'  or  'laureate,'  a  dis- 
tinction so  great  that  in  the  last  reign  it  was  not 
thought  unbefitting  the  daughter  of  a  'chuang 
yuen  to  be  raised  to  the  position  of  consort  of 
the  Son  of  Heaven.  A  score  of  the  best  are  ad- 
mitted to  membership  in  the  Academy,  two  or 
three  score  are  attached  to  it  as  pupils  or  proba- 
tioners, and  the  rest  drafted  off  to  official  posts 
in  the  capital  or  in  the  provinces,  the  humblest 
of  which  is  supposed  to  compensate  the  occupant 
for  a  life  of  penury  and  toil."— Rev.  W.  A  P 
Martin,  Jkpt  on  tke  Syttem  of  Pabtie  Imtruetion 
l»  Clana  ([T.  S.  Bureau  of  Edueation,  Oireulari 
of  Information,  18T7,  no.  1) 

Also  III:  W.  A.  ?  Martin,  TKe  ChiM»e:  their 
Bdueatton,  <fe. 

Jap«n.---From  the  fourth  to  the  eighth  cen- 
turies of  the  Christian  era,  ' '  after  tiie  conquest  of 
Corea  by  the  Japanese  emperor  Jlgo  Kogo,  came 
laters.  writing,  books,  literature,  religion,  eUiics 
politics,  medicine,  arts,  science,  agriculture,  manu- 
factures, and  the  varied  appliances  of  civiliza- 
tion; and  with  these  entered  thousands  of 
imm  grants  from  Corea  and  China.  Under  the 
intelli-ctual  Influence  of  Buddhism  — the  power- 
ful and  aggressive  faith  that  had  already  led 
captive  the  half  of  Asia  -o  the  Coiifucian  ethics 
and  philosophy,  and  Chinew  literature,  Uie  hori- 
zon of  the  Japanese  mind  was  immensely  broad- 
ened. .  In  the  time  of  «ie  European  'dark 
ages  the  Japanese  were  enjoying  what,  in  com- 
parison, was  a  high  sute  of  civilization.  .  . 
I  mier  the  old  regime  of  the  Sho-guns,  all  foreign 
Ideas  and  Influences  were  systematically  excluded 
and  the  Isolation  of  Japan  from  the  rest  of  the 
world  was  made  the  supreme  policy  of  the  govern- 
ment. Profound  peace  Listed  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seventeei.th  century  to  1868.    During 

l.!L.„  *«''5'^''."'^  colleges,  literature  ana 
earning,  flourished.  It  was  the  period  of  scho- 
tastlc,  not  of  creative.  Intellectual  activity.  The 
baaU  of  education  «  hs  Chinese.  What  we  con- 
ttder  the  means  of  education,  reading  and  writing 
were  to  them  the  ends.  Of  classlfled  science 
there  was  littie  or  none.  Matiiematics  was  con 
sidered  as  fit  only  for  merehanU  and  shop-keep. 
Jf ,  "°  /"reign  languages  were  studied,  and 
tliclr  acquisition  was  forbidden.  .  There  was 
ni>  department  of  education,  though  unive.'sltles 
were  established  at  Kioto  and  Yedo,  large  schools 
in  Ibe  da  mloB  capitals,  and  innumerable  private 
scIkkjI,  all  over  tne  rountry.  Nine  Umths  of  the 
reoplc  could  read  and  write.  Books  were  verv 
[mmen.usandcheap.  ClrculatlngllbrarlesexisteJi 
In  every  citv  ancj  to»n.  Literary  clubs  and 
associations  for  mutual  improvement  were  com 
mon  even  In  country  villages.  Nevertheless,  iu 
eymp8ri«)n  with  the  Ideal  systems  and  practice 
o  the  progress  ve  men  of  5Jew  Japan,  the  old 
«ljle  was  as  different  from  the  present  as  the 

ir*™  .?^  1"  ^f  *"?''  y""" '"  >n«llw»«l  times  Is 
;  I!^  .^  "'  •  JiOnJon  or  Oxford  student  of  the 
llfTh^^^  A!lhn:,gh  sr,  attt-i,»>i  h,  mcctsomo 
.  J  w'u^tioiMl  necessities  aiHsIng  from  ti.e 
a  lered  conditions  of  the  national  life  were  made 
ui«l,r  the  8ho-gun  s  r«gime,  yet  Uie  first  attempt 
»t  "yslematic  work  in  the  large  cities  was  made 


under  the  Mikado's  government,  and  the  idea  of 
i„°f^,°?K™«  P''S  °'  education  te  Uielnonly. 
In  187J  the  Mom  Bu  8ho,  or  department  of  edjl 
cat  on,  was  formed,  of  which  tiie  high  counselor 
Uki,  a  man  of  indomitable  vigor  and  oersever. 
Mce,  was  made  head.  .  .  .  AccoMfaf  to  Se 
scheme  of  national  education   promulgated  in 

In;,ih  i?S"''?J  «"f*  educational  dlvlsiomi. 
m.f  H,°',  ""^f  *?*"  is  to  be  a  university,  nor- 
mal school  schools  of  foreign  languages  high 
schools,  and  primary  schools.  The  totafniimlSr 
Onw  <  ll^'l'!  ""™l*''.  't  '9  expected,  over  88,000. 
Only  in  the  higher  rehools  is  a  foreign  language 

IT^^.""^  elementary  science  translated  or 
adopted  from  European  or  American  text-book. 
Son  J^,^^**"*.;.  ^".^  ^^''eral  system  of  instruc- 
i^h'i,  ^""^*'  'l'«<='P"''e.  school-aids,  furniture, 

fo^ll^mS',"*  ^   ^  '"K^'y  "dopted  from 
foreign  models,  and  are  now  to  a  great  extent  in 
^gue  throughout  &e  country."-fw  E  Griflir 
Bdv.nlwn  xn  Japan  (U.  8.  Bureau  of  Bduoation 
areular,  of  Information,  1878,  no.  2).       "***^' 

Modern :  America. 

wmi?"    '^'fc'*''"-^''^?'"'*-- College   of 

?y  wT^'^S.  ~in^— "  1°  IfflO-  one  year fefore 
the  Pilgrim  Fathers  came  to  the  land  named  New 
England  by  Captain  John  Smith  -  Sir  Edwin 
niH  fI'iP^'*''''"  i"'  "•«  V'^e'"'"  Company  in 
rilff '."'"'.•  T""^  "*e  ?"«"  «f  ten  tUouMud 
acres  o?land  for  the  establishment  of  a  univer 

fl^\^T^r\  Jh'  P^^P"'*''  8"«.  which  was 
duly  made  included  one  thousand  acres  for  an 
Indian  college;  Uie  remainder  was  to  be  'tiie 
V„"„°h1  ^''t'^'  "  seminary  of  learning  for  the 
Fnf  l„,i  .  .T  """^  •"?"  y^^  *«  bishops  of 
i.iigland,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  King,  raised 
the  sum  of  fifteen  Tiundred  pounds  for  tiie  en- 
couragement of  Indian  Education.  .        TenanU 

TnTiSli.'"/^''  *°^"Py  the  university  lands, 
and  Mr  ^rge  Thorpe,  a  gentleman  of  HU 
Majesty's  Privy  Chamber,  came  over  to  be  tiie 
superintendent  of  the  university  itself  This  first 
beginning  of  philanthropy  toward  the  Indiana 
and  of  educational  foundations  for  the  Indians  in 
America  was  suspended  by  reason  of  the  Indian 
massacre.  In  the  spring  of  l832,  when  Mr.  Thorpe 
and  three  hundred  and  forty  settlers.  Including 
tenants  of  the  university,  were  cut  off  by  an  In- 
surrection of  savages.  It  was  only  two  year, 
after  this  terrible  catastrophe  that  the  Idea  of  a 
university  in  \  irrinia  was  revived.  Experience 
with  treacherous  Indians  suggested  that  the  insti- 
tution should  be  erected  upon  a  secluded  shel- 
tered site— an  Island  111  the  Susciuelianna  River 
,  ,  ,  Tliu  plan  was  broken  off  by  the  death  of  Its 
chief  advocate  and  promoter,  Mr  Edward  Palmer 
But  the  Idea  of  a  UDlverslty  for  Virginia  was  not 
hwt.  In   1660,   the    colonial    Assembly  of 

Virginia  took  Into  their  own  hands  the  projwtof 
f.iunilliig  educational  institutions  within  their 
tionlers  The  motive  of  the  VirglnUns  was  pre- 
cisi-ly  tiie  same  as  that  of  the  great  and  general 
Court  of  MassachusetU,  when  It  established 
Harvard  College,  and  grammar  schools  to  fit 
youth  ■  for  ye  university"  The  VirirlnUn«  vnted 
ttml  r..t  the  advance  of  learning,  education  of 
youth,  supply  of  the  ministry,  and  promotion  a 

llll'tv.  then*  h»  UnH   >.lr._  ..V. _..C.i. . 


749 


■' .——  "-ffj  "•  •."=  uiiuiairy,  ana  promotion  ^l 
puty,  there  be  land  taken  upon  purchases  for  a 
t-ollege  and  free  ichoole,  ami  that  there  be,  wlUl 
as  much  speedc  as  may  be  convenient,  houselng 


KDCCATION. 


Btxton  LoMn  Sokool. 


EDUCATION. 


erected  thereon  for  entertainment  of  student!  and 
•choUen. '  It  was  also  voted  tn  1660  that  the  vari- 
ous commissioners  of  county  courts  talce  subscrip- 
tions on  court  days  for  the  benefit  of  the  college, 
and  that  the  commissioners  send  orders  through- 
out ttielr  respective  counties  to  the  vestrymen  of 
all  the  parishes  for  the  purpose  of  raising  money 
from  such  inhabitants  as  '  have  not  already  sub- 
scribed. '  It  appears  from  the  record  of  this  legis- 
lation In  Henlog's  Statutes  of  Virginia  that 
already  in  1660,  ■  His  Maleatic'sQovemour,  Council 
of  Bute,  and  Burgesses  of  the  present  grand 
Assembly  have  severally  subscribed  several!  con- 
siderable sumes  of  money  and  quantltyes  of  to- 
bacco,' to  be  paid  upon  demand  after  a  place  had 
been  provided  and  built  upon  for  educational 
purposes.  A  petition  was  also  recommended  to 
Sir  William  Berkeley,  then  governor  of  Virginia, 
that  the  King  oe  petitioned  for  letters  patent 
authorizing  collections  from  '  well  disposed  peo- 
ple in  England  for  the  erecting  of  colledges  and 
schooles  in  this  countrye.'  This  action  of  the 
Virginians  in  1660  ought  to  be  taken  as  much 
better  evidence  of  an  early  regard  for  education 
in  that  colony  than  the  well-known  saying  of 
Governor  Berkeley  would  seem  to  indicate.  In 
reply  to  an  inquiry  by  the  lords  commissioners 
of  trades  and  plantations  respecting  the  progress 
of  learning  in  the  colony  of  Virginia,  Berkeley 
said,  '  I  thank  God  there  are  no  free  schools  nor 

Srtntlng,  and  I  hope  we  shall  not  have  these  hun- 
red  years. '  This  answer  by  a  crusty  old  governor 
has  been  quoted  perhaps  too  often  as  an  index  of 
the  real  sentiments  of  colonial  Virginia  toward 
the  cause  of  education.  Not  only  Is  the  tone  of 
popular  Itgislatlon  entirely  opposed  to  the  cur- 
rent view,  but  Berkeley's  own  acts  should  modify 
our  judgment  of  his  words.  He  actually  sub- 
scribed, with  other  gentlemen  of  the  colony,  for 
'aCoUcdge  of  students  of  the  liberal  arU  and 
sciences. '  Undoubtedly  Sir  William  did  not  be- 
lieve in  popular  education  as  it  is  now  under- 
stiKxl.  If  he  had  done  so,  he  would  have  been 
much  in  advance  of  Ills  time.  .  .  .  Some  writers 
would  have  us  believe  that  the  college  was 
actually  planted  as  early  as  1661,  but  this  is 
highly  Improbable.  Early  educational  enact- 
ments In  Virginia  were  like  many  of  those  early 
towns— on  paper  only.  And  yet  the  Virginians 
really  meant  to  have  both  towns  au<l  a  college. 
In  1688-'89,  twenty-flve  hundred  pounds  were 
subscribed  by  a  few  wealthy  gentlemen  in  the 
colony  and  by  their  merchant  friends  In  England 
toward  the  endowment  of  the  higher  education. 
In  1691  the  colonial  Assembly  sent  the  Rev,  James 
Blair,  the  commissary  or  representative  of  the 
Bishop  of  London,  back  to  r^ngland  to  secure  a 
charter  for  the  proposed  college.  Virginia's 
agent  went  straight  to  Queen  Mary  and  explained 
the  cducatiimal  ambition  of  her  colony  in  America. 
The  Queen  favored  the  Idea  of  a  colle^,  and 
William  wisely  concurred.  The  royal  pair  agreed 
to  allow  two  thousand  pounds  out  of  the  quit- 
renu  of  Virginia  toward  building  the  college. 
.  .  The  English  Oovtrnment  concluded  to  give 
not  only  £2,000  la  money,  but  also  20,000  acres 
of  land,  with  a  tax  of  one  penny  on  every  pound 
of  toliacco  exported  from  Maryland  and  Virginia, 
t.^;-..(|i,.r  wfth  all  ■<•<■«  and  proflu  arising  from 
the  olHre  of  surveyor-general,  which  were  to  be 
controlled  bv  the  president  and  faculty  of  the 
rollege.  They  were  authorized  to  appoint  special 
surveyors  for  the  cotuili  ■.  whenever  the  governor 


and  his  council  thought  It  necessary.  These 
privileges,  granted  by  charter  in  1698,  were  of 
great  signiflcance  in  the  cconomlo  history  of 
Virginia.  They  brought  the  entire  laud  system 
of  tne  colony  Into  the  hands  of  a  collegiate  land 
office.  Even  after  the  Revolution,  oneslxth  of 
the  fees  to  all  public  surveyors  continued  to  ha 
paid  into  the  college  treasu^  down  to  the  year 
1819,  when  this  custom  was  abolished."— 11.  B. 
Adams,  Tlu  Cotttge  of  WiUiam  and  Maryifiirat- 
Ian  of  Information  of  (Ke  Bureau  of  Education, 
1887,  no.  1). 

A.  D.  1635.— Musachusctti.— Boston  Latia 
School.— "The  Public  I^atln  School  of  Boston 
enjoys  the  distinction  of  being  the  oldest  exist- 
ing school  within  the  bounds  of  the  United  Sutes. 
It  wns  founded  in  the  spring  of  163S,  thus  ante- 
dating Harvard  College,  and  has  been  in  continu- 
ous existence  ever  since,  with  the  Interruption 
of  a  few  months,  during  the  siege  of  Boston, 
1775-1776."    The  two  hundred  and  fiftieth  an- 
niversary of  the  founding  of  the  school  wa.s  cele- 
brated  Xpril  23,  188.5,  on  which  occasion  the 
Rev.  Phillips  Brooks,  D.  D.,  delivered  an  address 
from  which  the  following  passages  are  taken: 
"The colony  under  Winthrop  arrived  in  the  Ara- 
bella and  founded  Boston  in  1680.    On  the  4th 
of  September,  1683,  the  Griffin  brought  John 
Cotton    from  the  Lincolnshire  Boston,  full  of 
pious  spirit  and  wise  plans  for  the  new  colony 
with  V7hlch  he  had  cast  tn  his  lot.    It  has  been 
suggested  that  possibly  we  owe  to  John  Cotton 
the  first  suggestion  of  the  first  town-school.  .     . 
However  this  may  be,  here  is  the  town  record  of 
the  18th  of  the  second  month,  1685.    It  is  for- 
ever memorable,  for  it  is  the  first  chapter  of  our 
Book  of  Genesis,  the  very  cradle  of  all  our  race: 
'At  a  general  meeting  upon  publique  notice .  .  . 
it  was  then  generaUy  agreed  upon  that   our 
brother  Philemon  Pormort  shall  be  entreated  to 
become  scholemsater,  for  the  teaching  and  nour- 
tering  of  children  among  us.'    It  was  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  years  ago  to-day  [April  '^3,  1885] 
lust  nineteen  years  after  the  day  when  William 
Shakespeare  died,  just  seventy-one  years  after 
the  day  when  he  was  bom.     How  simple  that 
short  record  is,  and  how  unconscious  that  short 
view  is  of  the  future  which  Is  w-apped  up  la  it! 
Fifty-nine  thousand  children  who  crowd  the  Bos- 
ton public  schools  to-day  —  and  who  can  count 
what  thousands  yet  unborn  1  —  are  to  be  heard 
crying  out  for  life  in  the  dry,  quaint  words  of 
that  old  voU'.     By  It  the  first  educational  Insti- 
tution, which  was  to  have  continuous  existence 
in  America,  and  in  it  the  public  school  system  ol 
the  land,  came  into  being.     Philemon  Pormort, 
the  first  teacher  of  the  Latin  School,  la  hardly 
more  than  a  mere  shadow  of  a  name.    It  is  not 
even  clear  that  he  ever  actually  taught  the  school 
at  all.     A  few  years  later,   with  Mr.   Wheel. 
Wright,  after  the  Ilulchlnson  excitement,  he  dis- 
appears Into  the  northern  woods,  and  Is  <me  ol 
the   founders  of  ExeU'r,    in   New    Hampshire 
There  are  rumors  that  he  e*me  back  to  Boston 
and  died  here,  but  It  is  all  very  uncertain. 
The  name  '  free  school '  In  those  days  seems  tc 
have  been  used   to  characterize  an  Instil  utloi 
which  should  not  be  restricted  to  any  ilassol 
childP'O.  and  which  should  not  be  de|K'niiint  or 
the  fluctuating  attendance  of  scholars  for  iui  «up 
port.    It  looked  forward  to  ultimaU-  endowment 
like  the  schools  of  England.    The  town  8i!t  span 
the  rent  of  Deer  Island,  and  some  of  the  otbei 


750 


BDUCATION. 


Barvcmi  CoUege. 


EDUCATION. 


UUndi  In  the  harbor,  for  ite  help.  All  the  great 
citizeni,  GoTemor  Winthrop,  Oovemor  Vane, 
Mr.  Bellingham,  and  the  rest,  made  generous 
contributions  to  it.  But  it  caUed,  also,  for  sup- 
port from  those  who  sent  their  children  to  it,  and 
who  were  able  to  pay  something ;  and  it  was  only 
of  the  Indian  children  that  it  was  distinctly  pro- 
yided  that  they  should  be  'taught  gratis.'  It 
was  older  than  any  of  the  schools  which,  in  a 
few  years,  grew  up  thick  around  it  The  same 
power  which  made  it  spring  out  of  the  soil  was 
In  all  the  rich  ground  on  which  these  coloniste, 
unlike  any  other  colonists  which  the  worid  has 
ever  seen,  had  set  their  feet.  Roxbury  had  ite 
school  under  the  Apostle  Eliot  in  164S.  Cam- 
bridge was  alreadv  provided  before  1648.  Charles- 
town  did  not  wait  later  than  1636.  Salem  and 
Ipswich  were,  both  of  them,  ready  in  1637.  Ply- 
mouth did  not  begin  its  system  of  public  instruc- 
tion till  1663.  It  was  in  1647  that  the  General 
Court  enacted  that  resolve  which  is  the  great 
charter  of  free  education  In  our  Commonwealth, 
in  whose  preamble  and  ordinance  stand  the  im- 
mortal words;  '  That  learning  may  not  be  buried 
in  the  grave  of  our  fathers,  in  church  and  Com- 
monwealth, the  Lord  assisting  our  endeavors,  it 
is  therefore  ordered  that  every  township  in  this 
jurisdiction,  after  the  Lord  hath  increased  them 
to  the  number  of  afty  householders,  shall  then 
forthwith  appoint  one  within  their  town  to  teach 
all  such  children  as  shall  resort  to  him  to  write 
and  read.'  There  can  be  no  doubt,  then,  of  our 
priority.  But  mere  priority  is  no  great  thing. 
The  real  interest  of  the  beginning  of  the  school 
Is  the  large  idea  and  scale  on  which  it  started 
It  Uught  the  children,  little  Indians  and  all.  to 
read  and  write.  But  there  seems  every  reason 
to  suppose  that  it  taught  also  the  Latin  tongue, 
and  all  that  then  was  deemed  the  higher  knowl- 
edge. It  was  the  town's  only  school  till  1683  " 
—Tlu  OUeit  School  in  America,  pp.  5-24. 

A.  D.  1636.— MuiachuMtt*.— Hanrard  Col- 
'•Se.— "  The  first  settlers  In  New  England,  recog- 
nizing the  importance  of  a  higher  education  than 
could  bo  given  in  the  common  schools,  began  at 
once  the  founding  of  a  university.     The  avowed 
object  of  this  university  was  the  training  of 
young  men   for  the  ministry.     Nothing  could 
show  clean-r  the  spirit  of  these  early  colonists 
Though  less  than  four  thousand  In  number  and 
.icattercd  along  t^e  shores  of  Mashochusetts  Bay 
in  sixteen  hamlets,  they  were,  nevertheless,  able 
U)  engage  in  such  an  enterprise  before  adequate 
provision  hart  Ix'en  made  for  food,  raiment,  shel- 
ter, a  civil  government,  or  divine  worship ;  at  a 
time  when  soil  and  climate  had  disappointed 
them,  and  their  affairs  were  in  a  most  critical 
condition;  for,  not  only  were  they  called  to  face 
[amine,  disease,  and  death,  but  the  mother  coun- 
try and  the  surrounding   savage    tribes   were 
threatening  them  with  war.  ...  It  was  near  the 
close  of  1836,  a  little  more  than  six  years  after 
the  landing  of  the  Puritans,  when  this  first  step 
was  taken  by  the  General  Court  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts  Colony.     At    this  assembly,  presided 
over  by  Sir  Henry  Vane,  governor  of  the  colony, 
the  General  Court  agreed  to  give  £400  (a  raunili- 
cent  sum  for  the  time)  towards  the  founding  of 
a  school  or  cnllrgr,  hut  left  the  question  of  its 
location  and  building  to  be  determined  by  the 
Court  that  was  to  sit  in  September  of  the  follow- 
tag  year    This,  it  is  said,  was  the  first  assembly 
In  which  the  people  by  their  represenutlvea 


751 


ever  gave  their  own  money  to  found  a  place  ol 
education. '    At  the  next  Court  it  was  decided  to 
locate  the  college  at  Newtown,  or  'the  New 
Towne,  and  twelve  of  the  principal  maglstntea 
and  ministers  were  chosen  to  carry  out  this  de- 
sign.   A  few  months  later,  they  changed  the 
name  of  the  town  to  Cambridge,  not  only  to  tell 
their  posterity  whence  they  came,  but  alao  ai 
Quincy  aptly  says,  to  indicate  '  the  high  destiny 
to  which  they  intended  the  institution  should 
S*" V? .,   Another  year,  however,  passed  before 
the  College  was  organized.    The  impulse  given 
to  It  then  was  due  to  aid  which  came  from  so  un- 
expected a  quarter  that  it  must  have  seemed  to 
the  devout  men  of  New  England  as  a  clear  indi- 
cation of  the  divine  favor    The  Rev.  John  Har- 
.'"■iloS  ^"nconformist  minister,  was  graduated. 
In  16i?.5,  from  the  Puritan  college  of  Emmanuel, 
at  tambndgp,  England,  and  came,  two  yean 
later,  to  America  and  settled  in  Charieatown. 
where  he  immediately  took  a  prominent  part  in 
town  affairs.     His  contemporaries  gave  him  the 
title  of  reverend,  and  he  is  said  to  have  ofBcisted 
occasionally  in  Chariestown  as  '  minister  of  God's 
word.      One  has  recently  said  of  him  that  he 
was  'beloved  and  honored,  a  well-trained  and 
accomplished  scholar  of  the  type  then  esteemed,' 
and  that  in  the  brief  period  of  his  life  in  America 
—  scarcely  more  than  a  year— he  cemented  more 
closely  friendships  that  had  been  begun  in  earlier 
years.     The  project  of  a  college  was  then  en- 
grossing the  thought  of  these  eariy  friends  and 
doubtless  he  also  became  greatly  Interested  in  it 
Thus  It  happened  that,  when  his  health  failed 
through  his  own  love  of  learning  and  through 
sympathy  with  the  project  of  his  dally  asso- 
ciates, he  determined  to  bequeath  one-half  of  his 
estate,  probably  about  £800,  besides  his  excellent 
library  of  three  hundred  and  twenty  volumes 
towards  the  endowment  of  the  college.     This  be- 
quest rendered  possible  the  immediate  organiza- 
tion of  the  college,  which  went  into  operation 
•on  the  footing  of  the  ancient  Institutions  of 
fcurope,    and,  out  of  gratitude  to  Harvard,  the 
General  Court  voted   that  the  new  institution 
should  bear  his  name."— Q.  G.  Bush,  Hartard 
in'-  12-15. 

Also  in:  J.  Quincy,  Ilitl.  of  Harvard  Uni- 
remity.—S.  A.  Eliot,  SUleh  of  the  Uutory  of 
Uarvartt  CoUeye. 

A.  D.  i«4a-i73a.— New  England  and  New 
York.— EariT  Common  Schoola.— "New  Eng- 
land early  adopted,  and  has,  with  a  single  ex- 
ception, constantly  maintained  the  principle  that 
the  public  should  provide  for  the  Instruction  of 
all  the  youth.  That  which  elsewhere,  as  will  be 
found,  was  left  to  local  provision,  as  in  New 
York;  or  to  charity,  as  In  Pennsylvania;  or  to 
parental  Interest,  as  In  Virginia,  was  in  most 
parts  of  New  England  early  secured  by  law 
The  act  of  1642  in  Massachusetts,  whose  pro- 
visions were  adopted  in  most  of  the  adjacent 
rolonies.  wasadinirablea.ialirst  legislative  school 
law.  It  was  watchful  of  the  neglect  of  parenU 
and  kmked  well  after  the  ignorant  and  the  in- 
digent. But  it  neither  made  schooling  free,  nor 
lmpo!*-d  a  penalty  for  its  neglect.  .  .  .  Schoola 
were  largely  maintained  by  rates,  were  free  only 
t,T  th(  necessitous,  iiiid  lu  not  a  few  of  tiie  less 
populous  districts  closed  altogether  or  never 
opened.  This  led,  five  years  later,  U)  more  strin- 
gent legiilation.  .  .  .  As  suggesting  the  general 
scope  and  tenor  of  the  law,  the  following  extract 


fit! 

Ill 

ti 


BDUCATION. 


frntufltanUi. 


EDUCATION. 


ta  made.  ...  'It  U  theietore  orderad  by  thU 
Court  ud  authority  thereof  that  every  township 
within  tbli  Juriidiction,  after  the  Lord  hath  In- 
crcaied  them  to  the  number  of  fifty  houiebolden, 
■hall  then  forthwith  appoint  one  within  their 
town  to  teach  all  (uch  children  as  shall  re~ort  to 
him,  to  write  and  read ;  whose  wages  shall  be 
paid,  either  by  the  parents  or  masters  of  such 
children,  or  by  the  inhabitanU  in  general,  by 
way  of  supply,  as  the  major  part  of  those  who 
order  the  prudentials  of  the  town  shall  appoint; 
provided  that  those  who  send  their  children  be 
not  oppressed  by  paying  much  more  than  they 
can  have  them  taught  for  in  the  adjoining  towns. 
And  it  is  further  ordered  that  where  any  town 
shall  increase  to  the  number  of  one  hundred 
families,  or  house-holders,  they  shall  set  up  a 
grammar-school,  the  master  thereof  being  able  to 
fiistruct  youths  so  far  as  they  may  be  fitted  for 
the  university ;  and  if  any  town  neglect  the  per- 
formance hereof,  above  one  year,  then  every  such 
town  shall  pay  five  pounds  per  annum  to  the  next 
such  school,  till  they  shall  perform  this  order.' 
.  .  .  Three  years  after  the  law  just  cited  Con- 
necticut   passed   a   very   similar   one.  ...  In 
Rhode  Island  there  was  no  attempt  at  a  school 
system  prior  to  the  efforts  of  John  Howland  about 
179C      There  were  schools  in  both  Providence 
and  Newport;  but  the  colony  was  small  (with  a 
population  of  less  than  ten  thousand  in  1700), 
brolien  into  feeble  settlements,  and  offering  little 
opportunity  for  organization.  ...  It  is  claimed 
that,  at  the  surrender  of  the  Dutch  in  New  York 
(1664),  so  general  was  the  educational   spirit, 
almost  eery  town  in  the  colony  had  its  regular 
school  and    more  or  less  permanent  teachers. 
After  the  occupation  of  the  province  by  the  Eng- 
lish, little  attention  was  given  to  education.  .  . 
Tliirtttn  years  after  the  sum  nder,  a  Latin  school 
was  opened  in  the  city ;  but  the  first  serious  at- 
tempt to  provide  regular  schooling  was  in  the 
work  of  the  '  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel '  (1704)  in  the  founding  of  Trinity  School. 
The  society  kept  "p  an  efilcient  organization,  for 
many  years,  and  at  the  opening  of  the  Revolu- 
tion had  established  and  chiefly  supported  more 
than  twenty  schools  in  llie  colony.     About  1732, 
also,  there  was  established  in  New  York  city  a 
Khool  after  the  plan  of  the  Boston  Latin  School, 
free  as  that  was  free,  and  which  became,  accord- 
ing to  eminent  authority,  the  germ  of  the  later 
King's  (now  Columbia)  College."— R.  0.  Boone, 
Bdueation  in  the  United  Statti,  eh.  8. 

A.  D.  1683-1770.— P«iu«ylT«ol« — Origin  of 
the  UniTcruty  of  PennsTlTania.-"  Education 
had  not  been  overlooked  in  the  policy  of  Penn. 
In  his  Frame  of  Government  we  read:  'The 
governor  and  provincial  council  shall  erect  and 
order  all  public  schools,  and  encourage  and  re- 
ward the  authors  of  useful  sciences  and  laudable 
Inventions,  in  the  said  province.  .  .  .  And  .  .  . 
a  committee  of  manners,  education  and  arts,  that 
all  wicked  and  scandalous  living  nuy  be  pre- 
vented, and  that  youth  may  be  successively 
trained  up  in  virtue  and  useful  knowledge  and 
arts.'  The  first  movement  to  establish  an  educa- 
tional institution  of  a  high  grade  was  in  the 
acUon  of  t!ie  Executive  CouncU  which  proposed, 
Novem!.tr  17.  168-3.  'That  Care  be  Taken  about 
the  Learning  and  Instruction  of  Youth,  to  wit: 
A  School  of  Arts  snd  Sciences.'  It  was  not  un- 
til 1689,  however,  that  the  'Public  Orammar 
School '  was  set  up  in  Philtdelphia.    This  insti- 


tution, founded  upon  the  English  idea  of  a  '  free 
school,'  was  fornully  chartered  in  1697  as  the 
■William  Penn  Charter  School.'   It  was  intended 
as  the  head  of  a  system  of  schools  for  all,  rather 
than  a  single  school  for  a  select  Tew,  an  idea 
which  the  founders  of  the  Chariuble  School, 
fifty  years  later,   had  also  in  mind  — an  idea 
which  was  never  carried  out  in  the  history  of 
either  institution.    The  failure  of  Penn's  scheme 
of  government,  and  the  turmoil  during  the  early 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century  arising  from  tlis 
conflicts  between  different  political  parties,  for  a 
time  influenced  very  decidedly  educational  zeal 
in  the  province.    Th  >  government,  which  at  the 
outset  had  taken  su<;h  high  ground  on  the  sub- 
ject, ceased  to  exert  itself  in  behalf  of  educa- 
tion, and  the  several  leligious  denominations  and 
the  people  themselvj  in  neighborhood  organiza- 
tions took  up  the  burden  and  planted  schools  ss 
best  they  could  throughout  the  growing  colony. 
.  .  .  Feeling  the  importance  for  some  provision 
to  supplement  the  education  then  given  in  the 
established  schools,  Benjamin  Franklin  as  early 
as  1748  drew  up  a  proposal  for  establishing  an 
academy.  ...  He  secured  the  assistance  of  a 
number  of  friends,  many  of  them  members  ut 
the  famous  Junto,  and  then  published  bis  psm- 
))hlet  entitled  '  Proposals  Relating  to  the  Educs- 
Uon  of  Youth  in  Pennsylvania.'.  .  .  On  all  sides 
the  paper  met  with  great  favor  and  generous 
support.    The  result  was  the  organization  of  a 
board  of  trustees,  consisting  of  24  of  those  who 
had  subscribed  to  the  scheme  of  the  Academr, 
with  Franklin  as  president.    This  body  immedi- 
ately set   about   to    realize  the  object  of  the 
pamphlet,  and  nourished  by  subscriptions,  lot- 
teries, and  gifts  the  Academy  was  placed  is  a 
fiourishing  condition.  .  .  .  Trie  Academy  am- 
prised  three  schools,  the  Latin,  the  English,  and 
the  mathematical,  over  each  of  which  was  placed  a 
master,  one  of  whom  was  the  rector  of  the  iusd- 
tution.  .  .  .  The  tr.nglUh  School  was  neglected. 
The  other  schools  were  favored,  especially  the 
Latin  School.    In  the  eyes  of  Franklin  aud  many 
of  the  supporters  of  the  Academy,  the  EoglUh 
School  was  the  one  of  chief  importance.    What 
we  would  call  a  '  starving  out '  process  was  be- 
gun by  which  the  English  School  was  kept  in  a 
weak  condition,  most  of  the  funds  going  to  the 
Latin  School.  .  .  .  The  success  of  the  Academy 
was  so  gratifying  to  all  interested  in  it  that  it 
was  determined  to  apply  for  a  charter.    This 
was   granted  to  the  trustees  by  Thomas  and 
Richard  Penn,  the  proprietors,  on  July  13,  1753. 
I)esirous  at  the  same  time  of  enlarging  the  course 
of  instruction,  the  trustees  elected  Mr.  William 
Smith  teacher  of  logic,   rhetoric,   natural  and 
moral  philosophy.     Hr.  Smith  accepted  the  posi- 
tion and  entered  upon  his  duties  at  the  Academy 
in  May,   1754.    The  history  of  the  institution 
from  tills  date,  whether  known  as  the  Academy 
to  1779  is  the  history  of  the  life 


or  the  College, 

of  William  Smith.  "-J.L.  Stewart,  Uitt 


Sketch 


of  thd  Univernty  0/  PennigltiaMii  (U.  S.  Sii.xju 
of  Education,  Oinular  of  Information,  ISH'J,  iw. 
i:  Beta.  FrarJcUn  and  the  Univ.,  eh.  4). 

A.  D.  1701-1717.— Connecticut.— Yale  Col- 
lege.— "For  sixty  years  the  only  school  for 
higher  education  in  New  England  bad  bceu  Har- 
vard College,  at  Cambridge.  The  people,  ami 
especially  the  clergy,  of  Connecticut  naturally 
desired  the  benefit  of  a  similar  esteblisUment 
nearer  home.   The  three  ministers  of  New  Haven, 


752 


EDUCATION. 


Yalt,  Prineeton, 
dclmmHa. 


EDUCATION. 


UlKord,  (ud  Branford  first  moved  In  tho  enter- 
prise. Ten  ministers,  nine  of  them  being  iPTadu- 
atcs  of  Harvard  College,  met  at  Branford  [17011 
and  made  a  contribution  from  tlieir  libraries  of 
about  forty  volumes  in  folio  '  for  the  founding 
of  a  college.'  Other  donations  presently  came 
In.  An  Act  of  Incorporation  was  granted  by  the 
General  Court.  It  created  a  body  of  trustees, 
not  to  be  more  than  eleven  in  number  nor  fewer 
than  seven,  all  to  be  clergymen  and  at  least  forty 
years  of  age.  The  Court  endowed  the  College 
with  an  annual  grant,  subject  to  be  discontinued 
at  pleasure,  of  one  hundred  '  wenty  pounds 
in  'country  pay,'— eiiuival,  jlxty  pounds 

i  terllne.     The  College  migh„  tola  property  '  not 
exceeding  the  value  of  five  hundred  pounds  per 
annum ' ;  its  students  were  exempted  from  the 
payment  of  taxes  and  from  militai7  service  •  and 
the  Governor  and  bis  Council  gave  a  formal  ap- 
proval of  its  application  to  the  citizens  for  pecu- 
niary aid.  .  .      The  first  Pres;dent  was  Abraham 
Plerson,  minister  of  Killingworth,  at  which  place 
he  continued  to  reside,  though  ihe  designated 
seat  of  the  Col'»ge  was  at  8aybrook.    Kight  stu- 
dents were  >     littcd,  and  arranged  in  classes. 
At  each  of  1   j  hr»t  two  annual  commcncemen'.s 
one  person,     .  the  iii.rd  three  persons,  received 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts.     President  Pier- 
■iou  was  succeeded,  at  his  death,  by  Mr.  Andrew 
minister  at  Mllford,  to  which  placi  the  elder  pu- 
pils were  accordingly  transferred,  wnile  the  rest 
went  to  Saybrook,  where  two  tutora  had  been 
provided  to  assist  their  studies.  .  .  .  For  nearly 
twenty  years  the  College  of  Connecticut      .  . 
eomimied    to  l)e  an  unsatisfactory  experiment. 
.  .  .  Notwithstamlingthegeneral  agreement  that 
wliuU-ver  fcclllties  for  tlie  higher  education  could 
be  commanded  should  be  brought  together  and 
combined,  the  choice  of  the  place  was  embar- 
ni.<s('(l  by  viirloua  considerations.  .  .  .  Saybrook 
WcthcrsfleUi,   Hurtfortl,  and  New  Haven  com- 
peted with  each  other  for  the  preference,  offering 
such  contributions  as  thev  were  able  towards  the 
-rection  of  a  college  building.     The  offer  from 
lew  Havci,  larger  than  that  of  anv  other  town 
Wiis  seven  hiindr«l  pounds  sterling.    The  plan 
of  tlxing   the  College   there,  promoted   by  the 
gn'iit    intlucnce   of    Governor    Saltonstall,   was 
adopted   by  the  tru.stees;  and  with  money  ob- 
taiiieil  by  private  gifts,  and  two  hundrecf  and 
tifty  pounds  aciruliig  from  a  sale  of  land  given 
by  the  General  A3.sembly,  a  build!ng  was  begun 
[1717),   which  finally  cost  a  thousand  pounds 
«terl  iig    .  .  .  The  Assembly  gave  the  College  a 
hundred  pounds.     Jeremiah  Dummer  sent  from 
Eiit;lttnd  a  substantial  present  of  books     Gov- 
ernor .Saltonstall  contributed  fifty  pounds  ster. 
ling,  and  the  same  sum  was  presenti^d  by  .Tahlecl 
Breutou,  of  Newport,  In  Rhode  Island.     But  the 
chief   patronage   came   from   Elihu    Yale  —a 
native  of  New  Haven,  but  long  resident  in  the 
Kant  Indies,  where  Iw  ha  I  been  Governor  of  Port 
8t  George.     He  was  nox'  a  citizen  of  London, 
and  Governor  of  the  East  India  Company.     His 
contributions,   continued  through  seven   vears, 
ainminted  to  some  four  hundred' pounds  sterling  '• 
and  he  was  understood  to  have  made  arrange- 
iiiciiU  for  a   further    bounty  of    five   hundred 
pounds,  whirh,  however,   through   tinfi^rtunate 
accidents,  never  came  to  its  destination.    The 


province  made  a  grant  of  forty  pounds  annually 
for  seven  years. '^-J.  O.  Palfrey,  Jlitt.  of  Avi 
hnglaad.  4*.  4,  M.  11,  and  bk.  6,  ch.  4  (v.  4). 
48 


1«;     Thl*  r-T,^"'  Jerfey—Princeton  Col- 

mSfiT  11  J^^*"  °'  New  Jersey,  more  com- 
monly called  Princeton  College,  •■originated  in 
the  plan  of  Jonathan  Dickln^n,  JohS  Pieraon. 
l-benezerPembcrton,  Aaron  Burr,  with  others  to 
T^^aV^  institution  'in  which  ample  provis  on 
should  be  made^for  the  Intellectual  knd  religious 
culture  of  youth  desirous  to  obtain  a  liberal  edu- 
cation, and  more  especially  for  the  thorough 
trainlns;  of  such  as  were  candidates  for  the  holy 
^i  ,f  ^ii  '•?  ^."^  "^^^^  *»»  granted  in  174« 
STo*^?  ?°^-  ^°^^  Hamilton,  President  of  His 
Majesty  s  Council  A  second  and  more  ample 
charter  was  granted  September  14th,  174«.  After 
the  war  of  the  Revolution,  the  charter  was  cou- 
firmed  and  renewed  by  the  Legislature  of  New 
n"t?i  ^P'"  ■•^*"''  ''''^'  ""^  Trustees  made 


„  »..uii      ■ —    »i-«i,  uju  irusieesmaae 

a  puWIc  announcement  that  they  haii  ■  appointed 
X.",  .r  "','?■'»'•'"'  I>'ekinson,  President,'  and 
that  the  college  would  be  opened  in  the  fourth 
week  of  May  next  at  Ellzabethtown.  President 
Dickinson  having  died  on  the  7th  of  October  fol- 
.  .."^'ri^^".?'-'''-  ^"°°  Burr  assumed  the  duties 
of  the  Presidency  and  the  college  was  removed 
from  Ellzabethtown  to  Newark  Soon  after  it 
was  removed  from  Newark  to  Princeton,  where 
in  l,...l-5o  the  first  college  building  was  erected  " 
—College  0.  New  Jersey,  OitaUtgue,  181)»-4,  pp. 

A.  D.  I746-I787.-New  York.-King's  Col- 
lege,  now  Columbia  College.-"  The  establish- 
ment of  a  college  in  the  city  of  New  York  was 
many  years  in  agitation  liefore  the  design  was 
carried  into  effret.     At  length,  under  an  act  of 
Assjmbly  passed  in  December,  1746,  and  oth.r 
similar  acts  whlili  followed,  moneys  were  raised 
by  public  lottery   'for  the   encouragement  of 
learning  and  towards  the  founding  a  college' 
within  the  colony.    These  moneys  were,  in  No- 
vember, 17,il,  vested  in  trustees.  .  .  .  The  trus- 
tees, m  November,   K.-iS,   invited    Dr.    Samuel 
Johnson   of  Connecticut,  to  be  president  of  the 
intended  college.     Dr.  Johnson  consequently  re- 
moved to  New  York  in  the  month  of  April  fol- 
lowing, and  in  July,  MM.  commenced  the  in- 
struction of  a  class  of  students  in  a  room  of  tlie 
schoo  -house  belonging  to  Trinity  Church  :  but  he 
would  not  absolutely  accept  the  presidency  until 
after  the  passing  of  the  charter.     This  took  place 
on  the  .list  of  October  in  the  same  year.  17,54- 
from  which  iK'riod  the  ixistence  of  the  college 
IS  properly  to  be  dateil.     The  governors  of  the 
college,  named  in  the  charter,  are  the  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  and  the  first  Lord  Commissioner 
for  Trade  and  Plantations,  both  empowered  to  act 
by  proxies:  the  Lieutonant-govemorof  the  prov- 
ince, and  several  ntlicr  public  officers;  to>;ether 
with  the  ri'ctor  of  Trinitv  Church,  the  senior  min- 
ister of  the  Reformed  Protestant  Dutch  Church 
the  mini.st..Ts  of  the  German  Lutheran  Church  of 
the  French  Church,  of  the  Presbyterian  Congrc- 
giiticm,  and  the  President  of  the  college   all  ex 
oflicio,  ami  twenty-four  of  the  principal  gentle- 
nien  of  the  city.     The  college  was  to  be  known 
by  the  name  of  King's  College.     PrevlousI"  to 
the  passing  of  the  charter,  a  parcel  of  grouiul  to 
the  westward  of  Broadway,  bounded  by  Barcluv 
Church,   and   JIurray   streets   and  the   Hiul«.".n 
Mver.  had  been  destined  by  tilt  vestry  of  Trinity 
Church  as  a  site  for  the  colleg?  edifice;  and  ac- 
cordingly, after  the  charter  was  granted,  a  grant 
of  the  land  was  made  on  ihe  13th  of  Mav,  17.').5 
I  .  .  .  The  pai  t  of  the  land  thus  granted  by^'Trinity 

753 


Ml 


'% 


EDUCATION. 


Oarimmlk. 


EDUCATION. 


w 


Church,  not  occupied  for  coU«g«  purpowt,  wm 
leued,  and  becwne  a  very  valuable  endowment 
to  the  college.  The  source!  whence  the  fundi 
of  the  Institution  were  derived,  besides  the  pro- 
ceeds of  the  lotteries  above  mentioned,  were  the 
Toluntary  contributtona  of  private  individuals 
tai  this  country,  and  sums  obtained  by  agents 
who  were  subsequently  sent  to  England  and 
Franco.  In  May,  1760,  the  college  buTldings  be- 
gan to  be  occupied.  In  1763  a  grammar  school 
was  established.  ...  On  the  breaking  out  of 
the  Revolutionary  War  the  business  of  the  col- 
lege was  almost  entirely  broken  up,  and  it  was 
not  until  after  the  return  of  peace  that  its  affairs 
were  again  regularly  attended  to.  In  May, 
1784,  the  college,  upon  its  own  application, 
was  erected  into  a  university  ;  its  corporate  title 
was  changed  from  King's  C  •ge  to  Columbia 
College,  and  It  was  placed  r  the  control  of 

a  bawd  termc'  Regents  of  tte  Jversity.  .  .  . 
The  college  i  ntinued  under  ta  '.  government 
until  Apnl,  1787,  when  the  Legislature  of  the 
State  reatored  it  to  its  original  position  under  the 
present  name  of  Columbia  College.  ...  At  the 
same  time  a  new  body  was  created,  called  by  the 
same  name,  'The  Regents  of  the  University,' 
under  which  all  the  seminaries  of  learning  men- 
tioned in  the  net  creating  It  were  placed  by  the 
Li-sislature.  This  body  still  exists  under  ito 
orii;lnal  name."— (WumMn  ColUge  Handbook,  pp. 
6-!t. 

A  D.  I7S4-I7«9.— New  Hampshire.— Dart- 
mouth College,  and  the  ••  Dartmouth  College 
Case."— "  Dartmouth  College  .  .  .  was  origi- 
nally a  charity  school  for  the  instruction  of 
Indians  in  the  Christian  religion,  founded  by  the 
Rev.  Eleazer  Wheelock.  D.  n..  about  the  year 
17.'54,  at  Lebanon,  in  Connecticut.  Its  success 
led  Dr.  Wheelock  to  solicit  private  subscriptions 
in  England,  for  the  purpose  of  enlarging  It,  and 
of  extending  its  b<'neBts  to  English  colonists. 
Funds  having  been  obtained  for  this  purpose 
from  various  contributors,  among  whom  the 
Earl  of  Dartmouth.  Secretary  for  the  Colonies, 
was  a  large  donor.  Dr.  Wheelock  constituted 
that  nobleman  and  other  persons  trustees,  with 
a\ithority  to  fix  the  site  of  the  College.  The 
place  selected  was  on  the  Connecticut  River,  at 
what  is  now  tht  town  of  Hanover,  in  New 
Hampshire,  where  large  donations  of  land  were 
made  by  the  neighboring  proprietors.  A  char- 
UT  for  the  college  was  obtained  from  the  crown. 
In  1789,  creating  it  a  perpetual  corporation.  The 
charter  recognized  Dr.  Wheelock  as  founder,  ap- 
pointed him  to  be  the  r    -Ment,  and  empowereii 


rothe  approval 

Iso  imparted 

own  body, 

■    for  the 

't  to  the 

ce,  and 


hi  m  to  name  his  surer 
of  the  trustees;   t- 
till'  power  of  filling  \. 
a-id    of    making  laws  . 
g  ivernment  of  the  col  leg , 

Irvs  of  Great  Britain  or  ot  —,  

nut  excluding  any  person  on  accourn  ot  his  re 
liirinus  belief  Under  this  charter,  Dartmouth 
Ciilli'ge  had  always  existed,  un<|UPStioned  and 
nnilisturhed  in  Its  rights  as  a  corporation,  down 
t  1  the  Revolution,  and  subsequently  until  the 
\.ar  181.5,  Whether  from  political  or  personal 
inotives  sprinijine  up  outside  of  the  board  of 
trustees  of  that  period,  or  from  some  collisions 
arising  within  the  bodv  itself,  it  appears  that 
.  legislative  interference  with  the  chartered 
rji'hts  of  this  college  wia  threatened.  ...  In 
Ihi'  following  year  (1816),  the  dlfflcultiei,  which 


had  become  mixed  with  political  Interests,  cuV 
minated  in  a  direct  interference  by  the  Legisla- 
ture.   In  that  year  an  act  was  passed,  changing 
the  corporate  name  from  'The  Trustees  of  Dart 
mouth  College '  to  '  The  Trustees  of  Dartmouth 
University  ;    enlarging  the  number  of  trustees, 
vesting  the  appointment  of  some  of  them  in  the 
political  bodies  of  the  Htate,  and  otherwise  modi- 
lying  the  ancient  rights  of  the  corporation  as 
they  existed  under  its  charter  derived  from  the 
crown  of  England.     A   majority  of  the  exist 
ing  trustees  refused  to  accept  or  to  be  bound  by 
this  act,  and  brought  an  action  of  trover  in  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  State,  in  the  name  ot 
the  old  corporation,  against  a  gentleman.  Mr. 
W.  U.  Woodward,  who  was  in  possession  of  the 
college  seal  and  other  effects,  and  who  claimed 
to  hold  them    as    one  ot    the    olHiira   of    tlie 
newly-created   'university.'     The   argument  in 
this  case  was  made  in  the  8tet<'  court,  for  the 
college,  by  Mr.  Mason  and  Mr.  .leremiah  Smith, 
assisted  by   Mr.  Webster.      The    decision   was 
against  the  claim  of  the  college.     It  was  then  de 
termined  to  remove  the  cauue,  by  writ  of  error,  to 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  under 
the  provisions  of  the  Federal  Constitution  and 
laws    creating    in    that    trihimal    an  appelliite 
jurisdiction  in  cases  which,  although  original- 
ing  in  a  State  court,  involved  the  construct  ion 
and  operation  of  the  Federal  Constitution.    Tliia 
was  supposed  to  be  such  a  case,  because  it  was 
claimed  by  the  college  that  the  act  of  the  Lejiis- 
lature,  modifying  its  charter,  impaired  the  nMi- 
gation  of  a  contract ;  an  exercise  of  power  which 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  prohibits 
to  the  Legislature  of  a  State.    As  soon  as  it  was 
known  in  New  Hampshire  that  this  very  inter- 
esting cause  was  to  come  before  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States,  the  friends  of  the 
college,  including  their  other  counsel  in  the  Stjite 
court,  unanimously  desired  to  have  it  committed 
to  the  hands  of  Mr.  Webster.    He  consented  tn 
take  charge  of  it  in  the  autumn  of  1817  ;  but  the 
cause  was  not  argued  at  Washington  until  Feb- 
ruary, 1818.  .  .  .  Before  the  case  of  Dartmoi"h 
College  vs.  Woodward  occurred,  then  h,»i     ■ 
no  judicial  decisions  respecting  the  meaning  ana 
scope  of  the  restraint  in  regard  to  contracts,  ex- 
cepting that  it  had  more  than  once  been  deter- 
mined by   the  Supreme  Court  of    the  United 
States  that  a  grant  of  lands  made  by  a  State  is  a 
contract  within  the  protection  of  this  provision, 
and  is,  therefore,  irrevocable.    These  decisio  is. 
however,  could  go  but  little  way  towanl  the 
solution  of  the  questions  involved  in  the  case  of 
the  college.  .  .  .  Was  the  State  of  New  Hsmp- 
ghirc  — a  sovereign  in  all  respects  after  the  Rev- 
olution, and  remaining  one  after  the  Federal 
Constitution,    excepting    in    those    respe<ts   in 
which  it  had  subjected  its  sovereignty  to  the 
restraints  of    that   instrument  —  iKiund    by  the 
contracts  of  the  English  crown  1     Is  the  prant  ot 
a  charter  of  incorpomtion  a  contract  between  the 
sovereign  power  and  those  on  whom  the  charter 
is  bestowed  1    If  an  act  of  incorporation  is  a  con- 
tract, is  it  so  In  nnv  case  but  that  of  a  private 
corporation  1    Was  "this  college,  which  was  an 
institution  of  learning,  establishcti  for  the  pro- 
motion of  education,  a  private  corporation,  or 
was  it  one  of  those  instruments  of  g-.iveniiF-'^t 
which  are  at  all  times  under  the  control  and  sub- 
ject to  the  direction  of  the  Ugislative  power? 
All  these  quettiona  were  involved  in  the  imiuiry 


764 


XDUCATIOM. 


Dmominalioital  Imtilutieiu. 


EDUCATION. 


wtnther  the  legislative  power  of  the  State  liad 
been  10  rettraineil  by  the  CoDstitutioQ  of  the 
Uuited  State*  that  it  could  uot  alter  tiie  charter 
of  thii  inititutiou,  against  the  will  of  the  trustees, 
without  impairing  the  obligation  of  a  contract. 
...  On  the  conclusion  of  the  argument,  the 
Chief  Justice  intimated  that  a  decision  was  not  to 
be  expected  until  the  next  term.  It  was  made 
in  Februarr,  1819,  fully  conttrming  the  grounds 
on  which  Mr.  Webster  bad  placed  the  cause. 
From  this  decision,  the  principle  in  our  constitu- 
tional jurisprudence,  which  regards  a  charter  of 
11  private  corporation  as  a  contract,  and  places  it 
under  the  protection  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
Uuited  States,  takes  ite  date."— 0.  T.  Curtis, 
life  of  Daniel  Webiter.  «.  1,  cA.  8. 

A.  D.   1763-1769.— Rhode    Island.— Brown 
UniTcriity.— "Brown    University,    the   oldest 
and  best  endowed  institution  of  learning  con- 
nected with  the  Baptist  denomination,  dates  back 
for  its  origin  to  a  period  anterior  to  the  Amcriiiin 
lievolution,  when  in  all   the  thirteen  colonies 
there  were  less  than  70  Baptist  churches,  with 
ptrhaps  4,000  communicants.     It  is  not  surpris- 
iri>r  that,  at  the  memorable  meeting  of  the  Phila- 
ililpUia  Association,  held  ou  the  12th of  October, 
I70i,  when  the  members  were  finally  lal  to  re- 
L'lird  it,  in  the  vonls  of  Uaokus,  as  •  pra<'ticablc 
unci  expedient  to  erect  a  (.'olle;-e  in  the  Colony  of 
Kliode  Island,  under  the  thief  direction  of  "the 
liaplists,  in  which  e<iue«tion  might  be  promoted 
und  superior  learning  obtaineil,  free  from  any 
sceUrian  tests,'  the  mover  in  tlie  matter  should 
lit  first  have  been  laughed  at,  the  thing  being 
liMjked  upon  as,  under  the  circumstances,  an  utter 
impossibility.     But    leaders  at  that   time,    like 
Morgan  Edwanlsaiid  Isaac  Eaton,  Samuel  Jones. 
Abel  Morgan,  Benjamin  Orifiith,  John  Suttnn 
and  John  Gano,  were  men  of  faith.  ...  At  the 
time  of  which  I  speak,  there  was  graduated  from 
Princeton,  with  the  second  honors  of  his  class,  a 
man  of  wonderful  mental  and  physical  endow- 
menU,  an  early  pupil  of  Isaac  Eiiton  at  Hope- 
well, James  Mannini;,  of  Elizabethtown,  New 
Jersey.     To  him  the  enterprise  of  the  college 
was  by  common  consiait  intrusted.  .  .  .  The  first 
commencement  of  the  college    which  \yi«  held 
in  the  then  new  Baptist  meeting-house  ui    the 
town  of  Warren,  on  tlie  7th  of  September,  178P, 
has  already  been  regarded  as  a  Red  Letter  Day 
in  its  history.     Five  years  previous,  the  Oeneral 
Assembly  .  .  .  had  gVunted  a  charter  for  a  '  Col- 
lege or   University   in   the   English  Colony  of 
Hliode   Island   and   Providence    Plantations,    in 
New  England  in  America.'.  .  .  Without  funds, 
without  students,  and  with  no  present  prospect 
of  support,  a  beginnir^'  must  be  made  where  the 
president  could  be  the  pastor  of  a  chunh,  and 
thus  obtain  an  adequate  compensation  for  his 
services.      Warren,    then    as    now   a  delightful 
and  flourishing  inland  toiyn,  sitiiate<l   1(1  inilcs 
from  Providence,  seemed  to  meet  the  reiiuisite 
requirements;  and  thither,  accordingly.  Manning 
reinoveil  with  his  family  in  the  spriiig  of  17t)4.    i 
lie  at  once  commenced"  a  Latin  School,  as  the  | 
tirst  step  preparatory  to  the  work  of  colli^ge  in-   I 
struction.     Before  the  I'lose  of  the  year  a  church 
was  organized,  over  which  he  was  ilnly  inslalleii 
as  pastor.     The  following  y»ar,  at  the  second 
Hnuual  meeting  of  the  rorpnratinn,  held  i-  Xpw- 
]«>n.  Wednesday,  September  3d,  he  was  formally 
elected,  in  the  language  of  the  recortis,  '  Presi- 
dent of  the  College,  Professor  of  Languages  and 


755 


t)ther  branches  of  learning,  with  full  power  t4 
act  in  these  capacities  at  Warren  or  elsewhere.' 
On  that  same  day,  as  appears  from  a  paper  now 
on  file  in  the  archives  of  the  Library,  the  presi- 
dent matriculated  his  first  student,  William  Ro- 
gers, a  lad  of  fourteen,  the  son  of  Captain  William 
Rogers,  of  Newport.  Not  only  was  this  Ud  the 
first  stufi-nt  of  the  college,  but  he  wa»  also  the 
first  fre.liman  class."— R.  A.  Guild,  The  ft>»t 
CmtmeiuttmrUof  Khode  Itiand  College  (Ji- 1-  lliet 
Soe  Coll\  V.  7),  pp.  269-271.  — Six  years  after 
the  founding  of  the  University  it  was  remove<l 
from  Warren  to  Providence,  and  its  name  changed 
from  Rhode  Island  College  to  Brown  University, 
in  honor  of  John  Brown,  of  Providence,  who  was 
its  most  liberal  benefactor.— O.  W.  Greene  Short 
UittofRhiMe  bland,  p.  198.- Although  founded 
by  the  Baptist  Church,  the  charter  of  the  Uni- 
versity "expressly  forbids  the  use  of  religious 
'*"^'  rJ*"*  '^ofPorat'on  is  divided  into  two  Boards 
—the  Tnistecs,  ;18  in  number,  of  whom  22  must 
be  Baptists,  5  Quakers,  5  Episcopalians,  and  4 
Congregationalists.  and  the  Fellows,  12  in  num- 
ber, of  whom  8,  including  the  President,  must  be 
Baptists,  an  the  remainder  of  otlier  denomina- 
tions. Tw  Truptees  and  5  Fellows  form  a 
quorum.  college  estate,  the  students,  and 
the  member!,  i^:  the  faculty,  with  their  families, 
are  exempt  from  taxation  and  from  serving  as 
jurors."— S.  G.  Arnold,  Uitt.ofthe  Stateof  H.  I., 
rli.  IH  (c.  2).  -^  •' 

A.  D.  I769-I884.-The  United  States.— 
Sectarian  Institutioni  of  Learning.— A  large 
pro[)<)rtion  of  the  very  great  number  of  educa- 
tional institutions  in  the  United  States  which  have 
a  collegiate  or  a  university  rank,  in  some  high 
or  low  degree,  were  created  and  are  maintained 
and  governed  by  sectarian  religious  bodies.  They 
are  too  numerous  to  be  named ;  but  the  following 
may  be  cited  as  being,  perhaps,  the  most  notable 
in  this  class:  under  Baptist  auspices,  Brown  Uni- 
versity, Providence.  B.  I. .founded in  1769;  Colby 
Univeraitj-.  at  Waterville.  Me.,  founded  in  1820- 
Colgate  I  niversity,  at  Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  founded 
in  1816  ;  Columbian  University,  at  Washington, 
founded  in  l82t  ;  Rochester  University,  at  Itoch- 
ester,  N  Y.,  founded  in  18,'il.  Under  Congre- 
gationr.list  au.spices:  Bowdoin  College,  at  Bruns- 
wick, Me.,  founded  in  1794;  Iowa  College,  at 
Grinnell,  la.,  founded  in  1843.  Under  Episco 
palian  auspices  ;  Hobart  College,  at  Geneva, 
N.  Y.,  founded  (»8  a  college)  in  1822;  Kenyon 
College,  at  Gambler,  O.,  founded  in  1824;  Le- 
'dgh  University,  at  South  Bethleliem.  Pa., 
tounded  in  1887 ;  Trinity  College,  at  Hartford, 
Conn.,  founded  in  1823  ;  University  of  the  South, 
at  Sewanee,  Tenn.,  founded  in"  1857.  Under 
Methixlist  auspices:  Allegheny  College,  at  Mead- 
ville.  Pa.,  founded  in  181.5;  iBoston  University, 
at  Boston,  Mii,ss.,  founded  in  1869  ;  Tie  Pauw 
University,  at  Greencastle.  Ind, .  founded  in  1837  ; 
Dickinson  Colleee,  at  Carlisle.  Pa.,  founded  in 
1783:  Northwestern  University,  at  Evanston  and 
Chicago,  111.,  founded  in  1855;  Syracu,'  Uni- 
versity, at  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  founded  1  "871; 
Vanderbilt  University,  at  Nftchvi;)-  lenn 
founded  in  1873;  We"sleyan  Uniersity  i.t  Mid- 
dletown.  Conn.,  founded  in  1831.  Tide;  Pres- 
byterian auspices  :  Belolt  College, .  ;  ioit.Wis 
ffimded  in  l«4:j  ;  Cumberland  College,  at  Leba- 
non. Tenn.,  founded  in  1827 ;  Lafayette  College 
at  Easton,  Pa.,  founded  in  1832;  Lake  Forest 
University,  at  Lake  Forest  and  Chiiago.  r.,\i.:deil 


^i 


l:!it 


m 


H-'-i 


r'  if 


III 

'!ifi 


a  I 


EDUCATION. 


Land  Oraals 


EDUCATION. 


in  1857.  Under  Roman  Catholic  auspices:  The 
Catholic  University  of  America,  at  Waahington, 
founded  in  1884 ;  the  Georgetown  University,  at 
Waahington,  founded  In  1815;  University  of 
Notre  Dame,  at  Notre  Dame,  Ind.,  founded  In 
1842.  Under  Univernalist  auspices :  Tufts  Col- 
lege, at  Boston,  founded  in  18.57. 

A.  D.  1770.— New  Jersey.— Rutgers  Col- 
lege.—" Rutgers  College,  locatc<l  at  Nt'W  Bruns- 
wick, was  chartered  by  George  III.  in  1770,  and 
was  called  tjuefn's  College,  in  honour  of  his 
consort.  Tlif  present  name  was  substituted  by 
the  Icglalaturi'  of  the  State,  In  1H25,  at  request 
of  the  trustees,  iu  honour  of  Col.  Ilenrjr  Rutgers, 
of  New  York,  to  whom  the  institution  is  in. 
debte<l  for  liberal  pectmiury  beuefartions.  The 
charter  was  origiiuUly  grunted  to  such  Protes- 
tants as  bad  adopted  the  constitution  of  the 
reformetl  churches  in  the  Netlierlands,  as  revised 
by  the  national  synod  of  Dordrecht,  in  the  years 
IBIN  ami  11(19.  .  .  .  The  Theological  College  of 
the  Itcfcirined  Dutch  Church  is  established  here 
and  intimately  trended  with  the  literary  institu- 
tion "—T.  F.  Goriion.  Gazetteer  nf  the  State  nf 
y.  ./.  ['«iu  mi  iHth  '•  IliHtoni  if  Xiu<Ji'rfey"),vM. 

A.  D.  i776-l88o.— New  Eng;laad  and  New 
York.— State  School  Systems.— "  It  was  not 
until  over  thirty  years  after  the  close  (jf  the  war 
of  ITTtl  thiit  II  ri'iiular  system  of  schtMils  at  the 
public  I'xpinsi'  wiis  c«ta^)lislKMl.  New  Kngland 
boasted  with  pri'i  ■  of  being  the  first  in  cduca 
tion,  as  shi'  huil 
closely  follow 
York,  In  IWI.- 
a.ssociatcil  fc; 
RihiHil  ill  New 
thc'iliildriiiof  i„  1 
and  who  did  not  bii 
for   liv,    any   nliui 


'•1  war.     Her  example  was 

itlier  Suites,     In  New 

itleiueii  of  prominence 

SI?  of  establishing  a  free 

ity  for  the  education  of 

s  in  indi),'eiit  circum.stiuices. 

111;  to,  or  were  not  provided 

Ills    siH'icty.     These    publii 


spiritiii  pnlieiiiMi  pnsi'iited  a  memorial  to  the 
Legislature,  sitting  forth  thi'  iHnetits  that  would 
resiil!  to  s.»iety  from  eiliicatiiig  such  children, 
and  that  it  wmild  c  liable  tliem  iiion'  elTectiialiy 
to  acconiplisli  ilic  olijccis  of  llieir  institution  If 
the  Rcbiiols  Kin  i.  '  orpMral"!  The  bill  of  in- 
corporatl'in  was  pas-ii|  .\pril  !l,  lHil,"i  This  was 
the  nucleus  fr-mi  wliieli  the  ph'sint  svstem  of 
iiiililii' w'licHils  siarleil  into  ixisleiiee.  Later  on. 
in  llie  year  IwiN,  we  lliid  from  annual  printed 
reporls'tli.it  two  free  schools  wen-  opeiieii  and 
were  In  workiiii.'  order.  .It  was  ibe  liiten 
tion  of  the  founders  of  these  si  hoots — among 
whom  the  names  of  De  Witt  Clinton.  Kenlinaiid 
lie  I'eyster.  .loliii  Murray,  and  I/'onard  Hleccker 
stand  prominent  as  otiiccrs  —  to  avoid  the  teiich- 
iniis  of  any  reliu'ioii«  society;  but  thiTc  were 
among  thepeople  many  »ho  thoiiirbl  that  siif 
fieient  care  was  not  belni;  In  stowed  ui>on  relt- 
L'iiitiR  Instriiilion  to  please  llice  mnfeoiilents 
the  literary  studies  of  tiie  pupils  wen-  siimis'IiiIhI 
one  arierno'in  In  every  week,  and  an  nssm  iuiion 
of  Hfty  ladies  of  •dlsllntriiislied  1  oiisidcrallon  In 
siM'lety '  met  on  this  day  and  exan.inisl  the  dill 
drill  in  their  nspeelive  lateelilsms  .  To  reail, 
writ)',  and  kn<i»  ariilimt  li<'  in  Its  llrst  braui  h<  s 
corn'ctly,  was  the  extent  of  the  islucatiimal  ad 
vantagt's  wliii  h  the  founders  of  the  free  sihisil 
system  deemed  necessary  for  the  accomplish- 
menl  (f  their  purposes  '  —  .V  II  Rhine.  ThrRirly 
I'ree  Sfh'">l»  </  Am  il^iimlar  Srinet  M'/nthln. 
M.irrh.  l'«80i. 

A.   D.   i7S5-lMo.-Tht   Unittd  Stat«t,- 
Land-grantt  for  School!.— 'The  ipiestlon  of 

766 


the  endowment  of  educational  institutions  by  the 
Government  in  aid  of  the  cause  of  education  seem.s 
to  have  met  no  serious  opposition  In  the  Congri-sa 
of  the  Confederation,  and  no  membiT  raised  his 
voice  against  this  vital  aiid  essential  provision 
relating  to  it  in  the  ordintnce  of  May  20,  178S, 
■  for  ascertaining  the  mode  of  disposing  of  lands 
in theWestem Territory.'  Tais provided ;  'There 
shall  be  reserved  the  lot  No,  18  of  every  town 
ship  for  the  maintenance  of  public  schools  within 
said  township,'  This  was  an  endowment  of  tl40 
acres  of  land  (one  section  of  land,  one  mile  square) 
In  a  township  six  miles  square,  for  the  support 
and  maintenance  of  public  sidiiHils  '  within  wiid 
township. '  The  manner  of  esUiblishment  of  piili. 
lie  schools  thereunder,  or  by  whom,  was  not 
mentioned.  It  was  a  reservation  by  the  Iniiid 
States,  and  advanced  and  established  a  principle 
which  finally  dedicated  one  thirty-sixth  pan  nf 
all  public  lands  of  the  United  States,  with  i-i-r- 
tain  exceptions  as  to  minerals,  &C.,  to  the  cause 
of  education  by  public  schools.  ...  In  the  Con- 
tinental Congress,  July  13,  1787,  aci-ordini;  in 
onier.  the  ordinance  for  the  government  of  tlie 
'Territory  of  the  United  States  northwest  of  ilu- 
river  Ohio'  came  on,  was  ri-ad  a  third  time.  vm\ 

Fassed  [sis' Northwest Teiihitobt  :  A.I).  17.sT|. 
t  containeil  the  following:  'Art,  !).  IMii-inii, 
morality,  and  knowledge  being  necessary  to  gmul 
government  and  the  happiness  of  niankimi, 
schools  and  the  means  of  cdiicatlim  shall  fori  \it 
be  encouraged.'  The  provision  of  the  imliiianif 
of  May  20, 1785.  relating  to  the  reservation  of  the 
sixteenth  section  in  every  township  of  piililie 
land,  was  the  inception  of  the  pn-sent  rule  of 
n'servation  of  (crlain  sections  of  land  for -1  liool 
purposes.  The  endowment  was  the  subjeil  nf 
much  U'gislatlon  In  the  years  following,     'I'lie 


question  was  raisiil  that  there  was  no  reason  uliy 
the  I'nited  Htati-s  should  not  organize,  conlrnl. 


and  manage  tlicsi'  public  schools  so  cmloueil. 
i'lie  resi-rvuliotiH  of  land  were  made  by  surviy 
ors  and  duly  relurnisi.  This  policy  at  om  i-  \wi 
with  enthusiastic  approval  from  the  publii',  unit 
was  tacitly  iiiiorpomt<'d  Into  the  American  sis. 
tcni  as  one  ol  Its  fundamental  organic  lilms. 
Whether  the  public  scIhhiIs  thiiseiiiiowed  liy  llii 
I'liitiHl  Htati  s  were  to  Im'  under  national  or  Siiiie 
lontrol  rrniained  a  question,  and  the  hiiuismrr 
held  In  res<  rvatlon  merely  until  after  the  uilnii 
sioiiof  the  State  of  dliioln  INtni.  ,  .  .  T-iiail, 
oriranl/.ed  Territory,  after  imiH.  «as  and  iin«  i^ 
ri  MTVed  the  sixteenth  section  (until  after  llii 
Oniroii  Tcrritiiry  .\cl  reserved  the  thirty  sixili 
as  well)  for  silittol  purposi-s.  wliii  b  reservalinii  is 
nirried  Into  irniiit  and  loiitlrniaiion  by  Ibe  h mis 
of  the  ail  of  adniixlon  of  ibe  Territory  nr  Slnli- 
Into  till-  I'liion  ;  the  Stale  then  bei  oiiiing  a  Iriis 
tee  for  silesil  purposes  These  grants  nf  land 
were  made  from  the  publii' donmiii.  and  to  Matis 
only  wlilili  wen>  kiioHii  as  public  laial  relates. 
Twelve  States,  from  March  8,  IWi^l  klmnn  «* 
public  land  States,  received  the  allowanie  ,|f  thi' 
slxtoenth  section  to  August   14,184"  (nn 

gress.  ,liH„  111,  181-',  and  May  !!«,  '»«'.'),  by  tli. 
acts  onlering  the  siirvi'V  of  certain  towns  anil 
villages  in  .Missmiri.  resiTved  for  the  support  nf 
schisils  In  thi'  iHwiiH  and  villages  nsnied  pm 
vldiil  that  the  whole  amount  rewTvisI  should  imt 
exieeil  one  twentieth  part  of  the  whole  laiiiN  in 
rludeii  in  the  gi'iiernl  survey  of  such  mw  n  or 
village  Thew  lots  were  nservisl  and  sol'l  fnr 
the  heneflt  of  the  srhools.     Saint  Louis  n  1 1  iml 


EDUCATION 


8tat«   Univtrtitiu. 


KDUCATIOX. 


a  large  fund  from  thu  source.  ...  In  the  act 
for  the  organization  of  the  Territory  of  Oregon 
August  14,  1848,  Senator  Stephen  A.  Douglas 
inserted  an  additional  grant  for  school  purposes 
of  the  thirtv-aixtb  section  in  each  township  with 
indemnity  for  all  public-land  States  thereafter  to 
be  admitted,  making  the  reservation  for  school 
purposes  the  sixteenth  and  thirtv-sizth  sections, 
or  1,280  acres  in  each  township  of  six  miles 
Sfiuare  reserTe<l  In  public-land  States  and  Terri- 
tories, aud  contlrraed  by  grant  in  terms  in    ,■ 
act  of  admission  of  such  State  or  Territurj     i  < 
the  Union.     From  March  13,  1853,  to  Jun.   :*i, 
1880,  seven  States  have  been  admitted  inh     li  ■ 
Union  having  a  grant  of  the  sixteenth  aud  th    ty 
sixth  sections,  and  the  same  area  lias  Ijccd  ,' 
served  in  eight  territories."— T.  Donaldson,  1  ;. 
Piihlie  Donutin,  eh.  13. 

A.  D.  I789.-The  United  Statet.— "The 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  makes  no  pro- 
vision for  the  education  of  the  people  ;  and  in  the 
Convention  that  framed  it,  I  believe  the  subject 
was  not  even  mentioned.  A  motion  to  insert  a 
clause  providing  for  the  eatablishmeut  of  a  na- 
tional university  was  voted  down.  I  U'lieve  it 
is  also  the  fact,  that  the  Constitutions  of  on'y 
three  of  the  thirteen  original  States  made  the 
obligation  to  maintain  a  system  of  Free  Sclioiils 
a  part  of  their  fundamental  law."— II,  Miimi 
Iff  Kind  Aniiiitil  tirji'tt  Hit  Kliioition    leel  !i 

A.   D.   I79i-I893.-State  Univenitiei.-A 

majority  of  the  States  In  the  Union  have  estab- 

iishnl  universities,  each  bearing  the  name  of  the 

Suite,  and  more  m  less  supporteil  by  endciwrni-nts 

andappropriatintis  provide.i  bj  leglHJHtive  ,i,ts 

In  most  ca.>ii's,  llie  founding  of  these  Instil  itions 

was  initiiii^l  by  the  various  land  grants  of  the 

United  Stttt<'S  (see  iilM)ve :  A.  D   178.'J-1Hh(|  and 

Ih'Idw,  1883)      The  ,S|„le  universities,  distiiictly 

charact<  rizeii  a.s  such,  are  the  f.>llowlng     Ala- 

liuniri,    founded   at  TuscaliHMa,    in    1H3I    '  ('aij. 

fiiriiiii,  lit  Herlteley,  foundisl  in  1H»W  ,comii(ied 

witli    whi  h   is  the   Lick   Observatory,    on    \tt 

Hamilton,    founded    liy  James   IJik."ln    1M7,-,|- 

Colorado,  at  Moulder,  frmndeil  in  18TB    Oeorgiii" 

lit  Athens,  foimded  in  Imoi  ;  Iihiho.  at  Mo«<.iw' 

found.Kl   in    I«l«;    Illinois,    nt  Cliampiiign  ami 

Irbana.  found.sl  in  IHflfl;  Indiinm,  at  Hl,i.iniing- 

Um.    founde.|   In    18a<);    Kansas,   at   Uwn.nce 

f»unde<l    In    Mm-.    Michigan,    at    Ann   Arbor' 

founded  (orlirlnallv  at  Detrolti  In  Ih'Ji     MInne 

t<il.i    It  .Mlniii'apofis,   in  IWIM;  Missouri    at  C.i 

luniiiia  ami  Holla,  founded  in  18;t»:   Mis'slssippl 

\t  (Hfonl,  founileil  in  \>HH -.  Nebraska    at  l.ln' 

colli,  founded  In  \n»» .  North  Oakotji.  at  (Jrand 

fork,  foundml  in  1MS4  ;  Ohio,  at  Athens,  founded 

in  1802;    South  Oakota.  at  Veniiilioii,   f.iuiuhsl 

In  lM8a  :  Tennessee,  at  Knoxville,  founded  itlrst 

«s  Blount   t'ollegei  In  1794:    Texas,  at  Austin 

•ind  Oalveston,   foiinilisl  In  187fl  ;    Vermont     at 

Hurllngton.  founded  In  17111  ;  Virginia,  at  ciiar 

^iilesvllle.    foundisl   In   18I»;    Washlnirion,    at 

Sealte   founde<l  In  18(HI;  Wisconsin,  iit  Mailison 

founiled  In  IKY) ;  Wyoming,  at  Uramie,  foundrd 

A,  D,  I7M- -  M«i»«chut«tti.  -  Williamt 
Colle|[«,  AViillams  College,  at  Willlamstown, 
llerksliin-  founty.  .Masa,  was  chartered  In  17»i1. 
I  he  town  and  the  college  were  named  in  honor 
■■f  Co!  Kphr,!n>  Wll!!sm=.  w!i„  had  n>mir.r.nd 
of  llie  forts  In  the  H<xmm<  Valley,  and  was  killed 
n  a  battle  with  the  French  and  Indians  S.  n 
timber  8,  1753,     By   bis  will   bo  eMablislied  a 


free  school  in  the  township  which  was  to  bear 
his  name.     The  most  advanced  students  of  thi» 
free  school  became  the  first  college  class   num- 
bering 4,   and  .eceived  the  regular  degree  of 
bachelor  of  arts  in  the  autumn  of  1795     The 
small  amount  left  by  the  will  of  Colonel  Wil- 
liams was  carefully  managed  for  30  years  by  the 
executors    and    they   then  obtained   pcrmUsion 
from  the  State  legisiatun;  to  carry  out  the  be- 
I    ^"    »nt  purposes  of  the  testator.     The  fund  for 
I    .    ...iiu^  7-.S  increased  by  individual  subscrio- 
I   tioiis,  ;in..  by  ..  i  avails  of  a  lottery,  which  the 
eenenil   (,ouit    .ranted   for  that  purpose.    The 
,    imiWfig   Ah  <  J  is  now  known  as  West  Colleire 
■    was  tl»i.  eri-  e.1  for  the  use  of  the  free  sch(5>l 
I    md  ^  ,«  fin.  .led  in  1790,  ,  ,  .  The  free  school 
..:':.     ..  ned  m  1791,  with  Rev,  Ebenezer  Fitch 
a  grwfuatt  of  Yale  College,  as  pn-ceptor,  and 
Mr    Jolm  Ix^ster  as  assistant.  .  ,   ,  The  success 
of  the  school  was  so  great  that  the  next  year  the 
trust.es  asked  the  legislature  to  incorporate  the 
sch.Hjl   ,,,t«  a  college.     This  was  done,  and  a 
grant  of  H.im  was  made  from  the  State  treasury 
for  the  punhiise  of  books  and  philosophical  ap- 
paratus.    The  college  was  put  under  thclcarf  of 
12  ti;ustees,  who  elected  IVoptor  Fitch  the  first 
presidi.nt  of  the  (ollege,  "-E,  B,  Parsons,  Hi,t. 
of  Iliyher  ktlmitiim  in  M,tu  (V.  H  Jiureau  „i 
t^hication,  Cireular  of  Jn/ormalion,  imi.  no  fl) 
rn.  \t.  " 

r^»  °'7.93-'8i2.-New  York, -Hamilton 
College.-  I  his  college,  at  Clinton.  In  Oneida 
lounty  N,  \  Imd  Its  Ivginning  in  an  acmieniv, 
founded  by  the  Hev.  Samuel  Kirkland,  who  hid 
laboreil  as  a  mis.sionary  among  the  Oneida  Indi 
ans  It  was  charter.'(l,  as  the  Hamilton  Oneida 
Academy,  in  17HI1:  Ihecorn,  rslon.' of  a  biiiliilnir 

fi\r  ttti  iiuii  ti'»i3  Ini.l  1...  11 .-.       •  '        *        ^    r 


191 


for  Its  us.'  was  laid  bv  Baron  SteuUn  in  thi' 
lowing^  year;   but    the   scho.,1    was   not    opened 
until  1, its      The  acud.my  became  Hamilton  ful- 
legi!  Ill  IH12, 

A.  D.   I794-M«ine,— Bowdoin  College.— 

'An  act  of  tiie  Legislature  of  the  province  of 
.Maine,  approved  in  171»4,  incorporal.'d  the  iilnive 
named     in.stitiition,  .   .  .  That    thi>    institution 
might  not  want  for  proiH'r  support,  it  was  further 
ciiiicti'd.    Thiit  the  clear  rents.  Issue-.,  and  iinitlts 
of  all  the  estate,  real  and  personal,  of  win,  li  the 
said    corponitioii   shall    lie  seized   or   possessed 
shall  be  appropriateii  to  llie  endowment  ,.r  the 
said  college,  in  such  maniier  as  »il|  niost  etfict- 
ually  promole  virtue,  jiietv,  and  llie  knowledge 
of  such  of  the  lani.'iiai.'c,s  and  the  us.'ful  and  111), 
eral  arts  and  siiemes  as  .sIj.iII  liireafter  !«■  directed 
fniin   lime  to  linir  by  said  cori«iration.'    Five 
townships  of  land,  eai  h  six  miles  si|iiiire   were 
granted   to  th.-  colLce  for  its  endowment  and 
vestisi    In    the    ir.isl,,..,    provl,l,nl    that    fifteen 
famillesbesellbsi  in  lach  of  llie  snlil  townships 
within  a  |H>ri.«t  of  iwilve  vears,  and  provldid 
further  that  thrn-  lots  < ontjiining  32(1  aires  eiuh 
be  resi'rved,  one  for  the  first  s.'ttled  minister  one 
for  the  use  of  the  niinlstry,  and  one  for  the  sup- 
port of  schools  within  ihe  township  when'  it  is 
l.satisl      These    lownshl|w  Were  to  be  laid  out 
and   assiened  from  anv   of  the  unappropriated 
lands  iH'longing  to  the  commonwealth  of  the  ilia- 
trlct  of  .Maine.     The  first  money  enilimnient  wa« 
instituted   by   a  general  law  ("if   Massachusetts, 
.■irpn.-,.vi  F.br.uiry  «,  iSI4,  „i,j,|,  ,Taits  as  fo|. 
lows      Be  It  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Kepresentative*  In  lleneral  Court  now  assembled 
That  the  tfti  which  the  pnsldent,  dintlors,  ami 


EDUCATION. 


BUlU 
Sekoat  Fmdt. 


EDUCATION. 


company  of  the  MasaschuaetU  Bank  are  and 
■ball  be  liable  to  pay  to  the  commonwealth,  sball 
be  and  hereby  is  granted  to  and  appropriated  as 
follows,  viz :  tensixtefnths  parts  thereof  to  the 
president  and  fellows  of  Harvard  College  ;  and 
tliree-sixceenths  parts  tliereof  to  the  president 
and  trustees  of  Williams  ColleRe  ;  and  three- 
sixteenths  thereof  to  the  president  anil  trustees 
of  Bowdoln  College '"—F.  W.  Uliickinnr,  llitt. 
of  Ftderal  and  Htnte  Aid  to  Uighfr  Ulufulioii  in 
ill*  V.  S.  (Bureau  of  Edtieation.  Cirrutar  of 
rnformation.  181»,  tw.  1).  pp.  123-134. —The 
college  was  named  in  honor  of  Governor  James 
Bowdoin,  of  Maasachusetts,  whose  son  made 
valuable  gifts  to  it 

A.  D.  1795.— New  York.— Union  College. 
—Union  College,  founded  at  Sehenectady.  in 
179.5.  had  a  struggle  for  existence  until  the  Rev. 
Ur  Eliplialet  Nott  was  called  to  its  presidency, 
1H<)4  By  the  energy  and  intluence  of  Dr.  Nott, 
.State  aid  was  obtained  and  funds  were  raised  by 
other  means,  until  a  fairly  substantial  endow- 
ment was  secured.  Among  tlit^  methods  em- 
ployed in  creating  this  endowment  was  a  series 
of  lottery  drawings,  which  wen'  not  entirely 
closed  until  IH*!.- C.  F.  Hichanlson  and  H.  A. 
Clark.  The  ColUge  Iloolc.  I'nioii  College. 

A.  U.  1795-1867.— The  United  State!.— 
State  School  Fundi. —  '("(mnecticut  t(¥ik  the 
lead  in  the  creation  of  a  iiermanent  fund  for  the 
support  of  schools.  The  liistrict  known  as  the 
Western  Iteserve,  in  Northern  Ohio,  had  bi'en 
siriired  to  her  in  the  aillustment  of  her  cliiims 
1.1  l«ii(ls  conflrmiKl  to  Ikt  uv  the  charter  of  King 
Charles  II.  The  Ugislature  of  the  State,  in 
liB.5,  passed  an  act  directing  the  sale  of  all  the 
land  embraced  in  the  Iteserve,  and  setting  spart 
the  avails  as  a  perpetual  funil  for  the  niaiiite 
ii.'ince  of  comniim  »chix>ls.  The  amount  real 
izisl  was  atxiut  »l.  120,(1(10.  .  .  .  New  York  was 
the  next  State  to  estiiblish  a  ciinunon  school  fund 
for  the  aid  and  maintenance  of  whoiils  In  the 
several  school  (listriets  of  the  Hlat<-  The  other 
Northern  Statin  ■■  •  ept  New  llainpshire,  Ver- 
mimt.  PennsvlvH  ,1  and  one  or  two  others, 
have  estalilisiied  similar  funds  .  .  In  all  the 
new  Slates,  the  ."KHMKIO  acres  given  by  act  nf 
Congress,  on  their  admission  into  the  I'nion.  for 
the  support  of  schools,  have  been  saireillv  set 
apart  for  that  purpose,  and  generally  other  iiinds 
belonging  to  the  States  have  twen  mldeil  to  the 
fund.  .  .  .  I'rlor  to  the  war  the  Slave  States  luul 
made  attempts  to  establish  plans  for  pupular 
eilneatlon,  but  with  results  of  an  unsiitisfiu  tory 
character  In  Virginia  a  sibisU  system  was  in 
f.irie  for  the  education  of  the  liiiiiln'n  of  Imll 
gent  white  pi-rsims  In  North  Ciimllna  a  large 
srlenil  fund,  exceistlng  twii  millions  of  ilnllars, 
hiwl  been  sit  apart  for  the  mainU'niinis'  of  srhouls 
111  111!  of  these  States  common  schools  hail  bi'en 
Imnnluiiil.  but  they  dill  not  tloiirisli  as  in  the 
N'lrlli  ami  West  .  There  was  not  the  same 
|"i|iMl»li<>ii  of  small  and  lnile|iendent  farmers, 
»  Imihp  faniilii'S  could  be  iinlteil  Into  a  schisil  ills 
trill  A  more  serious  obstacle  was  the  slave 

population,  loiisiliutlng  one  tbini  of  the  whole, 
iiMil  In  siinie  i>f  the  States  mon<  than  half,  whom 
it  \v;is  llemiiht  dangerous  to  islucate  "  —  V  M 
Itii  e,  .'•'/ir.-iVrf  /ir;»>rf  on  iKe  I'retenI  Stale  of  tCdu- 
eatiim.  IxHT,  pji.  1H-2;I 

A.  D,  5796  — Vlrgiois  _W»»!jlS£too  asi! 
Let  UalTertity.— This  tustitutioo,  at  Lciing 
toD,  Va.,  has  grown  from  an  aindemjr,  ettkb 


lished  at  an  early  day  at  Greenville,  Va.,  but 
moved  to  Lexington  in  l/S.').  In  171*6  It  rcceivi il 
a  large  gift  of  land  from  George  Wa8hingU)ii. 
and  assumed  a  new  character,  taking  the  name 
of  Washington  College.  In  1H65,  at  the  close  of 
the  Civil  War,  Gen.  Robert  E.  I.«e  became  its 
president,  and  on  his  death,  in  1S70,  it  was  given 
its  present  name. 

A.  D.  i8oa.— United  States.— Military  Aca- 
demy.   See  West  Point. 

A.  D.  1804-1837.— Michigan.— The  Univer- 
aity.- "  In  IWW,  when  Michigan  was  nrLMn 
Ized  as  a  Territory,  Congress  granted  a  township 
of  laud  for  a  seminary  of  learning,  and  the  nui 
versity  to  be  establislied  in  1817  was  to  be  m 
accordance  with  this  grant.  The  territorial 
government  committiil  the  interests  of  hitler 
edu(!ation  to  the  care  of  the  Governor  anil  the 
Judges,  and  it  is  supp<»eit  that  through  the  es 
ertions  of  Hon.  A.  U.  WisHlward.  then  presiiliii!: 
Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  Terril.ry 
of  Michigan,  the  act  establishing  a  univir'^ity 
was  framed.  A  portion  of  this  most  lurions 
document  of  the  early  history  of  Michigiiii  will 
be  given.  It  is  entitleil  '  An  act  to  establish  tin- 
Catholepistemiad  or  Vnlvcrsily  MichiganiH,'  Be 
it  enacttil  bv  the  Governor  and  Judges  of  the 
Terrilorv  of  Michigan,  That  there  shall  be  in  ihi) 
said  Territory  a  catholepistemiad  or  iinivir-ity 
denominated  "the  Catholepistemiad  or  liiivi  rsity 
Michigania.  The  Catholepistemiad  or  Univ.  rsity 
of  Michigania  shall  be  composed  of  tliirtnn 
didaxtim  or  professorships;  first,  a  diduxia  or 
professorship  catholepistemia,  or  (uiiversiil  i: 
ence,  the  dictator  or  professor  of  whii  li  slinll 
be  president  of  the  institution  ;  seionil,  a  iliil.ixia 
or  pnifi-saorship  of  anthropoglassica.  nr  literature 
embriiiing  all  of  the  epistemiun  or  sciences  n la 
live  In  language;  lliinl.  a  ilidaxia  or  pnifessur 
ship  of  mathematiia  or  nmlliemutiis;  fourth,  a 
didaxia  or  professi irshli)  of  pliysiognustiiu  nr 
natural  bistorv  etc.'  The  act  thus  cimlinues 
through  the  lole  range  of  the  '  thirteen  ili 
drtxum';  the  remaining  nine  are  as  follows 
Niitural  philosophy,  astronomy,  chemistry,  niiil 
ical  sciences,  I'conoinieal  sciences,  etliiial  M-i 
ences,  inilitarv  sciences,  historical  sciences.  iiikI 
Intellectual.  The  university  was  to  lie  uniirr 
the  control  of  the  professors  and  president,  who 
were  Ui  lie  ap|H)lnt(sl  bv  the  Oovernor.  while  the 
Institution  was  to  be  llie  center  and  eontrollihL' 
power  of  the  edtu'ational  system  of  the  Sliiii 
It  was  to  !«  Bupporled  by  taxstlon  by  tin  111 
cH'tise  of  the  amount  of  taxes  alnaily  levied.  Ii> 
I'l  per  cent  .\lso  power  was  given  to  nii«.- 
money  for  the  supiMirt  of  tlie  university  \<\ 
means  of  bitteries.  This  nmiirkable  ilisiinient 
was  not  without  Its  InHiienee  In  simpliii!  the 
public  sihixil  policy  of  Mlehlgan.  but  it  wss 
many  years  iH'fore  "the  Slate  aiiiiroxinrnti  il  its 
leariiisl  provisions  Impmctlciible  lis  tliw  eilu 
callonal  plan  apis'iirs  for  a  handful  of  pe 't>Ii  In 
the  wiKsIs  of  Mieblgan,  It  aervisl  as  11  fonnilntion 
upim  whh  h  to  build.  The  officers  and  prr«ii|eMi 
wen-  iltilv  apiwilnti'd.  and  the  work  of  lie  m  » 
unlversttv  tiegan  at  once.  At  drat  the  uniMr«ii> 
appeared"  as  a  schmil  board,  to  eslsbll»li  uml 
malnUin  primary  schools  which  they  held  m  'hr 
their  charge  Then  foUowed  a  course  of  »i  .'ly 
for  classlml  academies,  and  flnally.  In  Oitolsr 
lf.f7.  an  act  VBB  paaaed  eBi^bltKlifnir  a  colliL'e  in 
the  city  of  netrolt  titWetX  The  Klfat  Collep  "i 
MUblganla.' ...  The  people  contributed  lihi  1 


768 


EDUCATION. 


Ttekmeal  amtaHtm. 


EDUCATION. 


»lljr  to  theie  early  schooU.  the  sum  of  three 
tboiuand  dollars  being  subscribed  at  the  begin- 
n'ng-  ■  •  ■  An  act  was  passed  on  the  30th  of 
April,  H»l,  by  the  Governor  and  Judges  estab- 
liahing  a  university  in  Detroit  to  tiike  the  place 
of  the  catbolupistemiad  and  to  b  called  the 
■University  of  Michigan.'  In  Its  i  i  irter  nearly 
all  the  powers  of  tije  former  institution  were 
iubstantially  conlirmed,  except  the  provision  for 
taxes  and  lotteries.  .  .  .  The  second  corporation, 
known  as  the  '  University  of  Michigan,'  carried 
on  the  work  of  education  already  begun  from 
1821  to  the  third  orkanization,  in  1837.  The 
education  was  very  limited,  consisting  in  one 
classical  academv  at  Detroit,  and  part  of  the 
time  a  Lancasterian  school.  The  boards  of  edu- 
cation kept  up  and  transmitted  the  university 
idea  to  such  an  extent  that  it  may  be  said  truly 
""1  le«r»"y  that  there  was  one  University  of 
Michigan,  which  passed  through  three  successive 
stages  of  development  marked  by  the  dates  1H17, 
1821,  and  1837."  at  which  time  it  was  removed  to 
Ann  Arl)or.-F.  W.  Blackmar,  fiideral  and 
Stale  Aid  to  Higher  Education  ( U.  8.  Bureau  of 
Bdueation,  Circular  of  Information,  18IW.no  1) 
pp.  239-241. 

Also  in  :  E.  M.  Farrand,  IKit.  of  the  Unirer- 
titg  of  Michigan— K.  Ten  Brook,  American  State 
Uninerritiet. 

A.D.i8iS-i8ai.-MaaMchuietti.-Amherst 
Collen.—"  Amherst    College    originated    in    a 
strong  desire  on  the  part  of  the  people  of  Massa- 
chusetts to  have  a  college  mar  the  central  part 
of  the  Stale,  where  the  stuili'iiU  sboultl  \m:  free 
from  the  temptations  of  a  largi-  city,  where  the 
expenses  of  an  education  siiould  not  be  beyond 
the  means  of  those  who  had  but  little  money  and 
where  the  moral  e.nd  religious  influences  should 
be  of  a  decidedly  Christian  character.  .   .  .  The 
ministers  of  Franklin  County,  at  a  meeting  held 
in  8helburne,  May  18,  1815.  expresse.!  it  as  their 
opinion  that  a  literary  institution  of  high  onler 
ought  to  be  esublishe<l  in  Hampshire  County 
and  that  the  town  of  Amherst  appeared  V-  "    '' 
to  be  the  must  eligible  place  for  it.     Tl 
.florts  for  a  literary  Institution  in  Hs 
I'ounty  resulted  In  the  first  place  in  the  er 
ment  of  an  academy  in  Amherst,  which  v, 
corporated  in  the  year  1816.  ...  In  tin     ear 
1818  a  constitution  was  adopted  bv  the  trustees 
of  Amherst  Arailemy,  for  the  mi^iiit'  and  man 
ageiuent  of  a  fund  of  at  least  tM.im    for  the 
classical   education  of  indigent   young  men  of 
piety  and  Ulents  for  the  Christian  ministry 
This  eharlty  fund  may  be  said  to  be  tin'  basis  of 
Amherst  College,  for  though  it  wiw  raised  bv  the 
trustees  of  Amherst   Acailemv  It  was  really  in- 
taHinI  to  b<^  the  foundation  of  a  college  and  has 
always  been  a  part  of  the  permanent  funds  of 
Amheiat  tollege,  kept  sai'nHllv  from  all  other 
funds  for  the  specific  object  for  which  It  was 
given.  This  was  for  manv  years  the  only 

permanent  fund  of  Amherst  College,  and  wiihout 
ilil»  it  would  liave  seemed  impoaaVble  at  one  time 
to  preserve  the  very  existence  of  the  colleit.'  So 
Aiiibirst  College  grew  out  of  Amherst  Ara.l.niv. 
«iil  was  built  permanently  on  the  charity  fuiid 
iiiised  by  the  trustees  of  tlial  academy.  Al 

ili|>ugh  the  charity  fund  of  t:*ym)  had  been  re 
'T'r*^  In  ISIH.  It  waa  not  till  I8«)  that  tlie  re 
cipimt  fait  Juitmed  !b  goinj  fnrward  tr-  ^r- 1 
building!  for  a  colleite  In  Amherat.  EiTortswere 
made  for  Um  mnoval  of  Williams  College  from 


769 


Williamatown  to  Hampshire  County,  and  to  have 
the  charity  fund  used  In  connection  with  that 
college  ;  and,  if  that  were  done,  itwaa  not  certain 
tnat  Amherst  could  be  regarded  as  the  best  loca- 
tion for  the  college.  But  the  Legislature  of  Massa- 
chusetu  decide<rthat  WilFIams  College  could  not 
be  removed  from  Williamstown,  and  nothinir  re- 
mained but  for  the  friends  of  the  new  institution 
to  go  on  witJh  their  plans  for  locating  it  at  Am 
herst.  .  .  .  This  first  college  edifice  was  ready 
for  occupaUon  and  dedicated  on  the  18th  of  hen- 
tember,  1821.  In  the  month  of  May,  1821  Kev 
Zephaniah  Swift  Moore,  D.  D.,  was  unanimously 
elected  by  the  trustees  of  Amherst  Academy 
president  of  the  new  institution."— T  P  Field 
Hut  of  Higher  Education  in  Mate.  (U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Educatwn,  Circular  of  Information,  1891. 
no.  o),  en.  11, 

A.  D  i824-i893.-The  United  State!.- 
Tecbnical  Education.— Schools  specialized  for 
different  branches  of  a  technically  scientific  edu- 
cation (specially  in  the  department  of  engineer- 
ing civil,  mechanical,  and  electrical)  ai?  now 
embraced  in  almost  every  university  of  consider- 
able rank  ;  but  many  of  that  class  have  ris.  ii  In- 
dnpendently.  mostly  within  recent  yeara  The 
oldest  of  importance  is  the  Rcnssilaer  Institute 
at  Troy,  founded  in  1824.  The  Massaehus.lti 
Institute  of  Technology,  at  Boston,  was  ope.i.d 

loii*'-..*^'*''*'"' '""''"'<'■'"  Hobokun.  N  J  ,  in 
1867;  Pratt  Institute,  at  Brooklyn  N  Y 
foundeii  in  18«4:  Drexei  Institute,  at' Philadei: 
phia,  in  1891,  and  Armour  Instituu-,  at  ChicacD 
n  \mi.  are  younger  schools  for  te<hni<al  train' 
ng,  munificently  equipped  and  endowed  by  the 
liberality  of  private  litizena. 
A.  p.  183a -Ohio -Oberiin  C 0 liege— 
(berlm  is  a  development  from  the  missionsrv 
and  reform  movemenU  of  the  carlv  (luarter  o"f 
our  century.  The  founders  wer'etLem«lves 

home  missionaries  in  tlie  West  and  among  the 
Indians,  and  Oberlin  has  ever  since  been  vital 
with  the  missionary  spirit.  From  the  first,  »l.-.>. 
holic  leverages  have  been  excluiied.  Altli.iugh 
not  atlopting  the  extreme  doctrine  of  wonmns 
rights,  yet  tHHTlin  was  the  first  ((.liege  in  the 
world  to  admit  young  women  to  all  its  privileges 
on  equal  terms  with  young  men  ;  and  as  for  its 
snti-slavery  leanings,  if  had  r.cejved  colored 
students  into  its  classes  28  years  before  emami- 
pation.  Such  UM  disregard  of  tiie  old  land- 
marks was  not  atl  rmtive  to  the  power  and  wealth 
of  the  country,  and  so  for  .Ki  vears  oberlin  owed 
lU  life  to  the  sacrifice  and  devotion  of  its  foiind- 
m  and  Instructors.  ..In  1831  John  .1  Ship- 
herd,  under  commliaion  from  the  Americuu 
Home  Missionary  Sixietv.  entered  upon  his 
work  as  pastor  of  the  church  at  Klyria  Ohio 
_ .  _  In  the  summer  of  1832  he  was  visited  by 
Philo  I'  Stewart,  an  old  school  friend  in  the 
days  when  they  both  attended  the  academy  at 
1  awlet,  Vt.  Stewart,  on  account  of  the  failing 
health  of  his  wife,  had  return.Kl  from  mission 
work  among  the  Choctaws  in  Mississippi,  but 
his  heart  was  .fill  burning  with  zeal  for  extend- 
Inir  Christian  work  in  the  Weaf  The  two  men 
after  long  eonsiittations  and  prayer,  finally  con' 
eluded  that  the  needs  of  'he  new  rountrv  could 
liest  be  met  by  esubllshing  a  ( ommunlty  of  Chris- 
tian families  with  »  Christian  school,  .  .  .  fh! 
Stthrt!  U'  l-c  inindurtid  on  Ihs  inituiis!  labor  sys- 
tem, ud  to  be  open  to  both  young  men  and 
rouog  woBMB.    It  WM  not  propoted  tu  csubliah 


♦   p 

■fi: 


■ill 

Ii 


EDUCATION. 


Ontari'i 
Bckoul  Sgltm. 


EDUCATION. 


a  college,  but  simplT  an  academy  for  iostriiction 
In  Englisih  and  useful  languages,  and,  if  Provi- 
dence should  favtir  it,  in  'practical  theology.' 
In  accordance  with  this  plan  the  corporate  name 
'  Oberlin  Collegiate  Institute '  was  chosen.  Not 
until  1*51  was  a  new  and  broader  charter  ob- 
tained, this  time  under  the  name  of  'Oberlin 
College."  The  name  'Oberlin'  wa»  chosen  tj 
signify  the  hope  that  the  members  of  the  new 
enterprise  might  be  moved  by  the  spirit  of  the 
si'IfsatTlflcing  Swiss  colporteur  and  pastor,  John 
Friederich  Oberlin."— J.  K.  Commons,  Oberlin 
CoUfge  (Hurmu  of  Kdntation,  Circular  of  In- 
foniuilion,  1S91,  no.  r>),  pp.  5.')-,'i6. 

A.D.  1837.— Maisachusetti.— Horace  Mann 
and  the  State  Syitem.— "  When  Massachusctta, 
in  wn,  created  a  Bourd  of  Eilucatlon,  then  were 
first  united  into  a  M)mewhat  related  whole  the 
more  or  less  excellent  but  varied  ami  independ- 
ent organizations,  and  a  l.eginning  made  for  a 
State  system.  It  was  this  massing  of  torcet.  and 
the  hearty  co-operation  he  initiated.  In  which  the 
work  n*  Horace  Mann  showed  its  matchless 
greatness.  '  Rarely,'  it  has  been  said,  '  have 
great  ability,  unselfish  devotion,  and  brilliant 
success  been  so  united  in  the  cours<!  of  a  single 
life.'  A  successful  lawyer,  a  member  of  the 
State  Legislature,  and  w'ltli  but  limttcil  experi- 
ence as  a  trarhcr,  he  has  left  his  impress  upon 
the  educational  sentiments  of,  not  only  New 
Kiiv'liiiKl,  but  the  I'nited  States."— K.  O.  Boone, 
Ktl'ir.idiiii  in  th-  V.  S.,  )i.  loa. 

A.  D  1840-1886.— The  United  States.- Pro- 
portion of  College  Students.— "  It  isestimated 
that  in  1H40  the  proportion  of  college  students  to 
the  entire  pi>|>iilation  in  the  I'nlt^Hl  States  was  1 
to  l..'v«l ;  in  \^W.  1  to  'l.Wi  :  In  INTO,  1  to  ■a,.546  ; 
in  IHHO,  1  to  1.H4II ;  and  In  1HH0,  1  to  about  '  "H). 
K!4tiniating  all  our  mnibined  efforts  in  f.  "  of 
higlur  eilueation.  we  fall  far  short  of  some  of  the 
countries  of  the  Old  World.  "—K.  W.  Rlackmar, 
f'uhriil  anil  Sliite  Aid  t»  lli'/her Uliiealicn  in  the 
I'.  .V  ((■  .S  liiirtiiH  ■'!'  Kiiiir,itii>n.  Virrulnrt  of 
lnf;rm<llinii.  IHiKI.  1..1. 'll,  ;).  JW. 

A.  D.  1844-1876.— Canada.— Ontario  School 

System.— "  From  the  earlii'^t  sittleinint  of  On- 
tario. si'liiMiU  yen!  (■Ntublislied  as  the  wants  of 
the  inhabitants  reciuirnl.  The  Ueis'vliire  HtKm 
remitnized  the  nenis  of  the  eounlrj.  and  made 
grants  of  land  ami  money  in  aid  of  elenienta-y. 
secondary,  anil  superior inliieatlon.  Stjitules  ■..ere 
pa'ise'i  from  time  to  lime  fur  the  piiriii*e  of  open- 
iiii;  schools  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  people. 
The  s|mrw  ly  scltlitl  etmilllion  of  the  I'rovliuT 
delayed  for  a  while  thi'  orguiii/.KtIon  of  the  sys 
tem.  It  was  not  until  1*44  that  the  elementary 
sclUKils  wen'  put  on  a  comprehensive  basis.  In 
that  year  the  lt<'v.  K«ertoh  Uverson.  \A..  I).,  was 
appointed  Chief  Superintendent  of  Ediienllon. 
and  the  re|«prt  which  he  prrsinted  to  tlie  llinise 
of  .\sMrml>ly  nketihiil  in  an  able  ninnner  the  main 
fealuri'sof  the  system  of  which  he  was  the  dis- 
liiinuisliid  founder,  and  of  which  he  ccmtinued 
f.ir  thirty  three  yiwrs  to  lie  thi'  HHcient  ailmlnls- 
trutiir  in  ISTtl  the  otflre  of  chief  superintendent 
was  al)olislii'd,  and  the  sihools  of  the  Provln  '« 
pliic-e.1  under  the  eontn)lof  a  memlierof  thedov- 
.  rmnent  with  the  title  of  Minister  of  Education. 
.  .  The  system  of  eduiwtlon  in  Ontario  may  be 
said  to  combine  the  best  features  of  the  systems 
(^f  ^rvrni!  rmmtrira.  To  thr  «>M  Woftfi  ft !«  in- 
dehted  for  a  large  measure  of  Its  sli.'iillUy,  \\n\- 
formity  and  centralisation ;  to  the  older  settled 


parts  of  the  New  World  for  its  popular  nature, 
ItsHezlbility,  and  its  democratic  principles,  which 
have  given,  wherever  <lesirable,  local  control  and 
individual  responsibility.  From  the  State  of  New 
York  we  have  borrowed  the  machinery  of  out 
school :  from  Hussachusutts  the  principle  of  local 
t»>ation ;  from  Ireland  our  first  series  of  text- 
books ;  from  Scotland  the  co-operation  of  parents 
with  the  teacher,  In  upholding  his  authority; 
from  Germany  the  system  of  Normal  Scho<ils  and 
the  Kindergarten;  and  from  the  Unitol  States 
generally  the  non-denominational  character  of 
elementary,  secondary,  and  ur!"ersity  education. 
Ontario  may  claim  to  have  sr  i  0  features  of  her 
system  that  are  largely  her  own.  Among  them 
may  be  mentioned :  a  division  of  state  and  muni- 
cipal authority  on  a  judicious  basis ,  clear  lines 
separating  the  function  of  the  University  from 
that  of  the  High  Schools,  and  the  function  of  the 
High  Schools  from  that  of  the  I'ublic  or  elenieii- 
tarv  ■  chools :  a  uniform  course  of  study  ;  all  Iliuh 
ami  Public  Schools  in  the  hands  of  professioniiily 
trained  teachers  :  no  person  eligible  to  the  imsi 
tion  of  inspector  who  does  not  hold  the  highest 
grade  of  a  teacher's  certificate,  and  who  has  nut 
bad  years  of  experience  as  a  teacher;  inspectors 
removable  If  inefllcient,  but  not  subject  to  re 
moval  by  popular  vote  :  the  examinations  of 
tcache™  under  Provincial  Instead  ol  \oci\\  control; 
the  acceptance  of  a  common  matriculation  ex- 
amination for  admission  to  the  Universities  and 
to  the  learned  professions;  a  uniform  series  of 
text  IxKiks  for  the  whole  Province;  the  almost  en- 
tin'  absence  of  party  politics  in  the  inaiiner  in 
which  school  lioanis.  Inspectors,  and  teachers  dis- 
charge their  duties  ;  the  system  national  iiisteiirt 
of  sectarian,  hut  alTonling  under  constitutional 
guarante<'S  and  limitations  protection  tc  liunein 
Catholic  and  Protestant  Separate  School',  iiuil 
denominational  Universities." — .1.  Millar.  /.'<//•<(- 
tionnl  Synlfm  of  thr  I'mrinff  of  (hitnrin. 

A.  D.'  1845.— The  United  States.— The  Na- 
Tal  Academy.— In  im-'i.  Mr  (Jeorge  Hioicri>fl. 
then  Secn'tary  of  the  Naw.  issued  instnictiiins 
to  Commc^lore  Franklin  t)u<'hanan  to  upcn  a 
naval  school  at  Fort  Severn.  Annapolis.  I'n  vi- 
ous  attempts  to  organi/.e  tlie  teaching  and  train- 
ing of  midshipmen  In  such  a  school  insteiid  of  nii 
sh  )  lioanl  hail  faili'd;  this  one  obtaini'd  sucics- 
In  IN49  "  the  institution  was  reorganir.eil  on  the 
giiieral  plan  of  the  Mllilary  Academy  at  West 
I'oiiit,  and  its  name  was  changed  from  the  Naval 
School  to  the  Unitiil  States  Naval  .Xcaili my." 

A  D.  1845-1847.— Louisiana.— Tulane'Uni- 
rersity. — "This  institution  had  its  oriirin  in 
certain  land  grants  [IHOfl  and  IhU  |  niiiih  I'  ihe 
Unlteil  States  'fcr  the  use  of  a  scniininj  "f 
learning.'  The  first  movement  lowanl  the  uiill 
/.stion  of  these  i;rants  was  niaile  In  IfM.'i,  wlnn 
the  followinir  clause  was  adopiid  In  the  amencli  il 
t'onstllulimi:  'A  university  shall  be  eslHliliilnd 
in  th"  city  of  New  Orleans  It  shall  be  euri! 
posed  I'f  four  farultles,  to  wit:  one  of  law,  one 
of  medicine,  one  of  natural  selenees.  and  'Hie  ■ ' 
lettc''.'.  .  The  university  was  chartere.1  in 
tH47.  .  .  .  For  many  years  the  university  n 
eelved  but  meagn'  support  from  the  State  .  .  . 
Hy  the  Constitution  of  1H7»  the  institution  was 
endowed  permanently  by  authoricing  the  sum 
of  not  more  than  110.000  payable  annually  jfnr 


760 


vc  Tt>sr=!  «-->  iJic  ur.! -^-rsity      At  the  !•»;■ 
of  this  period  tbfl  unirersity  was  nnlted  with  tin' 
Tulans  University  (in  IHM).     Hince  that  (line  v< 


,  u.»« 


EDUCATION. 


Indiutrial  Cotltgu 


EDUCATIOH 


appropriations  h::<-n  been  made  by  the  Legisla- 
ture."—F.  W.  bluckmar.  Hut.  of  Federal  and 
State  Aid  to  Higher  Eriueation  in  the  C  S. 
{Bureau  of  Education,  Circular  of  Ir\J'ormation, 
1890,  no.  1).  pp.  272-273. 

A.  D.  1848.— PeonsjlTania.— Girard  Col- 
ICEC' — By  the  will  of  Stephen  Oirard,  a  large 
'  laowment  of  money  was  given  for  a  college  to 
educate  poor  white  male  orphans,  in  the  city  o' 
Philadelphia.  Oirard  died  in  1881,  but  it  wts 
not  until  184U  that  the  college  was  opened,  in  t 
splendid  marble  building,  surrounded  by  extei  ■ 
sire  grounds. 

A.  D.  1850.— Wisconsin,  The  UniTcrsity 
of.    See  WiHtoNsiN  Univkrsitt. 

A.  O.  1863.— The  United  States.— Land- 
rrs  for  Industrial  Colleges.-"  Next  to  the 
Ord  . .-  ^ce  of  1787,  the  Congressional  grant  of 
1862  is  the  most  important  educational  enact- 
ment iu  America.  ...  By  this  gift  forty-eight 
colleges  and  universities  have  received  aid,  at 
least  to  the  extent  of  the  Congressional  grant : 
thirty-three  of  these,  at  least,  have  been  called 
into  existence  by  means  nf  this  act  In  thirteen 
States  the  proceeds  of  the  land  scrip  were  de- 
voted to  institutions  already  in  existence.  The 
amount  received  from  the  sales  of  land  scrip 
from  twenty-four  of  these  States  aggregates  the 
sum  of  >I3,U30,4.'>6.  with  land  remaining  unsold 
estimatei)  at  nearly  two  millionsof  dollars.  Tliesi' 
same  institutions"  have  re<eived  State  endow, 
ments  amounting  to  over  eight  million  dollars. 
The  origin  of  tlii3  gift  must  be  sought  In  local 
comm\iiiities.  In  this  country  all  ideas  of  na- 
tional education  have  arisen  from  those  States 
that  have  felt  the  jeed  of  local  institutions  for 
the  education  of  youth.  In  certain  sections  of 
the  Union,  particularly  the  North  and  West, 
where  agriculture  was  one  of  the  chief  industries, 
it  was  felt  that  the  old  cla>>8ical  schools  were  not 
broad  enough  to  cover  all  the  wants  of  educa- 
tion n'presented  by  growing  industries.  There 
wai  consequently  11  revulsion  from  tliesi'  sch(x)ls 
towiirti  Iheindustriiil  iind  practical  side  of  educa- 
tion. Evidences  of  this  movement  are  seen  in 
the  attempts  in  difTereut  States  to  foimd  agricul- 
tural, technical,  and  industrial  s<'hools.  These 
Ideas  found  their  way  Into  Congress,  and  a  bill 
was  intnxiuceil  in  \KiH,  v. hich  provided  for  the 
endowment  of  colleges  for  the  teaching  of  agri 
culture  and  the  mechauiral  arts.  The  bill  was 
Introduced  by  Hon.  Justin  S.  Morrill,  of  Ver- 
ni(  It  :  it  was  pa.<<sed  by  a  small  maluritv,  and 
wasvetix-d  by  President  Bu<hanan.  In  IMH2  the 
bill  was  again  presenti'<l  with  slight  changes, 
pa.<ised  and  signed,  and  b<>came  a  law  July  2, 
1MI2.  ...  It  stipidated  to  grant  to  each  State 
thirty  thousand  acres  of  land  for  each  Senator 
and  Itepreaentative  in  Congress  to  which  th(^ 
Stati'S  were  respectively  entitled  by  the  census 
of  189(1,  for  the  purpose  of  endowing  'at  least 
one  college  where  the  leading  object  shall  be. 
without  excluding  other  scirntiflc  and  classical 
studies,  ami  including  military  tactics,  to  teach 
sui'h  l>rancbes  of  Innming  as  are  related  to  agri- 
cnltiire  and  the  mechanic  arts,  in  such  manner  as 
the  Legislatures  of  the  States  may  re''pectlvely 
prescribe.  In  order  to  promote  tlie  liberal  anc't 
pnu'tlcsl  education  of  the  initustrial  classes  in  the 
^e'eral  nurssdta  and  p  •^ift-asion*  t:'.  life'  .  . 
Fiom  this  proposition  all  sorts  of  scIukiIs  sprang 
up,  according  to  tlie  local 


tod  local  demaoda 


nci'ptlon  of  the  law 
It  was  tliought  by  tome  that 


boys  were  to  be  taught  a^culture  by  working 
on  a  farm,  and  purely  agncultural  schools  were 
founded  with  the  mechanical  arts  attached.  In 
other  States  classical  schools  of  the  stereotyped 
order  were  established,  with  more  or  less  science ; 
and,  again,  the  endowment  in  others  was  devoted 
to  scientific  departments.  The  instruction  of 
the  farm  and  the  teaching  of  pure  agriculture 
have  liOt  succeeded  in  general,  while  the  schools 
that  have  made  prominent  thoee  studies  relating 
to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  upon  the 
whole,  have  succeeded  best.  ...  In  several  in- 
stances the  managers  of  the  land  scrip  have  un- 
derstood that  by  this  provision  the  State  could 
not  locate  the  land  within  the  borders  o  another 
State,  but  its  assignees  could  thus  locate  lands, 
not  more  than  one  million  acres  In  any  one  State. 
By  considering  this  iiuestion,  the  New  York 
land  scrip  was  bought  by  Ezra  Cornell,  and  lo- 
cated by  him  for  the  college  In  valuable  lands  in 
the  State  of  Wisconsin,  and  thus  the  fund  was 
augmented.  However,  the  majority  of  the  States 
sold  their  land  at  a  sacrifice,  frequently  for  less 
than  half  its  value.  There  was  a  lull  in  th',  land 
market  during  the  Civil  War,  and  this  ca.ise,  to- 
gether with  the  lack  of  attention  in  mp!,y  States, 
sacriflcc-d  the  gift  of  the  Federal  Government. 
The  sales  ranged  all  the  way  from  fifty  cents  to 
seven  dollars  per  acre,  as  the  average  price  for 
each  State. "—F.  W.  Blackmar,  Federal  and  Stntt 
Aid  tu  Higher  Education  (f.  S.  Svreau  ojf  Edu- 
aitiim,  Cireulart  of  Infvnnatiun,  18!K>,  no.  1),  w. 
il-iV.  '  "^ 

A,  D.  1863-1886.— New  York.— Cornell  Uni- 
veraity.— "On  the  second  of  July,  im'i,  .  .  . 

1  President  Lincoln]  signed  the  act  of  congress, 
see  the  preceding  article]  donating  public  lands 
(ir  the  establishment  of  colleges  of  Hjiriculture 
and  mechanic  arta  This  act  had  b'.i-n  intro- 
duced into  congress  by  tlie  Hon.  Justin  S.  Mor- 
rill. .  .  .  The  Morrill  act  provideil  for  a  donation 
of  public  land  to  the  several  states,  each  stave  to 
receive  thirty  thousand  acres  for  each  senator 
and  representative  it  sent  to  congress.  States 
not  containing  wttmn  their  own  bonlers  pvblic 
land  subject  to  tale  at  private  entry  receiveil 
land  scrip  instead.  Hut  this  land  sciip  the  re- 
cipient states  were  not  allowed  to  hxale  willijn 
the  limits  of  any  other  state  or  of  any  territory  of 
the  United  States.  The  act  laconically  directed 
'said  scrip  to  be  sold  by  said  states. '  The  pro- 
ceeds of  the  sale,  whether  of  land  or  scrip,  in 
each  state  were  to  form  a  ]>erpetual  fund.  .  .  . 
In  the  execution  of  this  trust  the  State  of  New 
York  was  Immpcreil  by  (jreat  and  almost  in- 
superable obstacles.  For  its  distributive  share 
It  received  land  scrip  to  the  amount  of  nine 
humlr«l  and  ninety  thounanii  acres.  The  mu- 
nificence of  the  endowment  awakened  the  cupid- 
ity of  a  mullitiidc  of  clainomus  and  strangely 
unexpected  claimants.  ...  If  the  princely  do- 
main granted  to  the  State  of  New  York  by  con- 
gress WHS  not  divided  and  frittered  away,  wo 
owe  it  in  great  measure  to  the  foreslirht.  the 
energy,  and  the  spli'nilld  courage  of  a  few  gen- 
eniusspiritsin  the  legislature,  of  whom  none  com- 
manditl  greater  resp<'(t  or  exercised  more  Influ- 
en(T  than  Senator  Andrew  Dickson  White,  tlie 
gentleman  who  afterwards  liecame  first  president 
!!f  ("omrl!  Unlvrrsitr.  K'-st  the  all-rf>n-,r.p!'.ir.g 

force  which  preTented  the  dispersion  and  dissH 

rf  m  of  till  Iwunty  of  congri'sswas  the  generous 
art  of  Ezra  Cornell.     While  rival  iuslitiitiuus 


ill       I 


1 
li  i  ! 


761 


EDUCATION. 


Edueaium 
^  Ikt  FrttJmtn. 


EDUCATION. 


clamored  (or  s  division  of  tlie  '  spoils.'  snd  po- 
litical tricksters  played  their  base  aad  desperate 
game,  this  man  thuiigbt  only  of  the  highest  good 
of  the  State  of  New  York,  which  he  loved  with 
the  ardor  of  a  patriot  and  was  yet  to  serve  with 
the  heroism  of  a  martyr.  .  .  .  When  the  legisla- 
ture of  the  State  of  New  Yorli  was  called  upon 
to  make  some  disposition  of  the  congressional 
grant.  Ezra  Cornell  sat  in  the  senate.  ...  Of 
his  minor  legislative  achievements  I  shall  not 
speak.  One  act,  however,  has  matle  his  name 
as  immortal  as  th-.'  state  it  glurifled.  By  a  gift 
of  half  a  million  dollars  (a  vast  sum  in  1865,  the 
last  year  of  the  war !)  he  rescued  for  the  higher 
education  of  New  York  the  undivided  grant  of 
congress ;  and  with  the  united  endowments  he 
induced  the  legislature  to  establish,  nut  merely  a 
college  of  applied  science,  but  a  great  modern 
university — 'an  institution,'  according  ti  his 
own  admirable  definition,  '  where  any  person  can 
find  instruction  in  any  s>tudy.'  It  was  a  high  and 
daring  aspiration  to  crown  the  educational  sys- 
tem of  our  imperial  state  with  an  organ  of  uni- 
versal knowledge,  a  nursery  of  every  science 
and  of  all  scholarship,  an  instrument  of  liberal 
culture  and  of  practical  utility  to  all  classes  of 
our  people.  This  was,  however,  the  end ;  and 
to  secure  it  Ezra  Cornell  added  to  his  original 
gift  new  donations  of  land,  of  buildings,  and  of 
money.  .  .  .  But  one  danger  threatened  Ibis  lat- 
est birth  of  time.  The  act  of  congress  donating 
land  scrip  required  the  states  to  sellil.  The  mar- 
kets were  immediately  glutted.  Prices  fell.  New 
York  was  seliicg  at  an  average  price  of  fifty 
cents  an  acre.  Her  princely  domain  would  bring 
at  this  rate  lesis  than  half  a  million  dollars '.  Was 
the  splendid  donation  to  issue  in  such  disaster? 
If  it  could  be  held  till  the  war  was  over,  till  im- 
misration  opened  up  the  Northwest,  it  would  be 
worth  five  times  five  hundred  thousand  dollars ! 
So  at  least  thought  one  far-seeing  man  in  the 
State  of  New  York.  And  this  man  of  foresight 
hail  the  heart  to  .'onceive.  the  wlwlom  to  devise, 
and  tlic  courage  to  execute  —  he  ali>ne  in  all  the 
states — a  plan  far  saving  to  his  state  the  future 
value  of  the  lands  donated  by  congress.  E/.n 
Cornell  made  that  wonderful  and  dramatic  con- 
tract with  the  State  of  New  York !  He  bound 
himself  to  purchase  at  the  rate  of  sixty  cents  per 
acre  the  entire  right  of  the  comnuinweallh  to  the 
■crip,  still  unsolit ,  and  with  tlie  scrip,  thus  pur 
chased  bv  him  as  an  individual,  be  agreetl  to 
•elect  and  locate  the  lands  it  represented!  to  pay 
the  taxes,  to  guanl  airainst  trespasses  and  difcnd 
from  fins,  to  the  end  that  within  twenty  yeani, 
when  values  liad  appiircciatid,  he  might  sell  the 
land  and  turn  Into  tlie  tn'osiiry  (if  the  State  of 
New  York  fur  the  sup|H>rt  of  Cornell  University, 
the  entire  net  priHcitlsof  theeuterpri!*-.  Within 
a  few  years  K/ra  Cornell  hail  lix'atiil  over  hplf 
a  million  acn's  nl'  sii|ieriiir  pine  land  in  the 
Northwestern  sliilis.  primlpally  In  Wisconsin 
liidiT  Iwnds  to  the  Stutf  of  New  York  to  do  .'.i>- 
Ktile's  work.  In-  Imd  »p<'nt  about  Ilioo.iKXl  of  his 
own  cash  to  carry  out  the  trust  committed  to  him 
by  the  state,  when,  alas.  In  the  crisis  of  1H74, 
fortune  and  credit  m  k  exhausted,  an<i  death 
came  to  fri'e  the  martyr  patriot  from  his  bonds. 
T.ie  seven  years  that  followed  were  the  dark- 
rst  in  ntir  historr.  .  .  Ezra  Corncil  was  our 
founder  ;  Henry  W.  Sage  followed  him  ta  wise 
masterbuildcr.  The  edlncea,  chain,  and  librsriei 
which  '  our  the  name  of  '  8a^ '  witnea  to  [bis] 


762 


later  gifts;  but  though  these  now  aggregate  the 
princely  sum  of  $l.'J.'>U,000,  [his]  management  uf 
the  university  lands  has  been  [hisf  grtatest 
achievement.  From  these  lands,  with  which  the 
generosity  and  foresight  of  Kzra  Cornell  endowed 
the  university,  there  nave  been  netted  under  j  Mr. 
Sage's]  administration,  not  far  short  of  $4,ihki 
000,  with  over  100,000  acres  still  to  sell.  Ezra 
Cornell's  contract  with  the  state  was  for  twenty 
years.  It  expired  August  4,  1888,  when  a  ten 
years'  extension  was  granted  by  the  state.  The 
trust  will  be  closed  in  1896."— J.  G.  Schnrman, 
Addrett  at  Jnaugurition  to  tht  Prttideney  of  ( ur- 
neU  Uniterrity,  Nor.  11,  1892. 

A.  D.  1863-1881.— The  United  States.— 
Education  of  the  Freedmen. — Since  the  duse 
of  the  Civil  War,  much  has  been  done  (and  much 
more  needs  to  be  done)  for  the  education  of  the 
colored  people  of  the  South.  To  that  end,  a 
number  of  institutions,  having  aims  beyond 
those  of  the  common  school,  have  risi'n  alreadv 
in  the  South,  or  on  the  southern  bonier.  First 
among  them  iu  time  was  the  Fisk  University. 
founded  at  Nashville,  in  1865.  The  Hownfd 
University,  at  Washington,  was  created  in  Ini;;. 
Hampton  Institute,  a  training  school  for  negroes 
and  Indians,  was  established  by  Gen.  S.  C  Arm 
strong,  at  Hampton,  Va.,  in  1868.  Claflin  I'ni 
veraity,  at  Orangeburg.  S.  C,  was  founile.1  in 
1878.  Booker  T.  Washington,  born  a  slave, 
having  obtained  an  education  at  Hampton  Insii. 
tute,  and  n-solved  to  devote  his  life  to  the  up- 
lifting of  his  race,  opened  a  training  Keliool  itljp 
Tuskegce  Normal  and  IiMlustrial  Institiiiii  :it 
Tuskegee,  Alabama,  which  is  growing  with  re 
markable  success,  and  which  promises  to  liuve  a 
notable  influence  in  the  development  of  the  riil 
ored  people.  A  large  and  important 'work  in 
this  field  of  education  is  being  carried  on  hy  the 
American  Missionary  Association,  which  is  also 
giving  careful  attention  to  the  educational  tieeils 
of  the  interesting  body  of  soiitliern  whites  knonn 
as  "the  mountain  people,"  in  West  Virt-iiiiii. 
western  North  Carolina,  eastern  Tenness<e.  s<iiitli 
eastern  Kentucky,  and  northern  Georgia  Fisk 
University  is  one  of  the  highei  institutions  of 
learning  which  depend  more  or  less  on  siip|inrt 
from  this  Association.  Others  of  the  hipher  ( liis> 
are  Talladega  College,  in  Alabama;  Toiiguhjo 
University,  in  Mississippi;  Straight  University. 
at  New  OHeans;  Tlllotson  Institute,  at  .\iistin. 
Texas.  It  maintains  normal  and  industrial 
schools  at  Wilmington.  N.  C;  at  Charleiton, 
S.  C.  ;  at  Savannah,  Atlanta,  Macon,  ami  .Mrin 
tosh.  Ga  ;  at  Mobile,  Athens,  anil  ^l  liim.  AIn  ; 
at  Memphis,  Tenn.  ;  at  Lexington,  Ky  lis 
primary  and  parochial  sch(H>ls  an'  niinierims  iiiul 
widely'  distributed.  Industrial  IrHinini.'.  to  u 
gn'ater  or  less  extent,  is  given  in  nearly  all  of  its 
sch(x)ls.  On  a  less  extensive  scale,  similar  n  .rk 
Is  twing  done  in  the  South  by  various  chun  hi » 
and  other  bodies. 

A.  D.  lS6«-i869.— The  United  States.- 
Bureau  of  Education.— "  Educators,  poli<!i:il 
economists,  and  statesmen  felt  the  ne<'d  of  some 
central  agency  by  which  the  general  eiiucationsl 
■tatlsties  of  the  country  coulil  be  (X)llei  teil.  pn 
served,  condensed,  and  properly  arranp'l  for 
distribution.  This  need  found  expression  tlniiliy 
to  the  action  takrn  at  a  convention  of  ih-  .-;;).,  i 
Intendence  department  of  the  National  Xiliii.i 
tlonal  Association,  held  at  Washington.  Feliruury. 
18M,  when  It  wh  resolved  to  petltloti  Congress 


EDUCATION. 


Johns  HopHna 
Uniwrnty. 


EDUCATION. 


in  favor  of  a  National  Bureau  of  Education. 
.  .  .  The  memorial  was  presented  in  tlie  House 
of  Representatives  by  General  Garfield,  February 
14,  1866,  with  a  bill  for  the  establishment  of  a 
National  Bureau  on  essentially  the  basis  the 
school  superintendents  had  proposed.  Both  bill 
and  memorial  were  referred  to  a  committee  of 
seven  members.  .  .  .  The  bill  was  reported  back 
from  the  committee,  with  an  amendment  in  the 
nature  of  a  substitute,  providing  for  the  creation 
of  a  department  of  education  instead  of  the 
bureau  originally  proposed.  Thus  altered,  it  was 
passed  by  a  vote  of  nearly  two  to  one.  In  the 
Senate  it  was  referred  to  the  Committee  on  the 
Judiciary  .  .  .  who  the  following  winter  re- 
porti'd  it  without  amendment  and  with  a  recom- 
mendation that  it  pass,  which  it  did  ju  the  1st  of 
March,  1867,  receiving  on  the  next  day  the  ap- 
proval of  tl>e  President.  By  the  act  of  July  28, 
1868,  which  took  effect  June  80,  1869,  the  De- 
partment of  Education  was  abolished,  and  an 
Office  of  Education  in  the  Department  of  the 
Interior  was  established,  with  the  same  objects 
am.  duties.  .  .  .  The  act  of  March  2,  1867,  .  .  . 
established  an  agency  'for  the  purpose  of  col- 
lecting such  statistics  and  facts  as  shall  show  the 
condition  and  progress  of  education  in  the  several 
States  and  TcrriU)ries,  and  of  diffusing  such 
information  respecting  the  organization  and 
management  of  school  systems  ami  methods  of 
teaching  as  shall  aid  the  people  of  the  United 
States  iu  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of 
efficient  school  systems  and  otherwise  promote 
the  cause  of  education.'  It  will  Ix'  perceived 
that  the  chief  duty  of  the  office  under  the  law  is 
to  act  as  an  educational  exchange.  Exercising 
and  seeking  to  exercise  no  control  whatever  over 
its  thousands  of  correspondents,  tlic  otliee  oieu 

flies  a  position  as  the  recipient  of  voluntary 
nfiirmation  which  is  unique."— C.  Warren,  An- 
tvers  to  Inquiria  about  the  F.  S.  Bureau  of  Kdii- 
eatuiii,  eh.  2-8. 

A.  D.  1867.— New  York.— Public  Schools 
made  entirely  free.—  The  public  .x^hools  of  l\w 
State  of  New  York  were  not  entirely  free  until 
1867.  In  his  rc|M)rt  to  the  Ix'gislature  made  in 
February  of  that  year,  the  State  SuiH'rinlendent 
of  Public  Instruction,  Hon.  Victor  M.  Hiee,  sai  I: 
"The  greatcxt  defect  in  our  si-hool  system  is,  us 
I  have  urgeil  in  previous  reports,  the  continuance 
of  the  rate  bill  system.  Our  common  s<'lioiils  ciui 
never  reach  their  hightst  degn'e  of  uwfulness 
until  they  shall  have  been  made  entirely  free. 
...  To  meet  this  public  demand,  to  eonfiT  uivon 
the  children  of  the  State  the  blessings  of  fnr 
etlucatlon.  a  bill  has  already  been  intriHluwd  Into 
your  hoiKimlile  iKMly.  .  .  .  The  main  features  of 
the  bill  are  the  provisions  to  raise,  by  Stati'  tax. 
a  sum  alxiut  ecjual  to  that  raised  in  the  ilLstriits 
by  rate  bills,  and  to  alxillsh  the  rate  bill  Rvstciii ; 
to  facilitate  the  erection  and  ri'pair  of'siluKil 
houses."  The  bill  referred  to  was  passed  at  the 
same  scation  of  the  legislature,  and  in  his  next 
succeeding  report,  Superintendent  Hiee  gave  the 
following  account  of  the  law  and  its  immediate 
effects:  "While  the  general  stniefure  of  the 
i«;hix>l  law  was  not  ilisturl)e<l.  a  material  nuKlltl- 
cation  was  niade  by  the  Act  (chap.  406,  Ijiws 
of  1867),  which  took  effect  on  the  first  day  of 
Otlobcr  of  the  same  year,  ami  whiih.  iiiii,>iig 
other  thlDgs,  proTided  for  the  abolishment  of  rale- 
III'  a,  and  for  incmued  local  and  HtAte  taxation 
forietioolpurpoMS.   Tbiiwu  primarily  a  change 


763 


in  the  manner  of  raising  the  requisite  funds;  not 
an  absolute  increase  of  the  aggregate  amount  to 
be  raised.     It  involved  and  encouraged  such  In- 
crease, so  far  as  the  inhabitants  in  the  several 
school  districts  should  authorize  it,  by  substitut- 
ing taxation  exclusively  on  property,  for  a  mixed 
assessment  which,  in  part,  was  a  tax  on  attend- 
ance.   Thus  relieved  of  an  ^M  impediment,  and 
supplied  with  additional  power  and  larger  re- 
sources, the  cause  of  public  instruction,  during 
the  last  fiscal  year,  has  wrought  results  unequalea 
in  all  the  past.  .  .  .  The  effect  of  this  amend 
ment  has  not  been  confined  to  the  financial  policy 
thereby  inaugurated.     It  is  distinctly  traceable 
in  'engthened  terms  of  school,  in  a  Urger  and 
m  -3  uniform  attendance,  and  in  more  liberal  ex 
peLjitures  for  school  buildings  and  appliances.' 
— Supt.  of  Pub.  Instruction  of  the  State  of  N  Y 
Annual  Report,  1869,  pp.  5-6. 

A.  D.  1867.— Maryland.— Johns  Hopkina 
UniTeraity.— "By  the  will  of  .Idhns  Hopkins,  a 
merchant  of  Baltimore,  the  sum .  .f  |7,000,000  was 
devoted  to  the  endowment  of  a  university  [char- 
tered in  1867]  and  a  hospital,  |3.500,000  being 
appropriated  to  each.  ...  To  the  bequest  no 
burdensome  conditions  were  attached.  .  .  .  Just 
what  this  new  university  was  to  be  proved  a 
very  serious  question  to  the  trustees.  The  con- 
ditions of  Mr.  Hopkins's  bequest  left  the  deter- 
mination of  this  matter  open.  ...  A  careful  in. 
vestigation  led  the  trustees  to  believe  that  there 
was  a  growing  demand  for  opportunities  to  study 
beyond  the  ordinary  coursi'S  of  a  college  or  a 
scientific  school,  particularly  in  those  branches 
of  learning  not  included  in  the  scho<ds  of  law, 
medicine  and  theology.  Strong  evidence  of  this 
demand  was  aitonled  by  the  increasing  attend- 
anie  of  American  students  upon  the  lectures  of 
the  German  universities,  as  well  as  by  the  num- 
Iht  of  students  who  were  enrolling  themselves  at 
llarvunl  and  Yale  for  the  post  graduate  courses. 
It  was  therefore  determined  that  the  Johns  Hop- 
kins should  be  primarily  a  university,  with  uil- 
vaucetl  courses  of  lectures  and  fully  equipped 
laboratories;  that  the  courses  should  lie  voluii- 
•ary.  and  the  teaching  not  limited  to  class  in- 
struction. The  foundation  is  both  old  and  new. 
In  so  far  as  each  feature  Is  borrowed  from  .some 
older  university,  w!  ere  it  has  been  fairiv  tried 
and  tested,  it  is  old,  but  at  the  simie  titiic  this 
particular  combination  of  separate  features  has 
here  U'en  made  for  the  first  time.  ...  In  the 
orlinary  college  cour.*'.  if  a  youug  man  hap 
I"  ns  to  be  deHtient  in  mathematics,  for  example, 
lie  is  either  forced  to  lose  any  advantage  he  may 
pos«'ss  ill  (JrtTk  or  Latin,  or  else  i»  obiigei)  to 
take  a  position  in  mathematics  for  which  he  is 
unprepiired.  In  the  college  department  of  the 
Johns  Hopkins,  this dlsa<lvantage  does  not  exist; 
the  classifying  Is  specific  for  each  study.  "The 
student  has  also  the  privilege  of  pushing  forward 
in  any  one  study  us  rapklly  as  he  can  with  ad- 
vantage; or,  on  the  other  hand,  in  case  of  illncs* 
or  of  unavoidable  interruptiuu,  of  prolonging 
the  time  devoted  to  the  course,  so  that  no  part  of 
it  shall  be  omitted.  As  the  studies  arc  elective, 
it  is  imasible  to  follow  the  usual  college  course  if 
one  desires.  Seven  different  courses  of  study 
are  indicated,  any  of  which  leads  to  the  Bacca- 
lauteale  tlegtee,  llius  eualiiiuK  the  student  to 
direct  and  specialize  his  work.  'The  same  standard 
of  matriculation  am.  the  same  severity  of  exam- 
iutloM  an  matntained  Id  all  these  counes.    A 


un 


EDUCATION. 


Ckautatiqua, 


EDUCATION. 


student  hu  the  privilege  of  eztendins  hi       idy 
beyoud  the  regular  clius  work,  and  he  bid 

cmlited  with  all  such  private  and  outsid  y, 

if  bis  examiners  are  satisfied  of  bis  thor  ss 

and  accuracy." — 8.  B.  Herrick,  The  J  :vp- 

kin*  ITniKmity  (Henl>ner$  MviUhly,  1)  ]. 

A.D.1867-1891.— The  United  Sta  The 

Peabody  Education   Fund. — "Tbe  an- 

nouncing and  creatini];  tbe  Peabody  <  ment 

was  datwl  February  7, 1S67.     In  that  1  after 

referring  to  the  ravages  of  the  lite  war,  the 
founder  of  tbe  Trust  said  :  '  I  feel  most  deeply 
that  it  is  the  duty  and  privilege  of  tbe  more 
favoured  and  wealthy  portions  of  our  nation  to 
assist  those  who  arc  less  fortunate.'  He  then 
added :  '  I  give  one  millit.  of  dollars  for  tbe 
encouragement  and  promotion  of  intellectual, 
moral,  and  industrial  education  among  the  young 
of  the  more  destitute  portions  of  tbe  Southern 
and  Southwestern  States  of  the  Union.'  On  the 
day  following,  ten  of  the  Trustees  selected  by 
him  held  a  preliminary  meeting  in  Washington. 
Their  flrst  business  meeting  was  held  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  the  l»th  of  March  following,  at 
which  a  geneml  plan  was  adopted  and  an  agent 
appointed.  Mr.  PealKxly  returned  to  bis  native 
country  aeain  in  l>*»ii',  and  on  tbe  first  day  of 
July,  lit  ft  special  meeting  of  tbe  Trusi  18  held  at 
Newport.  a<i(te<l  a  second  million  to  the  cash 
capital  of  the  fund.  .  .  .  According  to  the  do- 
nor's {lirections.  l\w  principal  must  remain  intact 
for  thirty  years.  The  Trustees  are  not  author- 
ized to  expend  any  part  of  it,  nor  yet  to  add  to 
It  any  part  of  the  accruing  interest.  The  man- 
ner of  using  the  interest,  as  well  as  the  final  dis- 
triliuiion  of  tbe  principal,  was  left  entirely  to 
the  iliscrction  of  a  w  If  perpetuating  body  of 
Trustees  Those  first  apjiointed  bad,  however, 
tbe  rsre  advantages  of  full  inuBultation  with  Ibe 
founder  of  tbe  Trust  while  be  still  lived,  and 
their  plans  reeeivi'd  bis  contial  and  emphatic  ap- 
probation. .  .  The  pressing  need  of  tbe  pres- 
ent seemed  to  be  in  the  depurtiiu'ut  of  primary 
education  for  the  masses,  and  «)  they  det4rmined 
to  make  appropriations  only  for  the  i>si!<tBnee  of 
public  free  schools." — Am.  Ednf'iti'iinl  Cyrlo- 
jxKiia,  lH7!i,  jip.  224-22.5. — Tbe  report  made  by 
the  treasurer  of  the  Fund,  in  IHW),  showed  a 
principal  sum  invested  to  the  amount  of  $2,07."),- 
17.'5.22,  yielding  an  income  that  year  of  t97,8t8 
In  the  annual  report  of  tbe  U.  8.  Commissioner 
of  Fyucation  made  Feb  1,  1H9I,  he  says:  "It 
wiMild  appear  to  Ibe  student  of  e<lucation  in  the 
Houtbern  States  that  the  practical  wisilom  in  the 
ndininistration  of  the  l'ealK»ly  Fund  and  the 
fruitful  H'sults  that  have  followecl  it  could  not 
!»•  Mirpametl  in  the  history  of  endowments"  — 
/'nffrrtiri'/ii  iif  thf  TriitUe*  of  thf  Pnilmiy  Kiiufii- 
fi-H  F'lU'l    1MM7-1W2, 

A.  D.  1874.— New  York.-The  Chautauqua 
Aitembly  and  Circle.— The  Chautauqua  Assem- 
bly, holding  sessions  in  July  and  August  of  each 
year,  on  grounds  extensively  ami  expensively 
prepared  for  its  use,  on  Ch<>'>tAur|ua  I^ake,  In 
western  New  York,  was  in8titiit«rf  in  1874,  by 
the  Kev  Dr.  (afterwards  K:./uop)  John  H.  Vin 
cent,  of  the  M  K.  Church,  and  Mr.  I.,rwi8  MilUr. 
Its  allied  Chautaucjua  Literary  and  Scientific 
Circle  was  organized  in  1H78.     Tojtether,   they 

r;tn»titu!('    :l    J?ri'at    pripulfir  •.;r!versltv    f:v  a::tn- 

mer  lectures  and    home    ntudy,    •yKiematically 

Sursiietl.     A  n^w  educational  agency,  "f  v»»»  in- 
ueno),  has  thus  been  lotruduced  ;  and  tbe  idea 


of  its  organiution  is  being  fruitfully  carried  out 
in  many  less  notable  assemblies,  of  like  purpose, 
both  in  America  and  abroad. 

A.  O.1884-1891.— California.— Leland  Stan- 
ford Junior  UniT«r»ity.— "The  founding  at 
Palo  Alto  of  'a  university  for  both  sexes,  with 
the  colleges,  schools,  seminaries  of  learning,  me 
chanical  institutes,  museums,  galleries  of  art, 
and  all  other  things  necessary  and  appropriate  lo 
a  university  of  Uigh  degree,'  was  determined 
upon  by  tbe  Hon.  Leland  Stanford  and  Jam' 
Latbrop  Stanford  in  1884.  In  March  of  tbe  yeiir 
following  the  Legislature  of  California  passed  an 
Act  providing  for  the  admiuistration  of  trust 
funiis  in  connection  with  institutions  of  learning. 
November  14,  1885,  the  Orant  of  Endowment 
was  publicly  made  in  accordance  with  this  Act, 
and  on  the  same  day,  tbe  Board  of  Trustees  held 
its  first  meeting  in  San  Francisco.  Tbe  work  uf 
construction  was  at  once  begun,  and  the  comer- 
stone  laid  May  14,  1887  Tbe  University  was 
formally  opened  to  students  October  1,  1891. 
Tbe  idea  of  tbe  university,  in  tbe  words  of  its 
founders,  'came  directly  and  largely  from  our 
son  and  only  child,  Leland,  and  in  tbe  belief 
that  bad  he  been  spared  to  advise  as  to  the  dis- 
position of  our  estate,  he  would  have  desired  tbe 
devotion  of  a  hirge  portion  thereof  to  this  pur- 
pose, we  will  that  for  all  time  to  come  the  insti- 
tution hereby  founded  shall  bear  his  name,  and 
shall  be  known  as  The  Leland  Stanford  Junior 
University.'  The  object  of  the  University,  as 
stated  in  its  Charter,  is  '  to  qualify  student's  for 
personal  success  and  direct  usefulness  in  life'; 
snd  its  purposes,  'to  promote  tbe  public  wel- 
fare b^  exercising  an  influence  In  behalf  of 
humanity  and  civilization,  teaching  the  blessings 
of  liberty  regulate<l  by  law,  and  Inculeatiii);  love 
and  reverence  for  the  great  principles  of  govern- 
ment as  derived  from  the  inalienable  rights  of 
man  to  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happi- 
ness.' The  University  is  located  on  the  Palo 
Alto  estate  in  tbe  Santa  Clara  valley,  thirty- 
three  miles  southeast  of  San  Francisco,  on  the 
Const  Division  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Knilway. 
The  estate  consists  of  over  eight  tliousand  acres, 
partly  lowland  and  partly  rising  into  the  foot 
liills  of  tbe  Santa  Cruz  range.  On  the  grounds 
is  the  residence  of  tbe  Founders,  and  an  exten- 
sive and  beautiful  arboretum  containing  a  very 
great  variety  of  shrubs  and  tr  s.  The  property 
conveyed  to  the  University,  in  addition  to  the 
I'hIo  Alto  estate,  consists  of  tbe  Vina  estate,  in 
Tcliama  County,  of  fifty-five  tliousand  acres,  of 
which  about  four  thousand  acres  nre  planted  in 
vines,  and  tlie  Oridley  estate,  in  Butte  County,  of 
twentv-two  thousana  acres,  devoted  mainly  to 
the  raising  of  wheat  .  .  .  Tbe  founders  of  the 
Ix'land  Stanford  Jun'or  University  say  ;  '  As  a 
fiirber  assurance  that  t'.e  endowment  will  lie 
ample  to  establish  and  maintain  a  university  <if 
the  highest  groiie,  we  have,  by  last  will  and  tes- 
tament, devised  to  you  ana  your  successors 
additional  property.  We  have  done  this  as  a 
securi'y  against  the  uncertainty  of  life  and  In  the 
hope  that  during  our  lives  the  full  endowment 
may  go  to  you.'  The  aggregate  of  the  domain 
thus  dedicatee)  to  the  founding  of  the  University, 
is  over  eighty-flve  thousand  acres,  or  more  than 
;..nr  hundred  nn(Hhirt.r-thr««!Wj«»rf:  rr.\U^^  ^ni-"j^ 
the  best  improved  and  mo*t  valuable  lands  in 
the  State."— Leland  Stanford  Junior  University, 
Vtmlan  of  lt\formaHvn,  not.  9  and  l-'i. 


764 


EDUCATION. 


Uniled  Slatet 
Cemxu  StatUtict. 


EDUCATION. 


A.   D.   1887-1889.— Massachusetts.— Clark 
University.— "  Clark    University   was  foumled 
[at  Worcesterl  by  ...  a  native  of  Worccstur 
County,  MassacbusetU.    It  was  'not  the  outcome 
of  a  freak  of  impulse,  or  of  a  sudden  wave  of  gen- 
erosity, or  of  the  natural  desire  to  perpetuate  in  a 
worthy  way  one's  ancestral  name.     To  compre- 
hend the  genesis  of  the  enterprise  we  must  go 
back  along  the  track  of  Mr.  Clark's  personal  his- 
tory 20  years  at  least.     For  ns  long  ago  as  that, 
t    '  Idc.i  came  home  with  force  to  his  mind  that 
a    Hvilizcl  communities  are  in  the  hands  of  ex- 
perts. .  .  .  Looking  around  1.  the  facilities  ob- 
tainable in  this  country  for  the  prosecution  of 
original  research,  he  was  struck  with  the  meagcr- 
nCiS  and  the  inadequacy.     Colleees  anil  pmfes- 
sioi    '  .sch(X)l9  we  have  in  abundance,  but  there 
iippeared  to  lie  no  one  grand  inclusive  instituti.u, 
unsaddled   by  a:    naidemic  department,  where 
students  might  pursue  as  far  as  possible  the'r  in- 
vestigation of  any  and  every  branch  of    'icn'c. 
.  .  .  Mr.   Clark   went  abroad  and  soent  eight 
years  vi.siting  the   institutions  of    learniig    in 
almost  every  country  of  Europe.     He  studied 
into    their  history  and  observed  their  present 
working.'.  .      It  is  his  strong  ami  expressed  de- 
sire that  the  highest  possible  aca<lemic  standards 
bo  here  forever  maintained ;  that  special  oppor 
timilies  and  inducements  be  olTered  to  researeh; 
that  to  this  end  the  instructors  be  not  overbur- 
dened   witli   teaching  or  examinations.  ...  A 
eliiiriiT  was  gmnted  eariy   in    1HH7.     Land   and 
olher  [iroperty  that  had  l)eon  iK'fore  secured  by 
the  founder  was  tnmsferml  to  the  Iwiard.  and 
tlie  erec  tinn  of  a  central  building  was  beu'Uii     In 
the  spring  of  IS^H  <}.  Stanley  Hall,  then  a  pro- 
fes.iiir  at  the  .Inlins  Hopkins  L'niversitv,  was  in 
vited  to  the  presidency.   .   ,   .   The   plans  of  the 
Miiiversity  had  so  f;ir  |irogressed  that  work  was 
In  I'lin  in  Oetober.  l»^i).  in  mathematics,  physics 
ihimislry,    l)iology,    ami    psveholoL'y."- C.    o' 
Bush.  llUt.''f  llciliii-  /■jlnml'inii  in. [fust.  {!'.  S. 
/I'irai'i  of  h'li/i-aliim,  (UrcitUtr  nf  Intonuati'iii 
IWM.  «<-.  (>|.  '■h.  IS.  ... 

A.  D.  1889-1892.— Illinois.— Chicafro  Univer- 
sity.—'-.Vt  its  Annu.il  .Meetin^^  in  Mr.    issy.  the 
Itnard  of  the  .Vnieriean   lta|)tKl    K.luratii.n  So- 
eiily  resolved   to  t.ike  imniediati'  sieps  toward 
Ilie  'oiindiiig  of  a   wel|.e(|uippeil  college  in   ilie 
Illy  of  Chicago.      At  the  same    time  .lolm    |». 
HoiliefelliT  made  a  siilweription  of  ijiiiiMl.oiKI  an.i    j 
this  sum  was  iiureasi-ddiirim;  the  sueiiiiliii'  '.      1    ' 
by  about  i^iOil.oiH)  more  in  suliscriptiuiis  n, 
writing  111. ire  than  two  thcMismd  persons,     'rin. . 
iiinnlhs  alter  the  eo!ii|iletion  of  this  subseri|iliiiii 
Mr    Hnikeleller  iiia.l.'  an   addiliimal    prollVr  oi'   ' 

♦  UHHI.OIHI.  The  site  of  the  l-|iiversitv  eoiisisis  ' 
of  three  blocks  of  grouii.j  —  about  twii'th.ius.iiu! 
feet  long  and  t line  buinliid  and  sixty-two  f<.,.| 
wide,  lying  between  tlie  two  .South"  Parks  of 
<liieag.i,  and  fronting- 011  the  .Midivav  I'laisance 
winch  is  itself  11  park  crineetiiiir  the  otiier  two' 
One-half  of  this  site  is  a  gift  of  .Marsiiall  Field 
■'I  Chieago.  and  ilie  other  half  lias  bee-i  pur- 
ehased  at  a  cost  of  .sr.f.'..->lMl.  At  the  lilst  liie.t- 
li'ir  of  the  Hoard  after  it  had  lieeome  ..n  ineoriio- 
rated    biHly.    I'rofessor  William    U.    Harper,    of 

J  ale  I  niversity,  was  iiiianiiuously  cleeted  I'n  si- 
ilent  of  the  Cniviirsily.  .  .  .  It  has  been  deeided 

•  liat  the  University  will  bcein  the  work  of  in-    . 
=;rMel;i)n  on  tiic  nr.st  dav  of  Deiolier,  ISfii.  . 
Iheuorkof  the   University   shall   be  arranged   j 
•nider  three  general  dlvjilons,  viz..  The  Univer-   I 


sity  Proper,   The  I  niversitvExtension  Work. 
J'S.^°""^™'y  Publication  Work.  "— rHWrwrt 
of  Chicago.  Official  JJulktiii  no.  1,  Jan     1891 

A.  D.  1890.— United  States.— Census   Sta- 
tistics.—The  following  statistics  of  education  in 
the  Lmted  States  are  from  the  returns  gathered 
for  the  Eleventh  Census,  1890.     In  these  statU- 
tics  the  states  and  territories  are  classed  in  five 
great  geographical  divisions,  detined  as  follows- 
.■Sorth    Atlantic   Division,   embracing  tlie  New 
England  States,  New   York,  New  Jersey,  and 
lennsylTama;  South  Atlantic  Division,  embrac- 
ing the  States  of  the  eastern  coast,  from  Dela- 
ware to  Florida,  together  with  the  District  of 
Columbia;    North  Central   Division,  embracing 
Ohio,    Indiana,   Illinois.    .Michi-an.    Wisconsin 
Minnesota    Iowa,   Mis.souri,    North  and   South 
Dakota,   Nebraska,  and   Kans:is;  South   Central 
Division    embracing  Kentucky.  Tennessee,  Ala- 
bama   Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Arkansas 
and  (Oklahoma;  Western  Division,  embracing  all 
the  remaining  States  and  Territories      Tlie  total 
taxation  for  public  schools  in  tlie  United  States 
as  reported  by  this  census,  was  iWi  IGl  ~'M ■  of 
whicii  *y7,019,7»«  was  rai.sed  in  the'  No'rth  At- 
lantic Division,  $.'),678,474  in  the  South  Atlantic 
Division,  $47,03:),  14'i  in  the  North  Central  Divi- 
sion. *.), «!(«., W3  in  the   South   Central    Division 
and*0.i:il,H:i-2iu   the  Western    Division.     From 
liiiids  and  rents  there  were  raised  for  .seliool  pur- 
poses a  total  of  !if.'.-,,0!»4.449  in  the  Uniled    States 
at  large,  of  which  ijM,',>7;l.l47  was  raised  in  the 
-North  Atlantic  Divisi.ai.  f.'.;!b7.0.-)l  iu  the  South 
Atlantic   Division,  *.'^,4:i2,r,y3  in  the  North  Cen- 
tml    Division.  ;^{.720.1.-)S   in   tlie   South    Central 
Division   and  i^.UOL.'iOO  in  theWestern  Division. 
Ihe  total  of  all  "ordinarv"   receipts   for  school 
support  in  the  United  Sta'tes  was  *i:!9  ((19  440  of 
which  $4il^'2ilU>l(i  were   in  the    North  Atlantic 
Division.  #.H.(H-,.'."iJ  in  the  S.iiiih  Atlantic  Divi- 
sion, *«l,10M,-,>(l:(iiitlie  North  CVnlial  Division 
*10.','y4.«2l  in  th(.  South  Central    Division    and 
lflO.:iao.I17  in  the  Western  Division.     The  total 
"ordinary   expenditures"  were   ^i;W.7S(j  :«):!   ju 
;   Ihe  whole  United   Stati-s;  lieinir  fl7,(tt.-),.'il>i   in 
I   the  North  Atlantic  Division.   A'^.tWuVl  1   in    the 
South  Atlantic  Division,  ifili-'.fjl.',..-):)!  in  the  Xoriii 
Central  Division.  ;iill..Mii).o.-)!)  in  the  Soiitli  Central 
l)ivision,  and  S«.M.-|4..-)4t  in  the  \Ves|,.in  Division 
For  teachers' waL'es  there  was  a   t.il  il  e.xiM.ndi- 
tiire    of   *.SS.7il.-,,!.!l',>.    f.N.iKJT  s-J|    l,..i„:,-   i„    the 
Aortli  .\tlaiilie  Division,  ifd.  loooil:!  in  ||„.  South 
.>;lantic  DivisiiMi.  *:«),,M(li.,s:ii  i,,  n,,.  s<,rth  Cen- 
tral   DiviHon.  ,s,s,-,'0!i,.-,o!)  ill    th..   S.iuili    (Vnlr.il 
Division,  and  80,  llil.7tis  in  llie  Wesiein  Division. 
'!  i.e  b'tal  ex|ienditiirr  r..r  l.il.raiies  ami    \'iii,ira- 
tiis  was,'<l.(i(l7,7«;.  tliive-l.iinilis  of  h1       .    was 
in  Ilie  Norih  Atlanlie  and   N.irili  f.ii  Diyj. 

sioiis.  The  ex|ieiidil lire  ivpi.r;.-d  f.ire.  ruction 
an.l  care  iif  Imildiiii's,  was  .s,'l.J',i|.7',i  |  which 
•';i|iMi'<7,lU  wasiii  the  Noiili  Allanti,  Division, 
.^'<'*l,'j;7  was  in  the  Nmili  Alhiiiiie  Division' 
■■sti.si;!),  |s;)i„  ,|„.  \,,riu  Ceiili-al  Division.  !J77i) - 
■^:>7  in  tlie  Smith  Central  Division,  .iml  .s-.'.ill':),(i,-i« 
in  ihe  Wesiern  Division.  Ue|i,.rie.|  esiiniatesof 
the  value  of  buildings  ami  otlier  school  p,  .i,|.|-iy 
are  ineoiii|ilete,  but  t;','r..'^l»-,'.M01  are  ,iri\.ii  fJr 
Massaehiisells.  $ll.ti-.>(i.7:r.  for  New  York  !i:ir,  . 
|:;"i.  H'.'  for  Uemisvlvania,  ^^t-^.O-U.."!!!!  for'tihlo 
•«ll.til4.4.!iO  for  Illinois,  and  iluse  i,re  the  S!;.l<-.i 
that  slaiid  highest  in  til"  column.  The  aiiparcnt 
cnMllmcut  iu  Public  Schmils  for  the  census  vear 
ri'porled  to  July,  1801.   was  as  follows:    Sprtli 


If:- 


7C5 


w 


EDUCATION. 


Jokn  AmMComtnhu. 


BDrCATION. 


Atlantic   DlvWon,   8.1M.*";     South    Atlantic 
DlvlsJon,   1.758,285;    North   Central    IMvlslon, 
6  032  182-    South  Central  Division,    2,334,894; 
Western  Diviaioa,  62li,286;  Total  for  the  Lnited 
States,  12,769,864,  being  20.39  per  cent,  of  fte 
population,  against  19.84  per  cent,  in  1880.    The 
reported  enrollment  In  Private  Schools  at  the 
same  time  was ;  Nnrth  Atlantic  Division.  196, 173 ; 
South  Atlantic  '      ision,  165,253;  North  'cntral 
Division,     187.       ;     South    Central     D. vision, 
200  202;  Western  Division.  64,749;  Total  for  the 
United  States,   804,204.     The    reported    enroll- 
ment in  Parochial  Schools  was;     North  Atlantic 
Division     811,684;     South    Atlantic     Division, 
80  869;  North  Central  Division.  398.585;  South 
Central    Division,    41.115;     Western    Division, 
17  849;  Total  for  the  United  Swus.  799,602.    Of 
this  total,  626,496  were  enrolled  in  Catholic  and 
151  651  in  Lutheran  Parochial  Schools;  leaving 
only  21  Ar>r>  in  the  schools  of  all  other  denomina- 
tions.    Total  enrollment  reported  in  all  schools 
14  373  670.     The  colored   public   school  enroll- 
ment in  the  Southern  States  was  1,288,229  in 
1890,  against  797,286  in    1880,— an  Increase  of 
more  than  61  per  cent.    The  enrollment  of  whites 
was  3,358,527,  against  2,301,804.— an  increase  of 
nearly  46  per  cent.     The  approximate  number 
of  Public  Scliool -houses  in  the  United  States,  for 
the  census  year  1890  is  given  at  219,992,  being 
42  949  in  the  North  Atlantic  Division,  32,142  in 
the  South  Atlantic  Division,  97,166  in  tt '  Nortli 
Central   Division,   38,962  in  the  South  Central 
Division,  8,773  in   the  Western  Division.     The 
Urgest  number  reported  is  14,214  in  Pei.nsyl 
vania      Of  6,408  school-houses  in  Virginia  4,.)»W 
are  for  white,  and  1.840  for  colored  children;  in 
North  Carolina,  8.973  white  and  1,820  colored. 

The  above  statistics  arc  taken  in  pu  '-om  the 
Compendium  of  the  Eleventh  Census,  •  ished 
in  1894,  and  partly  fr<   .i  tables  i-   irt(  fur- 

nished from  tlic  Census  Bureau  in  aavaace  of 
their  publication. 

Modern  :  Reforms  and  MoTements. 
A.  D.  1638-1671.— Comenius.— "To  know 
Comenius  [born  in  Moravia,  1592]  and  the  part 
he  played  in  the  seventeenth  century,  to  appre- 
ciate this  grand  educational  character,  it  would 
be  ncLcasary  to  begin  by  relating  his  life ;  his  mis- 
fortunes; his  journeys  to  England  [1638],  where 
Parliament  invoked  his  aid;  to  Sweden  [1642], 
where  th"  Chancellor  Oxenstiem  employed  him 
to  write  Jiuals  of  instruction ;  egpccially  his  re- 
lentless industry,  his  courage  through  exile,  and 
the  long  persecutions  he  suffered  as  a  member  of 
the  sect  of  dissenters,  the  Moravian  Brethren; 
and  the  schools  he  founded  at  Fulneck,  in  Bo- 
hemia, at  Lissa  and  at  PaUk,  in  Poland."— O. 
Compayre,  The  Bi$t.  of  Pedagogy,  ch.6{»eet.  137). 
— "Comeniuss  Inspiring  motive,  like  that  of  all 
leading  educationallsu,  was  social  regeneration. 
He  believed  that  this  could  be  accomplished 
through  the  school.  He  lived  under  the  hallucin- 
ation that  by  a  proper  arrangement  of  the  sub- 
ject-matter of  instruction,  and  by  a  sound  method, 
a  certain  community  of  thought  and  interests 
would  be  established  among  the  young,  which 
would  result  in  social  harmony  and  political 
settlement.  He  believed  that  men  could  be  manu- 
factured. .  .  .  The  educational  spirit  of  the  Re- 
formers, the  conviction  that  all  —  even  the  hum- 
blest—must be  Uught  to  know  Ood,  and  Jesus 
Christ  whom  he  has  sent,  was  inherited  by  Come- 


nius In  its  completeness.    In  thb  way,  and  in 
this  way  only,  could  the  ills  of  Europe  be  reme- 
died,  and  the  progress  of  humanity  assured. 
While,  therefore,  he  sums  up  the  educational  aim 
under  the  threefold  heads  of  Knowledge,  Virtue, 
and  Piety  or  Godliness,  he  in  truth  has  mainly 
in  view  the  last  two.  Knowledge  is  of  value  only 
in  so  far  as  it  forms  the  only  sound  basis,  in  thu 
eyes  of  a  Protestant  theologian,  of  virtue  and 
godliness.  We  have  to  train  for  a  hereafter.  .  .  . 
By  knowledge  Comenius  meant  knowledge  of 
nature  and  of  man's  relation  to  nature.     It  is  this 
important  characteristic  of  Couenius's  cduai- 
tional  system  that  reveals  the  direct  influence  of 
Bacop  and  his  school.  .  .  .  It  is  in  the  department 
of  Method,  however,  that  we  recognise  the  cliiif 
contribution  of  Comenius  to  education.     The 
mere  attempt  to  systematise  was  a  great  advance. 
In  seeking,  however,  for  foundations  on  which  to 
erect  a  coherent  system,  he  had  to  content  him- 
self with  first  principles  which  were  vague  and 
unscientific.  ...  In  the  department  of  knowl- 
edge, that  is  to  say,  knowledge  of  the  outer 
world,  Comenius  rested  his  method  on  tlie  scho- 
lastic maxim,  '  Nihil  est  in  intellectu  quod  non 
prius  fuerit  in  scnsu.'    This  maxim  he  enriolied 
with  the  Baconian  int^uction,  comprehended  by 
him  only  in  a  general  way.  .  .  .  From  the  sim- 
ple to  the  complex,  from  the  particular  to  the 
general,  the  concrete  before  the  abstract,  and 
all,  step  by  step,  and  even  by  insensible  degrees, 
—  these  were  among  his  leading  principles  of 
method.    But  the  most  important  01  all  his  prin- 
ciples was  derived  from  the  scholastic  maxin; 
quoted  above.     As  all  is  from  sense,    let  the 
Uiing  to  be  known  be  itself  presented  to  the 
si'uses,  and  let  every  sense  be  engaged  in  the 
perception  of  it.     When  it  is  impossible,  fniin 
the  nature  of  the  case,   to  present  the  object 
itself,  place    a  vivid  picture  of  it  before  the 
pupil.    The  mere  enumeration  of  these  few  prin- 
ciples, even  if  we  drop  out  of  view  all  his  other 
contributions  to  method  and  school-management, 
will  satisfy  any  man  familiar  with  ail  the  mure 
recent    treatises  on  Education,  that  Comenius, 
even  after  giving  his  p.  ^cursors  their  due,  is 
to  be  regarded  as  the  true  founder  of  mo.1- 
em  Method,  and  that  he  anticipates  Pestnlnjzi 
and  all  of  the  same  school.  .  .  .  Finally,  Come- 
nius's  views  as  to  the  Inner  organisation  of  a 
school  were  original,  and  have  proved  themselves 
in  all  essential  respecU  correct.     The  sami'  miy 
be  said  of  his  scheme  for  the  organisiUinn  iif  a 
State-system— a  scheme  which  is  substantiiilly, 
mutetis  mutandis,  at  this  moment  embodicil  m 
the  highly  developed  system  of  Germany.  Wlien 
we  consider,  then,  that  Comenius  first  formally 
and  fully  developed  educational  metlio<l,  thiit  he 
introduced  important  reforms  into  the  teaching 
of  languages,  that  he  introduced  into  schools  the 
study  of  Nature,  that  he  advocated  with  intt  111- 
gence,  and  not  on  purely  sentimental  groutulH,  a 
milder  discipline,  we  are  justified  in  assigning 
to  him  a  high,  if  not  the  highest,  place  aiming 
modem  educational  writers."- S.  8.  Laurie,  .Mn 
Amo»  Cameniut,  m.  217-226. 

A.  D.  1681-1878.— The  Christian  Brothers. 
—"Any  description  of  popular  educatiim  in 
Europe  would  be  hicomplete,  which  should  not 
give  promhience  to  the  Institute  of  the  Christian 
Brothers— or  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  i)"i;- 
trine— including  in  that  term  the  earliest  pro- 
fessional school  for  the  training  of  UacliemlB 


766 


EDUCATION. 


T»«  Ckritttan 
Brotlun. 


EDUCATION. 


Europe;  one  of  the  most  remark»ble  body  of 
teachera  devoted  exclusively  and  without  pay  to 
the  HucaUon  of  the  children  of  the  poor  that  the 
world  has  ever   seen.  ...  The   Institute  was 
established  as  a  professional  school  in  1681   and 
to  Abbe  John  Baptist  de  la  Salle,  belonirs  the 
high  honor  not  only  of  founding  it,  but  of  so  In- 
fusing into  ite  early  organization  his  own  pro- 
found  conviction  of  the  Christ-like  character  of 
lU  mission  among  the  poor,  that  it  has  retoined 
for  nearly  two  centuries  the  form      d  spirit  of 
Its  origin     ThU  devoted  Uhristiau  leacher  was 
Bom  at  Rhelms  on  the  30th  of  April   1651 
He  was  early  distinguished  for  his  scholarly  at- 
tainments and  maturity  of  character:  and  at  the 
age  of  seventeen,  before  he  had  completed  his 
full  course  of  theological  study,   he  was  ap- 
pointed Canon  in  the  Cathedral  church  of  Rhelms 
From  the  first,  he  became  interested  in  the  edu- 
cation of  the  young,  and  especially  of  the  poor 
M  the  most  direct  way  of  leading  them  to  a 
Christian  life;— and  with  this  view  before  he 
was  twenty-one  years  old,  he  assumed  the  direc- 
tion of  two  charities,  devoted  to  female  educa- 
tion.    From    watching  the  operation  of  tliese 
schools,  conducted  by  teachers  without  profes- 
sional training,  without  plan  and  without  mutual 
sympathy  and  aid,  he  conceived  the  dcslirn  of 
bringing   the  teachers  of  this  class  of  school" 
from  the  neighboring  parishes  Into  a  community 
for  their  moral  and  professional  Improvement 
tor  this  purpose,  he  invited  them  first  to  meet 
and  then  to  lodge  at  his  uouse,  and  afterwanls' 
about  the  year  1681,  he  purchased  a  house  for 
their  special  accommodation.     Here,  out  of  school 
hours  and  during  their  holydays,  they  spent  their 
time  In  the  practice  of  religious  duties,  and  In 
mutual  conferences  on  the  work  in  which  tliov 
were  engaged.    About  this  peric"  a  large  number 
01  free  schools  for  the  poor  were  established  hi 
the  neighboring  towns;  and  applications  were 
constantlv  made  to  the  Abbe  for  teachera  formed 
under   his   training,   care,   and    influence.     To 
meet  this  demand,  and  make  himself  more   di- 
rectly useful  In  the  field  of  Christian  education 
he  resigned  his  benefice,  that  he  might  give  his 
whole  attention  to  thu  work.     To  close  the  dis- 
tance between  himself,  having  a  high  social  posi- 
tion and  competence  from  his  father's  estate  and 
the   poor  schoolmasters  to  whom  he  was  con- 
stantly preaching  an  unreserved  consecration  of 
themselves  to  their  vocation  — he  not  only  re- 
Blped  his  canonr-,  with  iu  social  and  pecuniary 
advanuges,  but  distributed  his  patrimony  in  a 
period  of  scarcity,  in  relieving  the  necessities  of 
the  poor,  and  in  providing  for  the  education  of 
their  children.     He  thus  placed  himself  on  a 
footing  of  equality— as  to  occupation,  manner 
01  life,  and  entire  dependence  on  the  '■harity  of 
others- with    the   schoolmasters   of  the  poor 
ihe  annals  of  education  or  religion  show  but 
few  such  examples  of  practical  self-denial  and 
entire  conLecration  to  a  sense  of  duty.  ,         Hav- 
ing completed  his  act  of  resignation  anil  self 
iniiH)»ed  poverty,  he  assembled  his  teachers    < 
mimiccd  to  them  what  he  had  done,  and  sunx 
with  them  a  Te  Deum.    After   a    retreat -a 
pericjl  set  apart  to  prayer  and  fasting  — conUn- 
ued  for  seventeen  days,  they  devoted  them«.ilv..« 
'O  ttie  a>n»lderatiou  of  the  best  course  to  give 
unity  efficiency ,  and  permanence  to  their  plans  of 
J-Tiristlsn  education  for  the  poor.    They  assumed 
the  name  of  'The  Brother*  of  the  Christian  Doc- 


trine,   as  expresssive  of  their  vocation— which 
by  usage  came  to  be  abbreviated  Into  '  Christian 
Brothers     They  took  on  themselves  vows  of  pov- 
erty,  celibacy,  and  obedience  for  three  years  Thev 
prescribed  to  themselves  the  moat  frugal  fare,  to 
be  provided  in  turns  by  each  other.    They  adopted 
at  that  time  some  rules  of  behavior,  which  have 
since  been  Incorporated  Into  the  fundamental 
rules  of  the  order.  ...  In  1702  the  first  step 
was  taken  to  establish  an  Institute  at  Rome,  un- 
der t      mission  of  one  of  the  brothers,  Gabriel 
Uro  in,  who  after  years  of  poverty,  was  made 
^.^n^^^   of   one   of    the    charitable    school! 
founded  by  Pope  Clement  XI.     This  school  be 
»i^  I.  .K"r''"i'  ""=  foundation  of  the  house 
ri^f-fl     .*  'T'l'^w  ba^'e  had  in  Rome  since  the 
poniflcate  of  Benedict  XIII..  who  conferml  on 
the  institute  the  constitution  of  a  religious  order. 
In  1703,  under  the  pecuniary  aid  of  %l.  Chateau 
Blanc,  and  the  countenance  of  the  archbishop, 
M.  de  Gontery,  a  school  was  opened  at  Avignon. 
v^„:    .    \.     •  '^"  ?""'<'°al  Assembly  prohibited 
vows  to  be  made  in  communities;  and  in  1790 
suppre^ed  ail  religious  societies;   and  in  179l' 
the  lu.stitute  was  disr3rsed.     At  that  date  there 
were  one  hundred  .nd  twenty  houses,  and  over 

duties  of  the  sc.,ool  room,  flic  continuity  of 
the  society  was  secured  by  the  houses  establish-d 
In  Italy  to  wliich  many  of  the  brothers  fled. 
...  in  1801,  on  the  conclusion  of  a  Concordat 
between  the  Pope  and  the  government,  the  so- 
ciety was  revived  m  France  by  the  opening  of  a 

tlieir  hab  t,  and  opened  a  novitiate,  the  mem- 
bers of  which  were  exempt  from  military  ser- 
yS  .1  ■""'.  ofganii^tion  of  the  university  in 
1808,  the  institute  was  legally  reorganized,  Ud 
irom  that  time  has  iiicreiised  in  numl-ers  and 
usefulness  .  In  1842,  there  wore  390  houses 

(of  whioli  ,"126  were  in  France),  with  3.030  broth- 
Si  "?«Q  '-?^  "I'.Vf '■  '^'"^'^  ^"^  6-»2  schools 
r'.r  i^;A  ,  ,''''^'''>  '"•'siiles  evening  schools 
nith  .,800  adulu  in  attendance,  and  three  re- 
formatory schools  with  2,000  convicts  under  in- 
nstruction.  -Henry  Barnard,  Aatioiuil  Educa- 
tion m  Europe,  p,,.  43.'>-t41.-"In  1878  their 
numbers  had  increasi'd  to  11,640;  tlu-y  had  1  249 
establishmcnt.s,  and  the  numlxr  of  ilidr  Ejhnlars 
was  390.607. '-.Mrs.  R  F,  Wilson,  The  Chri,- 
tian  Brothers,  their  Oriijiii  and  W'lrk,  ch.  21. 

A.  p.  i76»-— Rouiseau.- "  Rdi.'sseau,  who 
had  tducated  himself,  anil  very  biiilly  at  that 
was  imprusscl  with  the  dangers  of  the  education 
of  his  day  A  motlier  having  asked  his  advice 
he  took  up  the  pen  to  write  it ;  and,  little  by  little' 
hi.s  counsels  grew  into  a  bixik,  a  large  work  a 
I><|lag.)gic  romance  [■Erailo'].  This  romance, 
wlien  it  appeared  in  1702,  created  a  great  noise 
and  a  great  scandal.  The  Arehbishop  of  Paris 
t  liristoplie  de  Beaumont,  saw  in  it  a  dangerous 
iiiisohievous  work,  and  i;ave  himself  the  trouble 
of  writinp  a  long  encyclical  letter  in  order  to 
point  out  the  b<K)k  to  the  reprobation  of  the  faitli- 
ful.  This  liwunient  of  twenty-seven  chapters  is 
a Jorm-i  .futation  of  the  theories  advanced  in 
•  Emile.'  .  In  those  days,  such  a  condemna- 
tion was  a  serious  matter;  IU  Loasequcnccs  to  an 
'Olthor  miffht  be  terrible.  R.--:!55€.-.u  h::-i  barely 
time  to  flee.  His  arrest  wa*  decreed  by  the  par- 
liameni  of  Paris,  and  his  book  was  burned  by 
the  executioner.  ...  As  a  fugitive,  Rousseau 
did  not  find  a  saf*  retreat  even  in  his  own  coim- 


If  I 


s 


767 


EDUCATION. 


Rouueau 
ord  Patalozu. 


EDUCATION. 


try.    He  wfts  oWiRed  to  leave  Geneva,  where  his 
book  was  also  (:onilcmiic<l,  ami  Berne,  where  ho 
bad  sought  refuge,  but  whence  he  was  driven  by 
Intolerance.    Heowcd  itto  the  protectionof  Lord 
Keith  governor  of  NcufchStel,  a  principality  1..'- 
longing  to  the  King  of  Prussia,  that  he  lived  for 
sonic  time  in  pi'ace  in  the  little  town  of  Motiers 
in  tl..  Val  de  Travera.  .      .  The  renown  of  the 
book   condemned  by  so  ;iigh  an  iuilhority,  was 
Immensi'.     Scandal,  liv  attracting  public  atten- 
tion to  it,  did  it  goml  servici'.     What  was  most 
serious  and  most  suirgestlve  in  it  was  not.  per- 
haps, scize<l  upon ;  but  the  '  craze  '  of  which  it 
was  the  object  had,   notwithsUmding,  g.ioii  re- 
sults.    >Inthcrs  were  won  over,  and  resolved  to 
nurse  their  own  infants ;  great  lords  l)egan  to  learn 
handicrafts,   like   Housseau's    imaginary  pupil; 
pliysical  exercises  came  into  fashion ;  the  si)irit 
of  innovaiicin   was  forcing  itself  a  way.   .  .  . 
Thn  e  men  above  all  the  rest  are  noted  for  hav- 
ing jiopularizid  tlie  pedagogic  method  of  Rous- 
seau, and  for  having  l)een  inspired  in  their  laoors 
by  'Emilc'     Thei-e  were  liasedow,  Pestalozzi. 
and  Froebel.    liasedow,  a  German  theologian,  had 
devoted  himself  entirely  toilogmatic controversy, 
until  the  reading  of  ■  fiinile '  had  the  effect  of  en 
largiug  his  mental  liorizon,  and  of  n-vealing  to 
him  his  true  voci'tion.  .  .  .  Pestalozzi  of  ZQrich, 
one  of  the  fori'niost  educators  of  mixlern  times, 
al.so   found    his  whole  life  transformed   by  the 
reading  of   'femile,'  which  awoke  in  him  the 
genius  of  a  reformer.  .  .  .  The  most  distiniijuished 
among  his  disciples  and  continuators  is  Iroebel, 
thefounderof thosepriraaryschools  .  .  .known 
by  tlie  name  of  •kindergartens,'  and  the  author 
of   highly   estiemed    pedagogic   w.irks.      These 
various  attempts,  these  new  and  ingenious  pro- 
cesses  which,    step   by   step,  have   made   their 
way  amom;  us.  and  are  beginning  to  make  their 
workings  ielt.  even  in  instituti(ms  most  stoutly 
oppoMil  to  proiiress,  are  all  traceable  to  Hi>us- 
R;au's   'fimile.'.  .  .   It    is  true    that   ■  Knnle ' 
contains   pages   that   have  outlived   their  ila^-, 
many  wld  iirecciit*,  many  false  ideas,  many  dis- 
putable and  .Ir^lruetive  theories;  liut  at  the  same 
time  wetinii  in  it  so  many  sagacious  obsi'rvations, 
such  upriuht  counsels,  suitalile  even  t(j  nnslern 
times,  so  lofty  an  ideal,  that,  in  spite  of  every- 
thing,   we  cannot   read   and    study    it   williout 
profit.   .   .   .  Then!  is  absolutely  notliing  practica- 
ble in  his  (Housseau's]  system'  It  consists  in  i.-io- 
hxUn:  a  child  from  the  r<'st  of  tlie  world;  in  creal- 
ini;  [■xpre>slv  for  him  a  tutor,  who  is  a  jilHenix 
an'iniiL'   his  "kind;  in   ilepriving   liini  of   father, 
mother,  brothers,  and  sisters,  his  compan'ons  in 
studv;   in   surrounding   him   witli    a   perpelu.d 
clmrlatanisni.  under  tlii^  prete.\t  of  following  na- 
ture; ami  in  sliowinir  him  only  through  tlie  veil 
of  a  factitious  ■itmo>phere  the  society  in  which 
he  is  to  live.     And,   nevertlieless.  at  each  step  it 
is  sound  reason  by  wliicli  we  are  met ;  by  an  tis 
tonishing  paradox,  this  wiiimsic;dily  is  full  of 
g(H>d  si'Usi-;  this  dream  overllows  with  realilies; 
this  improbable  and  chimerical  romance  contains 
the  substance  and  the  marrow  of  a  rational  and 
truly  mo<lern  treatise  on  pedagogy.     ,S>metimes 
wi'  inuat  read  iM'tween  the  lines,  add  what  ex 
periiuee  has  tauL'ht  us  siii<e  that  day,  transposi' 
iii!'.  an   ■itn-..-.-i-.liiTi-   of  open  democracy   tlioie 
pages,  written  under  the  oldorderof  things,  but 
even  then  quivering  with  the  new  world  whicli 
they  were  bringing  to  liu'lit,  and  ftir  which  thi'y 
prepared  the  way.      Risding   '  Emlle '  in  the 


li(:"it  of  modem  prejudices,  we  can  se  in  It  more 
than  the  author  wittingly  put  int.)  it;  hut  not 
more  ihan  logic  and  the  Instinct  of  genius  set 
dowki  there.  To  unfold  the  powers  of  cliildnn 
in  due  proportion  to  their  sge;  not  to  transcend 
their  ability;  to  arouse  in  them  the  sense  of  the 
observer  and  of  the  pioneer;  to  make  them  dis- 
coverers rather  than  imitators;  to  teach  them  ac- 
countability to  themselves  and  not  slavish  <li - 
pendencc  upon  the  words  of  others;  to  address 
ourselves  more  to  the  will  than  to  custom,  tu  tlie 
ri'ason  rather  than  to  the  memory;  to  substitute 
for  verbal  recitations  lessons  aliout  things;  tu 
lend  to  theory  by  way  of  art;  to  a.s8ign  to  physi- 
cal movements  lind  cxircisea  a  pn>mlnent  place. 
from  the  earliest  hours  of  life  up  to  perfect  nii- 
turitv ;  such  are  the  principles  scattered  hroail- 
cast  in  this  bcMik,  and  forming  a  happy  coun- 
terpoise to  the  oddities  of  which  Uousseau  was 
perhaps  most  proud."— .1.  Steeg,  Inirndiirtio,,  Vi 

A.  D.  1798-1827.— Pestalozri.— In  Switzir 
land,  up  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  thi 
stale  of  primary  instruction  was  very  bad     ' '  Tlie 
teachers  were  gathered  up  at  liazani;  their  p:iy 
was  wretched ;  in  general  they  had  no  lislgiiigs 
of  their  own,  and  they  were  obliged  to  hire  tlieni- 
selves  out  for  domestic  service  among  tlie  well 
oft  inlii'.'iitants  of  the  villages,  in  order  to  find 
fcKxl  and  hslging  among  tliem.     A  mean  spirit 
of  caste  still  (hiininated  instruction,  and  tlie  |«>er 
remained  sunk  in  ignorance.     It  was  in  tin-  vi  ry 
midst  of  this  wretched  and  unpropitious  stuti  .i( 
affairs  that  there  appeared,   towanis  the  eml  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  the  most  celeliratid  nf 
m(«lern  educators.  .  .  .  B<ini  at  Zurich  in  1716. 
Pestalozzi  died  at  Brugg  in   Argovia  in  IsJ7. 
This  unfortunate  great  man  always  felt  tlieilbii-i 
of  the   sentimental    and    unpractical  ediieif,  :i 
given  him  by  his  mother,  who  was  left  a  wiil'W 
with  three  childnii  in  IT.M.     He  early  birimil 
the  habit  of  fieling  and  of  iK'ing  toueliid  Milh 
emotion,  rather  than  of  reasoning  and  of  ret!. n 
ini:.    The  laughing-stock  of  his  cnnip:ini"ns,  m  li.i 
miide  sport  of  his  awkwardness,  tlie  little  m  li.  br 
of  Zurich  accustomed  himself  to  live  :il"iii- ;iiiii 
to  become  a  dreamer.     Ijiter,  towards  ITii",  ilif 
student  of  the  academy  distinguished  liiniM-lf  I'V 
bis  politiial  enthusiasm  and    his  rev.iliiliiMMry 
darinir.     At  that  early  period  be  had  er'nciivej 
a  prolound  feeliuL'  for  the  nii-i  rii  s  an.l  tlie  iiei  ils 
of  the  people,  an<l  he  iilriMdy  pnp]iii>.d  a-  tlw 
purpo.si;  of  his  life  the  lieuling  of  the  ili-e;i-i  s  nf 
I   society.     At  the  same  time  there  wasdevelo|uil  in 
'   hiin  an  irresistible  taste  for  a  .simple,  fru!.'al.  "'I'j 
.■ilniost  as.'etie  lifiv     To  restrain  his  desires  had 
heeonie  the  e-sential  rule  "f  his  londiut.  iind,  ti 
put  it  in  prai  tice.  lie  foi.  rd  hini-i  If  to  sN  ip  nii  :i 
plank  ;ind  i.isubsi.-t  on  brc'iid  and  veL'el!il'li->.  — 
t!  ('ompa\re.  7'/"  Ili't.  .//'«/.  WW.  M.  I^*  -'la 
spite  .   .   .■  of  I'e-ialrzzi's  patent  disipia!il'ie:i!i-'iH 
inmanyn'speelsfortlietaskheundertonk;  iii-i'ili' 
"f  his  iVnorami'  of  even  cmnniou  subject.-,  if "r  li' 
spoke,  reiul.  ■«  role,  and  cyphered  badly,  ::ni!  kii'« 
next  to  u.'!-  ,!ig  of  che.sics  or  seienni;  in  spili 
(it  his  want  ..f  worldly  wisihun,  of  any  ceiii.r.- 
hrnsive   and   exart    knowledge   of  men   .'omI  "I 
tl.iiiL's;  in  spite  of  his  beinir  merely  an  elenie'itan 
(...uher.— throuuhlheforce  of  hisall  ■■oM.iiiernia 
l.ive.    the   notulity   ot    liis   lieari.    liie   i.-i~;:;' 
energy  of  his  enthusiasm,  his  firm  gra^p  "I  a  l''« 
first  jirinciples.  his  eloiiuent  exposition  "i  '"'" 
in  words,  his  resolute  mauifcstation  of  tin m  u 

(08 


EDUCATION. 


PMtatozzi. 


KDtCATION. 


"f    l):ir- 
wlio 

.lilt  lie 

•  tf'M('lnr. 


(Ipwls,— he  staniia  forth  arnon^  educatinnni  ro- 
formersiis  the  man  wlicwe  inttufnce  on  education 
is  wider,  deeper,  more  penetrating,  than  that  of 
all  t lie  rest  — the  prophet  and  the  soverei™  of 
the  domain  In  wliich  he  lived  and  laboured 
It  was  late  in  life— he  was  fifty-two  years  of  aixe 
—  iM-fore  Pestalo/.zi  liecame  a  praciicul  school- 
master.    He  had  even  l)egun  to  despair  of  ever 
finding  the  rarci-r  iti  whieh  he  mitdit  attempt  to 
realize  the  theories  over  which  his  lovin^'  heart 
and  teeming  lirain  had  l)een  brofnling  fniuhis 
earliest  youth.  ...   At  flftv-two  years  of  age 
then,    we   find   Pestalozzi  utterly  unaequainteii 
wiihthe  seienceand  the  art  of  education  and  verv 
scantily  furnished  even  with  elementary  knowl- 
edge,  undertaking  at  Slanz,  in   tin?  canton  of 
Interwalden,   the    charge    of   eighlv  children 
whom  the  events  of  war  had  rendered  homeless 
and  destitute.   .   .   .   The    house    in   which   the 
eighty  children  were  as.sembled  to  lie  l)oard(d 
hKlgeil,  and   taught,   was  an  old   tumlile-dowil 
I  rsuline  convent,  scarcely  habitable,  and  desii- 
tute  of  all   the  eonv<niences  of  life      The  onlv 
apartii'i'nt  suitable  for  a  schoolroom  was  abou't 
twenty  four  feet  sijuare,  furnished  with  a  fesv 
desks  and  forms;  ami  into  this  were  crow.icfl  the 
wretched   children,   noisy,   dirtv.    diseaseil    and 
ignorant,  witli  tlie  manners  and  1 
hurians.     Pcstalozzis  onlv  helper  i 
mcnt  of  the  institution  was  an  ol 
cooked  the  food  and  swept  the  roo 
was.  as  he  tells  us  himself,  not  oi 
but  the  paymaster,  manservant,  ami  almo>,t  tli,. 
liousiTOaid  of  the  clilldrcn.   .   .  .    '  Aly  wivlns  fh,. 
\yri!es]  were  now  accomplished.     I  feltconvinivd 
1  hit  my  heart  would  change  the  condition  of  iiiv 
dnldrcnas  speedily  as  the  springtide  sun  n-.uii- 
inates  the  earth  frozen  bv  the  win'rr      Xor  '  lu- 
ndils,  'was  I   mistake!,."  Before  the  sprin-'ti.lc 
sun  melted  away  the  s,i.,w  from  our  mountuins 
you  could  no  longer  recognise  the  same  children  ' 
.  .  'I  w.as  obliged,' 111.  says, 'uneeasinirly  to  be 
everything  to  my  chihlren.     I  was  mIohc   with 
them  from  niorninir  to  night.     It  «  ,<  from  my 
hand  they  received  wliatevi  r  could  l„.  of  MTvice 
I'olh  to  their  boflics  and  minds.     All  .sui'cour  all 
consolation,  all  instruction  came  to  them  ininicli- 
ately  from   myself.     Their   Imnds    were    in    ii. 
Inui.l;  my  eyes  wc-re  li.Ved  on  t',:-\i-^    niv  tear-- 
imuL'led    with    theirs,    my    smil.  s    eiicounten-,1 
theirs,  my  soup  was  their  soup,  inv  drink  was 
their  drink.     1  had  anninil  me  nci'iher  family 
fninds,  nor  servants;  I  had  only  them      I  wlis 
Willi  them  when  thiv   were  in  "health,  bv  tlnir 
;;i'le  when  they  were  ill,     I  slept  in  tiieir'midst 
I  was  the  last  to  go  to  lH>d,  the  lirst  to  rise  in  the 
ni..rniiig.      Winn  we  were  in  bcil  I  used  to  pnv 
'yilh  them  ami  talk  to  them  till  they  went  to 
sleep.    Tliey  wished  metochiso.  ■  .   .   .  "■  I  knew,' 
he  s;iys,  'no  system,  no  methisl,  no  art  but  that 
"Inch  resteil  on  llic  simple  c.mseiiuences  of  tie' 
linn  belief  of   the  children  in  my  love  towards 
llieni.    Iwisheil  toknownoother.'".  .  .  (Jradu.illy 
■  ■     I'estalozzi  advanced  to  the  main  principles  o"f 
UN  system  of  moral  .  lucation.  .  .  .  H,-says  — 
-Nature  develops  all   the   human   faciiliii'-s  bv 
I'ractice.  and  their  growth  depemls  im  their  exer- 
cise.     •  The  cinle  of  knowledge  commences  close 
around  n  man,  and  thence  extends  concentrically. ' 
■rofte  lint    the   f:iriiltics   ,.f  children   into    I'iic 
remote  paths  of  knowle<lge,  until  thev  have  L-ained 
strength  by  exercise  on  things  that  are  near  them. ' 
'  riiere  is  in  Nature  an  order  and  march  of  de- 
4U 


I': 


velopment.     If  you  illsturb  or  interfere  with  It, 
you  mar  the  peace  and  harmony  of  the  mind 
And  this  you  do,  if,  before  you  have  formed  the 
mind  by  the  progressive  knowledge  of  the  reali- 
ties of  life,  you  fling  it  into  the  labyrinth  of 
"IT'*' ""''  '""■"-'  ""'"'  "'e  l>«sisof  developmect ' 
•  The  artiflcial  march  of  the  onlinary  school   an- 
ticipating the  order  of  Nature,  which  pr<K'et.ds 
without  anxiety  and  without  haste,  inverts  this 
order  by  placing  words  first,  and  thus  secures  a 
deceitful  appearance  of  success  at  the  expense  of 
natural  and  safe  development.'     In  these  few 
sentences  we  recognis.;  all  that  is  most  charac- 
tenstic  m  the  eihuational  principles  of  Pesta- 
lozzi.   ...  To  set  the  intenectiial  naehinerv  in 
motion  — to  make  it  work,  and  keep  it  working; 
that  was  the  sole  object  at  whi<  h  he  aimed;  of 
all  the  rest  he  toeik  litth'  account.  ...   lie  re- 
lied u|Kai  a  principle  which  must  be  insisted  on 
as  cardinal  and  ess<'ntial  in  education     He  secured 
Ihe  thorough  interest  of  ids  pupils  in  the  lesson, 
and  mainly  through  their  own  direct  share  in  it 
.  .      Observati..n,      .   .  according  to  Pestalozzi 
(and  Bacon  had  said  the  .same  thing  iM'forc  him) 
IS  the  absolute  basis  of  all  knowledge,   aii<l  is 
therefore  the  prinii'  ai^c^nt  in  .  lementarv  educa- 
tion.    It  IS  ;:rouiid  this  theory,  as  a  centre  of 
i.'mvity,  that  Pestalozzi's  system  revolves."— J 
I'mviic,    /.,rt\  ,,i,   t/„i  I/i,t.  „f  t:.:-ii;ttwu.  Let.  ft 
— •■  Uuiiiig  the  short   period,  not  ..'"re  than  a 
year,    which   Pestalozzi   sp.  nt  among   the  chil- 
dren at  Slanz.   lie  S(tilfd  th-  main  features  of 
the   Pestalozzian   system.      .-iickiM -.s  broke  out 
ani'Mi;  the  children,  and  th(    wear  and  tear  was 
t.M,  great  even  for  Pestalozzi.     lie  would  probably 
have  sunk  under  his. iroits  it  tlie  Kreiich.  pres,sed 
by   the   Austrians,    luxl   n.t  enti're<l   Stanz     in 
.laniiary.   17111),  and  taken  part  of  the   L" rsuline 
(  onv.'iit  for  a  miliiary  hospital.     Peslahizzi  was 
Ilierefnn-,  ..lili-ud  to  break  up  the  .school,  and  he 
himself  Willi  to  a  medicinal  spring'  on  theOurnl- 
.gcl    in    the   Canton  Bern.  .   .   .  He  came  down 
from   the   Giiniii:el.  and  bigan  to  leach  in  the 
primary  sclii«i|s  li.  e.,  schc.ls  f,.r  children  from 
f-   If  to  eight  viarsoliDof  liurgdorf,  the  second 
t.iwn  in  the  (anion.      Here  the  director  was  jeal- 
ous of  him,  and  he  met  witli  much  i.pposiiion. 
.   .   .   Inlessthana  yca.-Pcsialozzi  lrf(  ll.is.schooi 
in  bad  heahli,  and  joined  Kriisi  in  opi  nin.'anew 
school  in  Biir-dorf  Casilr.  for  which  he  after- 
ward (I  so-Ji  ohiaincd  (Jin.Tiimeiit  aid.     Here  he 
"  isassislrd  in  carrying  out  his  system  by  Krllsl, 
Tolilcr,  and  Blu-s.     He  now  eiiil,. idled"  the  re- 
sults of  his  experience  in  a  work  wiiich  has  ob- 
tained great  cclelirily  — •  How  (icrtriide  Teaches 
lier  t'hil.lrcii '  [als,>  published  in  Kiiirlaml  under 
the  tiilc  of  •l.iuiiard  and  Gertrudc'J.     In  1W)3 
Pestalo/zi.   tor  once  in  his  life  a  successful  and 
popular  man.  was  elected  a  member  of  a  deputa- 
tion sent  by  tlic  .Swiss  people  to  Paris.     (In  the 
rest.irali.in  of  the  Cantons  in  1S04,  the  Castle  of 
Burt'dorf  was  again  oecu]iied  by  one  of  the  chief 
miiLi^lratcs,  and  Pestalozzi  and'hisestjiblishment 
were  moved  to  ilu-  .'\louasiery  of  Biichsee.     Here 
Hie  teacliers  gave  the  priniipal  direction  to  an- 
other, the  since  celebnited  Kelleiibunr.  '  not  with- 
out my  consent,'  says  Pestalozzi,   •  but  to  my 
profound  mortification.'    He  therefore  sixin  ac- 
<epted    an    invitjition   from   the   inhahitaiita  of 
Yverdun  lo  open  an  insiitution  tliere,  .and  within 
a  twelvemonth  he  was  followed  by  his  old  assist- 
ants, who  had  found  government  by  Felleiiburg 
less  to  their  taste  than  uo-govemmenl  bv  Pesta- 


l\% 


roo 


EDUCATION. 


nuHtpMr  1 

tion  if  Woman. 


BDUCATIOK. 


loui.  The  Treidun  Institute  had  »oon  a  world- 
wide reputation.  PestalozizUn  teachers  went 
from  It  to  Madrid,  to  Nap),  to  St.  Petereburg. 
Elnn  and  phlloaophets  Jolneil  In  doing  It  honor. 
But,  ai  Pestalozzi  hlnuelf  has  testified,  these 
praises  were  but  as  a  laun-l-wreatb  encircling  a 
skull.  The  life  of  the  PestaloMlan  Institutions 
had  been  the  love  which  the  old  nuin  had  Infused 
Into  all  the  members,  teachers  as  well  as  chil- 
dren; but  this  life  was  wanting  at  Yverdun. 
The  establishmont  was  much  too  Targe  to  be  car- 
ried on  successfully  without  more  method  and 
discipline  than  Pestalozzi,  remarkable,  as  he 
himself  says,  for  uis  '  uorivaUed  Incapacity  to 
govern,"  was  master  of.  The  assistants  began 
each  to  take  his  own  line,  and  even  the  outward 
show  of  unity  was  soon  at  an  end.  .  .  .  Thus 
thf  sun  went  down  In  clouds,  and  the  old  man, 
when  he  died  at  the  age  of  eighty.  In  1827,  had 
seen  the  apparent  failure  of  all  his  tolls.  He  had 
not,  however,  falleil  In  reality.  It  has  been  said 
of  him  that  his  true  fortune  was  U)  educate  Ideas, 
not  children,  and  when  twenty  years  later  the 
centenary  of  his  birth  was  celebrated  by  school- 
masters, not  only  In  bis  native  country,  but 
throughout  Germany,  It  was  found  that  Pesta- 
lozzlan  Ideas  had  Iwen  sown,  and  were  bearing 
fruit,  over  the  greater  part  of  central  Europe. 
— R  H.  Quick,  S$mgt  on  Bdueational  Brformen, 
eh.  S.  ^     ^ 

A.  D.  1804-1B91.— Co-educatioa  and  the 
Hirher  Education  of  Women  in  the  United 
States.— "  When  to  a  few  lUring  minds  the  con- 
viction came  that  education  was  a  right  of  per- 
sonality rather  than  of  sex,  and  when  there  was 
added  to  this  growing  sentiment  the  pressing  de- 
mand for  educated  women  as  teachers  and  as 
leaders  in  philanthropy,  the  simplest  means  of 
€'<i'iipplnK  women  with  the  needful  preparation 
was  found  in  the  existing  schools  and  colleges. 
...  In  nearly  every  StaU-  west  of  the  Alli-gha- 
nles,  '  Universities  had  Uva  founde<l  by  the 
voluntary  tax  of  the  whole  population.  Con- 
nectwl  with  all  the  more  powerful  religious  de- 
nominations were  »clii«>U  and  colleges  which 
called  upon  their  adherent*  for  glft-s  and  students. 
These  democratic  institutions  had  the  vigor  of 
youth.  an<l  were  amliillou.H  and  struggling. 
'Why.'asktil  tlie  practical  men  ol  ailuirs  who 
controlled  them,  'aliould  not  our  daughters  go 
on  with  our  sons  from  the  public  sch(M)l»  U)  the 
university  which  wo  are  sarrificing  to  equip  and 
maintain  t '  It  is  not  strange  that  with  this  and 
much  more  practical  reasoning  of  a  similar  kinil, 
CO  e<tucation  was  established  In  some  colleges  at 
their  Iwglnnlng,  in  others  after  dclwte,  and  by  a 
railical  change  in  p<illey.  When  once  the  chiv- 
alrous desire  was  aroused  to  give  girls  as  good 
an  eilucallim  as  their  brothers.  Western  men  car- 
rieil  out  the  principle  unflinchingly.  From  the 
kindergarten  Ut  thv  preparation  for  the  doctorate 
of  philosophy,  e<liicatioimloii|)ortunitles  are  now 
practtrally  alike  for  men  and  women.  The  total 
numlu'r  of  tuUeges  of  arts  and  sciences  emp<iw- 
ered  by  law  to  give  degn«s,  reporting  to  Wash- 
ington In  IHHri,  was  three  hundred  and  eighty- 
nine.  Of  these,  twohundredand  thirty -s<'ven.  or 
nearly  two-ttdrds,  were  co  etiucationsf.  Among 
them  are  nearly  all  the  HtatA  unlvenitles,  and 
nearly  all  the  colleges  under  the  patronage  of 
the  ProU-aiaul  aevU.  ttillicrU)  1  havo  gpi.kea  as 
If  co-education  were  a  Western  movement ;  and 
In  the  West  It  oerUlnly  has  bait  greater  cumncy 


than  elsewhere.    But  it  originated,  at  least  so 
far  as  concema  superior  secondary  training,  hi 
Maaaachuietts.   Bradford  Academy,  chartered  In 
1804,  is  the  oldeat  incorponted  Institution  in  the 
country  to  which  boys  and  girls  were  from  the 
flnt  admitted ;  but  It  closed  ita  department  for 
boys  in  1888.  three  yean  after  the  foundation  of 
co-educational    Oberlln,  and  in  the  very  year 
when  Mount  Holyoke  was  opened  by  Mary  Lyon, 
In  the  Urge  hope  of  doing  for  young  women  what 
Harvard  ba<l  been  fcunded  to  do  for  young  men 
Just  two  hundred  yeara  before.     Ipswich  and 
Abbot  Academies  in  Hassachusetta  had  already 
been  chartered  to  educate  girls  alone.    It  has 
been  the  dominant  sentiment  in  the  East  thav 
boys  and  giris  should  be  educated  separaU'ly. 
The  older,  more  generously  endowed,  more  eon- 
servative  seata  of  learning,   inheriting  the  rom- 
plicatlonsof  the  dormitory  system,  have  remained 
closed  to  women.  ...  In  the  short  period  of  the 
twenty  years  after  the  war  the  four  women's 
colleges  which  are  the  richest  In  endowments  and 
studenta  of  any  In  the  world  were  founded  and 
set  In  motion.     These  colleges  —  Vassar,  o|H'ned 
In  1885,  Wellesley  and  Smith  hi  1875,  and  Hryn 
Mawr  in  1885  — have  received  in  gifta  of  every 
kind  about  $6,000,000,  and  are  educating  nearly 
two  thousand  students.    For  the  whole  country 
the  Commissioner  of  Education  reporta  two  hun- 
dred and  seven  institutions  for  the  superior  in- 
struction of  women,  with  more  than  twenty-flve 
thouaand  studenta.    But  these  resources  pn)vtil 
inadequate.    There  came  an  Increasing  demand, 
especially  from  teachera,   for  e<lucation  of  all 
sorU.  ...  In  an  attempt  to  meet  a  demand  of 
this  sort  the  Harvard  Annex  began  tw-lve  years 
ago  [In  1879]  to  provide  a  few  women  with  in- 
struction from  members  of  the  HarvanI  faculty. 
.  .  .  Barnard  College  In  New  York  Is  an  annex 
of  Columbia  only  In'  a  sense,  for  not  all  her  in 
struction  Is  given  by  Columbia's  tj^aching  fonf. 
though  Columbia  will  confer  degni'S  uimmi  her 
graduates.     The  new  woman's  college  at  Clcvr- 
land  sustains  temporarily  the  same  relations  to 
Adelbert  College,  though  to  a  still  greater  extent 
she  provides  indepenilent  Instruction,"— A.  R 
Palmer,    Rmea    of    tht  Higher    Rtuailion    nf 
Wimun  ( Woman  and  th*  Higher  BtuAiU.m.  pp. 
105-137).- "The  Cleveland  College  f-  •  Women, 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  was  first  oiiened  for  instruction 
in  1888  as  a  department  of  Western  Heserve  lint- 
veralty.     At  the  same  time  the  trustees  of  the 
university  dechled  to  receive   no  more  women 
into  Adelbert  College.     That  the  success  of  the 
new   school  might  lie  assured,    the  faculty  of 
Adelbert  College  genero\i«ly  offered  tliiir iiTvires 
for  a  U'rm  of  years  as  instrurtora.     Durinit  the 
flrat  year  twenty  three  young  women  wirr  ml 
mitu-<l,  but  two  of  whom  were  In  the  n'gulsr 
courses.    During  188»-90 the  number  of  slmlinU 
imreased  to  thirty  eight.  ...  In   18H7  Kvilyn 
College,  an  Institution  for  women,  was  .iixiied 
at  Princeton,    N.   J.     lU  location  at  this  place 
gives  the  institution  very  great  advantagi'M.  iiias^ 
much  as  the  use  of  the  libraries  and  museums  of 
the  College  of  New  Jersey,  popularly  known  as 
I»rinceUm  College,  are  granUtl  Ui  the  sluilrnts.' 
—  U.  H.  Coram  r  of  Education,  /fejiwrf,  ix^v  W), 
».  a,  p.  744— 'The  latest  report  of  the  IniiH 
States  Commissioner  of  Education  contahis  over 
iwo  hundred  iastiluliuiia  tvf  thr  5'!p*=Hi-.r  rs.uj-ii^ 
tion  of  women.    The  list  Includes  colleges  and 
teminariei  sntltled  lu  confer  degrees,  and  a  f«« 


770 


EDUCATION. 


«ViMM<mdM< 
KUuUrgarttH. 


IDCCATIOIT. 


■emlnsriM,  whote  work  is  of  equal  merit,  which 
do  not  rive  degreea.  Of  then  more  than  two 
bondred  inititutions  for  the  education  of  women 
eicludveljr.  onlv  47  are  situated  within  [western 
states].  ...  Of  these  47,  but  80  are  chartered 
with  autliority  to  confer  degrees.  .  .  .  The  ex- 
tent to  which  the  higher  education  of  women  is 
in  tite  West  identified  with  co-education,  can  be 
seen  by  comparing  the  two  statements  above 
given.  Of  the  total  813  higher  institutions  re- 
ceiving women,  and  of  the  total  198  such  institu- 
tions which  confer  the  regular  degrees  in  arts, 
science,  and  letters,  upon  their  graduates,  165  are 
oo-educational.  .  .  .  Among  colleges  character- 
ized from  birth  by  a  liberal  and  progressive 
spirit  may  be  mentioned  'The  Cincinnati  Wes- 
leyan  Woman's  College.'  This  institution  was 
chartered  in  1842,  and  claims  to  be  '  the  first  lib- 
eral collegiate  institution  in  the  world  for  the 
exclusive  education  of  women. ' .  .  .  The  West 
is  committed  to  coeducation,  excepting  only  the 
Roman  Catholic,  the  Lutheran,  and  the  Protest- 
ant Episcopal  sects,— which  are  not  yet,  as 
sects,  committed  to  the  collegiate  education  of 
women  at  all, —  and  the  Presbyterian  sect,  whose 
support,  in  the  West,  of  14  co-educational  col- 
leges against  4  for  the  separate  education  of 
young  men,  almost  commits  it  to  the  co-educa- 
tional idea.  ...  In  1853,  Antioch  College  was 
opened  at  Yellow  Springs,  O.  It  was  the  first 
endeavor  In  the  West  to  found  a  college  under 
Christian  but  non-sectarian  auspices.  Its  presi- 
dent, Horace  Mann,  wrote  of  it:  'Antiorh  Is 
now  the  onlv  first-class  college  In  all  the  West 
that  is  really  an  unneruriau  institution. ' .  .  . 
Antioch  was  from  the  first  avowedly  coeduca- 
tionaL"— M.  W.  Sewall,  Biiuation  of  Women 
in  the  WetCern  Statt§  {Woman'i  Work  in  Am., 
pp.  61-70)— "Most  i)eople  would  probably  be 
ready  to  say  that  eici-nt  for  the  newly  fiiumled 
Woman's  College  in  Baltimore  and  Tulane  Uni- 
versity [Sute  university  of  Louisiana],  the  col- 
legiate txiucation  of  women  does  not  exist  in  the 
South.  But  ns  matter  of  fact,  there  are  no  leas 
than  one  hundred  and  fiftv  institutions  in  the 
South  which  are  authorizeil  by  the  Legislatures 
of  their  respw'tlve  8taU'S  to  confer  the  regular 
college  degn-es  upon  women.  Of  tliese,  forty- 
one  are  co-etiueational,  eighty -eight  are  for  women 
alone,  and  twenty-one  are  for  colored  persons  of 
both  sexes.  The  bureau  of  education  malies  no 
attempt  to  go  buliiud  the  venitct  of  the  Wtale 
Legislatures.  l)ut  on  looking  over  the  catalogues 
of  all  these  institutions  It  is,  as  might  have  been 
expected,  easy  to  sec  that  the  great  majority  of 
them  are  not  in  any  degree  colleges,  in  the  or- 
dinary sense  of  the  wonl  Not  a  single  one  of 
the  so-called  female  colleges  pn'sents  a  real  col- 
lege course,  and  many  of  the  ro  v<lui-allonal  ecij. 
Ieg<!s  are  colleges  only  in  name.  "—C.  L,  franklin. 
Muialiun  nf  Wnmin  in  tlu  SmttKern  StiXU* 
{Woman'*  Work  in  Am.,  ftp.  S3-iM). 

A.  D.  lli«-il9a.-Fro<b«l  and  tha  Kinder- 
f«rttn.— "F^^brl  (Krii-drich  Wllhelm  August) 
was  bom  April  81,  1788.  at  OIierweissliaiTi,  In 
the  prinrlpalltv  of  Srhwarsburg-lludolaUiit 
Ills  mother  ilird  when  he  was  so  young  'i»t  he 
never  even  rememlirrtil  her;  ami  he  was  left  to 
the  care  '  an  ignorant  maid-of  all-work,  who 
slinplv  ^.ivided  forhlslKxIlly  wants.  ,  .  .  Not 
uotll  h?  was  trn  yrarr  trf  igr:  tlhl  be  fctxirr  the 
•Ughtatt  regular  instruction.  He  was  then  sent  to 
tCBoij,  lo  ao  uncle  who  llvtd  la  tb 


the  Ml(hbor- 


hood.  ...  He  pronounced  the  boy  to  be  Idle 
(which,  from  his  point  of  view,  was  quite  true) 
and  lazy  (which  certainly  was  not  true)  —  a  boy, 
in  short,  that  you  could  do  nothing  with.  .  .  . 
It  was  necessary  for  him  to  earn  hb  bread,  aiid 
we  next  find  him  a  sort  of  apprentice  to  a  wooda- 
man  in  the  great  Thuringian  forest.  Here,  as  he 
afterward  tells  us,  he  lived  some  years  in  cordial 
intercourse  with  nature  and  mathematics,  learn- 
ing even  then,  though  unconsciously,  from  the 
teaching  he  received,  how  to  teach  others.  .  .  . 
In  1801  he  went  to  the  University  of  Jena,  where 
he  attended  lectures  on  natural  history,  physics, 
and  mathematics;  but,  as  he  tells  us,  gahied  lit- 
tle from  them.  .  .  .  This  .  .  ,  was  put  an  end 
to  by  the  failure  of  means  to  sUy  at  the  Univer- 
sity, For  the  next  few  years  he  tried  various 
occupations,  .  .  ,  While  engaged  in  an  arehl- 
tecfs  oBlce  at  Frankfort,  he  formed  an  acquaint- 
ance witU  the  Rector  of  the  Model  School,  a  man 
named  Gruner,  Uruner  saw  the  capabilities  of 
Frteliel,  and  detected  also  his  entire  want  of  in- 
ten-st  in  the  work  that  he  was  doing ;  and  one 
day  suddenly  said  to  him :  '  Give  up  your  archi- 
tect's  business;  you  will  do  nothing  at  it.  Be  a 
teacher,  W  e  want  one  now  In  the  school ;  you 
shall  have  the  place, '  This  was  the  turning  point 
in  FrcEhcl's  life.  He  accepted  the  engagement, 
began  work  at  once,  and  tells  us  that  the  first 
time  he  found  himself  in  the  midst  of  a  class  of 
30  or  40  boys,  he  felt  that  he  was  in  the  element 
that  he  had  iniaae<i  so  long— 'the  fish  was  in  the 
water'  He  was  inexpresisibly  happy.  ...  In  a 
calmer  mood  he  severely  questioned  himself  as 
to  the  means  by  which  he  was  to  satisfy  the  de- 
mands of  his  new  ptmition.  About  this  time  he 
met  Willi  some  of  PeHtalo7.zi's  writings,  which 
BO  deeply  impressed  him  that  ho  deU-rmincd  to 

fo  to  Vvcniun  and  study  Pestalozzl  on  the  spot. 
Ic  accomplished  hi.s  purpose,  and  lived  and 
worked  for  two  years  with  PestalozzI,  His  ex- 
p<-rience  at  Yveniun  impresseti  him  with  the 
conviction  that  the  science  of  e<lucation  had  still 
to  draw  out  fmm  Pestalozzi'a  system  those  fun- 
danunul  principles  which  Pestalozzi  himself  did 
not  comprehend.  'And  therefore, '  savs  Schmidt, 
•  this  gi'nial  disciple  of  Pestalozzi  supplemented 
lil,H  sysu-m  by  advancing  from  the  point  which 
Pestalozzi  hail  reached  through  pressure  fnim 
without,  to  the  Innermost  coiiceptidii  of  man, 
and  arriving  at  the  tliouglit  of  the  true  devi  l.p- 
nienl  and  culture  of  mankind.',  ,  .  Ills  cuu.;»- 
tlonal  career  commence<l  Novenilier  13th,  1816, 
In  Urelsheim.  a  little  village  near  Stailtllm,  in 
Thuringia;  but  In  1817,  when  his  PesUlozzlan 
friend,  Mlddemlorf,  Joined  him  .  .  .  the  sch(M)l 
was  trannferriKl  to  the  iH'autiful  village  of  Kelt- 
hail,  near  Kuilolstadt.  which  may  lie  consiilere<t 
OS  hU  chief  stjiriingplacv,  ,  ,  ,  lisngenthal,  an- 
other IVstalozzian,  aasoclate<l  himself  with  them, 
ami  they  comniemiHl  building  a  house.  "The 
numlrr  of  pupils  ros<' to  twelve  in  1818,  Then 
the  daughter  of  wsr  counselor  lIolTman  of  Ber- 
lin, from  enthusiasm  for  Fneliel's  educational 
ideas,  lieeame  his  wife.  She  had  a  considerable 
dowry,  which,  together  with  the  accession  of 
KnrlK'i's  I'Ider  brother.  Increased  the  funds  and 
welfare  of  the  M-hool,  In  18;lt  he  was  Invited 
by  the  comiioser,  Srhnyder  von  Wartenare.  to 
erect  a  similar  garden  on  his  estate,  near  the  take 
nf  Scmpach,  in  the  canton  Lazcni.  U  was  dons. 
Frabel  changed  bis  reatdence  the  next  year,  from 
Ketlbau  to  Switiertand,    In  18S4  the  govemmenl 


I 

11 


771 


BDUCATIOK. 


tfu  Xtodtrgarteit. 


EDUCATION. 


of  Bern  invited  him  to  untuige  a  training  courae 
for  teachers  in  Burgdorf.     In  1885  he  became 

Krincipal  of  the  orphan  asylum  in  Burgdorf,  but 
1 1R36  he  and  his  wife  wished  to  return  to  Ger- 
many. There  he  was  active  in  Berlin,  Keilhau, 
Blanlienburg.  Dresden,  Liebenstein  in  Thuringia, 
Hamburg,  (1849.)  and  Marienthal,  near  Lieben- 
stein, where  lie  livni  until  his  decease  in  1892, 
among  the  young  ladies,  whom  he  trained  as 
nurses  for  the  kindergarten,  and  the  little  chil- 
dren who  attc,..dcd  liia  schcml." — 11.  Barnard,  «f. 
PctjtfTton  Froebel't  KindergarUn:  Memoir. — "The 
child  thinks  only  through  symbols.  In  other 
wonls,  it  explains  all  it  sees  not  by  the  recorded 
experience  of  others,  as  does  an  adult,  but  by 
marehnline  and  comparing  its  own  concept  or 
symbol  of  what  It  has  itsilf  seen.  Ita  sole  ac- 
tivity is  play.  'The  school  begins  with  teach- 
ing the  conventionalities  of  intelligence.  Froet)cl 
would  have  the  younger  children  receive  a  sym- 
bolic education  in  plays,  games,  and  occupations 
which  symlKilize  the  primitive  arts  of  man.'  For 
this  purpose,  the  child  is  led  through  a  scries  of 
primitive  occupations  in  plaiting,  weaving,  and 
modeling,  through  games  and  dancea,whicli  bring 
into  play  all  the  social  relations,  and  through 
songs  and  the  simple  use  of  number,  form  and 
language.  The  'gifts'  all  play  their  manifold 
purpose,  inspiring  the  child,  awakening  Its  in- 
terest, leading  the  Individual  along  the  path  the 
race  has  trod,  and  teaching  social  self-control. 
The  system  has  its  palpable  dangers.  The  bet- 
ter and  more  Intricate  the  to<il,  the  more  skill 
needed  111  Its  safe  use.  .  .  .  The  klmlercartcn 
renuins  triiined  hands.  With  trivial  teachers 
its  ni<ilioil»  may  easily  degcnenite  Into  mere 
nmustment,  and  thwart  "all  tendency  to  attention, 
anplicatlon,  or  Industry.  Vnhmblc  as  It  Is  In  Its 
hints  for  the  ciiri'  nn(l  development  of  children, 
it.i  L'liy  round  iiiedH  to  be  ballasted  with  the  pur- 
pose and  theory  upperniiwt  in  KhwIk'I's  mind 
when  lie  opened  Ills  first  selnsil  in  a  Oemian 
p<iisnnl  vllliiL'e.  ilowii  wliose  nmln  stri'et  a  brook 
tuinlileil,  and  tliro>i).'h  \vIioki>  lanes  the  hnllierclier 
still  \viilk(sl  liy  nli;lit  and  sani;  the  hours.  It  is 
Idle  to  suppose  tliut  FMelsi  foundeil  a  iMTfeet 
systi'ni.  or  to  insist  on  all  the  di'lnils  of  the  pro 
feasloiml  kiniliTrfartner s  creed  Here  as  else- 
where, and  m!  Tetline,  it  has  taken  only  forty 
years  from  tlie  founder's  deatli  for  f.iith  to  de 
generate  into  relluion  and  wet.  Hut  the  icnlril 
purpost'  lie  had  in  view  must  tn'  stendllv  main 
tained.  lie  sou^'lit  his  ends  thniiigh  pluy.  and 
not  llirouKh  work  It  i^  as  dangerous  for  this 
metlioil  to  hanlen  Ini"  m  appMiuh  to  the  pri 
niary  seliisil  as  It  Is  fnr  it  to  soften  Into  a  riot  of 
mlsnile.  and  lax  oliservanee  iif  nriler.  .   Swil 

zerlaml.  then  tlie  only  npiihlii'  In  Kimipe.  was 
the  tirsi  eciiiiilry  to'  adopt  Fnu'liel's  liielliod, 
thoiiilh  in  sniiie  Swiss  towns  the  kindergarten  is 
still  »u'  ■  r'.il  !iy  priviiti'  as.siH'latlons  Kmnee, 
•nolle  lilic,  has  more  ililldren  iH/iniilntr 

srhool  an  nilaptation  of  hVis'lol  \\\nn  all 

the  rest  I  world  put  foi;ither     It  was  Knie- 

N'i's  own  ..pinion  that  'the  spirir  of  American 
natioii.illty  was  tlie  only  one  li  lie  worlil  with 
which  his  nietlioil  was  in  coinp^  i'  harmony,  ami 
to  which  its  legiiininte  inatitiilioiis  would  pnsent 
no  Imrriers. '  The  ngun-s  given  Im'Iow  of  the 
growth  of  the  kinileritarta'n  In  \\\\*  country  nri' 
the  IrtTTri    [n«-!li'ic  jTf-.TTif  nt  lllr  tfiiUi  of  Kr-rr-'n-i'-: 

premHrnt  assertion.  .  In  1M70  ihi're  were  in 
this  country  only  live  kindergarten  scliuoN,  ami 


In  1873  the  National  Education  Association  at  its 
Boston  meeting  appointed  a  committee  whi'^h 
reported  a  year  later  recommending  the  system. 
Between  1870  and  1873,  experimental  kinder- 
gartens were  established  in  Boston,  Cleveland,  and 
St.  Louis,  public  attention  was  enlisted  by  the 
efforts  of  Miss  Elizabeth  Palmer  Pealiody,  the 
most  important  worker  in  the  early  history  of 
the  kindergarten  in  this  country,  and  the  system 
iH'gan  a  rapid  growth.  Taking  private  and  piili- 
11c  kindergartens  together,  the  advance  of  the 
system  hai  displayed  this  most  rapid  progress, 
isrs         two         ifws  i«!)i-2 

Schools 95  23-i  413  l.iiui 

Teachers 216  B24  Wfi  VHi 

Pupils 2,809       8,871     18,781        !50,4-2;i 

Down  to  1880,  these  figures,  outside  of  fit.  Louis. 
R'late  almost  altogether  to  private  schools  Hy 
1883  the  public  kindergartens  were  ni.i  ovira 
fifth  In  number  of  the  schools,  and  held  nut  over 
a  fourth  of  the  pupils.  In  the  figures  last  given 
in  this  table  there  are  724  private  kinderpiriiiis 
with  1,517  teachers  and  29.3.57  pupils,  and  T', 
public  kindergartens  with  7'25  teachers  and 'Jl.mW 
pupils,  so  that  the  latter  have  now  27  per  cent,  of 
the  schools.  88  p<'r  cent,  of  the  teachers,  and  42 
IKT  cent,  of  the  pupils.  .  .  .  Vet  great  as  is  tliis 
advance,  the  kimiergarti'n  as  yet  plays  but  an 
infinitesimal  part  in  our  educational  systi'in  as  a 
whole.  ...  Of  the  sixteen  Anieriean  cities  with 
a  populatkmof  over  '2(N>.(HH)  In  1890.  only  f.air- 
Philadeliihia,  Boston,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Louis 
—  have  incorponited  the  kindergarten  on  iiny 
large  scale  in  their  pulillc-schisil  systems.  Fmir 
more  —  New  York,  Clilciig<i,  Bnsiklyn,  and  Hnl 
falo  —  have  kindergarten  associations  or;.'aiii7.ni 
to  introduce  the  new  method  as  a  part  of  free 
public  education."— T.  Williams,  Tlie  h'in'l,r- 
giirlen  Man  1114' iit (The  Cfiituri/,  J,in.,  WW)). 

A.  D.  1865-1883.— The  Higher  Education  of 
Women  in  England. — The  movement  in  V.m: 
land  to  secure  a  higher  isiucalion  for  wmiien 
dates  from  18H.';.  "In  that  year  a  Koyal  Coin 
missiim  was  appointed  to  inquire  Into  and  n  pnrt 
on  the  endowed  gramnmr  scIhmiIs  of  Kiil'1:oii1 
and  Wales,  and  on  what  Is  calli'd  'see"ncl:o\ 
educati(>n  generally.  S<'Veral  ladles  who  wen- 
alreadv  alive  to  the  defirleneit>H  In  the  e'liiealioii 
of  their  own  si'X,  inemoriall/.ed  this  ('oiiiniisNi,<a 
to  extend  tlie  scope  of  its  imiiiiry  lo  ;;lih' 
sclusils.  and  the  t'oininlsslnii  laklii),'  n  hat  was 
then  thoiiKlit  i|uite  a  Uild  hle|>.  eoiwiiie'l 
to  do  so.  .  .  One  of  the  (loliits  liroii.-lii  <iui 
was  tile  ahstiiee  of  any  insliliitiuiis  doiiu'  '  1 
WMiiieii  wliat  the  universities  did  fur  men,  tiii.l 
the  eoii«niieiil  dillhiilly  in  whieli  «<iin(  11 -Ilbi 
of  ohtaining  the  highest  kind  of  i<l<i<:iiiun 
-n  dlllleiilty  which  told  on  iiirls'  »ilii«'li  hy 
iiiakini;  it  b.'inl  for  them  to  prisnre  tlii)ri'iiL;lily 
coni|Htent  nilstnsws.  This  led  in  tln'  euiir-e  if 
the  next  year  or  two  —  the  report  nf  'he  Ccnn 
mission  having  iH'cn  pulillshed  In  IWH  -In  ili'' 
establishment  of  a  rolleite  for  women,  wliii  h  «  i» 
first  placed  111  llitehhi.  a  town  on  tin'  tit.  a 
Xorllieni  llailway.  Is'twien  Lonilon  ami  t'on 
bridge,  and  In  a  little  while,  wlnii  neaiiv  hil 
Issn  collected  siitllrUnt  fur  tlie  eni  tloimf  liiiilil 
Ings.  this  college  was  tliially  selthd  at  (lirtoii  1 
s|iot  about  twii  miles  front  CaniliridKe,  whiri" 
It  takes  the  uaiiie  of  Olrton  College.  lu  pur 
t-~-  Wri-  !■•  pr-'V',-!-  f..r  •*•--!;■,<-•!  iSk'  a^w^-  -.^  -l-. 
IIIK  In  the  same  aiilijeets  as  men  reti-ive  in  I  iiii 
bridge  I'ulversity,  and  tlie  teachers  wen'  marly 


EDCCATION. 


Education  of  Women 
in  fhgbind. 


EDUCATION. 


kll  of  them  profeaaon  or  tuton  there,  men  in 
some  cages  of  high  eminence.  Meanwhile,  in 
Cambridge  itself,  a  system  of  day  classes  for 
women,  taught  by  University  teachers,  had  been 
created,  at  first  as  an  experiment  for  one  year 
only.  When  several  years  had  passed,  when"  the 
number  attending  had  increased,  and  it  was 
found  that  women  came  to  lodge  in  Cai.  '■ridge 
in  order  to  profit  by  these  lectures,  a  hou^c  was 
hired  in  which  to  receive  them,  ami  ultimately  a 
company  was  formed  and  a  building  erected  a 
little  way  out  of  Cambridge,  under  the  name  of 
Newnham  Hall,  to  which  the  lectures,  now 
mainly  designed  for  these  students  coming  from 
a  distance,  were  attached.  Tims,  at  about  the 
same  time,  though  from  somewhat  different  ori- 
gins, Girton  and  Newnham  came  into  Ix'ing  and 
began  their  cnursc  of  friendly  rivalry.  Uoth 
have  great  ly  developed  since  then.  Their  build- 
ings have  Immh  reiteatedly  enUtrged.  Their  num- 
bers have  ri.wn  steadily,  ...  In  Girton  the 
charge  for  lodging.  iKinrdand  instruction  islllmi 
per  annum,  in  Newnham  a  little  less.  The  life 
in  both  is  very  similar,  a  laily  being  plaecil  at 
the  head  as  resident  principal,  while  the  affairs 

are  managed  bv  a co littee  including  l>oth  niin 

ami  women.     The  lectures  are  delivered  partlv 
by  Cambriilge  men.  professors  in  the  Universitv. 
or  tutors  or  lectun'rs  in  8.>ine  of  the  colleges, 
partly  by  lailies.  who,  having  once  iM^en  studiiiLs 
them«'lves,  have  come  bark  as  teachers.     These 
IfK'tures  cover  all  the  subjects  reijidn'd  in  the 
degree  cxamiiialions  of  the  University ;  and  ul 
though  students  are  not  obliged  to  enter  them 
selves  f(.r  llitwe  examinations,  they  are  crKLiir- 
ageil  to  do  so.  and  do  mostly  set  the  examiii  ui.ms 
twfore  them  as  their  goal.     Originally  th.-  Uni 
Tcrsity  t(M)k  no  ollleial  ui>llee  of  the  wonuii  Mu 
dents,  and  their  being  examineil  by  the  n  irular 
decree  examiners  of  the  ^    'versilv  was  a  niallir 
of  pure  favor  on  the  part  of  tliixK'  gentlemen. 
...  At  last,   liowever,   some   examiiiirs   came 
Into  otllce  (for  the  examiners  are  cliauited  every 
two  ye.irs)  who  (Ii8appn)vtil  of  this  informal  e\ 
amiualion  of  the  women  eamlidales.  and  arionl 
Ingly  a  iin)po»id  was  made  to  the  I'Miversiiv  that 
it  slio\dd  formally  authorize  and  imiMise  on  llii' 
examiners  the  fiuietion  heretofori'  discharL'i  d  bv 
them  in  llii-ir    indiviclnal   capacity.     'Iliis  pni 
posid.  iifier  some  discussion  and  op|M)»iriiin,  was 
carried,  so  that  now  w.imen  may  enter  li..tii  for 
the  honor  exaniiiiallons  anil  the  pass  i  \amiiia 
lions  for  the  Inivirsliy  ihgret-  as  a  malt,  r  nf 
right.     Tlu  ir  mimes  do  not  ap|K'sr  in  the  ollli  iai 
lists  among  timsi'  of  the   nun.   but  sepamiilv. 
thiy  are.  liowever,  testeil  bv  tlie  same  (piesiiun 
paiKTS  and  jiidgnl  hy  the  same  stanilanl.   . 
Home  Oxfopl  graduates  ami  Heir  frienils.  stimu 
mliil  by  the  success  of  (iirloii  and   .Newnham. 
haxe  fouiideil  two  similar  inslilulions  In  Oxfinl 

one  of  whidi,    Kplsiopallan  and    iiid I    lliL'h 

I'hureli  in  its  proclivities,  is  called  Ijidy  .Xlur 
imt  Hall,  while  the  other,  in  eompllnienl  to 
the  lali'  Mrs  ,s..mervllle,  has  txiii  given  llie 
title  i.f  S..inervllU  Hal!  Tbes.-  establislimi  nn 
an'  eoudnetisl  on  much  the  same  lines  as  Hie  t«.i 
Cambridge   ■■.■Ueges  .In    the    Urge    t.nvm 

«l«re  new  ii.lleges  linve  lieen  latelv  founded  or 
courses  of  hclurm  i-slablished.  sueli  as  Mam  he» 
•"•r.    I.iver|MNil,    and    Ussls,    steps    are   iisiialU 

(.iknii.-i  prnviiif  i,.iiire.  f..i  w eu.  .   .       Wiiai 

Is  called  among  you  the  (piestlon  of  co-e<lu(aliun 
has  come  up  very  little  in    Enirland     All   the 


lectures  given  inside  the  walls  of  the  four  Eng- 
lish colleges  I  have  mentioned  are,  of  course, 
given  to  women  only,  the  colleges  being  lust  as 
exclusively  places  for  women  as  Trinity  and  St. 
Johns  are  places  for  men.  ...  At  this  moment 
the  principal  of  one  of  the  two  halls  of  which 
Newnham  consists  is  a  daughter  of  the  Prime 
Minister  [Miss  Helen  Glatistone],  while  her  pre- 
deces.sor  was  a  niece  of  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury. 
The  principal  of  Girton  is  a  niece  of  the  late 
Loni  Lawrence,  the  famous  Governor-General  of 
India.     Of  the  students  a  fair  proportion  belong 
to  tlie  wealthy  c1bs8<>s,  while  a  somewhat  larger 
proportion  mean  to  take  teaching  as  their  profes- 
sion."—f'/v-<//v/«inf/'f„„ife  EdHoition  in  Eng  {Xa- 
tiuii,  ,1'itnT,.  isjs3)._Sh',  also,  above,  8<'oti,\m> 
.xT;?:  '8*5-1893— Induitrtal  Education  in 
the  United  States.—-  In  IH6.5  .[ohn  B<iyntonof 
Templeton,  .Mass..  gave  *  100,000  for  the  endow- 
ment and  perpetual  support  of  a  Free  Institute 
for  the  yoiitli  of  Wor.  ester  Coimty,  Mass      He 
thus  explained  his  objwts:    'The  aim  of  this 
s<h(K)l  shall  ever  l)e  the  instruction  of  youth  in 
those  branches  of  education  not  usuallV  taught 
in  the  public  schisils,  which  arc  essential  and 
iM'st  adapted  to  train  tlie  voung  for  practical 
life';  es|K'eially  such  as  were  intending  to  be 
mediaiiics,    or  manufacturers,   or  farmers.     In 
furtherance  of  this  object,  ten  months  later,  in 
18tifl.  lelialHsl  Washburn  of  Worci'ster  gave  $i.5.- 
OIKI.  and  latcT  lllo.OiHI  niiire  to  erect,  iM|Uip,  and 
endow   a  iniwhine  shop  which    shoulil    iieconi- 
niiHlate  twenty  apprentices  and  a  so'lalilenumUr 
of  skilled  workmen  to  iiistriut  tin      ami  to  carrv 
on  the  shop  as  a  commercial  eslablislimint.    Thi- 
a|>pnnlii(  s  wen'  to  be  taught  the  use  of  tisils  in 
working  wikhI  anil  metals,  and  to  be  otherwise 
iiistrmted.  much  as  was  custJimarv  tlfty  years 
ago  for  boys  learning  a  trade.     Tile  Worcester 
Krie  Institute  was  o|M'neil  for  students  in  No- 
\emlsr.  isiw.  as  a  technical  sclii»)l  of  nls>ut  col- 
liiTe  grade,   and  the  usi' of  the  sliops  and  shop 
iii«lriiiti(m  was  limited  to  those  students  in  the 
course  of  mechanical  entrineerinir.     Thus  diil  the 
Worcester  SehiHil  uiidi  r  ilie  hadership  of  I'nsf. 
»'.  O.  Thompson  incorporate  toolinstructi.in  ami 
shop-practice   into   the   traiiiiii!;  of    meihaiiiial 
emrlneers,  ,  ,  .  In  the  Rime  \iar,  l'<(W,  Viitur 
Dilla-Vosinlrodine.l  into  the  (iii|iirial  Teehnieal 
leii^ineerlng)   .Sh.sil   at    .M.ise.ov    the     Kiisslan 
metliisl  of  class-iiisinictioii  in  the  uw-  of  tisils. 
.   ,   .   The  great  value  of  the  work  of  Deila-Vos 
lay  in  Hie  diseoverv  of  the  true  in,  iImkI  of  tooi- 
Instruction,   lor  wiiliuul  his  ilisioury  the  later 
steps  wiMild   have   Iseii  iiiii«>ssil>|e.      In    ih;ii_ 
under  the  diniiion  of  I'rof.  hohin.son  aiiil  I'rest 
J.   .M    On-irnry  of  the  iMivirsiiy  of  llliimls.  a 
wisiil  working  shop  was  added  id  the  appliances 
for  the  ( ourse  in  areliltei  lure,  niel  an  iron-work- 
liii.'  shop  to  the  eoiirsi'  ill  mechanical  enginwring 
in  ihai  institution.     In  IsTl,  the  ."Elevens  Idstr 
lute  of  llolsiken.  N.  .1..  miinlllcentlv  endiiwe<l 
by  1;  Iwiii  .\.  Stevens,  as  a  siIhhiI  of  niethanical 
engiiKi riug.  tilted  up  a  series  of  shops  for  the 
use  of  its  (•tiidiiits.     The  next  slen  birwanl  was 
taken  by  Washington  I  niversiiy  In  .S|    l.oids  in 
ppividing  for  all   its  enirineeriiig  slmhnls  tys- 
teniMiic  liistrui'ilon  In  Isitli  wissi  and  melnis      In 
\'*Vi.  a  large  shop  in  the  I'olyti'chnic  McIhsiI  was 
eiiuii.iM'd  with  Work  liemiies'.  two  U'-hes.  a  fiirge, 
a  irear  culler  and  ttiil  B«ts  ot  cariK'nters',  ma- 
cliiiiisis',  anil  r.iri;lng  tiH>ls    .  .  .  Tliiis  far  had 
»e  pMgressi-d  when  the  riilladelpliia  Exposition 


r?.-] 


EDUCATION. 


Iiid«t«riii<  AliHsaMm. 


EDUCATION. 


•f  187A  wu  opened.  None  of  ug  knew  anything 
of  the  MoKow  school,  or  of  the  one  in  Bohemia 
in  which  the  Runian  method  bad  been  adopted 
in  1874.  .  .  .  In  hi«  report  of  1876,  Prest.  J.  D. 
RunUe,  of  the  Maw.  Inititute  of  Technology, 
gare  a  full  exposition  of  the  theory  and  practice  of 
tool-instruction  of  Delia- Vos  as  exhibited  at  the 
Philadelphia  Exposition,  and  he  recommended 
that  wiuiout  delay  the  course  in  mechanical 
engineering  at  the  Institute  be  completed  by  the 
addition  of  a  series  of  Instruction  Shops.  The 
suggestion  was  acted  on,  and  in  the  spring  of 
1877  a  class  of  mechanical  engineering  students 
was  given  instruction  in  chipping  and  filing. 
.  .  .  The  St.  Louis  Manual  Training  School  was 
established  June  6,  1879.  It  embodied  hopes 
long  cherished  and  plans  long  formed.  For  the 
first  time  in  America  the  age  of  admission  to 
school-shops  was  reduced  to  fourteen  years  as  a 
minimum,  and  a  very  general  three-years'  course 
of  study  was  organized.  The  ordinance  by  which 
the  school  was  established  specified  its  objects 
In  very  general  terms: — 'Its  objects  shall  b«  In- 
struction in  mathematics,  drawing,  and  the  Eng- 
lish branches  of  a  high-school  course,  and  In- 
struction and  practice  in  the  use  of  tools.  The 
tool-instruction,  as  at  present  contemplated,  shall 
include  carpentry,  wood-turning,  puttern-mak- 
ing,  iron  clipping  and  filing,  forge- work,  brazing 
and  soldering,  the  use  of  machine-shop  tools,  and 
such  other  instruction  of  a  similar  character,  as 
It  may  be  deemed  advisable  to  add  to  the  fore- 
going from  time  to  time.  The  students  will 
divide  their  working  hours,  as  nearly  as  possible, 
equally  Iwtwecn  mental  and  manual  exercises.' 
.  .  .  the  Baltiino'-''  Manual  Training  School,  a 
public  schiKil,  oil  I.'  same  footing  as  the  high 
school,  wasopencd  .n  1888.  The  Chicago  Manual 
Training  School  e:  lablished  as  an  incorporated 
school  by  the  (Commercial  Club  of  that  city,  was 
opt'ne<l  in  January,  1884.  .  .  .  Manual  training 
was  intnxluced  into  the  high  school  of  Eau  Claire, 
Wisconsin,  in  1884.  The  '  Scott  Manual  Train- 
ing School '  was  organized  as  a  part  of  the  high 
school  uf  Toledo  in  18H4.  .  .  .  Manual  training 
was  introduced  Into  the  College  (high  school)  of 
the  City  of  New  York  in  1884.  The  Philadelphia 
Manual  Training  School,  a  public  high  school, 
wa»  opened  In  8epl»'inlM'r,  XHHU.  The  Omaha 
high  school  IntriMliiciHl  manual  training  In  188A. 
.  ,  .  Dr.  Ailler's  Worklngman's  8<'hiH>l  for  poor 
children  has  for  several  years  taught  manual 
training  to  the  very  lowest  grailes.  .  .  .  The 
Clevi'la  id  Manual  Training  School  was  Incorpo- 
rated In  IWt.t,  and  opeiie<i  In  connection  with  the 
city  high  school.  In  1884.  New  Haven,  which  bad 
for  some  time  encouraged  the  use  of  tools  by  the 
pupils  of  several  of  lis  grammar  schools.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1886.  opened  a  regular  shop  and  fur- 
nished systematic  Instruction  In  tool-work.  The 
school  Ixwrd  of  Chicago  added  manual  training 
to  the  course  of  the  '  West  Side  High  ScbooP 
In  Biptemhcr,  1886  "—C.  M.  WiKxiward,  TA* 
Mnniuil  Triiining  %*«<<.  ch.  1. — "Concerning 
the  manual'tnlnink  school  there  are  two  widelv 
different  views.  The  one  Insists  that  It  shall 
teach  no  trade,  but  the  rudiments  of  all  of  them . 
the  other  that  the  particular  Industries  mav 
pr<i|)erly  be  held  to  maintain  schools  to  recruit 
their  own  ranks.  The  lint  would  teach  the  use 
of  the  aid,  tbfi  saw,  tfao  plane,  the  iummrr,  tho 
square,  the  chisel,  and  the  file;  claiming  that 
'  the  graduate  from  such  a  course  at  the  end  of 


three  yean  is  within  from  one  to  three  months  of 
knowmg  quite  as  thoroughly  as  an  apprentice 
who  h^  served  seven  yeara  anv  one  of  the 
twenty  trades  to  which  he  may  choose  to  turn.' 
Of  this  class  are,  besides  most  of  those  already 
named,  the  Halsh  Ifanual  Training  School  of 
Denver;  thatof  Tulane  University,  New Orleiinsj 
the  Felix  Adier's  Worklngman's  School,  of  New 
York  City ;  and  the  School  of  Manual  Technol- 
ogy, Vanderbllt  University,  Nashville.  Among 
schools  of  the  second  class  are  some  Interesting 
institutions.  They  include  the  numerous  gcnenu 
and  special  trade-schools  for  boys,  instruction  in 
the  manifold  phases  of  domestic  economy  for 
girls,  and  the  yet  small  but  rapidly  growing  class 
of  industries  open  alike  to  both.  Sewing  Is 
taught  In  public  or  private  schools  in  Baltimore, 
Boston,  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  New  York,  Phila- 
delphia, Providence,  St.  Louis,  and  atmut  a  dozen 
other  cities,  besides  in  a  number  of  special  In- 
stitutions. Cooking-schools  are  no  longer  a 
novelty  in  half  as  many  of  the  larger  cities,  since 
their  mtroductlon  Into  New  Y'ork  city  in  1876. 
Printing  may  be  learned  In  the  Kansas  Agricul- 
tural College;  Cooper  Union,  New  York;  Olrard 
College,  I%lladelphia,  and  elsewhere.  Teleg- 
raphy, stenognpby,  wooii-cngraving,  varinm 
kinds  of  smithing,  and  carpentry,  have,  especinlly 
the  last  two,  numerous  representatives.  The 
New  York  Kitchen  Garden,  for  the  instruction 
of  children  in  the  work  of  the  household,  is  an  in- 
teresting modification  of  the  Kindergarten  along 
the  Industrial  line.  For  young  ladies,  the  Eliza- 
beth Aull  Seminary,  Lexington,  Missouri.  Is  a 
school  of  home-work.  In  which  'are  practically 
taught  the  mysteries  of  the  kitchen  and  laundry,' 
and  upon  whose  graduates  is  conferred  the  decree 
of  '  Mistress  of  1  lome-  Work. '  The  Lasell  Semin- 
ary at  Aubumdale,  Massachusetts,  also  has 
recently  (1885)  undertaken  a  similar  but  more 
comprehensive  experiment.  Including  lessons  ami 
lectures  in  anatomy  and  physiology,  with  hygiene 
and  sanitation,  the  principles  of  common  law  by 
an  eminent  attorney.  Instruct  ion  and  practiie  in 
the  arts  of  domestic  life,  the  principles  of  dress, 
artistic  house-fumlshing,  healthy  homes,  ami 
ciNiklng.  Of  training  schools  for  nurses  there 
are  thirty-one.  ...  Of  schools  of  a  different 
character  still,  there  have  been  or  are  the  Carris)^ 
Builder's  Apprenticeship  School,  New  York; 
those  of  Hoe  A  Co.,  printing-press  manufsc- 
turen;  and  Tiffany  Jk  Co.,  jewelers;  ami  the 
Tailon'  '  Trades  School '  recently  pst«l)ll»lie(l  and 
flourishing  in  llaltlmore,  besides  the  PennKvlvania 
Rallmad  novitiate  system,  at  Altoona :  in  which 
particular  trades  or  guilds  or  corporatiims  have 
sought  to  pn>vide  then<M'lves  with  a  dlHtitiet  and 
specially  trained  cli>,j  of  artisans.  Tim  laU'St 
and  In  some  n-s|)ects  the  most  Interesting  eiiM'ri 
ment  of  the  kind  Is  that  uf  the  '  ilaltlniciri'  ami 
Ohio  Kallroail  service '  at  Ml  Clare,  Ualllmnr.- 
It  was  Inauguralitl  In  Ih.m'v,  apprvntln-s  IkIdi; 
selected  from  aiiplUanta  liv  nimpelitive  (•zaniiim 
tlon." — R  O.  Ifcxine,  Kilufition  in  the  Vnilnl 
Sloft'S,  M.  18. 

A.  D.  iS7J-iM9.— Uaivtraitw  Eattnsion  in 
BaglMld.— "  The  Unlvenlty  Extension  Move 
ment,  which  has  now  been  before  the  nntnlry 
eighteen  yeara,  has  revMled  the  existence  of  a 
ival  need  for  larger  opportunities  of  higher  eilu- 
CBtinn  amongst  uic  middle  and  workinr  rlx^srj. 
From  the  time  of  Its  inauguration  in  1878  by  ths 
UnlTsntty  of  Cambridge,  owing  mainly  tu  th« 


774 


KDUCATION. 


Univntty  E£ttn§ltm. 


:!DUCATION. 


enthuaiutic  sdTocacv  and  (kill  In  practical  af- 
fain  of  Mr.  James  Stuart  (at  that  time  Fsllow 
and  Lecturer  of  Trinity  College),  down  to  the 
preaent  day,  when  the  principle  oaa  been  accepted 
by  all  the  Universities  in  Great  BriUin  and  by 
some  in  countries  beyond  the  seas,  the  movement 
has  shown  marvellous  vitality  and  power  of  ad- 
justment to  changing  conditions.    1 1  ^m  a  small 
beginning  in  three  towns  in  the  Hidlands,  it  has 
grown  until  the  centres  in  connection  with  the 
various  branches  are  to  be  numbered  by  hundreds 
and  the  students  by  tens  of  thousands.    The  suc- 
cess attained  by  Cambridge  in  the  flrat  three  years 
led,  in  1876,  to  the  formation  of  the  London 
Society  for  the  Extension  of  University  Teach- 
ing, for  the  express  purpose  of  carrying  on  simi- 
lar work  within  the  metropolitan  area.    In  1878 
the  University  of  Oxford  undertook  to  make 
similar  arrangements  for  Lectures,   but  aftor  a 
year  or  two,  they  were  for  the  time  abandoned. 
Subsequently  in  1885  the  Oxford  work  was  re- 
vived and  has  since  been  carried  on  with  vigour 
and  success.     The  University  of  Durham  is  as- 
sociated with  Cambridge  in  this  work  in  the  north- 
east of  England,  while  courses  of  Lectures  on  the 
£xtep«ion  plan  have  been  given  for  several  years 
in  connection  with  Victoria  University  in  centres 
around  Manchester.     Two  or  three  years  ago  the 
four  Scottish  Universities  united  in  forming  a 
like  scheme  for  Scot"  ad,  while  at  the  close  of 
1889  a  Society  for  ;'■»-  Extension  of  University 
Teaching  was  formed  in  the  north  of  Ireland. 
Finally  the  movement  has  spread  toOreater  Brit- 
ain and  the  Unitc<l  States,  and  there  are  signs 
that  work  on  similar  tinea  is  about  to  be  esub- 
lished  in  various  countries  on  the  continent  of 
Europe."— R  D.  Rolwrts.  BigkUen  yean  of  Cni- 
unity  Extenrion,  eh.  1.  — "  One  of  the  chief  char- 
acteristics  of  the  system  is  the  method  of  teach- 
ing adopted  In  connection  with  it.    A  working 
man  at  one  <  if  the  centns  in  the  north  of  England 
who  had  attendpd  the  lectures  for  several  tfrms, 
described  the  metliiHi  as  follows  In  a  paper  ri'aj 
by  him  at  a  meeting  :— '  Any  town  or  village 
which  is  prepared  to  provide  an  audience,  and 
pay  the  necessary  fees,  can  secure  a  i-ourae  of 
twelve  lectures  on  any  subject  taught  in  the  Uni- 
versity, by  a  lecturer  who  has  been  educated  at 
the  Liilverslty,  and  who  is  specially  fitted  for 
lecturing   work,     A  syllabus  of  the  course  is 
printed  and  put  Into  the  hands  of  students.    This 
sylUbus  is  a  great  help  to  persons  not  accustomed 
to  note-taking.     Questions  are  given  on  each 
lecture,  and  written  answers  can  be  soot  in  by 
any  one.  Irrespective  of  age  or  sex.     All  the  Icc- 
turi'S,  except  the  first,  are  preceded  by  a  class, 
which  lasts  about  an  hour.     In  this  class  the  stu- 
dents and  the  lecturer  talk  over  the  previous  lec- 
ture.   The  written  anawers  are  retumett  with 
such  corrections  as  the  lecturer  deems  necessar}-. 
At  the  end  of  the  course  an  examination  is  held 
and  crrtiflcatea  are  awardetl  to  the  successful  can- 
didates.   These  lectuivsare  called  Unlversitv  Ex 
tension  Lectures.'    Another  definition  whlcli  has 
been  given  la  this:—'  Advanced  syslcmatlr  li«ch> 
lii(  for  the  people,  without  distinction  of  rank, 
»«.  or  age,  given  by  means  of  lectures,  classes, 
and  written  papers  during  a  connected  course, 
oooduclwl  by  man  "  who  believa  in  their  work, 
•nd  Intend  to  do  It. "  teachers  who  connect  the 
Cuunlry  with  tiie  Univemty  by  manner,  method, 
MidinfonnatloD.'"— R  D.  RoUrts.  Tht  faissr- 
mty  gtUniian  aiKim4,  l>p.  9-1. 


A.  D.  in7-i893.— UniTcrsitj  EztMsion  in 

the  United  States "The  Srat  conscious  at- 

tempu  to  introduce  English  University  Extension 
mc-.ods  into  this  count-y  were  made  in  1887,  by 
individuals  connected  with  the  Johns  Hopkins 
University.    The  subject  was  first  publicly  pre- 
sented to  the  American  Library  Association  at 
their  meeting  upon  one  of  the  tliousand  Islands 
in  September,  1887.    The  idea  was  heartily  ap- 
proved," and  the  first  result  of  the  suggestion 
was  a  course  of  lectures  on  economic  questions 
given  in  one  of  the  lecture-rooms  of  the  Buffalo 
Library  the  following  winter  by  Dr.  Edward  W. 
Bemis.    The  next  wint<'r  "Dr.  Bemls  repeated 
his  course  on  '  Economic  Questions  of  the  Day ' 
in  Canton,  Ohio.  .  .  .  The  Canton  experiment 
was  followed  in    February,   1889,   by  another 
course,  conducted  by  Dr.  Bemis,  Ui  connection 
with  the  Public  Library  at  St.  Louis.  .  .  .  About 
the  time  when  these  various  experiments  were 
being  tried  in  St.  Louis,  Canton,  and  Buffalo,  In- 
dividual members  of  Johns  Hopkins  University 
were  attempting  to  introduce  University  Exten- 
sion methods  In  connection  with  local  lectures  In 
the  city  of  Baltimore.  .  .  .  The  idea  of  Univer- 
sity Extension  in  connection  with  Chautauqua 
was  conceived  by  Dr.  J.  H.  Vincent  during  a  visit 
to  England,  in  1886,  when  he  saw  the  English 
lecture  system  in  practical  operation  and  his  own 
methods  of  encouraging  home  reading  In  grow- 
ing favor  with  university  men.     The  first  defin- 
ite American  plan,  showing  at  once  the  aims, 
methous,  cost,  and  history,  of  University  Exten- 
sion lectures,  was  drawn  up  at  Chautauqua  by 
the  writer  of  this  article  in  the  early  summer  of 
1888.  .  .  .  Contemporary  wiih  the  development 
of  Chautauqua  College  and  Unlveralty  Extension 
was  the  jilanol  Mr.  SethT.  Stewart,  of  Brooklyn, 
New  York,  for   •  Unlveralty  and  School  Exten- 
sion.' .  .  .  Several  public  meetings  were  held  in 
New  York  In  1889-90  for  the  promotion  of  Uni- 
versity and  School  Extension.  .  .  .  One  of  the 
most  gratifying  recent  expcrimenta  in  Unlveralty 
Extension  in  America  has  been  In  the  city  of 
Philadelphia  under  the  auspices  of  the  American 
Society  for  the  Extension  of  University  Tiach- 
lug.     \t  various  local  centres  Mr,  Hlihanl  0. 
Moulton,  one  of  the  most  experienced  lecturer* 
from  Cambridge.  England,  lectured  for  ten  week* 
in  the  winter  and  spring  of  1891  to  large  and  en- 
thusiastic audiences.     All  the  essential  features 
of  English  Unlveralty  Extension  were  method- 
ically and   p<T»i(iiently  carried  out.    .   .    .   The 
American  Held  for   Unlveralty  Extension  is  too 
vast  for  the  missionary  labora  of  any  one  society 
or  organization.  .  .  .  The  most  slKnificant  sign 
of  the  times  with  reganl  to  Unlverslly  Extension 
In  America  Is  the  recent  appropriation  of  the  sum 
of  ♦10,(KH)  for  this  very  oiiject  by  the  New  York 
legislature.     The  money  Is  to  be  extx'nded  under 
the  (llri'itlon  of  the  Itegents  of  the  Uuivenlty  of 
the  State  of  New  York.  .  .  .  The  intention  of 
the  New  York  act  is  •imply  to  provide  the  neces- 
sary  means   for  organlilng  a   State  system  of 
Vnivcniily   Kxt«'n»ii>n  ,  .  .  and   to  render  such 
gi'iieral  asslsUnce  and  co-operation  aa  localitie* 
may  require."— H.  B.  Adams,    L'nirfrnty  Bllen- 
<i'"n  in  Anurita  (fhnim,  July.  1891).  —  On   the 
<i|>enlng.    in   1899.  of  the  Chicago  Unlveralty, 
munincently  endowed  bv  Mr    Johg  T>    Rocke- 
(I'lliT,  of  Cleveland.  Uufverslty  Extension  wae 
matte  one  of  the  three  grand  dlvlilau  of  III 
orfaniiation. 


.1  i  I 


ill.! 


776 


EDWARD. 


EGYPT. 


EDWARD,  King  of  PartnEal.  A.  D.  1433- 
1438. .  . .  Edward,  called  the  Confeiaor,  King 

of    England,   A.    I>.    im3-1U«.'> Edward, 

called  the  Elder,  King  of  Weiiex,  A.  I>.  (M)l- 

ffirt Edward,  called  the  MartTr,  King  of 

Weisex,  A.  U.  97r> Edward  I.,  King  of 

England,   A.    I).   r,>74-l:«i: Edward    II., 

King  of  England,  A.  I).  1307-1327 Edward 

III.,  King  of  England,  A.  D.  i:B7-1377 

Edward  IV.,  King  of  England  (firit  king  of 

the   House  of   York),  A.   D.   Uai-14(<y 

Edward  V  ,  titular  King  of  En  'and,  A.  I>. 
HM3  (from  April  9,  when  hisfuthcr.  Etlwunl  IV.. 
iliiil,  until  Junt'  22.  when  he  is  beliovi'il  to  h:ivi' 
bi'iMi  munlori'it  in  the  Tower  bv  eommiinil  of  his 

unele.   the  iiiurper.  Hielianl  til.) Edward 

VI.,  King  of  England,  A.  I).  l.-)47-l.V.:i. 

EDWARD,  Fort:  A.  D.  1755.— Built  by 
the  New  England  troopi.  See  C.4N.\n.v  :  A.  1). 
1730  (Seitembeb). 


A.  D.  1777.— Abandoned  to  the  British. 
See  Cnitkd  States  of  Am.;  A.  D.  1777  (.It  i.v— 
October). 

* 

EDWIG,  King  of  Wessez,  A.  D.  9.'>r>-9.'i7. 

EDWIN,  Kingof  Northumbria,  A.D.617-«:«I. 

EGESTA.  See  Stuaci-se,  B.  C.  415-113 ; 
and  Sirii.T :  B.  C.  409-4(15. 

EGIBI  AND  COMPANY.  See  Monet  and 

BaSKINII  :    ANflE.NT, 

EGINA.-EGINETANS.    See  .«.;ina. 

EGMONT,  Count,  and  the  struggle  in  the 
Netherlands.  See  NEniERLAN'OS :  A.  I).  I.'i<t2~ 
1.5«tl.  Rn.l  1.5li«-l,568. 

EGNATIAN  WAY,  The.— A  Roman  roa.l 
eonstriicted  from  Apollonia  on  the  Aiirintic  m 
the  shores  of  the  Hellespont;  Hniilly  larricd  |,> 
Hvznntiuin. 

°EGRA:  A.  D.  1647 —Siege  and  capture  by 
the  Swedes.    See  Germany  :  A.  I).  l«4ti-l«4M. 


EGYPT. 


Its  Names. — "  Eir.rpt  is  dcsiffnated  in  the  oM 
inscriptions,  us  well  us  in  the  books  of  the  liitir 
Christian  Ei;ypti;ins.  by  a  wonl  which  siitnities 
the  blaik  lainl.'  lui'l  w'liidi  is  renil  In  the  Eiryp 
tian  lanKUage  Keni.  or  Kami.*  The  ancients  had 
early  remarl«Hl  that  the  enltivable  •  lami  of 
E!.'v"p' "'"* '"*'■'"!?"'"'"'''  ''*'  i's  "lark  anil  almost 
blaik  colour.  .  .  .  The  ni'[>:htMmring  reffion  of 
the  Arabian  ilesiMt  bore  the  name  of  Tesher,  or 
tlie  reil  land.  .  .  .  The  E;;yptians  dcsiirnated 
thcmsilves  simply  as  the  people  of  the  black 
land,'  and  .  .  .  the  inscriptions,  so  far  as  we 
krb>w,  have  hamied  down  to  us  no  other  appcl 
lutiiin  .  .  .  .V  re.'d  eniiima  is  proposed  to  ns  in 
the  dirivalion  and  meaning  of  the  enrious  proper 
name  by  whii  h  the  foreian  peoples  of  .Vsia, 
each  in  its  own  dialid.  wire  acciistoimil  m 
desiijnate  Eirypt.  The  llelinws  iravc>  the  land 
the  name  of  Mi.rr:iini ;  llir  .V'^syrians  .Mu/.nr  ;  the 
Persians.  .Mudraya.  We  may  fnl  assiirr  1  that 
at  the  basi»  of  all  Wir-o-  il.  sicrnti.m^  ilnri'  lli-s  an 
oriiiinal  form  which  ron'.i'^ted  of  the  three  !ftt<-rs 
SI-/-r.  all  explanations  of  whii  li  have  iMin  us 
yel  unsiiceessfnl,  .Mthon>:li  I  intend  hereafter 
to  consider  more  partleiil.irly  the  derivation  of 
this  pn/zlini;  name,  whiih  is  still  preserved 
Ht  the  present  day  in  the  .Vrahic  appellatioi 
Slisr.  I  will  heri'  premise  the  n'mark  that  this 
name  was  ori^rinally  applied  only  to  a  certain 
(letinite  part  of  Kirypt,  in  the  ea«l  of  the  l>elta. 
which,  according'  to  the  monuments,  wascovcn'd 
and  di  fendisl  by  m;niv  '/or,'  or  fortresses,  and 
wa-  hence  calliil  in  l^ivplian  .Ma/or  (that  is, 
forlitiisli  "-  II.  Hrmf«h  Ibv,  //i«/.  i;fh:;illl>l  "n 
ih  r  Ih,  I'li.ininli:  rl,  ■>.  —  ■■  (lruj>uh  explains  \\ir 
name  Etfvpl  by  '  ha  ka  ptali,' i  e  'the  preclint 
of  I'lab  '  .\s  I'l  lb  was  li«irc  r-peiiallv  the  vikI 
of  ,Miinplil'<,  iIiIh  nanu'  wnuld  have  come  from 
Memphis"— M  Huneker,  IH^f  "f  Snt;,i<iiiii.  U. 
I.  rh.  1,  nnt,.  Tie-  l:e.t  use  of  Kt  ni  dii-<l  out 
In  till'  form  ("heini  in  Coptic,  the  di  «(i'ndant  of 
the  classical  lanL.'uai:e.  wliicht<'a''<sl  to  !»■  spoken 
a  leii'iiry  au'o.  It  siirvlvi  s  ainouL'  us  in  the 
terms  "ihemi.strv '  ami  ahhemv,'  wiinees 
!!i.;.ii;ht!^-.  !>r.i-.f  f■1gyp!!^n origin '—»  H  |':«i!r, 
I'ltim  "f  h^jniit.  ill! 

Its  Historical  Antiquity.— Tlie  lists  of  Kirv  p 
tian  kiuL'swldch  have  bei'n  found  »gTvc  In  pri' 

•  A'imif  in  th.  lilitien  i^f  IWil.  "J 


senting  the  name  of  Mena  or  Menes  as  that  of 
the  Hrst  I'haraob  of  Eirypt.  and  as  such  he  i» 
unhisitatinu'ly  acceptisl,  although  no  cohiimi 
pornrv  monumental  record  of  the  fact  has  mi 
Isen  cliscovered.  'As  to  the  era  .  .  .  when  the 
rtrst  riiaraoh  mounted  the  throne,  the  (iernian 
Efryptoloffcrs  have  attempted  to  lix  it  at  the  fn| 
towinc:  ejwK'hs;  IJcH'ckh.  H.  (.'.  5Tu2 ;  I'nL'rr. 
."illi;)  ;  Urupsch.  44.'V> ;  Lnntli.  41.'>7 ;  l,cp<iu«, 
Itstej;  Hiuisen.  HH'.'M,  The  dilTerencc  bitwun 
the  two  extreme  points  of  the  scries  is aina/lri;;Iy 
trreat.  for  its  nundier  of  years  amounts  to  110  I.  s, 
than  ".J'C!!.  .  .  .  The  calculations  in  iinestioii:iie 
Isisisl  on  the  extracts  already  often  mi  ntium  il 
from  a  work  bv  the  Evyptian  priest  Manelhi.Mii 
the  history  i>(  Efiypt,"  That  learned  man  li:.  I 
then  at  hiseonunanil  IheaimaNof  his  i  ounin  s 
hiitory.  which  were  prescrvi'd  in  the  tinipl.  ■<, 
and  from  them,  the  Isst  and  most  accurate 
siiuicc.  hi'  derivisl  the  materials  for  his  work, 
mnipi'MHl  in  the  (Jreek  lancuap',  on  tin  hi~i"ry 
of  the  aiH'lent  Eiiyptian  Dvuastiev  Hi.;  tiM.,|<, 
which  is  now  li>st,  containiil  a  p'ln  ral  review  '<i 
the  kinps  of  the  land,  divided  into  Thirt\  l>y 
ns'-ties.  arranired  in  the  onler  of  Ihcir  ii:une«. 
Willi  the  lenirllis  of  their  n'ieiw,  and  the  Inial 
duration  of  each  dynasty  Tliouirh  ibis  iiiv.ili 
able  work  wa«  little  known  and  certainly  but 
little  rcL'ariled  by  the  historians  of  llie  nlii  1  la—i 
cal  a.'e.  lartje  extracts  were  made  from  it  by 
«ome  of  the  ccclcslastlc.d  writers.  In  pr.ses^  .,f 
line  the  copyists,  cither  bv  error  or  ilesiL'nully. 
corrupted  the  names  ami  tfie  numbers,  and  tliii< 
weonlv  po«se>«  at  llie  present  day  the  ruiii"  in 
stead  of  thccoinplete  bnildiiu.'  The  truth  .'f  tic 
oriu'inal  and  the  authenticity  of  it»  miiirce*  Wire 
tlr^l  |irovcil  by  the  di  cipbetinir  of  the  Ki;\pt 
ian  writings.  '  And  lhu<  tlie  Mancthonlaii  li^t 
served,  and  still  serves,  as  a  iruide  for  a^wiLoiitii: 
to  the  royal  iiamci  read  on  the  nionnnienW  tin  ir 
places    ill    the      |)vna«ti.«  "--II     HruL—cli  lte\ , 

lli'l     -f   h'f/l/lil    ■lllihr   Ihr   /Vl.ini../)..    i-h     I     -   See, 

also.  M\NK'fiio.  I.i^;  OF  —  Hriii.-«<h  Hevdate^tlii 
Hrst  twelve  dvnasties  as  follows:  The  Kirvt 
!>v:-.r.5!r  of  thbiis  H  ('  !4««  !!'"!-  The 
St'^md';  of  I'hlnis  :  41*1  4(Kin  —  The  ThinI ;  of 
Memphis  :«tfin-H7fl«  —  The  Poiirtb  .  of  M.  -n 
phis;  37:t:MI»«li>.  —  The  Fifth,  of  Elephantine 

6 


EGYPT. 


The  Earif 
Dynaltia. 


EGYPT. 


B566-3333.  —The  Sixth ;  of  Memphis :  8300-3066. 
—The  Seventh  to  the  Eleventh  (a  confused  and 
obscure  period) ;  3033-2300.  —  The  Twelfth  ■  of 
Thebes:  2466-2266. —H.  Brugsch-Bey.  lli$t.  of 
Egypt  under  the  PharaoJu,  app.  A.—K  later 
reckoning  from  later  discoveries  of  data,  i» 
given  by  tho  explorer  of  Egyptian  aniictuities, 
Mr.  Petrie.  in  the  following:  "We  .  .  .  have  as 
a  starting-point  for  our  backward  reckoning  the 
accession  of  the  XVIIIth  dynasty  about  1587 
B.  C.  From  this  we  can  reckon  in  the  dynastic 
data  given  by  Mimetho  ;  following  this  account 
rather  than  the  totals  of  reigns,  as  he  appears  to 
have  omitted  periods  when  dynasties  were  con- 
temporary, as  in  the  43  years  for  tlic  Xlth  after 
the  close  of  the  Xth.  Thus,  from  the  above 
startiug-point  of  l.MT  B.  C,  we  reach  the  fol- 
lowing results,  solely  by  using  material  which 
has  been  discussed  and  settled  in  this  history 
on  its  own  merits  alone,  and  without  any  ulterior 
reckoning  in  total  periods. 

B.  C. 
4777 
4.5U 
4212 
3H98 
372! 
3.-)03 
31)32 
32.V2 
31116 
»MI6 
2S2I 
2778 


ynasty  I.         ... 

Ve»rs. 
....     26;} 

302 

•       III 

....     214 

"      IV 

277 

"       V 

....     218 

••       VI 

....     181  (T.  P  ) 

■•       VII 

...       70 

■'       VIII 

"       IX 

....     146 

....     100 

"       X 

"       XI 

XII.    . 

....     18.1 
....       43 

313  (T  P  ) 

"       XIII.  .  .  . 

.  .     453 

"      XIV 

•       XVI 

••       XVII 

'•      XVIII 

184 

190 

1.51 

....     260 

•'       XIX 

IfiJS 

ir:t8 


...  In  the  present  rough  state  of  the  astronom- 
ical data,  and  the  doubts  as  to  the  MS,  authori- 
tii's.  we  have  ri'a<li((l  (|iiite  as  closi'  an  .(luivii 
leiice  as  we  may  hop*'  li>r:  niid  at  least  there  is 
<iiough  to  show  us  that  we  may  trust  to  the 
nearest  century  with  fair  grouiiils  of  belief 
Thesi'  dates,  then,  are  what  I  have  provisionally 
uilopted  in  this  history  ;  and  thoucli  tlnv  itr'i- 
stati'd  to  the  nearest'vear.  for  the  sikc  of  in 
tirrompiirison.  it  must  always  be  r<  .nenilHrcsl 
lliiit   they  only  profrs^  to  tfo  within  a  rinturv 

l!i  II .irlier  parls  of  the  siale.' — \V    M.  Fliii 

(lers  Pi'trie,  .1  lli>lnru  nf  K'/tfjil  from  the  hMiHft 
Tn„r,t„thi-  Willi  Ih/mitly.  ■■h.  11. 

Origin  of  the  ancient  people.  -'The  F.irvp 
lians,  ti>i;ethiT  with  some  other  nations,  form.'  as 
it  would  seem,  a  tliiid  hraneli  of  that  |llie  Can- 
casianl  raie.  iiiunely,  llif  family  ealUsI  I'lisliilc. 
which  is  distinirulsiii'd  by  special  eliararters  from 
the  IVlasgiau  ami  thi'  (Semitic  families  . 
The  Kgyptimi  liiiii;uai:i'  .  .  .  sliows  in  no  way 
ativ  tmie  of  a  deriv.iiion  and  di'scmt  from  the 
.\meaii  faiuilies  of  ^peceh  l>ii  i||,'  vonlrarv. 
till' iirimltive  riMits  and  the  essential  .Irmi  iils  iif 
thi'  Kiryptian  irranimar  point  to  sui  h  an  iniim.itr 
ciiniuTtion  with  the  Indo  (iermanic  and  s.niiiir 
•mtruagis  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  mistake 
the  close  relations  which  formerly  prevalleil  be 
tw.--h  -Jif  Ku-ypMa:::^  ."in:  :iir  mrr^  r.iili  ii  indn 
(li'rmanlo  anil  Semi  tla'*—H.  BmcschHi  v,  tli't. 
»f  h^miil  iimhr  till  I'liannilm.  M  1  —  It  has 
keen  mainlainrd  by  it)me  that  the  immigration 

777 


was  from  the  south,  the  Egyptians  having  been 
a  colony  from  Ethiopia  which  gradually  de- 
sc  nded  the  Nile  and  established  itself  in  the 
middle  and  lower  portions  of  the  valley.  But 
modern  research  has  shown  quite  unmistakably 
that  the  movement  of  the  Egyptians  was  in  the 
opposite  directiofi.  .  .  .  We  must  look,  then, 
rather  to  Syria  or  Arabia  than  to  Ethiopia  as  the 
cradle  of  the  Egyptian  nation."— O.  Rawlinson, 
Hint,  of  Ancient  Egypt,  rh.  3.—"  So  far  as  our 
knowletlge  reaches,  the  northern  edge  of  Africa, 
like  the  valley  of  the  Nile  as  far  as  the  marshes 
at  the  foot  of  the  Abyssinian  hills,  was  inhabited 
by  nations  who  in  colour,  language,  and  customs 
were  sharply  distinguished  from  the  negro. 
These  nations  belonged  to  the  whites :  their  lan- 
guages were  most  closclv  allied  to  the  Semitic. 
From  this,  and  from  their  physical  peculiarities, 
the  conclusion  has  been  drawn  that  these  nations 
at  some  time  migrated  from  Asia  to  the  soil  of 
Africa.  They  formed  a  vast  family,  whose  dia- 
lects still  continue  in  the  language  of  tlie  Ber- 
bers. Assisted  by  the  favourable  conditions  of 
their  land,  the  tril)e  which  settled  on  the  Lower 
Nile  quickly  left  their  kinsmen  far  behind.  In 
deed  the  latter  hardly  rose  above  a  pastoral  life. 
The  descendants  of  tliese  old  inhabitants  of  the 
valley  of  the  Nile,  in  spite  of  the  numerous 
layers  which  the  course  of  centuries  has  subse- 
iiuently  laid  upon  the  soil  of  the  land,  .still  form 
the  larger  part  of  the  populaticm  of  Egvpt.  an<l 
the  ancient  language  is  pn^served  in  the  dialect 
of  the  Copts."— M.  Duncker,  //iV.  of  Aiitiijuily, 
Ilk.  1.  ch.  1. 

The  Old  Empire  and  the  Middle  Empire.— 
"The  ilireet  descendants  of  Menes  [or  .Mriia] 
form  the  First  Dynasty,  wliiih.  areording  to 
Manetlio,  reigned  2.Vi  years.  No  n«)iuunirit  eon- 
teinponiry  with  these  princes  has  come  down  to 
us.  .  .  .  The  Sirond  Dynasty,  to  which  Manitho 
assigns  nine  kings,  lasted  302  years.  It  was  also 
originally  from  This  [or  Thinis].  and  probably 
related  to  the  First.  .  .  .  When  this  family  had 
become  extinct,  a  Dynasty,  oriijinallv  from 
Memphis,  seiiwl  the  throne',  "forming  the"  Thiid, 
atid  to  it  a  duration  of  2H  years  is  attribiitefl. 
.  .  .  With  the  Fourth  Dynasty.  .Miiflpliite  like 
the  Third,  and  which  reigned  ^^4  yiars,  history 
becomes  clearer  and  monuments  more  niinuTous. 
This  was  the  ugi'  of  the  three  (iii'al  Pyramids, 
built  by  the  three  kinirs,  Khiifu  (the  ciieops  of 
Herodotusi,  Sliafra  il'liefreiil,  and  .Mi'tikani  (My- 
■■eriniis).  .  .  .  Tin  Kiftli  Dyna-ty  eanie  origi- 
nally from  Klephanliiie.  at  tlie  soutliern  exlr.in- 
ity  of  I "pper  Kcypt.  and  lliere  po"ilily  the  kings 
generally  reside.'l,  Ihouirh  at  the  same  time  Mem- 
phis was  not  diprived  of  its  importaiH'e.  .  .  . 
On  he  death  of  the  last  kinir  of  the  Fifth  Dv- 
nasty,  a  lU'w  family,  of  Menipliiticorlgin  aicoril- 
iiiL' to  Manetlio,  came  li- the  throne,  .  .  I'riiiu- 
tivi'art  atiainid  its  hiirhist  point  under  the  Sixth 
Dynasty.  .  .  .  Hut,  from  the  time  tif  the  eivil 
ioinmotii>ns  In  whiih  Neit  aker  jilie  NltixTiB  of 
IIen»|otu'  ivrished.  E,irypti:ui  iivi!i.!ation  under- 
went a  suiMen  and  unaccountable  e(l||i,|.  Fmm 
the  end  of  the  Sixth  Dynasty  to  the  eomnience- 
mentof  the  Klevenlh,  .>(nmtlIo  reckons  436  years, 
and  for  this  whole  perl.xl  the  monuments  are  ab- 
lobitely  silent,  Eirypt  wm*  then  tolmvedisap 
pi.irrd  from  tli.  I.ilik  of  nations;  and  «Ii(ii  ihis 
long  slumlx'r  eiidi'd,  civilization  commineed  a 
new  career,  entirely   iiidepi>ndent   of  the  past 

.  Thus  end*  ttist  peritxl  of  nineteen  centuries. 


I 


EGYPT. 


1%M  Sktplkerd  f f  il0f . 


EGYPT. 


m'- 


whtch  modern  acholan  know  u  the  Old  Empire. 
.  .  .  Thebes  did  not  exiit  In  the  days  of  the 

Slory  of  the  Old  Empire.  The  holy  city  of 
.men  seems  to  have  twen  founded  during  the 
period  of  anarchy  and  obscurity,  succeeding,  as 
we  have  said,  to  the  Sixth  Dynasty.  Here  was 
the  birthplace  of  ttiat  renewed  civiUzation,  that 
new  monarchy,  we  are  accustomed  to  call  the 
Middle  Empire,  the  middle  age  in  fact  of  ancient 
Egypt  —  a  middle  ugc  anttrior  to  the  earliest 
ages  of  all  other  history.  From  Thebes  came 
the  six  kings  of  the  Eleventh  Dynasty.  .  .  .  We 
again  quote  the  excellent  remarks  of  H.  Mariette : 
'When,  with  the  Eleventh  Dynasty,  we  see 
Egypt  awake  from  her  long  slumber,  all  old 
traditions  appear  to  be  forgotten;  the  proper 
names  used  in  ancient  families,  the  titles  of  func- 
tionaries, the  style  of  writing,  and  even  the 
religion  —  all  sctm  new.  This,  Elephantine,  and 
Memphis,  are  no  longer  the  favourite  capitals. 
Thebes  for  the  first  time  becomes  the  seat  of 
sovereign  power.  Egypt,  moreover,  has  lost  a 
considerable  portion  of  her  territory,  and  the 
authority  of  her  legitimate  kings  liamly  extends 
beyond  the  limited  district  of  the  Thebaid.  The 
■tiidy  of  the  monuments  confirms  these  general 
views;  they  are  rude,  primitive,  sometimes 
nmrse ;  and  when  we  look  at  them  we  may  well 
believe  that  Egypt,  under  the  Eleventh  Dynasty, 
again  passed  through  a  perio<i  of  infancy,  as  she 
had  already  done  under  the  Third  Dynasty. '  A 
dynasty  probably  relate<l  to,  and  originally  from 
the  same  place  as  these  first  Theban  princes  suc- 
ceeded them.  .  .  .  This  Twelfth  Dyna.ity  reigned 
for  213  years,  and  its  epoch  was  one  of  pros- 
perity, of  [teacc  at  home  and  glorious  acbicve- 
menti  abn>ad.  .  .  .  Although  the  history  of  the 
Twelfth  Dynasty  is  clear  and  well  known,  iUus- 
trattil  by  numerous  monuments,  there  is,  never- 
theless, no  period  in  the  annals  of  Egypt  more 
obscure  than  the  one  closing  with  the  Thirteenth 
Dynasty.  It  is  one  long  series  of  revolutions, 
troubles,  rnd  internal  disseneions,  closed  by  a 
terrible  camstrophe,  the  greatest  and  most  last- 
ing recordetl  in  Egyptian  history,  which  a  second 
time  interrupted  the  inarch  of  rivilization  on  the 
banks  of  ttie  Nile,  and  for  a  while  struck  Egypt 
from  the  list  of  nations." — F.  Lenormunt  and  fe. 
Clievallier,  Manual  of  Anrient  Ilint.  oftlte  Hut, 
bk.  8,  eh.  1-8. 

.\i.so  IN:  C.  C.  J.  Bunsen,  Egypt'i  Phut  in 
I'liiiYrml  Hint.,  t.  2. — See,  also,   Memphis,  and 

TlIKUES,  EOVTT. 

The  Hjrkioi,  or  Shepherd-Kinn.— Accord- 
ing to  the  Mauethonian  account  whicii  the  Jewish 
historian  Joaephus  bus  pn'served  to  us  by  tran- 
scribing it,  the  Egyptian  Netherlands  were  at  a 
certain  time  overspread  by  a  wild  and  rough 
people,  which  came  from  the  countries  of  the 
east,  overcame  the  native  kings  who  dwelt  there, 
and  took  possession  of  the  whole  country,  with- 
out finding  any  great  opposition  on  the  part  of 
the  Egypli.'ins.  They  were  called  llyksos,  which 
Joaepli'ii.s  Interpreted  as  meaning  Shepherd-kings. 
"Ilyk,"  he  explained,  meant  King,  'u  the  holy 
language,  and  "sos,"  in  the  dialect  of  the  people, 
signified  Shepherd.  But  Dr.  Brugsch  ideutifie.H 
"sos"  with  ttie  name  "Shasu,"  which  the  old 
Egyptians  gave  to  the  Bedouins,  whose  yanie 
became  equivalent  to  Shepherds.  Ilenee  Dr. 
Brugsch  inclines  to  the  ancient  opinion  transmit  te<l 
by  Jusephus,  that  tlie  llyksos  were  Arabs  or  Be<l- 
tulns  —  the  Shasu  of  the  Egyptian  records,  who 


t  I 


hung  on  the  northeastern  frontier  of  Egypt  from 
the  most  ancient  timet  and  were  always  pressing 
into  the  country,  at  every  opportunity.  But 
many  objections  against  thu  view  are  raised  and 
the  different  theories  advanced  to  account  for  the 
Hyksos  are  quite  numerous.  Canon  Rawlinson 
says:  " The  Egyptians  of  the  time  of  Herodotus 
seem  to  have  considered  that  they  were  Philis- 
tines. Modems  have  regarded  them  as  Canaan- 
ites,  Syrians,  Hittites.  It  is  an  avoidance  ratlier 
than  a  solution  of  the  difficulty  to  say  that  they 
were  '  a  collection  of  all  tlie  nomad  hordes  of 
Arabia  and  Syria '  [Lenormant],  since  there  must 
have  been  a  directing  hand.  ...  On  the  whole, 
therefore,  we  lean  to  the  belief  that  the  so-called 
Hyksos  or  Shepherds  were  Hittites." — G.  Kaw- 
linson,  HM.  of  Antient  K^ypt.  eh.  19.—"  It  is 
maintained  on  good  authority  that  the  Hyksos, 
or  Shepherd-Kings,  had  secured  possession  of  the 
eastern  frontier  of  Lower  Egypt  immediately 
after  the  close  of  the  Twelftli  Dvnasty ;  that  at 
this  time  the  Thirteenth  and  the  Fourte<mtli  Dy- 
nasties ruleil  contemporaneously,  the  former  in 
Upper,  the  latter  in  Lower  Egypt ;  one  was  tliu 
iPTltimate,  the  other  the  illegitimate  line;  but 
authors  are  not  in  accord  as  to  their  right  of 
priority.  It  is  supposed  that,  while  Egypt 
claimed  the  Thirteenth  Dynasty  as  her  own, 
the  Hyksos  usurped  the  mastery  over  the  Four- 
teenth Dynasty,  and  governed  through  the  agency 
of  its  kings,  treating  them  meanwhile  as  viw- 
sal  chiefs.  These  local  kings  had  cities  fnmi 
which  they  were  unable  to  escape,  and  were  de- 
prived of  an  army  of  defence.  Such  was  the 
state  of  the  country  for  184  years,  when  the 
Fourteenth  Dynasty  died  out,  and  when  the 
Fifteenth  Dynasty,  constituted  of  six  successive 
Hyksos  kings,  took  the  reins  of  government  'nto 
their  own  hands.  Lieblein.  whose  views  we  are 
now  endeavouring  to  express,  assigns  as  the  dtite 
of  the  invasion  of  the  llyksos  2108  years  H.  t'. 
...  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  well-known 
journey  of  Abraham  to  Egypt  was  made  during 
the  early  period  of  the  reif  '  the  Shepliinl- 
Klngs;  whilst  the  visit  of  Jot,  irred  near 

the  close  of  their  power." — E.  Wilsou.  The  Enypt 
of  the  Piut,  eh.  5. — "  '  Tba  Shepherds  pussensed 
themselvesof  Egypt  by  violence,'  writes  Mariette- 
Bey,  'but  the  civilization  which  they  Imnudi- 
atcly  adopted  on  their  conquest  was  rather 
Egyptian  than  Asiatic,  and  the  discoveries  of 
Avaris  (San)  prove  that  they  did  not  even  banish 
from  their  temples  the  go<isof  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tian Pantheon.  In  fact  the  first  shepherd-king, 
Solatis  himself,  employed  an  Egyptian  artist  to 
inscribe  .  .  .  his  title  on  the  stJitue  of  a  former 
legitimate  Pharaoh.  '  They  did  not  disturb  the 
civilization  more  than  the  Persians  or  the  (1  reeks, 
but  simply  accepted  the  higher  one  they  h:ul 
e<mquere(l'  So  our  revered  scholur  Dr.  Binh 
h»s  summed  up  the  matter;  and  Prof.  Maspini 
has  very  hapiiilv  descrilxil  it  thus;  'The  popu- 
lar hatred  loaded  them  with  Ignominious  epitliets, 
and  treated  them  as  accursed,  plague  strirken, 
leprous.  Yet  they  allowed  tiiemwlves  very 
quickly  to  I>e  domesticAted.  .  .  .  Once  admitted 
to  the  school  of  Egypt,  the  barbarians  progressed 
(julek'y  in  the  eivilizeil  life.  The  Pharaonic 
court  reappeared  around  these  shepherd-kinixs, 
with  all  Ita  pomp  and  all  its  following;  of  func- 
tionaries great  and  small.  The  royal  style  »nd 
title  of  Cheops  and  the  Amenemhai  were  fitted 
to  the  outlandish  names  of  Jannes  and  ApapL 

8 


EGYPT. 


TUir^BKmpin.        EGYPT,  B.  C.  170O-1400. 


The  EgyptUn  religion,  without  being  offlcUlly 
adopted,  was  tolerated,  and  the  reli^on  of  the 
Canaanltea  underwent  lome  modiacations  to  avoid 
hurting  beyond  measure  the  Busceptibility  of  the 
wonhippers  of  Osiris.'  "— H.  G.  Tomklns.  «wdiM 
<m  M«  Tifiut  of  Abraham,  eh.  8.  —  In  a  late  Italian 
work  ("Gil  HyksOs  ")  b>  Dr.  C.  A.  de  Cara, ' •  he 
puU  together  all  that  la  ascertained  in  regard  to 
them  [the  Hyksos].  criticises  the  theories  that 
have  been  propounded  on  their  behalf,  and  sug- 
gesU  a  theory  of  his  own.    Nothing  that  has 
been  published  on  the  subject  seems  to  have  es- 
raped  his  notice.  ...  His  own  view  is  that  the 
HyksAs  represented  a   confederacy  of  various 
Asiatic  tribes,  under  the  leadership  of  the  north- 
ern Syrians.     That  their  ruling  class  came  from 
this  part  of  the  world  seems  to  me  clear  from  the 
name  of  their  supreme  god  Sutekh,  who  occupied 
among  them  the  position  of  the  Semitic  Baal  "— 
A.  tt  Sayce,  TheHykmi»(Aeademy,  *  '  ao,  1890). 
— "Historical  research  concerning  i'     history  of 
the  Hyksos  may  he  summed  up  as  follows :— I  A 
certahi  number  of  non-Egyptian  kings  of  foreign 
origin,  belonging  to  the  nation  of  the  Mcntl,  ruled 
;?'  ?i,'°''*  **'"* '°  *''*  «astem  portion  of  the  Delta. 
II.  These  chose  as  their  capitals  the  cities  of 
Zoan  and  Avaris,  and  provided  them  with  strong 
fortifications.     III.  They  adopted  not  only  the 
manners  and  cu.>toma  of  the  Egyptians,  but  also 
their  official  language  and  writing,  and  the  order 
nr^^^l  ™""  ***  arranged  on  Egyptian  models. 
IV.  They  were  mtrons  of  art,  and  Egyptian 
artists  erecte«l,  after  the  a^  '^ient  models,  monu- 
ments in  honour  of  these  usurpers,    in  whoso 
sUtuea  they  were  obliged  to  reproduce  tho  Hyk- 
sos physiognomy,  the  peculiar  arrangement  of  the 
beard  and  bead -dress,  as  well  as  other  variations 
of   their  costume.    V.  They  honored   Sutekh, 
the  son  of  Nut,  as  the  supreme  god  of  their  newly 
acquired  country,  with  the  surname  Nub   'the 
goldea'    He  was  the  origin  of  all  that  is  evil 
and  perverse  in  the  visible  and  invisible  world 
the  opponent  of  good  and  the  enemy  of  light' 
In  the  cities  of  Zoan  and  Aviris,  splendid  temples 
were  constructed  in  honour  of  this  god,  and  other 
monumenu  raised,  especially  Sphinxes,  carved 
out  of  stone  from  Syene.     VI.  In  all  probability 
one  of  them  was  the  founder  of  a  new  era,  which 
most  likely  began  with  the  first  year  of  his  reign 
Down  to  the  time  of  the  second  Ramses,  four 
hundred  years  had  elapsed  of  this  reckoning 
which  was  acknowledged  even  by  the  Egyptians. 
VII.  The  Egyptians  were  indebted  to  their  con- 
tact with  them  for  much  useful  knowledge.     In 
particular  their  artistic  views  were  expanded  ami 
new  forms  and  shapes,  notably  that  of  the  winged 
sphinx,  were  introduced,  the  Semitic  origin  of 
which  is  obvious  at  a  glance.  .  .  .  The  inscrip- 
tiouson  the  monumenta  designate  that  foreign 
people  who  once  ruled  in  Egypt  b/  the  name  of 
Men  or  Meuti.     On  the  walls  of  the  temple  of 
tdfQ  it  is  stated  that  '  the  inhabitants  of  the  land 
of  Asher  are  called  Menti.'.  .  .  In  the  different 
languages,  ...  and  in  the  different  periods  of 
history    the  following  names  are  synonymous: 
oy™.  Rutennu  of  the  East,  Asher,  aiiil  Menti.  "— 
"Since,  on  the  basis  of  the  most  recent  ami  bi'st  in- 
vestigations in  the  province  of  ancient  Egyptian 
chronology,  we  reckon  the  year  1350  B.  C.  aa  u 
mean  computation  for  the  reien  of  Ramiies  the 
reign  of  the  Hyksos  kmg.  Nub";  and  probably  Its 
beginning,  falls  in  the  year  1750  B  C. ,  that  is,  400 
year*  before  Ramses  11.    Although  we  are  com- 


pletely In  the  dark  as  to  the  place  King  Nub  oc- 
cupied  in  the  succession  of  the  kindred  princes  of 
nis  house,  yet  the  number  mentioned  is  important 
as  an  approximate  epoch  for  the  stay  of  the  foreign 
fil^^M  J?7P^  According  to  the  statement  In 
the  Bible,  the  Hebrews  from  the  immigration  of 
Jacob  into  Egypt  until  the  Exodus  renwined  480 
years  in  that  land.  Since  the  Exodus  from  Egypt 
took  place  in  the  time  of  Meneptah  II.,  the  son 
of  KamsesII.-  he  Pharaoh  of  the  oppression — 
the  year  B.  C.  1800  may  be  an  approximate  date. 

JLT^'^1.'°'^>.*^y*»"-"  "pressing  the 
total  duration  of  the  sojourn  of  the  Hebrews  in 
Jigypt.  ..e  arrive  at  the  year  1730  B.  C.  as  the 
approximate  date  for  the  immigration  of  Jacob 
into  tgypt,  and  for  the  time  of  the  otHcial  career 
of  J(«eph  at  the  court  of  Pharaoh.  In  other 
words,  the  time  of  Joseph  (1730  B.  C.)  must  have 
.y^'i  ?  the  period  of  the  Hyksos  domination, 
?ri".,'i'.*„  ?'8°  °'  "»«  above-mentioned  princi 
Nub  (1750  B.  C)."-H.  Bnigsch-Bey,  Egypt  "^ 
\^t'^'^  («'.«<m<./189!,  byM.'Br^ck),  pp. 
108-109,  and  126— See  Jkws:  W  CBiLDRra  or 
Israel  in  Eoypt.  -^^imj"  ur 

fi'Y^  ™-  *"■  •-"•  ^-  Mendel,  Hist,  of  Egypt. 

t£2"p°k^-  »7«»-»40O.-The  New  Empire. 
"^T     u^?''*'^"*''   OynMtT.-'-The  dominion 
of  the  Hyksos  by  necessity  gave  rise  to  profound 
interaal  divisions,  alike  in  the  different  princely 
families  and  in  the  native  population  itself     Fac- 
tious iH^came  rampant  in  various  districts,  and 
reached  the  highest  point  in  the  hostile  feeling  of 
the  Inhabitante  of  Patoris  or  the  South  country 
against  the  people  of  Patomlt  or  North  country, 
who  were  much  mixed  with  foreign  blood 
iTom  this  condition  of  divided   power  and  of 
mutual  jealousy  the  foreign  rulers  obtained  their 
advantage  and  their  chief  strength,  until  King 
Aahmes  ma»le  himself  supnmc."— H.  Brugsch- 
^y.Effypt  Hiiiirr  the  Pliarnnhn  [eiUti„n  of  1891   by 
«    .%'*''■"■*'•—■■  The  duration  of  the  rei^n  of  this 
first  Ph^oh  of  the  New  Empire  was  twenty-five 
years     He  was  succeeiknl  l>y  his  son  Amenholep 
I.  and  the  latter  by  his  sou  Tliothmes  I.     "The 
reign  of  Thi>thme»  I.  .  .  .  derives  its  chief  dis- 
tinction from  the  fact  that,  at  this  period  of  their 
history,  the  Egyptians  for  the  first  time  carried 
their  arms  deep  into  Asia,  overrunning  Svria 
and  even  invaiiing  ilesopotamiu,  or  the  tract 
between  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates.    Hitherto 
the  furthest  point  reached  in  this  direction  had 
been  Shanihen  in  Southern  Palestine.  .  .  .  Syria 
was  hitherto  almost  an  undiscovered  region  to 
li.e  powerful  people  which  nurturing  iu strength 
in  the  Nile  valky.  ha<l  re'mained  content  with  ita 
own  natural  limits  and  scartsly  grasped  at  any 
coniiuesls.     A  time  was  now  come   when  this 
comparative  iiuietudc  and  absence  of  ambition 
were  alniiit  to  ceasi-.     Provoked   by  the  attack 
inaile  upon  her  from  the  side  of  Asia,  and  smart- 
ing from  the  wounds  inflicted  upon  her  pride 
an<i  prosperity  by  the  Hyksos  during  the  period 
of  their  rule,  Egypt  now  set  herself  to  retaliate, 
and  for  three  centuries  continued  at  intervals  to 
pour  her  armies  Into  the  Eastern  continent,  and 
to  carry  fire  and  swonl  over  the  extensive  and 
ixipulous  regions  which  lay  between  the  Medi- 
terninean  and  I  he  Zagros  mountain  range.    There 
Is  some  iiiw  ertdinty  as  to  the  extent  of  hnr  rnn- 
questa;  but  no  reasonable  doubt  can  be  enter- 
t»ine<t  that  for  a  space  of  three  hundred  years 
Egypt  wu  the  most  powerful  and  the  most 


779 


EGYPT,  B.  C.  1700-1400. 


3V  TeU  Amamii 
Tabkt: 


EQYFT,  B.  C.  1500-1400. 


aggrewive  state  that  the  wnrld  contained,  and 
bem  a  dominion  tliat  lias  as  mucli  riglit  to  be 
called  an  '  Empire '  as  tiie  Assyrian,  tlie  Babylo- 
nian 07  tlie  Persian.  While  Babylonia,  ruled  by 
Arab  conquerors,  declined  in  strength,  and  As- 
syria proper  was  merely  struggling  into  inde- 
pendence, Egypt  put  forth  her  arm  and  grasped 
the  fairest  regions  of  the  earth's  surface/'  "The 
immediate  successor  of  Tliothmes  I.  was  his  son, 
■Thothmcs  II.,  who  reigned  in  association  with  a 
sister  of  masculine  cha.acter,  queen  Hatasu. 
The  strong-minded  queen,  moreover,  prolonged 
her  reign  after  the  death  of  this  elder  bnitlier, 
until  ft  younger  brother,  ThothmcsIII.  displaced 
her.  "file  Third  Tliothmes  was  the  greatest  of 
Egyptian  conquerors  and  kings.  He  carried  his 
arms  beyond  the  Euphrates,  winning  a  memo- 
rable victory  at  Ji^jiddo  ov.-thc  confe<ierated 
kings  of  the  Syrian  and  Xlew.potamian  coimtries. 
He  left  to  his  son  (Amenliotep  II.)  "n  dominion 
e.ttending  about  1,100  miles  from  north  to  south, 
and  (in  places)  450  miles  from  west  to  cist."  He 
was  n  great  builder,  likewise,  and  "  has  left  the 
imi)rcs3  of  liis  presence  in  Egvpt  more  widely 
than  almost  any  other  of  her  kings,  while  at  .he 
same  time  he  has  supplied  to  the  great  capitals 
of  the  mo<lem  world  their  most  striking;  Egyp- 
tian monuments. "  The  larger  of  the  obelisks  now 
standing  in  Rome  and  Con.Htanlinople,  as  well  as 
those  at  London  and  Xew  York  were  all  of  Ihtin 
produced  in  the  reign  of  this  magnificent  I'lia- 
raoh.  The  two  oiwlisks  last  named  stood  origin- 
ally, and  for  fourteen  centuries  at  the  front  of 
the  great  temple  of  the  sun,  in  Heliopolis.  They 
were  removo<l  by  the  lioman  Emperor,  Augus- 
tus, R.  C.  23,  to  Alexandria,  where  they  took  in 
time  the  name  of  Cleopatra's  Needles, —  although 
Cleopatra  had  no  part  in  their  long  history. 
After  nineteen  centuries  more  of  rest,  these 
stningily  lovctcd  monuments  were  again  dia- 
turU'd.  anil  transported  into  lamls  which  their 
builcliT  knew  not  of.  The  later  kings  of  the 
Eighteenth  Dynasty  seem  to  have,  none  of  them, 

Finssessed  the  energy  and  chameter  of  Tliothmes 
.II.  The  line  enderi  aliout  14(KI  B.  C.  with  llo- 
remheb.  wlui  left  no  heirs. — G.  Ifciwlinstm.  JJiat. 
nf  Anritnt  Kimpt,  ch.  •,'0. 

Al.so  IX:  il.  liruiisih  1!< y.  Kiiyi<t  niiilrr  th» 
I'/,iini<:liii,  fh.  i;t. — 11.  11.  (iorringe,  Kgyptian 
Oik  links. 

About  Bi  C>  I500*I400.— The  Tell  el-Amarna 
Tablets.— Correspondence  of  the  E^ptian 
kings  with  Babylonia,  Assyria,  Armenia,  Asia 
Minor,  Syria  and  Palestine.— "Tlii' disc  I'viry 
iiiiuli'  in  1^^*»  t»y  '*  ptiisiuii  woman  of  Miilille 
K:.'y]it  Muiy  be  descrilK'd  as  the  most  important 
(if  'ill  roiit'ribulions  to  the  early  political  history 
iif  \\  1  stirii  .Ksia.  We  have  become  pos.sessi'il  of  a 
inrrespomli  iic  e.  daliiiL'  from  the  lifteentL  .•ciitury 
H.  (".,  wiiic  li  was  r.'irricil  on  (luring  thi'  rciL'iis  if 
tlirie  K/yptian  kiiiL's.  with  the  rul'Tsof  Haiiylon. 
.\ssyri:i,  .\rminiM.  Asia  Aliiinr.  Syria,  and  I'alis- 
tiiu,  during  u  piriod  of  irnat  activity,  when 
revolutions  \vlii(  li  alTnidl  iliu  wlioii'  history  of 
the  i-ast  >lh.i,.  lands  uf  the  .Meilii.  rraiuan  wen; 
in  progress;  juid  we  lind  in  tliesi*  t;i'''e(s  a  con- 
Ie!iip'<rary  picture  of  tli<- eivilisatior  the  age. 
.  .  .  TlieTi  11  Aniarna  tablets  n•pre^  a  lilera- 
liiH'  (m|iih1  in  liiilli  to  alMiut  half  llie  IVnialeiiih. 
Mild  concerned  almost  cxi  Insivily  with  political 
iill.iirs.  They  are  day  lablils,  varying  from  two 
Inehi's  to  a  f()ot  in  leiiL'tli,  with  u  few  as  large  as 
eighteen  Inches,  covensl  with  cuneiform  writing 


generally  on  both  sides,  and  often  on  the  edges 
as  well.     The  peasantry  unearthed  nearly  the 
complete  collection,  incfuding  some  830  pieces  in 
all;  and  ezploren  afterwards  digging  on  the 
site  have  added  only  a  few  additional  fragments. 
The  greater  numlx-r  were  bought  for  the  Berlin 
Museum,  while  eighty-two  were  acquired  for 
England,  and  the  rest  remain  either  in  the  Boulak 
Museum  at  Cairo,      ,  in  a  few  instances,  in  the 
hands  of  private  collectors.  .  .  .  Tell  Amama 
(apparently  '  the  mound  of  the  tumuli ')  is  an  Im- 
portant ruined  site  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Nile, 
about  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  a  straiglit  line 
south  of  Cairo.    Its  Egyptian  name  is  said  to  have 
been  Khu-en-aten,  'Glory  of  the  Hun-disk.'" — 
The  TeU  Amarnn  Tablett  (Edinbtirgh  Iter.,  July, 
1893).—"  The  collection  of  Cuneiform  TableU  re- 
cently found  [1S87]  at  Tell  elAmama  in  Upper 
£gypt<  consisted  of  about  three  hundred  and 
twenty  documents,  or  portions  of  documents. 
The  British  Museum  possesses  eighty-two  .  .  . 
the  Berlin  Museum  has  one  hundred  and  sixty, 
a  large  number  lieing  fragments ;  the  Gizeh  Mu- 
seum bos  sixty ;  and  a  few  are  in  the  hands  of 
private  persons.  ...  In  color  the  Tablets  vary 
from  a  light  to  a  dark  dust  tint,  and  from  a  flesh- 
color  to  dark  brick-red.     The  nature  of  the  clay 
of  which  they  are  made  sometimes  indicates  the 
countries  from  which  they  come.     The  size  of 
the  Tablets  in  the  British  Museum  varies  from 
H\  inches  x  H  in.  to  2^  in.  x  \\\  in. ;  the  longest 
text  contains  9tt  lines,  the  shortest  10.  .  .  .  The 
gri'ater  numlier  arc  rectangular,  and  a  few  are 
oval ;  and  they  dilTer  in  shape  from  any  other 
cuneiform  documents  known  to   u.s.  .  .  .  The 
writing  .  .  .  resembles  to  a  certain  extent  the 
Nco- Babylonian,  i.  e.,  the  simplification  of  the 
writing  of  tlie  first  Babylonian  Empire  used  com- 
monly in  Babylonia  ami  Assyria  for  alKiut  seven 
centuries  II.  C^.    It  possesses,  however,  eliaracter- 
istles  different  from  those  of  any  other  style  of 
cuneiform  writing  of  any  perhxl  now  kni.wn  to 
exist;  and  nearly  every  talilet  contains  forms  of 
characters  wlilch  have  hitherto  Iwen  thought  pe- 
culiar to  the  Ninevite  or  Assyrian  style  of  writing. 
But,  compared  with  the  neat,  careful  hand  ein- 
ployeil  in  the  offlcial  (hwuments  drawn  up  for  the 
kings  of  Assyria,  It  is  somewhat  coarse  and  >are- 
less,  and  suggests  the  work  of  unskilled  8.    ,    'S. 
t ):ie  and  the  same  hand,  however,  npiK'ar    :■  '■   b- 
Icts  wliiili  come  from  the  same  [lerson  and  *'        .no 
place.     On  some  of  the  large  tablets  the  V        iig  l.i 
ls)l<l  and  free;  on  some  of  the  small  ones        char- 
aeters  an>  cunfusid  and  cramped,  and  ai    groups 
of   strokes   rather  tlian    wedges.     Tlii'   spelling 
...  is  oft<n  cariless,  and  in  some  instances  syl 
tables  have  Ihcmi  omitted.      .\t  present  it  is  not 
possible  to  say  whithir  the  irnifiilar  spelling  is 
due  to  the  Ignorance  of  tlii>  scribe  or  to  dialectic 
pecullurilles.  .    .   .  The  Semitic  illaliit  in  which 
tliise  lilti  rs  are  written  Is  Assyrian,  and  is,  in 
some  Important   details,   closely    related  to  the 
lleliri'W  of  \\\v  I1M  Testament.  .  .   .   'I'lie  diKii- 
incuts  wire  nio-t  probably  written  lietwcen  the 
years  15.  ('.  \'M)  to  1  l.^iO.   .   .   .  They  give  an  in 
siL'lit  into  the  imturi'  of  tlie  |Militlcal  nlallons 
«  liicli  existed  U'twecn  the  kings  of  Western  Asi  i 
and  the  kings  of  Kgvpt.  and  prove  that  an  Inipoi 
\    lant    traile   existed    lietween   the   two  countries 
;   from  very  early  times.      .  .  A  large  numjier  of 
■    liic  |ilv»<ill  lalilct»  ale  Hil(lrei.s<<l  to  '  the  ICuijIi.f 
I    Kgvpt,'  either  Ameiiophis  HI.  or  Amenophis  IV 
j  nearly  all  of  them  »-oii»i»t  of  n^ports  of  disasters 


780 


EGYPT,  B.  C.  1500-1400. 


Tlu  Tell  Amama 
TabUtt. 


EGYPT,  B.  C.  1500-1400. 


to  the  Egyptian  power  and  ofsuccegsf  ul  intrigues 
against  it,  coupled  by  urgent  entreaties  for  litlp, 
pointing  to  a  condition  of  distraction  and  wciik- 
ness  in  Egypt.  .  .  .  The  most  graphic  details  of 
the  disorganized  condition,  and  of  the  riv.il  fac- 
tions, of  the  EKVptiiin  dependencies  lying  on  the 
coastline  of  Phoenicia  and  Northern  Palestine, 
are  to  lie  gathered  from  a  perusal  of  the  dis- 
patches of  the  governors  of  the  cities  of  Byblos, 
Beyrut  and  Tyre."—  The  Tell  el- Amama  Tablttt 
in  the  Britiih  Muteum,  intrml. — "  In  the  present 
state  of  cuneiform  research  I  believe  it  to  be  im- 
possible to  give  a  translation  of  the  Tell  el- 
Amama  te.rts  which  would  entirely  satisfy  the 
expert  or  genenU  reader.  No  two  scholars  would 
agree  ns  to  any  interpretation  which  might  be 
placed  upon  certain  rare  grammatical  forms  and 
unknown  words  in  the  Babylonian  text,  and  any 
literal  translation  in  a  modem  language  wouli 
not  lie  understood  by  the  general  re-ader  on  ac- 
count of  the  involve*!  style  and  endless  repetition 
of  phrases  common  to  at^mitic  idiom  and  dialect. 
About  the  general  meaning  of  the  contents  of  the 
greater  numlier  of  the  letters  there  can  lie  no 
doubt  whatever,  and  it  is  there-fore  possible  to 
make  a  summary  of  the  contents  of  each  letter, 
which  should,  as  a  rule,  satisfy  the  general  reader, 
and  at  t  he  same  time  form  a  guide  to  the  l)eginncr 
in  cuneiform.  Summaries  of  the  contents  of  the 
Tell  elAmarna  tablets  in  the  British  Museum 
have  been  publisheil  in  'TlicTellelAmama  Tab- 
lets in  the  British  Museum,  with  autotype  fac- 
similes,' printed  by  orderof  the  Trustees,  London, 
ISiKJ,  and  it  is  hoped  thi-t  the  transliteration, 
given  in  the  following  pages  may  form  a  useful 
supplement  to  that  work.  .  .  .  No.  1.  A  Letter 
from  Egypt  —  Amenophis  III.  to  Kallimma  {•'.) 
Bin,  King  of  Karaduniyash,  referring  to  Ids  pro- 
posed marriage  with  bukharti,  the  daughter  of 
Kallimma-Sin,  and  containing  the  draft  of  a  com- 
mereial  treaty,   and  an  allusion  to  the  disap- 

Ecarancc  of  certain  chariots  and  horses.  No.  2. 
ctters  from  Bjiby Ionia  —  Burraburiyash,  King 
of  Karaduniyash,  to  Amenophis  IV.,  referring 
to  the  friendship  whicli  had  existe<l  between  their 
resi)ective  fathers,  and  the  help  whioh  had  been 
rendered  to  the  King  of  Egypt  by  Burralmrivash 
himself;  the  receipt  of  two  nuiiiahs  of  gold  is 
acknowledged  and  a  iietiticm  is  made  for  more. 
No.  3.  Burraburiyash,  King  of  Karaiiunlvash 
to  Amenophis  IV.,  complaining  timt  the  EL'vp- 
tian  messengers  had  visited  his  cuuntrv  thrice 
without  bringing  gifts,  and  that  thev  witldield 
.sf)mc  of  the  gold  which  bad  been  s<nt  to  lilm 
from  Egypt ;  Burraburiyash  announces  the  lies- 
patch  of  a  gift  of  lapis-iazuli  for  tlie  Egyp 
tian  princess  who  was  hisson's  wife.  .  .  .  Nn.'llO. 
Letter  from  Al>i-milki,  governor  of  Tyre,  to  the 
King  of  Egy|)l,  reporting  that  he  iK'lieves  Zini- 
rida  will  not  Ih;  al)je  to  stir  up  disalfretion  in  the 
city  of  Sidon.  although  he  has  caused  niucli  hos- 
tility against  Tyre.  lie  asks  for  help  to  protect 
the  city,  and  for  water  to  drink  and  wood  iMimrn, 
and  he  sends  with  his  messenger  Ilimiiki  t've 
talents  of  copper  and  other  gifts  (or  the  Kint'  of 
Egypt.  He  reports  that  the  King  of  Danuna  Is 
deail  and  that  his  brother  reigns  in  Ids  stead  ;  oi.i' 
half  of  the  city  of  Ugarit  lia.s  iH-en  destrov<  a  by 
fire;  the  soldiers  of  the  Khatti  have  ilijurted"; 
Itagamipairi.  sovemorof  Kedesh. aiid  A.-riri:  ari- 
Ughting  against  Namyawiza.  If  ti.e  iving  of 
Egypt  will  but  send  a  few  troops,  'ill  will  be 
well  with  Tyre   .  .  .  No.  43.  L»-tter  from  the  gov- 


emor  of  a  town  in  Syria  to  the  King  of  Egypt, 
reporting  that  the  rebels  have  asserted  their  in-" 
deiwndence;  that  Biridashwi  has  stirred  up  re- 
bellion in  the  city  of  Inu-Amma:  that  its  people 
have  captured  chariots  in  the  city  of  Ashtarti: 
that  the  kings  of  the  cities  of  Buzruna  and  Kha- 
lunni  have  made  a  league  with  Biridashwi  to 
slay  Namyawiza  (who,  having  taken  refuge  in 
Pamascus  and  being  attacked  by  Arzawiya,  de- 
clared himsi'lf  to  i)e  a  vassal  of  Egypt);  that 
Arzawiya  went  to  tlie  citv  of  Gizza  and  after- 
wards captured  the  city  of  Shaddu ;  that  Itak- 
kama  nivairerl  the  country  of  Gizza;  and  that 
Arzawiya  and  Biridiishwi  have  wasted  the  couii- 
try  of  Abitu.    No.  44.  Continuation  (?)of  a  letter 
to  the  King  of  Eirypt,  report  in  e  that,  owins  to 
the  hostilities  of  Abd-Ashirta,  Khava.  an  official, 
was    unable  to    send  ships  U>  tlie   country  of 
Amurri.  as,  he  had  promised.     The  ships  from 
.Vrvail  which  the  writer  has  in  his  charge,  lack 
their  full  complement  of  men  for  war  service, 
nn<i  he  urges  the  king  to  make  u.se  of  the  ships 
ami  crews  wliieh  he  lias  hml  with  him  in  Egypt 
The  writer  of  the  letter  also  urges  the  King  of 
Egypt  to  appoint  an  Egyptian  official  over'the 
naval  affairs  of  Sidon.  B»'yrut  and  Arvad,  and  to 
seize  AlKl-Asliirta  and  piit  him  under  restraint 
to  prevent  him  obstructing  the  manning  of  the 
ships  of  war  .  .  .  \o.  .11^.  Letter  from  the  gov- 
ernor of  a  district  in  Palestine  (V)  to  the  governors 
of  neigldHiiiring  states  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  in- 
forming tluni  that  he  is  al)Out  to  send  his  mc-s- 
.senger  Akiya  on  a  mission  to  tlie  King  of  Egypt, 
and  to  place  hinisi'lf  and  everv  thing  that  lie  has 
at  his  disposal.     Akiya  will  go  to  Egyjit  by  the 
way  of  Canaan,  and  the  writer  of  this  letter" sug- 
gests that  any  gifts  they  niav  have  to  send  to 
Egyi)t  should  \k  carried  by  hlni,  for  Akiva  is  a 
thon      lily  trustworthy  man."— C.  Bezoi'd,  Or.' 
eii'-       ii>li,ii,,iry  ;  Ikiur/ the  tr,uu<lilrnit,il  tiHof 
the       nirifiirm    Iknixili-heii,   pnl'iire.  —  Under  the 
title  of  "The  .story  of  a  'Tell,'"  Mr   W.  M. 
Flinders  Pilrie,  the  successful  excavator  and  ex- 
p!onr  of  Ejrvptian  antiquities,  cave  a  lecture  in 
Loudon,  in  .liine,   ISOa,  in  wliicli   he   descrilK-d 
the  -nr.K,  and  the  results  of  an  excavation  then 
in  progress  under  liis  direction  on  the  siipivisetl 
site  of  LachLsh.  at  a  point  w  here  the  maritime 
plain  of  Phili.stiu  rises  to  the  nioiiiituins  of  .Fudiva, 
on    tlie    route    from    p;gypt    into    Asia.      The 
(  hairman  who  IntrodTieedMr  I'llric  delined  the 
word  "Tell"  us  follows:  ".V  Tell  is  a  mound 
of  etirtli  showing  by  tlie  presence  ol  broken  pot- 
tery  or  worked   stone   that   it  is  the  site  of  a 
niineil  city  orvilhiL'e.      In  England  when  a  house 
falls  down  or  i>i  pulled  down  the  materiiils  arc 
usually  worth  the  ixiniKe  of  removing  for  use 
in  some  new  luiililin:.'.     But  in  Envpt  common 
houses  have  for  thousands  of  years  been  built  of 
Mill  dri«l  bricks,   in  I'alesliiii'  of  rough  rubble 
walliii::,  which,  on  falling.  priKlueesriianv chips, 
with  thick  Hat  p«)fs  of  plaster.     It  is  thiis  often 
less  trouble  to  get  new  than  to  use  old  material, 
the  sites  of  towns  grow  in  height,  and  depre's- 
sions  ari'  tilled  up,"    The  mound  excavated  by 
Mr.  I'etrie  is  known  as  Tell  el  IIe>y.     After  he 
left  the  wiirk  it  was  carried  on  by  Mr.  Bliss,  and 
Mr   I'etrie  in  his  lecture  says-    'The  last  news  is 
iliat  .Mr   liliss  has  found  "the  Ion'.'   looked   for 
pri/i-,  a  euneifcrm  talilit  .   Kr.-.m  tiip  rh.irar- 

ter  of  the  writiuif,  which  is  the  same  as  on  tlie 
tablets  written  iii  Palestine  in  14(X)  B.  C.  to  the 
Egyptian  king  at  Tel  el  Amarna,  wehaveacloM 


: 


i: 


rsi 


~il 


w^- 


m: 


■OTPT,  B.  C.  15»0-1400. 


Fknraohtwko 


EGYPT,  B.  C.  1900-«70. 


iii;': 


•gTMment  regarding  the  chronology  of  the  toiv  n. 
nirtber,  it  menttons  Zimrida  ai  a  goremor,  aii.l 
thii  same  man  appears  aa  governor  of  Lachisti 
on  the  Ubleu  found  at  Tel  el  Amama.     We 
bare  thua  at  lait  picked  up  the  other  end  of  th 
broken  chain  of  correspondence  between  Vulei-  ■ 
tine  and  Egypt,  of  whicli  one  part  was  »<)  une.v 
pectedly  found  in  Egjpt  a  few  years  ago  on  thi    | 
tablets  at  Tel  el  Amama;  and  we  may  hope  now   | 
to  recover  the  Palestinian  part  of  this  intercourse  , 
and  so  establish  the  prelsraelite  history  of  the  i 
land."— W.  M.  F.  Petric,  The  Story  of  a"  Tell"  I 
(Tht  aty  and  tht  Land,   Uct.   8).— See,   al«.    , 
PALasTimc.  1 

Aiao  ni:   C.   R.   Conder,    The   Tell  Aitwr-. ,  i 
TabUtt,  trarutcted. 

About  B.  C.   1400-iaoo.— The  first  of  th. 
Ramesides.— The  Pharaohs   of   the  Op.-^r-- 
sioo  )uid  the  Exodus.—  "  Under  the  Xinetetr.'!, 
Dynasty,  which  acquired  the  throne  after    ho 
death  of  Har-em-Hebi  lor  Hor-em-beb]  the  'or 
tune  of  Egypt  maintained  to  some  extent  '••-. 
ascendancy ;  but,  though  tlic  reigns  of  some     ai 
like  kings  throw  a  bi-iglit  light  on  this  Pi-och,      j 
shade  of  approaching  trouble  already  dai'tus 
the  horizon. "     Kamses  I.  and  his  sun,  or  S'     -i 
law,  8ctl  I.,  were  involved  In  troublcsomi'  ■•..i. - 
with  the  rising  power  of  the  Hittites,  in  Syrie 
and  with  the  Shasu  of  the  Arabian  descn.     9«' 
was  alio  at  war  with  the   Libyans,  who  thi  ; 
made  their  first  appearanc;  in  E^-yptian  history. 
His  son  Ramses  II..  tJii;  Sesostrit'  of  the  Greeks, 
who  reigned  for  siity  seven  years,  in  the  four 
teenth  century  B.  C  .  has  always  been  the  riosi 
famous  of  the  Egyptian  kings,  and,  oy  niod.'m 
discovery,  ha?  been  made  the  most  intcrpstini;  uf 
them  to  the  (  liristiau   world.     He  was  a  busy 
and  boastful  warrior,  who  accomplished  no  im- 
portant conquests;   Init  "among  the  Pharaohs 
he  Is  the  builder  '  par  excellence. '     It  is  almost 
impossilile  to  flud  in  Egypt  a  ruin  or  an  ancient 
mound,  without  reading'his  name.".  .  .  It  was 
to  these   w   rks,    probalily,  that    the    Urftilitcs 
then  in  Egvpt  were   fori*-!!  to  contribute  tlieir 
labor;    for    the    Pharaoh  of    the  oppn-ssion  is 
Identified,  by  mcrst  scholars  of  the  present  day, 
with  this  building  and   boasting  Sesostris.— F. 
Lenormant  and    E.    Chevallier,    Manual  vf  the 
Ancient  Hut.  of  tU  Ea»t,  bk.  3.  eh.  3.— "The 
extreme  length  of  the  reign  of  Ramses  was.  as 
hi  other  histories,  the  cause  of  subsequent  weak- 
nest  and  disaster.     His  successor  was  an  aged 
son,  Menptah,  who  had  to  meet  tlie  diflicuUies 
wliich  were  easily  overcome  by  the  youtli  of 
his   energetic  father.    The  Libyans   and   their 
maritime  allies  broke  the   long  tranquillity  of 
Egypt  by  a  formidable  invasion  and  temporary 
conquest  of  the  north-west.     The  power  of  the 
monarchy  was  thus  shaken,  and   the  old  king 
was  not   tlie   leader  to  restore  it.     His  obscure 
reign  was  followed  by  others  even  obscurer,  and 
the  Nineteenth  Dynasty  ended  in  complete  an- 
archy, which  rc^acned  iu  height  when  a  Syrian 
chic .    in  what  manner  we  know  not,  gained  the 
rule  of  the  whole  country      It  is  to  the  reign  of 
Hcnptali  that  Egyptian  'tradition  assigned  the 
Exoilua,   and   modem  rvsearch   has  come  to   a 

general  agreement  th;.t  this  is  its  true  place  In 
Igyptian  history,  .  .  .  Unfortunately  we  do  not 
know  the  duration  of  the  npprM«lnn  of  the  Israel- 
ites, nor  the  condition  of  Lower  Egypt  during 
the  Eighteenth  Dynasty,  which,  according  to 
the  hypothesis  here  adopted,  corresponds  to  a 


great  part  of  the  Hebrew  aojoum  It  is,  how- 
-ver,  dear  from  the  Bible  that  the  oppresdoD 
did  not  begin  till  after  the  period  of  Joseph's 
ccntemporarlss,  and  had  lasted  eighty  years  be- 
'  -e  the  Exodua  It  seems  abnost  certain  that 
•  ills  was  the  actual  besinning  of  the  oppression, 
for  it  Is  very  improbable  that  two  separate 
Pliaraohs  are  intended  by  the  '  new  king  which 
kr.'-w  not  Joseph '  and  the  builder  of  Rameses, 
or  ii  other  words,  Ramses  11.,  and  the  time 
U,'-.  'he  accession  of  Ramses  II.  to  the  end  of 
;>.  :  ■,  ah's  reign  can  have  little  exceeded  the 
ti^i.-  years  of  Scripture  between  the  birth  of 
Ilbecl  md  the  Exodus.  ...  If  the  adjustment 
"[  let-  ew  and  Egyptian  history  for  the  oppres- 
•.  iL  as  stated  above,  be  accepted,  Ramses  II. 
J  (     bably  the  first,  ani  certainly  tlie  great 

pprcv  jr.  His  character  suits  this  theory ;  he 
WF 1  SL  xmdouhted  autocrat  who  .  .  .  covered 
^.-  - 1 1  A  Lower  Nubia  with  vast  structures  that 
( 0' . .  ■  0  !y  have  been  produced  by  slave-labor  on 

ui'  iv.rr   rt  scale  "— K.  S.  Poole,  Ancient  Egypt 
;,;     ■.„^;    r,  -      .  .  r         ~»). 

A.'.,.o   V       "■    !•  ■         •■■^I;   ^SyP*    tender  the 

l\t.iriu-!t     •'i    It — tl.    0.   Tomkins,    Life   ami 

Tin.t  I  •■    '     /jA.— See,  also:  Jbws.  Thb  Chil 

•.8«       ■•  JtL  IS  'yJIPT. 

AuJ'i   i'.  ^.  l3ao.--Exodns  of  the  Israelites. 
SeeJ'-:    s     ',  rs  KoirrE  or  the  ExoDCS. 
Ab  >Ji  ?.  C  iaoo-*7o.— The  decline  of  the 

tTr.i.:.t  rl  the  Phataoha.— Fiom  the  anarchy  in 
which  the  Ni-ii  .eenth  Dynasty  came  to  iU  cud, 
order  was  presently  restored  by  the  seating  !n 
powe'  of  a  new  family,  which  claimed  to  be  of 
the  Rameside  eux^k.  The  second  of  lu  kings, 
who  called  himself  Ramses  III.  and  who  is 
believed  to  be  the  Rhampsinitus  of  the  Greeks, 
appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  ablest  of  the 
monarchs  of  his  line.  The  security  and  prosper- 
ity of  Egypt  were  recovered  under  liis  reign  and 
he  left  it  in  a  state  which  does  not  setm  to  have 
promised  the  rapid  decay  which  ensued.  "  It  is 
difficult  to  understand  and  accouijt  for  the 
suddenness  anil  completeness  of  the  collapse. 
.  .  .  The  hieratic  chiefs,  the  high  priests  of  the 
god  Ammon  at  Thebes,  gradually  increased  in 
power,  usurped  one  after  another  tlie  preroga- 
tives of  the  Pharaohs,  by  degrees  ri-duced  their 
authority  to  a  shadow,  and  ended  with  an  open 
assumption  not  only  of  the  functions,  hut  of  the 
very  insignia  of  royalty.  A  space  of  nearly  two 
centuries  elapsed,  "however,  before  this  change 
was  complete.  Ten  princes  of  the  name  of 
Ramses,  and  one  called  Merl-Tuiu,  all  of  them 
connected  by  bUnid  with  the  great  liameside 
house,  bore  the  royal  title  and  occupied  the 
royal  palace,  in  the  space  between  B.  C.  1280 
and  B,  C  1100,  Egyptian  history  during  this 
period  is  alniost  wholly  a  blank.  No  military 
expetlit  ions  arc  conducted  — no  great  buildings 
arc  reared  — art  almost  dhiappears  —  literatun^ 
holds  her  tongue."  Then  came  the  dynasty  of 
the  priest  kings,  founded  by  Her-Hor,  which 
held  the  throne  for  more  than  a  century  and  was 
contemporary  in  its  latter  years  with  David  and 
Solomon.  The  Twenty-Second  Dynasty  which 
succeeded  had  its  capital  at  Bubastis  and  is  con- 
cluded by  Dr.  Brugsch  to  have  been  a  line  of 
Assyrian  kings,  representing  an  invasion  and 
conquest  of  Enypt  by  NlmrcKl,  the  great  king  of 
Assyna.  Other  Egyptoiogisui  disagree  wiUi  l)r. 
Brugsch  In  this,  and  Prof.  Kawlinsun.  the  his- 
tOTlan  of  Assyria,  finds  objections  to  the  hypotiie- 


782 


Mam,  B.  C.  ISeO-erO        Ormlmat  NmwrotU. 


ri(  from  W«  own  Mint  of  view.    The  prominent 

^iSSf'ii'f'".?'  *''"  •haltered  Jeroboam,  In- 
^^.S^?""*"  ""*  plundered  Jenualem. 
Before  this  dyn«»ty  came  to  an  end  It  had  lost 
theroverelgnty  of  Egyptat  large,  and  Ita  Pha- 
raohs contended  with  vafiouarivaUand  invadere 

race  of  Ethiopiaua  who  had  rlaen  to  importance 
at  Napata,  on  the  Upper  NUe,  and  who  extended 
^^J"l  **.'"';  '""  the  whole  of  Egypt. 
,»  .Ki  ."P'.*"  'l<"n»n»fon  was  realntalDed  for 
two-thirds  of  a  century,  untU  the  neat  wave  of 
Assyrian   conquest  broke  upon   Egypt  in  672 

S;i  ."^•'''P"'!*!"'  '^''''''8  the  Ethiopians 
back  to  Napata  and  Meroe.-o'RawIinson,  W 
of  Anamt  Bgtmt,  eh.  25. 
Also  m:    H.  Brugsch-Bev,  I^mt  under  0, 

^r^i<"'^^f-i  '^^%ip*  of  ;L 

B.  C.  070-535.— Assyrian  conquest  and  re- 
stored independence.— The  Twenty-sixth  Dt- 

S^*'•~Jp^*^'f'^r■»N"=~«••-AlthoS7h 

Hyria  and  Palestine  had  then  been  Buffering  for 
more  than  a  century  from  the  conquering  irmi, 
of  the  Assyrians,  it  was  not  until  670  B  C    ac 
cording  to  Prof.    Kawlinson,  that  Esarhaddon 


EGYPT,  B.  C.  670-M6. 


much  has  been  Inmed  of  the  history  of  the  dty 

S.  fil!f 'y  '^'•J'oM  between  the  E/yptlans  ud 

S  Nl^^.ta^H*^'*"?""'"'  thatth/JetTm^ 
or   Waucratls  dates   from  about  660  B    C  — 

P«m,SK. '„***'■  ""^gfo-Jng  of  the  reign'of 
~^??K  ,)i''-.»°'l  "'»*  "»  Greek  founden  be- 
came the  allies  of  that  monarch  and  his  suoces- 

i^iTf  N  ™'»°  of /Mmmitlchus  and  Sie  foimd- 
•ng  of  Naucratis,  Egypt  was  a  aaileH  hnnk  b. 
the  Greek,     It  i.  lEf^  IL«  "thrpte^^^ 

Pharaohs,  were  admr-od,  where  aliens  like  the 
Greeks  were  excluded.   We  have  indeed  positive 

coinS '?'","'*  EKypHansdid  notwSLSge 
countries  to  learn  the  r  art.  for  in  a  treat  v  li 
tween  them  and  the  Hittltes'  it  ta  L?ipuKe7t£jt" 

from  the  other.  But  however  the  fact  may  be 
accounted  for  It  is  an  undoubted  fa<!'hSYonz 
before  Psammitichus  threw  Egypt  op.  nto^f 
I^rJL^l".';*-"'*'  Phoenicians  hal^ludiS  in  SS 


,°  ,,•"•:  ••""■""xiu,  vuai  £,sarnaddon 
Pttsed  the  boundaries  of  Egypt  and  made  him- 
self master  of  that  countrv.  fais  father  Senna- 
Sw  .,fh"f'"f"^A."'^  "'"''"'  thirty  years 
h!?^<i  r  ',^'"/  °^  *"*  >*"  ?«  of  Jerusalem,  and 
had  recoiled  before  «,mo  mysterious  calamity 
which  impelled  him  w  a  sudden  retreat  The 
son  avenged  his  fathers  failure.  The  EU.ioplan 
masters  of  Egypt  were  exp.  Ik^  and  the  A.^yVlan 
took  their  place.  H.  -brok  up  the  country  into 
twenty  go-  mmentE,  app<,i„(ing  in  each  town  a 
mierwho  bore  the  title  of  king,  but  placing  all 
the  others  to  a  certainextect  wler  the  authority 
of  the  pnr:  re  who  Kigt^i  Mempnia.  This 
was  Neco,  the  father  of  Psammetlchus  (Psama- 

^„  ti^'i.'"^;  ?8?J"»°  of  whom  we  have 

some  mention  both  iu  Herodotus  and  In  the  frae- 
mcnts  of  Manetho.     The  remaining  rulets  were 
likewise,  for  the  most  part,  native  Egyptians  " 
These  arrangements  were  soon  br,.keu  up  by  the 
expelled  tthio) m  king.  Tirhakah.  who  rallied 
his  forces  and  sw  -  pt  the  Assyrian  kinglets  out  of 
the  countrv ;  but  A.^shurbani  pal,  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  hsarhaddon.  made  his  appearance  with 
?°  »"'V, '»  8«8  or  687  B.  C  an.l  'Tirhakah  fled 
before  him.    Again  and  again  this  occurred,  and 
for  twenty  years  Egypt  was  U>m  between  the 
Assyrians  and  the  Ethiopians,  In  their  strucRJc 
for  the  possession  of  her.     At  length,  out  of  t! . 
chaos  produce,!  by  these  conflicU  there  emero 
a  native   ruler -the   Psammetichus  mention.-,! 
'^TlT  ^J'°  »ubj  "gated  his  fellow  princes  and 
established  a  new  Egyptian  monarchy,  which 
defen-le.l  itself  with  success  against  .Assyria  and 
Ethiopia,  alike.    The  Twenty  Sixth  Uynasty.  of 
hals,  found.  ,i  by  Psammetichus,  is  suspect«l  to 
have  t)een  of  Libyan  descent      It  rule,!  Egvr- 
unlll  the  Persiiin  conquest,  and  l"^  ught  u    •      ^ 
new  loliuencc  to  bear  on  the  countrrand  iw.pu 
->y  the  introduction  of  (}r..ek  soldierk  and  traders 
it  was  under  this  dynasty  that  the  Greek  city  of 
Naucratis  was  fouu.ied,  an  the  Ca     bic  branch  of 
the  Nile.- O.  Rawlinaon,    Thf  /•„*  Ortat  Mon- 
nrchut:    AMtt/riq,  fh.  9  —  Tlu-  =~c  ~.f  'Se,;-..  rssj., 
near  the  Canobic   branch  of  the  Nile!    w.«  de!   ] 
termined    by    excavations  which    Mr.   W    M    i 
Hinders  Petrie  began  hi  1884,  sad  from  which  ' 


unrfo  „»  I.  "Ji*^ — r  •  """  leainea  to  copy  all 
^ru  of  handwork  pr,Kured  from  the  valley  of 
rinr.;!  fi.  ■  i  ■  ■^'^'^''"''■'K  to  Herodotus  and  blu- 
fc  -i"*./"""'  '^°*''  'o  «»>«  Greeks  by  the 
King  was  the  cause  of  a  great  revolt  .  ,f  the  imtive 
EgypTan  troops,  who  left  the  fromi  rfortn  -es 
fh.t'"^?'!!-"'*  ""."'^  '^J'""'  Elephantine.  «  re 
nUtfe^.  '^k"'''*"''^,^''  ''^'  '••'"reaties  of  Ps.,m- 
mitichu.s  vho  naturally  deplored  the  loss  of  ■  ■  e 
Miamstay  f  his  doronuons.  and  developed  n.:» 
HeJ^lh  *  '\  t*''"^^^  Wiedemann.  hWeve^ 
fl^L  !#''  whole  story  .  unhlstorical.  and  cer^ 
1^ , Jin,  1**'  ''',°*t'.?,  ^'"^  ■■'■  "■  "  fontains  great 
Inherent  Improbabilities.  .  Psammitichus  died 
K    I         v^'"'  """^  "I"  succeeded  by  hU  son 

rt^ou°r'    TM.  Vf  ''''  f?""'   '°  e-X^Kfi*  and 
vigour    This  King  paid  great  attenti  .n  to  the 
fleet  of  Egypt     and    Greek   shipwrights  were 
Mt  to  work  on  both  the  Mediterrinean  and  Red 
Seas  to  build  triremes  for  the  State  navy.    A 
fleet  of  his  ships,  we  are  told,  succeeded  In  sall- 
^g  round  Africa,  a  very  great  feat  for  tb.  age 
Ibe  King  even  attempted  the  .«k,  of  whi      5ie 
completion  was  reserved  for  the  Perslar   I .    lus. 
the  Ptolemies,  and  Trainn.  of  making    i  -  itimi 
from  the  Mediterranean     .  the  Re,i  Sea     H.     u 
?iU*   5?y*  *''"'•    ■"*'    »..<:riflciri      the   liv.s  of 
180,^*110  men  to  the  Ubour  and  I      of  the  task, 
he  gave  it  up,  In  consequence  of     le  wamlnTrf 
M  oracie  that  he  was  toiling  only      r  the  barba- 
rians Necho.  like  his  fathe      must  ne«la 
try  tne  <    .-e  of  his  new  weafmn.  the  " 
cenaries    ,.n  Asia.     At  firet  i.e  wa^ 
Josiai     Kinp  of  Judah,  came  mt 
bu:  »  ;.  slain,  and  iiis  army 
Vtti.iur  carried  Necl      as  far 
.   .  .  But  Nebuchadui-  ;rar,  k 
Babylon,  marched  agaiKst  the 
feated  them  in  a  great  hnttle 
His  fiitliers  death  recall       hi- 

Egy,  •  ivas  for  the  mon     ;t  ?; 

inva.si    1  liy  the  stubhor 

Babylonian  arms  I" 

a  resistance  fatir 

lem  was  capliir 

the  Inhabitant      an 

mitlcbus  n..     bo  ^ 

knc-ff  but  litti-    »cr- 

record.     Heron   '\ia 

Ethiopia,  anil     ^  ^tvr 

Rut  of  the  ei^-tidmua  thu 


Ion 


78c 


t  mer- 
easfuL 
lust  him, 
<  cl.  Or,  k 
Euphra-  g. 
'  the  KlnK  of 
.  .,!,  rs.  and  de- 
ar ( archemlsh. 
0  Babylon,  and 
-,t  from  counter- 
ace  oilered  tu  the 
lel,  -.1^.  1,  Kmg  of  Judah, 
he  d,  wi«li  race;  for  Jeruaa- 
"r  a  lor  '  siege,  and  most  of 
dintf.  pti'.  ity.  Of  Paam- 
'  i   Nt<ii<).  we  should 

.or  the  Hrchaeotogical 
ily  aays  that  he  attacked 
reign  of  six  yean. 
^Qunarily  recorded 


EGYPT,  B.  C.  «70-8»8.  Pmian  Ctmvml.         KOYPT,  B.  C.  686-888. 


we  hare  a  lasting  and  memorable  retult  in  the 
well  known    inscriptions  written    by  lUiodians 
anil  otlier  Greek  merccuariea  on  tlie  legs  of  the 
colossi  at  Abu  Simbel  in  Nubia,  which  reconl 
how  certain  of  them  came  thither  in  tlic  reign  of 
Psammitlclius,  pushing  up  the  river  in  Ixiatg  as 
fur  as  It  W8»  navigable,  that  is,  perhaps,  up  to  the 
seronii  cataract.  .  .  .  Aprica,  the  Hophra  of  the 
llihlc,  was  the  next  king.    The  early  part  of  his 
rei>;n  w«h  marked  by  succcnful  warfare  against 
the  Phoenicians  and  the  peoples  of  Syria ;  but, 
like  his  pr<ilecea8i>r,  lie  was  unable  to  maintain 
a  fiKrtIng  in  Asia  in  the  face  of  the  powerful  and 
warlike  Nebuchadnezzar.     The  hostility  which 
prevailed   between  Egvpt  and  Babylon  at  this 
time  caused  King  Aprles  to  open  a  refuge  for 
those  .lews  who  fleil  from   the   persecution  of 
Nebuihaiinczzar.     He  askigneil  to  their  liadi'rs, 
among  whom  were  the  ilaughtcrs  of  the  King 
of  Juduh.    a   palace  of    his  own  at   Daphnae, 
•Pliaraiih's  bouse  at  Tahpanhes.' as  it  Is  calliil 
by   .leremiah.     That   pniphet    was   among    the 
fugitives,  and   uttend  In    the  nahuv  a  notable 
prophecy  (iliil,    0)  that   King  NebH<liailnezzar 
should  come  and  sprcail  his  <on<iueriiig  tent  over 
the  pavement  Inforc  it.     Formerly  It  was  sup- 
posiKl  that  this  prophecy  renuilned  unfulfilli'd, 
hut  this  opinion  has  to  lie  altandomnl.    Recently- 
discovend  Egvptlan and  Uali;. Ionian insjriptions 
prove  that  NcKuilmdiuiiar  coiKpiered  Kgypt  as 
far   as    Syene    .  .  .    The    fall    of    Aprles  was 
brought  aUiiit  by  his  ingratitude  to  the  tJreeks, 
and  his  conteinp't  for  the  lives  of  his  own  sub- 
Jeits      He  had  formnl  the   pMJect  of  tirliigiiig 
unihr  his  swav  the  (Jrirk  cities  of  tin'  Cyn'imiia. 
.  ,  .  April's  ifespatclHii  against  (  yreiie  a  large 
force;  liut  t he  (yreneanslinively  defended  them- 
nlves,  and  as  the  Kgyptiaiis  on   this  iKcaslon 
manhiil  without  tin  Ir  Gnek  allies,  they  were 
eiitlnlv  defeated,  and  mcwt  of  them  p«'rislied  by 
the  sword,  or  In  tin'  diirts  which  separate  Cy- 
reue   from    K(:.vpt.     Thr   defialiil    tnHips.    and 
their  country niin  who  remalniil  bi'hlnd  in  gar- 
rison in  Kgypt,  iinputiHl  thedinasler  totnwiiery 
on  the  part  of  Aprles.  .  .   .  They  nvidted.  ami 
chiBW  as  Ihilr  h ader  .\ma»ls,  anianof  esp^•ri^■ncl^ 
and  daring     Hut  Apries.  though  diwrleil  by  his 
sulijeets,  lioiml  still  to  maintain  his  llinmi'  by 
Qntk  aid.     At  the  heail  of  au.iNNi  lonhins  and 
Carians  he   inareluil   against  Aiiiasls      At   Mo 
meinphis  a  Iwttle  tisik  place  lietwi-en  the  rlvid 
khik's  and   iM'twiin   the   rival  naliims;  but   the 
nuniliers  of  the   Kgypllans   prevalhil   over   the 
amis   and  dlwlpllne  of    the    merc.naries,    and 
Apries  was  deflated  iiim"  laptunil  by  his  rival. 
Willi,   himivir.  allows!  hliii  for  some  years  to 
retain   the   name  of   joint  king.     It  is  the   Is'st 
piHMlhle  prisif  of  the  wilidily  of  Gn-ek  InlliKiKi' 
in  Kgypt  at  ihU  lime  that  Amasis,  though  si't  on 
the  lliroiie  by  thr  native  army  after  a  vlrlory 
over  till'  GnVk  mi  riinaries,  yet  did  not  e«|«l 
thesi'  latter  fMtn  Kfvpt,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
rnlM'd  them  to  highif  f.iv.uir  than  Is'fonv   .   . 
In  till-  ih'llghtful  dawn    d  eniinii  tiil   KiiM|i<'»u 
hl<ti>ry    we  se"  Amihi>h  a*  a    wiiu-  ami    wiallhj 
prltiie.  ruling  In  Kifvpt  at  the  lime  wlini  I'oly 
eraliswas  tvrtuit  id'  Hamo»;  and  nlun  Cnssus 
if  I.vditt.  thi-  rli best  king  of  his  lime,   w,i«  !,.■■ 
ginning  to  1h'  alaminl  by  the  rapid  e\pan-.ion  of 
III.    }>..r.i|>n    ;uiuir   iiiidir    CvniH  In    the 

ihni  if  I'MmiMiilirhus  III  ,  iln-  w f  Amasts, 

llie  storm  which  hud  overshadowi  d  Asia  broke 
Spun  Kgypt      t'ne  of  Ibelewlenof  the  Gn'ck 


mercenaries  In  Egypt  named  PhaDe*.  a  native  of 
Halicamasaus.  made  his  way  to  the  Persian 
Court,  and  persuadeil  Cambvses,  who,  according 
to  the  story,  had  received  from  Amasis  one  of 
those  affronu  which  haye  so  often  produced  wars 
lict  ween  despots,  to  invai'..  Egvpt  in  full  force."— 
P  Ganlncr,  A««-  Ouiiitrnin  llrtfk  llUtory.  ch.  7 
Kwo  III ;  W.  M.  F.  Petric,  Na»kratu.  —  See. 
also,  Naikr.\ti». 

B.  C.  535-333.— Persian  conqnett  and  iot- 
ereipitT.— The    kings  of  the  Twenty -Sixth  or 
Salle   Dynasty  malntaineil  the  Indenendenee  of 
Egypt  fi'ir  nearly  a  century  and  a  half,  and  even 
revived  lU  military  glories  brieliy,  by   Nechos 
ephemeralconiiiiests  in  Syria  and  his  overthrow 
of  Joaiah  king  of  Juilah.     In  the  meantime.  A.h 
Syria  and  lialivlonla  had  fallen  and  the  Persian 
iiower  niised  up  by  t'yrus  had  taken  their  place 
In  his  own  time,  Cvnis  did  not  finish  a  plan  of 
conquest  w  liieh  included  Egypt ;  his  son   t'am 
bvses  tisik  up  the  task.     "It  appears  that  four 
veam  wen'  eonsumeil  by  the  Persian  monarrh  In 
lilsprepanitions  for  his  Egyptian  expedition      It 
was  not  until  B.  C.  52,5  that  he  entered  Egypt  at 
till-  iH-ad  of  his  troops  and  fought  the  great  battle 
which  decliUiI   the  fate  of  the  country.     The 
struggle  was  long  and  blixsly  [si'c  I'kksia:  B  C. 
.'>4»-Sai  I      Psammenltus,  who  hail  succetMled  hit 
father  Amasis,  had  the  se'rvlivs,  not  only  of  his 
Egyptian  subjects,  but  of  a  large  lioily  of  mer 
cenaries  liesldes,    Greeks  and   Carians.  ...  In 
spite  of  their  courage  and  fanaticism,  the  E(tyi) 
lian  army   was  completely   defeatwi.  .  .  .  The 
conipiiHt'of  Egvpt  waa  followeil  by  the  sulmiis 
slon  of  the  neighlHiurIng  tribes.  .      .   Even  the 
tireiksof  the  more  remote   Bares  and   Cynne 
sent  gifts  to  the  coniiuenir  and  consentiHl  to  lie 
come  his  tributaries.''     But  Camlivses  wasleil 
no.iMN)  men  In  a  ilLsastrims  ex|i<'illt[on   through 
the  Lllivan  ilea«'rt  to  Ammoii,  and  he  ntreali^ 
fnmi    h!thiopia   with  hiss  and  sliunie.      An   a 
templed  rising  of  the  Egyptians.  Ufon-  I.e  had 
iiultltil  thilr  coTmtrv.  was  erualieil  with  nieni 
less  severity.     The  deities,  the  temples  and  the 
priests  of  kgypt  were  tri'atitl  with  insult  and 
contempt  Bnil" the  spirit  of  the  (s-ople  seems  to 
have  Isin  entlnlv    liroken.      "Egypt    U'caim- 
now  for  a  full  geiierallon  Ihi-  olwriiulous  slave  ■.( 
Pirsltt,  and  gave  no  more  trouble  to  her  suliju 
gator  than  the  wi-akest,  or  the  most  eonlinli-<l, 
of  the  pMvlnci-s.' — tiisi.    Uawllns'in.    Thr  /■'im 
Cniil  duuirfhi.t:  I'lrnn,  rh    7—  'The  Persian 
kings,  from  CamiiyM's  to  Darius  II    Nothus.  are 
enMlled  as  the  Twenty  Seventh  D>  nasty  of  Man 
vthii      The  ensiiiiiif  fivolts  t«'e  Atiikns    II  C 
Wl  44111  are  niognlnil   In   th.'  Twenty  Eighth 
(Salti-l  Dnia..ty.  consisting   only   of   Amyrl.ein. 
» ho  ^■s^o^^sl  the  Inileiwmlenir  of  Egypt  (II  t 
414  4ii"i.  and  the  Twiiily  Ninth  (MiiidisUiiiiind 
Thirlieth iSelsnnylei  llyiiasllis  (alniiit  II  (     4os 
a.Vli,  of  wlew  liitricatV  history  we   mid   •>iily 
hi  ri' say  that  thi  v  nihil   with  gri-at  proi.|Mri(.v 
and  have  left  Is'aullfui  numumenls  of  art      Th. 
last  king  of  Indi'i"  lull  tit   Egypt   was  NeitaiMli" 
II  ,  who  s.uciiiml»'d  lo  tin- lnva.ilon  of  .\rta\it 
xes  Gihiis.    and   Ihil   to    Eildopia  (B    ('    H^li 
The   last  thni'  kirn;,  i.f  Persia.  (Khus.   Ar^- 
and  Itarius  Cislomannus.  form  the  Thirty  Eli»i 
Dynasty  of  Mamtho,  ending  with   the   »uliml« 
sion  of  Etf.Mii   to  Ak-xanih-r  the  Gri'sl  (B    < 
.i;t-.'i     — i'   nmiili.  Anntil  liM  ••fl!>»  k-i-ti.r:.. 
ilrnW).  rh   " 

Al«>l!i:  H   Bbarpe.  i/iW  '^  Knt*.  i-A-« 


784 


EGYPT,  B.  C. 


Kttmlom  of  tlie 
Ptotemiet. 


EGYPT,  B.  C.  32»-30. 


B.  C.  33a— Alexander'!  conquest.—"  In  the 

ofTyrj.— B«.  PviiE:  B.  C.  33>.  .md  Macedosu 

Ills  manli  towiinl  Ejtypt.  accmpmiinl  l,v  il„. 
flcrt   wliirli  lie  lind  pl,i,-,.,l  under  tlic  or-lors  of 
Ilciiha-stion.  •     But.  iKiiig  dctain.d  on  lli..  wiiv 
w-v<ral  moutlis  l,y  the  sif^-e  of  G,iz,,.  it  was  not 
iKfore  llfocmUr  that  he  entere<l  E^vpt      •■  H„ 
inii-ht  mfely  n-.>koii  not  men-lv  on  at"i  easy  ton- 
■luest   but  on  an  anient  rewptlon.  from  a  peopl,. 
who  Mirat  to  sliak..  .,IT  the  Persian   tvnumy 
.   .       Ma7.aees[ihe  Persian  eomman.!er|  /liniself' 
as  »<«,n  .ui  l„  heard  of  the  battle  of  Usus.  herame 
avian-  that  all  nsistance  to  Alexander  would  1h' 
useless  and  met  him  with  a  vnhintarv  sul.ml» 
sion      At  I'elusium  he  found  the  fleet. "and   hav 
InK  left  a  irarrison  in  the  fortri'ds,  ordert.l  it  to 
|.r<K«.d  up  the  Nile  as  far  as  Memphis,  while  he 
manhed  a.-ross  ihe  desert.     Il.re  lie  e.melllaled 
f-»-;vi>iians   hy  the  honours  wlii,  I,  he   paid 
o  all    their  p,,.  e.,H.dally  to  A|.is,   who  had 
iKi-n  so  ( riielly  insulted  l,y  the  P.  rsiaii  invaders 
He   thin   euiliarkeil,  and   dropi   down  the 
western  or  Canoliie  „nii  of  the  rl%er  to  Cauo- 
ms    to  Mirvev  th,.  extn-niily  „f  th.    IKIta  ,m 
tla   sde     and    havlni;    s.ailed    naiud    the   lak.. 
Mareotis,  landrd  on  il„.  narmw  Ult  of  |,„v  .,n,und 
which   parts  ,t  from   the  stni,  and   U  shelten.l 
Iroiu  Ilievlolenee  of  the  northern  pahs  by 

a  iMij;  ridce  of  PKk,  then  s-paraied  fn.m  the 
nmlu  lai.,1  by  a  elmnnel,  nearly  a  mile  (s< v.u 
»  a.hsi  bn»id  and  fonninK  <he  Isle  of  Phar.«  ( m 
this  site  st.KKl  ll,..vo,„ire  of  |{«,„i.,.  „.i«.r,.  „„, 
a neient  khii-sof  Kcvpt  had  station,  1  a|Mnnamnt 
^uanl  to  jirotec  t  this  entrance  of  ti ,  .r  dominion, 
(n.m    adventur.Pi.  Alexan.les  s    k«n  eve 

was  Immediately  «iruek  by  the  advanlajfes  of 
this  position  for  a  .lly,  v»hieh  should  Is.n.me  a 
jrnnt.niisirnim  of  •..miuerre,  and  a  link  lstw.,.n 
the  Ust  and  the  \V,,I.  .  .  II,.  |„,me,llat,.|y 
pave  onhrs  f„r  the  ,h  ,;inninir  -f  the  work  him 
wif  tra.>-.|llieoutlin,',  nhi,  li  was  »uiri;,-st>d  by 
the  naumil  f.alures  of   il„.   pn,uii,l    li«|f    „iid 


mark.Hl  ilM.,|i,.of  ^,mf  „f  „„,  nrincipaV'bu'lId! 
iiiifs,  s.|uan-»,  imlwes  aii,|  t.inr.U-  (si^e  \irx 
AM.KIA  B  «•  .W,  Al,xa..d.r  r,malne,|  in 
Kirypt  until  th..  .pH,,^.  ..f  itti,  arranplni;  the 
"<_vui»ill,.n  >ui,|  a,lminMratl..n  ,.f  ||„.  ,„umrv 
rh.' system  wlileli  h,.  ..»tabllsli.Ml «  rv.il  in  some 
||ol.il.  as  a  m..l.  1  f„r  ll,e  p,ili,v  „f  U,,„„.  ue  l.-r 
I  .■•  hmiH.ror.  "  Ifc  r.r.  ,,ult,|„«  ,i„.  ,.„„„,ry  h.- 
m...I..  a  Icilsom.-  manh  alonp  th..  ckisi.  «,■,! 
wanl.  an<l  lli,n,,.,  far  itiio  the  ,],■«  ri  lo  visit  the 
famous  ora.l,.  of  Amnion  — C   Tlilrlwall    H,,/ 

ff  't  tf,  »v,  r't     ."hi 

o.^;     C.     3»3-3a-The     kingdom     of     the 

Pol.m}..,.-ln    llH    ,IIM.l„u  .Ttl,,.  .m,.ir..?.' 

i,.!i'i,""'l'i"' ,"'■'■'"  !"■'"'■'■"  '''^  '-"■"••"I"   »ii"i 
h.     ,li,_,l,     |M,,|,  my    l.a-.ti,  ..  n  put.d    to    I..    „ 
ti.iural  son  ..f  Al.  X  iii.l.r  s  faih.  r  Philip  .    ,  |,„„, 
h.-.vpt  iMv  M»,  n.,M»     II  ,     :,...:,  ;,,„',    „„,, 
m,-l,;siy   « 1,1.1,  ,,r„v,..l  i„  1^.  „),.      |„   ,||  „ 
pr..un.,.s  of  ||„    Ma. ..Ionian  ...n-.u..,.    |i  «,„ 

I..-  .,.,,Btry  m..M  Vastly   i„  )».  |„./,|  „,  „ |, 

I'y.l.nt  slat.-,  bv   nas-.u  .>f  th.'  ».  n  aii.l  d.-xrl 
»l.,.bs.pttra!..|   i,   fr,mi  th,-  r.  ,t  of  ib,.  w„rl,l 
ni.»,ille,l   f^m,  II,,.  prmhrneof  Pi.-hnu    il.al    , 
If  fo,in,|,.d  a  k„,K,lom  which  lasb.l  Urngtr  nii.| 

t  itJcVrij  iniitfi  u.u*i;i>{»>;  :5;;;l     j-,r.u-;     s^'i—    .1  -- i 

"liar  amon„   ||„.  m,-,„„re|il..s  oril,,'   i»i:;,'i„'|,Y    j 

V.Mr,    r  J'"'  V'  ^i?**'".'    '"  '*'■'■    '"f->'>i'e,n 
ream    hcfor..,   In  80»,   U.   f ,   fa,  twninsl    to 


SO 


78A 


assume  the  name  (see  Macebosia:    B.  C.  310- 

^1  *„„■)■;'""","'•  ''"''";'  "''•''^'  tohisilominion 
t^,.'  ittle  (Jr,..k  state  of  Cyn-ne,  on  the  African 
ejMst  with  Ph,e„ieia,  Ju.W,  C.ele  Syria,  and 
tlelsla„,lof(.j.,r„.  These  latter  bc-canie  .lis 
puted  t.rniorT.  rmriit  over  f,.r  two  centurie. 
t?mes''."n'l''V';'7"'^'?'"«'  ""-■  S'k-eicis,  «W: 
,  o,  ,"r  ""i  '■•*■  •'"■  '""■  ""■'  »"n,etlmes  by 
"ll-is'',*T!' ■"''■■■''*''"•'■  "•  f-  -•Sl-224,  ami 
.'.fTh.. 'p,  1  •""  «"■;"'•'*'  <"""■»'■  "le  ilominion 
«  n  of  ,'.""■'""■'*:  un.l,.r  Ptolemv  I'liila<l,.lphu9. 

Asia   Minor  an,l   many   of    the   Or.-.k   islands 

an.c     imtl    }{,,„w  absorlnd    them.       Notwith- 
sl.-.n,  ,mr    |,i.  y  ,.«  whi.h  the  family  of  Ptolemy 

as  bMorj  can  show.  Epvpt  iiii.h.r  their  ruin 
apr«ars  to  have  ls.,.n  ..neof  il,,.  in.  st  pr  ,Vm.mi« 
'■'-""tries  of  ,he  time.  In  Ah.xa«:  r  ,  ."^  .T,^^' 
l..n  n,ih/e,l  the  dream  of  its  Ma-vdonhi,,";? 
J.. tor  Th,.v  made  it  not  only  the  wvaltlliest 
city  of    heir  .lay.  b,it  the  gr,.atjst  s.-at  .1     era' 

if'T"-' ■,'"'''r""'"f  ^^""■"''  "«  t'"^  -apitalof 
«lr.'.k   <ivjhi.all„n    In    the    an.l.nt    worl,l -8 

;'■•;"'>•  ';'"li«.te.l  In  favor  .,f  his'son.  P  ..[."my 
I  hila. hli.hus.    in   JRJ   B    (■      „,„,    u^,   ,      ^^ 

^;r"ir"  'vl',';'""'r  ,^"  "">'--"':''  V 
,  f  V"        r    •^'"""'-1'  ""■  poMtl.al  .onslituthm 

fell  let'.  r'^'Vi"  «•■'■"".*•  "'"■■■'•■I  «lien  11...  lai.,1 
f.  II  into  (.r,.,k  laials.  v-.f  in  oil,,.,  r.s.K.ts  preat 
ehanir,.s  t,.,U  plae..      th,.  m,.re  fact  that   Kpypt 

nalt.ns  i,',  r't"",""?'  ■"  ■'""'">■  "'  "-"cniilic 
nali.ns.  tiiM.ad  of  elaimiup  as  of  ol,l  a  i.roiul 
solatl,.ii.  must  hav,.  l,a,l  „  pr,.,„  ,.ff,.,.,  }„\^^ 
trad.-,  the  nunuf.-atuns.  an.l  lb,,  cusb.n.s  of  the 
,'  -n     ^'''"■'■'"'.  "'tl'   trad...       Iiui.r   the 

1.,.:.  •  kllL'S  U.y|,t  |„„|  ^nu;]Y  «n  .  xiemal 
ra.l,..  an,l  tnul,- ,„„l,l  «.ar,.,.ly  si'Tinp  up  ,lurinJ 

nt,.n.,urM.    s.|«,,.„  r.ay       :,„,|  hi.iiy,  .Syri,,  ,^ 

iTn?  "'i"'''  """""<>  ""'I  »>-<-.'ss..ri!v  n,'lvamt. 
r.ipldly       Kpypt  pn,|u,.,M  maniifa,  tun.l   p,H«|, 

nh.ehw.r..  ev.rywlar,-  In  ,lenmn.l.  I |i„,  „ 

lyory  pon.lain.  n.iably  that  pai.vru.  whkli 
l-.iryi.t  al„n..  pr.»lu,..,l,  an,l  ubi,  |',  ,1;,,  ,„,.,..^,nr 
.,  Ilie  nn.wliK  tri.le  111  ii,aiiii«ripN      Ariill,  lal 

of' r  '„.'n,r"'''i''r"  """"  ".';  '""n'risinp  im.l.rs 
.,f  (  omilh  and    lanLtuin.  Kpb.  ,„>  „„.|   m„.|,.,. 
wouM   imturall*    «.  k    ili,^.   o«hI.    i„    K.-ypt 
■riiiirinirm  r,i,.ni   »l,,t,  v,r  ot  m,,,i  atlruifv,. 

probabl,.  II,  ,t  ,1,..  Mil.j,.,.  „,  ,|„.  Ptohmh.. 
«M..ni  or  11,  «.r  h.„l  ib,.  ,oura,.,  m  ,«,il  ,||r, n 
,"«„  lb,-  U..1  N,.  ,„  |„,1|„,  |„  |i„u„.„,|„„, 
lliH  ^..,^aL^■  ts'i  am.  n..t  unusual,  but  at  an 
.arll.r  iiin,.  ||,..  I,„|i,,„  ,r,„|..  „„,  prln.  Ipally  in 
be  batMl.  of  th,.  .\rab,  „f  V,  m.n  and  of  the 

.'■^ '   "i'lf  ,    N.-.r.h.l. ,.n,n,.r,e  .,f 

t-.-u-r  un.hrtl,,.  It,.l,  uii,  ,  .pr.a,|  ,asl«ar,l.  a» 
«,||    as  »..!« ml.       1 1,.    Imporlam   b,wi„  of 

Ar.iiH^'  „t,.l   Ifchui,,    at,™ ||„.   |(„|  H,.,,  a, 

en.i-ita  ,1  lb.  Arabia.,  Iia,l.  .V„,"  ^^  „|«^v, 
h.|.|Hn<  »li,n  Kif>f  in  i„  vl,..,n,„«  baiHU.  il„. 
III,,,,-.  ,.f  Ktf>l''lau  nil.-  aii.l  .,i.„m.r.-,.  w.re 
|",<b..|  furth.r  aihl  furibtr  u|>  ih.  Nile  The 
oillux  Int.,  AU-v.n,|rla  aii,l  M,  inphi.  „f  a  .n.w.l 
,'1  IJr.ek  anhli...  Is.  artists  and  arilun.  .,..j!,J 
ie.I  rai,  1,,  |,r..i„,eiiiMV,.m..ni  In  thai  strt^im  .if 
art  wbb  h  ha.l  in  Kxyi.t  lotn;  r,  iiiain.sl  all  hut 
siairimni  If  «.■  may  trust  the  •.■mcwhat 

ovrr-culuunsl  an.1  rtUhlT  iwneitrria  wbtek  have 


i 


EQTTT.  B.  C.  828-80. 


Jndmrttulbmaiit.       EOYFT.  A.  D.  1380-15<f. 


come  down  to  ui,  the  material  pmgnm  of  Egypt 
under  Ptolemv  Philadelphiu  wm  matt  wonder- 
ful. We  read,  though  we  cannot  (or  a  moment 
trust  the  figure*  of  Appian,  that  In  hi*  reign 
Egvpt  poMMied  an  army  of  900,000  foot  aoldier* 
and  40,000  horsemen,  WW  elepbanU  and  8,000 
chariot*  of  war.  The  fleet  at  the  lame  period  is 
■aid  to  have  included  1,900  large  Te**els,  soma 
of  them  with  twenty  or  thirty  banks  of  oars. 
Allowing  for  exaggeration,  we  must  suppoie 
that  Egypt  wai  then  more  powerful  than  It  had 
been  since  the  days  of  Rameses." — P.  Gardner, 
JVew  Chapter!  in  Oreek  Ilittory,  eh.  7. — See,  also, 
Albxandria:  B.  C.  883-346;  and  Edccation, 
Ancient:  Alexandria. 

B.  C.  80-48. — Strife  ameaK  the  Ptolamica. — 
Roman  pretenaiona.— The  throne  of  Egypt 
being  disputed,  B.  C.  80,  between  Cleopatn  Bere- 
nice, who  had  seized  it,  and  her  step-son,  Pto'  .my 
Alexander,  then  in  Rome,  the  latter  bribca  the 
Romans  to  xiipport  bis  claims  by  making  a  will  in 
whirh  he  nttnit-d  the  Roman  lii'publlc  ss  his  heir. 
The  nntv,  thin-nt, s<'nt  him  to  Alexandria  with 
onl<  i-i  that  Ben-uice  sliould  marry  him  and  that 
they  slinuld  reign  jointly,  a*  king  and  queen. 
The  order  was  obeyed.  The  foully  mated  pair 
were  weddc^i,  and,  nineteen  day*  afterwaida,  the 
young  king  procured  the  death  of  his  queen. 
The  crime  provoked  an  insurrection  in  which 
Ptolemr  Alexander  wa*  slain  by  liiit  own  guanl. 
Thiscnditl  I  he  legitimate  line  of  the  Fu>lrmiesi 
but  sn  illcgitiumte  prince,  usually  called  Auletes, 
or  "the  pTper."  wa*  put  on  the  throne,  and  be 
aucceedetl  ill  linlding  It  for  twenty-four  years. 
The  claim  of  the  Romans,  untter  the  will  of 
Ptolemy  Alexandi-r.  Be<-ms  to  have  liecn  kept  in 
alievancr  bv  the  brilies  which  Auletes  employed 
with  liberality  among  Hie  senatorial  leaden.  In 
08  B.  ('.  a  riHing  at  Alexandria  drove  Auletea 
from  the  thrDiic.  in  ,V(  B.  t'.  he  bought  the  *up- 
port  of  (labiniuii.  Roman  nro-cimsul  in  8vria, 
who  reinatnti'd  lilm.  He  die<l  in  51  B.  ('.  Icsv- 
ing  by  will  bis  kingdom  to  his  elder  daugh<  .T, 
Cleopatra,  and  \\U  elder  son.  Ptolemy,  who,  ac- 
conling  to  the  nlKiniinable  custom  of  the  Ptoleml<>s, 
were  to  marry  one  kiioiIut  anil  n-Ign  logi'lber. 
The  Roman  li'ople,  by  the  t4'rmsiif  llie  will  wen- 
nuule  Its  exiH'iiUirH  When,  therefore,  Civsar, 
coining  to  Alexandria,  thn-e  year*  afterwards, 
fiiiind  the  will  of  Auleti'S  set  at  nought,  Ploh-niy 
iKM'iipyliig  the  throne,  alone,  and  ('letipatra 
struggling  against  hini,  he  bad  some  ground  for 
a  pn?t«'n»l(in  i>f  right  to  Interfere. —8.  Hharpe, 
Hut.  'jf  t^/iii'l.  fh    II. 

B.  C.  a8-47.— CiTil  war  batwMO  Ciaopatra 
and  Ptoltmy.  -  Inttrvention  of  Casar.— Tha 
riaing  acainst  him.— Th*  Romaot  boaiagad  In 
AlaBandria.  —  Thtir  ruthtata  vlctaty.  See 
Ai.KXANimiA:  R.  ('  4)M7. 

B,  C.  30.— Orgaaitad  at  4  Rouwa  previaca. 
—After  lue  iMitle  of  Acliiim  aixi  the  death  of 
('leo|iatra.  Egypt  was  reduce)'  'ly  Drtavlus  t<>  tlie 
rank  i>f  a  Itonian  province  ami  the  dynasty  i/f  the 
Piiik-mii-s  <'Xtlngiii»he<l  But  OcuViini  "'h»il  im 
intention  >if  giving  to  the  senate  the  rich  domain 
which  he  ton-  fMm  Its  native  rulers.  Me  would 
not  sow  In  a  fonign  soil  tiie  sewi*  of  independ- 
ence which  he  waa  Intmt  upon  cruahing  nearer 
home.  ...  In  due  time  he  ptftuaded  the  senate 
and  people  to  raisbiixb  it  is  a  pricripl^,  that 
Egypt  anoukl  never  tie  placed  uncter  the  admlota- 
tratlim  of  any  man  »(  auperior  rank  to  the  aques- 
tftaB,  aad  tiiat  no  asnator  abouM  be  allowed  even 


to  visit  it,  Whhout  e«pie«a  permiaalon  ftMB  the 
aupreme  aotfcority."— C.  Merivale,  BM.  </  th* 
Bamatu,  th.  tt. 

A.  D.  loo-SOfc— Romaa  and  Christiaa.  I>f« 
AlexandkiaTB.  C.  48-47  to  A.  D.  418-418, 
and  CHRnmABiTT!  A.  D.  M-W).  and  100-813. 

A.  D.  396.— RevaU  cmahad  tj  Diocletian.' 
See  Albxakdria:  A.  D.  898. 

A.  D.  6i«-4s8.— CMneat  bj  Choorect,  the 
Pcraiaa. — The  career  M  conqueat  pursued  by 
Choaroea,  the  laat  Peislaa  conqueror,  extended 
even  to  Egypt,  and  bevoort  it.  "  Egypt  Itself, 
the  only  province  which  hail  been  exempt  since 
the  time  of  Diocletian  from  fneign  and  domeatic 
war,  waa  again  aubiiued  by  the  luccesaors  of 
Cyrua,  Pefusium,  the  key  of  that  Impervious 
country,  waa  aurprised  by  the  cavalry  of  the 
Persiana:  they  paned  with  impunity  the  innum- 
erable clianiiels  of  the  Delta,  and  exploml  llie 
long  valley  of  the  Nile  from  the  pyramids  of 
Memphis  to  the  confines  of  iGthiopia.  Alcxatulrin 
might  have  been  relieve<l  by  a  naval  force,  but 
the  arcbbiabop  and  the  pnefrct  embarknl  for 
Cyprus;  and  Choaroea  entered  the  second  city  of 
the  empire,  which  still  jin-si'rved  a  wealthy  rem- 
nant of  industry  and  commerce.  His  wiiilcni 
tmphy  was  erected,  not  on  the  wall*  of  Cartliai:i', 
but  in  the  neighlxwrhood  of  Tripoli:  the  Onik 
colonies  of  ("jrene  were  finally  extirpated. "  Hy 
tlie  peace  concluded  in  888,  afier  the  desth  of 
Chosroes,  all  of  his  conquests  were  restonil  to 
the  empire  and  tlie  cities  of  Syria  and  Egypt 
evacuated  by  their  Persiaogarriaons.—E.  Oiblion, 
Dfetine  and  fhtl  of  thr  Rnman  Bmpirt,  eh.  it.— 
See  Persia:  A.  D.  2-'"  ««7. 

A.  D.  640446.— Moslam  cooqacat.  tV>'  Ma- 
hometan ('oN<jrE»T:  A.  D.  •4t>-J846. 

A.  D.  967-1171.— Uader  the  Fatimite  Ca- 
liph*. See  Mahometan  CoHqcEsr:  A.  I>  «•»- 
1(71. 

A.  D.  ii6S-iaso.— Ua4*r  the  Atabeg  and 
Ayoabit*  aultaaa.  See  Saladin,  Tbk  kmimkk 
or. 

A.  D.  iai>-i*ao.— lawaioa  by  the  Fifth 
Cmaada.    See  CnuaADEs:  A.  I)   ISK-lS-Jfl 

A.  O.  ia49-itf)a.  —The  craaadiag  invaaion 
by  Saiat  Loui*  of  Franc*,  t^v  ('Hri>*i>Kii: 
A.  I).  1848-1354. 

A.  b.  iaso>i5i7.— Th*  Mamalakc  Sultan*.  - 
Tlie  Mamelukes  were  a  mllltarv  body  cn-*tiil  liy 
Saladin.  "The  woni  mi-ans  ufave  (literally  '  Ibt- 
iiosseiMieil  ■).  and  .  .  .  they  were  brought  In  youth 
from  nortliirn  countries  to  serve  Ui  tlw  Sniitli. 
Saladin  bimM-lf  was  a  Kurd,  and  long  lafori'  liU 
accession  to  power,  Turkisli  ami  Kuniinh  iinr 
cenaries  were  cinploynl  b'  the  t  Bllphs  of  Bagdoii 
and  Cairo,  OS  the  Pope  en  I'ys  Swiss.  .  .  Sub- 
■cquintlv,  however,  Clrci-^iia  U'cunin  tb<>  coun 
try  wlilch  nrnat  I'lrgely  furnlsheil  this  riots  of 
lnM>p»  TiM'lr  appn-ntlceship  was  a  king  sihI 
laborious  one :  tliey  were  taught,  first  of  all.  t<l^'Hll 
the  Koran  and  to  write .  then  followwi  lance  e»rr 
lise.  during  which  time  nolMKly  was  silowcil  lo 
aiM-ak  to  ihem  At  first  thev  either  resiiteil  In 
the  csiitle,  or  were  exerrinMl  living  umlrr  ItuIk, 
but  after  tlie  time  of  SulUn  Barkouk  tliey  wire 
allowed  to  live  in  tlie  Uiwn  [Calni],  and  tbi-  quar- 
ter now  occupied  by  the  Jews  was  at  that  iIiik' 
ilrvote.1  to  (he  Circassian  Mamelukes.  After 
this  pcrirni  ihrj-  nr^irrinl  Ihrif  fri:;;rHH^  V-^ 
warlike  exercises,  ami  Itecame  degenerabt  awl 
corrupt.  .  The  dynasty  of  Sahdio  .  waa 
of  BO  dttiatk»,  aad  rode<l  in  <M8  A.  II.,  or  ISH 


788 


KOTPT,  1980-1517. 


n«  JCMMMtat. 


LdYPT,  1808-18U. 


|uk«of  the  sultan  Nepn-ed-dto  haring  lod^ 
IsUnd  In  the  Nile  (Bahr-en-Nll). 


uo  luKiwi,  tne  AdUBuu  ut  hue  xiiie  iDuir-en-x^ii) 
The  intriguer  of  the  period  wm  Sheger-ed-dur 
the  widow  of  the  monarch,  who  mmrried  one  of 
the  Mameluke.,  Moe«  eddin-aibekel-TurcomanT 
who  became  the  flnt  of  thew  Bahritc  Sultaii' 
and  was  himself  murdered  in  the  Castle  of  Cairtj 
through  thU  woman.  .  .  .  Their  subsequent  hU- 
torr,  untU  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  Sultan 
Sellm  in  1817,  pre«into  nothlng%St  a  «rie.  of 
acta  of  lust  murder  and  rapine.  80  rapidly  did 
they  expe!  each  other  from  power,  that  the 
average  rcign  of  ecch  did  not  exceed  fire  or  six 

iSfl-hli.  '  "«  ^l^  I^P'™  '»  'he  spectacle 
whicli  these  .Mameluke  Dynasties  constantly  ore- 

iton^  V.  1,  eh.  t>-5. 

A.  D.  i5i6-i5i7._OTeithrow  of  the  Mame- 
juke  Snitans.— OttOfflaa  conquest  by  Suitaa 
S«J»m.     Set-  Turks:  A.  I).  14»?-1520. 

A.  D.  i79».i7«9._The  French  conquMt  and 
occupation  by  Ktampartc.  8t^.  Franc.:  A.  D 
1788  (May— Aloi-BT),  and  ITOft-lTW  (Aoacw— 
AcarsT). 

A.  D.  I798-I790.— Bonaparte's  orffanisatloa 

J!^"  *'>  P«nce.     See  Franck:    A.  D.  1788- 

A  (•);<■'"  "—Ai'ousT),  and  \',Vi  (NovajiBmR) 

V    .    '••?•— D'»«ont««t  and  diacouran- 

T5i  »?•",?  Pjeoch.-Tha  rtpudiatad  TrtTty 

R«»oit  crushed  at  Cairo.-Aaaaaaiiutien  of 
Ktbar.    8f«  Jhakck:   A.  D.  1800  (Jakcaby- 

JUnK). 

^  the  En»il.h.-Restora«on  of  th«  prorioco 
to  Turkey.    h«t.  Khan,  k:  A.  D.  IHOI-IWCJ. 

'All;,?if'^'""."TT''«  "••  •'  Mohamaad 
Aly  (or  Mchemet  All)  to  power.— Hia  traach- 
•roua  destruction  of  tha  Mamelukea--It 
wasiliirinB  111  },, mil, Pupation  that  Moham- 
niad  Aly  for  Mtheniil  Ali|  came  on  tho  scent- 
He  was  born  in  1768  at  the  AlhanUn  port  of 
Jiaballa,  anci  liy  the  patronage  of  the  go-  Tor 
was  sent  lo  Kgypt  in  imi  with  the  rontln«,  tof 
tniops  f»riil«li,M  by  Kaballa  to  the  Ottoman 
army  lh.n  o|wrating  with  the  EnglUh  against 
the  iVnch.  lie  rapidly  n«,  to  the  oomnuSliof 
the  Amaut  or  Allwnlan  section  of  the  Turkish 
army,  and  scon  found  himsilf  an  important 
facuir  in  th,.  confusci  political  po.ition  which 

ti     «      i*'i* „'''•'"•."'!"'  "'   ""'  British  army. 
The  .M.mluk  Ifcys  ha<t  mit  been  r<>st<>re,l  to  their 
former  posts  as  pMrlncial  goTcrnors.  and  were 
c.«s.|Hiently  ri|H>  for  revolt  against  the  Porte 
but  tiKir  party  was  w.-akenwi  by  ih..  rivalry  of 

dlvi,l.il  iMir  followers  Into  two  h.«tlle  ramps. 
On  the  other  band,  the  Turkish  I-aslut  appolnt'd 
by  the  Horte  had  not  yet  gained  a  flnii  grip  of 
the  cuntry.  and  was  nerpetually  appr..ft,n,lvo  1 

at  the  hiMMl  of  his  Albanians  was  an  in.imnsnt 

-J'/"'-/'  4""  *''*''  •"  •«■•"'•  "<'  h'  '"llv  sp 
Jiwtoted  bis  pasitt<».     II.  pUyed  off  on.-  party 

-!!tS,"lf  "•^'-  't'  P»^  "plnst  the  IJeys,  I 
WoOBsafully,  that  ha  not  ooW  weakennl  both 

■^  »>■•■.?  matir  the  people  or  Ci,,,,  »i,„  were 


SKj?7j?.l!l5?^i  "'  *'••'"''"'  •«»  Turk 
vu»,  kliflmfrtsadt;  aad  at  itatnfbnd 


him- 


787 


self,  with  becoming  hesitation,  to  be  persuaded 
Zi.  «P*™"y?'  ™  popuhM»  to  become  [1808] 
their  ruler  and  thus  stepped  to  the  supremi 
power  In  the  curious  guise  of  the  peoples  fHend. 
A  fearful  time  followed  Mohamiad  'Alys  el™: 

F^;;;'°VK'=^",.7;i';z'° "» govemo>»hipof 

SS£V  IJ'L^K  ***  f"^'  KhSrshid,  held  the 
citadel,  and  Mohammad  "Aly,  energetically  aldad 
by  the  people  of  Cairo,  hlj  siege  to  it.    FroS 

from  the  heighu  of  Mukattam,  the  besiegeia 
poured  their  ifre  into  the  citadel  and  KhurSld 
th?  dtv  "  Th  "  •■«««^ri'°l"«f  cannonade  S^n 

2»^„!/r  r'v'l^'  » '""••'■g"-  arrived  from  Con- 
stantinople bringing  the  confirmation  of  the 
pop..ar  vote,  in  the  form  of  a  firman,  appoint 
'"?.*''*ammsd  Aly  governor  of  Egyp.  '^^ur- 

amusi-d  themselv,,  in  the  approved  Turkish  anS 
(even  worae)  Allmnlan  fashiol.  bv  making  Lv^ 

„..i^i!:illf^'''J'"',''  '"'^'"-  MohamnSd  'A^ 
now  possessed  the  title  of  Governor  of  Egypt 
but  Uyond  the  walls  of  Cairo  his  authorit/^w 
everywhere  disputed  by  the  Beys.  .  An  a? 
tempt  was  made  to  ensnare  certain  of  the  Beva 
^n"iI;!;^'?.K'"■?°lP***  "o"''  ■•'  «•■«  metropolis 
tanal  of  Caliw  was  Ui  be  cut,  and  some  chiefs  of 
Mohammad    Aly  s  imrty  wn.te  informing  them 

1:ImT  \  "'  ''.'"  '""'P"  '"  *'""■»«  «'"-'  ceremony: 
<l.-celv..  them,  stipulating  for  a  certain  sum  of 
money  as  a  itwanl.  TKe  dam,  however  wm 
™i.r''''  '".V'"  l'«'«''"''*f  night,  witbou    any 

hT-^v'  t!Ju  ""■'■'  -*•"''"''»•  »  »ery  numerous 
iKMly,  broke  open  the  gate  of  the  suburb  El- 
Hjwey-niy.li  and  galniil  mlmlttance  inU)  the 
•  ity  .  Tliey  marched  along  the  nrlncinal 
.  tt^t  for  «,me  distance,  wlU.  ketth-dnnnX: 
Hind  each  company,  ami  were  n-ceived  with  an. 
paretit    ,.y  by  the  dtizm.      At  the  mo*,ue  call.,1 

I  ^.1      ."".r"'  ."'.'^  "■P^'W,  one  i«rty  pro- 
ceeding  U)  the  Axliar  ami  the  houwf  of  «rtain 
sfteykhs    and  the  other  party  conllniiiug  along 
the  main  stiwt,  and   through   the  gate  calle3 
Bab  Zuwevleh    where  tliey  turneii  up  towards 
the  elladel      Hcrj.  they  were  flml  on  by  some 
soldiers  from  the  houses:  and  with  thU  /jnal  a 
terrilile    niamaere    coinmeuetHl.      Falling    bark 
towani*  their  rompanionn,  they  found  the  by- 
streets  cl.*..!:    and   In   tluti   part  of  the  main 
thoroughfar..  called  B.yn  el  K'«„eyn.  they  wen, 
suililenly  plat-e,!  In-twetn  two  flrm      Thus  shut 
up  in  a  narMw  street,  some  sought  refuge  in  the 
<-"ll.>[Ute  ii..»,,.,e  of  the  Barkukiyeh,  while  the 
remamler    fought    their    way    through    their 
enemies,  and  es<-a|ird  over  the  rity  wall  with 
th.   I<»s  of  their  bor«e«,    Two  Memluks  had  in 
the  meantime  su.e,-e.l„l.  by  great  eiertlons,  in 
giving  the  alarm  to  their  c.mni.ie«  In  Uie  guar 
i.r  of  Uie  Ashar,  who  escaped  by  tlw  rastem 
gate  wllrd  Uabel-Ghureyyib,     A  horrible  fate 
awalte,!  ilioK.  who  ha<l  shut  themselves  up  In 
tl».    Barkukiyeh      lla.Ing   l«.gg,.,i    f„r  quirier 
an.l  surr.fi.lere.1,  they  were  luimr.llatelv  stripiied 
nearly  nuke.1,  ami  sIhhu  fifty  were  aUughlered 
on  the  soot:  and  aboijt  the  sa^-M  Eamher  w=t? 
.Iragge.laway  The  wretched  oaptlvaa  were 

then  ehaiaed  ami  left  In  the  murt  of  Um  Paaha'a 
haom;  aMioBilM  foMowtaf  aoimlM  tk^l 


i'i 


EGYPT,  1808-1811. 


ir<kelM(  AH, 

ond  after. 


KGVPT,  184a-18«>. 


of  their  comrade*,  who  hwl  perUhed  the  d«y 
before,  were  skinned  and  stuffed  with  gtraw  be 
fort-  their  eyes.     One  Bey  and  two  other  men 
mid  their  ransom,  and  werp  r-'leiifeed ;   the  rest, 
without  exception,  were  topi-reii.  and  put  to 
death  in  the  course  of  the  >•'.  -^wini  night.  .  .  . 
The  Beys  were  dishearU-u -U  by  tills  revolting 
butchery,  and  most  of  th.ni :  tin  li  to  the  upper 
country.     Vrgetl  by  Eii)t'.and,  o.-  more  probably 
bv  thJ  promise  of  a  t.ribe   from   fcl-Elfy,  the 
r'ortc  began  a  leisurely  intcrftrmee  In  favour  of 
the    Memluks;     but    tht    failure    of     El-Elfys 
treasury,  and  a  handsome  bribe  from  Mohammail 
•Aly,  soon  changed  the  Sultan's  views,  and  the 
Turkish  fleet  salU-d  awav.  ...  An  attempt  of 
the  English  Oovemment  to  n-s.lorc  the  Memluks 
by  the  aotitm  of  a  fnrre  of  .l.tX)!*  nun    under 
Ch'neral  Fraser  ended  In  disaster  and  huiniliallon, 
and  the  titUena  .if  ChIm  hiul  the  satisfaction  of 
seeing   the  lieails  of    Englishmen    exposed    on 
stakes  in  the  Kuliekiyeli.     Mohammii.l    Aly  now 
adopted  a  more  eoiiciliBlory  tMilley  tow^irds  the 
Hemluks.  gnintwl  them  land,  and  encouraged  ^ 
them   tj  ntum  U)  Cairo.     The  tlemency  w^as  ; 
only  assuniitl  in  onler  to  prepari'  the  way  for  ; 
the  act  of  consummate  treachery  which  finally 
upriM.ted  the  Menduk  power.         .  Early  in  the   j 
year  l(<tl,   lhi>  pn^parations   for  an  expedition   i 
igaliwt  the  \Valdiiibi»  in  Arabia  lielng  complete, 
all  the  MemlukBe    .  then  In  Cairo  «en>  inviled  | 
to  the  i-eremonv  of  lnvc*tini<  Mohammad  'Aly  »  | 
favourite  son.  'Tusun,    with  a  peli.sne  and  the  I 
tomniiwd  of  the  armv.     As  on  the  fomier  nm 
•ion     the    unfortunate    Menduks   fell    into    the 
snarl'.     On  the   l«t  <if   Man-h.  HImliln  Ifcv  and 
tlH- otliirchief«(one  only  excepU-dt  re  painil  with 
their  nMiniicH  to  the  citadel,  and  wert'  ciiurteously 
ri'dlviil  bv  till'  I'asha.     Having  taken   colTee 
they  fornird   in   procession,  and,  pn^-eded  and 
followeil  liy  the  I'ttsha's  lri«)l>s,  slowly  descended 
till-  steep  anil  nnrrr)W  road  leading  to  Ihi.'  gmit 
gale  of  the  citadel ;  but  as  si»>n  as  the  Memluks 
arrivetl  at  the  gate  it  wm  suddenly  clos»'d  lafori' 
them      The  last  of  those  who  made  their  exit 
bi'fore  -he  gale  was  shut  were  All...idans  uniler 
Malih  Rush,     T.i  tliow-  tniops  their  chUf   no» 
madi'  known  the  I'asha's  onlern  to  massacn'  all 
thi'  Ml  mluks  within  the  citadel;    llienfon' li:iv- 
Ing  niuriiiil  bv  another  way.  they  gained  'lie 
■ummlt  of  the  walls  and  housi's.  that  hem  in  the 
roful   in    which   the   .Memluks   wen-,   and   si.nio 
Btalionid  themselves  u|M>n  tin-  inilnemiK  of  tlie 
rixk   thn.uirh   which   that    rtn'\   i»   partly   cut 
Thus  M'l  iin  Iv  plmed.  they  eoiiiniiniiil  a  heavy 
tin-  MM  iliiirilifeiirili««vlitimH,  and  immediatel; 
the  tMiips  who  I  loMil  till'  pnsi-ssion,  and  who 
bail  the  ndvanlngr  <•!  lilghiT  gmuiid,  followed 
Ihiir  i\:ini|>li-  tTu   Mi  iiduks  entenil  the 

elladel.  iiiid  of  llic"'  »'ry  few.  If  any,  ewnisil 

O f  iliise  is  said  to  ImvelsTn  a  Hey      Acioni 

ing  to  «ome.  Ill-  liiipid  his  horw  from  tin-  ram 
piirti  and  iillu'liliil  iminjunil.  tliough  the  hor*- 
was  killrd  bv  llie  full  (Mlier*  Bsy  tlinl  lie  w«« 
pri'ventid  from  Joiiiint'  his  iiiinrailes.  and  di" 
covend  the  Inai  l..fv  wliile  wailing  wilhi.ul  the 
gate  111.  Il<.il  and  made  hiswny  to  Svria  This 
iiiii-siirn-  was  the  .-i^nal  for  iin  liiill«<riminate 
^Inuiililir  of  the  Memluks  tlir.iugliout  Egypt, 
..niirs  to  this  effect  lieing  Iraiismilliil  to  every 
«<iv.-mor  and  in  Cain  lt«lf,  Uie  housis  of  the 
I»e,H  wen>  given  over  to  the  Hiidkr),  vtlm 
ilaiighlenil  all  their  adlM-rents.  tmit«l  their 
woDwn  in  the  miml  »ham*le»«  mauner,  and  wrked 


their  dwellings.  .  .  .  The  last  of  his  rivaU  btlng 
now  destroyed,  Mohammad  'Aly  was  free  to 
organize  the  administration  of  the  country,  and 
to  engage  In  expeditions  abroad  "— S.  Lane- 
Poole.  &vpt,  eh.  8. 

Ai*o  is;  a.  a.  Paton,  Ili't.  of  tht  Egyptutn, 
BeniMiim.  r,  2.  .... 

A  D.  1807.— Occupation  of  Alexandria  by 
the  Eneliih.— Ditaatrous  failure  of  their  ex- 
pedition,    tki'  TiRKs;  A.  I).  IWHUwiT. 

A.  D.  i83i-i840.— Rebellion  of  MehemetAli. 
— Succeaaea  afaioat  the  Turks.  —Intervention 
of  the  Weatem  Powera.— Egypt  made  an  he- 
reditary Paahalik.    See  Turks.  A     I>.    IS:ll- 

A  D.  1840-1869.— Mehemet  All  and  hia  auc- 
ceaaora.— 'The  khedivea.— "?  he  opening  of  the 
Suea  Canal.—  "By  the  treaty  of  lS4lt  iHtwini 
the  I'oni'  and    the   European   Powers.  .   .  .  \\H 
title  to  Egvpt   having   la'cn  .  .  .  alHrnuil  .  .  . 
Mehemel  .\li  devotwl  himself  during  the  next 
seven  years  to  the  social  and  material  iniiir  .ve- 
ment  lif  the  coiintr)    with  an  iiirgregate  .  '    re- 
sulu  which  lias  fixed  his  place  in  history  as  the 
■Peter  the  Oreaf  of   Egypt.      IiuIwhI,   except 
some  aildltions  and  further  reforms  made  ihirinz 
the  reign  of  his  reputed  grandson.  Ismail  |•a^lul. 
the   whole  administrative    system,    up   till   !'« 
than  ten  years  ago.  was,  in  t!ie  main,  his  work; 
and  notw'ithstanding  many  admitted  defects.  It 
was  lit  Ills  death  liicimi|ianiblv  the  most  clvilim-il 
and  .  'Hcient  of  tliin existing  .Mussulman  (iov,  rii 
nuii:        In  1H4H,  this  great  satrap,  then  ver.L'ing 
i  on  his  eightieth  year,  was  attacked  by  a  menial 
I   malmly,  induceil,  as  It  was  said,  by  a  potion  ad 
I   ministereil  in  mistaken  kindness  by   one  of  hii 
own  daughters,  and  the  goviniment  was  tuki  ii 
over  by   his    idoptiii  son.    Ibrahim   I'aslm.  ihe 
hem  of  Koiimli   and    Nezlb.      lie   lingered   till 
.\ugust    1«4W.    but   Ibrahim    had    already    ytv 
deceased  him;  and  Ablma,  a  son  of  tin'   luit.r, 
succtiiled  to  the  vicin-gal  throne.     Thoiik'li  liorn 
and  bnil  In   EgviU.  Abtias  was  a  Turk  of  tin' 
worsttyiK'  — Ignorant, cowanlly,  sensual,  faiiutii, 
and  op"pi»teil   to  refonns  of  every   wirl.     Thus 
his  feelile  nign  of  less  than  six  years  was.  ii; 
almost  cv.rvthing.  a|HTiislof  retMgnssion     On 
H  night  in  .liilv,  K>4.  he  was  strangled  in  lu^  sin  p 
bv  a  couple  of  his  own  slaves.  —  arliiiL'.  il  wiis 
viirloUKlv  said,  on  a  sicnt  imler  from  Coiisiii.ti 
nople   or  altlie  Ishest  of  one  of  his  wive>      1" 
Alilias  Kiieeiided  ^nld,  the  thini  son  of  Mi  In  im  I 
All.  an  andalile  and  lilsral  niindi d  |.rini.    wl,.. 
retrievisl  miiih  of  the  mlsihhf  done  by  his  prr 
diiess.ir.   bill    linked    the    vigorous   inlellii.- nre 
and  force. d  rlianii  Irr  reiiuinsl  to  ( urry  011  Ilir 
gn-iit  work  iHirun  bv  lil«  fiitlier     His  riii:ii  ""1 
U-  chietiv  meuionilili-  'or  the  eoiieessioii  and  1  om 
mencemi'iil  if  Hie  f'Ui  v  Canal,  the  roloss:d  work 
which   while  iKiiillliiig  the  tnide  of  th.'  worll. 
has  lost  so  mm  h  to  Kgyiit      .'*iild  dii  il  In  •!  i"u 
iirv    IWI.    and    was   succeeded   by    hi»   niplii" 
Isiimil  I'lislia,  llii'  second   son   of    llmihlm      S* 
most   of  111!    Ic.ulinu'    imidruls   of   Mils   I'riin.  ^ 
fi.jgn   |„  ,,',«,  tin-  1  hii  f  fealuns  of  Ins  ehaneur, 
an'  still    fnsh   in   Hh'   piil'lii    memory.    I  n-d 
nil  H'lv  niall  a  few  of  thr  inon'  siili.  iit  of  Is'iM 
\iiiorigstlhe  fonner.  history  will  une  tin    llr-i 
plai-e  to  his  creation  of   the   huge   pubhi    di  1 1 
whieli  forms  the  main  element  of  a  jinihlem  lli.il 

Impartlsl  Judge  will  at  least  e.iuallv  blame  llie 
flnanclal   panaen'rs  who  ministered  to  his  ex- 


788 


EGYPT,  1840-1869. 


Soudai 


•I  of  tht 


EGYPT,  1870-188a 


'ZTZuou^^'TtZ^'on^tT'^T-    i   "«'"«"«'  '"to  various  convention,  with  Eng. 

say  tlmt  Ismail   ;   Powers  of  the  sincerity  of  lii«  intentions,  he  con- 
j  sentcil   to   put    the  wiuiitorial   provinces  under 
I  tlie  lulMiinistmtion  of  an  Eun-jeun  officer   who 
sliould  be  commissionid  to  carry  on  the  work  of 
,   repression,  tomiuest  and  orjritnisation  that  liad 
[   l>eincommen<T(I  liy  Balier.     Ilischnic..  fell  upon 
:i  man  of  <-xc-ptional  ability,  a  brilliant  officer 
riiin.il  at  ttiM.hvidi,   who  had  already  gained 
liijrli  riiiown   in   China,   not    only   for  mililary 
:   taicm.   but    for    hi.4   adroitness  and  skill  in   ne- 
).'Mliaii.m  and  diplomacy.     This  wasColonel  Gor- 
don, luindiiirly  known  as  'Chinese  Gordon  '  wlm 
WMs  n.iw   to  add   fnsli    lustn>  to  his  name  in 
tjiypt  as  (.onion  I'aslia.     Gonlon  was  appointe<l 
Oov.niourUenerul  of  the  Siiudau  in  1874      With 
him  wtriMissocialcd  Cliaille  Lim^.  un  Ameri<an 
..iHcr.  wlm  « as  chief  of  hissLitt;  the  Gentian, 
l>r.  hiiiiii  tllendi.  mediral  ,,nic,r  to  tlie  exiMdi- 
tioii;  LuutcuiintsChippemlull  and  Watson    Uessi 
and  hemp,  enijineers.  .   ,   .  Thenceforward  the 
temlones.  .,f  which  so  little  had  hitherto  laen 
kmmn,  bicaine  the  continual  stvne  of  military 
movements  and  seientiric  excursions.  .  .      The 
Soudan  w.is  mi  far  counuend  as  to  lie  lieid   by 
alMiut  u,|,,/,,.ii  military  outpiwts  stationed  alone 
the  Nile  fn.m  Lake  Xo  to  Ijik,  ^  .Vllurt  ami  Ibni- 
him.   .  In   IN76  Gordon  wi  mi  Imck  to  Cairo. 

.>evenh<iiss.  altlioutfii  he  was  uiarieil  with  the 
continual  sirui,';;le  of  the  past  two  years   worn 
down  by  tlie  inci-ssant  labours  of  internal  organi- 
sation and  L'roL'rapliieal  investit,'utioiis,  disheart- 
cmil.  t.«..   by  the  Jialousies.  rivalries,  and  in- 
trl>:ues..|  all  around  him.  and  bv  the  ill  fcdini; 
of  the  v.ry  people  wlioiii  the  Kheilives  (ioveni- 
meiit  h.'id  sent  to  «iip|H)rt   him.  he  consented  to 
return  airain  to  his  post ;  this  time  with  the  title 
of  (iovern.iiir  (ieiieniinf  the  Niudaii.  Darfur  and 
tlie^Kipiatorial   l'r..\  iiics.     .\t  the  lieirinniiJK  of 
ICi  1  he  t.Hik  iMwsession  of  the  Government  palace 
at    Khartoum.  .      .   KKyiitian    authorllv.    allied 
with    Kiirti|).-aii    civilisation,    ap-winil"  now   at 
leUL'th  to  U'  lakiinr  some  holi!  on  the  v:irious 
districts,  and  tlu'  Cairo  Govenimeiil  mijrlil  li.>;iu 
to  liK.k  lorwanl  tn  a  time  when  It  ei.uid  ivi  kon 
on  some  rewanl   f..r  its  laU.iirs  and  s^o  rilieis. 
I  he  area  of  the  new  Kjjypti^.if  S.udaii  had  how 
Income  imm.nse      InM^-raphiiallv.  its  ei  nin-  In- 
cluded the  entlri'  valley  of  the  .Ni'lf  pn.|H  r.  from 
Ih-risr  to  the  great  lakes;  i.ii  the  ea-I  were  such 
jiorili.ns  .rf  the  valle.vs  ..f  ihe  llliie  Ml.'  and  At- 
bara  as  l.iy  oiitsi<le  Aliy.s.Mi,ia.  ami  em  ibc  west 
Wire  the  distrii  tt  watereil  bv  tin'  Hahrel(;ha/al 
and  till-  liiiiir  elAnib.  riglitaway  to  tin-  e.iiilliies 
of    Wadiii       .   .    ''iifiirfiimlrly  'ill    1n;i»    I.Hhiail 
I'aslia  w.is  depciinl,  .nv].  in  tile  grievous  I...,,  (if 
the  Nmdaii.  linnhic  Viis  recalh-d.     As  tin    im- 
mediate lonsi'iiiirnie.  thr  eiMiiiirv  fell  bill  k  into 
Ihe  hands  iif  Turkl.li  oashas;  apiithv.  disi.rder. 
eanles,iii«,.  and  ill  feelini:  n  apiMan'd  at   Khar- 
tiHini.  and  tlie  Arab  slave  di-alirs.  win.  had  fur  a 
piri.Kl   Is. II  kept   undiT   by    llaki  r.   Gessi,   and 
Gnnlon.  eaiiie  once  iiion'  In  tbe  front.       .       It 
WIS  lia.Mif  I'tohii  wh.i,  in  l.«7u,  -iieee.sb  d  ti.iidon 
as(i,.vini<iiir-Gener.il      lie  li:i.|  three  Europeans 
as  his  siibiinlinales—  Kmin  \U\.  wlm  In  fnre  (ior- 
dm  h'ft.  had  lieen  jilai  id  in  charge nf  the  province 
of  Iheeipiatnr.  Liipion  Ik'y,  an  Kiigllshman.  who 
III  I  billuwiil  Gessi  as  (iiiNernour  on  the  Itidinl. 
«iim«ii.   ami  .siaiin  Ikv.  an   Austrian.  In  com- 
mand iif  Darfur.      lUouf  had   barely   lain  two 


r      ,   .  ■."•"""-  >^"»i   ">  r-gypi.     un  me  otner 
band,  it  is  but  historical  justice  to  say  that  Ismail 
did  much  for  the  material  progress  of  the  countrj- 
He  added  more  than  I.WX)  to  the  200  miles  of 
railway  in  existence  at  the  death  of  Said.     He 
greatly  improved  the  irrigation,  and  so  increaseil 
the  cultivable  area  of  the  country;  multiplied 
the  primarv  schools,  and  encouragcil  native  in- 
dustries.     For  so  much,  at    least,   history  will 
pivr-  him  credit.      As  memorable,  though   less 
meritorious,    were   the    magnltlo-nt    fetes    with 
wl.ah.  in  1869,  he  oiH'ncsl  the  .Suez  Canal,  the 
gnat  work  which  England  hiul  so  long  opposeil 
hut  through  which  — as  if  bv  the  inmv  of  his- 
tory—the  first  ship  tlml  passed  llew  the  English 
Hag.  and  to  the  present  tralHc  of  whiih  we  con- 
tribute more  than  eighty  p<T  cent.     In  wrsoiial 
character.  Ismail  was  of  exceptional  intelligenee, 
but   cruel,  crafty-,    and   untrustworthy   b<itii   iii 
politics  and  ii  Ins  private  n-lations.  ...   It  niav 
be  miiitioned  that  Ismail  I'aslia  was  the  «rst  o'f 
these  Ottoman  Viceroys  who  Isin'  the  title  of 
'Klieilive.'  which  is  a"l'erso-Arabic  designation 
Bgnifyiiig  nink  a  shade  less  than  n^gal.     This  he 
obtained  in  1867  tiy  heavv  liriNs  to  the  Sultan 
and  his  chief  ministers,  as  he  had  the  year  iH'fon' 
by  similar  means  ousted  his  bmther  and  uncle 
from  thesuecessiiiii.  and  secunnl  it  for  his  uwn 
chlest  son. —  in  virtue  of  which  the  latter  now 
1181HIJ  nominally  n-igus."— .1.  C.  MX'oan,  A,V/y,,< 
{Aiili.iiml  Life  <ii,'l  ilumjlit.  Irct.  18).  -The  siime. 
K'jiijil  under  Iminiil,  I'h.  1-4. 

A.  D.  1870-1883.— Conquest  of  the  Soudu. 
—Measures  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave- 
trade.— The  roTcrnmeat  of  General  Gordon. 
— Adrent  of  the  Mabdi  and  beginning  of  bis 
ftTOlt.— In  187(1.  Ismail  1'a.slia  'iiiadi'  an  apinal 
for  European  assistance  tn stnngthen  him  in  com- 
pleting the  enni|iie»t  of  Centnd  Africa  [Sir 
Samuel  I  IJaker  was  acconlinglv  plaied  In  com- 
inand  of  \:iw  men.  supiilied  with  cannon  and 
•team-lsiai^.  and  riisivnl  the  title  of  Governour- 
Geucral  of  the  pmvinces  which  he  was  com- 
missioned to  sulslue.  Having  ehsted  to  make 
(iondnkon)  the  si  at  of  his  i;nveniment.  he  1  hanged 
o-  name  to  lb::iailia.  He  wiuinot  long  in  !  nnging 
thr  Hari  In  submissinu.  and  then.  a.|.  uuiiig 
•imihwanls.  he  came  to  the  districts  nf  |lii::icanil 
ratikn.  a  hialthy  ngion  eudnwed  by  iiatiir,  with 
fertile  valhvB  and  irrigat.d  by  liinpid  s>r.  auis. 
but  for  y -art  past  innvcrtisl  inin  a  »<irl  nf  bell 
upon  earth  by  the  slave  hum.  rs  whn  had  made  it 
their  headiiuartirs.  Knun  these  pests  llak.T  de- 
livensl  the  l.salily.  and  having  by  his  i.i.  t  and 
energy  ovenoin.-  ibe  ilislriist  nf  Ihe  iiallv.-  rul.rs 

JM'  ( slablishid  iiv.r  th.ir  lerriiorv  a  .<  ri  iln  n ' 

liernf  small  mililary  s.  It leiiients.   .       .   llik.  r  n- 
turn.. I   to    i:uii.|K'    Haltering   hiuis.  If   win,   the 
d.liisinn  that  hi    ha.l  put  an  .ml  to  the  semirge 
of  Slav.'  .haling.     Ii  was  true  that  varimis  shivi 
d.alers     .bus    on    ihe    Ipinr    Nile    ha.l    Is.ii 
Ueslniyisl.  a  numlier  nf  .inlaws  had  Uin  simi 
an.l  a  few   th.iusaii.l  ini^mble  slaves  ha.l   Ins  11 
S.I    at    lilH'rtv:    but    li.^ni,.|    t|,;,t    nothing    had 
hisiiacnmiplishisl,  no  «,..ti.r  ha.1  th.'  lilsrat  r 
turii.sl  his  Iwik   than  the  .Kliniis  tmllli   ri.niii 
miiiiid  with  inim.  vigour  than  ln'f.ir.'  ihniui:h 
till-  ngion  Kiulh  of  Oimdukor...     This,  h.iw.vi  r 
was  only  one  of  the  sUvchunliiig  .lisiri.ts.  and 

ny   !h'  iiirntij    i.'ir   worst.    .    .        i  |.d.  l    i; mail 

cHnpulshui  th.'  Khe<lh..  UiiihII  uiidertiH.k  i 


^.niipu..!  »i  in,.  ivu,.<i|ve  IsiiiHll  uiidertiH.k   i   mau.l  nf  Darfur.      lUnuf  had   ban  Iv   Isen  two 

V>  pnimote  Buas.m.s  to  put  a  stop  to  the  K-anUal.   j  year.  »i  Khartoum  wla-n  the  .Mahdi  applilU  « 

789 


EOTPT,  1870-1888. 


n«  jraM<. 


EOTPT,  1878-1888. 


theKcne.    Prompted  either  by  penonal  ambition 
or  by  reliKioui  hatred,  the  idea  of  playing  the  part 
of  '  Mahal '  bad  been  acted  upon  by  many  an  Arab 
fanatic  [see  Mardi].    Such  an  idea,  at  an  early 
age,  had  taken  poeaenion  of  a  certain  Soudanese 
of  low  Mrth,  a  native  of  DongoU,  by  name  Mo- 
hammed Ahmed.     Before  openly  aipiring  to  the 
rOle  of  the  regenerator  of  Islam  be  had  filled 
seTcral  subordinate  engagements,  notably  one 
under  Dr.  Peney,  the  French  surgeon-general  in 
,the  Soudan,  who  died  in   18«1.     Shortly  after- 
wards he  received  admittance  into  the  powerful 
order  of  the  Ghtlani  dervishea,  and  then  com- 
menced his  schi'nics  for  stirring  up  a  revolution  in 
defence  of  his  creed.     His  proceedings  did  not 
fail  to  attract  the  attention  of  Oeaai  Pasha,  who 
had  him  arrested  at  Shekka  and  imprisoned  for 
five  months.     Under  the  government  of  Raouf 
he  took  up  bis  sbiMie  U|H)n  the  small  island  of 
Abba,  on  tlie  Nile  almve  Khartoum,  where  he 
gained  a  cocslderablfl  notoriety  by  the  austerity 
of  his  life  and  by  the  fervour  of  bis  devotions,  thus 
gradually  galnmg  a  high  reputation  for  sanctity. 
Sot  only  offerings  but  followers  strvamoil  in  from 
every  quarter.     He  iH'came  rich  as  well  as  power- 
ful. .  .  .  Waiting  till  May  1881,  he  then  assumed 
that  a  propitious  time  bad  arrived  for  the  realisa- 
tion of  his  plans,  and  accordingly  bad  himself 
publicly  proclaimoil  as  •  Mahdl,^  inviting  every 
fakir  and  every  ri'ligious  leader  of  Islam  to  come 
and  join  him  at  Abba.  .  .  .  Convinced  that  it  was 
impolitic  ui  ti>lernte  any  longer  the  revolutionary 
intrigues  of  such  an  adventurer  at  the  very  gates 
of  Khartoum,  Kaouf  Pasha  resolved  to  rid  the 
country  of  Mohammed  and  to  send  him  to  Cairo 
for  trial,     An  expedition  was  accordingly  des- 
palcheii  to  the  i»lan(i  of  Abbii.  but  unfortunately 
the  nwans  employeii  were  inadeoiiaU'  to  the  task. 
Onlv  a  small  body  of  black  solilicrs  were  sent  to 
iirr(>st  the  agitator  in  his  quarters,  and  they,  in- 
spired niidoubt  liy  »  vague  and  superstitiousdread 
of  a  man  who  repn'seiiled  himself  as  the  mes- 
senger of  Allah,  wavered  and  acted  with  indi-- 
cision.     Before  their  oflieers  could  rally  them  to 
energy,  the  Mahdi,  with  a  fleree  train  of  follow- 
ers, knife  in  hand,  rushed  upon  them,  and  killing 
niauy,  put  the  rest  to  flight,  then,  seeing  that  a 
rene'weil  assault  was  likely  to  tie  made,  he  with- 
dri'W  the  insurgent  Imtid  into  a  retreat  of  safety 
amongst  the  mountains  of  Southern  Konlofan. 
Henceforth  revolt  wa»  opi'niy  declared.     Siicli 
was  the  conditiim  of  tilings  in   August  l)Mt. 
t'hase  was  given,  but  every  effort  to  secure  the 
{HTHiin  of  the  pretenileii  pMpliet  was  haffletl.     A 
further  ntteiiipt  was  maile  to  arrest  him  by  the 
.Miiillr  of  KaslKKla  with  1..VK)  men,  only  to  \w  at- 
tended with  a  still  more  melancholy  result.    After 
a  ileit|M-r»te  struggle  tlie  Mudtr  lay  stretched  upon 
the  ground,  his  stildieramunlered  all  around  him. 
( >ne  olngle  oHIeer,  with  a  few  siraggling  cavalry, 
ew'iilH'd  the  inassaire,  and  retiirneil  to  n'port  the 
fatal  news.     The  reverse  caused  sn  absolute  panic 
ill   Khartoum,  an  int<>nse  excitement  sprea<Iing 
throughout    the     Soudan.  .  .  .  Meantime     the 
Maliili's  prestige  was  ever  uu  the  increase,  and 
he  RiHin  fell  sufficiently  strong  to  assume  the  offen- 
sive.    His  troops  overran  Konlofan  and  Sennar. 
ailvaneing  on  the  one  liaod  to  the  town  of  Sennar, 
which  tliey  M>t  f>n  tire,  and  on  the  other  to  El- 
( )lieid.  which  they  placed  In  a  state  of  siege.     In 
tlie  following  July  a  fresh  and  more  powerful  ex- 
pedition, this  time  numliering  4.000  men,  under 
the  command  of  YuMuf  Pasha,  left  Fuhoda  and 


made  towards  the  Hahdi's  headquarten.  It  met 
with  no  better  fato  than  the  expeditions  that  had 
gone  before.  .  .  .  And  then  it  was  that  the  English 
Government,  discerning  duiger  for  Egypt  in  this 
insurrection  of  Islam,  set  to  work  to  act  for  the 
Khedive.  It  told  off  11,000  men,  and  pUced  them 
under  the  command  of  Hicka  Pasba.  an  officer  in 
the  Egyptian  service  who  bad  made  the  Alivasin- 
ian  campaign.  At  the  end  of  December  1882  this 
expedition  embarked  at  Suez  for  Suakin,  creased 
the  desert,  reached  the  Nile  at  Berber,  and  after 
much  endurance  on  the  way,  arrived  at  Khar- 
touDL  Before  this,  El-Obeid  had  fallen  into  the 
Mahdi's  power,  and  there  he  had  taken  up  his 
headquarters.  Some  trifling  advantages  were 
gain«l  by  Hicks,  but  having  entered  Kordofan 
with  the  design  of  retaking  El-Obeld,  he  was, 
on  the  5lh  of  November  1883,  hemmed  In  amongst 
the  Kasgil  passes,  and  after  three  days'  heroic 
fighting,  his  army  of  about  10,000  men  was 
overpowered  by  a  force  five  or  six  times  their 
superior  in  numbers,  and  completely  extermin- 
ated. Hicks  Pasha  himself,  his  European  staff, 
and  many  EgyptUn  officers  of  high  rank,  were 
among  the  deadl  and  forty-two  guns  fell  Into  the 
hands  of  the  enemy.  Again,  not  a  man  was 
left  to  carry  the  fatal  tidings  to  KhartnuiiL 
Kebellion  conttoued  to  spread.  After  heiii); 
agitated  for  months,  the  population  of  the 
Astern  Soudan  also  made  a  rising.  Usman 
Digna,  the  foremost  of  the  Mahdi's  lieutenants, 
occupied  the  niad  between  Suakin  and  Berlicr, 
and  surrounded  Sinkat  and  Tokar;  then,  having 
destroyed,  one  after  another,  two  Egyptian 
columns  that  had  been  despatched  for  the  nlief 
of  these  towns,  he  flually  cut  off  the  conimiiiii- 
cation  between  Khartoum  and  the  Keii  8<>a. 
The  tide  of  Insurrection  by  this  time  had  risen 
so  high  that  it  threatened  not  only  to  over- 
throw the  Khedive's  authority  in  the  Sniuhin, 
but  to  become  the  source  of  serious  peril  to 
Egypt  itself."— A.  J.  Wauters,  mnnlfy'i  Kmin 
IhiiJui  Krpnlition,  fh.  1-3. 

Kixo  in:  MaJ.  R.  F.  WIngate,  ilahdiimi  and 
tht  Egyptian  Sudan,  bk.  1-4.— Col.  Sir  W  P. 
Butler,  Charlfs  Ontrge  Gordon,  eh.  5-(l,— .V.  E. 
Hake,  rkfKtoryofCHntf  (ionbin.  rh.  lO-ll. 

A.  D,  1S75-1MJ.— Bankruptcy  of  the  state. 
— EncUsh  and  French  control  of  finances.— 
Native  hostility  to  the  foreifnars.  —  Rebel- 
lion, led  by  Arabi.— English  bomb«rdia«nt  of 
Alexandria. —  "  The  facilities  given  by  foreign 
money-lenders  encouraged  extravagance  and  i« 
tentatlon  on  the  part  of  the  sovereign  and  the 
ruling  claasi'B,  wliile  mismanagement  and  cor- 
rupt  practices  were  common  among  officials,  so 
that  the  public  debt  rose  In  1875  to  ninety  on-' 
millions,  and  In  January,  1881,  to  rinetyeiglit 
millions.  .  .  .  The  Euroix-an  ispitalisla  ofitiiueii 
for  their  money  noininally  six  to  nine  perfjent., 
but  really  not  less  than  eight  to  ten  per  cent,  as 
the  bonds  were  Issued  at  low  rates.  .  .  .  rheiiii.r- 
eston  tliesi-  Isirro  Ami  millions  was  puncti'tllv  (mid 
up  to  the  end  of  1875,  when  the  Khedi<e  found 
that  he  coulil  not  satisfy  bis  creditors,  and  the 
Britlsli  government  interfered  in  his  favour.  Mr 
Cave  was  sent  to  examine  Into  Egyptian  Anann-a, 
and  he  reported  that  loans  at  twelve  and  tlilrWen 
|ier  cent  were  beiag  agreed  to  ami  rene>ed  at 
Iwenty-flve  per  cent.,  mkJ  that  some  measwrs  of 
umaiilidalion  was  oeveaaary.  Tlie  1*0  wstcni 
Powers  now  Uwk  the  matter  In  hand,  bu*  they 
thereby  recof  nised  the  whole  of  these  us«.-lvus 


790 


lOTPT.  18TS-1883. 


ArabCt  BnoU. 


SOTPT,  187»-188S. 


denuodi.    The  debt,  although  under  their  con- 
trol, and  therefore  aecurad,  wa«  not  reduced  by 
toe  amount  already  paid  in  piemiunu  for  rlik. 
nor  waa  the  rate  of  Interest  dlminiahed  to  some- 
thlnjt  more  nearly  approaching  the  rate  payable 
on  Engllah  coniols,  which  wai  three  per  cent 
A  tribunal   under   the  Jurladietion  of  united 
European  and  natlTe  Judgei  waa  alio  eetablished 
in  Egypt  to   decide   complaints  of   foreigLers 
Against  natives,  and  vice  vena.    In  May,  1876 
this  Mbunal  gave  judgment  that  the  income  of 
the  Khedive   Ismail,  from  Vii  private   landed 
property,  could  be  appropriated  to  pay  the  cred- 
itors of  the  state,  ana  an  execution  was  put  into 
the  Viceregal  palace,   Er  Ramleh,   near  Alex- 
andria.   The  Khedive  pronounced  the  Judgment 
invalid,  and  the  tribunal  ceased  to  act.    Two 
commimioners  were  now  again  sent  to  report  on 
Egyptian  finances  — H.  Joubert,  the  director  of 
tiie  Paris  Back,  for  France,  and  Mr.  Ooschen,  a 
former  minister,  for  England.     These  gentlemen 
proposed  to  hand  over  the  control  of  the  finances 
to  two  Europeans,   depriving  the  sUte  of  all 
independence  and  governing  power.    The  Khe- 
dive, in  order  to  resist  these  demands,  convoked 
a  sort  of  Pariianipiit  in  order  to  make  an  appeal 
•to  the  neople.     From  this  Parliament  was  after- 
wards  developed  the  Assembly  of  Ni)tobles,  and 
the  National  party,  now  so  often  spoken  of.     In 
1877  a  European   commission   of  control  over 
Egyptian  finance  was  named.  .  .   .  Nubar  Pasha 
was  made  Prime  minister  in  1878;  the  control  of 
the  finances  was  entrustt-d  to  Mr,  Wilson,  an 
Englishman;  and  later,  the  French  controller.  M. 
de  Bligniires.  entered  the  Cabinet.     Better  order 
was  thus  restored  to  the  finances.     Rothschild's 
new  loan  of  eight  and  a  half  millions  was  Issued 
at  seventy  three,  and  therefore  brought  in  from 
six  to  eight  per  cent.  nitt.  ...  But  to  be  able 
to  pay  lliccrediturs  their  full  interest,  economy 
had  to  be  introduced  into  the  national  expendi- 
ture.    To  do  this,  clumsy  arrangemenu  were 
made,  and  the  injustice  khown  in  carrying  tlicm 
out  embittemi  many  claitses  of  tlip  plipulalion. 
and  laid  tlie  fouuilations  of  a  fanatical  hatred  of 
race  against    rare.  ...  In  conwquence  of  all 
this,  tliL  majority  of  the  notables,  many  ulemas, 
officers,  and  hlglipr  officials  aninnK  the  Ifgyptian-s. 
formed  tliemwlvrs  into  a  National  party,  witli 
the  object  of  resisting  the  oppreiwive  govern- 
ment of  the  foni^ncr.     They  were  Joined  by  the 
great  mass  of  the  dischargrd  soldiers  and  sub- 
ordinate ofiU-ials,   ii"t  to  mention  many  others 
At  the  end  of  February,  1879,  a  revolt  liroke  out 
In  Cairo.     Nubar.  hated  by  the  Natinnal  party 
was  dismiiiaed  by  the  Khedive  Ismail,   who  In 
stalled  his  son  Tewflk  as  Wme  minister.      In 
coDsequenre  of  this,  the  coupons  due  in  April 
were  not  paid  till  the  beginning  of  May.  and  the 
western  Powers  demanded  the  reinstatement  of 
Nubar     That  Tewflk  on  this  occasion  retired 
and  sided  with  the  foreigners  Is  the  chief  cause 
of  his  present  [imi]  unpopularity  In  Egypt. 
Isnuil.  however,  n.,.v  disnilNKnl  Wilson  and  De 
Bligni^res,  and  a  Cabinet  was  formed,  consisting 
.  chiefly  of  native  Egyptians,  with  Sherif  Pasha 
at  Prime  minister.     i4herif  now  raised  for  the 
flnt  time  the  cry  of  which  we  have  since  heard 
JO  much,  and  which  wa«  ioacribed  bv  Arabi  on 
nis  b4afirfs.  'Egypt  for  the  Egypifjuu.'    The 
weatem  Powen  retorted  by  a  menacing  naval 
dcmnoatfitioD,  and  demanded  of  the  SuIud  the 
dapoiltkm  of  ttaa  Khadtv*.    la  June,  187t,  this 


demand  was  agreed  to.    Ismail  went  into  exile, 
and  his  place  was  filled  by  Mahomed  Tewflk. 
.  .  .  Tlie  new  Khedive,  with  apathetic  weak- 
ness, yielded  the  reconstruction  of  his  ministrr 
and  the  organization  of  his  finances  to  the  western 
Powers.    Mr.  Baring  and  M.  de  Bligniites,  a« 
commlaaionera  of  the  control,  aided  by  official* 
named  by  Hothschild  to  watch  over  his  private 
intereau,   now  ruled   the  land.    They  devoted 
forty-five  millions  (about  sixteen  shillings  per 
head  on  the  entire  population)  to  the  payment  of 
interest.    The  people  were  embitterea  by  the 
dibtrust  shown  towards  them,  and  the  further 
reduction   of   the   army   from    fifty  to  fifteen 
thoiuand   men   threw  a  targe  number  out  of 
employment.  .  .  .  Many  acta  of  military  insub- 
ordination occurred,  and  at  last,  on  the  8th  of 
Aovember,  1881,  the  great  military  revolt  broke 
out  In  Cairo.  .  .  .  Ahmed  Arabi,  colonel  of  the 
4th  regiment,  now  first  came  into  public  notice, 
aeveral    regimenU,    headed    by    their   offlcen, 
openly    rebelled    against    the    orders    of    the 
Khedive,    who   was   compelled    to   recall   the 
nationalist,  Sherif  Pasha,  and  to  refer  the  further 
demands  of  the  rebels  for  the  increase  of  the 
army    and  for  a  cons'itution,   to   the  Sultan. 
Sherif  Pasha,  however,  did  not  long  enjoy  the 
confidence  of  the  National  Egyptian  party,  at 
whose  head  Arabi  now  stixxl,  winning  every  day 
more  .-eputatlon   and  influence.     The  army    in 
which  he  permitt«l  great  laxity  ot  discipline 
was  entirely  devoted  to  him.  ,  .  ,  A  pretended 
plot  of  Circassian  olflcers  against  his  life  he  dex- 
terously u«e<l    to  increase   bis  popularity.  . 
Twenty -six  offlccTS  were  rondemned  to  death  by 
coartmartlal,  but  the  Khedive,  at  the  instance 
of  the  western  Powers,  commuted  the  sentence 
and  they  were  Iwnished  to  Constantinople.     Thia 
leniency  was  stigmatiinl  by  the  National  party 
as  treachery  to  the  country,  and  the  ChambiT  of 
Notables  n'torU-d  by  unmmg  Arabi  roniniander- 
inchief  of  the  anny  and  Prime  minister  without 
asking  the  consent  of  the  Khedive.     The  Cham- 
lier  soon  afterwards  came  Into  conflict  with  the 
foreign    coniptrollem.  .  .  .  Thin    ended    in    De 
BligniiV-s  resigning  his  post,  and  In  the  May  of 
the    pn-wnt    year    (1882)    the    cimsuls    of    the 
Kiirojieiin  Powers  declared  that  a  fleet  of  English 
anil  Frenth  Ironclads  would  appear  Iwfore  Alex- 
andria, to  demand  the  disbanding  of  the  army 
and  the  punishment  of  its  leaders      The  threat 
was  realized,  nnd.  In  spite  of  protesU  from  the 
Sultan,  a  fleet  of  EnglLsh  and  French  ironclads 
entered   the  liarliour  of  Alexandria.     The  Khe- 
dive,  at  the  advice  of  his  minlsten  and    the 
chiefs  of  the   National   party,   nnpeale<l  to  the 
Sultan.  ,  .  .  The    popular  hatmt  of  foreigners 
now  liecame  more  and  more  apparent,  and  be- 
gan to  assume  threateniiii;  dimensions.  ...  On 
the  ."iiHli  of  May.   Aratil  announced  that  a  des- 
patch from  the  Sultan  had  reache<i  him,  prom- 
ising the  deposition  of  Tewflk  in  favour  of  hia 
uncle   Hallm   Pasha.  .  .  .  On  the  3rd  of  June, 
Dervish  Pasha,  a  man  of  energy  uotwitbstandinf 
his  years,  had  sailed  from  Constantinople.  .  .  . 
His  object  was  to  pacify  Egypt  and  to  reconcile 
Tewflk  and  Arab!  ISsha.  .      .  Since  the  publi- 
cation of  the  despatch  purporting  to  proclaim 
Hallm  Pasha  as  Khedive.  Arabi  had  done  noth- 
ing lowanis  dethroning  liie  artiial  ruler.     But 
on  the  Snd  of  June  he  began  to  strengthen  the 
fortiflcations  of   Alexandria    witk   earthwork!. 
.  .  .  The   Brittah   admir»l   proleMed.  and   the 


791 


EGYPT,  187S-1882. 


jiombardment  of 
Alnmulria. 


EGYPT.  1888-1888. 


Sultan,  on  the  remonstrances  of  British  diplo- 
macy, forbad  the  continuation  of  the  works. 
.  .  .  Sc-riouB  disturbanceg  took  place  in  Alex- 
andria on  the  1  Itli.  The  native  rabble  invaded 
the  Eun)pean  quarter,  plundered  the  shops,  and 
slew  many  forelgnirs.  .  .  .  Though  the  disturb- 
anies  were  not  renewe<l,  a  gcneml  eraigratiou  of 
foreigners  was  the  result.  ...  On  the  22n(l  a 
commisHion,  consisling  of  nine  natives  and  nine 
Europeans  .  .  .  Ix-gan  to  try  the  ringleaders  of 
the  riot.  .  .  .  But  events  were  burning  on 
towiinls  war.  The  works  at  Alcxamlria  were 
ncominenciHl,  and  the  fortifications  srmetl  with 
lifiivy  guns.  The  English  admiral  reeeivwl  in- 
formation that  tlieentranf-e  to  the  harlH)ur  would 
l>e  bl(Kked  by  simken  sioreships,  and  this,  he 
dcclarod.  would  be  an  act  of  op«'n  war.  A  com- 
plete scheme  for  the  destruction  of  the  Suez 
canal  was  also  diseoven^d.  .  .  .  The  English,  on 
tlicir  side,  now  In-gan  to  make  hostile  ilemonstrn- 
liiiiis:  uiiil  Arat)i,  while  repudiating  warhke 
inlditioiis.  deeliireil  himself  ready  for  resistance. 
.  .  .  On  the  2Tth  the  English  vice-consul  a<lvi»ed 
his  fellow-countrjnien  to  leave  Alexandria,  anil 
on  tiie  3nl  of  Jidy,  according  to  the  'Times,'  the 
arningemenls  for  war  were  complete,  .  .  .  Finally, 
as  a  reconnaissance  on  the  9th  showed  that  the 
forts  were  still  Iieing  stn^ngthenwl,  he  fllie 
Enirlish  admiral]  informed  the  governor  of  Alex- 
andria, Ziilficar  Pasha,  tliat  unless  the  forts  had 
Ijeen  previously  evacuated  and  surrendered  to 
the  English,  he  intended  to  commence  the  bom- 
banlment  at  four  the  next  morning.  ...  As  the 
French  goveniment  were  unable  to  take  part  in 
any  lu'tive  nii-asiires  (a  grant  for  that  purpose' 
having  In-en  refused  by  the  National  Assembly), 
the  gri-atir  purt  of  their  fleet,  under  Adndrnl 
t'onrad.  lift  Alexandria  for  Port  Said.  The 
ironclads  of  (■llier  nations,  mon-  than  fifty  in 
uundsT.  anehcind  outside  the  harlsmr  of  Alex- 
andria. .  .  .  (In  the  evening  of  the  10th  of  .luly 
.  .  .  and  at  dajlinak  on  the  Ittli.  the  .  ,  .  iniii- 
clads  tiHik  up' the  |<<>sitioiis  assigne<i  to  them. 
There  was  a  gitillc  bree/.i-  from  the  east,  anil  the 
weather  was  i  Ic  Mr  .\I  ti;ti)a.  m.  all  the  ships 
were  clean-il  for  action.  At  seven  the  adminil 
Bii;nalle<l  to  the  Alexanilra  to  Are  a  sIk  II  into  Fort 
Ada  .  .  .  TIm'  first  shot  flre<l  fnmi  the  Alix- 
Biulra  was  immediately  replini  to  by  the  Eu'Vp- 
tians;  whereupon  the  ships  of  the  whole  fleet  and 
the  Egyptian  forts  and  batteries  o[R'ned  tin,  ami 
the  enirairement  Imaine  genend.  .  .  .  At  K  :to 
Fort  SliirsacI  Kanat  was  blown  up  by  sliills 
from  the  Invimilile  and  Monarch,  and  by  nim- 
oi'lcH-kllie  Temerairi'.  Miaumh.and  Penelope  hud 
slhneed  most  of  the  guns  in  Fort  .Meks.  altiioutrli 
lour  lieiied  c  viry  ilfort  fnan  tlieir  prolecinl  »il 
nation.  Hy  1 1  l"i  Forts  Mjinilsput  and  .Vdjend 
hid  t'(  iwil  llriutf.  a'ld  a  landing'  party  of  seanaii 
and  ntariiies  was  de-^patclie.l,  uiitler  c  over  of  tln' 
lliitems  guns,  to  >i>ike  and  blow  np  llie  gims  in 
till'  forts  At  I  .111  a  shell  fmin  the  .><ii|Krli  burst 
In  the  eliii  f  |i<iH  lir  niiu'azine  of  Fort  Ada  ami 
l>lv*  it  up  Uv  four  u .  liH'k  all  the  guns  of  Fort 
IMiuKH,  and  half  an  hour  later  those  of  Fort  Miks, 
wire  disahltsl.  and  at  H.'M  the  ailmiral  onlered 
the  firing  to  ceaM'.  The  ships  were  njx'ateilly 
•I  ruck  anil. sustainisl  some  damage.  .  .  .  The  Km.' 
lish  casualties  were  five  killed  an<l  twenty  it 
w^MivlriV  R  ."iimp-;tr4tiv;-!y  small  losx  Thr  i^"-yp 
tlan  loss  is  not  known  .  .'.  .Vt  1  p.  m.  on  tlir  Vith 
of  Jtdy,  the  white  flag  was  hoisttsi  by  tlw  Egyp 
Admiral  SeyinourdriiMiMled,  atapiellini 


tlaiis 


nary  measure,  the  surrender  of  the  forts  com- 
manding  the  entnioce  to  the  hartmur,  and  the  ne- 

?;otiBtiong  on  this  point  were  fruitlessly  protracted 
or  some  hours.  As  night  approached  the  city  was 
seen  to  be  on  fire  in  many  places,  and  the  (fames 
were  spreading  in  all  directions.  The  English 
now  became  aware  that  the  white  flag  had  merely 
Iwen  used  as  means  to  gain  time  for  a  hasty 
evacuation  of  Alexandria  by  Arabi  and  his  army. 
Sailors  and  marines  were  now  landed,  and  ships 
of  other  nations  sent  detachments  on  shore  to 
protect  their  countrymen.  But  it  was  too  late ; 
Be<hiuins,  convicts,  and  ilUlisciplined  soldiers 
had  plundered  and  burnt  the  Eurojieatt  quarter, 
killed  many  foreigners,  and  a  Keuter's  telegram 
of  the  14th  saul.  'Alexandria  is  completely  di- 
stroveil."— U.  Vogt,  The  Egyptian  Miir  of  \>m, 
pp.  UVi. 

Also  in:  J.  C.  McCosm,  ii^*;>«  under  Imuiil, 
eh.  8-111.— C.  Koyle,  The  Kyyjdian  Cumjuiigm, 
f.  1,  eh.  1-20. — Khediret  and  I'luhat.—V..  ¥. 
Goodrich,  Rrjit.  on  BrilM  Military  aiul  yurnl 
OiHnitiuM  in  Egm't,  l****-.  Pt-  '■ 

A.  D.  1883-1883.— The  masikcre  and  de- 
struction in  Alezuidria.-  Declared  rebellion  of 
Arabi.—  Its  aupDreiaion  by  the  Eacliih.— 
Banishment  of  Arabi.— EnEtish  occupation, 
— The  city  of  Alexandria  liad  become  "  suili  a 
scene  of  pillage,  massacre,  and  wanton  destruc- 
tion as  to  make  the  world  shudder.  It  was  the 
old  talc  of  horrors.  Houses  were  plundered  and 
bume<l:  the  Eunip<'an  ouarter,  including  the 
stately  buildings  8urn>unding  the  Great  Square 
of  .Mehemet  .VII,  was  sacked  and  left  a  heap  of 
sinolilering  ruins:  and  more  than  two  thousand 
Euro|ieans,  for  the  most  part  I,<'viintiues.  were 
massacrjsi  with  all  tlie  cruelty  of  oriental  fanati 
cisni.  This  was  on  the  afteni<K)n  of  the  12th. 
It  was  the  swond  nuisHncn^  that  hivl  (K-cumd 
undiT  the  very  eyes  of  the  British  fleet.  Tin- 
admiral's  failure  to  pn'veiit  it  has  Ik'iii  called 
unfortunate  by  some  and  criminal  by  olliers.  It 
Btrms  to  have  U'cn  wholly  without  excUMv  .  . 
The  blue  jackets  were  binded  on  the  bitli,  and 
cleansl  the  way  ta'forv  them  with  a  Galling  gun. 
The  next  day.  nioO'  ships  having  arrivi-,1,  a 
KUtllcient  force  was  landed  to  take  |Mi8sessinii  of 
the  entire  city.  The  kluilive  was  ese-ortid  bacli 
to  Itasel  Tin  from  llainlih.  and  given  a  slroim 
guanl.  Suinmarv  justice  was  dealt  out  to  al', 
hostile  Arabs  wlio  had  Is'in  captured  in  the 
I  ity.  In  short,  English  intervention  was  f"l 
Inwid  by  English oc<iipalion  ThelsanlNirrlmeet 
of  Alexandria  Imd  dilitud  charly  the  rer|»'<i 
ive  po>itionsof  .Vrabi  and  the  kliiilive  lownnl 
Egypt  and  tlie  Egyptian  iMiqilc  .  .  .  The 
khedivc  was  not  oiilj  weak  in  Ilie  evi»  of  his 
iHoiWe,  but  he  »•:!'<  rrganhsl  as  till-  ti"'l  of  En; 
laiiil  .  .  .  From  tin'  in"iiient  tin- fliNt  sliul  was 
tin. I  upon  .\h  xandria,  .\fiil  was  then.il  ruli  r 
of  till'  |»i)|iliv  .  .  .  'l;.i-  ittiifirinie  lit  t'on- 
slantiiii'pli'  was  slirnd  by  tin-  new.',  of  the  Ismi- 
banlnieiit  of  Alexandria!  it  presttited  a  not" 
to  till'  I'orle.  ,luly  l.y  requesting  lue  di^|mt•  U 
of  'I'urklMli  Iniops  111  nstore  ilie  -talus  ipio  in 
Eirypt  ihit  tin  sultan  had  no  idea  of  lakiiii: 
the  purt  of  thr  (  liri^tian  in  what  all  Ulain  r< 
ganliil  as  a  conte.'.i  ts'tween  the  Moslem  and  lie' 
unlsllever.  ,  .  .  In  Egypt,  the  khiilive  had  Ixio 
prevaile-.l  u'l-.-u.  after  «i'«!ie  demur,  t"  tmwhihii 
.\rabl  a  rela-l  and  discharge  him  from  his  caliiiiet. 
Aralil  had  issued  a  counter  pnalamation.  on  the 
same  day,  declaring  Tewfikatrmiturtu  his  people 


792 


EGYPT,  1888-1M8. 


Campaign. 


EGYPT,  1883-1888. 


and  his  religion.  Having  receired  the  news  of 
Hie  klie<livi.g  proclamation.  Lord  DuJterin  tlie 
Britiali  amliaasador  at  ConsUntinople.  announced 
U>  the  confennce  that  England  was  al»ut  to 
send  an  expedition  to  Egypt  to  suppress  the 
retie  Hon  and  to  restore  the  authority  of  the 
khejiii-e.  Tlienupon  the  sultan  declareil  tliat 
he  liajl  dmdi-d  to  send  a  Turkish  expedition. 
l.<)nl  DuiTerin  feigned  to  accept  the  sultan's  co- 
operalion,  liut  demanded  that  the  Porte  as  a 
pri'liminary  step,  should  declan-  Arali;  a  rebel 
Again  the  sultan  was  confronted  with  the  dan- 
gjr  of  incurring  the  wrath  of  the  Moslem  world 
He  could   not  decluri!   Arabi    a   reln'l  In 

his  desiK'ration   he  sent  a  force  of  3,0(X)  men 
to  Sudtt  bay  with  orrlcrs  to  hol.l  themselves  in 
rcadini-ss  to  enter  Egypt  at  a  moments  notice. 
...  In   the  meantime,    however,    the   English 
expedition  had  arrivwl  la  Egvpt  and  was  pn>- 
eeedlng  to  crush  the  nbcI!ion,'regar.llcs8  of  tlie 
diplomatic  delays  and  bickerings  at  Constanti- 
nople. ...  It  was  not  until  the  l.'Slh  of  August 
that  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  arrived  with  his  force 
in  Egypt.     The  English  at  that  time  held  only 
two  {wints,  Alexandria  and  Suez,  while  the  en- 
tire   Egyptian   interior,  as    well    as    Port    Said 
and  Ismailia.  were  hel.l  by  Arabi,  whose  force, 
it  was  estimated,  now  amounte<)  to  aliout  TO  (KK) 
men,  of   whom  at  least  ,V),00<J  were  regulars 
The  objective  point  of  General  Wolselevs  ex- 
p<<iitiou  to  crush  Arahl  was,  of  course,  tfie  city 
of  (  airi>.     Tliere  we,  .wo  ways  of  approaching 
that  city,    one   from  Alcxanclria,    through    the 
IK'lta,  and  the  other  from  the  Suez  canal      There 
were  many  objections  to  the  former  route 
The  Suez  canal   was  supposed  to  lie   neutral 
water.      .  .  But  England  felt  no  ol)llgatiun  to 
rc<-ognize  any  neutrality,  .  .  .  acting  uix>n  the 
priniiple,  which  is  doubtless  sound,  timt    Mhe 
neutrality  of  any  canal  joining  the  watera  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacirtc  <K^-ans  will  lie  niainlaiiu-d 
If  at  all.  by  tlio  nation  wl-lch  ran  place  and  keep 
the  stningest  shins  at  each  extremity.'     In  oilier 
wonls.  General  VVols<-ley  decided  to  enter  Calm 
by  way  of  the  Sue/  canal  and  Ismailia.     Hut  he 
kept  his  plan  n  profound  w-eret.     AilniimI  .Sv- 
mour  iiliiiie  knew  his  purpose.   .   .   .   OntlielUtli 
the  transports  mnved  eastwani  fn.iii  Alexandria' 
as    f  to  attack  Almklr;  but  under  llie  cover  of 
darkness  that  night,  they  were  escorted  on  to 
I  ort   Sidd,  where   they  leanie<l  that  til.'  entire 
caii-il     owing    to    the    pri'ioncerted    action    of 
Admiral   Seymour,    was  in  rhc    hands    of    the 
111..         I'n  ""■-*'»•    Ihe  trrv  ps  met  Sir  Ilenrv 
Mrl  herson's  Ind'i.n  conllni-er.t  at  Isnwllia.     Two 
days   wer<>   now   i  .msiinied  in  n-st  and  prepara- 
Uoii.     The  Egyptians  cut  ..If  the  water  siipi.lv 
wliirh  came  fnim  tli.'  !)<l;.,  by  the  Swwt  Waii  r 
ranal,  by  .Uninii.i;  t!i,  canal.  '  A  sortie  to  wvim- 
|h)s.s.w|on  of  tliM  ilnm   wn.-.  tlien^fore  d.fiii.-.| 
niceK,san,    mim)    «•„,  successfully   made  on  the 
•J'l'       '•"'■I'"'''  advances  were  miule,  and  on  the 
•Mh   Kassawin.  i  stntion  of  some  Importance  on 
the  canal  and  mil w.iv.  was  .Kvupled.     Hen'  the 
ISriti.sl,  for<v  wasobligeil  to  delay  for  two  weeks 
while  .irganlzln,^  a  hospital  and  a  transiiort  ser^ 
vii-e.     This  gave  Arabi  opiwrtunltv  to  .on,-. n 
trate  his   fonvs  at  Zagazig  ami    Tel  el  K.hir 
Hut  he  knew  it  was  for  his  interest  to  strike  at 
I'lice  lief,  re  tlie  nritish  inm'tv'rt"  i-.juUl  r::".u-  !::-. 
"itfa   th.    advance       He    tlienfor«.    iim.lc    twii 
Hii.mpis,  one  on   August  !W.  and   th.   oiluron 
ltept«t.ibcr  »,  to  KKaiu  tho  |xi»ltlou  lost  ul  Kas 


sasato  But  he  failed  in  both,  though  inflictinc 
«)mc  loss  upon  his  opponents.  On  the  12th  of 
September  preparations  were  made  by  General 
Wolsi'ley  f.ir  a  decisive  lialtle.  He  had  become 
convinced  from  dally  rcconnoissBncc  and  from 
the  view  obtainiHl  in  the  engagement  of  Septem- 
ber 9,  that  the  fortitications  at*Tel-el-Kebir  were 
both  extensive  and  fonnidable.  .  .  It  was 
therefore  dwided  to  make  the  approach  under 

of  the  ISth  General  Wolsel.-y  gave  the  order  fo? 
tlie  advance,  his  force  consisting  of  aiiout  11  000 
Infantry.  2.00«)  cavalrymen,  and  sixty  Hel.l-gun.s. 
They  lu«l  only  the  stars  to  guide  them,  liiit  so 
BcciiMt.-ly  was  the  movement  conducted  that  the 
leading  brigailes  of  each  division  n-ached  the 
inemy  s  out|).ists  within  two  minutes  of  each 
"llier.  • -The  enemy  (says  Gei.emI  Wolsclev) 
were  completely  surprised,  and  it  was  not  until 
one  .ir  two  of  their  a.lv,ince.l  i-entrics  flnsl  their 


•!)3 


rJHes  Iliat  they  n-iilized  our  <  l.«e  proximity  to 
their  works.'.  .  .  The  intrincbineiits  were  n.it 
carrie.1  without  a  severe  Rtru"gle.  The  Eirvn- 
tiaus  fought  with  a  .lesp-niie  courage  and 
hundtjeils  of  them  were  Imyoneteil  at  their  iHWts 
.  .  .  Hut  what  could  the  rank  and  tile  accom- 
p.ibh  when  •,a<h  .illicer  knew  that  lie  would  run 
bft  lio|M.<l  his  neighlior  would  stay.'  At  the 
first  shot  Arabi  and  his  .s«-onil  In  coiiimand  took 
horse  and  gallopwl  t..  Hellieis,  where  they  caught 
a  train  for  I  aim.  JI„st  of  the  oiIi.t  olficers,  as 
t  le  n-p<irts  of  killed  and  wound.-.l  show  did 
the  same  The  Egyptians  flred  th.ir  first  shot 
at  4..'5.i  A  M.,  ami  at  (I  W  the  English  had  IXM- 
s.-s8l,.n  <>f  Arabis  li.-,i.|,|iiarters  an.l  th,.  .-anal 
bridge  The  British  loss  was  .■>:  kill.-.l  ;t80 
woun.l,.d.  ami  2a  mis.slng.  The  Egyptian  aniiy 
left  al«.ut  2.(KI0.1ead  in  the  f,.rtiHcati<.ns 
A  pOKif  of  the  conipl.t.ii<-«,s  of  the  success  n-ai 
the  entire  .lissipaiion  of  Arabis  anny.  Gmun* 
of  soUliers,  it  is  Ini.'.  were  scatten-.!  "t.i  dilT.-n'nt 
parts  of  Kgypt ;  but  the  arinv  organization  was 
completely  Im.ken  up  with  tlie  Imitli-  of  T.l-el- 
hebir.  .  .  .  Maj.ir  (iencnil  Low..  w»,  .mlered 
to  push   on  Willi   all   jMis.sibIe  sp..<-il   t,.  Cairo 

■  ,  ..*,''"'!'■',''  '•"*'■  I"'""'"'''!  the  gnat  liarnoki 
"f  Ahlias.sieh,  just  oulsiil..  of  Cairo,  at  4  4."i  l>  M 
■n  the.  Uth  instant.     Th.. .  avalry  man  li.-.l  sixtyl 
ive   miles   in   tlii.se  two  .lavs.  '  \  iii,.>aaie 

was  sent  t.i  Arabi  Pasha  IlirLuiili  the  pri-f.-ct  iif 
the  cily.  .ailing    u|...ii    hiiM    M  siirremler  forth- 
with, wlmli  h.ili.l  uncoii.lilionalli   ■  Before 
having  Kni:lan.l.  \Vols.l..v  h.i.l  pr.  .Il.ti.i  that  he 
woul.l  .ni.r   C.iiro  on    Ih.-  Irtil,  ,,f   ,S<-pt,.nilH.r- 
but  with  Mill  a  .lay  1..  spar.'  th,.  f.at  was  aci-.im- 
plish.sl.    an.l    Anilii's   r.ls  llion   was  completely 
criishe.1      Englaii.l   ii..w   si.ksI  al.m...     Victory 
lia.i  Iss'n  won  wiih.iut  ihe  aid  ..f  Prance  .>r  the 
inl.Tyenti..ii  .if  Turk.-i.     In  C.instanllmipl..  nc- 
g..tiall.ins  n-irar.liiiv'  Tiirki..|i  ex|>eiliti.ins  were 
still   iMii.ling  wh.n  I...r.|  liulT.riii  rweiv.sl  the 
n.ws  ..f    \V.,|sel.ys  sii.-nss.  an.l  ann.iuncisl  to 
I't.    I'.irli'   that   there   was  m.w   no  nis'.l   .if  a 
TurklOi  fonc  in  Et'vpt,  as  the  war  was  emi.il 
iMiii.at  once  pn.par.sl  t.i  risiinie  her  slian- in 
!!..■  ..iiitml:  but  Eniriind.  having  iMirii..  the  sole 
biinhn  iif  the  war,  ili.l  m.i  pniiKis..  now  to  share 
til.'  liilliU'niT  her  suc.i'ss  had  giv.n  liir.     And  it 
was  for  the  lnt..n.st  .if  Egyjil  that  she  shouM 
'■•'-'              Eiisiar.i's  first  lijty.  afi.  r  .i»l.  I    Mas 
BssiinHl,  was  lo  senil  away  al)  the  British  tnsipe 
.'X.-epI  n   f.irce  of  alsiut   ll.lNK)  men.    which  It 
was  deemed  advisable  to  ntain  in  Egypt  uutU 


lOTFT,  1888-1888. 


Kkattoum. 


BOTFT.  18M-1888. 


the  kbedire'i  authority  wm  pboed  on  %  mie 
(ooting  throughout  the  land.  .  .  .  What  ihould 
be  done  with  Arab!  waa  the  aueation  of  para- 
mount intereit,  when  once  the  khedlTe'a  author- 
ity waa  re-e«Ubliahed  and  recognized.    Tewflk 
and  his  miniaten,  if  left  to  thenuelTcs,  would 
unqiieationablr  have  taken  bis  life.  .  .  .  But 
England  waa  determined  that  Arabi  should  have 
a  utir  trial.  ...  It  was  decided  that  the  rebel 
leaden  should  appear  before  a  militarv  tribunal, 
and  they  were  given  English  counsel  to  plead 
their  cause.  .  .  .  The  trial  was  a  farce.    Every- 
thing was  '  cut  and  dried '  beforehand.    It  waa 
arranged  that  Arabi  was  to  plead  guiltv  to  re- 
bellion, that  he  was  forthwith  to  be  condemned 
to  death  by  the  court,   sod  that  the  khedive 
was  immediately  to  commute  the  sentence  to 
perpetual  exile.    In  fact,  the  necesaarr  papers 
were  drawn  up  and  signed  before  the  court 
met  for  Arabi's  trial  on  December  8.  ...  On 
the  a<th  of  December  Arabi  and  his  six  com- 
panions .  .  .  upon  wliom  the  same  sentence  lud 
been  passed,  left  Cairo  for  the  IsUnd  of  Ceylon, 
there  to  spend  their  life  of  perpetual  exile.  .  .  . 
Lord  Dufferin  .  .  .  had   been  sent  from  Con- 
stantinople to  Cairo,  early  In  November,  with 
the  special  mission  of   bringing  order  out  of 
governmental  chaos.     In  two  months  lie  had 
prepared  a  scheme  of  legislative  reorganization. 
This  was,  however,  somewhat  altered ;  so  that  it 
waa  not  until  May,  1883,  that  the  plan  in  its 
Improved  form  was  accepted  by  the  decree  of  the 
khedive.    The  new  constitution   provided    for 
three  classes   of   assemblies:    the   'Legislative 
Council,'  the  '  General  Assembly,"  and  the  ' Pro- 
vincial Councils,"  of  which  there  were  to  be 
fourteen,   one    for   each    province.  .  .  .  Every 
Egyptian  man,  over  twenty  years  of  age,  was  to 
vote  (by  ballot)  for  an  "  elector-delegate "  from 
the  village  in  the  neighborhood  of  which  he 
lived,  ancl  the  "electors-delegate"  from  all  the 
vlilagm  in  a  province  were  to  form  the  constitu- 
ency that  should  elect  the  provincial  council. 
.  .  .  "Tlif  scheme  for  reorganization  was  carrie<i 
forwani  to  tlie  extent  of  electing  the  "electors- 
delegate"  in  September;  but  by  that  time  Egypt 
was  again  in  a  state  of  such  disquietude  tliat  the 
British  advisers  of  the  khedive  considered  it  un- 
wise to  put  the  new  institiitionH  Into  <i|>eratlon. 
In  place  of  legislative  council  and  general  assem- 
bly, the  khi-dlve  appointed  a  council  of  state, 
consistine  of  eleven  Eiryptians,  two  Armenians, 
and  ten  Europeans.    The  reforma  were  set  aside 
for  the  time  being  in  view  of  impending  troubles 
and  dangem  in  the  Sudan."— J.  E.  Bowen.  Tht 
Vonjtifl  of  Kul  and  West  in  Egn>t.  eh.  5-«. 

Also  i.n  :  Cul,  J.  F.  Msurice,  Military  /Bit.  of 
tht  Vampiiign  of  1883  in  EnP*—^-  Roy'«.  ^*< 
Sgmtiiin  Campnign*.  t.  1,  fh.  22-44. 

A.  D.  1SB4-188J.— General  Gordoa'a  Mitsioa 
to  Khartoum.— "fba  town  balcacnarad  by  the 
Mahdiats.— En(Uah  rescue  ezpoditioB.— 7  be 
encrcj  that  was  too  late.  -  •  Ttie  abandonment 
of  the  Soudan  belnt  dcciiini  upon,  the  Uritioh 
Oovemment  confldftl  to  (ieneral  tlordon  the  taak 
of  extricating  the  Egyptian  garrisons  scattemi 
throughout  iTie  country.  .  .  0<)rdon"s  original 
Instnictlonii  »i  re  dated  the  18th  January,  1884. 
He  waa  to  prix^ed  at  once  to  Ei(ypt.  to  report  on 
t!:.-  military  a!tua'.!t;D  in  the  *judsn.  BO'l  "n  »he 
measures  which  it  might  he  advisable  to  take  for 
the  security  of  the  Egyptian  garrisons  and  fur 
the  safety  of  the  Euiipcan  population  in  Khar 


toum.  .  .  .  He  waa  to  be  accompanied  Iqr  Colonel 
Stewart.  .  .  .  Gordon's  final  instructions   were 

fiven  him  by  the  Egyptian  Government  in  a 
rman  appointing  him  Governor-General.  .  .  . 
Ooidon  arrived  at  Khartoum  on  the  18th  Febru- 
ary. .  .  .  While   Gordon   was   sending   almost 
daily  expreaalons  of  his  view  aa  to  the  only  way 
of  carrying  out  the  policy  of  eventual  evacuation, 
it  was  also  becoming  dear  to  him  that  he  would 
very  soon  be  cut  ofTfrom  the  rest  of  Egypt    His 
first  remark  on  this  subject  waa  to  express  '  the 
conviction  that  I  ahall  be  caught  hi  Khartoum "; 
and  he  wrote,—'  Even  if  I  waa  mean  enough  to 
escape  I  have  no  power  to  do  so."    The  accuracy 
of   this   forecast   waa    speedily   demonstrated. 
Within  a  few  days  communicatlona  with  Khar- 
toum- were   interrupted,  and    although   subse- 
quently restored  for  a  time,   the  rising  of  the 
riparian  tribes  rendered  the  receipt  and  despatch 
of  messages  exceedingly  uncertain.  .  .  .  Long 
before  the  summer  of  1884,  it  waa  evident  that 
the  position  of  Gordon  at  Khartoum  had  become 
so  critical,  that  if  he  were  to  be  rescued  at  all,  it 
could  only  be  by  the  despatch  of  a  British  force. 
.  .  .  Early  in  May.  war  preparations  were  com- 
menced in  EnglsiM,  and  on  the  10th  of  the  month 
the  military  authorities  In  Cairo  received  instruc- 
tions to  prepare  for  the  despatch  in  October  of  an 
expedition  for  the  relief  of  the  Soudanese  capiul. 
12.00U  camels  were  ordered  to  be  purchaaeil  and 
held  in  teadbiess  for  a  forward  march  in  the 
autumn.    On  the  16th  May  a  half-battalion  of 
English  troops  was  moved  up  the  Nile  to  Wady 
Haifa.     A  few  weeks  Uu  t  some  other  positions 
on  the  Nile  were  occupied  by  portions  of  tl,u 
Army  of  Occupation.    Naval  officers  were  also 
,  sent  up  the  river  to  examine  and  repori  upon  the 
cataracts  and  other  impedimenta  to  n..vigatiun. 
Still  it  was  not  till  the  5th  August  that  Mr.  <>lad- 
stone  rose  in  the  House  of  Commons  to  move  a 
vote  of  credit  of  £300,000  to  enable  the  Oovem- 
ment to  tmdertake  operations  fo.-  the  r-lief  of 
Gordon.  ...  It  was  agreed  that  there  were  but 
two  routes  by  which  Kliartoum  could  be  ap- 
proached by  an  expedition.     One  by  way  of  the 
Nile,  and  tiic  otiier  via  Souakim  and  Berber.  .  .  . 
The  Nile  route  having  been  decided  on,  prepara- 
tions on  a  large  scale  were  begun.  ...  It  was 
St  first  arranged  that  not  more  than  5,000  men 
shotild  form  the  Expedition,  but  Uler  on  the 
number  was  raised  to  7,000.  .  .  .  The  instruc- 
tions given   to  Lord   Wolseley  sUted  tliat  the 
primary  object  of  the  Expedition  was  to  bring 
away  Gordon  and  Stewart  from  Khartoum ;  and 
when  that  purpow  should  be  effected,  no  further 
offensive  operations  of  any  kind  were  to  be  under- 
Uken."— C    Hovie,    Tht   Unptian  Campaignt, 
1882-188S,  ».  2.  'eh.  1"*-18.— "Firet,  it  was  said 
that  our  troops  would  be  before  the  gates  "( 
Khartoum  on  January  14th;  next  it  wasthemiil- 
die  of  February ;  and  then  the  time  stretche<l  out 
to  the  middle   of   March.  .  .  .   Lord   Wolseley 
offered  a  hundred  pounds  to  the  regiment  over- 
ing  the  distance  from  Surras  to  Debbch  most  ex- 
peditiously sud  with  least  damage  to  boats.  .  .  .4 
Ho  also  <iispatched  Sir  Herbert  Stcwaa  on  tlio. 
immorUl    march    to  Gakdul.     Stewart's  force,' 
composcil  principally  of  the  Mounted  Infant  rr 
and  Camel  Corps,  and  led  by  a  troop  uf  the  l»th 
HuMars.    acting   as  scouts  —  numbering  about 
1  lOOtn  all  — set  out  from  Korti  on  itecenibtr 
80th.     lu  destination  was  atmut  100  miles  from 
j  headquarters,   and  about  80  from  thi   Nile  at 


794 


EGYPT,  1884-1886. 

On  the  nth  Jsiiuary  Sir  HerCrt  Ste^Wtnau 
the  enemy  on  the  roud  to  Metemnel^  and  mfte??e 

her   Metemoeh.  and  Omdumun— piuhed  for 

Elte^  .nd  thoM  of  the  Mahdi'.  men  -  ofitSck- 
«t«^  ,h  '?'"*"d  fitijfueh«lweIl-nlghToS. 
.^  i""*  '°"=e-were  at  all  poinu  nlmilir  to 
thoae adopted  againat  Hlcka.  OWl^  wTre  flfl 
non-commiaaloned  offlceti  and  mm  UuS  wd  8? 
r^H^r^u  *lth  »  officer.  kiuS^Snon/^m 
Coloael  Burnaby-and  »  wounded.    Stew^S 

teft  the  Wella  on  the  18th  Jan.  to  occupy  Metem 
vn-  "P<«"''e.  but.  failing  that,  to  mite  for^e 
NUeanJentrenchhimKrlf.  *Af te?a nlghtS iSrJh 
jonw  ave  mUe.  «uth  of  Metemneh.lhe  ^K 

S^alSSt  ^  SJE"?"  °'  •"  e°e»y  »^d  to  have 
Deen  aoout  18.000  MronK.     Stewart  h«U<.^  ...a 

J^sS^iilii""  *?  S*  Syi".  and  Mr.  CanS^n^ 
Ptoir  t^TYSi^"^  ^r  «e'-bert,  of  the  Morning 
rat.  were  killed.    The  zareba  comDlet«l  thl 

>ng  oy  Abu  Klea,  mored  forward  In  echelon 

IFSi^fZ  ^'^  ^^i?  P"'P*-«  of^rgi^g  Ai 
JliST  ^"^  P'  "^  '•'«/  '^ere  brought  to  fiv  „ 
tertJc  waa  the  Are  frSm  the  iquail.  uid  10.^^ 
didly  Mrved  waa  Nortona  iSa^  For  two 
houi,  the  battle  raged ;  and  then  the7,ab^°moI2 


T.o^N^K;^''  EDUCATION.    See  Edcc*. 

i?lS2;iS§sl^h5T''hIae?S.?w^.. 

the  memben  of  the  Swiaa  Conf^eratlon  -  ■!« 

writ,,^^^  ""*  ""»Me°°«»  l»  believed  by  K,me 

8ee^i°Tl?«?!Tc'"1o!|;&*"*  "  <"•  «=•  "W- 

21^m,°*'^''"^'  '*°°""  Empw.r,  A.   D. 

the"  Ljir-n^f "►!?.'*"•  •  ."*•*  •«*«'"°«  on 
.  ?  '  .     "••  between  the  river  and  th« 

7"?^°'  -'"•  •!«'  Elamltea,  theolSat  »n 

K:!^"^^.sirysr"?bd?Ef£ 

Elamite  Inva^on  -  an  invaaioq  recorded  bvfclnff 

PiS.    ^N^"'.^?*^  ""'  de-icrated  iu  tern 

queat  Khulur-NanSS  and  hb  aiS^™ 
Jjmalned  In  Southern  ChaMeT^  -SSirS; 
«m  time  we  meet  authentic  monumenul  pmmS 


ELBA. 

St   ^^'.T  '•""  •"=  ''•^  come  to  hU  uSt 

l«„J  .S  P    '°  'gnorance  ...  and   hoDcfiil  S 
Make.    Tht  Stcry  of  Chines  Chmbm.  t.  2    di 

MmBmrn 

^sn  ofth.  CataZ^-^,  m"  RmWm  ^rX^ 
Story  of  the  SouUttn  War-Q^n  Pnrtj^ 


rear-book,  1893. 


m 


i  of  a  country  which  was  destined  throueh  the  next 

danapulus  of  tl.e  Greeks,  who  reducKe  tlml^ 
fX^^aL';"^"''''"'*^}    It^-^X^^waaSh^t 

^  ttT»u".^ra'Ld't3"^'''M^^^^^ 
rroin  thcBible  and  I  .ter  monuments  i.<  a  TunT 

I  |d7he^L^;;;ii,v.rr°^sJrh.r,^7"f 

Oeneais  -  which  call,  !.im  Chedorli^Z  - ,» the 
waHike''lt."r  *'  ^''^"  '''■''riptive  of  this  kiug-2 
5v«ofi^  •  vl^f  "V^  """'"K  picture  it 
givt-sorit.  KhudurUgamar .         lived  «c. 

S'lf  ^••"/'"T  r''"'r  »"="'•""'»  «b"^t 

tlm^TK  .^  ""'"'«  '*"  discoveriei  ofl^t 
of  Pul^' ^'■'■""■'"'.^"■•'  "«"  oriKirmllv  king 
of  hlam,  and  acquired  IVrala  by  conquest  -,SeS 

1  M&Vlf»*''J°'''  '^'••''  "^    See  Cuba  :  A.  D. 

A«hf/'a^-  S-  '735.-Ceded  to  Spain  by 
Auatria.     .See  Fram  x  -  A    O    IT!!:!  ITirT 
A.  O.  180a.— Annexation  to   Franca     HiM 

A  D.  l«M(JlARCH-Ai'aa),and(ApB.L-JcKB" 


EL  DORADO. 


ELECTRICAL  DISCOVERT. 


EL  DORADO,  The  quett  of.— "When  the 
SpanianLH  buil  coixiiu'ml  am)  pilUsed  the  civil- 
ized cmpln-s  iin  the  table  land*  of  Mexico,  Bo- 
gota, ami  Peril,  they  bi'gnn  to  l<iok  round  for 
new  tcencs  of  conquest,  new  Hiurces  of  wealth : 
the  wiidi-st  rumour*  were  r«xivcd  as  facta,  and 
the  foresta  and  savannas,  exterJiny  for  thou- 
sands of  square  miles  to  the  eastwanl  of  the  cor- 
ilillirus  of  the  Andes,  were  covered.  In  imagina- 
tion, witli  populous  kinpioms,  and  cities  filled 
with  gold.  The  story  of  El  Dorado,  of  a  priest 
or  king  smcareii  with  oil  ami  then  coatwi  with 
gold  dust,  probahlv  orisinatcd  in  a  custom  which 
prevailed  among  tlic  livili/iil  Indiana  of  the  pla- 
teau of  Bogota;  but  Kl  iMirado  was  placeii,  by 
the  credulous  sdventurers.  in  a  golden  city  amidst 
the  lmpenetral)le  foresU  of  the  centre  of  t<outh 
America,  ami,  iis  search  after  warch  failed,  his 
position  was  moved  further  and  further  vo  the 
eastwanl,  in  the  direction  of  Ouiana.  El  Dorado, 
the  phantom  god  of  gold  and  silver,  tippeanil  in 
manv  forms.  .  .  .  The  sc-ttlers  at  Quito  and  In 
Northern  Peru  talked  of  the  golden  empire  of 
the  Omiiguas,  while  tliosi'  in  Cuico  and  Char- 
cas  dnamt  of  the  wealthv  cities  (>f  Paytiti  and 
Enini,  on  tlie  banks  of  a  lake  far  awav  to  the 
eastwanl  of  the  Andes.  These  lomantf  fables. 
BO  linnly  N'lievcd  in  those  old  days  led  to  the 
exploration  of  vast  tracts  of  country,  by  the 
fearli-ss  aiiventurers  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
portions  of  which  have  never  U'cn  traversed 
since,  ever,  to  this  day.  The  most  f;imous 
.Ti'arches  after  El  Dorado  were  undertaken  fri)'U 
the  cHmst  of  Venezuela,  and  the  most  daring 
leaders  of  these  wild  adventuves  v.e-e  German 
knights."— C.  H.  JIarkliam,  liitrml  (•>  Siinon't 
Acorn  nt  of  I  he  Krjirititioii  nf  I'nwi  and  Anuirre 
(ll<iklii!/l' S,,<:  IMiltt.— "Tliere  were,  along  tiie 
whole  ci)ii.-t  of  tlie  Hpiinish  Main,  rumours  of  an 
inland  cieuitry  which  abounded  with  gold. 
These  rumo\irs  undoubtedly  related  to  the  king- 
doms of  Uoiiota  and  Tu'iju,  n.n-  the  Niievo 
Keyno  de  Unuiada.  Helaleaznr.  who  was  lo 
quest  of  this  country  from  Quito,  Federman,wiio 
came  from  Venezuela,  and  Donzalo  Ximenez  de 
Quesada.  who  sought  it  by  way  of  the  Hiver 
Maualeua.  and  wlio  elTectiil  its  conquest,  n.et 
here.  Hut  in  tl»«'  countries  also  tlien-  were 
rumours  of  a  ricli  laiid  at  a  ilistance;  sirailiu: 
accov;nts  prevaikil  in  Peru;  in  Peru  they  nlat'-d 
to  the  Xuivo  lU-yno,  tuen-  they  related  to  Peru; 
an<i  thus  adventurers  from  Imth  sides  were  ullup'd 
to  eo.'ilinue  the  pursuit  after  the  game  w  as  taken. 
An  iniagiii  .ry  kingdom  was  soon  shapeii  out  as 
tlie  ol)ject  of  tlieir  quest,  and  stories  conci'niiiig 
it  wen'  not  more  easily  inventeii  than  iK-lieved. 
Ii  was  said  that  a  younger  brother  of  AUdialipa 
fled,  after  thi  destruction  of  th<'  Incas,  t(M)k 
with  him  the  main  part  of  their  treasures,  and 
founileil  a  gn-ater  empire  than  that  of  wliieli  his 
family  had  bei  ii  deprived.  Sometimes  the  im- 
aginary Kmneror  was  called  the  Great  Pavtite, 
son-.etlmi-s  the  Gnat  Moxo,  sometimes  the  Enim 
or  Great  Paru.  An  imp.wtjir  at  Lima  affirmed 
tliat  111'  had  l«in  in  his  capital,  the  i  ity  of  Jla- 
noa,  when-  iiot  fewer  timn  3,0(K)  workmen  wen> 
employee!  in  the  silversmiths'  street;  he  even 
pnslueed  a  map  of  the  country.  In  whieli  he  had 
iii.irked  a  hill  of  gold,  aiiotiier  of  silver,  uiid  a 
thinlofsalt.  .  .  .  This  imaginary  kinitdoin  oh- 
laineil  the  name  of  Kl  Dorado  from  the  liisiiiou 
of  its  Loni,  which  has  tiie  merit  of  l»-iiig  in 
lavage  costume.     IHs  body  wa«  aooloted  every 

7 


morning  with  a  certain  fragrant  gum  of  great 
price,  and  gold  dust  was  then  blown  upon  niin, 
through  a  tube,  till  he  was  covered  with  it :  the 
whole  was  wsabed  off  at  night  This  the  bar- 
barian thought  a  more  magnineent  and  costly 
attire  than  could  be  afforded  by  any  other  potf  n- 
tatc  in  the  world,  ami  hence  the  Spaniards  called 
him  El  Doraiio,  or  the  Giiied  One.  A  hi.-.tory 
of  all  the  expeditions  which  were  undertaken  for 
the  conquest  of  his  kingdom  would  form  a  vol 
time  not  less  Interesting  than  extnioniinary." — 
R.  Soutliey,  IfM.  o/Bnuil  r.  1,  e/i.  13.— The  most 
tragical  ami  thrilling  of  tin'  stories  of  the  seekers 
after  El  Dorado  is  thiit  whi<h  Mr.  Marklium  intro- 
duces in  the  quotation  alxivi-.  and  which  h.ruthey 
has  tolil  with  full  details  in  The  ErHrditiowJ  Or- 
iiui;  and  thx  Crinua  of  A;!'ii  ^re.  The  most  fam- 
ous of  the  expeditions  were  those  in  whieli  Sir 
Walter  Italeigh  engage!,  and  two  of  which  he 
personally  1ml  —  in  i.5«."t.  and  in  1«17  U<  • 

leased  from  his  long  imprisonment  in  ""owi  r 

to  undertake  the  latter,  he  retunii  i-.  i  I', 
broken  and  shanii-d,  to  Ik' sent  to  tl'  .-e  .'  'da" 
a  victim  sacrificed  to  the  maliiru'  i  •  leL. 
of  Spain.     How  far  lialeigh  sin:  •      .elu- 

sion of  his  age  respecting  El  Doi  now 

far  he  made  use  of  it  merely  to  p  a  great 

scheme  for  the   "expansion  of  .ad,'    arc 

questions  that  will  probably  leiuam  finvcr  In 
dispute. — Sir  W.  lialeigh.  Oitenrrrie  of  Ihf  hirae. 
Uieh  ,ind  Beautiful  t'liii'ire  of  Ouiana  {Uaktugt 
Snf.  1848). 

Awo  HI :  J.  A.  Van  Heuvel,  Kl  Horailo  — E. 
E'lwanls,  Lifr  of  liihiul.  -.  1,  cA.  10  .md  i-y  — 
E.  Gos«',  HiUiigh,  rh.  iaod9.—X.  F.  Hamielier, 
The  i/itdrd  man. 

ELECTOR,  The  Great.  See  PnissiA  :  A.  D. 
H1H-17(K». 

ELECTORAL  COLLEGE.The Germanic. 
See  Gkuji.vnt:  A.  D  1  l-;.">-ia;2,  ami  l;^4T-l4«:l , 
also,  IMOl  -1N(I3,  and  Isi).-|-1H0«, 

ELECTORAL  COMMISSION,  The.  See 
Unitki)  ST.*rKs  OK  .\m.:  .v.  D.  IsTrt-I-<T7. 

ELECTORAL  COUNT  ACT.  ^ee  I  .mtei) 
Statksok  Am.:  A.  D.  IMlT. 

ELECTORS,  Preaidential,  of  the  United 
States  of  Am.— "Then;  was  no  ipiestion  which 
perplexed  the  Kiileral  Convention  (of  lTf<7]iiiore 
tlian  tlieqiu-stion  as  to  the  In-st  metliiKl  of  elect- 
ing the  pr.sideiit.  ...  At  one  time  the  Couven- 
,'tion  decidiHl  to  have  the  prisidenl  elected  Ijy 
i'ongresa  but  there  was  a  grave  objection  to  this ; 
it  would  be  likely  to  de.>lroy  his  jiideiK'ndeiice, 
and  make  him  tiie  tool  of  Coiigres:i.  Kinally  the 
device  of  aneleetond  aillege  was  adopted.  Each 
Slide  is  entitleil  to  a  numUT  of  electors  equal  to 
the  nunilsT  of  its  represi'ntatives  in  «'ougn's.s, 
plus  two.  the  nunilHT  of  its  senators.  .  .  M 
lirst  the  eleetr>r:il  votes  did  not  stat.'  whether  the 
candidate,  naiiiiil  in  them  were  candidal  esf.ir  the 
presid'iu  V  or  for  the  vice-presideney.  Ka<  h  elec- 
tor sinijilV  wrote  down  two  iiann's.  only  one  of 

wiiieh  eonld  lie  the  iiaine  of  a  eiti/. f  his  own 

state.  .  .  .  The  iMiididati'   who  hud  the  lHri:i'<t 

niinilwr  of  V)tes.  provided  tliev  wen-  a  majority 

of  the  whole  number,  was  di'elartil  president.   .  .  . 

Bv  the  twelfth  amendment  to  the  constitution. 

I  deeliirr''i  in  for.-e  in  IH114.  the  pnsi'nt  method  was 

I  adopted      The  electors  make  sep.inite  ImlloNfor 

I  pnsiih'nt  and  for  viiv  pn'sidenl,"— .lohn  Kiske. 

i    Ciiii  li'o,i„o„iit  ih  rh,   l':,it,.i  Stiltc!'.  jip.  'll'i  7 

—See,  also,  PliKsiDKNT;  and  fossTtTLTloN  vf 

THE  L'nITKU  StaTK.S. 


no 


7/ 


great 
him, 
.  the 
bar- 
:08tly 
mtf  n- 
•iilU-d 
.".tory 
■11  f"r 
t  vol 

y"— 

nimt 

fkers 

intro- 

ithev 

,JOr- 

fam- 

!i  Sir 

:h  he 

It.- 

'owi  •- 

I   1- 

1(1  a° 

let.. 

..lu- 

uow 

grrat 

are 

rcr  in 

J/irge, 

Muyt 

'-E. 

IcliiT. 

A.l) 

lanic. 


fnited 

which 
]  imirt' 

cll'Ct- 
JllVl'll- 

.a  by 
>  tills: 
Iciicc, 
ly  the  ■ 
Kacli 
iiitl  to 
!>;"■»». 
.  .  At 
icrtlu' 
or  the 
h  v\vi- 
mi'  «tf 
t  mm 
iir^fst 
ijority 

utlon. 
m1  whs 
ots  fur 
KIski'. 

-."r.  T, 

ON    O" 


